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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116978/overview	Experiences Not Explanations Experiences (Not Explanations): An Introduction to Creative Writing Overview This book has been developed by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College to support Creative Writing courses at rural Arizona community colleges. A PDF version and a Microsoft Doc. version of the book are available for download. About This Book This book has been developed to support Creative Writing courses at rural Arizona community colleges. Authors This book has been assembled by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College. Most of the content in this book has been sourced from creative commons licensed materials. Attributions for this borrowed and/or adapted and remixed content can be found at the end of each chapter. Any text, graphic, or video without an attribution should be attributed to Mohave Community College by using the license below. License Experiences (Not Explanations): An Introduction to Creative Writing by Mohave Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.877836	06/18/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116978/overview", "title": "Experiences (Not Explanations): An Introduction to Creative Writing", "author": "Erik Wilbur" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88451/overview	In the Community: Beginning Academic ESL Overview This is a three week lesson covering Present Tense and Present Progressive Tense, using the tenses at a library and at the doctor's office. Overview and Objectives Beginning Academic Listening and Speaking In the Community Present and Present Continuous Overview In this module, our topic is services in our communities. Our focus will be on libraries and health care. You will learn about community libraries as well as the library system at Southwest. We will discuss calling a doctor's office and talking to the doctor. Grammar focus is present tenses. Objectives: - Recall the main ideas and details in short conversations - Build an academic vocabulary - Construct conversations showing an understanding of academic material - Increase understanding of principles of pronunciation - Develop skills for improving the rhythm of speech - Increase confidence in speaking with others and speaking in public Present and Present Progressive Grammar Activities Daily Activities vs Current Activities - Intro to Simple Present VS Present Progressive - Audio Activity: Choose a song to play and use a cloze activity with the lyrics - Play "Find Someone Who..." Bingo (practice Present vs Present Progressive) - When to add the ~s to a verb: “Renee’s Daily Routine” - Copyright Information: [Learn English with KT]. (2017 Feb 19). Renee's Daily Routine-Present Simple [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/oCpaty-OG5A - Copyright Information: [Learnwithvideos]. (2013 Mar 28). Practice the Present continuous [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/tVuVrVr4dvI - Practice Using the Present Continuous Tense: “Aladdin Meets Genie” - Copyright Information: ILSCollective]. (2017, Jan 04). Aladdin Meets Genie-Simple Present-Present Continuous [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/GI27mX1BHvk Discussion Board: What Time Do You…? Answer the following questions, record yourself answering them - What time do you get up? - What do you do next? - After that? - Go through your morning routine and tell me what you do on a normal day. Libraries Public Libraries Have you ever visited one of the public libraries? They are full of great information and resources for English language students. Find the link to your local library and apply for a free library card. - Audio Activity: Choose a song that uses present tense/present progressive - Create a cloze activity with the lyrics - Questions about Reading (Group Discussion) - Do you enjoy stories? From books, movies, or storytellers? Why? - Do you enjoy reading? Why or why not? - What memories do you have about books and/or stories? Libraries- Public - Watch this video: - Bissett, Ariel. “What Librarians Wish You Knew about Libraries - Youtube.” What Librarians Wish You Knew About Libraries, 18 June 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i49d8e3qako - Talk about what you learned (Class Discussion) - Find a trailer for that movie to show in class next week - Write at least 2 questions to ask your classmates about the trailer At the Doctor At the Doctor - Audio Activity- Listen to this podcast Music and the Brain - https://anchor.fm/david-courtney/episodes/Music-and-the-Brain-eaktau/a-a1dhbd7 - Complete the activity for the podcast Doctor Appointments Visiting the doctor can be stressful. This lesson will help you make an appointment and talk about what is wrong. - Here are some Doctor's Office Vocabulary Words - Listen to this activity about Making an Appointment - Listen to this activity with two friends Talking about the doctor - Listen to this activity about Health Insurance - Go to the Discussion Board and post a video of you talking about doctor's visits, insurance, and health care in your country. - PRESENTATION News 1: Go to this site and choose a video about a current event that interests you - Send me the link - Come to class ready to show the video and present what you learned - AUDIO BOOK part 1:Go to Storynory and choose a story to listen to. - https://www.storynory.com/archives/fairy-tales/ - Discuss this in small groups in class	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.904719	Assessment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88451/overview", "title": "In the Community: Beginning Academic ESL", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73569/overview	COVID-19 Approved Hand Sanitizers COVID-19 Government of Canada COVID-19 How to Wash Your Hands COVID-19 Podcasts COVID-19 Statistics Daily Checklist Donning and Doffing Guest post: Keep calm and carry on learning! by students Hand Washing Quiz Health Canada App Help in Tough Times! How to protect yourself Learning Online: A Guide for Students Online Learning Readiness Questionnaire Online Learning Readiness Quiz Physical distancing works to stop the spread of COVID-19 Productivity Tips for Students \| How to Work Smarter Not Harder Recommendations for future university pandemic responses: What the first COVID-19 shutdown taught us Self-Assessment Quiz Student Experience with COVID Student Readiness for Online Learning Supporting Student Success Online Post-Secondary Student's Life During COVID-19 Overview So much has changed since March 2020 when campuses closed. Keeping the doors of learning open we found ways forward and continued to do our learning from home. The world is a different place and being on campus is different too. As you know, campuses are opening in a limited way for 2020-2021 academic year. This short course provides information for ALL students to keep yourself and others safe as a select few go back to campus. Certain links in our module may take you to other websites: We provided these links only as a convenience, and not as an endorsement of any linked site or the information, products or services appearing thereon. These links and sites are not under the control of the creators of this module. If you decide to visit any of these sites, you do so at your own risk. We are not responsible for the content of any such linked sites or any other web page that is not part of our site. Accordingly, you agree that the we will not be responsible or liable in any way for the accuracy, legality, relevancy, decency or copyright compliance of material and information contained in any site linked from this module. Welcome When deciding how to react to a certain situation always do your best to be positive and mindful when emphasizing the elements of students. ABC College ensures to highlight showing kindness and respect towards others at all times. We encourage students to ask questions and take part in discussions. Learning Objectives This learning module will: Explain and model the roles and responsibilities of students and instructors regarding how to establish and maintain a safe and healthy teaching and learning environment at ABC College. Develop ways to educate students about all stakeholders' roles and responsibilities. Recommend educational strategies that ensure that all stakeholders are fullfilling their roles and responsibilities to the entire faculty and staff. Course Elements This course contains the following sections: COVID-19 Resources and General Information Keeping You Safe! Coming to Campus? COVID-19: Protecting Yourself and Others Coming to Campus? Should You Stay Home? How to Manage Your New Virtual Courses Student's Perspective Final Considerations Frequently Asked Questions COVID-19 Resources and General Information Safely returning to campus ABC College is preparing to welcome a limited number of students and employees back to the campus in the 2020-2021 academic year. This page provides resources and information to ensure the safety of all our community members. Both campuses are open and students may visit to support their course work; however, in support of physical distancing, we encourage you to attend the campus only when necessary. Text4hope This is a free program through Alberta Health Services that provides daily texts with resources and tools to support building coping skills during COVID-19. Learn more about Text4hope. Mental Health Commission The Mental Health Commission has created handouts to assist in developing a plan to take care of your mental health during this time. This document also has a list of resources that are available across Canada as well as specific supports for each province and territory. - Covid and Your Mental Health - Taking care of your mental and physical health during the COVID-19 pandemic - Canada Thrive Health These resources were created by Government of Canada with some tips to support your mental health during this time. Alberta Health Services: Mental Wellness Moment Join Dr. Nicolas Mitchell, the Provincial Medical Director for Addiction and Mental Health, in videos as he discusses and provides tips to common mental health topics and challenges people may be experiencing during COVID-19. Active Minds Active Minds- Changing the conversation about mental health Active Minds is the nation's premier nonprofit organization supporting mental health awareness and education for students. Self-Care Tools Wellness Together Canada This tool kit is through Government of Canada, to connect Canadians to peer support workers, social workers, psychologists and other professionals for confidential chat sessions or phone calls, and will make it easier to find credible information and help address mental health and substance use issues. A Mindful Mess This resource offers free 30-minute mindfulness sessions on Zoom. - Anxiety Canada This website offers written, video, audio and mobile application resources with a broad range of strategies for coping with stress and anxiety. Centre for Innovation in Campus Mental Health During COVID-19, post-secondary campuses strive to support student mental health. CICMH has created and collated resources that may be helpful. Keeping You Safe! How is College keeping people safe from COVID-19? Since March, colleges have switched from in-person classes to online learining during COVID-19. ABC College will continue to instruct and provide education and student support services online. For the 2020-2021 academic year the colleges are delivering limited in-person classes and labs. The colleges are following instructions from Alberta Health Services and have the following safety measures in place: - Physical distancing and barriers - Personal protective equipment required - Cleaning and disinfection procedures and regulations on campus - Students need to complete a COVID-19 AHS Assessment course before coming to campus Is it safe to come to the ABC campus? Alberta colleges are following Alberta Health Services guidelines. Anyone coming to the college campus must complete an Alberta Health Services self-assessment, wear a mask, and only enter and leave the college through the main entrance. These safety measures to enhance safety and minimize risk. What is considered close contact? Alberta Health Services defines close contact as close physical contact without consistent and appropriate use of personal protective equipment (including face masks and gloves). Every ABC employee on campus is required to use personal protective equipment. How is the college involved in contact tracing? When any person tests positive for COVID-19, Alberta Health Services starts a contact tracing investigation to determine close contacts. If an individual from a college has been on campus within the past 14 days and develops symptoms of COVID-19, they are required to email the college. This information is used by the college for two purposes: - To assist AHS in their contact tracking investigation, should they request it; - To inform AHS if two or more symptomatic individuals with a known location link were on campus together. This information will be used by AHS to determine if an outbreak on campus has occurred. Click here -> Alberta post-secondary learning during COVID-19 COVID-19: Protecting Yourself and Others While on Campus How to Wear a Non-Medical Mask Poster COVID-19 travels and is transmitted in droplets which usually fall onto surfaces or objects before they reach 2 metres. This is why it is important to maintain a 2 metre distance from other people whenever possible. If maintaining a 2 metre distance is not possible then you need to be wearing a mask that covers your nose and mouth to prevent the spreading or ingesting of droplets. While inside campus buildings, you need to wear a mask to help prevent the spread of COVID-19. Hand Hygiene Infection Prevention & Control After you touch surfaces including door handles, railings, buttons, etcetera, it is very important that you wash or sanitize your hands. If washing your hands with soap and water is not available then using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer is acceptable. Physical Distancing COVID-19 travels in droplets, which usually fall to the ground or surfaces before they reach 2 metres. This is why we need to keep 2 metres away from other people at all times. If physical distancing is not possible, you need to wear a mask. While inside campus buildings, you need to wear a mask at all times. Coming to Campus? Stay smart and stay safe. Students and employees are asked to be aware of what to expect if you’re coming to ABC College. Take the Alberta Health Services COVID-19 Self-Assessment. All students who will be visiting campus must complete a mandatory COVID-19 Return to Campus course. This online quiz will provide you with important information you will need to know before attending your labs or classes, including protocols for arriving and leaving campus. Obey all campus safety protocols (wear a mask, wash your hands, keep physically distant from others). If you don’t need to be on campus, stay at home! Should You Stay Home? As flu season is upon us, it is important to be monitoring your health and any possible symptoms you may have that indicate you could have COVID-19. The Government of Alberta has created a daily checklist to help you determine if you should stay home if you are exhibiting any of the symptoms on the list. Take a look! To prevent the spread of COVID-19 individuals who present with symptoms are required to isolate for 10 days. Common symptoms that indicate you have COVID-19 are fever, cough, runny nose, shortness of breathe, and sore throat. Student's Perspective In the midst of a global pandemic that has affected lives and the wolrd, colleges have been leading the way to support students. Thousands of students return to campus to attend in-person mandatory labs and classes. How to Manage Your New Virtual Classes? Students can engage with their teachers and classmates in an online learning environment. Online learning enhances awareness and understanding of the learning process, creates opportunities and provides some opportunities for online learners to make sure their success as they plan and make decisions about online courses and programs. Students can have access to various courses and have the ability to work and learn at their own pace. Are you ready to be an online learner? What supports do you need to ensure you will be successful? Numerous online learning readiness interactive quizzes can be found with a quick search on the internet and in the attached resources below: Final Considerations Stay Informed! There are many resources available online to keep you up-to-date about the ongoing and ever-changing new normal of COVID-19. Several helpful resources are linked for your convenience. Test your knowledge about what you do and do not know about COVID-19 with the quiz linked below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.968660	Assessment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73569/overview", "title": "Post-Secondary Student's Life During COVID-19", "author": "Higher Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70682/overview	Describing Countries in Economic Terms Overview - Describe different sociological models for understanding global stratification - Understand how studies of global stratification identify worldwide inequalities How can we describe different world economies? Various models of global stratification all have one thing in common: they rank countries according to their relative economic status, or gross national product (GNP). Traditional models, now considered outdated, used labels to describe the stratification of the different areas of the world. Simply put, they were named “first world, “second world,” and “third world.” First and second world described industrialized nations, while third world referred to “undeveloped” countries (Henslin 2004). When researching using historical sources, you may still encounter these terms, and even today people still refer to some nations as the “third world.” Another model separates countries into two groups: more developed and less developed. More-developed nations have higher wealth, such as Canada, Japan, and Australia. Less-developed nations have less wealth to distribute among higher populations, including many countries in central Africa, South America, and some island nations. Yet another system of global classification defines countries based on the per capita gross domestic product (GDP), a country’s average national wealth per person. The GDP is calculated (usually annually) one of two ways: by totaling either the income of all citizens or the value of all goods and services produced in the country during the year. It also includes government spending. Because the GDP indicates a country’s productivity and performance, comparing GDP rates helps establish a country’s economic health in relation to other countries. These statistics also establish a country’s standard of living. According to this analysis, a GDP standard of a middle-income nation represents a global average. In low-income countries, most people are poor compared to people in other countries. Citizens have little access to infrastructure such as electricity, plumbing, and clean water. People in low-income countries are not guaranteed education, and many are illiterate. The life expectancy of citizens is lower than in high-income countries. Summary Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole. By comparing income and productivity between nations, researchers can better identify global inequalities. Further Research Nations Online refers to itself as “among other things, a more or less objective guide to the world, a statement for the peaceful, nonviolent coexistence of nations.” The website provides a variety of cultural, financial, historical, and ethnic information on countries and peoples throughout the world: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Nations_Online. References Millennium Project. 2006. “Expanding the financial envelope to achieve the Goals.” Millennium Project Official Website. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (https://web.archive.org/web/20130202045634/http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/costs_benefits2.htm). Nationsonline.org. “Countries by Gross National Income (GNI).” Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm). PRB.org. “GNI PPP Per Capita (US$).” PRB 2011 World Population Data Sheet. 2011 Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=61). Rostow, Walt W. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Landler, Mark, and David E. Sanger. 2009. “World Leaders Pledge $1.1 Trillion for Crisis.” New York Times, April 3. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/world/europe/03summit.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.985859	Sociology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70682/overview", "title": "Describing Countries in Economic Terms", "author": "Social Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69394/overview	30 Formative Feedback Ideas From GoReact 54 formative assessments Administering and Interpreting Standardized Tests Assessment Glossary Constructed Response Questions Differentiated Instruction During lesson formative assessments EXAMPLE OF HOLISTIC RUBRIC Formative and Summative Assessments Good Feedback Strategies Grading and Reporting Student Learning High Quality Classroom Assessments How to Create Rubrics Intro Constructed Response Introduction to Assessment in Education Intro to PORTFOLIOS Intro to Selected Response Intro to Standards and Learning Targets Methods of High Quality Classroom Assessments Online Tutorial for Creating a Rubric PA Test Accommodations Performance Assessments Performance Assessments Intro Phrases-of-Encouragement-2 Portfolios Post lesson formative assessments Preassessment and Formative Assessment PreAssessmentStrategies Procedures for administering Assess_Chap 6 Reliability and Validity Rubistar Rules for Improving Feedback Selected Response SmileySentencesPoster Standards and Learning Targets Summative Assessments Tools for Improving Feedback Skills Using Data to Make Instructional Decisions Video_Anatomy of Measurement Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Reliability, Validity, and Fairness Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Standardized Test Development Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Standardized Test Scoring Video_Functional Behavioral Assessment: Conducting an ABC Analysis Video_Instructions for completing ABC form waystopraiseachild What is the teacher’s role in assessment Writing Measurable Goals and Objectives Assessment in Education Overview This is a complete course for those who are teaching pre-service teachers about Assessment. Introduction Are we teaching what we think we are teaching? Are students learning what they are supposed to be learning? Is there a way to teach the subject better, therefore promoting better learning? This learning module will explore the following learning targets: - Identify purposes for assessments and who the stakeholders are - Identify how formative and summative classroom assessments are integral to instruction. - Recognize and develop high-quality assessments for evaluating student work. - Recognize and develop high-quality rubrics for evaluating student work. - Recognize the need for data and understand how data is used to inform instruction The following are available for your review: PPT_Introduction to Assessment in Education PPt_What is the teacher's role in assessment? Assessment Glossary Video_Anatomy of Measurement High Quality Classroom Assessments Discussion: Multiple Choice Questions What unit of study or hobby topic did you choose to teach when reviewing the PPT_Intro to Selected Response Questions? Along with the topic, use the question stems within the PPT to write at three selected response questions for your topic. You will make an initial post prior to reviewing the posts from others. Use what you know to help others make their questions better. Review at least two peers and rewrite one of their questions to make it better. Then, explain why it is better. The purpose of this discussion is not to compliment your peers, but to help them improve, so do not respond that there is nothing to improve. Rubric: Initial post -- topic and 3 multiple choice questions (6 points), review with reasonable improvement and explanation (1 and 1), review of second peer (1 and 1). Discussion: MC for Application Use the PPT for Selected Response to practice writing a Multiple Choice Question for application. What is application? Review (Google) Bloom's Taxonomy if you forgot. Write an initial post making two application multiple choice questions for your topic of study (same one from Discussion Question One. Review two peers and rewrite one of their questions and explain why your rewrite is better. Rubric: Initial post of 2 MC questions using application (6 points), response to peer -- rewrite and explanation (1 and 1), and response to second peer (1 and 1). Discussion: Binary Questions Using the same topic for multiple choice questions, write 3 binary choice questions. Try to provide students with a set of information new to them, perhaps a portfolio, set of data, or a written work of some type, then ask various forced choice questions related to the content or the presence/absence of certain characteristics in the work. This will help you in writing a binary choice question using higher level learning. Initial post of 3 questions followed by peer reviews (2) suggesting improvements and explanation of why it is better. Initial post (6 points) and reviews (1 and 1 and 1 and 1) Discussion: Matching Questions Create a set of matching questions for this post, using the same topic of study from the previous discussions. Try writing an interpretive exercise using a set of data, a diagram, a table or graph, or a paragraph or other type of writing. Use multiple questions for the same given information. Use the question starters provided in the PPT if needed. Write one set of questions with at least 5 stems. Review 2 peers and rewrite questions to show improvement and explain why. Initial post (6 points) and responses (2 and 2) Create a Test_Selected Response Choose a NEW topic and create a sample test. This test will follow the guidelines of the PPTs provided and include multiple choice, binary choice, and matching items. Please include instructions for each section of the test. 10 Multiple Choice -- at least 5 will be application level 10 Binary - at least 5 will include a set of new information that students must interpret to answer the questions 10 Matching - at least 5 questions will include interpretive information 10 -- include an alternate test with accommodations for an exceptional learner -- this is a variation of the test (completely new test with adapted questions) and a list of adaptations that will be needed to administer the test (for example, extended time) Use the link below to find appropriate accommodations. Accommodations Guidelines for PSSA and Keystone Exams.pdf Discussion: Constructed Response Try writing constructed response questions for a topic you would like to teach. Identify the topic. Write one Completion question. Write one Short Answer question. Write one Essay question. Before submitting, review your questions. Can you make them higher order questions? Post and then review and give feedback to 2 peers by rewriting questions to make them better and then explaining why. 6 points for initial post and 4 for reviews Create a Test #2_Constructed Response Choose a topic and create a sample test. This test will follow the guidelines of the PPTs and include completion and short answer items as well as essay questions. Include instructions with each section of the test. 10 Completion (10 points) 10 Short Answer (10 points) 2 Essays (5 points each) Discussion: Performance or Product Assessments Try creating a performance or product assignment/assessment for a topic you would like to teach. Identify the topic. Give a complete, detailed description of the performance/product with clear instructions for step by step completion and check points. Before submitting, review your assessment, can you make it higher order? We will create the rubric for this assignment in the next discussion board. Post and then review and give feedback to 2 peers by rewriting assignment to make them better and then explaining why. 6 points for initial post and 4 for reviews Create a Test:Performace/Product Assessment with Rubric Using a topic of your choice and following the guidelines of the resources provided, you will create a performance or product assessment and a corresponding scoring rubric. Identify the Standard using PDE SAS or Common Core (5 points) Presentation or Product Assessment (Clear instructions with detailed checkpoints - 10 points) Rubric (clear criteria showing the student exactly what is expected - 10 points) 10 points -- include an alternate test with accommodations for an exceptional learner -- this is a variation of the test (completely new test with adapted questions) and a list of adaptations that will be needed to administer the test (for example, extended time) Use the link below to find appropriate accommodations. A concern of many teachers is that they frequently have the task of constructing tests but have little training in doing so. Teachers tend to use tests that they have prepared themselves more than other types of tests (Clay, 2001). Students report a higher level of anxiety over teacher-made tests (64%) mostly due to poor test construction, irrelevant or obscure material coverage, and unclear directions (Summary Data on Teacher Effectiveness, Teacher Quality, and Teacher Qualifications, 2001). In this Section, we will review the various types of teacher-made tests and how to create these tests. Please see the following for your review: PPT_High Quality Classroom Assessments PPT_Methods of High Quality Classroom Assessments The multiple choice item consists of the stem, which identifies the question or problem and the response alternatives or choices. Usually, students are asked to select the one alternative that best completes a statement or answers a question. They can be used to test factual recall as well as levels of understanding and ability to apply learning. One way to write multiple choice questions that require more than recall is to develop questions that resemble miniature "cases" or situations. Provide a small collection of data, such as a description of a situation, a series of graphs, quotes, a paragraph, or any cluster of the kinds of raw information that might be appropriate material for the activities of your discipline. Then develop a series of questions based on that material. These questions might require students to apply learned concepts to the case, to combine data, to make a prediction on the outcome of a process, to analyze a relationship between pieces of the information, or to synthesize pieces of information into a new concept. A simple matching item consists of two columns: one column of stems or problems to be answered, and another column of responses from which the answers are to be chosen. Traditionally, the column of stems is placed on the left and the column of responses is placed on the right. Include clear instructions. Usually matching items measure recognition of factual knowledge rather than higher order thinking skills such as analysis and synthesis. However, variations canbe c onstructed to aim for higher levels of thinking. Example below: A (Na11) B (CI17) C (H1 ) 22.9898 35.453 1.00797 l + 1, 3, 5, 7 l (Ne)35 (Ne) 3s2 3p5 ls’ 892 -34.7 -252.7 97.5 -102 -259.2 0.97 1.56 0.07 1 Refer to the chemical symbols above to answer the following: ___1. Which of the above elements has the largest atomic weight? ___2. Which of the above elements has the largest atomic number? ___3. Which of the above elements has the lowest boiling point? ___4. Which of the above elements has the lowest melting point? ___5. Which of the above elements has the highest density? ___6. Which of the above elements has the least number of electrons? ___7. Which of the above elements has the least number of protons ? ___8. Which of the above elements represents chlorine? ___9. Which of the above elements represents sodium? OR Ranking Example TOPIC: Social Studies, Western Civilization Directions: Number (1-8) the following events in the history of ancient Egypt in the order in which they occurred, using 1 for the earliest event. _____Egypt divided; ruled by Libyan kings, Nubian pharaohs, Assyrians, and Persians _____Seizure of power by Hyksos kings _____Upper and Lower Egypt are united by Menes _____Alexander the Great conquers Egypt _____Reunification of Egypt under pharaoh Mentuhotop II _____Rise of feudal lords leads to anarchy _____Thutmose III expands empire to the Euphrates _____Many kings with short reigns; social and political chaos PPT_Intro to Selected Response Questions PPT_Selected Response PPT_Intro to Constructed Response Questions PPT_Constructed Response Questions PPT_Performance Assessments Intro PPT_Performance Assessments PPT_Intro to Portfolios PPT_Portfolios ADDITIONAL TEST LAYOUT TIPS 1. Include simple, succinct directions to include the following: ! How to record answers if they are not to write on the exam ! Whether or not to show work on problems ! The point value for different items ! Directions on how to use an answer sheet if provided 2. Avoid splitting a test item between two different pages 3. Leave the appropriate amount of space for each item 3. Leave wide enough margins for your comments, points, etc. 4. Group similar items together 5. If it is a large exam, it might be worthwhile to group items according to content as well 6. Leave space for the students name if they write on the exam. 7. Start with your easiest items in each section Rubrics Discussion Board: Rubrics Try creating a rubric for your previously created performance or product assignment/assessment for a topic you would like to teach. Identify the topic. Use http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php (Links to an external site.) as a tool to help you, or create your own style of rubirc. Post and then review and give feedback to 2 peers by rewriting assignment to make them better and then explaining why. 6 points for initial post and 4 for reviews A rubric is a scoring guide that seeks to evaluate a student’s performance based on the sum of a full range of criteria rather than a single numerical score. Knowing how to create and use rubrics gives you a better understanding of assessment and another option for assessing student performance. Rubrics are a great way to improve communication, learning, and grading fairness. Please review the following: PPT_How to Create a Rubric Online tutorial for creating a rubric -- url in the resources Can I create a rubric for kindergarten or preschool? Of course! See attachment sample in the resources. Example of Holistic Rubric/Checklist There are many sites for creating your own rubric or borrowing and editing one that is already constructed. See the url for Rubistar. Feedback Feedback Practice Grade 2 What does 5 plus 3 equal? - Brooke: It could be 8. - Juan: 9 - Jason: 53 - Ashley: 8 Use the information in the PPTs to provide an appropriate teacher prompt that moves each student closer to the correct or more confident answer. 5 points for each appropriate response Feedback Practice Critique the following: “Selana arrives at her English university. She is a good student and wants to do well. After a few weeks, she is asked to write an assignment. When she sits at her computer, she finds that she can only think of the complex ideas she has grappled with on the course in her mother tongue, which is not English. It is an enormous strain to write these ideas and she cannot think directly in English. She has to translate her thoughts one by one. When she gets the essay back, she is extremely disappointed with her mark. She is used to excellent results. Some of the feedback relates to her use of English and is very discouraging. Her tutor has written: ‘There are hints of some interesting ideas in this essay but they are often difficult to understand because you do not express them clearly. Please check your English carefully before you hand in your work There are too many errors here.’” (Duhs, 2010, 6) Think about the feedback. Try to redraft it so that it feeds forward and helps Selana to feel less apprehensive about her next essay. Points 10 less apprehensive 10 moves student toward improvement Feedback is crucial to student success. Please review the following: PPT_Rules for Improving Feedback PPT_Tools for Improving Feedback Phrases of Encouragement Good Feedback Strategies Ways to Praise a Child Formative and Summative Assessments Formative assessments are used to inform instruction. These assessments are not graded. They let the teacher know, do I go on? Do I review? Do students understand? Do students need more practice? Do I need to change the presentation or learning method? Summative assessments are often graded and are used to sum up an area of study, for example chapter or unit tests or standardized tests. The following are available for your review: PPT_Formative and Summative Assessments Formative Assessment Ideas PPT_Summative Assessments PPT_Putting Assessments Together Preassessment Strategies During Lesson Formative Assessment Post Lesson Formative Assessment 30 Fresh Ideas for Adding Formative Assessment to Your Teaching 54 Formative Assessment Reliability, Validity, and Fairness Discussion Board: Reliability and Validity What are some ways to improve reliability and validity for your teacher-made assessments? Initial post (6 points) 2 peer reviews (4 points) Reliability is another term for consistency. If one person takes the samepersonality test several times and always receives the same results, the test isreliable. A test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. Please see the following for your review: Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Validity, Reliabiity, and Fairness PPT_Reliability and Validity Standards and Learning Targets PSSA Data Analysis Project -- 50 points Please see instructions and rubric for analyzing the given data and giving your teacher recommendations. There are times when you will be serving on data analysis teams and you will make recommendations based on data review for your classroom, your grade level or department, your school, and your district. Think deeply, don't just look at the surface results. Satisfactory analysis and suggestions will receive half points while thorough analysis and thoughtful responses will receive full points for each of the criteria. Use the attached data and analyze it! Look at the scores, look for patterns, and look for abnormalities. Write about what you see. Write about what you would do next as a teacher. Answer each of the following separately: 1. Scoring: (8 points) How is this school doing compared to the district for Reading? For Math? For Science? For Writing? 2. Do you see any trends or patterns in the data when comparing School Data over the past three years? Compare the school data to the district and state. (8 points) - Reading - Math - Science - Writing 3. Look at the Performance Level Distribution by subject and group. What groups need the most support and in what areas? Looking at the disaggregation of data, what would you recommend to do next as a school? (8 points) 4. Look at the Performance Level Distribution by Subject and Grade. What grades and subjects need the most support? What would you recommend next as a teacher? (8 points) 5. Look at the Performance Level Distribution by Subject, Grade, and Reporting Category. What areas/anchors within what subjects need the most support? What would you recommend next as a teacher? (8 points) 6. Prepare recommendations for instruction. What would you do next to help this school? Give at least 5 recommendations for support. (10 points) One point will be deducted for each Spelling and/or Grammar Error!! Ask someone to proofread for you!! Standards and Learning Targets are set to guide the teacher in what the students should know and be able to do in each content area and at each grade level. Please see the following for your review: PPT_Introduction to Standards and Learning Targets PPT_Standards and Learning Targets Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Standardized Test Development Video_Anatomy of Measurement: Standardized Test Scoring PPT_Administering and Interpreting Standardized Tests Special Needs Discussion Board Test Accommodations Jul 28 at 10:42am No unread replies.No replies. Choose one question from each of your previous selected response practice questions (one multiple choice, one matching, one binary) . REWRITE each of the three questions by using the PA Test Accommodations guide. Find an appropriate way to rewrite each question. Accommodations Guidelines for PSSA and Keystone Exams.pdf Review 2 peers giving feedback for improvement. Initial post (6) and peer feedback (4) Assessments give educators guidance as to how to provide the best services and support for children. Educators require multiple measures to ensure that they gain an accurate picture of a student’s performance compared with others at the same grade level. Please review the following: PPT_Differentiated Instruction PPT_Pre-assessment and Formative Assessment So, what if the student is NOT ready or does NOT understand the content or skill you are teaching. Besides the differentiated instuction, you may also differentiate the assessment by providing accommodations in the areas of differentiation so often discussed: content, process, product. Content: test less or different material Process: how the test is given - separate room, provide a scribe, open book, etc. Product: give a choice of the product used for performance or product assessment, provide less choices for multiple choice, provide different vocabulary or simpler terms in the question stems, etc. See the url for PA Accommodations permitted in the resource section. Grading and Reporting Student Learning \| Unit Test Basic +/- Facts (20) \| Quiz #1 Addition Regrouping (18) \| Quiz #2 Addition Regrouping (24) \| Test Form A Addition Regrouping (20) \| Test Form B Addition Regrouping (20) \| Quiz #1 Subtraction Regrouping (18) \| \| \| Alexis \| 19 \| 17 \| 23 \| 19 \| 16 \| 12 \| \| \| Caroline \| 20 \| 18 \| 24 \| 20 \| 15 \| 13 \| \| \| Daniel \| 12 \| 10 \| 11 \| 9 \| 12 \| 8 \| \| \| Heather \| 18 \| 18 \| 22 \| 18 \| 15 \| 13 \| \| \| John \| 19 \| 17 \| 22 \| 19 \| 16 \| 14 \| \| \| Katherine \| 20 \| 18 \| 24 \| 20 \| 14 \| 14 \| \| \| Kristina \| 20 \| 17 \| 23 \| 19 \| 17 \| 12 \| \| \| Lisa \| 18 \| 17 \| 23 \| 19 \| 16 \| 11 \| \| \| Michael \| 17 \| 12 \| 12 \| 14 \| 16 \| 12 \| \| \| Mitchell \| 19 \| 18 \| 23 \| 19 \| 15 \| 13 \| \| \| Patrick \| 20 \| 18 \| 24 \| 20 \| 17 \| 14 \| \| \| Samantha \| 18 \| 16 \| 22 \| 18 \| 14 \| 13 \| \| \| Steven \| 20 \| 18 \| 24 \| 20 \| 18 \| 15 \| \| \| Todd \| 19 \| 17 \| 22 \| 18 \| 16 \| 12 \| \| \| Classroom Data Analysis Use the given data and analyze it! Look at the scores, look for patterns, and look for abnormalities. Write about what you see. Write about what you would do next as a teacher. Add another score in the last column and determine final grades. How would you report progress to parents? Choose one student and write a paragraph explaining the progress of the student. Scoring: Look at the scores, look for patterns, and look for abnormalities. Write about what you see: Patterns – 5 points, Abnormalities – 5 points Write about what you would do next as a teacher – 10 points Add another score in the last column and determine final grades – 5 points Reporting progress to a parent – 10 points One point will be deducted for each Spelling and/or Grammar Error!! Ask someone to proofread for you!! There are many ways to grade and report student learning. Consider the scenarios in the following PPT. PPT_Grading and Reporting Student Learning Special Needs Part II Measurable Goals from ER Use a sample ER to write 2 measurable goals for this student for the student's IEP based on PLOP, specially designed instruction, adaptations, accommodations, aids, supports, and services. With specialized terminology, interpret the IEP Goals for the parent including the assessment data from the ER and explain how and when the progress will be reported using progress monitoring data and benchmark data. Progress monitoring can be done weekly to see if there is progress from the student. Benchmark data is usually assessed quarterly to see if there is progress. Two Measurable Goals -- 5 points each Interpretation for Parents of the goals using specialized terminology -- 10 points FBA Analysis Using given video observation, create an ABC observation and interpret findings based on your data. Follow along in the video and recreate the SAME ABC form that the observer is using in the video. You should have the same form that she creates in the video. The next part you do on your own. Analyze the ABC observation and make recommendations to change the misbehavior in the classroom. Make at least 3 recommendations to change the behavior and explain why you are making those recommendations. Use these forms for the observation. There are sample ABC completed forms for your review in this packet. Submit your ABC completed form and also the recommendations and explanations of why you are making those recommendations. 10 - ABC completed form 10 - recommendations with explanations Functional Behavioral Assessment: Conducting an ABC Analysis (Links to an external site.) Please see the following for your review: PPT_Writing Measurable Goals and Objectives Video_Instructions for completing ABC form Video_Functional Behavioral Assessment: Conducting an ABC Analysis Using Data to Make Instructional Decisions Instructions for formulating Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups from Data - Use a ruler to make this easier. - Make a table large enough to list all students vertically and include 3 columns. For example: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - Make heading for the area you are sorting data: Reading Informational Text \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - Then, list students in the left column according to this order: Low, Low Avg, Avg, High Avg, High - When you have one group complete, copy and paste to Homogeneous column. Highlight that group. Reading Informational Text \| Heterogeneous \| Homogeneous \| Joe \| \| Joe \| Sally \| \| Sally \| Mary \| \| Mary \| Percy \| \| Percy \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - Complete next group, Low Avg and copy and paste, then highlight a different color. Reading Informational Text \| Heterogeneous \| Homogeneous \| Joe \| \| Joe \| Sally \| \| Sally \| Mary \| \| Mary \| Percy \| \| Percy \| Nancy \| \| Nancy \| Katie \| \| Katie \| Tony \| \| Tony \| Olivia \| \| Olivia \| Henry \| \| Henry \| GARRETT \| \| GARRETT \| SUSAN \| \| SUSAN \| DANYA \| \| DANYA \| MELISSA \| \| MELISSA \| DAVID \| \| DAVID \| KRISTI \| \| KRISTI \| KATRINA \| \| KATRINA \| MICHAEL \| \| MICHAEL \| DANA \| \| DANA \| JOAN \| \| JOAN \| LOUIS \| \| LOUIS \| - Continue pattern with all remaining groups as shown above. If one group is very small, you may combine it with the next group or previous group. - YOU NOW HAVE HOMOGENEOUS GROUPS. USE THIS GROUPING WHEN YOU WANT TO DIFFERENTIATE THE PRODUCT, THE PROCESS, OR THE CONTENT. FOR EXAMPLE, AN ASSIGNMENT IS GIVEN ON READING INFORMATIONAL TEXT. THE FIRST SAMPLE IS WRITTEN FOR LOWER LEVEL READERS, AND THE SECOND IS FOR HIGHER LEVEL READERS. THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENTIATING THE PRODUCT – WHAT THE STUDENT IS EXECTED TO DO OR COMPLETE AFTER THE LESSON. NOTICE THAT NOT MORE WORK IS GIVEN TO HIGHER LEVEL STUDENTS, BUT DIFFERENT WORK – AT A HIGHER LEVEL OF LEARNING. Name:_____________________________ Date:___________ Title of text:______________ 3- List 3 important facts from the text : 1.________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________________________________ 3.________________________________________________________________ List 2 things you found interesting: from the text: 1. ______________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________ List 1 question you still have after reading: 1. ______________________________________________________________ Name:_____________________________ Date:___________ Title of Text:______________ List 3 important facts from the text: (for example a Social Studies text.) 1.________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________________________________ 3.________________________________________________________________ Compare these facts to the today’s political climate using at least four details from today’s newspapers and news stations. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ If ________ were President when this event had occurred, how might things have gone differently? ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ - To form Heterogeneous Groups from this data, count the number of students altogether. In this example, we have 20 students. Decide how large you want the groups. In this example, we will do groups of 4. Start with the 2 highest students and copy and paste them to the first group. Because there are 20 students in this class, we will count the first 10 as the lower level students in the group. However, we want the 2 highest students to be grouped with numbers 9 and 10 (the highest of the low). Then highlight this group. Reading Informational Text \| Heterogeneous \| Homogeneous \| JOE \| JOAN \| JOE \| SALLY \| LOUIS \| SALLY \| MARY \| HENRY \| MARY \| PERCY \| GARRETT \| PERCY \| NANCY \| \| NANCY \| KATIE \| \| KATIE \| TONY \| \| TONY \| OLIVIA \| \| OLIVIA \| HENRY \| \| HENRY \| GARRETT \| \| GARRETT \| SUSAN \| \| SUSAN \| DANYA \| \| DANYA \| MELISSA \| \| MELISSA \| DAVID \| \| DAVID \| KRISTI \| \| KRISTI \| KATRINA \| \| KATRINA \| MICHAEL \| \| MICHAEL \| DANA \| \| DANA \| JOAN \| \| JOAN \| LOUIS \| \| LOUIS \| - Take the next two highest students, numbers 17 and 18, and the next two in the low group, numbers 7 and 8, and form the next group. Highlight this group. - Continue until all groups are formed. – 5 groups of 4. Reading Informational Text \| Heterogeneous \| Homogeneous \| JOE \| JOAN \| JOE \| SALLY \| LOUIS \| SALLY \| MARY \| HENRY \| MARY \| PERCY \| GARRETT \| PERCY \| NANCY \| MICHAEL \| NANCY \| KATIE \| DANA \| KATIE \| TONY \| TONY \| TONY \| OLIVIA \| OLIVIA \| OLIVIA \| HENRY \| KRISTI \| HENRY \| GARRETT \| KATRINA \| GARRETT \| SUSAN \| NANCY \| SUSAN \| DANYA \| KATIE \| DANYA \| MELISSA \| MELISSA \| MELISSA \| DAVID \| DAVID \| DAVID \| KRISTI \| MARY \| KRISTI \| KATRINA \| PERCY \| KATRINA \| MICHAEL \| SUSAN \| MICHAEL \| DANA \| DANYA \| DANA \| JOAN \| JOE \| JOAN \| LOUIS \| SALLY \| LOUIS \| - WITH HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING, IT IS EASY TO CHANGE THE PROCESS. FOR EXAMPLE IF STUDENTS ARE WORKING IN THESE SMALL GROUPS TO READ A PASSAGE OR LOOK UP RESEARCH ON THE INTERNET, HIGHER LEVEL STUDENTS ARE ABLE TO ASSIST LOWER LEVEL STUDENTS WITH THE READING. - I would then call the groups A groups (Heterogeneous groups) and B groups (Homogeneous groups) when you want to move students to groups or provide variations in work, etc. You could consider names for the groups like animals or food that compliments each other like peanut butter and jelly or cake and ice cream. WISE school teams use data frequently to make educational/instructional decisions. Data analysis will help you work smart rather than hard. Where are the strengths and weaknesses for the school/class/individual?????? There are many questions to guide you through data and assist you with making those decisions. Please see the following for your review: PPT_Using Data to Make Instructional Decisions PDESAS.org ---- Use this site for creating assessments. You must first register and create a user name and password. Go to SAS Tools and then Assessments. You can create assessments by using questions that are already in the bank or creating new ones. Resources Anatomy of Measurement. Videos from National Council on Measurement in Education. Retrieved on July 15, 2020 from https://ncme.elevate.commpartners.com/ Assessment Glossary. National Council on Measurement in Education. Retrieved on July 15, 2020 from https://www.ncme.org/resources/glossary Clay, Ben (2001). Is This a Trick Question? Kansas Curriculum Center, Kansas State Department of Education. Retrieved on 7.21.2020 from https://www.k-state.edu/ksde/alp/resources/Handout-Module6.pdf Creating a Rubric: An Online Tutorial for Faculty. Retrieved on July 21, 2020 from https://www.ucdenver.edu/faculty_staff/faculty/center-for-faculty-development/Documents/Tutorials/Rubrics/3_creating/index.htm Go React: 30 Fresh Ideas for Adding Formative Assessment to Your Teaching. Retrieved on July 23, 2020 from https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/2123109/Content_Offers/Formative%20Assessment/30%20Formative%20Feedback%20Ideas%20From%20GoReact.pdf?utm_campaign=CO%20-%20TE%20-%2030%20Fresh%20Ideas%20for%20Formative%20Assessment&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=78384389&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-9uyBk33PR4Bs2_5RtZDkpzswwBd103OVq1E6qkVaZyHi1I5eC5a823rPwpuRLUFyCUOUjkMBfgbd9FiNeWYHWA-euISQ&utm_content=78384389&utm_source=hs_automation McMillan, Classroom Assessment: Principals and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction, 6th Edition; Pearson Education, Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ "Summary Data on Teacher Effectiveness, Teacher Quality, and Teacher Qualifications," National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), 2000 http://www.ncate.org/resources/factsheettq.htm	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.233347	07/06/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69394/overview", "title": "Assessment in Education", "author": "Jeanne Burth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78769/overview	NE.WL.2.2.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice Mid - Identify and react with simple expressions and idioms unique to the languages and cultures studied. NE.WL.2.1.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice Mid - Identify products, practices, and perspectives using high-frequency vocabulary and phrases. NE.WL.2.1.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice High - Identify and describe products, practices, and perspectives using simple sentences in structured contexts. NE.WL.2.1.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate Low - Investigate, compare, and provide insight into products, practices, and perspectives using familiar vocabulary and limited language structures. NE.WL.2.1.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate Mid - Investigate and compare products, practices, and perspectives using familiar vocabulary and creating combinations of limited and advanced language structures. NE.WL.2.1.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced Low - Analyze the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using descriptive vocabulary and organized ideas. NE.WL.2.1.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate High - Investigate and compare products, practices, and perspectives using advanced language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary. NE.WL.2.1.H Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced Mid - Analyze and explain the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using focused or context-specific vocabulary and organized and detailed ideas. NE.WL.2.1.I Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced High - Analyze and explain the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures. NE.WL.2.1.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice Low - Identify and describe products, practices and perspectives using isolated words and phrases. NE.WL.2.2.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice Low - Identify expressions unique to the cultures studied. NE.WL.2.2.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Novice High - Identify and respond with culturally appropriate simple expressions in everyday situations in structured or highly predictable situations. NE.WL.2.2.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate Low - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, familiar vocabulary, and limited language structures appropriate to the social context in everyday or common scenarios. NE.WL.2.2.I Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced High -Participate appropriately and effectively in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, register, courtesy or style in any given situation. NE.WL.2.2.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate Mid - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, familiar vocabulary and combinations of limited and advanced language structures. NE.WL.2.2.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Intermediate High - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, advanced language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary. NE.WL.2.2.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced Low - Participate in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, politeness or style in a given situation using familiar language NE.WL.2.2.H Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Culture Standard: Advanced Mid - Participate in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, politeness or style in a given situation using both familiar and unfamiliar language. NE.WL.3.1.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Novice Low - Apply isolated words and phrases to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom. NE.WL.3.1.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Novice Mid - Apply high-frequency vocabulary and predictable language structures to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom. NE.WL.3.1.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Novice High - Apply familiar vocabulary and simple sentences to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom. NE.WL.3.1.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Intermediate Low - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using familiar vocabulary and language structures in short, connected sentences. NE.WL.3.1.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Intermediate Mid - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom by creating combinations of limited and higher-level language structures in short, connected sentences. NE.WL.3.1.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Intermediate High - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using higher-level language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary. NE.WL.3.1.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Advanced Low - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using low-frequency vocabulary, higher-level language structures, and various time frames. NE.WL.3.1.H Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Advanced Mid - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with higher-level language structures and various time frames. NE.WL.3.1.I Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Connections Standard: Advanced High - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with advanced language structures and various time frames. NE.WL.4.2.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Novice Low - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use isolated, high-frequency words and/or phrases and extra-linguistic supports. NE.WL.4.2.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Novice Mid - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use high-frequency words and phrases in structured contexts. NE.WL.4.2.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Novice High - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use simple sentences in structured formats on familiar or highly contextualized topics. NE.WL.4.2.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Intermediate Low - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using combinations of familiar vocabulary and language structures in short statements. NE.WL.4.2.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Intermediate Mid - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using combinations of familiar vocabulary and language structures in connected sentences. NE.WL.4.2.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Intermediate High - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using known language to compensate for higher vocabulary. NE.WL.4.2.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communities Standard: Advanced Low - Use digital tools to design solutions, synthesize information, and moderate information in a way that requires an understanding of literal and implicit meaning, low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues. NE.WL.1.1.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice Mid - Participate in basic exchanges in structured contexts about familiar and predictable topics using high-frequency vocabulary and phrasing. NE.WL.1.1.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice High - Participate in basic exchanges by constructing simple questions and answers using familiar vocabulary and language structures. NE.WL.1.1.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate Low - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges about familiar topics in structured settings and formats. NE.WL.1.1.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate Mid - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges about familiar topics with focused structures in a series of connected sentences. NE.WL.1.2.H Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced Mid - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing contextualized interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures. NE.WL.1.2.I Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced High - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures. NE.WL.1.1.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate High - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges in a variety of situations on familiar topics by manipulating advanced vocabulary and language structures. NE.WL.1.1.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced Low - Engage in unplanned exchanges and discussions on a variety of familiar and unfamiliar concrete topics. NE.WL.1.1.H Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced Mid - Engage in unplanned, in-depth exchanges and discussions on a variety of concrete and abstract topics across all major time frames. NE.WL.1.1.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice Low - Participate in basic exchanges with isolated, high-frequency words, fragmented responses, or phrases. NE.WL.1.2.C Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice High - Identify the explicit meaning of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support. NE.WL.1.1.I Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced High - Engage in unplanned, in-depth exchanges by applying social and cultural norms on concrete and abstract topics, across all major time frames. NE.WL.1.2.E Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate Mid - Comprehend the main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that contain contextualized or familiar vocabulary and language structures. NE.WL.1.2.B Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice Mid - Identify elements of the explicit meaning of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support. NE.WL.1.2.A Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Novice Low - Identify isolated words and phrases of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support. NE.WL.1.2.G Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Advanced Low - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues. NE.WL.1.2.D Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate Low - Comprehend the main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that contain familiar vocabulary and language structures. NE.WL.1.2.F Nebraska World Language Standards Grades K-12 Learning Domain: Communication Standard: Intermediate High - Comprehend and summarize main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that may contain low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.311665	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78769/overview", "title": "French Level 4, Activity 10: La musique française / French Music (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103341/overview	The Ontological Argument Overview This is a module designed to help you understand the Ontological Argument and its creator St. Anselm of Canterbury. The Ontological Argument OER Report: The Ontological Argument Getting your bearings Prior to one of your first readings for this course, it is important to know your stance on what you believe “God” to be. As for myself, I grew up in a very non-religious household, and because of that the only perception I had of God was that he is believed to have created the universe and everything that is living in it. This was a hard statement for me to believe, but after reading about the Ontological Argument, my perspective was changed. In the text “God” is defined in 4 different ways. - God of Scripture and Tradition - We know of this God in all the different Bibles and scriptures. This was the God that I was never able to understand since I didn’t grow up religious. - God of the Philosophers - In this definition, God is meant to be an absolutely perfect being. This is part of the Ontological Argument. - God as first cause; God as a designer - This definition puts God in a supernatural position. Calling to attention that the universe owes its existence to this power that existed before anything else did. - God as a transcendent source of “meaning” - On this conception, to say that God exists is to affirm the existence of a being whose existence somehow manages to give meaning, purpose, directions, or limits to human life—a being that, by its very nature, merits devotion or obedience or even love. Before delving into the ontological argument, it is important to have a basic understanding of some philosophical concepts and terminology. Here are some key concepts that can help in understanding the ontological argument: - Ontology: Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of existence or being. It is concerned with questions like, "What exists?" and "What is the nature of existence?" - Metaphysics: Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, between substance and attribute, and between cause and effect. - Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that starts with general principles and uses them to derive specific conclusions. It is based on the idea that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. - Modal logic: Modal logic is a branch of logic that deals with modalities such as possibility, necessity, and contingency. It provides a framework for reasoning about propositions that are true or false under different possible circumstances. - God: In the context of the ontological argument, "God" refers to a perfect being who is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good. A basic understanding of these concepts can help understand the ontological argument, which is a complex philosophical argument that uses deductive reasoning and modal logic to prove the existence of God. Biography St. Anselm of Canterbury, (born 1033/34) Aosta, Lombardy (Italy) died April 21, 1109, possibly Canterbury, Kent, England; feast day April 21), Italian-born theologian and philosopher, known as the father of Scholasticism, a philosophical school of thought that dominated the Middle Ages. He was recognized in modern times as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God (based on the idea of an absolutely perfect being, the fact of the idea being in itself a demonstration of existence) and the satisfaction theory of atonement or redemption (based on the feudal theory of making satisfaction or recompense according to the status of a person against whom an offense has been committed, the infinite God being the offended party and humanity the offender). There is incomplete evidence that he was canonized in 1163, though some scholars contend that he was canonized by Pope Alexander in 1494. In 1057 Anselm left Aosta to enter the Benedictine monastery at Bec. He wanted to study under the monastery’s renowned prior, Lanfranc. While on his way to Bec, he learned that Lanfranc was in Rome, so he spent some time at Lyon, Cluny, and Avranches before entering the monastery in 1060. In 1060 or 1061 he took his monastic vows. Because of Anselm’s reputation for great intellectual ability, he was elected prior of the monastery after Lanfranc became abbot of Caen in 1063. In 1078 he became abbot of Bec. In the previous year (1077), Anselm had written the Monologion (“Monologue”) at the request of some of his fellow monks. A theological “treatise”, the Monologion was both apologetic and religious in intent. It attempted to demonstrate the existence and attributes of God by an appeal to reason alone rather than by the customary appeal to authorities favored by earlier medieval thinkers. Moving from an analysis of the inequalities of various aspects of perfection, such as justice, wisdom, and power, Anselm argued for an absolute norm that is everywhere at all times, above both time and space, a norm that can be comprehended by the human mind. Anselm asserted that that norm is God, the absolute, ultimate, and integrating standard of perfection. Existing For this reading, it is also important for you to understand the different ways of existing according to Anselm. This first way of existing is in understanding. This refers to topics, ideas, people, etc. all existing to your understanding. If you can think of it, then it will exist in your understanding even though it may not be in your reality. This is the second way of existing (in reality), this means that you are able to touch it, see it, smell it, etc. An example used in the textbook is when Anselm references a painter. “When a painter, for example, thinks out in advance what he is going to paint, he has it in his understanding, but he does not yet understand that it exists, since he has not yet painted it. But once he has painted it, he both has it in his understanding and understands that it exists because he has now painted it.” (Anselm.8) This is a key point when thinking about the Ontological Argument. For an atheist who says “There is no God.” it is easy for him to say that because he does not believe in the God that has been spoken of in certain religions (God as a Designer). But he does understand what someone is saying if they were to tell him “Something that which nothing greater can be thought.” Although this form of God may not exist in the atheist’s reality, it surely exists in his understanding. Understanding the Ontological Argument The ontological argument is a philosophical argument for the existence of God, which was first proposed by the 11th-century philosopher and theologian, St. Anselm of Canterbury. The argument is based on the concept of God as a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. The argument can be summarized as follows: - God is defined as a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. - If God exists only in the mind, then we can conceive of a greater being - one that exists both in the mind and in reality. - Therefore, if we conceive of God as existing only in the mind, then we can conceive of a being greater than God, which is a contradiction. - Therefore, God must exist not only in the mind but in reality as well, because a being than which nothing greater can be conceived cannot be conceived not to exist. The argument relies on the concept of necessary existence, which means that if something exists necessarily, then it must exist in all possible worlds. According to the argument, if we conceive of God as a being of which nothing greater can be conceived, then God must exist necessarily, because if God did not exist necessarily, then we could conceive of a greater being - one that exists necessarily. Critics of the ontological argument have pointed out that the argument relies heavily on the definition of God as a being than which nothing greater can be conceived, which some argue is a subjective and arbitrary definition. Additionally, the argument has been criticized for relying on a purely a priori method of reasoning, which some argue is insufficient to prove God's existence.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.339232	Justin Bramman	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103341/overview", "title": "The Ontological Argument", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122946/overview	Vocabulary Control Overview Vocabulary Control is the process of developing, maintaining, and using a controlled vocabulary; it refers to the set of terms that must be used in order to index documents, as well as to search for them in a given system. It can be defined as a list of terms, which show their relationships, and represents the specific subject of the document. Arpita Sarkar Student of Jadavpur University, M.LIS Q1. What is vocabulary control? Q2. Need of controlled vocabulary in information retrieval. Q3. What are the tools of vocabulary control? Q4. What is classaurus? Q5. What is the difference between Natural language and Artificial language? Q1. What is vocabulary control? Vocabulary Control refers to the method of creating, maintaining, and using a controlled vocabulary, where a limited set of terms must be used to index documents and to search for these documents in a specific system. It can be defined as a list of terms showing their connections and used to represent the particular subject of the document. A natural language has many synonyms, quasi-synonyms, homonyms, acronyms, ambiguous terms, etc. If we use natural language for subject indexing, the subject matter may be described by any of the words or phrases, without any limitations, such as those found in the documents themselves. However, certain issues in searching do occur when no control is placed on the vocabulary. In summary, vocabulary control helps in solving problems that arise from natural language. Q2. Need of controled vocabulary in information retrieval. - Controlled vocabularies aim to structure information and provide terminology to catalogue and retrieve information. - controlled vocabularies also ensure that preferred terms are consistently used and that similar content is assigned with the same terms. - They are essential during the indexing phase because, without them, catalogers may not use the same term consistently to denote the same person, place, or thing. In the retrieval phase, different users might use various synonyms or broader terms for a specific concept. - Control vocabulary helps users to retrieve the relevant document of user demand. - By using control vocabulary user can get relevant information in a short time. - Control vocabulary is very helpful in IR because it can determine the personalization features of users easily. - In the retrieval process various users may use different synonyms or more generic terms to refer to a given concept that’s why vocabulary control is used to retrieve information. - It helps to enhance the indexing method to retrieve or search relevant documents on user choice. - Sometimes professional words may not be knowledgeable or aware to the user due to searching for any information. by the help of control vocabulary, it becomes so accessible to the user. The necessity for vocabulary control stems from two fundamental aspects of natural language, which are: - Two or more words or terms can describe a single concept Example: salinity/saltiness VHF/Very High Frequency - Two or more words that have the same spelling can represent different concepts Example: Mercury (planet) Mercury (metal) Mercury (automobile) Mercury (mythical being) Vocabulary control are used for: list of terms showing their relationships; occurrence of imprecisely defined words; rapidly changing terminology; numerous synonyms for a term and the controlled vocabulary identifies synonyms terms and selects one preferred term among them. Q3. What are the tools of vocabulary control? - Classification scheme- CC, DDC, UDC - Subject heading list- Subject Heading List is the printed or published list of subject headings which may be produced from the subject authority file maintained by an organization or individual. Subject heading list contains the preferred subject access terms (controlled vocabulary) that are assigned as an added entry in the bibliographic record which works as an access point and enables the work to be searched and retrieved by subject from the library catalogue database. Ex. Library of Congress Subject Heading (LCSH), Sears’ List of Subject Heading, MeSH - Thesaurus- A thesaurus is a kind of dictionary that represents all the concepts for a specific domain in a consistent manner and labels each concept with a preferred term. Like the previously described examples of controlled vocabularies, thesauri contain preferred terms, variant terms, and broader and narrower terms. Additionally, the thesaurus also includes related terms, which may or may not be part of the same hierarchical structure of the term. A commonly used thesaurus for describing art, architecture, and material culture objects is the Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus. Ex. Roget’s Thesaurus - Taxonomy - Foxonomy - Ontology Q4. What is classaurus? - Classaurus is a vocabulary control tool. - Developed by Ganesh Bhattacharyya and used for POPSI, the pre-cordinate indexing system. - It is a faceted systematic scheme of hierarchical classification incorporating all the essential features of a conventional retrieval thesaurus, i. e control of synonyms, quasi-synonyms and antonyms in extended senses. - Like faceted classification schemes, there are separate schedules for each of the elementary categories (entity, property and action) and for common modifiers (form, time, place and environment). - A classaurus can be designed either before starting the indexing work or along with indexing work. - But in all cases, its designing warrants both a prior and pragmatic approach. Itself features both a faceted classification scheme as well as that of a conventional alphabetical Thesaurus. It is an elementary category-based (faceted) systematic scheme of hierarchical classification in verbal plane incorporating all the necessary and sufficient features of a conventional information retrieval thesaurus. Q5. What is the difference between Natural language and Artificial language? \| Natural Language \| Artificial Language \| Origin \| develop naturally through social interaction. \| intentionally created by individuals or groups. \| Flexibility \| evolve over time, adapting to cultural changes \| remain static unless modified by their creators. \| Complexity \| Natural languages are inherently complex, with idioms, dialects, cultural references and regional dialects. \| while artificial languages are typically more straightforward, with defined syntax and semantics, fixed grammar and vocabulary. \| Purpose \| humans interact with one another through natural languages. \| artificial languages are constructed for specific purposes, such as communication in fiction and science fiction, or experimentation in linguistics and logic. \| Direction \| Can be ambiguous \| Single meaning \| Understandability \| It is human based language, so this is user friendly. \| It is machine-based language, only machine can understand, user unfriendly. \| Example \| English, Spanish, Mandarin. \| Programming languages (e.g., Python, Java), constructed languages (e.g., Esperanto, Klingon). \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.380217	12/12/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122946/overview", "title": "Vocabulary Control", "author": "Arpita Sarkar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60657/overview	Internalizing Problems in Adolescents Overview This is an overall summary of the way we taught our peers about the topic of internalizing problems and behaviors in adolescents. We are a group of students at Boise State Universty in the Adolescent and Adult Development course. We compiled a video to explain how we educated our peers on this topic.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.396805	Julia Vasilyev	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60657/overview", "title": "Internalizing Problems in Adolescents", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75800/overview	French Level 3, Activity 12: Faire les courses / Running Errands (Online) Overview In this activity, students will practice talking about what they have to do and the errands they have to complete throughout the day. Students will also practice describe their schedule when completing errands. Pathways Project / Lesson Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Running Errands / Faire les courses Description In this activity, students will practice talking about what they have to do and the errands they have to complete throughout the day. Students will also practice describe their schedule when completing errands. Semantic Topics Errands, schedule, to do, plans, faire, programme, courses, faire les courses, tâches, les prépositions, prepositions Products Errands, tasks Practices Running errands, completing a to-do list Perspectives The French tend to run more errands than the average American, opting in some cases to go to specialized stores, such as the bakery, the butcher, and the open-air produce market instead of going to a supermarket that caters to all food categories. NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in French to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics. - Standard 1.3: Students present information, concepts, and ideas in French to an audience of listeners or readers. - Standard 2.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the cultures of the francophone world. - Standard 3.1: Students reinforce and further their knowledge of other disciplines through French. Idaho State Content Standards - COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - CLTR 1.3: Function appropriately in diverse contexts within the target culture. - CONN 1.1: Compare and contrast information acquired from other content areas. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can identify where to go for certain errands. - I can exchange information about errands I have to do. - I can discuss my to-do list and the activities I am required to complete. Materials Needed Would you like to make changes to the materials? Access the template(s) below: - To-do Lists (Canva Template, free account required) Warm-Up Warm-Up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today's activity. 2. Using the presentation, go through slides 5-17 and ask the students where they have to go to complete the activity listed. For example, slide 6 You: “Où devez-vous aller pour poster une lettre?” ("Where should you go to send a letter?") Student: “Je dois aller à un bureau de poste.” ("I should go to the Post Office.") *Make sure that the students are using a complete sentence. 3. What you say to the students: “Je vais vous montrer une image d’une activité. Il faut déterminer où vous devez aller pour faire l'activité. Utilisez les phrases complètes. Par exemple, (show slide 6), où devez-vous aller pour poster une lettre?” ("I am going to show you an image of an activity. Determine where you should go to do this activity. Make sure to use complete sentences. For example (show slide 6), where should you go to send a letter?") 4. Give students a few moments to respond. If they don’t get it, demonstrate the correct way to respond: “Je dois aller à un bureau de poste.” ("I should go to the Post Office.") 5. Continue for the rest of the slides. Note: The correct answers are on the slides. Just click once and it will show up. Main Activity Main Activity 1. Email each student a to-do list in advance! Voici une liste de choses à faire. Ce sont des choses que vous devez compléter aujourd’hui. (Here is a list of things to do. These are some things you should complete today.) 2. Tell them they are going to be explaining the group the errands that they have to do today. Vous allez expliquer aux autres membres de groupes ce que vous devez faire. Mais, ne dites pas simplement chaque activité. Il est important d'élaborer. Expliquez pourquoi vous faites ces choses. Avec qui ? Pour qui ? Etc. De plus, utilisez des expressions comme d’abord, puis, après. (You are going to explain to the other members of the group what you should do. But, don't simply say each activity. It's important to elaborate. Explain why you did those things. With who? For whom? Etc. Moreover, use expressions like first, then, after.) 3. Before giving them a few minutes to prepare theirs, demonstrate a correct response using the example on slide 16. Je vais donner une exemple. Voici ma liste de tâches. D’abord je dois acheter des croissants à la boulangerie Gastons. Je vais les donner à mes amis plus tard. Puis, je dois déposer de l’argent à la banque. Je travaille au WLRC et j’ai reçu ma paie hier. Après, je vais prendre un café avec mon ami, Maxime, chez Starbucks. On fait un rendez-vous chaque semaine pour parler des nouvelles. (I am going to give an example. Here is my list of tasks. First, I should buy some croissants at Gastons Bakery. I am going to give them to my friends later. Then, I should make a deposit at the bank. I work at the WLRC and I received my paycheck yesterday. After, I am going to grab a coffee with my friend, Maxime, at Starbucks. We meet up each week to talk about the news.) 4. Give the students 2-3 minutes to prepare. Prenez 2 à 3 minutes pour préparer. 5. Encourage students to ask questions after students have shared. Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following question(s) to finish the activity: - Quelle est votre liste des choses à faire ce week-end ? (What is your to-do list for this weekend?) - Vous aimez faire des courses ? Pourquoi? Pourquoi pas ? (Do you like to go grocery shopping? Why? Why not?) - Vous faites les courses tout(e) seul(e) ou avec quelqu’un d’autre ? (Do you go grocery shopping alone or with someone else?) Cultural Resources A list of French grocery stores Tips to shop for groceries in France End of Activity - Can-Do statement check-in... “Where are we?” - Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence. - Encourage students to be honest in their self evaluation - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can identify where to go for certain errands. - I can exchange information about errands I have to do. - I can discuss my to-do list and the activities I am required to complete.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.457031	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75800/overview", "title": "French Level 3, Activity 12: Faire les courses / Running Errands (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77565/overview	French Level 4, Activity 06: Bingo Review (Online) Overview In this activity students will be reviewing various grammar structures and practice synthesizing original phrases in French by playing a game of Bingo. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Bingo Review Description In this activity students will be reviewing various grammar structures and practice synthesizing original phrases in French by playing a game of Bingo. Semantic Topics Bingo, review, french, grammar, phrases, revue, grammaire, le français Materials Needed - Bingo - Google Slide Presentation (optional use) - Fill-in the Blanks (optional use) NOTE: The Google slide isn’t necessary in order to complete this activity. You can facilitate this activity just using this document and the link for the Bingo game. Main Activity Main Activity Aujourd’hui nous allons jouer à un jeu de Bingo pour réviser quelques concepts de grammaire. - Rules for students found on slide 3 (Les règles) - L’annonceur/annonceuse de numéros au Bingo va annoncer la lettre et le numéro correspondant. (The Bingo numbers announcer is going to call the letter and the corresponding number.) - Si vous avez cette case, vous devrez créer une phrase ou question qui utilise un point de grammaire spécifique avant que vous pouvez la marquer. (If you have this box, you must create a phrase or question that uses the specific grammar point before you can mark.) - La liste des lettres et leurs points de grammaire se trouve sur la diapo suivante (slide 4). (The list of letters and their grammar points can be found on the next slide.) - Choisissez un(e) camarade de classe qui va répondre à votre question. (Choose a classmate to respond to your question.) - La première personne à obtenir 5 cases en rang, gagnera. (The first person to get a row of 5 boxes, wins.) Bingo Review Game - Use this link to access the virtual bingo game. - Click on “individual links” to access a list of links for different bingo cards. 1. Send each student a different link via the chat. This ensures each student has a different bingo card. 2. Once each student has a card, click “Call Game” to start. 3. Click “Start game” to receive the first call. - For example, if the first call is O-69, you will say “O-69” over Zoom. - If a student has this number, they will then have to create an original question before being able to mark off that space. - NOTE: Each letter corresponds with a specific grammar structure. - For example, O corresponds with the “Si imparfait + conditionnel” grammar structure, so the students’ questions should be in this format. - “Que ferais-tu si tu gagnais 500 $ ?” (What would you do if you won $500?) - Then have them pick another student to answer. - Example: - Student 1 : “Que ferais-tu si tu gagnais 500 $ ?” - Student 2 : “Si je gagnais 500 $, je ferais…” - NOTE: If the students are struggling to create their own phrases/questions, use this link and have them fill in the blank of the phrase that corresponds to the call number. - For example, if the call is O-69, the student will complete question #69: - S’il (jouer) à des jeux vidéos, il ne (faire) pas ses devoirs. Here they have to conjugate the verbs in parentheses according to the “Si imparfait + conditionnel” grammar structure. So their answer should look like this: S’il jouait à des jeux vidéos, il ne ferait pas ses devoirs. - S’il (jouer) à des jeux vidéos, il ne (faire) pas ses devoirs. - For example, if the call is O-69, the student will complete question #69: - Example: 5. Send this link via chat. 6. Play until someone gets Bingo, or until the lab is over. If you want to extend the time of the activity, play a Blackout version of Bingo, where the entire card needs to be filled. Encourage students to ask original questions instead of repeating the same questions that have already been said* Essayez de créer des questions originales ! List of Letters and Their Grammar Structures: (slide 4) - B : Les pronoms interrogatifs - Lequel - Laquelle - Lesquels - Lesquelles - I : Les pronoms relatifs - Qui - Que - Dont - Où - N : Les pronoms démonstratifs - Celui - Celle - Ceux - Celles - G : Les verbes réflexifs - O : Si imparfait + conditionnel Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following questions to finish the activity: - Avez-vous des questions ? (Do you have any questions?)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.489400	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77565/overview", "title": "French Level 4, Activity 06: Bingo Review (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67628/overview	Economics Overview Agriculture is playnig important role in indian economy. Agriculture Economics Agriculture is backbone of the indian Economy. Paddy crops are very important in an agriculture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.505393	05/29/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67628/overview", "title": "Economics", "author": "Chandrakant Kamble" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78040/overview	French Level 4, Activity 08: Les parcs nationaux / National Parks (Online) Overview In this activity students will practice presenting a French national park of their choice. They will also practice sharing their personal experiences and opinions with national parks. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. National Parks / Les parcs nationaux Description In this activity students will practice presenting a French national park of their choice. They will also practice sharing their personal experiences and opinions with national parks. Semantic Topics Parks, national parks, environment, nature, french, parcs, parcs nationaux, l'environnement, français, les prépositions, prepositions, les adjectifs, adjectives Products Parks, National Parks Practices Visiting natural wonders and outdoor recreational areas Perspectives France is protective of its national parks, of which there are many! France also has many different climates, so it is easy to find a variety of natural sites to visit. NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in French to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics. - Standard 1.3: Presentational Communication - Students present information, concepts, and ideas in French to an audience of listeners or readers. - Standard 3.2: Acquiring Information - Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through francophone cultures. Idaho State Content Standards - COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - COMM 3.1: Present information, concepts, and ideas to inform, explain, persuade, and narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media in the target language. - CONN 2.1: Access authentic materials prepared in the target language by or for native speakers. - CONN 2.2: Analyze the content and cultural perspectives of authentic materials prepared in the target language by or for native speakers. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can share my past experiences with national parks. - I can share my opinions about different national parks. - I can present information in French about national parks. Materials Needed Warm-Up Warm-Up 1. Begin the activity by opening the Google presentation and introducing the Can-Do statements. 2. Ask the students these questions: - Connaissez-vous des parcs nationaux protégés aux Etats-Unis ? En avez-vous visité ? (Do you know of any protected national parks in the US? Have you visited any?) - Quels sont les avantages des parcs nationaux ? (What are the benefits of national parks?) Main Activity Main Activity - Notes about the Google Slide: - `Use the Table of Contents (slide 6) to navigate to each national park. - Click the name of the park to be taken to the corresponding slide. - Click the cloud in the upper left corner to return to the Table of Contents. - `Use the Table of Contents (slide 6) to navigate to each national park. 1. In this activity, students will play the role of a tour guide (une guide touristique) for a national park of their choice. Aujourd’hui, vous êtes des guides touristiques. 2. Share this link with the students via the chat and have them pick 1 national park to read about: (This should take no more than 5 minutes.) Vous devrez choisir un parc national français de ce lien : Les parcs nationaux de France - *NOTE: Make sure each student has picked a different park. NO REPEATS. C'est essential que tout le monde choisisse un parc différent. On ne veut pas que l'on choisisse le même parc que quelqu'un d'autre ! 3. Have them consider these questions as they prepare their mini presentations: (share these via the chat) Puis, répondez aux questions suivantes pour préparer un mini-exposé : - Quand ce parc national a-t-il été créé ? (When was this national park created?) - Où est-ce que c'est situé ? (Where is it located?) - Quelle est la taille de ce parc national ? (How large is this national park?) - Partagez avec nous 2 autres faits intéressants sur votre parc national. (Share 2 additional interesting facts about your national park.) 4. Once they’re finished reading, have them present what they learned about their national park to the rest of the group. Enfin, présentez-nous sur votre parc national. - Use the Table of Contents (slide 6) to navigate to the slide that corresponds with the student’s selected national park. - Click the cloud in the upper left corner to return to the Table of Contents. - Encourage the students to ask questions about each other's national parks. N'oubliez pas de demander des questions a votre présentateur/présentatrice !! Examples of questions: - Souhaitez-vous visiter ce parc national ? (Would you like to visit this national park?) - Pourquoi avez-vous choisi ce parc national ? (Why did you pick this national park?) Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following question(s) to finish the activity: - Avez-vous un parc national favori ? Si oui, lequel ? (Do you have a favorite national park? If yes, which one?) Cultural Resources Official French Listing for their National Parks Description and Map of All French National Parks France's Mercantour National Park, a hiker's paradise End of Activity - Can-Do statement check-in… “Where are we?” - Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence. - Encourage students to be honest in their self evaluation - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can share my past experiences with national parks. - I can share my opinions about different national parks. - I can present information in French about national parks.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.545831	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78040/overview", "title": "French Level 4, Activity 08: Les parcs nationaux / National Parks (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89645/overview	Classical view of Monetary Policy Overview Classical view of Monetary Policy Classical view of Monetary Policy ØClassical economist believed in the economics of value. ØFor the classical economists, value meant value in exchange. ØThe value of a commodity meant what it could be exchanged for or what it could buy. Value meant the purchasing power of a commodity. ØSimilarly, the value of money means its purchasing power in terms of goods and services in general. ØThe purchasing power of money obliviously depends on the prevalent price levels. ØIf prices are high, money will buy less and its value will be low. ØConversely, if the price level is low, the value of money is high. ØThe value of money is thus inversely proportional to the price level or the value of money is the reciprocal of price level.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.565995	01/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89645/overview", "title": "Classical view of Monetary Policy", "author": "Isaac Kimunio" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110885/overview	Escape Room for Truth seekers Overview "Escape Room: Unraveling SDG 16" is an immersive educational experience designed to explore Sustainable Development Goal 16's core themes of fostering inclusive societies, ensuring access to justice, and building accountable institutions. Through three challenges—'Guardians of the Truth,' 'The Whistleblower's Dilemma,' and 'The Election Scandal - Interview Witness'—participants engage in ethical decision-making, source verification, and fact-checking exercises, navigating complex scenarios reflective of real-world issues. The game cultivates critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and a deeper understanding of justice, accountability, and peacebuilding, empowering individuals to contribute to a more just, peaceful, and inclusive global society. Unraveling SDG 16 - A Journey Towards Inclusive Societies "Escape Room: Unraveling SDG 16" is an immersive and interactive educational experience designed to illuminate Sustainable Development Goal 16: 'Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.' Game Structure: Introduction: Participants are introduced to the concept of the game, the significance of SDG 16, and its relevance in addressing contemporary global issues. An initial overview of the game's structure and the thematic challenges set the stage for an engaging learning journey. Objectives: Equality – promoting peace and justice Education and awareness – being better citizens Economic growth – reducing poverty - The overarching goal of this innovative OER game is to transport participants into a future timeline (2030 or beyond), fostering a profound understanding of SDG 16 and its objectives. - Through a series of meticulously crafted challenges, players delve into critical scenarios reflecting real-world dilemmas, ethical quandaries, and institutional challenges related to justice, accountability, and peacebuilding. Challenges Overview Guardians of the Truth: Participants assume the role of guardians in a virtual newsroom, tasked with verifying the reliability of information before dissemination. They encounter a scenario prompting ethical decision-making regarding publishing sensitive news. The Whistleblower's Dilemma: Engaging with a highly sensitive photograph from an anonymous whistleblower, participants navigate ethical evaluations, source verification, risk assessment, and consultative processes to decide whether to publish or withhold information. The Election Scandal - Interview Witness: Delving into a local election scandal, players interview NPCs, engage in fact-checking exercises, and compile evidence to expose voter manipulation while facing threats aiming to obstruct the truth. Learning Outcomes Each challenge is meticulously designed to foster critical thinking, ethical reasoning, media literacy, and decision-making skills. Participants develop a nuanced understanding of the complexities involved in upholding justice, fostering accountability, and promoting peace in society. The game culminates in a comprehensive understanding of the role individuals and institutions play in achieving SDG 16 objectives. Participants gain insights into leveraging inclusive societies, access to justice, and accountable institutions to address contemporary global challenges. "Escape Room: Unraveling SDG 16" serves as an innovative educational tool, empowering participants to become catalysts for positive change in the pursuit of a more just, peaceful, and inclusive world.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:08.583839	12/08/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110885/overview", "title": "Escape Room for Truth seekers", "author": "Malyka noor" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84961/overview	Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Overview MCQ's Zoology for B.Sc. III Semester VI As per Syllabus of Sant Gadage Baba Amravati University Amravati. MCQ's in Zoology SANT GADAGE BABA AMRAVATI UNIVERSITY AMRAVATI B. Sc. Degree Course in ZOOLOGY SYLLABUS FOR THIRD YEAR (To be implemented from Academic Year 2012-13) (MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY) Editors: 1. Dr Pankaj W. Chaudhari, M.Sc.B.Ed, P.hD Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, Shri Vitthal Rukhmini Mahavidyalaya, Sawana, Maharashtra, India 2. Dr.P.S. Mahalle M.Sc. P.hD Assistant Professor and Head Department of Zoology Vinayak Vidyan Mahavidyalaya Nandgaon Khandeshwar ISBN: © Dr. PANKAJ CHAUDHARI 2021. All rights reserved. Email: 2009pankajchaudhari@gmail.com Declaration: Any type of reproduction of this book through any media without permission of the original author is strictly prohibited. Any violation of this will be a punishable crime under Indian Intellectual Property Right Act. As per Sant Gadage Baba Amravati University Amravati Syllabus MCQ’s in Zoology For B.Sc., Third Year, Semester –VI (MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY) Authors 1. Dr. Sachin Tayade M.Sc. B.Ed. P. hD. Assistant Professor & Head Department of Zoology Late. Pundlikrao Gawali Arts & Science College , Sirpur (Jain) Tq. Malegaon Dist. Washim. 2. Miss. Sonali A. Tayade M.Sc., NET –JRF, SET, IIT GATE Assistant Professor Department of Zoology Arts & Commerce College, Warwat Bakal , Tq. Sangrampur Dist. Buldana 3. Dr. Madhuri S. Hingankar M.Sc. B.Ed. P.hD. Assistant Professor Department of Zoology Arts & Commerce College , Warwat Bakal , Tq. Sangrampur Dist. Buldana 4. Dr. Megha R. Solanke M.Sc., B.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D) Assistant Professor & Head Department of Zoology Art, Commerce College, Warwat Bakal, Tq- Sangrampur, Dist- Buldana 5. Dr. Seema V. Keshwani M.Sc. P.hD Assistant Professor and Head Department of Zoology, M.S.P.Arts, Science & K.P.T. Commerce College, Manora. Dist. Wasihim 6. Ms. Prajakta N. Bathe M.Sc. NET –JRF ., SET ., IIT - GATE Assistant Professor and Head Department of Zoology, Bapumiya Sirajoddin Patel Arts , Commerece And Science College Pimpalgaon Kale Introduction Dear Students, Zoology is a subject that has practical applications. However, these applications are possible only when we understand the theory. Therefore, Sant Gadage Baba Amaravati University Amravati has planned to give theoretical knowledge to students while pursuing B.Sc. Zoology course. Here, the aim of students is not only to get quality knowledge but also excellent marks in university exams. However, getting outstanding remark in academic settings requires expertise and proper guidance to write answers to questions. Students are recommended to write answers in the way that are expected by examiners who have a high workload of answer sheet evaluations. However, the university, due to COVID-19 pandemic, has decided to conduct online examination with Multiple Choice Questions. As a result, we have provided chapter wise sets of questions with answers for practice and explanation of correct answers wherever possible. Study of these questions will help students to achieve up the mark success in an exam. It is the responsibility of students to convey their knowledge to their mentors in a way which they understand easily. This book has been written to make students acquainted with the ideas and tricks to write answers in the exam so that their evaluators will feel pleased and it would result to get justice to the knowledge of students. If students prepared the fields on which questions are launched frequently, they would achieve a remarkably outstanding score. A high percentage is required by students to get admitted in higher courses readily as they count the same along with their entrance exam scores. Nevertheless, some academic organizations consider only graduation score to get admission in Post Graduation course. However, this number is less, and many institutes conduct their Entrance Exam for entries, and their scores are added with graduation score to make a merit list. We are sure that the book will be a booster dose in the academic careers of undergraduate students and assist them in conquering most significant landmark in their educational mission. We have best wishes for all. Dr. PANKAJ W. CHAUDHARI Assistant Professor and Head Departemtnof Zoology Shri Vitthal Rukhmini Mahavdyalaya Sawana, Tq. Mahagaon Dist. Yavatmal ZOOLOGY S- 6 (MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY) UNIT – I : Genetic material Genetic material:- definition, Experiments to prove DNA as genetic material: Griffiths transformation experiments with bacteriophage infections, Avery and co-workers experiments, and Hershey and Chase experiment. Chemistry and types DNA(A,B,Z) Mitochondrial DNA; Chemistry, types and function of RNA: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA and Non Genetic RNA. UNIT - II DNA replication DNA replication: semi conservative method; experiment by Messelson and Stahl. Concept of genes, one gene one enzyme hypothesis, one gene one Polypeptide theory.; A brief account of Concept and action of cistron, split genes, overlapping genes, jumping genes, Genetic diseases: Spinocerebellar ataxia. UNIT–III Genetic code Genetic code and its features, Protein synthesis-transcription and processing of mRNA, translation-different steps, Gene regulation: (promoter and operator), Operon models, and Lacoperon model of E.Coli. Genetic regulation in Eukaryotes-Britten Davidson Model. UNIT–IV Mutation Mutation: Definition-mutation theory of DeVries-different types of mutations, - molecular basis of mutation: substitution and frameshift mutations, chromosomal aberrations-structural(deletion, addition, inversion and translocation),numerical (euploidy and aneuploidy). Natural and induced mutations-significance of mutations. DNA repair process. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Southern, Northern and Western blotting techniques, DNA finger printing. UNIT – V Biotechnology Biotechnology: Genetic Engineering: Recombinant DNA technology and gene cloning-enzymes in recombinant DNA technology, Splicing and cloning of genes, vectors (plasmid and phage vectors), gene Transfer. Somatic cell hybridization, hybridoma technology, and monoclonal antibodies. Practical applications and suspected hazards of biotechnology and genetic engineering in animals. UNIT-VI : Immunology Immunology: Introduction to immune system: Innate and adaptive immunity, Types and production of immune cells ; Complement system. Humoral Immunity: Antigen and haptens, Antibody: types function, and production. Cell mediated immunity: T-cell receptors, T helper cell and lymphocyte activation. Role of cytotoxic T-cell..ELIZA Technique RIA. (Molecular Biology and Biotechnology) UNIT I Genetic Material (DNA and RNA) A. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Q. 1. Which bacteria did Griffith use in his experiment? a. Escherichia coli b. Diplococcus pneumonae c. Streptococcus pyogenes d. Vibrio cholerae Q. 2. Which strain causes mice to get sick and die? a. R-strain b. S-strain c. Heat killed S-strain d. All of the above Q. 3. Which strain has a rough coat? a. R-strain b. S-strain c. Both R and S- strain d. Neither R nor S- strain Q. 4. What happened to the mice when live R strain mixed with heat killed S strain injected to them? a. all mice survived b. all mice died c. half of them survived d. half of them died Q. 5. Griffith’s experiment is known as…. a. bacterial transformation b. Bacterial translation c. Bacterial replication d. Bacterial transcription Q. 6. Frederick Griffith was a _____. a. French scientist b. American scholar c. British bacteriologist d. German geneticist Q. 7. Griffith's experiment illustrated a principle where a bacterial cell was changed from one form into another. This process is called _____. a. transcription b. translation c. twitching c. transformation Q. 8. Characteristic(s) of genetic material is/are. a. It should be able to replicate b. It should be inherited from generation to generation c. It should possess high degree of variation d. All of the above Q. 9. ……. is the unit of heredity. a. gene b. DNA c. chromosome d. RNA Q. 10. Which strain of D. pneumoniae was virulent? a. R-strain b S-strain c. Both R and S-strain d. None of these Q. 11. Which strain of D. pneumoniae was non-virulent? a. R-strain b. S-strain c. Both R and S-strain d. None of these Q. 12. What conclusion was drawn from the Avery, McCarty, and MacLeod experiment? a. DNA is responsible for transforming S-cells to S-cells b. DNA is responsible for transforming R-cells to S-cells c. DNA is responsible for transforming S-cells to R-cells d. All of the above Q. 13. The experiment of Hershey and Chase is also known as…….experiment. a. Blender b. Grinder c. Mixer d. Oven Q. 14. In bacteriophage, the head is composed of …. a. only protein b. only DNA-core c. protein and DNA-core d. None of these Q. 15. In Blender experiment, DNA of bacteriophage was labelled with…. a. P32 b. S35 c. S32 d. P35 Q. 16. In Blender experiment, protein of bacteriophage was labelled with…. a. P32 b. S35 c. S32 d. P35 Q. 17. Whose experiment were Avery, McCarty and MacLeod trying to prove? a. Thomas H. Morgan b. James Watson c. Francis Crick d. Frederick Griffith Q.18. The nucleic acids were first discovered by…. a. Watson b. Crick c. Miesher d. Margit Q. 19. The bases are held together in a DNA double helix by hydrogen bonds. These bonds are…. a. Ionic bonds b. Covalent bonds c. Non-covalent bonds d. Van der Waals forces Q. 20. A nucleoside is….. a. a nucleotide without sugar b. a nucleotide without sugar c. a nucleotide without phosphate d. a nucleotide without nitrogenous base Q. 21. A nucleoside is composed of….. a. a base + a sugar + a phosphate b. a base + a sugar c. a base + a phosphate d. a sugar + a phosphate Q. 22. Adjacent nucleotides are joined by a. covalent bond b. phosphodiester bond c. ionic d. None of these Q. 23. The sugar present in DNA is…. a. Hexose b. Triose c. Tetrose d. Pentose Q. 24. Which of the following DNA molecule has left handed helix? a. Z-DNA b. A-DNA c. B-DNA d. M-RNA Q. 25. Genetic material in plant viruses is…. a. DNA b. RNA c. both DNA & RNA d. protein Q. 26. The nitrogenous bases are attached to the …. Carbon atom of the deoxyribose molecules a. first b. third c. fifth d. second Q. 27. In a nucleotide the phosphate (phosphoric acid) molecule is attached to the …. Carbon atom of the deoxyribose molecules. a. first b. third c. fifth d. second Q.28. The phosphate molecule of a nucleotide is joined to the…… Carbon atom of the deoxyribose molecules of the next nucleotide a. first b. third c. fifth d. second Q. 29. Short chains formed of less than….. nucleotides are called oligonucleotides. a. 30 b. 200 c. 300 d. 20 Q. 30. Long chains formed of more than 20 nucleotides. a. Polynucleotides b. Mesonuclotides c. Oligonucleotides d. None of these Q. 31. Adenine (A) and thymine (T) of a DNA molecule are held together by ….. a. one hydrogen bond b. two hydrogen bonds c. three hydrogen bonds d. covalent bond Q. 32. In a single strand of a DNA molecule, nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds between….. a. phosphate and nitrogen base b. nitrogen bases c. sugar and phosphate d. sugar and nitrogen base Q. 33. The number of cytosine bases in a DNA molecule…. a. is equal to the number of adenine b. is equal to the number of uracil bases c. is equal to the number of guanine bases d. Can not be predicted Q. 34. Genetic information in a DNA molecule is coded in the…… a. base pairing b. proportion of each base present c. sequence of nucleotides d. the turning pattern of the helix Q. 35. Friedrich Meischer removed nuclei from pus cells and found that they contained a chemical which he called…… a. Nuclein b. Zeatin c. Cyclin d. Cystine Q. 36. If the sequence of bases along one side of a DNA molecule is AAGCT, then the complementary sequence of bases on the other side of the DNA molecule is…….. a. TTCGA b. AAGCT c. GGTAC d. UUCGA Q. 37. J. D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick published their first paper in on the double helix model of DNA in ….. a. 1963 b. 1953 c. 1943 d. 1933 Q. 38. The pitch in Z-DNA is….. a. 60 0A b. 28 0A c. 34 0A d. 31 0A Q.39. Sugar-phosphate backbone of Z-DNA is….. in shape. a. linear b. circular c. zig-zag d. none of these Q. 40. Which among the following is not initiation codon? a. AUG b. AUA c. AUU d. UAG Q. 41. In mammals, each double stranded circular mtDNA molecule consists of …… base pairs. a. 15000-17000 b. 1500-1700 c. 150-170 d. 15-17 Q. 42. Which among the following is mitochondrial disease? a. exercise intolerance b. Kearn-Sayre Syndrome c. Pearson marrow-pancreas syndrome d. All of these Q. 43. RNA found …. a. in cytoplasm only b. in nucleus only c. both in cytoplasm and nucleus d. neither in cytoplasm nor in nucleus Q. 44. Thymine of DNA is replaced by ……. in RNA. a. Adenine b. Guanine c. Thymine d. Uracil Q. 45. What percentage is attributed by the tRNA of the total RNA in the cell? a. 10-15 % b. 20-25 % c. 30-35 % d. 40-45 % Q. 46. The clover leaf structure is a two-dimensional structure of …. a. mRNA b. tRNA c. rRNA d. None of these Q. 47. The three dimensional structure of tRNA is ….. a. L-shaped b. I-shaped c. T-shaped d. S-shaped Q. 48. Which of the following RNAs associates with certain protein to form a ribosome? a. mRNA b. tRNA c. rRNA d. All of these Q. 49. Nucleoli are mainly formed by…. a. chromatin b. RNA c. DNA, RNA and Protein d. None of these Q. 50. Watson and Crick (1953) have proposed a model for the structure of DNA molecule, the DNA molecule is…. a. mono helical b. penta helical c. octa helical d. double helical Q. 51. RNA is….. a. single stranded b. double stranded c. triple stranded d. Both (A) and (B) Q. 52. The sugar in RNA is….. a. ribose b. hexose c. Deoxyribose d. fructose Q. 53. Nucleotides in RNA are joined by…. a. 3’5’ phosphodiester bond b. 3’4’ phosphodiester bond c. 3’2’ phosphodiester bond d. 3’6’ phosphodiester bond Q. 54. Which of the following RNA serves as adapter molecule during protein synthesis? a. mRNA b. tRNA c. rRNA d. hnRNA Q. 55. rRNA is synthesized in……. a. nucleus b. cytoplasm c. PER d. nucleolus Q. 56. C-DNA is …… a. complementary to mRNA b. complementary to tRNA c. complementary to rRNA d. complementary to hnRNA Q. 57. Which of the following arm of t-RNA serve as side of attachment for amino acid? a. Acceptor arm b. D- arm c. Anticodon arm d. t-psi arm Q.58. How is the nucleotide sequence in the anti-codon arm of t-RNA? a. Same as in codon b. Opposite to the codon sequence c. Not constant d. None of the above Q.59. Which of the following is the function of r-RNA? a. Maintains shape of ribosome b. Protein synthesis c. Binds m-RNA and ribosome d. All of the above Q. 60. Which of the following statement is NOT true? a. In prokaryotes, mostly the m-RNA is mono-cistronic b. The acceptor arm consist of base paired stem c. r-RNA perform some of the enzymatic activity d. Prokaryotic ribosome contains 3 r-RNA Q.61. The m-RNA is synthesized in the nucleus in which form? a. Heterogenous RNA b. Homogenous RNA c. Homologous RNA d. None of the above Q. 62. RNA contains the repeating units of… a. Deoxyribonucleotides b. Ribonucleotides c. Deoxyribonucleosides d. Ribonucleosides Q. 63. Anticodon is present in….. a. DNA b. tRNA b. rRNA d. mRNA Q. 64. RNA contains Uridine, it is a… a. pyrimidine b. purine c. nucleotide d. nucleoside Q. 65. Deoxyribose sugar + Adenine= ? a. Deoxyadenosine b. Deoxyguanosine c. Deoxycytidine d. Deoxythymidine Q. 66. Deoxyribose sugar + Guanine= ? a. Deoxyadenosine b. Deoxyguanosine c. Deoxycytidine d. Deoxythymidine Q. 67. Deoxyribose sugar + Cytosine= ? a. Deoxyadenosine b. Deoxyguanosine c. Deoxycytidine d. Deoxythymidine Q. 68. Deoxyribose sugar + Thymine= ? a. Deoxyadenosine b. Deoxyguanosine c. Deoxycytidine d. Deoxythymidine Q. 69. Phosphate group + Deoxyribose + Adenine = ? a. Adenine nucleotide b. Guanine nucleotide c. Cytosine nucleotide d. Thymine nucleotide Q. 70. Phosphate group + Deoxyribose + Guanine = ? a. Adenine nucleotide b. Guanine nucleotide c. Cytosine nucleotide d. Thymine nucleotide Q. 71. Phosphate group + Deoxyribose + Cytosine = ? a. Adenine nucleotide b. Guanine nucleotide c. Cytosine nucleotide d. Thymine nucleotide Q. 72. Phosphate group + Deoxyribose + Thymine = ? a. Adenine nucleotide b. Guanine nucleotide c. Cytosine nucleotide d. Thymine nucleotide Q. 73. Number of arms in Clover leaf model of tRNA. a. Three b. Four c. Five d. Six Q. 74. Bases in loop of mini arm of tRNA. a. 40-50 b. 400-500 c. 4000-5000 d. 4-5 Q. 75. Blender experiment was performed by a. Mendel b. Hershey and Chase c. Griffith d. Avery Q. 76. Base pairs present per spiral of double stranded B-DNA. a. 10 b. 12 c. 13 d. 11 Q. 77. DNA is component of a. ribosomes b. viruses c. chromosomes d. protein Q. 78. RNA is component of a. ribosomes b. viruses c. chromosomes d. protein Q. 79. DNA strands are antiparallel because of a. hydrogen bonds b. phosphodiester bonds c. disulphide bonds d. glycosidic bonds Q. 80. Chargoff’s rule is applicable to a. single stranded RNA b. single stranded DNA and RNA c. single stranded DNA d. double stranded DNA Q. 81. Which ratio is constant for DNA? a. A+G / T+C b. A+T / G+C c. A+C / U+G d. A=U / G+C Q. 82. Diameter of B-DNA double helix is… a. 20 0A b. 10 0A c. 30 0A d. 40 0A Q. 83. The two strands off DNA are oriented as a. 3’ – 5’ and 5’ – 3’ b. 3’ – 3’ and 5’ – 5’ c. 3’ – 5’ and 5’ – 5’ d. 3’ – 3’ and 5’ – 3’ Q. 84. The clover leaf model of tRNA has a. Accepter arm and C arm b. Anticodon arm c.D arm d. All of these Q. 85. The mean diameter of DNA double helix is a. 20 0A b. 3.4 0A c. 4.5 0A d. 10 0A Q. 86. The length of a helix of DNA is a. 20 0A b. 34 0A c. 3.4 0A d. 10 0A Q. 87. Which arm of a tRNA molecule hydrogen binds to mRNA molecule? a. Codon b. Anticodon c. 5C end of the tRNA d. 3C end of the tRNA Q. 88. How many types of ribonucleic acids are known? a. Three b. Two c. Four d. Five Q. 89. The element absent in RNA is a. Nitrogen b. Oxygen c. Sulphur d. Hydrogen Q. 90. If adenine is 30 %, then what would be the percentage of guanine? a. 10 % b. 30 % c. 70 % d. 20 % Q. 91. Purines of DNA are represented by a. Uracil and thymine b. Guanine and adenine c. Uracil and cytosine d. Thymine and cytosine Q. 92. Pyridines of DNA are represented by a. Uracil and thymine b. Guanine and adenine c. Uracil and cytosine d. Thymine and cytosine Q. 93. Pyridines of RNA are represented by a. Uracil and thymine b. Guanine and adenine c. Uracil and cytosine d. Thymine and cytosine Q. 94. A nucleoside differs from a nucleotide in not having a. Phosphate b. Sugar c. Nitrogen base d. Phosphate and Sugar Q. 95. The substance that acts as a connecting link between two generations a. Deoxyribonucleic acid b. Ribonucleic acid c. Deoxyribonucleic acid + Ribonucleic acid d.Cytoplasm Q. 96. Which is the hereditary material in bacteria? a. Nucleic acids b. Nucleic acids and cytoplasm c. Nucleic acid and Histone d. None of these Q. 97. Unit of nucleic acid is a. nucleotide b. nucleoside c. nucleic acid d. All of these Q. 98. mRNA is produced in a. Golgi apparatus b. Ribosome c. Nucleus d. Endoplasmic reticulum Q. 99. DNA is double helix and a. Complementary and parallel b. Complementary and antiparallel c. Without supercoils d. Always circular Q. 100. The function of tRNA is a. Production of mRNA b. Production of ribosome c. Production of microsome d. Selection of amino acids Q. 101. DNA is genetic material a. only in prokaryotes b. only in eukaryotes c. in prokaryotes and eukaryotes d. in prokaryotes, eukaryotes and some viruses Q. 102. Chromatin is composed of a. nucleic acids and proteins b. only nucleic acids c. only proteins d. None of these Answer Key A. Multiple Choice Questions 1. b. Dipplococcus pneumonae 2. b. S-strain 3. a. R-strain 4. b. all mice died 5. a. bacterial transformation 6. c. British bacteriologist 7. d. transformation 8. d. All of the above 9. a. gene 10. b. S-strain 11. a. R-strain 12. b. DNA is responsible for transforming R-cells to S-cells 13. a. Blender 14. c. protein and DNA-core 15. a. P32 16. b. S35 17. d. Frederick Griffith 18. c. Miesher 19. c. Non-covalent bonds. 20. c. a nucleotide without phosphate 21. b. a base + a sugar 22. b. phosphodiester bond 23. d. Pentose 24. a. Z-DNA 25. b. RNA 26. a. first 27. c. fifth 28. b. third 29. d. 20 30. a. Polynucleotides 31. b. two hydrogen bonds 32. c. sugar and phosphate 33. c. is equal to the number of guanine bases 34. c. sequence of nucleotides 35. a. nuclein 36. a.TTCGA 37. b. 1953 38. a. 60 0A 39. c. zig-zag 40. d. UAG 41. a. 15000-17000 42. d. All of these 43. c. both in cytoplasm and nucleus 44. d. Uracil 45. a. 10-15 % 46. b. tRNA 47. a. L-shaped 48. c. rRNA 49. b. RNA 50. d. double helical 51. b. double stranded 52. a. ribose 53. a. 3’5’ phosphodiester bond 54. b. tRNA 55. d. nucleolus 56. a. complementary to mRNA 57. a. Acceptor arm 58. b. Opposite to the codon sequence 59. d. All of the above 60. a. In prokaryotes, mostly the m-RNA is mono-cistronic 61. a. Heterogenous RNA 62. b. Ribonucleotides 63. c. rRNA 64. d. nucleoside 65. a. Deoxyadenosine 66. b. Deoxyguanosine 67. c. Deoxycytidine 68. d. Deoxythymidine 69. a. Adenine nucleotide 70. b. Guanine nucleotide 71. c. Cytosine nucleotide 72. d. Thymine nucleotide 73. c. Five 74. d. 4-5 75. b. Hershey and Chase 76. a. 10 77. c. chromosomes 78. a. ribosome 79. b. phosphodiester bond 80. d. double stranded DNA 81. a. A+G / T+C 82. a. 20 0A 83. a. 3’-5’ and 5’-3’ 84. d. All of these 85. a. 20 0A 86. b. 34 0A 87. b. Anticodon 88. a. Three 89. c. Sulphur 90. d. 20% 91. b. Guanine and adenine 92. d. Thymine and cytosine 93. c. Uracil and cytosine 94. a. Phosphate 95. a. Deoxyribonucleic acid 96. a. Nucleic acids 97. a. nucleotide 98. c. Nucleus 99. b. Complementary and antiparallel 100. d. Selection of amino acid 101. d. in prokaryotes, eukaryotes and some viruses 102. a. nucleic acids and proteins B. Fill in the blanks. 1. Virulence is determined by…… 2. Genetic transformation was first reported by…… in Diplococcus pneumoniae. 3. The left handed DNA is…… 4. ……….. is the longest type of RNA 5. The name messenger RNA was given by……. 6. …… is also called soluble RNA. 7. Mini arm of Clover leaf model of tRNA is…….. arm. 8. …….. coiling is seen in A, B, C and E-DNA. 9.Sugar phosphate backbone of Z-DNA is …….. in shape. 10. ……… of Z-DNA is flat. 11. The smallest mitochondrial DNA molecules are found in …… 12. The largest mitochondrial DNA molecules are found in….. 13. In DNA, thymine (T) binds to …….. 14. In DNA, cytosine (C) binds to ……. 15. In Hershey and Chase experiment, DNA of T2 phage is labelled with……. 16. In Hershey and Chase experiment, protein of T2 phage is labelled with……. 17. The tRNA Clover leaf model consists of ……. arms. 18. Nitrogenous bases are never exposed in …… 19. Nitrogenous bases are always exposed in …… 20. The purine and pyrimidine ratio in DNA is ….. 21. The name messenger RNA was given by……. 22. …….. is also called soluble RNA. 23. ……. is a component of ribosomes. 24. ……… is a component of chromosomes. 25. ………. survives throughout the life span of cell. 26. ……. has short life span and is replaced constantly. 27. ……. DNAs do not occur in vivo. 28. Z-DNA was discovered by….. 29. …….. is the skinniest DNA having 12 base pairs per turn. 30. Ribosomal RNA is also called……… RNA. 31. tRNA molecules are synthesized at particular regions of DNA by a process called…. 32. In DNA molecule, adenine is bound to thymine by…… hydrogen bonds. 33. Sudden blindness in adults occur in disease……. due to mutation in mitochondrial DNA. 34. ……. causes a person to lose full function of heart, eye and muscle movements due to mutation in mitochondrial DNA. 35. The RNA present in ribosome is called…… Answer Key B. Fill in the Blank - Genetic factor 2. Griffith 3. Z-DNA 4. mRNA 5. Jacob and Monod 6. tRNA 7. Variable 8. Right handed 9. Zig-zag 10. Major groove 11. higher animals ,;12. plants 13. adenine (A) 14. guanine 15. 35S label 16. 32P label 17. five 18. DNA 19. RNA 20. 1:1 21. Jacob and Monod 22. tRNA 23. RNA 24. DNA 25. DNA 26. RNA 27. C and E 28. Rich 29. Z-DNA 30. insoluble 31. transcription 32. two 33. Laber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) 34. Kearns-Sayre Syndrome 35. Ribosomal RNA C. True or false 1. The number of DNA molecules is equivalent to the number of chromosomes per cell. 2. The purine and pyrimidine components occurs in unequal amounts. 3. DNA is found in the cells of all living organisms except plant viruses. 4. The amount of adenine (A) is equivalent to the amount of thymine (T). 5. The amount of cytosine (C) is equivalent to the amount of gaunine (G). 6. The Watson and Crick’s model of DNA illustrates not only its chemical structure but also the mechanism by which it duplicates itself. 7. DNA acts as the carrier of genetic information from generation to generation 8. DNA does not control all developmental process of an organism and all life activities. 9. All types of RNAs are synthesized by DNA. 10. B-DNA, A-DNA, C-DNA are left handed DNA except Z-DNA. 11. In DNA molecule total number of purine is always equal to the total number of pyrimidine bases. 12. A+G = T+C 13. The phosphate groups in the phosphodiester bond are positively charged. 14. DNA is composed of Pentose sugar containing 5 carbon atoms. 15. During linkages phosphoric acid (H3PO4) loses H atom and becomes phosphate group. 16. Cytosine always pairs with adenine. 17. In a double helix both grooves, major and minor grooves are equal in size. 18. Each turn of helix has distance of 34 0A. 19. The major groove is 22 0A wide while the minor groove is 12 0A wide. 20. The distance between two adjacent nucleotides is 3.4 0A. 21. The angle between successive base pairs is called pitch angle. 22. The angle between successive base pairs is 630. 23. Each turn of helix contains 10 base pairs. 24. Z- DNA is formed only when purines and pyrimidines are present alternately in the chain (CG or AT) 25. The mammalian mtDNA is double stranded circular in shape. 26. Methylation of uracil produces thymine. 27. RNA is double stranded molecule. 28. RNA is linear or folded at certain regions to form loops. 29. RNA can both replicate and organize other biochemical. 30. mRNA has the highest molecular weight, 31. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) is called mRNA precursor. 32. In prokaryotes, mostly the m-RNA is mono-cistronic. 33. The acceptor arm consist of base paired stem. 34. r-RNA perform some of the enzymatic activity. 35. Prokaryotic ribosome contains 3 r-RNA. 36. DNA synthesis always proceeds in 3’- 5’ direction. 37. The quantity of DNA is constant in each cell of a species. 38. The quantity of RNA is constant in each cell of a species. 39. The nitrogenous bases are not exposed in RNA. 40. The nitrogenous bases are not exposed in DNA. 41. In DNA molecule, purines are equal to pyrimidine. 42. RNAs are able to replicate. 43. The two strands of DNA are oriented as 3’-5’ and 5’-3’ 44. RNA nucleotides contain the five carbon sugar ribose 45. Hershey and Chase were the first two scientists to prove that genetic material is composed of proteins. 46. If a DNA molecule is found to be composed of 40% thymine, 20% guanine would be expected. 47. The Hershey-Chase research showed that DNA was the molecule of heredity. 48. DNA is composed of only one strand. 49. A chromosome is made up of tightly coiled strands of DNA 50. Nitrogen bases are held together by nitrogen bonds. 51. B-DNA, A-DNA, C-DNA are right handed DNA except Z-DNA. C. True or False Answer Key 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. True 10. False 11. True 12. True 13. False 14. True 15. True 16. False 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. True 22. False True 24. True 25. True 26. True 27. False 28. True 29. True 30. True 31. True 32. False 33. True 34. True 35. True 36. False 37. True 38. False 39. False 40. True 41.True 42. False 43. True 44. True 45. False 46. False 47. True 48. False 49. True 50. False 51. True D. Answer in one sentence Q. 1. Which of virus has double stranded RNA as a genetic material? => Reoviruses has double stranded RNA as a genetic material. Q. 2. Which RNA is called mRNA precursor? => hnRNA Q. 3. Define: hnRNA => The primary transcript in eukaryotes is much larger than the mature mRNA and is called heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). Q. 4. Why DNA synthesis always proceeds from 5’ to 3’? => DNA synthesis always proceeds from 5’ to 3’ because new nucleotides are always added to the 3’ carbon of the last nucleotide. Q. 5. What the deoxyribonucleotides composed of? => Each deoxyribonucleotides composed of a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar and one or more phosphate groups. Q. 6. What is chromosome? => A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of every cell. Q. 7. Define: Genetic material => The material (chemical substance) of which genes are composed of is called genetic material. Q. 8. Which strain of Diplococcus pneumoniae is virulent? => S- strain. Q. 9. Which strain of Diplococcus pneumoniae is non-virulent? => R- strain. Q. 10. What is DNA? => DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and transmitting the hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from parents to offsprings. Q. 11. Who discovered the Z-DNA? => Andres Wang and Alexander Rich. Q. 12. Who discovered DNA? => Friedrich Miescher (1869) Q. 13. What is nucleotide? => The monomeric unit of nucleic acids is called nucleotide. Q. 14. What are called the “Key of Life”? => The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are called the key of life. Q. 15. What are called the “Secrete of Life”? => The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are called the secrete of life. Q. 16. What are the four nitrogen base pairs present in DNA? => Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases. Q. 17. What is Chargaff’s rule? => Number of nitrogenous bases in the DNA was present in equal quantities. The amount of A is equal to T, whereas the amount of C is equal to G. Q. 18. What is the ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases? => The ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases is 1:1. Q. 19. What are genes? => Genes are the small segments of DNA, consisting mostly of 250 – 2 million base pairs. 20. Why DNA is called a Polynucleotide Molecule? =>The DNA is called a polynucleotide because the DNA molecule is composed of nucleotides – deoxyadenylate (A) deoxyguanylate (G) deoxycytidylate (C) and deoxythymidylate (T), which are combined to create long chains called a polynucleotide. 21. What is the structure of DNA? => DNA is a double helical structure composed of nucleotides. The two helices are joined together by hydrogen bonds. The DNA also bears a sugar-phosphate backbone. 22. What are the three different types of DNA? => A-DNA, B-DNa and Z-DNA are the three different types of DNA. 23. How is Z-DNA different from other forms of DNA? => Z-DNA is a left-handed double helix. The helix winds to the left in a zig-zag manner. On the contrary, A and B-DNA are right-handed DNA. 24. What are the functions of DNA? => Replication, gene expression, mutation, transcription and translation are the functions of DNA. 25. What type of DNA is found in humans? => B-DNA is found in humans. It is a right-handed double-helical structure. 26. What is RNA? => RNA is a polymer composed of four different repeating units: Adenosine, Cytosine, Guanosine and Uridine (A, C, G, and U). 27. What is 5’ extremity? => The phosphate-ended extremity is called a 5’-extremity 28. What is 3’-extremity? => The pentose-ended extremity is called a 3’-extremity. 29. According to the Watson-Crick model, how many polynucleotide chains does a DNA molecule have? => A DNA molecule is formed by two polynucleotide chains bound in antiparallel mode (5’-3’ to 3’-5’) and which form a helix structure. 30. What is the rule for the pairing of nitrogenous bases within the DNA molecule? => The rule for the pairing of the nitrogenous bases of the polynucleotide chains that form DNA molecules is that pyrimidine base binds to purine base, under the condition that thymine (T) binds to adenine (A) and cytosine (C) binds to guanine (G). 31. What is the complementary sequence of nitrogenous bases for an AGCCGTTAAC fragment of a DNA chain? => TCGGCAATTG 32. What is histone octamer? => The nucleosome core has an eight histone complex called as histone octamer. 33. What are the types of DNA? => A-DNA, B-DNA and Z-DNA 34. What are the types of RNA? => mRNA, tRNA and rRNA 35. What are the termination codons? => UAG, UAA and UGA are the termination codons. 36. Which are the initiation codon? => AUG, AUA and AUU are the initiation codon. 37. How many base pairs are present in each double stranded circular mtDNA molecule? => 15000-17000 base pairs are present in each double stranded circular mtDNA molecule. 38. Which strand of mtDNA is called heavy strand (H-strand)? => The guanine rich strand is called as the heavy strand of mtDNA. 39. Which strand of mtDNA is called light strand (L-strand).? => The cytosine rich strand is called as the light strand of mtDNA. 40. How many genes are encoded by heavy strand of mtDNA? => Heavy strand of mtDNA encodes 28 genes. 41. How many genes are encoded by light strand of mtDNA? => Light strand of mtDNA encodes 9 genes. 42. Who discovered the mitochondrial DNA? => Mitochondrial DNA was discovered by Margit Nass and Sylvan Nass. 43. How many genes are present in mitochondrial DNA? => 37 genes are present in mitochondrial DNA. 44. What does the abbreviation DNA stand for? => Deoxyribonucleic acid. 45. Why DNA is important? => DNA is important because it serves as the blueprint for traits of all living things. 46. What does the abbreviation RNA stand for? => Ribonucleic acid. 47. What is purine? => A purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 48. What is pyrimidine? => A pyrimidine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound similar to benzene and pyridine, containing two nitrogen atoms at position 1 and 3 of six membered ring. 49. Who proved DNA as genetic material by bacterial transformation experiment? => Frederick Griffith 50. Which isotopes were used in blender experiment? => P32 and S35 isotopes were used in blender experiment. 51. How many base pairs per turn in B-DNA? => There are 10 base pairs per turn in B-DNA. 52. How many base pairs per turn in A-DNA? => There are 11 base pairs per turn in A-DNA. 53. How many base pairs per turn in Z-DNA? => There are 18 base pairs per turn in Z-DNA. 54. Name any two mitochondrial diseases. => Laber’s Hereditary Optic Neuropathy and Pearson marrow-pancreas syndrome 55. What is genetic RNA? => The RNA which functions as genetic material is called genetic RNA. 56. Name any two plant viruses that possess RNA as a genetic material. => TMV and Wound tumour 57. Name any animal plant viruses that possess RNA as a genetic material. => Influenza virus and Poliomyelitis 58. What is non-genetic RNA? => The RNA which do not functions as genetic material is called genetic RNA. 59. What are the functions of non-genetic RNA? => Protein synthesis, DNA replication 60. What is codon? => Every three successive unpaired nitrogenous bases present on mRNA is called a codon. 61. How many amino acids are specified by each codon? => Each codon specifies one amino acid. 62. Why mRNA is called template RNA? => mRNA forms template for protein synthesis and hence called template RNA. 63. What is the function of mRNA? => mRNA carries message or genetic information about the protein to be synthesized from the DNA to cytoplasm. 64. What is the function of rRNA? => It provides specific sites for the binding of mRNA and tRNA on ribosomes during protein synthesis. 65. Who proposed Clover Leaf Model of tRNA? => Holley (1965) proposed Clover Leaf Model of tRNA. 66. Name the arms of tRNA. => Amino acid accepter arm, D-arm, anticodon arm, variable arm and TψC arm. 67. What happens when live S-strain of D. pneumoniae injected to mice? => When live S-strain of D. pneumoniae injected to mice they died due to pneumonia 68. What was the conclusion of Avery, Macleod and McCarty experiment? => The transformation of R-cells to S-cells took place when DNA extract was added and hence DNA is the genetic material. 69. Who proved that DNA is a genetic material of bacteriophages? => Hershey and Chase proved that genetic material of bacteriophages. 70. How many types of rRNA? => There are 7 types of rRNA. 71. Enlist the seven types of rRNA. => 28S rRNA, 23S rRNA, 18S rRNA, 16S rRNA, 5.8S rRNA. 55S rRNA and 5S rRNA. Unit II: DNA Replication - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS - First demonstration of semi conservative replication of DNA takesplace in a)Escherichia coli b) Streptociccuspneumonae c) Salmomellatyphimuriam d) Drosophila melanogaster - Which of the following enzyme is used to join the okazakifrgments - DNA polymerase b) DNA ligase c) Primase d) Endonuclease - Which code is repeated in spinocerebral ataxia disease. - CAG b) TTT c) AAA d) GAC - Which of the following enzyme is responsible for unwinding of DNA ? - Ligase b) Hexonuclease c) Helicase d) Topoisomerase - Gene as unit of recombination is called as - Cistron b) Recon c) Muton d) None of this - First Jumping gene is discovered by - Matthew Meselson b) Franklin stahl c) Morgan d) Barbara McClintock - First jumping gene is discovered by Barbara McClinctock in - Maiz plant b) Drosophila c) Chironomous d) Pea plant - Okazaki fragments are - RNA primers for DNA synthesis - Short DNA fragments after nuclease digestion - Newly synthesized DNA fragments - Short stretches of DNA attached to RNA primers on lagging strands - In which type of replication both strands of parent double helix would be conserved and the new DNA molecule would consist of two newly synthesized strands - Dispersive replication - Conservative replication - Semi conservative replication - None of these - Transposons are also called as - Chironomous - Running genes - Jumping genes - Up and down genes - During DNA replication RNA primers are remove by - DNA Polymerase I - DNA Polymerase III - RNA Polymerase I - RNA Polymerase II - Which enzyme remove supercoiling in replicating DNA ahead of the replication fork - Helicase - DNA polymerase - Primase - Topoisomerases - In which phase of cell cycle DNA is replicated - S Phase - G1 phase - G2 phase - M phase - Single-stranded binding protein help to - Keep the parental strand apart - Breaks the hydrogen bond - Remove the RNA primer - None of this - Which of the following enzyme synthesizes a daughter strand of DNA. - Single stranded binding protein - Primase - DNA Polymerase I - DNA Polymerase III - Which is smallest segment of DNA capable of being separated and exchange with other chromosomes - Cistron - Recon - Muton - None of these - Which of the following is the smallest unit of genetic material which when changed or mutated produces a phenotypic trait ? - Muton - Cistron - Recon - All of these - Which genes have additive effects on the action of other genes - Lethal genes - Multiple genes - Cumulative genes - Pleiotropic genes - Which of the following genes able to produce changes in more than one character - Pleiotropic genes - Lethal genes - Cumulative genes - All of these - Which genes cannot produce a character by itself but interacts with other to produce a modified effect - Basic genes - Lethal genes - Multiple genes - Modifying genes - Which gene inhibites the expression of another gene ? - Inhibitory genes - Lethal genes - Multiple genes - Basic gene - Who is the father of Genetics ? - Bateson - Mendel - Morgan - Bateson - The alternate form of gene is called as - Recessive character - Alternate type - Allele - Dominant character - What is allele ? - Alternate forms of genes - Heterologous chromosome - Homologous chromosomes - Linked genes - Which of the following is not a nucleotide ? - Tyrosine - Cytosine - Adenine - guanine - characteristic feature of DNA replication are - it is the highly accurate process - it is template directed - it requires short RNA primers - all of the above - which enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of DNA - helicase - DNA polymerase - DNA ligase - DNA gyrase - DNA replication occur in - 3ˈ to 5ˈ direction - 5ˈ to 5ˈ direction - 5ˈ to 3ˈ direction - 3ˈ to 3ˈ direction - Rate of DNA replication in prokaryotes are approximately - 10 bases/sec - 100 bases/sec - 1000 bases/sec - 10000 bases/sec - During DNA replication which of the following mechanism of DNA polymerase enzyme helps in preventing error - Proof checking - Proof reading - Rechecking - All of these - Which is the following statement is correct for the polymerase chain reaction - It is a DNA amplification technique - It is a DNA sequencing technique - It is a DNA degradation technique - All of these - DNA replication is start when - The hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide of two-strand breaks - The leading strand produces Okazaki fragments - RNA primer are added - None of these - Who discovered the Double-Helix structure of DNA - Matthew meselson - Franklin stahl - Darwin - Watson and Crick - Who demonstrated that the mode of DNA replication is semiconservative - Watson and Crick - Sutton - Meselson and Stahl - Khorana - Which of the following technique used by Meselson and stahl in order to study semiconservative replication in DNA ? - Density gradient centrifugation - Centrifugation - Chromatography - None of these - The one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was first proposed by - Johansen - Muller - Bidge - Archibald Garrod - Edward Tatum and George Beadle evaluated one gene – one enzyme hypothesis by using - Neurospora - Drosophila - E. coli - Mus musculus - Sickle cell anaemia is a disorder that affects - WBC - RBC - Macrophages - All of the above - In Sickle cell anaemic patients, the hemoglobin molecule contains a substitution for _____ - Ascorbic acid - Quinone - Carboxylic acid - Glutamic acid - Which of the following disorder is occur due to the point mutation - Down’s syndrome - Night blindness - Sickle cell anaemia - Edward syndrome - On which chromosome gene encoding HCD ( homogentisate 1,2- dioxygenase) is located - Chromosome 3 - Chromosome 1 - Chromosome 14 - None of these - Which disease is occur due to mutation in HCD gene ? - Sickle cell anemia - Cystic fibrosis - Alkaptonuria - None of these - Which of the following conditions found in alkaptonuria - Urine turns black - Homogenetisic acid present in patients urines - Both a and b - None of these - Which of the following enzyme convert Homogenetisic acid into Maleylactoaceticacid ? - Homogenetisic acid oxidase - Phenylalanine hydroxylase - Reductase - None of the above - Deficiency of which enzyme is responsible for phenylketonuria ? - Phenylalanine hydroxylase - Phosphopentose isomerase - Dehydrogenase - None of these - Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of phenylalanine into tyrosine - Hyaluronidase - Ligase - Phenylalanine hydroxylase - Reductase - Which of the following statement is not true - Phenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive metabolic genetic disoreder - Phenylketonuria is caused by the mutation in a gene on chromosome 3 - Phenylketonuria can be destructive to the nervous system - Phenylketonuria is caused by the mutation in a gene on chromosome 12 - Which enzyme is defective in phenylketonuria ? - Phenylalanine hydroxylase - Dihydrobiopterin reductase - Dihydrobiopterin reductase - None of these - Which amino acid is accumulated in phenylaketonuria ? - Accumulation of phenylalanine - Accumulation of tyrosine - Accumulation of glutamate - All of the above - Which enzyme help to open up DNA double helix in front of the replication fork ? - DNA polymerase III - DNA ligase - DNA topoisomerase I - DNA polymerase I - Coding sequences in split gene called as - Exons - Operons - Cistrons - Introns - Which disease is cause by splicing error ? - Alkaptonuria - Cystic fibrosis - Beta-thalassemia - None of these - Who discovered split gene ? - Richard J. Roberts - Philip A. Sharp - Both a and b - None of these - Which DNA element can switch there position ? - Cistrons - Exons - Introns - Transposons - Which type of genetic material present in prokaryotes ? - Circular DNA with histones - Linear DNA with histones - Circular DNA without histones - Linear DNA without histones - In eukaryotes DNA is mainly found in - Nucleolus - Nucleus - Cytoplasm - None of these - How many origin of replication found in E. coli ? - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - Which strand is synthesized continuously during DNA replication ? - Leading strand - Lagging strand - Both a and b - None of these - In which type of gene there expressible nucleotide sequence partially overlaps with the expressible nucleotide sequence of another gene ? - Split gene - Overlapping gene - Jumping gene - None of these - In which year Barbara McClintock got Nobel prize ? - 1981 - 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - Which of the following enzyme does not participate in DNA replication ? - Helicase - RNA primer - DNA polymerase I - DNA polymerase III - the term gene introduced by - Johansen - Stahl - Meselson - None of these - The gene concept introduced by - Sutton - Watson - Crick - Barbara - Split gene are also called as - Overlapping gene - Interrupted gene - Inhibitory gene - Lethal gene - Gene as a unit of transmission is called as - Muton - Cistron - Recon - None of these - Gene as a unit of mutation is called as - Muton - Recon - Cistron - Intron - Which of the following are symptoms of ataxia - Loss of balance and co-ordination in hands, arms and legs - Difficulty in walking - Difficulty swallowing - All of these - What is ataxia - Poor digestion - Poor respiration - Poor coordination of movement - Poor circulation - In which pattern Friedreich ataxia is inherited - Autosomal recessive pattern - Autosomal dominant pattern - X linked pattern - Y linked pattern - Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 is inherited in an - Autosomal recessive pattern - Autosomal dominant pattern - X linked pattern - Y linked pattern - What is the role of DNA polymerase I in DNA replication ? - Remove the RNA primer and fills in with DNA - Breaks hydrogen bond between DNA strands - Covalently link Okazaki fragments - None of these - Which of the following statement is true about transposable element ? - It is also called as overlapping genes - It is also called as jumping genes - It is also called as inhibitory gene - It is also called as split gene - Intron is also called as - Non-coding DNA - Junk DNA - Both a and b - None of these - What is Cistron ? - Unit of function - Gene - Both a and b - None of these - Which of the following enzyme does not play key role in DNA replication ? - Helicase - RNA polymerase - Primase - Topoisomerase - In which type of cell DNA serves as Genetic material ? - Prokaryotes - Eukaryotes - Both a and b - None of these - In split genes, the non-coding sequences are called as - Cistron - Exons - Operons - Introns - DNA replication is - Conservative - Non-Conservative - Semi-conservative - None of the mentioned - Which of the following reaction is catalyzed by DNA ligase enzyme in DNA replication? - Addition of new nucleotides to the lagging strands - Addition of new nucleotides to leading strands - Formation of Phosphodiester bond between the 3ˈ-OH of one Okazaki fragment and the 5ˈ-Phosphate of the next on lagging strand - None of the mentioned - Which activity of DNA polymerase III is required for proofreading during DNA replication ? - 5ˈ to 3ˈ exonuclease activity - 3ˈ to 5ˈ exonuclease activity - 3ˈ to 5ˈ endonuclease activity - 5ˈ to 3ˈ endonuclease activity - Which of the following enzyme is not found in E. coli replication fork. - Primase - DnaA - PCNA - Single stranded DNA binding protein - In a temperature sensitive mutant bacteria, at non-permissive temperature, there are lots of Okazaki fragments are accumulated during DNA replication. The bacteria is mutant for - DNA polymerase I - DNA topoisomerase I - DNA gyrase - DNA ligase - In human genome, how much DNA code for protein ? - 10 % - 2 % - 40 % - 30 % - Which of the following enzyme induces double strand breaks in DNA and rejoins them ? - Restriction endonuclease - DNA ligase - DNA gyrase/ Topoisomerase - DNA polymerase - Which of the following enzyme does not required primer for its activity ? - RNA dependent DNA polymerase - DNA dependent DNA polymerase - DNA dependent RNA polymerase - Taq DNA polymerase - Which of the following enzyme is not the present at replication fork ? - Ligase - Primase - Helicase - DNA polymerase - What will happened when we inhibit the activity of primase at the replication fork that is already advancing ? - The Okazaki fragments would get longer - The DNA helicase would stop advancing - The leading strand would stop being synthesized - The lagging strand would stop being synthesized - Regarding to prokaryotic DNA replication which of the following statement is wrong? - The pre-priming stage is the regulated step - DNA polymerase III synthesized only lagging strand - DNA is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction - Gyrase unwinds the DNA in front of the replication fork - Which of the following statement described the correct enzymatic activities of DNA polymerase? - The polymerase synthesized DNA in the 3’ to 5’ direction - The RNA primer nucleotides are removed by the 5’ to 3’ exonuclease - The 3’ to 5’ exonuclease extends the 3’ end of the parent strand - The 3’ to 5’ exonuclease replaces the RNA primer with deoxynucleotides - Which of the following enzyme act first during the prokaryotic DNA replication ? - Helicase - Primase - DNA polymerase III - DNA ligase - Which strand are present in newly synthesized DNA ? - Both new strand - Both old strand - One new and one old strand - Only new strand - What is the function of gyrase ? - At the origin separates DNA strands - Avoid the binding of two single strand of DNA - After replication is complete it help in recoiling of DNA - It breaks and rejoins the DNA backbone to remove tension produced by helicase - In which type of genes coding region are partially overlapped ? - Inhibitory gene - Lethal gene - Overlapping gene - None of these - How many promoter are present in operon ? - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - Which of the following statement in correct about operon - They are polycistronic - It contain cluster of genes - It is stretch of DNA that is transcribed to create a continuous segment of RNA - All of these - Pick the odd from the following option - Transposon - Introns - Jumping genes - Insertion sequences - What is the function of hemoglobin ? - Oxygen storage - Oxygen transport - Both of the above - None of these - In which cell hemoglobin is present ? - R.B.C. - W.B.C. - Platelets - None of these - Which of the disease is occur due to the mutation in hemoglobin structure - Alkaptonuria - Sickle cell anemia - Phenylketonuria - None of these - What section of DNA codes the protein ? - Chromosome - Gene - plasmid - None of these - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Answers: 1.(a) Escherichia coli, 2. (b) DNA Ligase, 3. (a) CAG 4. (c) Helicase5. (b) Recon 6. (d) Barbara McClintock 7. (a) Maiz plant8. (d) Short stretches of DNA attached to RNA primers on lagging strands 9. (b) Conservative replication 10. (c)Jumping genes 11. (a) DNA Polymerase I 12.(d) Topoisomerases 13. (a) S Phase14. (a) keeps the parental strands apart 15. (d) DNA polymerase III16. (b) Recon 17. (a) Muton 18. (c) Cumulative genes 19. (a) Pleiotropic genes20. (d) Modifying genes21. (a) Inhibitory genes22. (b)Mendel 23. (c) Allele 24. (a)Alternate forms of gene 25. (a) Tyrosine 26. (d) All of these 27. (b) DNA polymerase 28. (c) 5ˈ to 3ˈ direction 29. (c) 1000 bases/ sec 30. (b) Proof reading 31. (a) it id DNA amplification technique 32. (a) the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide of two-strands breaks 33. (d) Watson and Crick 34. (c) Meselson and Stahl 35. (a) Density gradient centrifugation technique 36.(d) Archibald Garrod 37.(a) Neurospora 38. (b) RBC 39. (d) Glutamic acid 40. (c) Sickle cell anemia 41. (a) Chromosome 3 42. (c) Alkaptonuria 43. (c) Both a and B 44. (a) Homogenetisic acid oxidase 45. (a) Phenylalanine hydroxylase 46. (c) Phenylalanine hydroxylase 47. (b) Phenylketonuria is caused by the mutation in gene on chromosome 3 48. (a) Phenylalanine hydroxylase 49.(a) accumulation of Phenylalanine 50. (c)DNA topoisomerase I 51. (a) Exon 52. (c) Beta- Thalassemia53.(c) Both a and b 54. (d) Transposons 55. (d) Linear DNA without histones56. (b) Nucleus 57. (a) 1 58. (a) Leading strand 59. (b) Overlapping genes 60. (c) 1983 61. (b) RNA Primer 62. (a) Johansen 63. (a) Sutton 64. (b) interrupted gene 65. (b) Cistron 66. (a) Muton 67. (d) all of these 68. (c) poor coordination of movement 69. (a) autosomal recessive pattern 70. (b) autosomal dominant pattern 71. (a) Remove the RNA primer and fills in with DNA 72. (b) It is also called as jumping genes 73. (c) Both a and b 74. (c) Both a and b 75. (b) RNA polymerase 76. (c) Both a and b 77. (d) Introns 78. (c) Semi-conservative 79. (c) Formation of Phosphodiester bond between the 3ˈ-OH of one Okazaki fragment and the 5ˈ-Phosphate of the next on lagging strand 80. (b) 3ˈ to 5ˈ exonuclease activity 81. (c) PCNA 82. (d) DNA ligase 83. (b) 2 % 84. (c)DNA gyrase/ Topoisomerase 85. (c)DNA dependent RNA polymerase 86. (1) Ligase 87. (d) The lagging strand would stop being synthesized 88. (b)DNA polymerase III synthesized only lagging strand,; 89. (b)The RNA primer nucleotides are removed by the 5’ to 3’ exonuclease90.(a) Helicase91. (c) One new and one old strand 92. (d) It breaks and rejoins the DNA backbone to remove tension produced by helicase 93. (c) Overlapping gene. 94. (a) 1 95. (d) All of these 96. (b) Introns 97. (b) Oxygen transport 98. (a) R.B.C.99. (b) Sickle cell anemia 100.(b) gene - Fill in the Blank - When the material in the two parental strands is distributed more or less randomly between two daughter molecule is called as __________ replication. - _________ separates the DNA into two template strands. - The _________ strands needs only one primer. - The enzyme ________ joins the Okazaki fragments together to form a continuous strand. - _________ breaks the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands. - DNA replication is begins at specific location called as _____________. - The primer allows __________ to bind and start replication. - ________ strand is replicated in a fragments. - ________ strand is replicated in continuous manner in the same direction as the replication fork. - A ________ is the molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. - Each gene occupies specific position called _________. - Several alternate form of gene called as ________. - ________ is the part of DNA specifying a single polypeptide chain. - Cistron can have _______ nucleotide pairs. - ________ genes bring about the death of their possessor. - The short strand of _______ primer is required for the replication of DNA molecule. - The β – globin gene is found on chromosome _______ . - A gene is the molecular unit of _________ of a leaving organism. - The influence of gene resulting in the expression of a genetic character is called _________ . - People with __________ have urine that turns black when it is exposed to air. - Alkaptonuria is one of a rare ________ recessive genetic disorder. - The homogentisic acid oxidase is involved in the metabolism of the tyrosine and _________. - Phenylketonuria is caused by a mutation in a gene on chromosome _______ . - Phenylketonuria is _________ recessive metabolic genetic disorder. - _________ enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. - Alkaptonuria is characterized by the excretion of __________ in the urine. - In alkaptonuria urine is dark due to the oxidation of __________ in air. - The DNA sequence in the exon provides instructions for _________ protein. - _________ are a pair of adjacent genes whose coding region are partially overlapping. - ________ are the strands of DNA that move or copy themselves and jump to new location. Answers ( B. Fill the Blanks) - Dispersive 2. Helicase 3. Leading4. DNA Ligase 5. DNA Helicase6. Origin of replication7. DNA polymerase III 8. Lagging 9. Leading 10. Gene11. Locus 12. Alleles 13. Cistron 14.100 to 30,000 15.Lethal16. RNA17. 11 18. Heredity 19. Gene action20. Alkaptonuria21. Autosomal22. Phenylalanine23. 12 24. Autosomal 25. Phenylalanine hydroxylase26. Homogentisic acid 27. Homogentisic acid28. Coding 29. Overlapping genes30. Jumping genes - True and false - Replication is the process by which a double- stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecule. - Replication can only occur in a 3ˈ 5ˈ direction. - Leading strand of DNA synthesized in the form of Fragments. - Helicase uncoils the DNA. - Phenylketonuria is caused by a mutationin a gene on chromosome 13. - The DNA sequence in the exon provides instructions for coding protein. - Genes can not be transmitted from parentto offspring. - DNA replication is start when hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides of two strands break. - Spinocerebeller ataxia is not a neurodegenerative disease. - Carriers of sickle cell anaemia are protected from malaria because plasmodium cannot grow in distorted RBCs. - DNA polymerase III remove the RNA primers and fills in with DNA. - Primase covalently links the Okazaki fragments together. - A recon consists of not more than two pairs of nucleotides. - Inhibitory genes suppresses the expression of another gene. - The DNA synthesis is semi-conservative with continuous leading strand and discontinuous lagging strand. - Synthesis of DNA by DNA polymerase occurs in the 5ˈ to 3ˈ direction. - Semiconservative DNA replication first demonstrated in Drosophila melanogaster. - Sickle – shaped red blood cells don’t move easily through blood vessels. - People with alkaptonuria can properly metabolize phenylalanine and tyrosine. - Jumping genes are the strands of DNA that move or copy themselves and jump to new location. Answers (C. true and false) - True 2) False 3) False 4) True 5) False 6) True 7) False 8) True 9) False 10) True 11) False 12) False 13) True 14) True 15) True 16) True 17) False 18)True 19) False 20) True D. One answer questions 1. What is DNA replication ? 2. Which enzyme breaks Hydrogen bonds between DNA strands? 3. What is the function of topoisomerase enzyme? 4. Which enzyme keeps the parental strand apart ? 5. Which enzyme synthesize RNA primer ? 6. What is the function of DNA ligase? 7. Which enzyme covalently links the Okazaki fragments together ? 8. Which enzyme uncoils DNA ? 9. What is the name of tiny fragments made on the lagging strands ? Ans: tiny fragments made on the lagging strands called as Okazaki fragments. 10. What is template ? Ans: Each of the separated parental strands of DNA is called as template. 11.what is lagging strand ? 12. What is leading strand ? 13. Which enzyme remove the RNA primers ? 14. What is full form of PCR ? 15. Define cistron ? 16. Define recon ? 17. Define muton ? 18. Who first proposed the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis ? 19. Who evaluated Garrod's hypothesis using the fungus Neurospora ? 20. Which cell are affected in sickle cell anemia ? 21. What is lethal gene ? 22. What is multiple gene ? 23. What is cumulative gene ? 24. What is pleiotropic gene ? 25. What is the function of modifying gene ? 26. What is the function of inhibitory gene ? 27. In which disease urin turn black? 28. Mutation on which gene result in alkaptonuria ? 29. Mutation on which gene result in phenylketonuria ? 30. What is the function of phenylalanine hydroxylase ? 31. Inwhich disease homogentisic acid accumulate in body ? 32. In which disease phynylalanine build up in blood ? 33. Define the split gene ? 34. Who discovered split gene ? 35. What are the exons ? 36. Which disease is occur due to splicing error ? 37. What is overlapping gene ? 38. What is transposable element ? 39. Who discovered the transposable element ? 40. Which tri nucleotide is repeat in spinocerebral ataxia 1 ? 41. Inwhich pattern spinocerebral ataxia inhereted ? 42. Inwhich organism semi conservative replication of DNA was first demonstrated ? 43. Who introduced classical concept of gene ? 44. Where DNA is located in eukaryotes ? 45. Who discovered Molecular structure of DNA ? 46. Which enzyme catalyzes the elongation of a new DNA strand in the 5' → 3' direction? 47. What kind of chemical bond is found between paired bases of the DNA double helix? 48. Why does a DNA strand only grow in 5'to 3' direction ? Ans : Because DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing molecule 49. What is the direction of DNA replication ? 50. What is the full form of DNA ? - Answer of one sentence - The process of making an identical copy of DNA, using existing DNA as a templates for the synthesis of new DNA strand is called as DNA replication. - DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands. - Topoisomerase loose the supercoiling ahead of the replication fork. - Single stranded binding protein keeps the parental strand apart. - RNA primer is synthesized by primase enzyme. - DNA ligase covalently links the Okazaki fragments together. - DNA ligase covalently links the Okazaki fragments. - Helicase enzyme uncoils DNA. - Okazaki fragments. - A template strand is strand used by DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase to attach complementary bases during DNA replication or RNA transcription, respectively. - The strand that is made in short segments is known as lagging strand. - The strand of DNA that is continuously made is known as leading strand. - DNA Polymerase I remove RNA primer. - Full form of PCR is polymerase chain reaction. - Cistron is part of DNA specifying a single polypeptide chain that transmit characters from one generation to other as a unit of transmission. - Recon is the smallest segment of DNA capable of being separated and exchange with other chromosome. - Mutan is the smallest unit of genetic material which when changed or mutated produces a phenotypic trait. - The one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was first proposed by the English physician Archibald Garrod in 1909. - American geneticists Edward Tatum and George Beadle evaluated Garrod’s hypothesis using fungus Neurospora. - Red blood cell are affected in sickle cell anemia. - The genes which bring about the death of their possessor called as Lethal gene. - When two or more pairs of independent genes act together to produce a single phenotypic trait, these genes are called as multiple genes. - Some genes have additive effects on the action of other genes, these are called as cumulative genes. - The genes which produce changes in more than one character is called pleiotropic gene. - Modifying gene influences or alters the expression of other genes. - An inhibitory gene suppresses or inhibits the expression of another gene. - In Alkaptouriaurin turns black when it is exposedto air. - Mutation in gene encoding the HCD ( Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase) enzyme result in Alkaptonuria. - Mutation in gene encoding phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme result in phenylketonuria. - Pheylalanine hydroxylase enzyme breaks down the amino acid phenylalnine into tyrosine. - In Alkaptonuria ,homogenetisic acid is accumulate in body. - In Phenylketonuria, phenylalanine is build up in blood. - The split gene is agene that contains sections of DNA called exons, which are expressed as RNA and protein, interrupted by section of DNA called introns, which are not expressed. - Split gene were independently discovered by Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp in 1977. - Exons are the DNA sequences which provide instructions for coding protein. - Beta-Thalassemia is a one of the disease caused due to splicing error. - Overlapping genes are defined as a pair of adjacent genes whose coding regions are partially overlapping. - Transposable element is a DNA sequences that can change its position within in genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutation and altering the cell’s genome size. - Barbara McClintock discovered the transposable element. - CAG tri-nucleotide is repeat in spinocerbral ataxia. - In autosomal dominant pattern spinocerbral ataxia inherited. - Semi-conservative replication of DNA is first demonstrated in E. coli . - Classical concept of gene was introduced by Sutton (1902) . - DNA is located in nucleus in eukaryotes. - Watson and Crick discovered the molecular structure of DNA. - DNA polymerase catalyzes the elongation of a new DNA strand in the5’ to 3’ direction. - Hydrogen bond are found between paired bases of the DNA double helix. - DNA strand only grow in 5'to 3' direction because DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing molecule. - DNA replication is only occur in 5’ to 3’ direction. - Full form of DNA is 2, deoxiriboucleic acid. - Terminology - DNA replication : the process of making an identical copy of DNA, using existing DNA as a templates for the synthesis of new DNA strand is called as DNA replication. - Gene : gene is a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance, which is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions, and or other functional sequence regions. - Overlapping gene : overlapping genes are defined as a pair of adjacent genes whose coding region are partially overlapping. - Split gene : The split gene is a gene that contains sections of DNA called exons which are expressed as RNA and protein interrupted by sections of DNA called introns, which are not expressed. - Eukaryotes : Eukaryotes are organism whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear envelope. - Prokaryotes : it is refers to any of the group of organisms primarily characterized by the lack of true nucleus and other membrane-bound cell compartments. - Template strand : A template strand is the term that refers to the strand used by DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase to attach complementary bases during DNA replication or RNA transcription, respectively - Allele :An allele is one of two or more versions of the same gene at the same place on chromosomes. - Enzymes : it is substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms to bring about a specific chemical reaction. - Minimal medium : In microbiology, minimal medium is medium that has just enough ingredients to support growth of microorganism. - Phenotype :it is the set of observable characteristics of an organism. - Protein :proteins are a naturally occurring, extremely complex substance. It consists of amino acid residues joined by peptide bonds. - Antigen : it is a foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body. - Antibody : it is a protein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects antigens. - Anaemia : it is a condition in which the blood doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells. - Polypeptide : it is a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain and forming a protein molecule. - Mutation : Sudden genetic changes in DNA. - Point mutation : it is a type of mutation that describe a change in single nucleotide of DNA. - Hydrophilic amino acid : this are a type of amino acid with polar nature and they can dissolve in water. - Hydrophobic amino acids : Hydrophobic amino acids are those with side chains that do not like to reside in an aqueous ( i.e. Water ) environment. - Disorder :An illness that disrupts normal physical or mental functions. - Hormones : it is chemical substance that act like messenger molecules in the body. - Neurotransmitters :Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmits a signal from a neuron across the synapse to a target cell, which can be a different neuron, muscle cell or gland cells. - Neurons : neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system. - Recessive gene : genes responsible for the expression of recessive character are called as recessive gene. - Dominant gene : genes responsible for the expression of the dominant character are called as dominant gene. - Operon : it is the functioning unit of DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter - Nucleotide : Nucleotide are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. - Virus : viruses are non-cellular microscopic infectious agents that can only replicate inside the host cells. - Autosomal recessive disorders : An autosomal recessive disorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop. UNIT–III Genetic code --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Multiple Choice Questions - The DNA molecule is coded for - Maintenance of the cell - Reproduction of the cell - Both a and b - None of the above - The Nucleotide sequence in DNA is coded for synthesis of different proteins which control a) Cell regulation b) Cell Growth c) Cell division d) All of the above - The information deposited on nucleotide sequence of DNA is to synthesize protein this process is known as - Protein Synthesis - Central Dogma - Both a and b - None of the above - The steps that involved in Central Dogma of Protein synthesis are a) DNA Transcription mRNA Translation Protein b) DNA Transcription rRNA Translation Protein c) DNA Transcription tRNA Translation Protein d) DNA Transcription siRNA Translation Protein - During Protein synthesis information coded on the nucleotide sequence of DNA is transcribed to - mRNA - rRNA - tRNA - None of the above - mRNA is translated to form a sequence of Amino acid which is called as - Nucleotide sequence - Nucleoside sequence - Polypeptide chain - All of the above - The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA or RNA, which determines the amino acid sequence in protein, is known as___________. a) Universal Code b) Genetic Code c) Initiation Codon d)Stop Codon - mRNA codes a specific amino acid with three adjacent nitrogenous bases, is called as__________ Codon. a) Singlet b) Triplet c) Doublet d) Quadrate - Total number of naturally occurring amino acids are______________. a) 155 b) 250 c) 158 d) 150 - Out of 64 triplet codons 61 coded 20 Amino acids while 3 are__________. - Termination codon - Stop codon - Initiation codon - Both a and b - The Inventor of the term Genetic code is____________________. - George Gamow - Gregor Gamow - Karl Landsteiner - Nirenberg - The stop codon is/are as listed below. - UAA - UAG - UGA - All of the above. - The adjacent codon in genetic code does not overlap, as it is _______________. a) Non-overlapping b) Overlapping c) Both a and b d) None of the above - Genetic code always indicates, which features listed below? - Triplet, Non-overlapping and Comma less - Polarity and degeneracy - Ambiguous and Colinearity - All of the above - The fixed stop codon in other organism which exceptionally code for tryptophan in mitochondria is? a) UGA b) UAA c) UAG d) AUG - Exception to other organisms AUA in mitochondrial mRNA is not coded for _______________ but codes for __________________. a) Isoleucine, Methionine b) Methionine, Isoleucine c) Leucine, Threonine d) Threonine, Lysine - The Ambiguous nature of Genetic code is mean by_________________________. - More than one amino acids coded by similar triplet codon. - One specific amino acid is coded by more than one triplet codon. - Different amino acids coded by different triplet codon. - None of the above - In the sensitive E. coli strain streptomycin UUU codes for phenylalanine like normally it does but if streptomycin treated with ribosome, then UUU may also code for - Isoleucine, Leucine or Serine - Methionine, Threonine or Valine - Asparagine, Glutamine or Glycine - Histidine, Cysteine or Alanine - The genetic code degenerates at _______________. a) First position b) Second position c) Third position d) Never degenerate - The amino acids each of which coded by four triplet codons are_______________ - Isoleucine, tryptophan and methionine - Alanine, Glycine and Threonine - Valine, Proline and Alanine - Both b and c - Which factor bear a resemblance to Guanine and present at wobble position in the anticodon of certain tRNA’s? a) Inisine b) Inosine c) Inositol d) Insoles - Post transcription the first triplet code of mRNA is translated to polypeptide chain at first position is known as - Start codon - Initiation codon - Nonsense codons - All of the above - The most common start codon in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is__________. a) UUG b) CUG c) AUG d) GAU - In prokaryotes the first triplet code of the protein is AUG which codes amino acid______________________. a) N-formyl methionine b) Methionine c) Valine d) None of the above - Artificial mRNA for the first time synthesized by__________________. a) Watson and Crick b) George Gamow c) Nirenberg and Matthaei d) All of the above - Proteins play vital role in cell metabolism because it ____________ a) Make constitutional material of the cell b) Takes part in metabolic reactions as an enzyme c) Regulate gene expression and phenotypic trait d) All of the above - In polypeptide chain the adjacent amino acids form covalent peptide bond in between _____________________. a) Carboxyl groups of both amino acids b) Amino groups of both amino acids c) Carboxyl group of one and amino group of other amino acid d) None of the above - Protein synthesis required 5 Enzymes like___________________ a) Amino acid activating enzymes b) Peptide polymerase c) Both a and b d) None of the above - Activated precursors that required for transcription are___________ a) ATP and CTP b) GTP and ATP c) UTP and CTP d) All of the above - RNA polymerase enzyme is made up by the complex of 6 subunits like a) Two α, one β, one β’, one ω and a σ factor b) Two α, two β, one β’ and one ω c) One α, one β, two β’, one ω and a σ factor d) Two α, two β, one ω and two σ factor - The function of β and β’ subunit of RNA polymerase is to ____________ a) Form catalytic center for RNA polymerase b) Help in unwinding of DNA double helix c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The function of σ subunit of RNA polymerase enzyme is to __________ a) Spot promoter site and help in binding of holoenzyme on this initiation site b) Identify initiation site and direct RNA polymerase bind on it c) Recognize promoter site and guide RNA polymerase bind to this site d) All of the above - Prior diffuse to binding site RNA polymerase first binds to_____________ a) RNA polymerase recognition site b) Promoter site spotted by its σ subunit c) Initiation site recognized by σ subunit d) All of the above - The distance in between Initiation site on which RNA polymerase binds first and binding site for transcription is a) One or two bases long b) More than two bases long c) Four bases long d) None of the above - When RNA polymerase (holoenzyme) binds to DNA for initiation of transcription it results in___________ a) Unwinding of DNA at any place and large segment of DNA double helix opens up b) Local unwinding of double helix and small segment of DNA double helix opens up c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The series of events in the initiation of transcription is_______________ i) σ factor and core enzyme join to form RNA polymerase ii) RNApolymerase attaches to initiation site. iii) σ factor recognizes start signal and lead RNA polymerase to bind it iv) Small segment of DNA unwinds v) σ factor dissociates from core enzyme. a) i-ii-iii-iv-v b) i-iv-v-iii-ii c) i-iii-ii-iv-v d) i-v-iv-ii-iii - Synthesis of complementary mRNA from DNA sense strand is known as_____________________ a) Translation b) Transcription c) Mutation d) Deletion - During transcription the first base of mRNA is always_____________ a) Pyrimidine b) Purine c) Either purine or Pyrimidine d) None of the above - mRNA elongation occurs with accumulation of activated ___________________ a) Ribonucleoside triphosphate b) Ribonucleotide triphosphate c) Ribonucleoside bisphosphate d) Ribonucleotide monophosphate - Synthesis of complementary RNA from RNA template in many Viruses is catalyzed by a) Synthetase b) RNA Polymerase c) Replicase d) DNA polymerase - The discovery of the mechanism of reverse transcription was done by______ a) Temin b) Mizutani c) Baltimore d) All of the above - The enzyme that catalyze the reaction of reverse transcription to transcribe DNA from RNA template is a) Replicase b) Reverse transcriptase c) RNA polymerase d) DNA polymerase - The RNA viruses that can transcribe DNA from RNA template are__________ a) Rous sarcoma virus b) Rauscher mouse leukemia virus c) RNA tumor viruses d) All of the above - The right sequence of steps involved in the mechanism of reverse transcription is _ I) Enzyme reverse Transcriptase, viral RNA chromosome and viral Proteins enters the host cell II) RNA virus or RNA retrovirus infect host cell III) Enzyme reverse transcriptase synthesize DNA strand complementary to viral chromosome, which is RNA/DNA hybrid IV)dsDNA inserted into the host chromosome. V) The transcribed free DNA template strand used to synthesize DNA double helix VI) Reverse transcriptase degrades RNA strand from RNA/DNA hybrid a) I- II – III – IV – V - VI b) III – II – I – IV – V - VI c) II – I – III – VI - V – IV d) II – III – I – IV – V - VI - In eukaryotes hnRNA’s are larger than mature cytoplasmic mRNA by about_______ a) 20% b) 30% c) 50% d) 10% - The looping mechanism while processing hnRNA is____________________ a) To detect the exons and introns in hnRNA strand b) To detect coding and noncoding region of hnRNA strand c) To determine coded and noncoded region of the hnRNA sequence d) All of the above - The removal of unnecessary segment and combining the necessary segment from hnRNA is ________________ a) Capping b) Looping c) Splicing d) Methylation - In addition to Polyadenylation the pre mRNA processing steps are a) Capping b) Methylation c) Splicing d) all of the above - The Polyadenylation is the process of addition of _______________ a) Adenylate residue at the 3’ end b) Adenylate residue at the 5’ OH end c) Adenylate residue at the 5’ end d) None of the above - In the process of Polyadenylation adenylate residues added on 3’ end because___ a) Polyadenylation signal situated near 3’ end of eukaryote gene, this signal transcribe to a recognition sequence during transcription b) Polyadenylation signal is recognized by a specific endonuclease and cleaves the mRNA chain 11-30 nucleotide downstream at 3’ to the recognition sequence c)The cut on recognition pre mRNA sequence by specific endonuclease creates 3’OH end wherePoly (A) tail is added by the action of poly (A) polymerase enzyme d) All of the above - The process of capping is__________________________________________________ a) The formation of cap at 5’ end by guanylate residue condensation b)Cap formation at 3’ end by guanylate residue condensation c) The formation of cap at 7’ end by guanylate residue condensation d) The formation of cap at 5’ end by adenylate residue condensation - Addition of methyl groups at the 5’ end of mRNA to some adenylate residue is_____ a) Ethylation b) Adenylation c) Methylation d) Acetylation - The series of events during translation of mRNA to protein is____________________ I) Amino acid activation II) Amino acid transfer to tRNA III) Initiation of the polypeptide chain synthesis IV) Elongation of the polypeptide chain V) Termination of the polypeptide chain synthesis a) V – IV – III – II - I b) I – II – III – IV - V c) III – II – IV – V - I d) IV – V – III – II – I - The functions of Hsp70 are to a) Import protein into the mitochondria b) Help protein folding c) Take part in protein disaggregation and degradation in the mitochondrial matrix. d) All of the above - Hsp stands for____________________________________ a) Horse power b) Histidine series protein c) Heat shock proteins d) None of the above - During translation every single amino acid is catalyzed by its definite activating enzyme is_____________ a) Acetoacyl tRNA synthase b) Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase c) Acetyl transeferase d) Methyl isomerase - In following reaction at the place of ‘?’ mark which compound is present AA + ATP + Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase Activating enzyme ? + IP a) Acetoacyl tRNA synthase b) Acetyl transeferase c) Aminoacyl adenylate synthetase d) Methyl isomerase - During translation each activated amino acids transferred to its specific tRNA, it leads to formation of a) Covalent peptide bond in between amino acid and tRNA b) Both a and c c) High energy ester bond in between amino acid and tRNA d) None of the above - Post transfer activated amino acid and tRNA forms bond in between a) Carboxyl group of amino acid and 3’ hydroxyl group of tRNA b) Hydroxyl group of amino acid and carboxyl group of tRNA c) Both a and b d) None of the above - In prokaryotes the initiation factors required during translation of mRNA to protein are______________________ a) IF 1 and IF 3 b) IF 1, IF2 and IF 3 c) IF 1 and IF 2 d) IF 2 and IF 3 - The process of binding of the ribosomal subunit to the initiation sequence of mRNA is require _______ a) IF1 b) IF2 c) IF3 d) None of the above - The initiation codons in mRNA are___________ a) AUG b) GUG c) UUG d) All of the above - Elongation of the polypeptide chain during translation require the________________ a) Initiation Factors b) Elongation Factors c) Termination factor d) Start signal - In prokaryotes during initiation, the70S ribosome is formed due to the combination of ________________________ a) 50S and 30S b) 40S and 30S c) 60S and 20S d) 70S and 80S - The function of Elongation factor EF- G is________________________________ a) Transcription of mRNA b) Initiation of mRNA c) Translocation of the mRNA d) Transcription of DNA - Elongation factors EF-Tu and EF-Ts plays important role in_________________ a) Elongation of polypeptide chain during translation b) Binding of Aminoacyl tRNA to the ribosome c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The steps involved in the process of elongation during translation are____________ a) Binding of AA tRNA at A site b) Peptide bond formation c) Translocation d) All of the above - Which RNA brings amino acids to add in polypeptide chain_________________ a) tRNA b) mRNA c) SnRNa d) rRNA - Two binding sites on large subunit of ribosome for the attachment of tRNA are a) Q site b) P site c) A site d) Both b and c - In translation the process of translocation include_________________________ a) Simultaneous movement of tRNA and mRNA on the ribosome from codon to codon b) Movement of only mRNA along the ribosome c) Movement of only tRNA along the ribosome d) None of the above - During translocation the ribosome travels through mRNA strand from___________ a) Initiation site to termination codon of mRNA b) 5’ end to 3’ end of mRNA c) Both a and b d) None of the above - Elongation factor IF-G also called______________ a) IF-Ts b) Translocase c) EF-Ts d) EF-Tu - The elongation factor Translocase also abbreviated as_______________ a) EF-Ts b) IF-Ts c) EF-G d) EF-Tr - The deacylated tRNA relievefrom P site of ribosome and moves to_________ a) E site b) F site c) A site d) All of the above - Continuous process of chain elongation during translation terminate at__________ a)Termination codon of mRNA b)Elongation factor c) E site d) None of the above - In case of prokaryote,during translation of protein chain termination after the signal of release factors_________________ a) RF-1 b) RF-2 c) RF-3 d) All of the above - When release factors intermingle with enzyme Peptidyl transeferase, it cause________ a) Hydrolysis of polypeptide chain at the P site of ribosome b)Hydrolysis of polypeptide chain at the A site of ribosome c)Hydrolysis of polypeptide chain at both A and P site of ribosome d)Hydrolysis of polypeptide chain neither at P nor at Asite of ribosome - The termination process of translation finally leads to_________________________ a) The detachment of polypeptide chain and tRNA. b) The separation of release factor from the ribosome c) The ribosome dissociation into 50S and 30S subunits. d) All of the above - Post translation the manufactured linear chain of amino acid need to _________________ a) Fold b) Undergo biochemical modifications c) Become biologically active for proper functioning d) All of the above - Due to process of protein folding, the Primary structure of polypeptide chain will undergo_______________ a) 3D secondary b) 3D tertiary structure c) Both a and b simultaneously d) Neither a nor b - The cell organelle in which protein folding takes place is_________________ a) Ribosome b) Endoplasmic reticulum c) Golgi complex d) Nucleus - The primary polypeptide chain assume secondary structure by forming bonds and interactions like_______________________ a) Hydrogen bonds b) Electrostatic interactions c) Disulfide bonds d) All of the above - The heat shock proteins first discovered by______________________________ a) Ferruccio Ritossa b) Nirenberg c) H. G. Khorana d) Temin and Mizutani - The Heat shock proteins for the first time found in _________________________ a) Apis indica b) Americana periplanata c) Drosophila d) Anopheles - After protein folding the protein will undergo biochemicalmodification to _________ a) Attain its functional form b) Degrade c) Inactivate d) None of the above - The biochemical modifications occur in protein to attain its active functional role are_ a) Proteolytic cleavage b) Amino acid modification c) Attachment of carbohydrate and addition of Prosthetic groups d) All of the above - In prokaryotes the Proteolytic cleavage is a biochemical modification of protein takes place by the removal of _________________________ a) N- formyl methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain b) Methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain c) Threonine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain d) Tyrosine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain - In Eukaryotes the Proteolytic cleavage for biochemical modification of protein include______________________ a) Removal of Methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain by hydrolysis b) Removal of N-formyl methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain by hydrolysis c) Removal of threonine from N-terminus of polypeptide chainby hydrolysis d) Removal of tyrosine from N-terminus of polypeptide chainby hydrolysis - After protein synthesis certain enzymes and proteins undergo biochemical modification of some amino acids such as_____________________ a) Phosphorylation b) Hydroxylation c) Hydrolysis d) Both a and b - The amino acid modification by Phosphorylation is the__________________ a) Reversible process b) Addition of Phosphate group c) Post translational modification d) All of the above - In the post translational modification, Phosphorylation of amino acid is catalyzed by__ a) Protein phosphatase b) Protein Synthetase c) Protein kinase d) Polymerase - In case of post translational modification certain amino acids undergo Hydroxylation process is catalyzed by_________________ a) 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase b) 2-oxoglutarate-dependent deoxygenase c) 3-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase d) 3-oxoglutarate-dependent deoxygenase - The glycoproteins are ____________________ covalently bonded to the proteins a) Lipid molecule b) Carbohydrate molecule c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The glycoprotein formation in the course of biochemical modification of protein provide_____________________________ a) Blood clotting b) Cell-cell recognition c) Immunological support d) All of the above - Many enzymes are modified and become more efficient by the addition of prosthetic groups such as ___________________ a) Biotin b) Heme c) Pantothenic Acid d) All of the above - The gene regulation include activation and inactivation of certain genes as per the requirement is also known as______________________ a) Differential gene action b) Gene expression c) Gene therapy d) None of the above - The mechanism of enzyme induction and repression at first was put forth in 1961, by________ a) Jacob and Monod b) Baltimore c) Epstein and Beckwith d) Britten and Davidson - The operon model consist of categories of genes such as __________________________ a) Regulator, Promoter, Operator and structural genes b) Repressors, corepresor and inducer c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The structural genes are _____________ a) The coded nucleotide sequence b) Coded for proteins, c) Coded for rRNA and tRNA d) All of the above - The operator is a short sequence that binds to the repressor, which prevent_____ a) Termination of transcription b) Initiation of transcription c) Elongation of translation d) None of the above - The R-I complex is the combination of _________________ a) Regulator plus inactive repressor b) Repressor inducer complex c) Both a and b d) None of the above - The operon model framed by_____________ a) Jacob and Monod b) Baltimore c) Epstein and Beckwith d) Britten and Davidson - The lacZ genein E. coli is coded for an enzyme_____________ a) β-galactosidase b) β-galactoside permease c) β-galactoside transacetylase d) 2-oxoglutarate-dependent deoxygenase - The lac promoter ha regions which are _____________________________ a) Dynamic b) Polyhydric c) Palindromic d) Symmetrical - In case of Eukaryotes Gene expression is controlled by_____________________ a) Regulatory proteins b) Histones c) DNA control system d) All of the above - The Britten-Davidson model of gene regulation is also known as____________ a) Gene therapy b) Gene battery c) Gene cloning d) Gene mapping - The Britten-Davidson model has some regulatory sequences such as ___________ a) Producer and lategrator genes b) Receptor site c) Sensor site d) All of the above - In case of Eukaryotes, the gene regulation at genomic level is through Gene _______________ a) Loss b) Amplification c) Rearrangement d) All of the above - During Gene regulation the transcriptional control is at_____________________ a) Chromosomal level b) Gene level c) Both a and b d) None of the above - In post transcriptional control of gene regulation include the regulatory actions like a) Choice of splice site and b) Choice of poly(A) site. c) Both a and b d) None of the above Answer Key: - Multiple Choice Questions 1.(c) Both a and b, 2.(d) All of the above, 3.(c) Both a and b, 4.(a) DNA TranscriptionmRNA Translation Protein, 5.(a) mRNA, 6.(c) Polypeptide chain, 7.(b) Genetic Code, 8.(b) Triplet, 9.(d) 150, 10.(d) both a and b, 11.(a) George Gamow, 12.(d) All of the above, 13.(a) Non-overlapping, 14.(d) All of the above, 15.(a) UGA, 16.(a) Isoleucine, Methionine, 17.(a) More than one amino acids coded by similar triplet codon, 18.(a) Isoleucine, Leucine or Serine, 19.(c) Third position, 20.(d) Both b and c, 21.(b) Inosine, 22.(d) All of the above, 23.(c) AUG, 24.(a) N-formyl methionine, 25.(c) Nirenberg and Matthaei, 26.(d) All of the above, 27.(c) Carboxyl group of one and amino group of other amino acid, 28.(c) Both a and b, 29.(d) All of the above, 30.(a) Two α, one β, one β’, one ω and a σ factor, 31.(c) Both a and b, 32.(d) All of the above, 33.(d) All of the above, 34.(a) One or two bases long, 35.(b) Local unwinding of double helix and small segment of DNA double helix opens up, 36.(c) i-iii-ii-iv-v, 37.(b) Transcription, 38.(b) Purine, 39.(a) Ribonucleoside triphosphate, 40.(c) Replicase, 41.(d) All of the above, 42.(b) Reverse transcriptase, 43.(d) All of the above, 44.(c) II – I – III – VI - V – IV, 45.(a) 20%, 46.(d) All of the above, 47.(c) Splicing, 48.(d) all of the above, 49.(a) Adenylate residue at the 3’ end, 50.(d) All of the above, 51.(a) The formation of cap at 5’ end by guanylate residue condensation, 52.(c) Methylation, 53.(b) I – II – III – IV – V, 54.(d) All of the above, 55.(c) Heat shock proteins, 56.(b) Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, 57.(c) Aminoacyl adenylate synthetase, 58.(c) High energy ester bond in between amino acid and tRNA, 59.(a) Carboxyl group of amino acid and 3’ hydroxyl group of tRNA, 60.(b) IF 1, IF2 and IF 3, 61.(c) IF3, 62.(d) All of the above, 63.(b) Elongation Factors, 64.(a) 50S and 30S, 65.(c) Translocation of the mRNA, 66.(c) Both a and b, 67.(d) All of the above, 68.(a) tRNA, 69.(d) Both b and c, 70.(a) Simultaneous movement of tRNA and mRNA on the ribosome from codon to codon, 71.(c) Both a and b, 72.(b) Translocase, 73.(c) EF-G, 74.(a) E site, 75.(a) Termination codon of mRNA, 76.(a) RF-1, 77.(a) Hydrolysis of polypeptide chain at the P site of ribosome, 78.(d) All of the above, 79.(d) All of the above, 80.(c) Both a and b simultaneously, 81.(b) Endoplasmic reticulum, 82.(d) All of the above, 83.(a) Ferruccio Ritossa, 84.(c) Drosophila, 85.(a) Attain its functional form, 86.(d) All of the above, 87.(a) N- formyl methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain, 88.(a) Removal of Methionine from N-terminus of polypeptide chain by hydrolysis, 89.(d) Both a and b, 90.(b) Addition of Phosphate group, 91.(c) Protein kinase, 92.(a) 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase, 93.(b) Carbohydrate molecule, 94.(d) All of the above, 95.(d) All of the above, 96.(a) Differential gene action, 97.(a) Jacob and Monod, 98.(c) Both a and b, 99.(d) All of the above, 100.(b) Initiation of transcription, 101.(b) Repressor inducer complex, 102.(a) Jacob and Monod, 103.(a) β-galactosidase, 104.(c) Palindromic, 105.(d) All of the above, 106.(b) Gene battery, 107.(d) All of the above, 108.(d) All of the above, 109.(c) Both a and b, 110.(c) Both a and b. - Fill in the Blanks - The polypeptide chain of _____________is translated from mRNA - Post transcription specific sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA gives rise to ________________ strand of mRNA. - The sequence of ___________ in DNA or RNA, which determines the amino acid sequence in polypeptide chain, is known as Genetic code. - A Specific amino acid coded by three adjacent nucleotide bases in mRNA is known as _______________. - __________ Amino acids are naturally occurring, while 20 Amino acids are coded with 61 codons. - Total _______ combinations of triplet codons made from 4 nitrogenous bases. - Out of 64 amino acids 3 codons do not read by tRNA but read by release factors, known as ______________. - First time _______________________ coined the term Triplet codon. - The genetic code is similar in all organisms except mitochondrial mRNA that’s why it is called as ______________________. - Exception to the universal code in some ciliated protozoa UAA and UAG codes _______________ and do not codes stop codon. - In the sensitive E. coli strain streptomycin __________ codes for phenylalanine but also codes Isoleucine, Leucine or serine while it treated with ribosome. - ____________________________ states that, ‘the number of tRNA found are less than 61, which means multiple mRNA codons read by anticodon of a one tRNA.’ - The pairing of tRNA anticodon and Triplet codon of mRNA at its third position is_______________ that is wobbles position. - The start codon AUG codes for amino acid ________________in eukaryotes - Nirenberg and Matthaei deciphered first artificial codon UUU from synthetic mRNA introduction to E. coli. Which code amino acid _________________. - The process of protein synthesis requires _________________ as Machinery. - The termination of RNA synthesis takes place by binding of RNA polymerase to ______ Protein. - The complete genetic code is unfolded by __________________________ , they follows series of experiments for this. - _____________ is a RNA dependent RNA polymerase. - The RNA viruses can transcribe DNA from RNA template, because they contain a special enzyme___________________. - The synthesis of DNA template from RNA by reverse transcription in _______direction. - Reverse transcriptase degrades ____________ from DNA/RNA hybrid. - hnRNA containing long and various nucleotide sequence is made by an enzyme_____________________ - After processing hnRNA become __________________________________. - The nonfunctional introns are erased and functional exons ligated to form functional mRNA is the process of ________________ - By different _______________ Mechanism single hnRNA could processed to various mRNAs - The addition of adenylate residues at ____ end of pre mRNA is called Polyadenylation process - The molecular chaperon belongs to _____________________ families of heat shock proteins. - Hsp6o is also known as ___________________. - Inhibition of expression of certain genes by some RNA molecules is called as post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) or _____________________. - FILL IN THE BLANKS 1) Amino acids; 2) Complementary; 3) Nucleotide; 4) Triplet Codon; 5) 150; 6) 64;7) Stop or Termination codon; 8)George Gamow; 9) Universal Code; 10) Glutamicacid; 11) UUU; 12) Wobble hypothesis; 13) not specific; 14) Methionine;15)Phenylalanine; 16) Ribosome; 17) rho; 18) Nirenberg, Matthaei and Khorana;19) Replicase; 20) Reverse transcriptase; 21) 5’ to 3’; 22) RNA strand; 23) RNA Polymerase II; 24) Cytoplasmic mRNA; 25) Splicing; 26) Looping; 27) 3’ OH; 28) Hsp60 and Hsp70; 29) Chaperonin; 30) RNAi. - True or False - After transcription of DNA thymine gets replaced with uracil on mRNA. - True - False - Uracil is one of the nitrogenous base of DNA molecule - True - False - The Genetic code is the specific sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA or RNA and it decides the amino acid sequence of polypeptide chain. - True - False - The Triplet codon is a specific sequence of nitrogenous bases on mRNA which codes a specific amino acid in a protein. - True - False - There are total 64 codons out of which 61 are coded for 20 Amino acids. - True - False - Initiation codon is also called as stop codon. - True - False - Stop codon is also known as termination codon as they do not specify any tRNA. - True - False - Singlet or doublet code also specifies 20 amino acids like triplet code does. - True - False - The Genetic code is different in different species except mitochondrial mRNA. - True - False - The mRNA triplet codon at its first two have strong pairing with anticodon of tRNA - True - False - Due to wobble position Inosine pair with 3 codons having A, C and U at third position. a) True b) False - The anticodon of tRNA is the sequence of three nucleotides which is complementary to the corresponding mRNA codon a) True b) False - In case of bacteria if AUG deleted by mutation the GUG acts as start codon. a) True b) False - Proteins are polymers of amino acids. a) True b) False - During protein synthesis GTP used as an energy and ATP used to form peptide bond in between two adjacent amino acids a) True b) False - The σ factor helps to identify start signal on DNA and leads RNA polymerase on promoter Site. a) True b) False - Lac operon is the inducible operon a) True b) False - During protein synthesis an enzyme Translocase required for chain elongation a) True b) False - The enzyme Peptidyl transeferase helps RF1 to release polypeptide from P site. a) True b) False - Temin, Baltimore and Mizutani discovered the mechanism of reverse transcription in 1970. a) True b) False - The regulator genes produces the repressor proteins a) True b) False - The signals that stops RNA synthesis are terminator a) True b) False - CAP stands forCatabolite activator protein a) True b) False - Inducer and repressor works vice versa during enzyme synthesis a) True b) False - The Aporepressor are active repressors that inactivated by binding with copressor a) True b) False - The enzyme β-galactosidase hydrolyses lactose to yield glucose and galactose. a) True b) False - The transcription of LacI gene leads to mRNA that translated to the protein lac Promoter - True - False - β-galactoside permease is a protein is essential for the active transport oflactose into the bacterial cell. a) True b) False - The enzymes β-galactoside transacetylase is dimer which can transfer an acetyl group from acetyl-COA to some P-galactosides to form an acetylthiogalactoside. a) True b) False - lacO1, lacO2 and lacO3 are the operators of lac operon. a) True b) False - True or False - True; 2) False; 3) True; 4) True; 5) True; 6) False; 7) True; 8) False; 9) False; 10) True; 11)True; 12) True; 13) True; 14) True; 15) False; 16) True; 17) True;18) True; 19) True; 20) True;21) True; 22) True; 23) True; 24) True;25) False; 26) True; 27) False; 28) True; 29) True; 30) True - Answer in one sentence - How many nitrogenous bases are the key constituents of DNA molecule? - Name the intermediate convener in the process of formation of polypeptide chain? - The nucleotide sequence in DNA transcript to which sequence of mRNA? - What does it termed as, “a specific amino acid is coded by three adjacent nucleotide sequences in mRNA”? - How many codons are there to code 20 Amino acids? - How many amino acids would specify by singlet and doublet code respectively? - Define polarity in the sense of features of Genetic code? - Define Ambiguous nature of genetic code? - Define degeneracy of genetic code? - List the amino acids each of theseis coded by 6 triplet codons? - What is co-linearity of genetic code? - Start codon GUG in bacteria codes for which amino acid? - Who synthesized mRNA with known nucleotide repeated sequence? - What is sense strand? - Which metals are effective in transcription during protein synthesis? - Who constitutes holoenzyme? - How does it effect when RNA polymerase binds to DNA? - What is the end product of the reaction of Activated ribonucleoside triphosphate and DNA template? - In which direction the Chain elongation takes place during synthesis of mRNA? - How does mRNA synthesis terminated? - Define the term Replicase. - Where does reverse transcription occurs? - What is reverse transcription? - Who got Nobel prize for the discovery of Genetic code? - Who functions as repressor in operon concept? - Which activity of reverse transcriptase can copy DNA and also RNA? - What is Proviral DNA or Provirus? - What is hnRNA? - How does hnRNA processed? - What is Hsp60? - What is the function of Hsp60? - Which type of amino acids participates in protein synthesis? - Name the first event of translation during protein synthesis? - What is the product of reaction of amino acyl adenylate and tRNA? - Where the initiation factors IF1, IF2 and IF3 were found? - What is the function of IF1and IF2? - What is N-formyl methionine? - What is the first step of protein synthesis? - Name the three steps of translation? - Name the elongation factors that involved in elongation of polypeptide chain during translation? - What is the process of elongation during translation? - What is the reason of binding of f-met-tRNA to P site of ribosome? - Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of peptide bond formation during elongation process of translocation? - What is Aminoacyl tRNA? - What is nonsense codon? - How does termination codon works? - How molecular chaperon does help to maintain protein folding? - Define the term gene regulation? - What is operon model? - How does promoter works? - Answers of one Answer sentence - Four nitrogenous bases are the key constituents of DNA molecule. - The mRNA is intermediate convener in the process of formation of polypeptide chain. - The nucleotide sequence in DNA transcript to Complementary sequence of mRNA. - A specific amino acid is coded by three adjacent nucleotide sequences in mRNA, is termed as Triplet Codon. - Total 61 codons are there to code 20 Amino acids. - About 4 and 16 amino acids would specify by singlet and doublet code respectively. - Polarity is the feature of Genetic code because it read in a fixed direction that is 5’ to 3’. - The Ambiguous nature of Genetic code is defined as “More than one amino acids coded by similar triplet codon”. - The degeneracy of genetic code is defined as “one Amino acid is code by multiple triplet codons, so codons may be replaced for the same amino acid.” - Leucine, Arginine and Serine each of these amino acids is coded by 6 triplet codons. - The same order and arrangement of codon in DNA, mRNA and subsequent polypeptidechain is termed as Colinearity of genetic code. - Start codon GUG in bacteria codes for Valine. - Dr. H. G. Khorana synthesized mRNA with known nucleotide repeated sequence - One DNA strand of two that transcribed to mRNA is Sense strand. - Divalent metals like Mn ++ / Mg ++ are effective in transcription during protein synthesis. - Core enzyme and σ factor constitutes holoenzyme. - The double helix DNA unwinds at that local site where RNA polymerase binds to DNA. - RNA polymer, DNA template and 4n ppi is the end product of the reaction of Activated ribonucleoside triphosphate and DNA template - TheChain elongation during synthesis of mRNA takes place in 5’ to 3’ direction. - mRNA synthesis is terminated when RNA polymerase read Poly A sequence on DNA template which transcribed to terminal poly U sequence. - The synthesis of complementary RNA from RNA template by reverse transcription is catalyzed by an enzyme called Replicase - Reverse transcription occurs in RNA viruses or RNA retroviruses. - Reverse transcription is the process of DNA synthesis by copying nucleotide sequence from RNA templates. - Nirenberg and H. G. Khorana got Nobel prize for the discovery of Genetic code. - Regulator gene functions as repressor in operon concept. - RNAse activity of reverse transcriptase can copy DNA and also RNA. - At the end of reverse transcription synthesized dsDNA get inserted into host chromosome is known as Proviral DNA or Provirus. - hnRNA is the heterogeneous nuclear RNA or Pre mRNA of long polypeptide chain. - While processing Noncoded region removed and coded regions joined to make RNA more effective in function. - The Hsp60 is a family of chaperons, also called as chaperonin. - The function of Hsp60 is to prevent protein misfolding and guide proper protein folding. - Only L (left handed) type of amino acids participates in protein synthesis. - Activation of amino acid is the first event of translation during protein synthesis. - The product of reaction of amino acyl adenylate and tRNA is amino acid tRNA complex, AMP and amino acyl tRNA synthetase. - The initiation factors IF1, IF2 and IF3 were found in 30S subunit of ribosome. - IF1 and IF2 paly important role in binding of initiation of tRNA to the 30S ribosomal subunit. - Methionine present in prokaryotes, carries a formyl group at its amino group called N- formyl methionine. - The first step of protein synthesis is the 30S initiation complex formation. - Initiation, elongation and termination are the 3 steps of translation. - EF-Tu, EF-Ts and EF-G are the elongation factors that involved in elongation of polypeptide chain during translation. - The process of elongation during translation is the addition of amino acids to polypeptide chain. - The f-met-tRNA binds to the P site of ribosome because already amino acyl tRNA binds to A site - The enzyme Peptidyl transeferase catalyze the reaction of peptide bond formation during elongation process of translocation. - The Aminoacyl tRNA is acharged tRNA who deliver amino acids to ribosome for polypeptide chain elongation. - Nonsense codon is the termination codon as there is no binding of tRNA. - The termination codon deliver signal to the ribosome for attachment of release factor - The molecular chaperons help to maintain protein folding byProtection and stabilization of tertiary intermediates. - The gene regulation is the process of controlling gene expression by switching them ‘on’ or ‘off’ as per requirement of the metabolism. - The operon model is the mechanism of gene regulation which comprises activation and inactivation of certain genes as per requirement. - Promoters are the indicators while RNA synthesis, plays important role in binding RNA polymerase to start transcription. - Terminologies - Ambiguous codon: The multiple amino acids coding triplet code - amino acyl-tRNA synthetase: also known as tRNA-ligase, is an enzyme that attaches the proper amino acid onto its conforming tRNA. - AMP: Adenosine Mono-Phosphate, elementof RNA and ATP - Anticodon: A trinucleotide sequence on tRNA binds to complementary sequence of mRNA. - Aporepressor: inhibit transcription of certain enzymes by binding with its particular corepresor - Attenuation: It is a mechanism of gene regulation in bacteria which confirm appropriate translation and transcription. - CAP site: The site of Catabolite activator protein, where Transcription starts. - Capping: It is a process, in which exons are merged by elimination of intermediate introns. - Central dogma: Is the mechanism of transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to functional polypeptide chain. - Colinearity: means the similar order of sequences in all DNA, mRNA and polypeptide chain while protein synthesis. - Copolymers: Is the polymer, than consists of more than one discrete repeating units of monomers - Core enzyme: The Subunit that needed for the catalytic activity of an enzyme. - Corepresor: gene expression inhibiting molecules, which bind to promoter, block it and inhibit transcription process. - Davidson model: Is the model of gene regulation in Eukaryotes - Degenerate code: One amino acid is coded with multiple codons. - Elongation factors: polypeptide chain elongation promoting proteins. - Endonuclease: An enzyme which breaks phosphodiester bond in nucleotide sequence of DNA - Essential amino acid: This is not produced in the body but supplied by food source. - Gene battery: a model of gene regulation. - Gene expression: the mechanism of reading genetic code and production of certain products by the cell is called as gene expression. - Gene Regulation: the process of switching gene on or off as requirement is known as gene regulation. - Gene silencing: the mechanism to turn off certain gene is called as gene silencing. - Genetic code: Are the different combinations of four base pairs that coded for 20 amino acids - Guanosine triphosphate: is a purine nucleoside triphosphate takes part in transcription. - Heat shock proteins: during stressful condition cell produce certain proteins are called heat shock protein. - hnRNA: Is a Pre mature mRNA - Inducer: Is the gene which induces transcription by inactivation of repressor. - Initiation codon: Is the first codon of initiation complex which binds to activators and inhibits repressor to control gene regulation. - Inosine: Is a modification in RNA made by certain Enzymes resulting in variety of transcriptome. - Integrator gene:Group of genes which are activated by extracellular stimuli. - Lac operon: Genes coded for the protein that takes part in lactose transport and metabolism into the cytosol. - Leader sequence: Is the sequence of nucleotide which is placed in between promoter and coding region takes part in gene regulation. - Methylation: Is the addition of methyl group at the place of hydrogen atom. - Molecular Chaperons: are the proteins that serves in proper protein folding - Nonsense codon: The triplet codon in mRNA, with no normal tRNA and signals termination of translation. - Operator gene: The gene coded for the beginning of transcription of DNA to mRNA. - Palindromic: Is the similar sequence of nucleotide on both complementary strands of dsDNAOr RNA. - Peptidyl transeferase: the enzyme takes part in addition of amino acid residues in Polypeptide chain during protein synthesis - Photopolymers: class of resins that are light sensitive. - Polyadenylation: Is a modification of pre mRNA by addition of Poly(A) at the end. - Polypeptide chain: Long Chain of amino acids that are covalently bonded to each other by peptide bond - Prosthetic Groups: Are the non-amino acid molecules that associated with proteins to alter biological functions of proteins. - Protein folding: Is the 3D arrangement of protein for the improvement of its functional role. - Proteolytic Cleavage: Is the process to cleave peptide bonds in between amino acids - Release factor: Is a protein which identifies termination codon to stop translation. - Reverse transcription: Is the synthesis of DNA molecule from RNA template - Rho factor: Is a protein that facilitate termination of transcription at different sites - Riboswitches: Are elements that directly bind to specific ligands to regulate gene expression for gene regulation. - RNA Interference: The process of suppression of gene expression by RNA. - RNA polymerase: Is an enzyme catalyzes the transcription of DNA to mRNA. - Sense strand: Is the single strand of DNA which can be transcribed to mRNA - Sigma factor: Is a component of RNA polymerase enzyme which helps to recognize and binds to initiation site for RNA synthesis - Splicing: Is the process of deletion of noncoded sequence and joining of coded sequences. - Stop codon: Is the triplet codonin mRNA and codes for the termination of protein synthesis - TATA boxes: Is the genetic sequence reading and decoding region of DNA is called as TATA boxes - Termination codon: the triplet codon that code termination of Polypeptide chain in protein synthesis - Transcription: During protein synthesis DNA template transcribed to mRNA template is called Transcription - Translation: The transcribed mRNA strand is converted to polypeptide chain is called translation - Translocation: In this process the part of a chromosome is transmitted at another chromosome - Triplet codon: The set of three adjacent nucleotide sequence on mRNA and polypeptide chain is a triplet codon - Universal code: The set if three codons codes 20 amino acids which is common for all organisms except only some cases is Universal code - Wobble pairing:Is the pairing of codon at its third position to tRNA, with variable combinations. Unit IV Mutation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- A. Multiple Choice Questions Q.1) Mutation occurs by any physical and chemical change in the organization of genes at molecular level is a type of mutation a) Point mutation b) Induced mutation c) Chromosomal mutation d) Somatic mutation Q.2) About mutation which of the following statement is INCORRECT a) Major source of evaluation b) usually deleterious and recessive c) Mutation is predestined d) It is a reversible process Q.3) Which of the following is NOT a type of reverse mutation? a) Back mutation b) Intergenic suppressor mutation c) Intragenic suppressor mutation d) Missense mutation Q.4) Which of the following is NOT true for loss of function mutation? a) Usually recessive b) Most common mutation c) Increases the activity of the gene d) Null allelic mutation Q.5) Which of the following chemical mutagen affects only replicating DNA? a) Acridine dye b) Alkylating agent c) Deaminating agent d) Base analog Q.6) Addition or deletion of bases causes which kind of mutation? a) Transversion b) Frameshift mutation c) Transition d) Transcription Q.7) Name the type of mutation in which the cause of mutation is not known? a) Spontaneous mutation b) Suppressor mutation c) Nonsense mutation d) Mis-sense mutation Q.8) What is the detection technique of auxotroph’s? a) Spread plating b) Replica plating c) Streaking d) Pouring Q.9) Name the term given to the type of mutation, which depends on the conditions of the environment? a) Forward mutation b) Reverse mutation c) Conditional lethal mutation d) Gain of function mutation Q.10)Chromosome 21 trisomy results in a) Down’s syndrome b) Turner’s syndrome c) Klinfilter syndrome d) none of the above Q.11) Mutagenic agent caused which type of mutation a) Frameshift Mutation b)Induced Mutation c)Spontaneous mutation d) none of these Q.12) one extra chromosome in diploid are called as a)Trisomics b) Tetrasomics c) Double trisomics d)double tetrasomics Q.13) the condition when single chromosome is loss are called as a)Nullisomy b)Haploidy c) monosomy d)Trisomy Q.14) The phenomenon in which the chromosome number get varied are called a) Diploidy b) Euploidy c) Aneuploidy d) Heteroploidy Q.15 )Trisomy expressed as a) 2n+1 b) 2n-1 c) 2n+2 d) 2n-2 Q.16)Mutation occurring in gametic cell are called as a) Induced mutation b) Somatic mutation c) Gametic mutation d) Chromosomal muatation Q.17) The ability of a molecule to exist in more than one chemical form is called as a) Tautomerism b) Ionisation c) Translocation d) Transformation Q.18) Addition of a part of chromosome is called a) Deletion b) Inversion c) Duplication d) Translocation Q.19) Loss of broken part of chromosome is called a) Deletion b) Inversion c) Duplication d) translocation Q.20) when one chromosome of the diploid organism is present four times, then resulted a) Trisomy b) Tetrasomy c) Monosomy d) None of the above Q.21) the mutation occurs under natural condition are called as a) Induced mutation b) Spontaneous mutation c) Chromosomal mutation d) Somatic mutation Q.22) which of the following is not physical agent a) X-ray b) UV rays c) Nitrous acid d) Beta rays Q.23) Which of the following is not chemical agent? a) Nitrous acid b) maleic hydrazide c) ethyl methane sulphate d) UV rays Q.24) Point mutation is a) Addition b) Deletion c) Change in single base pair d) Duplication Q.25) Gene mutation take place at the time of a) Cell division b) DNA repairs c)RNA transcription d) DNA replication Q.26) Mutation in X-rays causes due to a) Transition b) Translation c) Deletion d) Base substitution Q.27) From the following which is NOT ionising radiation a)Gamma rays b) X-rays c) cosmic rays d) UV rays Q.28) Trisomy in 18th chromosome cases which syndrome a) Down’s syndrome b) Edward’s syndrome c) Patau’s syndrome d) none of the above Q.29) Trisomy in 13th chrome lead to syndrome a) Down’s syndrome b) Edward’s syndrome c) Patau’s syndrome d) none of the above Q.30 ) Gene Amplification is the technique done by a) PCR b) Western blotting c) southern blotting d) none of the above. Q.31) Western Blotting Technique isused for detection of a) RNA in sample b) DNA in sample c) Protein in sample d) lipid in sample Q.32) For DNA fingerprinting which technique is used a) Northern Blotting b) Western blotting c) southern blotting d) eastern Blotting Q.33) For the identifying m-RNA from the sample which technique is suitable? a) Northern Blotting b) Western blotting c) Southern blotting d) Eastern Blotting Q.34) In the southern blotting technique genome is used to identify a) RNA sequence b) DNA fragment c) sequences d) Number of sequences Q.35) Application of southern blotting technique is a) preparation of RFLP mapsb) DNA fingerprintingc) Identification of transferred genes d) all of these Q.36) The change in the genome involving chromosome parts, whole chromosome or whole chromosome set are called as a) Frameshift mutation b) Gametic mutation c) Chromosomal mutation d) Induced mutation Q.37) Deletion of part of short arm of one X- chromosome produces a) Cri-du-chat syndrome b) Turner’s syndrome c) Down’s syndrome d) Patau’s syndrome Q.38) From the following which is the example of deletion of chromosome a) Down’s syndrome b) Turner’s syndrome c) Edward’s syndrome d) none of the above Q.39 ) From the given which od the DNA repair mechanism is called as “cut and patch” mechanism? a)base excision method b) photo reactivation c) nucleotide excision repair d) Mismatch repair Q.40) In the mismatch repair mechanism, nascent DNA strand cut by the endonuclease activity done by a) Mut H b) Mut S c) Mut L d) Uvrd Q.41) Double strand break repair is also called as recombinational repair system because a) Both strand act as templateb) Both strands are brokenc) One strand is broken d) No strand is broken Q.42) What is excision repair? a) Repair of a single damaged nucleotideb) Removal of a damaged oligonucleotide c) Repair of a damaged oligonucleotide d) Removal of a single damaged nucleotide Q.43) Which mutation are included from outcome of point mutation? a)Nonsense mutation b) missense mutation c) silent mutation d) all the above Q.44) Randommutation occurs due to a) Chemical factor b) radiation c) external factor d) all the above Q.45)From the given duplication which of them involves more than one chromosome a)Displaced b) Transposed c) Tandem duplicationd) Reverse tandem duplication Q.46) The Streisinger’s model explains__________ a) Transposition b) Frame shifts mutation c) Transitiond) Inversion Q.47) The highest number of eye facet found in a) Heterozygous Bar male Drosophila b) Homozygous bar Female c) Heterozygous Bar female Drosophilad) Ultra bar female Drosophila Q.48) Due to duplication what happens from following? a) Dominance b) Co-dominance c) Incomplete dominance d) Pleiotropy Q.49) The PCR technique was developed by (a) Kohler b) Kary Mullis c) Altman d) none of the above Q.50)The basic requirement of PCR reaction is (a) A heat-stable DNA polymerase (b) Two oligonucleotide primers (c) DNA segment to be amplified (d) All of the above Q.51) In the PCR which is the first and the most important step a) Primer extension, b) Denaturation, c) Annealing, d) None of the above Q.52)The process of binding of primer to the denatured strand called as a) Denaturation b) Annealing c) Renaturation d) None of the above Q.53) Denaturation is the process of heating between (a) 72°C (b) 40 to 60°C (c) 90 to 98°C (d) none of the above Q.54) About PCR Which of the following statements are true ? (a) Annealing involves the binding of primer between 40 to 60C°C (b) Primer extension occurs at 72°C (c) Denaturation involves heating at 90 to 98°C (d) All of the above Q.55) In PCR Polymerase used is extracted from which of following? (a) Thermus aquaticus (b) Homo sapiens (c) Escherichia coli d) none of the above Q.56) Reverse transcription PCR uses as (a) RNA as a template to form DNA (b) m-RNA as a template to form cDNA (c) DNA as a template to form sDNA (d) All of the above Q.57) In the codon, the changing one amino acid into another, then this type of mutation is called as a) Point mutation b) Missense mutation c) silent mutation d) Termination mutation Q.58) PCR technique is used for a)DNA cloning b) gene amplification c) production of probes d) all of these Q.59) For detection of point mutation which technique is suitable a)PCR b)RTPCR c) Anchored PCR d) Allele specific PCR Q.60) For the study of RNA expression level which PCR technique is developed? a) Anchored PCR b) Traditional PCR c) RT PCR d)None of the above Q.61)DNA Fingerprinting was develop by a)Khorana b) Alec Jeffery c) JamesWatson d) Francis Crick Q.62) Application of DNA fingerprinting a) Criminal identification, b) Phylogenetic study c) medical and plant science d) all of the above Q.63) The organism with more than two sets of chromosome is called as a) Haploid b) Euploid c) Polyploids d) None of the above Q.64) Addition of one more chromosome to the genome of an organism and includes trisomy and tetrasomy are called as a) Monoploidy b) Euploidy c) Hyperpoidy d) Aneuploidy Q.65) The addition or loss of one or more chromosome to complete diploid chromosome complement of organism are called as a) Monoploidy b) Euploidy c) Hyperpoidy d) Aneuploidy Q.66) aneuploidy represents a) addition of some parts of chromosome. b) deletion of some parts of chromosome c) increase in multiple sets of chromosome d) increase or decrease number of chromosome Q.67) Euploidy represents a) addition of some parts of chromosome. b) deletion of some parts of chromosome c) increase in multiple sets of chromosome d) increase or decrease number of chromosome Q.68) When one chromosome is missing then it called as a) Monosomy b) Trisomy c) Tetrasomy d) Nullisomy Q.69) When two chromosome is missing then it called as a) Monosomy b) Trisomy c) Tetrasomy d) Nullisomy Q.70) when increase in one chromosome then it called as a) Monosomy b) Trisomy c) Tetrasomy d) Nullisomy Q.71) when increase in two chromosome then it is called as a) Monosomy b) Trisomy c) Tetrasomy d) Nullisomy Q.72) Down syndrome was discovered by a) Mendel b) Langdon Downc) Edward c) Morgan Q.73) In which of the following phenomenon formation of n+1 gametes take place due to a) crossing over b) linkage c) disjunction d) non- disjunction Q.74) In which syndrome,mental retardation in child is main characteristics a) cri-du-chat syndrome b) Down syndrome c) Turner syndrome d) klinefelter syndrome Q.75) From which parents mangolian child arises a) normal women giving birth to child b) higher age women giving birth to child c) both a and b D) none of the above Q.76) In which of the syndrome, the abnormality consists of prominence of the posterior part of heel, cleft lip, deafness is a) Cri-du-chat syndrome b) Down syndrome c) klinefelter syndrome d) Patau’s syndrome Q.77) child can produce a sound resembling the mewing of cat in which which of the following syndrome a) cri-du-chat syndrome b) down syndrome c) klinefelter syndrome d) Patau’s syndrome Q.78) 24) Which of the following syndrome caused gynecomastia a) Down syndrome c) Patau’s syndrome c) Klinefelter syndrome d) cri-du-chat syndrome Q.79) Klinefelter’s syndrome is found only in a) Female b) male c) both male and female d) none Q.80) Turner syndrome is caused by a) trisomy in allosome of female b) monosomy in allosome of female c) nulliosomy in allosome of female d) tetrasomy in allosome of female Q.81) Which syndrome causes hypogonadism a) Down syndrome c) Patau’s syndrome c) Klinefelter syndrome d) Turner’s syndrome Q.82) Chromosome representation in Turner syndrome is a) (44 + XO) b) ( 44 + XX ) c) ( 44 + XXX ) d) ( 44 + XXY) Q.83)The presence of chromosome number which is multiple of the basic chromosome set is a) Euploidyb) Anneuploidy c) monosomy d) trisomy Q.84)Presence of more than two sets of chromosome, which are coming from same parents a) Euploidyb) aneuploidy c) Autopolyploidy d) polyploidy Q.85) A portion of chromosome is changes to another chromosome a) Deletion b) Translocation c) Duplication d) Reciprocal translocation Q.86) Segment from two different chromosome has been exchanged is in which type of chromosome a) Duplicationb) Deletionc) Translocationd) Reciprocal translocation Q.87) A portion of chromosome broken off and turn upside down and reattach so this is genetic material is inverted a) Inversion b) duplication c) Translocation d) Deletion Q.88) which type of Euploidy is found in wheat a) Triploidy, b) Tetraploidy c) Pentaploidy d) Hexaploidy Q.89) Turner syndrome is causes by a) Monosomy b) Trisomy c) Nulliosomy d) Tetrasomy Q.90) A portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted into another chromosome, his process of called as a) Insertion b) Inversionc) Translocationd) Reciprocal translocation Q.91 20) Cri-du-chat syndrome is caused due to a) Deletion of one arm of 5th autosome b) Deletion of one arm of 6th autosome c) Deletion of one arm of 4th autosome d) Deletion of one arm of 8th autosome Q.92) The phenomenon in which formation of n+1 gametes take place is a) Linkage b) Crossing over c) Disjunction d) Non- disjunction Q.93) Due to change in number of chromosome which chromosomal disorder is arises a) Material disorder b) Numerical disorder c) Substantive disorder d) Structural disorder Q.94 ) Due to change in structure of chromosome which chromosomal disorder is arises a) Material disorder b) Numerical disorder c) Structural disorder d) Substantive disorder Q.95) Most of the genetic disorders is caused by (a) Mutation (b) Inheritance (c) Chromosomal abnormalities (d) All of the above Q.96 ) which disease from the following called as Royal disease? a) Haemophilia b) Sickle cell anaemia c) Colour blindness d) None of the above Q.97) From the following identify the Mendelian disease? a) Down syndrome b) Phenylketonuria c) klinefelter syndrome d) Turner’s syndrome Q.98) In which condition, the somatic cell of the individual contain three sex chromosome that is XXX a) Down syndrome b) Klinefelter syndrome c)Turner’s syndrome d) super female Q.99) a condition in which man has enlarged breast, spare hairs on body with XXY sex chromosome found in which syndrome a) Down syndrome b) Klinefelter’s syndrome c) Turner’s syndrome d) super female Q.100) Down’s syndrome is caused due to a) Viral infection b) Chromosomal abnormalities c) Bacterial abnormalities d) None of the above A. Multiple Choice Questions Q.1) Point mutation 2) c) Mutation is predestined, 3 d) Missense mutation, 4c) Increases the activity of the gene, 5 d) Base analog, 6) Frameshift mutation, 7 a) Spontaneous mutation 8 b) Replica plating, 9 c) Conditional lethal mutation,10 a) Down’s syndrome, 11 b) Induced Mutation, 12 a)Trisomics,13 c) monosomy,14 c) Aneuploidy 15 a) 2n+1, 16 c) Gametic mutation, 17 a) Tautomerism, 18 c) Duplication, 19 a) deletion, 20 b) Tetrasomy, 21 b) spontaneous mutation, 22 c) Nitrous acid 23 d) UV rays, 24 c) change in single base pair, 25 d) DNA replication, 26 c) deletion, 27 d) UV rays, 28 b) Edward’s syndrome, 29c) Patau’s syndrome, 30 a) PCR 31 c) protein in sample, 32 c) southern blotting,33 a) Northern Blotting 34 d) Number of sequences, 35 d) all of these, 36 c) chromosomal mutation, 37 b) Turner’s syndrome,;38 b) Turner’s syndrome,39 c) Nucleotide excision repair 40 a) Mut H 41 b) Both strands are broken,42 d) Removal of a single damaged nucleotide,43 d) all the above 44 d) all the above, 45 b) Transposed, 46 b) Frame shifts mutation, 47 c) Heterozygous Bar female Drosophila, 48 d) Pleiotropy.; 49 b) Kary Mullis ,; 50) (d) All of the above, 51 b) Denaturation, 52 b) Annealing 53(c) 90 to 98°C, 54 (d) All of the above55 (a) Thermus aquaticus56(b) mRNA as a template to form cDNA , 57 b) Missence mutation 58 d) all of these, 59 d) Allele specific PCR60) c) RT PCR,; 61b) Alec Jeffery, 62 d) all of the above, 63 c) polyploids 64 c) Hyperpoidy 65 d) Aneuploidy 66 d) increase or decrease number of chromosome , 67 c) increase in multiple sets of chromosome 68 a) Monosomy 69 d) Nullisomy 70 b) Trisomy 71 c) Tetrasomy 72 b) Langdon Down 73 d) non- disjunction,74 b) Down syndrome, 75 b) higher age women giving birth to child 76 d) Patau’s syndrome, 77 a) cri-du-chat syndrome 78 c) klinefelter syndrome 79 b) male, 80 b) monosomy in allosome of female, 81 d) Turner’s syndrome,; 82 a) ( 44 + XO ) 83 a) euploidy 84 c) autopolyploidy, 85 b) translocation,; 86 d) reciprocal translocation87 a) Inversion, 88 d) hexaploidy.89 a) monosomy 90 a) insertion 91 a) deletion of one arm of 5th autosome , 92 d) non- disjunction 93 b) numerical disorder, 94 c) structural disorder95a) Mutation96 a) Haemophilia 97 b) Phenylketonuria, 98 d) super female,99 b) Klinefelter’s syndrome 100 b) chromosomal abnormalities. B. Fill in the blanks Q. 1) In DNA, damage and errors causes___________ a) Mutation b) DNA repair c) Translation d) Transcription Q.2) ---------------- was develop DNA fingerprinting. a) Alec Jeffery b) James Watson c) Khorana d) Francies Crick Q.3)For invention of PCR-------------got Nobel prize. a)Alec Jeffreys b) Karl B. Mullis c) Paul Berg d) H.O. Smith Q.4) Somatic mutation occurs is-------- body cells. a)reproductive b) non-reproductive c) both a and b d) none of the above Q.5) In human babies in chromosome no.5 loss of short arm produces-----------syndrome. a) Down’s syndrome b) turner’s syndrome c) Cry- du- chat d) none of the above. Q.6) The technique of------------- used to make numerous copies of specific segment of DNA quickly and accurately. a)Transcription b) translation c) PCR d ) ligase chain reaction Q.7) The technique used for DNA fingerprinting is-------------- a) Northern blotting b) western blotting c) Southern blotting d)none of the above Q.8) The diploid with one extra chromosome are called---------------- a) Trisomics b) tetrasomics c) double tetra somics d) none of the above Q.9) Monosomy is detected by------------. a) 2n+1 b) 2n-1 c) n-1 d) 2n-2 Q.10 Trisomy in 21 no. of chromosome in humans causes-------------. a) Patau’ssyndrome b) Down’s syndrome c) Turner’s syndrome d) none of the above Q.11) A point mutation that change a codon specifying an amino acid into a stop codon is called------------ a)Frameshift mutation b) missense mutation c)nonsense mutation d)deletion mutation Q,12 ) Sickle cell anaemia is caused by---------- a)Frameshift mutation b) Missense mutation c)Nonsense mutation d) Point mutation Q.13) Addition and deletion ofnucleotide to a DNA sequence occurs in ---------- a)Frameshift mutation b) Missense mutation c)Nonsense mutation d) Point mutation Q.14) Mutation occurs through mutagenic agent are---------------- mutation. a) a) Substitution mutation b) Missense mutation c)Induced mutation d) point mutation. Q.15) Extra chromosome on diploids are called --------- a) Trisomic b) Tetrasomic c) Nulliysomy d) none of the above Q.16) A chromosome pair is loses by the organism-----------. a) Trisomic b) Tetrasomic c) Nullisomy d) none of the above Q.17) Tandem duplication creates a) Buckling b) Loopingc) Hairpin d) Loop with turn Q.18) Reverse Tandem Duplication creates a) Buckling b)Loopingc) Hairpin d) Loop with turn Q.19) Polymerase chain Reaction is-----------. a) DNA repair technique, b) DNA amplification technique, c) DNA degradation technique (d) All of the above Q.20)The source of Thermus aquatics is _________. (a) Vent polymerase (b) Taq polymeras (c) Primase enzyme (d) Both a and c Q.21 ) For the process of polymerase chain reaction are primer used is ________. (a) Single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide (b) Single-stranded RNA oligonucleotide (c) Double-stranded DNA oligonucleotide (d) Double -stranded RNA oligonucleotide Q.22) Annealing of DNA and primer take place in-------------temperature. a) 74°C b) 96° c) 42°C d) 54°C Q.23) PCR uses--------------- in Reverse transcription. (a) DNA as a template to form ssDNA (b) mRNA as a template to form cDNA (c) RNA as a template to form DNA (d) All of the above 24)---------------- is not a point mutation? a) Insertion b) Substitutionc) Transpositiond) Transversion Q.25) Insertion of 3 bases have minimum effect in--------------mutation a) point mutation b) chromosomal mutation c) Induced mutation d) Frame shift Mutation Q.26) Wooble base recognition of the tRNAs in translation ignores--------the mutation? a) Silent b) Frame shift c) Sense d) Neutral Q.27) In genome total number of transition take place is--------. a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d)8 Q.28) Sense mutation result into ---------- a) Down’s syndromeb) Sickle cell anaemia c) Thalassemiad) Patau’s syndromes Q.29) An organism that has lost a chromosome pair are------------. a) Monosomic b) Trisomic c) Nullisomic d) none of the above. Q.30) Dipoid cell is treated with colchicine then it becomes----------- a) Diploid b) Monoploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid Answers B. Fill in the blanks Q.1 a) Mutation,2b) Alec Jeffery, 3 b) Karl B. Mullis, 4b) non-reproductive, 5 c) Cry- du- chat, 6 c) PCR, 7 c) Southern blotting, 8 a) Trisomics, 9 b) 2n-1, 10 b) Down’s syndrome , 11 c)nonsense mutation 12 d) point muatation Q.13 a)Frameshift mutation,;Q.14 c)Induced mutation Q.15 a) Trisomic, 16 c) nullisomy , 17 a) Buckling, 18 c) Hairpin, 19 b) DNA amplification technique 20 (b) Taq polymeras, 21(a) Single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide 22)d) 54°C, 23 (b) mRNA as a template to form cDNA,; 24 c) Transposition, 25 d) Frame shift Mutation 26 a) Silent, 27 b) 4, 28 c) Thalassemia, 29 c) Nullosomic, 30 d) tetraploid . C. True and False Q.1.) All types of mutations are transferable among generations. a) True b) False Q.2) X-rays are physical mutagen a) True b) false Q.3) Ethyleneimine are Not chemical mutagen. a) true b) false Q. 4)The process of sudden change in the genetic material of an individual is called a mutation a) true b) false Q.5) Within the genome mutation occurs at random basis. a) true b) false Q. 6 By the mutation repair system detection of mismatches and fidelity of replication is maintained a) True b) False Q.7) Mutations in both somatic and germ cells can be catastrophic. a) True b) False Q.8) Mutation is the main cause of diversity among organism. a) True b) false Q.9) Germ line mutations occur in the eggs and sperm and can be passed on to offspring. a) True b) False Q.10) Trisomy of 21th chromosome leads to Down syndrome. a) True b) False Q.11) Mutation caused by ionising radiation and non-ionising radiation are called as chemical mutation. a) True b) False Q.12) To normalize western blot data housekeeping protein is used. a) True b) false Q.13) To get quantitative western blotting data we must use fluorescent- lable antibodies. a) True b) False Q.14) Northern blotting technique is a variant of Southern blotting technique. a) True b) False Q.15) Ligands are used to facilitate protein-ligand interactions in the blotting technique. a) True b) False Q.16) Lectine are antibodies, which is used to identifyGlycoprotein. a)True b) False Q.17) PCR technique NOT used for DNA cloning. a) True b) False Q.18) Polypoide species formed by multiplication of chromosome sets of hybrid of two or more different genera ,species arecalled as Allopolyploidy. a) True b) False Q.19) Mutation occurs due to exposer of organism to mutagenic agent are called as Induced mutation. a) True b) False Q.20) In man deletion of 5th chromosome results in klinfelters syndrome. a) True b) False C. Answers of true and false questions 1 a) false, 2 a) True 3 b) false , 4 a) true 5 b) false, 6 a) True, 7 a) True, 8 a) True, 9 a) True, 10 a) True , 11 b) false, 12) b false 13b) False, 14 a) True, 15 a) True, 16a)True , 17 b) False, 18 a) True 19 a) True, 20 b) False D. Answers in one sentence Q.1) What is probe? Q.2)which filter paper is used for Northern blotting Technique Q.3) How many types of excision repair systems are known Q.4) How many DNA duplexes are obtained from one DNA duplex after 4 cycles of PCR Q.5) What is deletion? Q.6) what is Duplicaion? Q.7) What is trisomy? Q.8) What is Tetrasomy? Q.9) What is DNA fingerprinting? Q.10) What is blotting Technique? Q.11) What is polymerase chain Reaction? Q.12) What is Tandom Duplication? Q.13) What is Transposed Duplication? Q.14) what the four types of chromosomal Mutation? Q.15) Give any two significance of Inversion. Q.16) Give examples of physical mutagen. Q.17) Give example of chemical mutagen. Q.18) In Patau’s syndrome trisomy found in which chromosome number? Q.19) What are the types of Translocation? Q.20) what are the significance of Duplication? Q.21) Give types of polyploidy. Q.22) which technique used for DNA fingerprinting? Q.23) Give example of natural base analogs. Q.24) Give example of Artificial base analogs. Q.25) What is mean by Terminal mutation? Q.26) What is Interstitial Deletion? Q.27) Deficiency in short arm of human chromosome V result in which syndrome? Q.28) what is mean by Pericentric Inversion? Q.29) Shift translocation means? Q.30) Reciprocal Translocation means. q.31)What is mean by simple translocation? Q.32) Monoploidy means. Q.33)What is the use of Haploidy? Q.34) Annealing means? Q.35)What is Minisatellite? Q.36) What is mean by Mutation? Q.37)What is mean by GENE Amplification? Q.38) what is DNA repair? Q.39) What is Northern botting Tecqnique? Q.40)what is southern blotting Technique? Q.41)What are the four chromosomal abnormalities? Q.42 ) Why structural chromosomal abnormalities occurs? Q.43) Mental retardation stage found in child due to which syndrome? Q.44) How chromosome represent in klinfelter syndrome? Q.45) Number of chromosomefound in child with Down syndrome is? q.46 ) Down syndrome is caused due to? Q.47)Which is the DNA repair mechanism is called as ‘ cut and Patch ‘ mechanism? Q.48)Which enzyme is involve in base excision repair? Q.49)In which repair mechanism will remove uracil and add correct base? Q.50) In what type of mutation an alternation in a nucleotide sequence that changes a triplet coding for an amino acid into a termination codon ? D. Answers of one sentence (ANSWERS) 1) Short piece of labelled DNA 2) Aminobenzyl-oxymethyl filter paper, 3) Two type 4) 16 5) Loss of broken part of chromosome is called deletion. 6) Addition of a part of chromosome is called Duplication. 7) The diploid organism which have one extra chromosome are called trisomy. 8)When one chromosome of the diploid organism is present four times,it result into tetrasomy. (2n+2) 9)DNA fingerprinting is the method of isolating and making image of sequence of DNA. 10) Technique is used to detect desired m-RNA or DNA or proteins from cells by blotting on nitrocellulose filter membrane. 11)PCR is a scientific technique in molecular biology used to generate billions of copies of particular DNA in short time or it also in vitro technique of gene amplification. 12) Duplication in which added segment has the same genetic sequence as in present in the original state of chromosome, however the added segment lies next to the original segment. 13) In this type of duplication the portion of chromosome becomes attached to some non-homologous chromosome. 14) There are four different types of chromosomal mutations: Deletions, Translocations, Duplications and Inversions 15) a) Inversion help in establishing species relation of Drosophila b) It help in origin of new species. 16) X-rays, gamma rays, Beta rays , neutrons and UV radiation. 17) Ethyleneimine, nitogen mustard sulpharmustard, dimethylnitrosamine Nitrosoguanidine, Metyl meathane sulphonate, hydrazine etc. 18) Patau’s syndrome is caused due to trisomy in 13th Chromosome. 19) Simple translocation, shift translocation and reciprocal translocation. 20) a)Duplication areplay significant role in evolution. b)Duplication are more frequent and less deleterious. 21) Depending upon the source of additional chromosome set, polyploids are two types --- autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy. 22) DNA finger printing involves a number of techniques such as gel electrophoresis, southern blotting, autoradiography and probe hybridization. 23) 5- methyl cytosine, 5-hydoxymethyl cytosine, 6-methyl purine 24) 5-bromouracil, 5-iodouracil and 5-methyl-cytocine 25) Small piece of terminal end of chromosome is lost. 26) If the two break occur at any two points, it result in the lossof an intercalary segment of chromosome. 27) Cri-du-chat Syndrome 28) The inverted segment contain the centromere. 29) An interstitial segment of one chromosome is broken off and inserted interstially in another non-homologous chromosome. 30) A segment from one chromosome was exchanged with a segment from another chromosome. 31) A single break in chromosome. 32) A organism contain only one set of chromosome. 33)It is used to study role of individual chromosome. 34) Annealing is the pairing of primers to the ssDNA segment. 35) In DNA fingerprinting, a non-coding region of genome having tandem repeats of a sequence. 36) Mutation is a change occurs in DNA sequences. 37) It is obtaining multiple copies of known DNA sequence that contain gene. 41) Trisomy 18, trisomy 13,turner’s syndrome, klinefelter syndrome. 42) structural chromosomal abnormalities is occurs due to breakage and incorrect rejoining of chromosomal segment. 43) Down syndrome. 44 ) (44 + XXY) 45) 47 46) chromosomal abnormalities 47) Nucleotide Excision Repair 48)DNA glycosylase and AP endonuclease 49) Base excision repair 50) Point mutation or nonsense mutation. E. Terminology 1.Mutation: Change in DNA sequence. 2. Tautomerism: The ability of molecule to exist in more than one chemical form is called Tautomerism. 3. Frame shift Mutation: The mutation caused by the addition or deletion of nitrogenous bases in DNA or mRNA are known as frame shift mutation. 4. Deletion mutation: These mutations are caused by loss or deletion of one or more nucleotides. 5.Insertion Mutation: These mutation are caused by addition of one or more extra nucleotides in a DNA molecule at one or more places. 6. Chromosomal aberrations: The change in the genome involving chromosome parts, whole chromosome or whole chromosomal set. 7. Deletion: Loss of broken part of chromosome is called deletion. 8. Duplication: Addition of a part of chromosome is called Duplication. 9.Inversion: sometimes the numberof gene in a chromosome is not changed but the sequence of genes is altered by the rotation of gene block within a chromosome by 1800. 10. Translocation: Sometimes the broken segment of a chromosome become attached to a non-homologous chromosome resulting in new linkage relation. This type of rearrangement of genes is called translocation. 11. Tandem Duplication: In Tandem Duplication the added segment has the same genetic sequence as is present in the original state in the chromosome. 12.Base analog : It is mutagenic only for replicating DNA while acridine dye, alkylating, and deaminating agents are mutagenic to both replicating and non-replicating DNA. 13. Reverse tandem duplication: the sequence gene in the duplicated region of chromosome is just the reverse of the normal sequence. 14. Displaced duplication: In this case the duplicated region is not situated adjacent to the normal section. Depending on whether, the duplicated portion is on the same side of the chromosome as the original section or the other side. 15. paracentric Inversion; when both the breaks in the chromosome occure on the same side of the centromere and inverted segment includes no centromere, then such typre of inversion is called paracentric inversion. 16. Pericentric Inversion: the inverted segment contain the centromere that is involve one break on either side of the centromere. 17. Euploidy: An organism either looses a complete set of chromosome or aquires one or more additional sets of chromosomes. 18. Monoploidy/ haploidy: The organism contain only one set of chromosome per cell ehich is called basic number (X) of the genome. 19. Polypoidy: Organism with more than two sets of chromosome are called polyploids. 20. Autopolypoidy: the chromosome set or sets of the same species(Homologous) is added to diploid genome. 21. Allopolyploidy: Allopolyploidy are polyploidy species formed by multiplication of chromosome sets of hybrid of two or more different genera, species or subspecies.( In this type non homologous chromosome are involved) 22. Aneuploidy: It is the addition or loss of one or more chromosome to the complete diploid chromosome complement of an organism. 23. Point Mutation: any physical and chemical change in the organisation of the gene at molecular level. 24. Monosomy: there is loss of one chromosome from the complete diploid set that is their general chromosome formula 2n-1. 25. Nullisomy: Nullisomics(2n-20 are diploid in which a homologous pair of chromosome is missing. 26. Chromosomal Mutation; This type of mutation is characterized as a gross morphological change in the structure of the chromosome. 27.Spontaneous (natural) mutation: The mutation which occur without a known cause called as spontaneous mutation. 28. somatic mutation: Mutation occurring in non-reproductive body cells called as somatic mutation. 29. Gametic Mutation: Mutation occurring in game tic cells. 30. Induced mutation: Induced mutations are those mutations which occur due to exposure of organism to mutagenic agent. 31. Transition: transition are changes that involve replacement of purine in polynucleotide chain by another purine . Unit No. V Biotechnology - Multiple Choice Questions - In which of the following industrial areas biotechnology is applicable? - Environment - Agriculture - Health Care - All of the above - The organization whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering is called as - Genetically modified organism - Genetically mutant organism - Genetically modern organism - Genetically transferred organism - Full form of GMO is— a) Genetically mutant organism b) Genetically modified organism c) Genetically modern organism d) Genetically transferred organism - Which of the following techniques use genes and DNA molecules for diagnosis of diseases? - Gene therapy - Recombinant gene technology - Polymerase chain reaction - All of the above - The animals whose genome is altered by introduction of transgene is known as - Hybrid animals - Modified animals - Transgenic animals - Cross breed animals - Which is the most common plasmid used for most of genetically engineered product? - CaMV195 - PBR322 - R plasmid types - Both b & C - The main use of recombinant DNA technology are - The creation of cells capable of synthesizing economically important molecules - Production of transgenic humans - The efficient reduction of useful proteins - Both a& c - What was the world’s first ever mammal to be successfully cloned from an adult cell? - Sheep - Monkey - Cow - Calf - The transgenic animals are those which have - Foreign DNA in some of their cells - Foreign DNA in all of their cells - Foreign RNA in all of their cells - Both a and c - There is a restriction endonuclease called EcoRI. What does “co” part in it stand for? - Coli - Colon - Coelom - Coenzyme - Which enzyme is useful in genetic engineering? - DNAase - Amylase - Lipase - Restriction endonuclease - Which is related to genetic engineering? - Plastid - Plasmid - Heterosis - Mutation - Which of the following enzyme joints the okazaki fragments? - DNA Polymerase - DNA ligase - Helicase - Restriction endonuclease - Which of the following features should be present in vector? - It should replicate autonomously - It should have its own origin of replication - It should possess restriction enzyme cleavage sites - All of these - Which of the following is a genetic vector - Plasmid - Cosmid - Phage - All of these - Which of the following is related to genetic engineering - Endoplasmic reticulum - Golgi body - Mitochondrion - Plasmid - Which of the following tool makes possible genetic engineering? - DNA polymerase - RNA polymerase - Helicase - Restriction endonuclease - A recombinant DNA Molecule is produced by - Joining of two DNA fragments - Joining of two or more DNA fragments - Both a & b - Joining of two or more DNA fragments originating from different organisms - The gene formed by the joining of DNA segments from two different sources are called as.. - Recombinant gene - Joined gene - Both a & b - Chimaeric gene - Which of the following enzyme is used to cut DNA molecule in rDNA technology - Phosphatase - Ribonuclease - Restriction enzymes - Ligase - Restriction enzymes are also called as - Biological scissors - Molecular scalpels - Molecular knives - All of these - The most important discovery that lead to the development of rDNA technology was - Double helix model of Watson & crick - Discovery of restriction enzymes - Discovery of ligase enzymes - Discovery of plasmids - Who discovered restriction enzymes - Nathan, Arber & Smith in 1970 - Watson, Crick & Wilkins in 1970 - Boyer & Cohen in 1975 - Paul Berg in 1975 - Who created the first rDNA molecule a) Nathan, Arber & Smith b) Watson, Crick & Wilkins c) Boyer & Cohen d) Paul Berg - The DNA molecule to which the gene of interest is integrated for cloning is called - Carrier - Vector - Transformer - None of these - The DNA segment to be cloned is called - Gene segment - DNA fragment - DNA insert - All of these - Which of the following statements are true regarding rDNA technology - rDNA technology is used to obtain large number of copies of specific DNA fragments - rDNA technology is used to obtain large quantities of protein produced by the concerned gene - rDNA technology is used to integrate gene of interest into chromosomes where it expresses itself - All of these - The plasmid used by Cohen and Boyer for their transformation experiment was - pSC 101 - PUC 17 - pBR 322 - E.Coli plasmids - Gene cloning refers to the - Production of large number of copies of the gene being cloned - Production of asexual progeny from a single individual or a cell - Both a & b - None of these - Paul Berg’s gene splicing experiment created the first rDNA molecule which was a - A T4 phage fragment incorporated into SV40 vector - A lambda phage fragment incorporated into SV40 vector - A T4 phage fragment incorporated into pSC 101 vector - A lambda phage fragment incorporated into pSC 101 vector - A vector should have which of the following properties i) MCS; ii) Small size; iii) Multiple ori; iv) Low replication speed - i, ii,iii - ii, iii,iv - i, ii,iv - i,iii,iv - Which of the following is not a restriction endonuclease? - Eco RI - DNA ligase - Hind III - Bam H1 - The uptake of plasmid DNA into bacterial cell is facilitated in the presence of - Calcium Chloride - Magnesium Chloride - Potassium Chloride - All of these - Taq polymerase is used in PCR because of its - Low thermal stability - High fidelity - High speed - High thermal stability - Which of the following enzyme is used to synthesize DNA using an mRNA template - Taq Polymerase - Alkaline Phosphatase - Reverse transcriptase - Nuclease - Which type of restriction enzymes are commonly used in rDNA technology - Type I - Type II - Type III - Type IV - Which is the enzyme used to remove phosphate group from the 5’end of the DNA - Restriction enzymes - Alkaline phosphatase - Polynucleotide kinase - Ribonuclease H - The enzyme that adds mononucleotide triphosphates to the 3’OH group of a DNA fragment is - Polynucleotide kinase - Terminal nucleotidyl transferase - Terminal phosphoryl transferase - All of these - The RNA strand in the RNA-DNA hybrid is removed by - RNase - RNase-H - Nuclease - None of these - Klenow is the product of enzymatic breakdown of - DNA polymerase I - DNA polymerase II - DNA polymerase III - RNA polymerase - Selective degradation of single stranded DNA is carried out by the enzyme - Nuclease - Ribonuclease - SI nuclease - Deoxy ribonuclease - Which of the following is an RNA dependent DNA synthetase - DNA polymerase I - DNA polymerase II - Reverse transcriptase - All of these - Which of the following is a thermo stable DNA polymerase - Taq polymerase - Vent polymerase - Pfu polymerase - All of these - Which of the following statement is true - A vector should have an origin of replication - A vector should have selectable markers - A vector should have unique restriction sites - All of these - Expression vectors differ from a cloning vector in having - An origin of replication - Suitable marker genes - Unique restriction sites - Control elements - The first engineered plasmid vector is - pBR322 - pUC vectors - pSC 101 - pUC19 - The most popular and widely used engineered plasmid vector is - pBR322 - pUC vectors - pSC 101 - pUC19 - In pBR322, pBR stands for - Plasmid bacterial - Plasmid bacterial - Plasmid Boliver and Rodriguez - Plasmid Baltimore and Rodriguez - Phage M13 vectors are widely used for - Obtaining single stranded copies of cloned DNA suitable for DNA Sequencing - Obtaining double stranded copies of cloned DNA suitable for DNA Sequencing - Obtaining fragments of cloned DNA suitable for DNA sequencing - Obtaining double stranded copies of cloned DNA suitable for electrophoresis - Cosmid is a plasmid with - A minimum of 250 bp of lambda DNA that includes cos site - A minimum of 250 bp of M13 DNA that includes cos site - A minimum of 100 bp of lambda DNA that includes cos site - A minimum of 250 bp of T4 phage DNA that includes cos site - Vectors designed to replicate in cells of two different species are called - Phasmids - Transfer vectors - Shuttle vectors - Phagemids - Autonomously replicating sequences (ARS) is a characteristic feature of - Plasmid vectors - Phage vectors - E.coli vectors - Yeast vectors - Which of the following are vectors for animals - SV 40 vectors and Bovine papillomavirus vectors - CMV vectors and Gemini vectors - Lambda phage and M13 phage vectors - All of the above - The vectors commonly used for sequencing human genome - Yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) - Plasmid - CMV vectors - M13 vectors - Ti plasmids that is used as a plant vector is obtained from - Agrobacterium tumefaciens - Agrobacterium rhizhogenes - Agrobacterium radiobactor - Thermus aquaticus - The virus mediated gene transfer using genetically modified bacteriophages is called - Transfection - Transduction - Transformation - Conjugation - Ti plasmid vectors include - Binary vectors and cointegrate vectors - cointegrate vectors & multiple vectors - Multiple vectors & binary vectors - Ti plasmid based vector - Chemicals used for gene transfer methods include - Poly ethylene glycol - CaCl2 - Dextran - All of the above - Introduction of DNA into cells by exposing to high voltage electric pulse is - Electrofusion - Electrofisin - Electrolysis - Electroporation - The transformation method that uses tungsten or gold particle coated with DNA accelerated at high velocity is called - Acceleration method - High velocity method - Particle gun delivery method - DNA particle delivery method - DNA solution injected directly into the cell using micromanipulators is called - Macroinjection - Micromanipulator mediated DNA delivery - Microfection - Microinjection - What is the final product of the RNaseH method? - Blunt ended dsDNA - Staggered dsDNA at both ends - Staggered dsDNA at 3’end - Staggered dsDNA at 5’end - Single stranded unpaired extensions formed by restriction enzyme upon cleavage is called - Blunt ends - Flush ends - Sticky ends - None of these - Type II cuts the sequence in the following way as - Within the recognition sequence - At 100-1000 nucleotides away from the recognition sequence - At 27-30 nucleotides away from the recognition sequence - It cuts randomly - Which of the following enzyme protect a DNA strand from cleavage restriction enzymes of the host bacterium? - Restriction endonuclease - Restriction exonuclease - Methyl transferase - Polynucleotide kinase - The co-factor required for the T4 DNA ligase enzyme is - ATP - GTP - NAD+ - FAD+ - Recombinant plasmids are added to a bacterial culture that has been presented with…ions - Iodine - Magnesium - Calcium - Ferric - The sites of DNA where restriction enzyme act are generally - Palindromic - Tandem repeats - CG rich regions - TATA boxes - It was found that Hind II always cuts DNA molecules at a particular point by recognizing a specific sequence of six base pairs. This specific base sequence is known as the - Recognition sequence - Restriction endonuclease - Palindromic nucleotide sequence - Nucleases - E.coli cloning vector pBR322 contains restriction sites (Hind III,Eco RI, Bam HI, Sal 1, Puu II, Pst L, Cla 1), Ori, amp R, tet B and rop, Rop codes for the - Antibiotic resistance gones - Foreign DNA - Selection of recombinants from non-recombinants - Proteins involved in the replication of the plasmid - The technique of insertion of a desired gene into DNA of plasmid vector is - Gene splicing - Gene dressing - Gene cloning - Gene drafting - Plasmids that carry genes to provide resistance to antibiotics are called - R plasmids - C plasmids - A plasmids - Ti plasmids - DNA of plasmid is - Double stranded & circular - Single stranded & circular - Double stranded & linear - Single stranded & linear - Which of the following enzyme would you select for protecting a DNA strand from cleavage by restriction enzymes of the host bacterium? - Restriction endonuclease - Restriction exonuclease - Methyl transferase - Polynucleotide kinase - If you want to radiolabel a DNA strand using p32,which of the following is the most suited enzyme for that purpose? - DNA polymerase - Reverse transcriptase - Polynucleotide kinase - Terminal necleotydyl transferase - Which of the following polymerase enzyme would you select for cDNA synthesis? - DNA polymerase - Taq polymerase - Reverse transcriptase - Vent polymerase - If you have two DNA fragments A and B, both with blunt ends, in order to make it sticky which enzyme would you select for homopolymer tailing? - DNA polymerase - Terminal Nucleotydyl transferase - Alkaline phosphatase - Reverse transcriptase - Once the two fragments are joined, the final sealing phosphodiester bond is formed by - Polymerase - Exonuclease - Transcriptase - Ligase - Which of the following enzyme would you select for cutting a DNA strand with recognition sequence “GAATTC”? - T4 ligase - Taq polymerase - Eco R1 - Alu1 - Which of the following enzyme groups would you select for cDNA synthesis? - Reverse transcriptase, Ribonuclease H and DNA polymerase - DNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase and methyl transferase - DNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase and alkaline phosphatase - Ribonuclease H, reverse transcriptase and methyl transferase - Taq polymerase require - A free end for adding complementary nucleotides - A free 3-OH end for adding complementary nucleotides - A free 5-P end for adding complementary nucleotides - Adds complementary nucleotides to both 3’OH end and 5’P end - For cloning, restriction enzymes with sticky ends are used for - Ease of transformation - Easy insertion into plasmids of DNA segments from different sources - Easy identification of plasmids with antibiotic resistance - Easy identification of plasmids having inserts - The host controlled restriction is a process associated with - Gene of interest - Bacteria - Plasmid - Viruses - How many bases does the sequence which identifies the restriction enzymes contain? - 1 - 4 - 6 - 12 - The restriction enzymes bind to and cut the sequences of DNA which usually are - Antiparallel - Not symmetrical about the midpoint - Symmetrical about the midpoint - Random sequences - In bacteria, the restriction phenomena occurs naturally as - Bacteria produces enzyme - For survival - For efficient cloning - Destruction of DNA of the bactrium - Restriction enzymes are isolated from - Virus - Fungi - Protozoa - Bacteria - For the production of a DNA copy, the enzyme which uses RNA is called - DNA polymerase - RNA polymerase - DNA ligase - Reverse transcriptase - This was the first restriction endonuclease that was discovered - BamHI - EcoRI - Hind III - Hind II - This is not a cloning factor - pUC19 - SV40 - EST - M13 - The Taq DNA polymerase is DNA polymerase _________ enzyme from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. - I - II - III - Klenow fragment - Which of the following statement is not true in case of DNA Polymerase- Reverse transcriptase? - Involved in the replication of bacteriophage - Uses RNA as a template - Used in complementary DNA cloning - Synthesizes DNA from RNA - The restriction endonuclease has a defense mechanism in the bacterial system against foreign DNA such as viruses. But how can it protect its DNA? - Precisely in the middle of the chain - Anywhere in the chain - The ends of the chain - Only within the polynucleotide chain, not at the ends - The restriction endonuclease has a defense mechanism in the bacterial system against foreign DNA such as viruses. But how can it protect its DNA? - By methylation of bacterial DNA by restriction enzyme - By methylation of foreign DNA by restriction enzyme - By phosphorylation of bacterial DNA by restriction enzyme - By phosphorylation of foreign DNA by restriction enzyme - After cleaving the sequence, the nature of the ends created by the type II endonuclease is __________ - The ends created are always single-stranded - The ends created are always double-stranded - Either the ends are single-stranded, or they are double-stranded - One end is single-stranded, and one end is double-stranded - Which of the following is the correct terminology of a restriction enzyme obtained from the first activity of strain R of Escherichia coli? - EcoR1 - EscRI - EcorI - EcoRI - If only one bond is broken in the sugar-phosphate backbone, it is called as ___________ - Gap - Nick - Break - Leakage - The ligation reaction is more efficient, in which case? - Blunt end ligation - Sticky end ligation - Both have the same efficiency - Depends on the reaction conditions - The sticky ends are held together by which type of bonds? - Hydrogen bond - Covalent bond - Ionic bond - Van-der-Waal forces 100.Topoisomerase is also an enzyme that is used for carrying out ligation. The correct statement for topoisomerase is? a) They act only on double-stranded molecules b) They alter the degree of supercoiling of DNA molecules c) They are less effective than conventional DNA ligase d)There are three types of topoisomerases - Restriction enzymes belong to class of enzymes: - Peptidase - Amylase - Lipases - Nucleases - Restriction Enzymes were primarily used as : - Defence by Protozoa against antibiotics - Tool by Virus to cleave Bacterial genome - Defence by Bacteria against bacteriophages viruses - All of the above - The recognition sites for restriction enzymes are : - Tautomer - Pallindrome - Metamere - Acronym - In the case of blunt-end ligation, blunt ends can be generated by ___________ - simply the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends - the polishing of staggered ends - both the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends and polishing of staggered ends - by the action of restriction endonuclease which gives staggered ends - The ligation reaction is more efficient in which case? - Blunt end ligation - Sticky end ligation - Both have the same efficiency - Depends on the reaction conditions - How many categories of ligation reaction are there on the basis of ends created? - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - In the case of blunt-end ligation, blunt end can be generated by.. - Simply the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends - The polishing of staggered ends - Both the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends and polishing of staggered ends - By the action of restriction endonuclease which gives staggered ends - Why sticky ended ligations are carried out at temperatures lower than room temperature? - It is so because the vibrational and kinetic energy of the molecules at room temperature is lower than that of the energy required to break the bonds holding the ends - The energy required to break the bonds holding the ends is very less than that of the kinetic and vibrational energy at room temperature - The enzyme carrying out ligation is unstable at low temperature - The sticky ends created, don’t just relegate at low temperature - Bacteriophage lambda is having a phage recombination system. Following are the characteristics of this system - It is used for inserting phage genome into the bacterium - It is used for inserting bacterial genome into the phage - The specific site in bacteria is attB and that in phage is attP - The specific sites in both of them are called as attP - Which Nucleotide is been modified in DNA by restriction methylase system? - Adenine - Guanine - Thymine - Cytosine - Which subunit is responsible for providing specificity to recognize the DNA sequence in the type I restriction enzyme system? - HsdR - Hsdr - HsdM - HsdS - Cosmids lack - Genes coding for viral proteins - Origin of replication - Marker genes coding for replication - Cleavage site for the insertion of foreign DNA - Cryptic plasmids - Do not exhibit any phenotypic trait - Exhibit many phenotypic traits - Exhibit one phenotypic traits - Exhibit antibiotic Resistance - Phagemid consist of - Plasmid vector carrying lambda phage’s cos site - Plasmid vector carrying lambda attachment site - Plasmid vector carrying origin of replication of lambda phage only - Plasmid vector carrying origin of replication of plasmid only - Maximum size of foreign DNA that can be inserted into an insertion vector is - 35 kb - 18 kb - 50 kb - 27 kb - Plasmids which are maintained as multiple copy number per cell are known as - Stringent plasmids - Relaxed plasmids - Cryptic plasmids - None of these - Cosmid vectors are - plasmids that contain fragment of λ DNA including the cos site - phages that lack cos site - plasmids that have no selection marker - cryptic plasmids - Size of the DNA that can be packaged into a λ phage is - 50 kb - 35-53 kb - 40-50 kb - Any size - Cosmid vectors are used for - Cloning small fragments of DNA - Cloning large fragment of DNA - Cloning prokaryotic DNA only - Cloning eukaryotic DNA only - Plasmids which are maintained as limited number of copies per cell are known as - stringent plasmids - relaxed plasmids - cryptic plasmids - all of these - Cos site of the cosmids - consists of 12 bases - helps whole genome in circularization and ligation - both (a) and (b) - contains cleavage site - M 13 is an example of a) filamentous phage b) single stranded DNA vector - both (a) and (b) - plasmid 123. Phagemid vectors are - combination of plasmid and phage λ - combination of phages and cosmid c) Phages carrying properties of plasmids d) All of the above 124. Single stranded vectors are useful a) for sequencing of cloned DNA b) for oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis c) for probe preparation d) all of the above 125. pBR 322 has/have which of the following selection marker(s)? a) AmpR b) TetR c) Both (a) and (b) d) KanR 126. Which among the following are the smallest plasmid and an ideal cloning vector? a)ColE1 b)RP4 c)PUC8 d) F 127.Which of the following is true for a plasmid? a) Contains an origin of replication b) Imparts a useful characteristic to the host bacterium c) Possesses one or more genes d) Replicates only when the host genome is undergoing replication 128. What are the possible ways through which a plasmid can replicate? a) Using cell’s own replicative enzymes b) Carry genes that code for special replicative enzymes c) Replicate by inserting themselves into a bacterial chromosome d) Carry genes that codes enzymes 129. What are relaxed plasmids? a) The ones having copy numbers above 50 per cell b) The ones that can’t be digested by endonucleases c) The ones that can’t be isolated d) The ones present in more than one strains of the same host 130. Which of the following is not a type of plasmid? a) F b)R c)Ti d) T4 131. Col plasmids are responsible for ______ a) Degrading unusual molecules b) Taking up colchicine stain c) Coding for colicins d) None 132. Ti plasmids are ____ plasmids. a) Tumor inducing b) Degradation c) High copy number d) Mammalian 133. Which of the following is responsible for the conversion of covalently closed circular DNA to supercoiled DNA of the plasmid? a) Endonuclease b) DNA Gyrase c) Topoisomerase d) Exonuclease 134. Protection by covalent attachment of proteins in a plasmid, is a method for? a) increasing the conjugative abilities b) protection of linear DNA c) increasing the copy number d) increasing cloning efficiency 135. Which region of the phage genome is not essential for growth? a) Between N and Q genes b) Cohesive sites c) Recombination and lysogenization d) Host lysis 136. The main problem in the formation of the chimera Ti plasmid is _____________ a) It is unstable b) Large size c) High virulence d) No unique restriction site 137. Which of the following does not play any role in the infection of plant cell by the Ti plasmid of A. tumefaciens? a) T-DNA b) Virulence region c) Host specificity region d) 25 base pair repeats 138. Disarming of Ti plasmid is ____________ a) Removal of the Virulence region b) Removal of the 25 base pair repeats c) Removal of the T-DNA d) Removal of the Host specificity region 139. The Ti cloning vector pBIN19 contains which of the following genes? a) Tetracycline resistant gene b) Stress resistant gene c) Kanamycin resistant gene d) Ampicillin resistant gene 140. Introduction of new gene through Ti plasmid should be done in ____________ a) Fully grown plant b) A sapling c) Germ cells d) Callus 141. 4. In which of the plant is the crown gall disease caused? a) Leaf b) Root c) Stem d) Branches 142. What are sticky ends? a) Ends of M13 vector b) 12 nucleotide stretch in lambda phage c) The replicated product phage DNA d) Ends on two sides of origin 143. Approximate size of lambda phage is _______ a) 23 kb b) 100 kb c) 49 kb d) 12 kb 144. Which of the following statements is not true in the context of infection by an M13 phage? a) Lytic phage b) Lysogenic phage c) New phage particles are continually synthesized d) The DNA is not integrated in host genome 145. Which infection cycle is characterized by retention of the phage DNA molecule in the host bacterium for many thousands of cell division? a) Lysogenic cycle b) Lytic cycle c) Integrative Phase d) Protein synthesis 146. Which is a reason of instability of phage DNA molecule in the host cell in a lytic cycle? a) The huge size of phage DNA b) Inability of replicative enzymes c) Immediate synthesis of capsid d) Lytic cycle inefficiency 147. The cycle which is completed quickly in the infection by a phage is ________ a) Lysogenic b) Lytic c) Replication d) Capsid formation 148. Which of the following is an example of head-and-tail bacteriophage? a) M13 b) Lambda phage c) Pbr322 d) M16. 149. What is the capsid (protective coat) of the bacteriophage made up of? a) DNA b) RNA c) Protein d) Organic acids 150. Which of the following is not true for a bacteriophage? a) A very simple structure b) Consist either DNA or RNA c) Bacteriophages are viruses d) Complex structure that infects bacteria 151. F factor integration into the host chromosome is called as __________ a) F’ plasmid b) F factor and host chromosome recombination c) Hfr (High frequency of recombination) d) Recombinant host chromosome 152. The bacteriophage M13 vectors belong to a group of phages called as __________ a) skinny or filamentous phage b) M phage group c) single stranded phage d) double stranded phage 153. lacZ gene present in a Puc series plasmid codes for which of the enzyme? a) Beta- galactosidase b) Lactase c) Amylase d) Nuclease 154.Polyethylene glycol is a) Fusogenic chemical b) Electro fusion stimulant c) Callus stimulant d) Differentiation stimulant 155.Monoclonal antibodies are a) Heterogenous antibodies produced from single clone of plasma cells b) Homogeous antibodies produced from single clone of plasma cells c) Both (a)and (b) d) None of these 156.Natural humoral immune response against a pathogen leads to the production of a) Polyclonal antibodies b) Monoclonal antibodies c) Macrophages d) None of these 157.The technology used for the production of monoclonal antibodies is a) Massculture technology b) Hybridoma technology c) Suspension culture d) None of these 158. Hybridoma technology was developed by a) Kohler and Milstein b) Khorana and Nirenberg c) Khorana and Korenberg d) Beedle and Tautum 159. The hybridomas are made by a) Fusing T cells with myeloma cells b) Fusing B cells with myeloma cells c) Fusing T helper cells with myeloma cells d) Fusing B memory cells with myeloma cells 160. All are Mabs except a) Rituximab b) Transtuzumab c) Infliximab d) Tamoxifen 161.Mabs are a) Specific towards a paratope b) Specific towards an epitope c) Specific towards an antigen d) None of these 162. Which of the following statement is incorrect regarding HAT medium a) HAT medium is a selective medium b) Aminopterin in the HAT medium blocks de novo pathway of nucleotide synthesis c) Salvage pathway requires aminopterin and thymidine d) Hypoxanthine is converted to guanine by HGPRT enzyme 163. HGPRT mutant cells are raised by inducing mutations using a) 5-bromouracil b) 8-azaguanine c) Colchicine d) 6-methyl isocyanate 164. In hybridoma technology, hybrid cells are selected in a) MS medium b) HAT medium c) x-gal medium d) Whites mediun 165. Which of the following cell is made deficient of hypoxanthine guanyl phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) enzyme a) B cells b) Hybrid cells c) Myeloma cells d) None of these 166. Mabs are used in a) The screening of recombinants b) diagnostic kits c) the treatment of many cancers d) All of these 167.The major hazards of mabs are a) Difficult in purification b) Contamination with retroviral particles from mouse myeloma cells c) Non specificity d) All of these 168. Mabs are produced by a) in vivo method b) Suspended cell culture in fermenters c) Immobilized cell reactors d) All of these Answer Key: 1.d) All of the above; 2.a) Genetically modified organism; 3.b) Genetically modified organism; 4. d) All of the above; 5.c) Transgenic animals; 6.d) Both b & C; 7.d) Both a & c; 8.a) Sheep; 9.b) Foreign DNA in all of their cells; 10.a) Coli; 11.d) Restriction endonuclease; 12.b) Plasmid; 13.b) DNA ligase; 14.d) All of these ; 15.d) All of these; 16.d) Plasmid; 17.d) Restriction endonuclease; 18.d) Joining of two or more DNA fragments originating from different organisms; 19.d) Chimaeric gene; 20.c) Restriction enzymes; 21.a) Biological scissors; 22.b) Discovery of restriction enzymes; 23.a) Nathan, Arber & Smith in 1970; 24.d) Paul Berg; 25.b) Vector; 26.c) DNA insert;27.d) All of these; 28. a) pSC 101; 29. Production of large number of copies of the gene being cloned; 30. b) A lambda phage fragment incorporated into SV40 vector; 31.c) i, ii,iv; 32. DNA ligase; 33.d) All of these; 34.d) High thermal stability; 35.c) Reverse transcriptase; 36. b) Type II; 37. b) Alkaline phosphatase; 38. b) Terminal nucleotidyl transferase; 39.b) RNase-H ;40. a) DNA polymerase I; 41.c) SI nuclease;42.c) Reverse transcriptase; 43.d) All of these; 44.d) All of these; 45.d) Control elements; 46. C) pSC 101; 47.a) pBR322;48.c) Plasmid Boliver and Rodriguez; 49.a) Obtaining single stranded copies of cloned DNA suitable for DNA Sequencing; 50. a) A minimum of 250 bp of lambda DNA that includes cos site; 51. c) Shuttle vectors; 52. d) Yeast vectors; 53. a) SV 40 vectors and Bovine papillomavirus vectors;54. a) Yeast artificial chromosome (YAC);55.a) Agrobacterium tumefaciens;56.b) Transduction; 57.a) Binary vectors and cointegrate Vectors; 58. d) All of the above;59.d) Electroporation; 60.c) Particle gun delivery Method; 61.d) Microinjection; 62.a) Blunt ended dsDNA; 63. c) Sticky ends; 64: a) Within the recognition sequence; 65.c) Methyl transferase; 66.a) ATP; 67.c) Calcium; 68.a) Palindromic; 69.a) Recognition sequence;70.d) Proteins involved in the replication of the plasmid; 71.c) Gene cloning; 72.a) R plasmids; 73. a) Double stranded & circular; 74. C) Methyl transferase;75.c) Polynucleotide Kinase;76. c) Reverse transcriptase; 77.b) Terminal Nucleotydyl transferase; 78. d) Ligase; 79.c) Eco R1; 80. a) Reverse transcriptase, Ribonuclease H and DNA Polymerase;81.b) A free 3-OH end for adding complementary nucleotides; 82.b) Easy insertion into plasmids of DNA segments from different sources; 83.b) Bacteria; 84.c) 6;85.c) Symmetrical about the midpoint;86. Bacteria produces Enzyme;87. Bacteria; 88.b) RNA polymerase;89.d) Hind II; 90.c) EST;91.a) I ; 92.a) Involved in the replication of bacteriophage; 93.d) Only within the polynucleotide chain, not at the ends ; 94.a) By methylation of bacterial DNA by restriction enzyme; 95.c) Either the ends are single-stranded, or they are double-stranded; 96.d) EcoRI; 97.b) Nick; 98.b) Sticky end ligation; 99. a) Hydrogen bond ;100.b) They alter the degree of supercoiling of DNA molecules;101. Nucleases;102. C)Defence by Bacteria against bacteriophages viruses; 103.b) Pallindrome;104.c) both the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends and polishing of staggered ends; 105. b) Sticky end ligation; 106.b) 2; 107.c) Both the action of restriction endonuclease which gives straight ends and polishing of staggered ends ;108. a) It is so because the vibrational and kinetic energy of the molecules at room temperature is lower than that of the energy required to break the bonds holding the ends ; 109.a) It is used for inserting phage genome into the bacterium ; 110. a) Adenine;111.d) HsdS; 112. a) Genes coding for viral proteins; 113.a) Do not exhibit any phenotypic trait; 114.b) Plasmid vector carrying lambda attachment site;115.b) 18 kb;116. b) Relaxed plasmids;117. a) plasmids that contain fragment of λ DNA including the cos site; 118. b) 35-53 kb;119.b) Cloning large fragment of DNA; 120.a) stringent plasmids; 121. c) both (a) and (b); 122.c) both (a) and (b);123.a) combination of plasmid and phage λ; 124. d) all of the above; 125.c) Both (a) and (b);126. C) PUC8; 127.d) Replicates only when the host genome is undergoing replication; 128.c) Replicate by inserting themselves into a bacterial chromosome; 129. a) The ones having copy numbers above 50 per cell; 130.d) T4; 131.c) Coding for colicins; 132.a) Tumor inducing;133. b) DNA Gyrase;134.b) protection of linear DNA; 135.c) Recombination and lysogenization; 136.d) No unique restriction site; 137.a) T-DNA; 138.c) Removal of the T-DNA; 139.c) Kanamycin resistant gene; 140.d) d) Callus; 141. C) Stem;142.b) 12 nucleotide stretch in lambda phage; 143.c) 49 kb;144.a) Lytic phage;145.a) Lysogenic cycle;146. C) Immediate synthesis of capsid;147.b) Lytic;148.b) Lambda phage;149.c) Protein; 150.d) Complex structure that infects bacteria; 151.c) Hfr (High frequency of recombination); 152.a) skinny or filamentous phage;153.a) Beta- galactosidase; 154.a) Fusogenic Chemical;155. b) Homogeous antibodies produced from single clone of plasma cells; 156.a) Polyclonal antibodies;157. b) Hybridoma technology;158.a) Kohler and Milstein; 159. b) Fusing B cells with myeloma cells;160. d) Tamoxifen; 161.b) Specific towards an epitope; 162.c) Salvage pathway requires aminopterin and Thymidine; 163. b) 8-azaguanine; 164.b) HAT medium; 165. c) Myeloma cells; 166. d) All of these; 167. b) Contamination with retroviral particles from mouse myeloma cells; 168. d) All of these; - Fill in the blanks: - ……………………..can be defined as the application to industry of advances made in techniques and instruments from the biological sciences. - Genetically altered plants, animals, and microorganisms are called __________ organisms. - A(n)__________ is a cell line used to produce specific antibodies that are created by fusing an antibody-producing lymphocyte with a cancer-causing cell. - Restriction enzymes were discovered by………… - Klenow fragment is derived from……… - …………. Are called the molecular scissors - During genetic engineering ………….enzyme is used to join the segments of DNA - The Ti plasmid is found in……… - Hybridoma technology is used for synthesizing……… - …….called viruses that attack bacteria - Answer Key: Biotechnology; 2. Novel; 3.Hybridoma; 4.Werner arber;5. E. coli Polymerase I DNA-dependent repair enzyme; 6.Restriction enzymes; 7.DNA ligase;8.Agrobacterium tumefaciens;9.Monoclonal antibodies; 10.Bacteriophages - True and False: - Ti plasmid is the only known plasmid of plant. - Beta- galactosidase is one of a series of enzymes involved in the breakdown of lactose to glucose plus galactose. It is normally coded by the gene lacZ, which resides on the E.coli chromosome. - Blunt ends created by restriction endonuclease can be joined. - EcoR1 exhibits a two-fold rotational symmetry. - The low copy number of F plasmid is essential for the stability of these plasmids. - The DNA to be cloned must be cleaved along with the vector and with the same restriction enzymes. - Ligation reaction can be both intramolecular and intermolecular in nature. - E.coli DNA ligase doesn’t require a cofactor - The binary vector strategy uses two different vectors for the production of the single chimera molecule by recombination. - Insertion of the T-DNA into the host genome depends on the T-DNA itself. - Transformants of pBIN19 are selected by growing them in solid agar media with ampicillin. - Reverse transcriptase synthesizes a DNA molecule from an RNA template. - Sticky end fragments generated by EcoRI will ligate to any other sticky-end sequence. - Protoplast fusion is enhanced by the presence of polyethylene glycol. - Any foreign DNA inserted into a cell will be inherited by that cell's progeny. - Plasmid replication is dependent on the host cell. - The full for of pUC is polylinker university cloning. - Transduction is a phage-mediated genetic transfer. - Phages are a type of virus that infect bacteria. - A restriction enzymes cuts at specific sites called restriction sites. - Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that is found naturally in retroviruses. - Restriction enzymes are named according to the genus and species of the bacterium from which they are isolated. - It is easier to make recombinant DNA from blunt-ended DNA fragments than from sticky-ended fragments. - Molecular Scissors refers to DNA ligases - Once cosmids are inside the E.coli cells, they don’t generate phage but are propagated as plasmids. C. Answer Key: 1.False; 2.True; 3.True;4.True;5.True; 6. True;7.True; 8.False;9.False; 10.False; 11. False; 12.True; 13.False; 14.True; 15. False;16.False; 17. False;18.True; 19.True.20.True; 21.True;22.True;23.False; 24.False;25. true - Answer in One sentence Q.No. 1. What is mean by Recombinant DNA Technology? Answer: Recombinant DNA Technology is “the joining together of DNA molecules from different organisms and inserting it into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science, medicine, agriculture and industry.” Q.No.2. What is Gene splicing? Answer: A process using recombinant DNA technology to join, by attachment or insertion, a DNA segment from one source to a DNA segment from another source. OR The technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from more than one organism Q.No.3. What is Gene Cloning? Answer: Gene cloning is the process in which a gene of interest is located and copied (cloned) out of all the DNA extracted from an organism. QNo. 4: What is restriction endonucleases? Answer: Restriction endonuclease also called Restriction enzyme, a protein produced by bacteria that cleaves DNA at specific sites along the molecule. Q.No.5.What are palindromic nucleotide sequence? Answer: A palindromic sequence is a sequence of nitrogen bases in a double stranded DNA or RNA, which when read from 5’ end to 3’ end is same as that on the complementary strand read from 3’end to 5’end. Q.No. 6. What is the role of DNA Ligase? Answer: DNA Ligases (Joining or Sealing Enzymes) are also called genetic gum.They join two individual fragments of double stranded DNA by forming phosphodiester bonds between them. Thus, they help in sealing gaps in DNA fragments.Therefore, they act as a molecular glue. Q.No.7. What exonuclease mean? Answer: An enzyme that breaks down a nucleic acid by removing nucleotides one by one from the end of a chain. Q.No.8. What is the difference between Endo and Exonucleases? Answer: Endonucleases and exonucleases are two types of nucleases, which cleave nucleic acids by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides. Endonucleases cleave the polynucleotide chain in the middle whereas exonucleases cleave the polynucleotide chain at the ends. Q.No.9. What is DNA polymerases? Answer: DNA polymerases are a group of enzymes that are used to make copies of DNA templates, essentially used in DNA replication mechanisms. These enzymes make new copies of DNA from existing templates and also function by repairing the synthesized DNA to prevent mutations. Q.No.10. What is Polymerase? Answer: An enzyme which brings about the formation of a particular polymer, especially DNA or RNA. Q.No.11. What is Klenow fragment of DNA Polymerase? Answer: Klenow Fragment is the large fragment of DNA Polymerase I that retains its 5'→3' polymerase, 3'→5' exonuclease and strand displacement activities. The enzyme lacks the 5'→3' exonuclease activity of intact DNA polymerase I. Q.No. 12. What is vector and its characteristics? Answer: Vectors are DNA molecules that are used as a vehicle to carry foreign DNA fragments into other cells where they can replicate and/or express. Among these most commonly used vector is a plasmid. Q.No.13.What is plasmid? Answer: A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA. Plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells, and they also occur in some eukaryotes. Q.No.14.What is cosmids? Answer: A cosmid is a type of hybrid plasmid that contains a Lambda phage cos sequence. They are often used as a cloning vector in genetic engineering. Cosmids can be used to build genomic libraries. Q.No.15. What is the difference between plasmid and cosmid? Answer: The key difference between plasmid and cosmid is that the plasmid is a double-stranded, circular and closed extra-chromosomal DNA present in bacteria and archaea while the cosmid is a hybrid vector system formed due to combining of the cos sequence of lambda phage and plasmid DNA of bacteria. Q.No.16.What is mean by somatic cell hybridization? Answer: Somatic hybridization is the technique that allows manipulation of the cellular genome by a process called protoplast fusion. Q.No.17. What is bacteriophage? Answer: A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria. Q.No.18. What are adaptors and Linkers? Answer: An adaptor, or a linker in genetic engineering is a short, chemically synthesized, single-stranded or double-stranded oligonucleotide that can be ligated to the ends of other DNA or RNA molecules. Q.No.19. Define Biotechnology? Answer: Biotechnology deals with the techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products that processes useful to humans. Q.No. 20. What is down stream process? Answer: Seperation , Purification of the products obtained from recombinant DNA technique is called downstream process (DSP). Q.No. 21. What is micro-injection? Amswer: Method of introducing recombinant DNA into host cell using fine needle is called micro-injection. Q.No.22. What is biolastics or gene gun ? Answer: Method of introducing recombinant DNA into host cell by bombarding high velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA. E. Terminology: Knocked out: To produce roughly or hastily Splicing: The process by which introns, the noncoding regions of genes, are excised out of the primary messenger RNA transcript, and the exons (i.e., coding regions) are joined together to generate mature messenger RNA. Hybrid: A thing made by combining two different elements or of mixed character; composed of different elements. Recombinant: relating to or denoting an organism, cell, or genetic material formed by recombination. Cloning: Propagate (an organism or cell) as a clone. OR Emergence: make an identical copy of. OR Replicate (a fragment of DNA placed in an organism) so that there is sufficient to analyse or use in protein production. Restriction: The limitation or control of someone or something, or the state of being restricted. Cleave: Split (a molecule) by breaking a particular chemical bond. Palindrome: A word, phrase, or sequence that reads the same backwards as forwards Staggered: Arrange (objects or parts) in a zigzag formation or so that they are not in line. Cohesive: Characterized by or causing cohesion. Polymorphism: The condition of occurring in several different forms. Blunt: Not having a sharp edge or point. Linker: A thing which links other things. Nick: A small cut or notch. Ligation: The joining of two DNA strands or other molecules by a phosphate ester linkage. Lytic: Relating to or causing lysis. Exogenous: Having an external cause or origin or growing or originating from outside an organism. Immobilized: Prevent (something or someone) from moving or operating as normal. Protoplasts: Electroporation: The action or process of introducing DNA or chromosomes into bacteria or other cells using a pulse of electricity to open the pores in the cell membranes briefly. Hybridization: The process of an animal or plant breeding with an individual of another species or variety. Somatic Cell: Any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells. Malignant: Very virulent or infectious Epitope: The part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself. Hazardous: Risky; dangerous Transgenic: Relating to or denoting an organism that contains genetic material into which DNA from an unrelated organism has been artificially introduced. UNIT VI Immunology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The branch of biology involved in the study of immune systems in all organisms is called_________. a) Botany b) Microbiology c) Immunology d) Biotechnology 2. Which systems protects body against disease-causing microbes? a) Immune system b) Digestive system c) Excretory system d) Respiratory system 3. Which of the following immunity is called the first line of defence? a) Innate Immunity b) Active immunity c) Passive immunity d) Acquired immunity 4. The kind of granulocytes which kills the parasites and breaks the inflammatory substances are a) Basophils b) Chlorophylls d) Neutrophils 5. How many types of antibodies are there? b) Three c) Two d) Four 6. In cell-mediated immunity which of the following cells are involved? a) Leukaemia c) Mast cells d) Thrombocytes 7. Which of the following cells of the immune system do not perform phagocytosis? a) Macrophage b) Neutrophil c) Eosinophil 8. Which of the following blood proteins can destroy pathogens? a) Major histocompatibility complex b) Platelets c) Fibrinogen 9. What type of B cell respond rapidly post any subsequent encounter with the same antigen? a) T cells c) Plasma cells d) Macrophages 10. Scavenger cells of immune system are b) T cells c) B cells d) Lymphocytes 11. A cell which defends against body against the virus infected cell is a) Exotoxin c) Endotoxin d) Suppressor T cell 12. Which of the following immune response occurs first upon invasion by a virus or bacterium? a) Activation of killer T lymphocytes b) Activation of B lymphocytes d) Mobilization of complement proteins 13. What is true about Passive Immunity? a) Passive immunity causes reactions b) Passive immunity develops immediately c) Passive immunity lasts only for a few weeks or months 14. Which of the following provides the longest-lasting immunity to an infectious agent? a) Naturally acquired passive immunity b) Artificially acquired passive immunity c) Naturally acquired active immunity d) Artificially acquired Active Immunity 15. Which of the following cells is involved in cell-mediated immunity? a)B cells b) T cells c) Mast cells d) Thrombocytes 16. Immunity obtained during a lifetime is? a) Acquired immunity b)Active immunity c)Passive immunity d) None of the above. 17. Which of the following cells of the immune system do not perform phagocytosis? a) Macrophage b) Neutrophil c) Eosinophil 18.Monocytes differentiate into? a) Mast cell b) B cell d) T cell 19. Immunity present by birth is? b) Active immunity c) Passive immunity d) Acquired immunity 20. Neutrophils, basophil, lymphocytes, eosinophil and monocytes are? a) Physical barrier c) Cytokine barriers d) Physiological barriers 21. B-cells and T-cells are two types of cells involved in? a) Innate Immunity b) Natural Active immunity c) Passive immunity 22. Skin, body hair, cilia, eyelashes, the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract are examples of? b) Cellular barriers c) Cytokine barriers d) Physiological barriers 23. Which of the following Cells provide Innate Immunity? a) Phagocytes b) Macrophages c) Natural Killer Cells 24. Precursors for B and T lymphocytes are? a) Hematopoietic stem cells b) Germ cells c) Somatic cells d) RBC 25. In embryonic stage lymphocytes are produced in ? a) Spleen b) Bone marrow d) Thymus 26. The classical pathway of complement is primarily activated by a) Microbial surface b) Cytokines d) Interferons 27. Which of the following immunoglobulin is present abundantly in Mother’s milk? a) IgM b) IgD c) IgG 28. Transplanted graft is rejected because of a) Cell-mediated immune response b) Humoral immune response c) Innate immune response d) Adaptive immune response 29. Antibodies are a) Glycolipids b) Steroids c) Lipoproteins 30. Interferons are categorised as a) Antibiotic proteins c) Antigen proteins d) None of the Above 31. Globulins of the blood plasma are responsible for b) Blood clotting c) Oxygen transport d) Cell death 32. Which of the following antibodies is predominantly present in tears, saliva and mucous a) IgM b) IgG c) IgD 33. Which of the following antibody can cross placenta? a) IgD b) IgE d) IGM 34. Antigen binds in which of the following regions in antibodies? b) Fc region of an antibody c) Only in the heavy chain d) Only in the light chain 35. Which of the following antibody concentration increases during Type I hypersensitivity response? a) IgD b) IgM d) IgA 36. The antibody class found at highest concentrations in serum is______ a) IgD b) IgM c) IgA 37.A primary role of antibodies in resistance to bacterial infection is a) Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity b) Activation of T cell c)Activation of the alternative complement pathway d)Opsonisation for increased uptake by phagocytic cells 38.Skin and mucous membrane act as a) Physiological barrier c) Metabolic barrier d) None of the above 39. Light chain and heavy chains are joined with the help of a) Covalent bond b) Hydrogen bond d) Ionic bond 40. The antigen binding site on an antibody is called a) Antitope b) Epitope d) None of the above 41. The hypervariable region is located in a) N-terminal region of light chain b) N-terminal region of light and heavy chain c) C-terminal region of heavy chain d) C-terminal region of light and heavy chain 42. Fab stands for a) Fragment antibody binding c) Fragment antibody or antigen binding d) None of the above 43. The two identical light chains of an antibody belongs to - Kappa only - Lambda only - Lambda and Kappa Both - Delta only 44. The hypervariable region of antibody consists of a) 5-10 aminoacids that form antigen binding site b) 50-100 aminoacids that form antigen binding site c) 10-50 aminoacids that forms the antibody binding site d) A part of constant region of heavy and light chain 45. The ability of antigen to stimulate antibody production is called a) Affinity c) Elicitation d) Metastasis 46. Fc region is involved in a) Cell surface receptor binding b) Complement activation c) Determining diffusivity of antibody molecule 47. An antibody consists of a) 2 Fab region and 1 Fc region b) A Fab region and 1 Fc region c) 2 Fab region and 2 Fc region d) Many Fab region and many Fc region 48. The complement Pathway is activated by a) IgM Only b) IgG only c) Both IgM and IgG d) All five classes of antibodies activate complements. 49. Which of the following immunoglobulin has the highest avidity of the immunoglobulins? a)IgD b) IgM c)IgE d) IgG 50. Which of the following antibody has antigen receptor on B Cells? a) IgG b) IgA c) IgM d) IgD 51. Which of the following is not involved in first line defence? a)Mucus membranes b) Saliva c) Tears 52. Natural killer’s cells are found in all of the following except: a) Blood c)Spleen d)Lymph nodes 53. Artificially acquired passive immunity can be obtained from: a) Transfer of antibodies from mother to foetus across the placenta b) Naturally by any disease c) Injection of the antigen in a vaccination d)Injection of immunoglobulins 54. Which of the following is not synonymous with the term antibody? a) Immune globulin b) Immunoglobulin d) Microglobulin 55. Which of the following structure is constituted by both light and heavy chains? b) J-chain binding site c)Fc Receptor binding site d) Complement binding site 56. Minimum variability within the antigen binding region of Antibody is found in? a) Hyper variable region b) Hinge region d) CDR 57. Proper hinge region is Absent in which of the following antibody? a)IgG b)IgA c) IgM d)IgE 58. Any substance or molecule that interact with antibodies are called a) Antigen b) Paratope c) Epitope 59. Antigens are made up of a) Proteins b) Carbohydrates c) Nucleic acids 60. Antigens are mostly b) Carbohydrates c) Nucleic acids d) Lipids 61. A single antigen molecule may be composed of many individual ________. a)T-cell receptors b)B-cell receptors c)MHC II 62. A molecule that reacts with specific antibody but is not immunogenic by itself called a) Vector b) Antigen d) Immunogen 63. Haptens are immunogenic upon binding Covalently to b) An antibody c) A paratope d) None of these 64. Haptens do not activates T cell or B cells because of a) Its low molecular weight antigens arbuscules b) Its inability to bind to MHC d) None of these 65. An antigen is capable of a) Inducing an immune response b) Interaction with antibody c) Induces antibody production 66. Which of the following is a hapten a) Cyanide b) Paracetamol d) Botulin 67. An incomplete antigen a)Is also called as hapten b)Is immunogenic upon binding covalently to a carrier protein c)Cannot induce antibody production by itself 68.Small chemical group on the antigen molecule that can react with antibody b) Paratope c) Hapten d)Allotope 69. Which of the following molecules is the most antigenic? a) Polysaccharides b) Lipids c) Proteins d) Carbohydrates, protein and lipid 70. Antibody IgM is a) Pentamer with 10 antigen binding sites b) Tetramer with 8 antigen binding sites c) Monomer with 2 antigen binding sites d) Dimer with 4 antigen binding sites 71. An advantageofELISA in comparison to other biological quantification techniques is? a) Detects moleculeeven at low concentration b) Inexpensive c) High specificity d) Easily available 72. Which of the following is immobilized on the microtiter well in sandwich ELISA? a) Sample antibody c) Secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme d) Detection antibody 73. Which of the following molecules can be detected by ELISA? a) Proteins b) Hormones c) Antibodies 74.Naturally acquired active immunity would be most likely acquired through which of the following processes? a) Vaccination b) Mother’s milk c) Natural birth d) Infection with disease-causing organism followed by recovery 75.Complement component C3 is cleaved by: a) C3b b) C3bBb c) Factor B d) Factor D 76.The classical and alternative pathways meet at complement component: a)C4b b) C4 c) C3 d) C5 77. One principal function of complement is to a) Bind antibodies attached to cell surfaces and to lyse these cells b) Cross-link allergens c) Inactivate perforins d) Mediate the release of histamine 78. Which of the following pathway is involved in the adaptive immune response? a) Alternative Pathway b) Classical Pathway c) Lectin Binding Pathway d) All of the above 79. In the classical pathway, the antibody activated the C1 complex consisting of C1q, C1r & C1s subunit. Which of the following subunit binds to the antibody a) C1q b) C1r c) C1s d) All of the above 80. Which of the following isotype antibody is a potent activator of the classical complement pathway? a) IgM b) IgA c) IgE d) IgG 81. Which of the following C1 subunit has the catalytic activity that cleaves C4 and C2 complement proteins? a) C1q b) C1r c) C1s d) None of the above 82. The following proteins are the component of the alternative pathway except: a) C3 b) Factor B c) Factor D d) Properdin 83. Certain microorganism such as Salmonella, Listeria, Neisseria, Cryptococcus consist of specific carbohydrate moieties on the surface antigen that activate a) Alternative Pathway b) Classical Pathway c) Lectin Binding Pathway d) All of the above 84. Which of the following complement protein polymerizes to form perforin like structure that stabilizes membrane attack complex. a) C6 b) C7 c) C8 d) C9 85. Which of the following complement component facilitate opsonization and phagocytosis? a) C3a b) C3b c) C5a d) C5b 86. Complement System Consist of a) Consist of 20 serum protein b) Serum protein acts as biological cascade d) Are set of antibodies 87. Complement system is involved in a)Specific defence b) Nonspecific defence d) Active Immunity 88. In alternate pathway a)Factor b is involved b) Factor d is involved d) None of the Above 89. Biological role of complement system include a)Cytolysis and chemotaxis b)Opsonisation c)Anaphylotoxin and enhanced antibody production 90.Which of the following is required for C1 activation b) Mg c)Mn d)Zn 91. Classical pathway of complement system is activated by b) antigen c) antigenic peptides d) antigens bound to MHC 92. Alternate pathway of complement system is activated by a) Antibody -antigen complexes b) Antigen c) Microorganism or its toxins d) Antigen bound to MHC 93.Which of the following is the central molecule in complement pathway a)C1 b) C2 d) C5 94. Cytotoxic T cells which kill their targets a) Are mostly CD4+ b) Act via perforin and granzyme B c)Recognise glycolipids in the context of MHC class I molecule d)Also secrete Il-4 and IL-5 95.T cell receptor is a heterodimer consist of a) alpha and beta chain b) gamma and delta chain c) Both of the above d) None of the above 96. Which of the following is NOT the function of the T-cell receptor a) Antigen Recognition b) Facilitate binding of co-receptor c) Serve as the signal transducer d) Induce signal transduction via a CD3 protein complex 97. The predominant antibody in saliva is (a) IgG (b) IgM (d) IgD 98. Cells that release histamine and other vasoactive substances in response to allergens are a) Neutrophils b) Macrophages c) NK cells 99. Immunoglobulin that results in histamine release a) IgG b) IgA d) IgD 100. Which type of antigen-presenting molecule is found on all nucleated cells? a) MHC II c) antibodies d) B-cell receptors 101. The life span of white blood cells is a) Seconds to minutes Minutes to days d) None of above 102. The function of white blood cells is to act as an agent in which system of the body? a) Nervous system b) Respiratory system d) Digestive system 103. The eosinophils, neutrophils and basophils are considered as part of b) Agranulocytes c) Megakaryocytes d) Thrombocytes 104. Which of the following cells can be found as tissue residents, meaning they do not have to exit the blood in order to be a part of the immune response? a) Monocytes b) Macrophages c) Neutrophils d) T cells 105. Which of the following is FALSE about histamine? a) It is released from granules of cells b) It causes itching and pain by stimulating nerve endings c) It is released as part of the adaptive immune response d) It may be released as part of the allergic response 106.Which of the following is NOT a direct function of antibodies produced during the immune response? a) Toxin neutralization b) Opsonization c) Activation of inflammation d) Agglutination 107. Which of the following is NOT a type of T cell? a) Effector b) Helper c) Cytotoxic d) Plasma 108. Features of memory cells include: a) Faster reaction when infected with the same thing again b) Constantly create antibodies to ward off infection c) Survive longer than effector B and T cells d) A and C are correct Answer - Multiple choice Questions 1.(c) Immunology, 2. (a) Immune system, 3. (a) Innate Immunity, 4.(c) Eosinophils, 5.(a) Five, 6.(b) T cells, 7.(d) Basophil, 8. (d) Complement protein, 9.(b) Memory cells, 10.(a) Macrophages, 11.(b) Cytotoxic T cell, 12.(c) The inflammatory response, 13.(d) All of the above. 14.(c) Naturally acquired active immunity, 15.(b) T cells, 16.(a) Acquired immunity, 17. (d) Basophil, 18.(c) Macrophage, 19.(a) Innate Immunity, 20.(b) Cellular barriers, 21. (d) Acquired immunity, 22. a) Physical barrier, 23. d) All of the above, 24.a) Hematopoietic stem cells, 25.(c) Liver, 26. (c) Antibody, 27.(d) IgA, 28. (a) Cell-mediated immune response, 29.(d) Glycoproteins, 30.(b) Antiviral proteins, 31.(a) Defence mechanisms, 32. (d) IgA, 33. (c) IgG, 34.(a) Fab regions of an antibody 35.(c) IgE, 36. (d) IgG, 37. (d) Opsonisation for increased uptake by phagocytic cells, 38.(b) Anatomical barrier 39.(c) Di-sulphide bond, 40.(c) Paratope 41. (b) N-terminal region of light and heavy chain, 42.(b) Fragment antigen binding, 43.(a) Kappa only, 44.(a) 5-10 aminoacids that form antigen binding site, 45.(b) Antigenicity, 46. (d) All of these, 47.(a) 2 Fab region and 1 Fc region, 48.(c) Both IgM and IgG, 49.(b) IgM, 50.(c) IgM, 51.(d) Antibodies 52.(b) Thymus, 53.(d) Injection of immunoglobulins, 54. (c) Betaglobulin, 55.(a) Antigen binding site, 56.(c) Framework region, 57.(c) IgM, 58. (d) Immunogens, 59.(d) All of these, 60.(a) Proteins, 61. (d) Epitopes, 62.(c) Hapten, 63.(a) A carrier protein 64.(c) Both a and b, 65.(d) All of these, 66. c) Penicillin, 67.(d) All of the above, 68. a) Epitope, 69. (d) Carbohydrates, protein and lipid, 70.(a) Pentamer with 10 antigen binding sites, 71.(a) Detects molecule even at low concentration, 72.(b) Capture antibody, 73. (d) All of the above, 74. (d) Infection with disease-causing organism followed by recovery, 75.(b) C3bBb, 76.(c) C3, 77.(a) Bind antibodies attached to cell surfaces and to lyse these cells, 78.(b) Classical Pathway, 79.(a) C1q, 80.(a) IgM, 81.(c) C1s, 82. (a) C3, 83.(c) Lectin Binding Pathway, 84. (d) C9, 85.(b) C3b, 86.(c) Both a and b, 87.(c) Both a and b, 88.(c) Both a and b, 89.(d) All of these, 90.(a) Ca, 91.(a) antibody-antigen complexes, 92.(c) Microorganism or its toxins, 93.(c) C3b, 94.(b) Act via perforin and granzyme B, 95.(c) Both of the above, 96.(c) Serve as the signal transducer, 97.(c) IgA, 98. (d) Mast cells, 99. (c) IgE, 100.(b) MHC I, 101.(b) Months to even years, 102.(c) Defence system, 103.(a) Granulocytes104.(b) Macrophages, 105.(c) It is released as part of the adaptive immune response, 106.(c) Activation of inflammation, 107.(d) Plasma,108.(d) A and C are correct - Fill in the Blanks - Our body defence system that deals with exogenous and endogenous agents or Pathogens is called as_______________. - The Immunity Present by birth is called as_________________. - The type of immunity which is acquired by the exposure of antigens is called as________________. - Non- Specific or Non-Adaptive Immunity is also called as_________________. - Specific Immunity or Acquired immunity is also called as_________________. - Ingestion and killing of microbes by specialized cells is called as ____________. - The process of coating microorganism with some proteins found in plasma to make them more easily phagoctosable is called as___________. - ___________Offers general protection from all pathogens and antigens. - Any foreign particle that triggers immune response is called as___________. - The small part of antigen that interacts with an antibody is called as___________. - The ability of antigen to stimulate antibody production is called as_____________. - B-Cells are produced and matures in______________. - T-Cells Matures in____________. - B Cells differentiates into _____________. - _________cells secrete antibodies in blood plasma. - ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) allows for rapid screening and quantification of the presence of _______ in a sample. - Antibodies are chemically ___________ in nature. - The most abundantly found Antibody is___________. - The Only antibody which can cross placenta is___________. - The Antibody which helps in opsonization is______________. - The Largest antibody in structure is______________. - The Antibody which gives protection to developing foetus is__________. - The antibody found in the body secretions is____________. - The antibody which binds basophils and mast cells is__________. - Antibody involved in Allergic reactions is______________. - The Antibody found in the mother’s Milk is ____________. - A molecule that reacts with specific antibody but is not immunogenic by itself called________. - Monocytes differentiates into_____________. - In embryonic stage lymphocytes are produced in____________. - Immunity Obtain by mother’s milk to the developing fetus is__________. - Cell-mediated immunity is carried out by_______ while humoral immunity is mainly carried out by _______. - B cells mature in the________while T cells mature in the_________. - RIA stands for_________. - _____ cells are responsible for antibody mediated immunity. - Ig stands for_______. - Heavy and light chain of antibodies are held by______ bands. - Histamine released by_________ cells. Answers B. Fill in the Blanks 1. Immune System, 2. Innate immunity, 3. Adaptive immunity, 4. Innate Immunity, 5. Adaptive immunity, 6. Phagocytosis, 7. Opsonization, 8. Innate Immunity, 9. Antigen, 10. Epitope, 11. Antigenicity, 12. Bone marrow, 13. Thymus, 14. Plasma cell and Memory Cell, 15. Plasma, 16. Antigen, 17. Glycoproteins, 18. IgG, 19. IgG, 20. IgG, 21. IgM, 22. IgM, 23. IgA, 24.IgE, 25.IgE, 26. IgA, 27. Hapten, 28. Macrophages, 29. Liver, 30. Passive Immunity 31. T cells/B cells, 32. Bone marrow and /Thymus, 33. Radioimmunoassay, 34. B, 35. Immunoglobulins, 36. Sulphur, 37. Mast,. - True or False: - Immune system protects the body from various types of infectious agents. - True - False - Thymus is Secondary Lymphoid Organ - True - False - Lymph nodes comes under Primary Lymphoid organs - True - False - Nerve Cell is a major cell of immune system. - True - False - Innate Immunity is present by birth in the body - True - False - Adaptive Immunity is Acquired throughout the life time - True - False - Innate immunity is specific - True - False - Infected cells release specialized glycoproteins called as interferons when gets infected - True - False - Anti-venom given during the snake bite provides Passive Immunity - True - False - Plasma cells Secrets Antibodies - True - False - Monocytes are the Precursors of Dendritic cells. - True - False - Suppressor T cells Guards overproduction of antibodies and overactivity of Cytotoxic T cells. - True - False - The small part of antigen that interacts with Antibodies is called Paratope - True - False - Haptens are low molecular weight antigenic molecules - True - False - Haptens triggers immune response with the help of carrier molecule - True - False - All Immunoglobulins are Glycoproteins but all glycoproteins are not Immunoglobulins. - True - False - IgM is the Most abundantly found antibody in blood plasma. - True - False - IgA is found in the mother’s milk colostrum - True - False - IgE is Responsible for Allergic Reactions - True - False - IgG is the largest Antibody in the Structure - True - False - IgD is Expressed on the surface of the B-cells - True - False - Classical pathway of complement system is activated by Antibodies - True - False - Light and heavy chains of antibodies are joined by phosphodiester bonds - True - False - For Specific types of antigens there are specific antibodies - True - False - T- Helper Cell expresses CD8 Molecule on their surface. - True - False Answers ( C. True or False) 1. (a) True, 2. (b) False, 3. (b) False, 4. (b) False, 5. (a) True,6. (a) True,7.(b) False, 8. (b) False, 9. (a) True, 10. (a) True,11. (a) True,12. (a) True,13. (b) False, 14.(b) False, 15. (a) True,16.(a) True,17. (b) False, 18. (a) True,19. (a) True,20. (b) False, 21. (a) True,22.(a) True,23. (b) False, 24. (a) True,25.(b) False - Answer in one sentence - Which systems protects body against disease-causing microbes? - What is immunology? - What is innate immunity? - What is immune system? - What does ELISA stand for? - What does RIA stand for? - Which cells releases histamine? - Who is the father of immunology? - What is antigen? - What is antibody? - What is immunogenicity? - What is heptens? - Give the names of five major classes of antibodies? - Which antibody is predominant in saliva? - Which immunity present from birth? - What is acquired or adaptive immunity? - Which immunoglobulin has the highest avidity? - Which type of antigen-presenting molecule is found on all nucleated cells? - Which cells produces antibody? - What is humoral immunity? - What is complement system? - What is Cell mediated Immunity? - What is Paratope? - What is Epitope? - What are Exogenous Antigens? - What is Phagocytosis? - What is function of Macrophages? - What is Function of B-Cell? - What is Function of Suppressor T-Cell? - What is Function of Cytotoxic T-Cell? - What is Role Memory Cell? - What is Passive immunity? - What is the site of maturation for T lymphocytes? - What is the site of maturation for B lymphocytes? - What are the components of third line of defence? - What are two pathways of complement system? - What is first line of defence? - What is anatomical barrier? - What is physiological barrier? - What is the role of T-Helper cell in immunity? - What does MHC stand for? - What are Interferons? - What is primary function of Antibody E? - Which is the Largest Antibody? - What is principal of ELISA? - What is Active Immunity? - What is Autoimmune Disease? - What are the Three kinds of cells in which T-Cell differentiates into? - What are the Components involved in second line of defense? - What are Primary Lymphoid Organs? - Answers One Sentence Answer questions - Our Immune System protects us against the disease-causing microbes and other various pathogens. - Immunology is the study of Immune system of body. - The defence mechanism which is present by birth in our body is called as innate immunity. - The defence system of our body which protects us from various disease-causing microbes, Pathogens and Antigens is called as Immune system. - ELISA Stands for “Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay”. - RIA Stands for “Radio Immunoassay”. - Histamines are released by Mast Cells. - Louis Pasteur is known as father of immunology. - Anything that is capable of generating an immune response is called as an Antigen. - Antibodies are the glycoprotein which are produced by the immune system as a result of the introduction of an antigen into the body. - The strength of an immune response that an antigen can generate is called as immunogenicity. - Haptens are low molecular weight molecules with an antigenic determinant not capable of generating immune response independently. - There are five major class of antibodies that are IgA, IgG, IgD, IgM and IgE. - Antibody IgE is predominantly found in Saliva. - Innate immunity is present by birth in our body. - The Immunity which is gained throughout life time is called acquired immunity. - IgM has the highest avidity. - MHC is an antigen-presenting molecule that is found on all nucleated cells. - Plasma cell differentiated from B cell produces Antibodies. - The Immunity provided by the antibodies is called as Humoral Immunity. - The complement system is of over 20 different protein molecules found in the blood that helps to destroy pathogen and eliminate infection. - CMI lacks antibodies, it contains various cells like phagocytes, T lymphocytes and release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. - Paratope is an Antigen-Antibody interaction site found on Antibody. - Epitope is an Antigen-Antibody interaction site found on Antigen. - Exogenous antigens are the antigens that enters into the host from the outside of the body from environment. - Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing and eliminating the particles, microorganism and foreign substance by some specialised cells. - Macrophage acts as Antigen presenting cell to B and T Lymphocytes and also perform phagocytosis. - B-Cell recognises the foreign antigen and mediate the production of antigen specific antibodies against the antigen. - Suppressor T-cell Guards against the overproduction of antibodies and overactivity of cytotoxic T-cell. - Cytotoxic T-cell detect and kills the infected body cells. - Memory cell keeps the memory of initial and original stimulation by immune system against any specific antigen. - Passive immunity is the transfer of readymade active antibodies from one person to another. - T lymphocytes matures in Thymus. - B lymphocytes matures in Bone Marrow. - Third Line of defence includes B and T lymphocytes. - Complement system includes two pathways Classical Pathways and Alternate Pathways. - First line of defence includes innate immunity which comes from the birth of an individual Skin, Lysozyme in Saliva, HCL and digestive enzymes in stomach and nasal secretions. - Anatomical barrier blocks the entry of organism into the body. They are the component of innate immunity which includes skin and mucous membrane. - Physiological barrier is component of innate immunity it includes factors like body temperature, pH and various body secretions which prevents growth of many pathogens and microorganism. - Helper T cell Assists the immune system by helping other cells in immune system to achieve an efficient immune response. - MHC Stands for Major Histocompatibility Complex. - Interferons are the chemicals released by the infected cells to protect surrounding cells from the infection. - Antibody IgE has the role in the allergic reactions. - IgM is the largest pentameric antibody. - ELISA is based on the ability of antibodies to couple with enzymes to produce conjugates. - When body actively produces its own antibodies upon interaction with antibodies is called as Active Immunity. - Autoimmune disease is a disorder where our body can’t different between self and non-self-antigen. - T cell differentiates into: Helper T-cell, Cytotoxic T-cell, and Suppressor T-cell. - The second line of defence includes Circulating WBCs and Macrophages. - Primary lymphoid organs are those organs where differentiation, proliferation and maturation of pluripotent stem cells into immune competent cell takes place. - Terminology: Adaptive immunity Host defences that are mediated by B cells andT cells following exposure to antigen and that exhibit specificity, diversity, memory, and self-nonself discrimination. Adjuvants Factors that are added to a vaccine mixture to enhance theimmune response to antigen by activating innate immune cells. Deadmycobacterium was among the original adjuvants, but more refinedpreparation include alum, cytokines, and/or lipids. Antibodies Immunoglobulin proteins consisting of two identical heavychains and two identical light chains, that recognize a particular epitopeon an antigen and facilitates clearance of that antigen. Membrane-boundantibody is expressed by B cells that have not encountered antigen; secretedantibody is produced by plasma cells. Some antibodies are multiples of thebasic four-chain structure. Antigen Any substance (usually foreign) that binds specifically to anantibody or a T-cell receptor; often is used as a synonym for immunogen. Antigen-presenting cell (APC) Any cell that can process andpresent antigenic peptides in association with class II MHC moleculesand deliver a costimulatory signal necessary for T-cell activation. Macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells constitute the professional APCs. Nonprofessional APCs, which function in antigen presentation only forshort periods include thymic epithelial cells and vascular endothelial cells. B lymphocytes (B cells) Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrowand express membrane-bound antibodies. Aft er interacting with antigen, they differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells. B-cell receptor (BCR) Complex comprising a membrane-boundimmunoglobulin molecule and two associated signal-transducing Ig_/Ig_molecules.antigen-specific T cells. It protects against intracellular bacteria, viruses, andcancer and is responsible for graft rejection. Transfer of primed T cells confersthis type of immunity on the recipient. Complement A group of serum and cell membrane proteins thatinteract with one another and with other molecules of innate andadaptive immunity to carry out key effector functions leading to pathogenrecognition and elimination. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs, or Tc cells) An effector T cell (usuallyCD8_) that can mediate the lysis of target cells bearing antigenic peptidescomplexed with a class I MHC molecule. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) An assay for quantitatingeither antibody or antigen by use of an enzyme-linked antibody and asubstrate that forms a coloured reaction product. Epitope Th e portion of an antigen that is recognized and bound by anantibody or TCR-MHC combination; also called antigenic determinant. Fab (fragment antigen binding) region at the N-terminus ofthe antibody molecule that interact with antigen. Th is antibody fragment, consisting of one light chain and part of one heavy chain, linked by aninterchain disulphide bond, is obtained by brief papain digestion Granulocytes Any leukocyte that contains cytoplasmic granules, particularly the basophil, eosinophil, and neutrophil Hapten A low-molecular-weight molecule that can be madeimmunogenic by conjugation to a suitable carrier. Humoral immune response Host defences that are mediated byantibody present in the plasma, lymph, and tissue fluids. It protects againstextracellular bacteria and foreign macromolecules. Transfer of antibodiesconfers this type of immunity on the recipient. See also cell-mediatedimmune response. Immunity A state of protection from a particular infectious disease Innate immunity non-antigen specific host defences that exist priorto exposure to an antigen and involve anatomic, physiologic, endocyticand phagocytic, anti-microbial, and inflammatory mechanisms, andwhich exhibit no adaptation or memory characteristics. See also adaptiveimmunity. MHC (major histocompatibility complex) A group of genes encodingcell-surface molecules that are required for antigen presentation to T cellsand for rapid graft rejection. It is called the H-2 complex in the mouse andthe HLA complex in humans. Passive immunity Temporary adaptive immunity conferred by thetransfer of immune products, such as antibody (antiserum), from an immune individual to a nonimmune one. Phagocytes Cells with the capacity to internalize and degrade microbesor particulate antigens; neutrophils and monocytes are the mainphagocytes. Phagocytosis Th e cellular uptake of particulate materials by engulfment; a form ofendocytosis. Plasma cell Th e antibody-secreting effector cell of the B lineage. Radioimmunoassay (RIA) A highly sensitive technique for measuringantigen or antibody that involves competitive binding of radiolabelledantigen or antibody. T lymphocyte A lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and expresses aT-cell receptor, CD3, and CD4 or CD8. T-cell receptor (TCR) Antigen-binding molecule expressed on thesurface of T cells and associated with the CD3 molecule. TCRs areheterodimeric, consisting of either an and chain or a and chain. Thymus A primary lymphoid organ, in the thoracic cavity, where T-cellmaturation takes place. Reference 1. Lewin, B.. Gene VI . Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi. 2. Sinnott, E.W.L.C.Dunn, and L.C.Dobzhansky, T. 1985. Principles of Genetics. Tata McGraw Hill. New Delhi. 3. Stern, C. Principles of Human genetics. S.Chand & Co. New Delhi. 4. Verma, P.S. and V.K. Agarwal.. Genetics. S.Chand & Co. New Delhi. 5. Balasubramania, D., Concepts in Biotechnology. Unversity Press (India) Ltd., Hyderabad. 6.. Chopra, V.L and A.Nasim,. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. Oxford & I BH, New Delhi. 7. Gupta, P.K. Elements of Biotechnology. Rastogi Publications, Meerut. 8. Jogdand, S.N. Advances in Biotechnology. Himalaya Publishing, New Delhi. 9. Kumar, H.D.. A text book on Biotechnology. East West Affiliated Press Ltd. 10. Vijayaraman, K.S.Chellammal and P.Manikili. 1998. Uyiriyathozhilnutpam. Chimeeraa, Tiruchy. 11. Bremner (2002) Fish as Food, Vol 1 & 2, HA 12. Ivan Roitt: Essential Immunology (6th Ed.) Oxford, Backwill, Science publication London.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.253809	08/11/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84961/overview", "title": "Molecular Biology and Biotechnology", "author": "Dr PANKAJ W. CHAUDHARI" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90221/overview	Reading - Valentine's Day - Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan Overview Valentine’s Day – This lesson plan focuses on the history of Valentine’s Day. My high school students love it, although I’ve used it successfully with many other students too. Remember, you can use this lesson on any day of the year. If you want additional lesson plans and support, including teachers’ notes, be sure to register for a free Off2Class account. Off2Class Valentine’s Day – This lesson plan focuses on the history of Valentine’s Day. My high school students love it, although I’ve used it successfully with many other students too. Remember, you can use this lesson on any day of the year. Download the lesson plan here: https://www.off2class.com/lesson-plan-downloads/how-to-teach-reading-to-esl-students/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.288033	World Cultures	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90221/overview", "title": "Reading - Valentine's Day - Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan", "author": "Reading Foundation Skills" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78507/overview	Social Concerns in Bhabani Bhattacharya's Novels: A Glance Overview This resource briefly introduces the vision of Bhabani Bhattacharya, a famous Indo-Anglian novelist. This piece of writing underlines the prevailing concerns and recurring themes that are found in his novels. it is hoped that it would attract your attention to explore more about the writings of Bhabani Bhattacharya. Indian Writing in English This resource briefly introduces the vision of Bhabani Bhattacharya, a famous Indo-Anglian novelist. This piece of writing underlines the prevailing concerns and recurring themes that are found in his novels. It is hoped that it would attract your attention to explore more about the writings of Bhabani Bhattacharya.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.304500	03/23/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78507/overview", "title": "Social Concerns in Bhabani Bhattacharya's Novels: A Glance", "author": "J. Sharma" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79518/overview	French Level 2, Activity 10: À l’hotel / Hotels (Online) Overview In this activity, students are going to practice navigating hostelworld.com. They will find a hostel they like and identify different features of it. Students will learn to discuss preferences while traveling. Students will also learn more about using hostels while traveling abroad. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Hotels / À l'hotel Description In this activity, students are going to practice navigating hostelworld.com. They will find a hostel they like and identify different features of it. Students will learn to discuss preferences while traveling. Students will also learn more about using hostels while traveling abroad. Semantic Topics Hotel, hostel, reservation, travel, l'hôtel, auberge de jeunesse, voyage, website, site web, structure of preferences, la structure des préférences Products Hostels Practices It’s very common in Europe (and by extension, France and Switzerland) to rent a hostel instead of a hotel room for a night, especially when traveling on a budget. Perspectives Hostels are seen as an easy way to engage in extended periods of traveling without breaking the bank! Generally, they are associated with the youth. NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in French to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics. - Standard 1.3: Students present information, concepts, and ideas in French to an audience of listeners or readers. Idaho State Content Standards - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - COMM 3: Utilize appropriate media to present an idea to an audience. - CLTR 1: Investigate, explain and reflect on the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the cultures studied in the target language. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can navigate a French website. - I can book an online reservation. - I can discuss my lodging preferences. Materials Needed Warm-Up Warm-Up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today’s activity. 2. After, review some vocabulary from the unit. Here are some examples of useful words to know related to hotels/hostels. Aujourd'hui nous allons parler des logements et trouver une auberge de jeunesse que nous aimons bien. Premièrement, nous allons réviser quelques mots de vocabulaire. (Today, we are going to talk about lodging and finding hostels that you will enjoy. Firstly, we are going to go over some vocabulary words.)- balcon ; lit ; auberge de jeunesse réception ; terrasse ; climatisation disponible ; service de chambre service de ménage ; coffre-fort hébergement ; fer à repasser piscine ; parking ; non-fumeur *Note: If they do not know, try to act out or describe it as best as you can in French. Main Activity Main Activity 1. Have students go to hostelworld.com. Make sure they change the language to French by clicking the flag in the top right hand corner. Allez sur le site web hostelworld.com. Changez la langue au français en cliquant sur le drapeau dans le coin supérieur droit de la page. 2. Give students the option to choose from the list of cities on the presentation. Tell them they are going to find a hostel that they like. Choisissez une des ces villes. Vous allez trouver une auberge de jeunesse que vous pensez géniale. 3. They are going to identify the name of the hostel, where it is located, the price for a night, how many floors there are (if this is not available in pictures, they can make it up) how many beds are in the room they selected, and the amenities. Identifiez le nom de l’auberge de jeunesse, sa localisation (la ville et pays), le prix par nuit, le nombre d'étages (si vous ne pouvez pas les trouver sur une photo, imaginez), le nombre de lits dans la chambre que vous avez choisie, et les commodités/les services. Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following question(s) to finish the activity: - Est-ce que tu préfères les grandes ou les petites chambres ? (Do you prefer big or small rooms?) - Tu aimes les chambres au rez-de-chaussée ou en haut à l'étage ? (Do you like rooms on the ground floor or on a high floor?) - Préfères-tu loger avec tes "covoyageurs" ou seul(e)? (Do you prefer to stay with your "co-travelers" or alone?) - Qu’est-ce que tu aimes le plus : les hôtels, les auberges de jeunesse, ou les Airbnb ? (What do you like most: hotels, hostels, or Airbnb?) Cultural Resources What's the difference between a hotel and a hostel? Tips for keeping your items safe while staying in a hostel End of Activity - Can-Do statement check-in... “Where are we?” - Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence. - Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can navigate a French website. - I can book an online reservation. - I can discuss my lodging preferences.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.367380	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79518/overview", "title": "French Level 2, Activity 10: À l’hotel / Hotels (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75413/overview	Propuesta socioeducativa dirigidas a los responsables de la comunidad educativa para llevar a cabo con los estudiantes sobre resiliencia en autoestima e identidad Overview propuesta socioeducativa dirigida a responsables de la comunidad educativa para llevar a cabo con los estudiantes del CEM 37 sobre resiliencia en autoestima e identidad, de la ciudad de San Carlos de Bariloche durante el periodo 2021 FORMACION EN ENFERMERIA propuesta socioeducativa para los docentes para realizar a sus alumnos	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.384334	12/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75413/overview", "title": "Propuesta socioeducativa dirigidas a los responsables de la comunidad educativa para llevar a cabo con los estudiantes sobre resiliencia en autoestima e identidad", "author": "karen andrea barrientos alvarez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85551/overview	Sociología de Guatemala Overview ¡ Bienvenido a la lección ! Sesión 10 En esta lección se definen conceptos y se presentan las acciones principales que el Estado de Guatemala ha realizado para promover un desarrollo sostenible en el pais. Guatemala y sus acciones para el "Desarrollo Sostenible" ¡ Bienvenido a la lección ¡ Se denomina desarrollo sostenible, "aquel progreso que es capaz de satisfacer las necesidades actuales sin comprometer los recursos y posibilidades de las futuras generaciones". Por otro lado, una actividad sostenible es aquélla que se puede conservar y resguardar. Por ejemplo, cortar árboles de un bosque asegurando la reforestación es una actividad sostenible. A diferencia, consumir petróleo no es sostenible con los conocimientos actuales que se tienen en relación con el daño que ocasiona al medio ambiente. Hoy en día gran parte de las actividades humanas no son sostenibles a medio y largo plazo tal como lo han demostrado las multiples investigaciones relacionadas con el cambio climático. A continuación, encontraras el siguiente video de la pagina "Acciona" que profundiza y amplia el concepto relacionado con el "Desarrollo Sostenible" . https://youtu.be/5yCsjASSd1M Caracteristícas de un desarrollo sostenible Características principales que debe reunir un desarrollo para que se pueda categorizar como sostenibles son: • Es auto suficiente • Conoce la importancia de la naturaleza para el bienestar humano. • Aprovecha los recursos eficientemente. • Promueve el reciclaje y reutilización. • Promueva la manera de que la actividad económica mantenga o mejore el sistema ambiental. • Propone el desarrollo e implantación de tecnologías limpias. • Procura mejorar los ecosistemas dañados. Derivado de la preocupación por el calentamiento global el tema “Desarrollo Sostenible” a tomado relevancia en el discurso político, económico y social a nivel global. Su fin principal, es ser un modelo de desarrollo que utilice los recursos disponibles en el presente, sin comprometer el futuro de esos recursos. mundial ha crecido exponencialmente y su ritmo de crecimiento sigue sin ningun tipo de control, asi lo menciona en (Millones, 2018) y la cantidad de consumo de la población se incrementan, demandando cada vez un mayor número de recursos que provienen de la tierra. A la demanda de los recursos naturales, se agrega el impacto que causan en el medio ambiente los procesos agrícolas e industriales utilizados. En muchos casos, las malas prácticas en los procesos generan un deterioro de recursos importantes como el agua, los bosques y la tierra, los cuales se renuevan a un ritmo más lento del que son usados y esto tiene un impacto en el ser humano. Por ser éste un problema global, cada país ha creado políticas públicas especificas para enfrentarlo. Debido a que la importancia de velar por el desarrollo sostenible radica en que este consiste en el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida en toda actividad humana, utilizando para esto solamente lo necesario de los recursos naturales. En Guatemala como consecuencia de los compromisos adquiridos internacionalmente frente a los organismos internacionales se ha crea el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo K'atun: Nuestra Guatemala 2032 En el siguiente enlace encontrara información sobre el plan https://www.pnd.gt/home/vision Acciones en relación con el desarrollo sostenible Con la firma del Acuerdo de Paz a en diciembre de 1996, se persivia un cambio en el curso de la historia del país, era una oportunidad para la construcción de un país en donde la participación ciudadana, la democracia, el Estado de derecho y el respeto de los derechos humanos, constituiría la base en la cual surgiria un Estado democrático. En ese proceso, el Estado de Guatemala inicia a elaborar toda una serie de leyes, politicas y reglamentos, es ahi donde surgen los primeros pasos del " Plan Nacional de desarrollo Ka'tun" según ( Bak'tun, 2014) Se buscaba incorporar la noción de sostenibilidad y resiliencia en términos sociales, económicos y ambientales; la promoción de la equidad social; el respeto a la multiculturalidad y la defensa de los derechos humanos; la consolidación de la democracia, remarcando la importancia de las libertades y de la participación ciudadana en la gestión de la mejora de las condiciones de vida y capacidades productivas de la población. El fin del plan es que mediante la aplicación del conjunto de lineamientos planteados, la relación entre democracia, desarrollo y derechos humanos se consolidara, y que al darse esta vinculación se diera la oportunidad para lograr transformaciones sociales y económicas, así como de fortalecimiento del Estado. Ademas, Guatemala tambien es parte Estado miembro de los conocidos "Objetivos Mundiales", que se adoptaron en 2015 como un llamado universal para poner fin a la pobreza, proteger el planeta y garantizar que todas las personas gocen de paz y prosperidad para 2030. Esto con el fin de promover y adoptar medidas para mitigar los cambios climaticos y promover un desarrollo sotenible en el pais. A continuación, pueden encontrar información sobre los " 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible" especificamente en la pagina del "Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo." Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible \| PNUD (undp.org) En conclusión, Guatemala cuenta con un marco legal cuyo fin es fortalecer y promover los objetivos del desarrollo sostenible dentro del pais. Para finalizar, el siguiente video hace mención sobre "Plan Nacional de Desarrollo: K'atun, Nuestra Guatemala 2032". REFERENCIA https://siteal.iiep.unesco.org/bdnp/310/plan-nacional-desarrollo-katun-nuestra-guatemala-2032 https://www.eoi.es/blogs/mtelcon/2013/04/16/%C2%BFque-es-el-desarrollo-sostenible/ https://www.segeplan.gob.gt/nportal/index.php/ods https://youtu.be/MCKH5xk8X-g	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.415401	09/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85551/overview", "title": "Sociología de Guatemala", "author": "Nanci De Leon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61369/overview	Chapter 5.3: Political Parties Overview Political Parties Learning Objectives By the end of this section, studens will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas Introduction Introduction At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals. This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters. Political Parties As Unique Organizations Political Parties As Unique Organizations In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. The Party-In-The-Electorate The Party-In-The-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties.[16] Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other.[17] Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million.[18] While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the all-important general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.”[19] Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012.[20] People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country.[21] National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half.[22] National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have become increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004.[23] With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours.[24] One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence.[25] The Party-In-Government The Party-In-Government THE PARTY-IN-GOVERNMENT One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate,because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures.[26] Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an officeholder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it.[27] A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas The 19th-century culture of Texas was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South, dependent on African-American slave labor, as well as the patron system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government’s primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party From 1848 until Richard M. Nixon’s victory in 1972, Texas voted for the Democrat candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. A full century of Democratic Governors stretched between the departure of Republican Governor E.J. Davis (1874) and the election of Republican William P. Clements (1979). The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen’s Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League. His protégé Cuney was a mulatto whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in the Union League and the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in the South during the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites by imposing the poll tax and white primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Republican Party became non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures’ disenfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature excluded them by passing a poll tax and the white primary. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. Although blacks made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics. Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the so-called “German counties” – the rural Texas Hill Country inhabited by German immigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates. Harry M. Wurzbach was elected from the 14th district from 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power. Republicans Rising Republicans Rising Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952 when Democrat Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands. He worked to help Texas native General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state. Eisenhower was generally highly respected due to his role as Commander of the Allies in World War II and was popular nationally, winning the election. Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding “country club suburbs” around Dallas and Houston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such as John Tower (who had shifted from the Democrat Party) and George H. W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported the civil rights movement and achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democrat leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. After passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, southern white Democrats began to leave the party and join the Republicans, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities’ constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower’s 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democrat presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican Dominance Republican Dominance Republicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. This makes Texas one of the most Republican states in the U.S. Despite overall Republican dominance, Austin, the state capital, is primarily Democrat, as are El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, and the Rio Grande Valley. However, the suburbs of these cities remain heavily Republican. What Does The Future Hold? What Does The Future Hold? The Hispanic population had continued to increase, based on both natural increase and continued immigration from Mexico. It accounted for 38.1% of the state’s population as of 2011 (compared to 44.8% for non-Hispanic whites). The state’s changing demographics may result in a change in its overall political alignment, as most Hispanic and Latino voters support the Democrat Party. Mark Yzaguirre questioned forecasts of Democrat dominance by highlighting Governor Rick Perry’s courting of 39% of Hispanics in his victory in the 2010 Texas Gubernatorial election. Analysts with Gallup suggest that low turnout among Texas Hispanics is all that enables continued Republican dominance. In addition to the descendants of the state’s former slave population, the African American population in Texas is also increasing due to the New Great Migration; the majority supporting the Democrat party. Reading Review Questions - Describe the primary goal of political parties and how they go about accomplishing it. - What is the party-in-the-electorate and what is their importance to the election process? - How is party identification not the same as party membership? - What is referred to as the party-in-government? What is their key role? - Describe the functions of the local (county) party organization. - Describe the functions of the state organization within the party structure. - For what two reasons are the national party organizations more prominent than the state or local? - Since the National Party Conventions are no longer the spectacle they once were, what is their modern-day purpose? - What are the two challenges facing the party-in-government? - What two principles make the U.S. governmental system "complex"? - In 19th century Texas culture, what was seen as the primary role of government? Who deals with individual problems? - Describe party politics in Texas after the departure of E.J. Davis as Governor. - What did white Democrats in Texas do between 1902 and 1965 to maintain their power base? - Describe the achievements of Texas Democrats in Congress between 1902 and 1965. - What two groups were the foundation of the Republican party in Texas in the early 1900s? - Even though many of the important political figures from Texas were Democrats, why was the party still rarely united? - Explain why the rebirth of the Republican party in Texas can be traced back to 1952. - Explain the two reasons why Republican power in Texas increased in the 1960s. - Describe the level of power the Republicans hold over Texas politics today. - Why is it likely that the conservative political culture in Texas will be challenged in the near future? Notes Notes CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution - Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151. ↵ - Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press, 11. ↵ - James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80. ↵ - Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books. ↵ - R. R. Stenberg, “Jackson, Buchanan, and the “Corrupt Bargain” Calumny,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85. ↵ - 2009. “Democratic-Republican Party,” In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; “Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America,” http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016). ↵ - Virginia Historical Society. “Elections from 1789–1828.” http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidential-campaign-0 (March 11, 2016). ↵ - William G. Shade. 1983. “The Second Party System.” In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111. ↵ - Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3. ↵ - Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34. ↵ - Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton. ↵ - Calvin Jillson. 1994. “Patterns and Periodicity.” In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41. ↵ - Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12. ↵ - 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388. ↵ - “Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016). ↵ - “Party Affiliation,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Jeffrey L. Jones, “Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Russ Choma, “Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed,” 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Elizabeth Lehman, “Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues,” http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennials-more-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016). ↵ - “Voter Turnout,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Abdullah Halimah, “Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About,” 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016). ↵ - “Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates,” http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventions-candidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Timothy Zick, “Speech and Spatial Tactics,” Texas Law Review February (2006): 581. ↵ - Thomas E. Patterson, “Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?” http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Todd Leopold, “The Day America Met Barack Obama,” http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27. ↵ - Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, “What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016). ↵	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.463373	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61369/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Linkage Institutions, Chapter 5.3: Political Parties", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61388/overview	Chapter 8.3: The Texas Plural Executive Overview The Texas Plural Executive Texas Plural Executive Article 4 of the Texas Constitution describes the executive department (branch) of Texas. Texas utilizes a “plural executive” which means the powers of the Governor are limited and distributed amongst other government officials. In other words, there is not one government official in Texas that is solely responsible for the Texas Executive Branch. Objectives At the end of this section, you’ll be able to - Explain the plural executive of Texas Government - Know the offices and officeholders of the plural executive - Explain the roles of the plural executive The Plural Executive The Plural Executive Article 4 of the Texas Constitution describes the executive department (branch) of Texas. Texas utilizes a “plural executive” which means the powers of the Governor are limited and distributed amongst other government officials. In other words, there is no single government official in Texas that is solely responsible for the Texas Executive Branch. Members of the Plural Executive Members of the Plural Executive Below are some of the members of the Texas Plural Executive and their roles: - Lieutenant Governor: Serves as the presiding officer of the Texas Senate, first in the line of succession for Governor, member of the Legislative Redistricting Board, Chair of the Legislative Budget Board, elected to 4 years terms by the public with no term limits. Dan Patrick is the current Texas Lieutenant Governor.[1] - Attorney General: Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4-year terms with no term limits. The current Texas Attorney General is Ken Paxton. [2] - Commissioner of the General Land Office: The Commissioner is elected by the people to one 4 year term. George P. Bush (son of Jeb Bush) runs the Texas General Land Office, which manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution.[3] - Comptroller of Public Accounts: The Comptroller serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. Glenn Hegar currently serves as the Texas Comptroller and is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits.[4] - Texas Agriculture Commissioner: The Texas Department of Agriculture (TDA) is a state agency within the state of Texas, which is responsible for matters pertaining to agriculture, rural community affairs, and related matters.TDA was established by the 13th Texas Legislature in 1907. TDA is headed by the Texas Agriculture Commissioner, one of four heads of state agencies which is elected by statewide ballot (and the only one where the provision for statewide election is mandated by legislative action, not enshrined in the Texas Constitution) for a four-year term, concurrent with the gubernatorial election (prior to 1978, the term was two years before a statewide amendment in 1974 extended it to four years). The TDA regulates all fuel pumps in Texas to ensure drivers get the correct quality and amount of fuel, regulates all weights and measures devices, such as grocery store scales and retail price scanners, to ensure consumers are charged advertised prices, and regulates pesticide use and application from residential to commercial use. Sid Miller is the current Agriculture Commissioner. [5] - Secretary of State: The Texas Secretary of State is appointed by the Texas Governor and confirmed by the Texas Senate. The Secretary of State serves as the chief election officer (meaning the office ensures that county governments abide by election rules), officially attests the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. Ruth Ruggero Hughs is the current Texas Secretary of State. [6] - Other members of the Texas Plural Executive include: Railroad Commission, State Board of Education, Elected/Appointed Boards and Commissions, Appointed Agency Directors. - https://www.ltgov.state.tx.us/ ↵ - https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/ ↵ - http://www.glo.texas.gov/ ↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/ ↵ - https://www.texasagriculture.gov ↵ - http://www.sos.state.tx.us/index.html ↵CC licensed content, Original - The Texas Plural Executive. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading Review Questions - Who is first in line to become Governor should an emergency take place? What two important boards does he/she sit on as needed? - What is the title of the state’s lawyer? Who currently holds that position? - Who is the Land Commissioner? What are his duties? - Describe the duties of the Comptroller of Public Accounts? Who serves in that position? - Who currently serves as Agriculture Commissioner? What is he responsible for regarding gas pumps? - How does the Agriculture Commissioner help consumers in today’s high tech retail world? - Explain Sid Miller's environmental responsibilities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.487698	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61388/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Executive Branch, Chapter 8.3: The Texas Plural Executive", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61378/overview	Chapter 7.3: Qualifications for Service and Terms of Office Overview This section describes the aualifications for service and terms of office for Texas State Legislators. Learning Objectives Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State House of Representatives - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State Senate - Understand the terms of office for the Texas House and Senate - Understand the special nature of Senate elections at the beginning of a new decade Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State House of Representatives - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State Senate - Understand the terms of office for the Texas House and Senate - Understand the special nature of Senate elections at the beginning of a new decade Qualifications These are the qualifcations to be a member of the Texas House of Representatives or Senate. QUALIFICATIONS The following are the legal requirements in order for someone to meet the qualifications to become a member of the Texas Legislature. - Texas Representative (House) - U.S. Citizen - 2 years as a resident of Texas - 12 months as a resident of their District - At least 21 years old - A qualified elector (eligible to vote) - 2 year terms with unlimited term limit - Texas Senator - U.S. Citizen - 5 years as a resident of Texas - 12 months as a resident of their District - At least 26 years old - A qualified elector (eligible to vote) - 4 year terms with unlimited term limit Senate Elections at the Beginning of a New Decade This describes the special case of Senate Elections at the beginning of a new decade. SENATE ELECTIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF A NEW DECADE Each senator serves a four-year term and one-half of the Senate membership is elected every two years in even-numbered years, with the exception that all the Senate seats are up for election for the first legislature following the decennial census in order to reflect the newly redrawn districts. After the initial election, the Senate is divided by lot into two classes, with one class having a re-election after two years and the other having a re-election after four years. This process protects the Senate’s membership and the Senate as an institution serving as the more elite legislative chamber during normal (i.e., not at the beginning of new decade) election cycles. Reading Review Questions List the similarities between the requirements to serve in the Texas House of Representatives and the Texas Senate. List the differences between the requirements to serve in the Texas House of Representatives and the Texas Senate. How long is the term of office for the Texas House? The Texas Senate? Explain the provisions that are placed on the election of Texas Senators.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.507007	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61378/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch, Chapter 7.3: Qualifications for Service and Terms of Office", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61386/overview	Chapter 8.1: Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications Overview Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications Objectives At the end of this section, you’ll be able to - Understand the structure and powers of Texas’ Executive Branch - Understand the relative power of Texas’ Governor - Understand how the Governor of Texas is elected - Understand the qualifications to be Governor Introduction The executive branch consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State. Texas has a plural executive branch system that limits the power of the Governor. Except for the Secretary of State, all executive officers are elected independently making them directly answerable to the public, not the Governor. Partly because of many elected officials, the governor’s powers are quite limited in comparison to other state governors or the U.S. President. In popular lore and belief the lieutenant governor, who heads the Senate and appoints its committees, has more power than the governor. Gubernatorial Elections Gubernatorial Elections The state’s first constitution in 1845 established the office of governor, to serve for two years, but no more than four years out of every six (essentially a limit of no more than two consecutive terms). The 1861 secessionist constitution set the term start date at the first Monday in the November following the election. The 1866 constitution, adopted just after the American Civil War, increased terms to 4 years, but no more than 8 years out of every 12, and moved the start date to the first Thursday after the organization of the legislature, or “as soon thereafter as practicable”. The Reconstruction constitution of 1869 removed the limit on terms, Texas remains one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term limit. The present constitution of 1876 shortened terms back to two years, but a 1972 amendment increased it again to four years. Texas elects governors in the midterm elections, that is, even years that are not presidential election years. For Texas 2018, 2022, 2026, 2030, and 2034 are all gubernatorial election years. Legally, the gubernatorial inauguration is always set for the “on the first Tuesday after the organization of the Legislature, or as soon thereafter as practicable.” If two candidates tie for the most votes or if an election is contested, a joint session of the legislature shall cast ballots to resolve the issue. The 48th and current governor is Republican Greg Abbott. He assumed office on January 20, 2015, succeeding Rick Perry (R). Perry was the longest-serving governor in state history with a tenure lasting from 2000 to 2015. Abbott previously served as the Attorney General of Texas from 2002 to 2015. Qualifications Qualifications Article IV, Section 4 of the Texas Constitution sets the following qualifications for Governor: - Must be at least 30 years old; - Be a resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election; - Must be a U.S. citizen. Reading Review Questions List all of the positions that are part of the Texas Executive Branch. What is the purpose of the Plural Executive Branch in Texas? How are all but one selected for their position? What state position is often seen as more powerful than the Governor of Texas? What are two of his most important duties? When the Constitution of 1876 was passed, how long was one term of office for the Texas Governor? How has that changed and when? Are there any limits? When does Texas hold its Gubernatorial elections? Be specific in your description? What happens if there is a tie? Who was the longest serving Texas Governor? How long did he serve? Who currently serves and when did he take office? List the only three Texas Constitutional qualifications a person must meet if he/she wishes to run for Governor.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.525648	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61386/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Executive Branch, Chapter 8.1: Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61398/overview	Chapter 11.3: Texas’ Budgetary Processes and Expenditures Overview chapter 11 reading material Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand Texas’ Budgetary Processes - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand Texas’ Budgetary Processes - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money Texas Budgetary Processes Texas Budgetary Processes Texas Budgetary Process The budget process for Texas is outlined below[1] : - Request for Funds. On even-numbered years all government agencies submit a strategic plan requesting funds to the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor’s Office of Budget, Planning, and Policy (GOBPP). The strategic plans’ request for funds must adhere to Texas’s mission statement provided by the Governor and the LBB. The instructions and forms to submit the request for funds are prepared by the LBB. - Analysis of Requests. The requests for funds and strategic plans are then reviewed by the LBB and the GOBPP. The LBB is made up of ten members from the Texas Senate and Texas House and Co-Chaired by the Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House. The GOBPP is an agency in the Executive Branch that answers to the Governor. - Budget proposals sent to the Legislature. The LBB and Governor then submit their budget proposals to the Texas Legislature. The Texas Legislature then reviews the proposals through the Senate and House Finance Committees. After both chambers approve an appropriations bill, then the bill is sent to each respective chamber for a vote. - Comptroller verifies. Once the Texas Legislature has approved the appropriations bill, then the Texas State Comptroller must certify that enough tax revenue will be generated to fund the budget. The Texas Constitution mandates a balanced budget (Article 3, Section 49). If the Comptroller cannot certify the appropriations bill, then the Texas Legislature has the option to vote on allowing the state to go into debt by a 4/5ths vote from each chamber. - Governor. Once the Comptroller certifies the appropriations bill, then the Governor is allowed to sign the bill into law. The Governor of Texas also has the power of line-item veto, where only parts of the budget are rejected. Texas Budget Expenditures Texas Budget Expenditures - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money The state of Texas spends over half of their budget on Health and Human Services & Education. 36.8% of the state’s budget is spent on Health and Human Services, and 36.7 was spent on Education. Health and Human Services include Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Medicaid, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Department of Aging and Disability Services. Education is split into two categories: Public education, and Higher education.[2] Reading Review Questions [1 pt. per item] Sequence these steps in the budget process. [1 happens first Comptroller certifies the budget ensuring that it is balanced Finance Committees reviews budget proposals Government agencies submit requests for money Governor signs the budget into law LBB and Governor send their budget proposals to the Legislature Legislative Budget Board & Governor's Office of Budget, Planning, and Policy receive agency requests Senate and House chambers vote on the appropriations bills Explain the composition of the LBB. [Membership and Leadership] Specifically, what mandates a balanced budget in Texas? Describe how can the Texas Legislature override this requirement. What percentage of the 2014-2015 budget went towards Health and Human Services? What category received almost the exact same amount? What are the three specific programs included in the Health and Human Services expenditures?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.545828	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61398/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas Revenue and Budget, Chapter 11.3: Texas’ Budgetary Processes and Expenditures", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61389/overview	Chapter 9.1: Sources and Hierarchy of Law Overview Sources of Law Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to - Distinguish between the various the sources of law - Understand the hierarchy of the various sources of law By the end of this section, you will be able to - Distinguish between the various the sources of law - Understand the hierarchy of the various sources of law Sources of Law Sources of Law Constitutional Law - National Constitution - Texas Constitution Statutory Law - National Laws (laws passed by Congress) - Texas State Statutes (laws passed by the Texas Legislature) Administrative Regulations - National regulations - Texas State administrative code Court precedents (decisions of both the Federal and high state courts) Local codes and ordinances (laws passed by county, city, and school boards) Hierarchy of law Hierarchy of law The hierarchy of law in our system is relatively simple: Constitutional Law overrules statutory law which in turn overrules administrative regulations which finally overrules local codes and ordinances. Reading Review Questions Sequence these items using numbers 1-7 (1 is most superior) - _____ STATE ADMINISTRATIVE CODE - _____ U.S. CONSTITUTION - _____ CITY ORDINANCES - _____ ACTS OF CONGRESS - _____ TEXAS CONSTITUTION - _____ U.S. EXECUTIVE BRANCH REGULATIONS - _____ TEXAS STATE LAWS Use the internet to define the term “precedent”. What type of precedent could be superior to the U.S. Constitution? Use the internet to define”hierarchy”. How does this term apply to the list in item #1 above?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.564117	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61389/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Chapter 9.1: Sources and Hierarchy of Law", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51113/overview	The Scientific Method Overview Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) (Figure 1.5), who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be applied to almost all fields of study as a logical, rational problem-solving method. Introduction Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) (Figure 1.5), who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be applied to almost all fields of study as a logical, rational problem-solving method. The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. Let’s think about a simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the problem. One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That is an observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why is the classroom so warm?” Proposing a Hypothesis Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air conditioning.” But there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air conditioning doesn’t work.” Once a hypothesis has been selected, the student can make a prediction. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it typically has the format “If . . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “If the student turns on the air conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be too warm.” Testing a Hypothesis A valid hypothesis must be testable. It should also be falsifiable, meaning that it can be disproven by experimental results. Importantly, science does not claim to “prove” anything because scientific understandings are always subject to modification with further information. This step—openness to disproving ideas—is what distinguishes sciences from non-sciences. The presence of the supernatural, for instance, is neither testable nor falsifiable. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control group contains every feature of the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation that is hypothesized about. Therefore, if the results of the experimental group differ from the control group, the difference must be due to the hypothesized manipulation, rather than some outside factor. Look for the variables and controls in the examples that follow. To test the first hypothesis, the student would find out if the air conditioning is on. If the air conditioning is turned on but does not work, there should be another reason, and this hypothesis should be rejected. To test the second hypothesis, the student could check if the lights in the classroom are functional. If so, there is no power failure and this hypothesis should be rejected. Each hypothesis should be tested by carrying out appropriate experiments. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid (Figure 1.6). Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected. While this “warm classroom” example is based on observational results, other hypotheses and experiments might have clearer controls. For instance, a student might attend class on Monday and realize she had difficulty concentrating on the lecture. One observation to explain this occurrence might be, “When I eat breakfast before class, I am better able to pay attention.” The student could then design an experiment with a control to test this hypothesis. In hypothesis-based science, specific results are predicted from a general premise. This type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning: deduction proceeds from the general to the particular. But the reverse of the process is also possible: sometimes, scientists reach a general conclusion from a number of specific observations. This type of reasoning is called inductive reasoning, and it proceeds from the particular to the general. Inductive and deductive reasoning are often used in tandem to advance scientific knowledge (Figure 1.7). The scientific method may seem too rigid and structured. It is important to keep in mind that, although scientists often follow this sequence, there is flexibility. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method alone suggests. Notice, too, that the scientific method can be applied to solving problems that aren’t necessarily scientific in nature.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.581905	02/13/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51113/overview", "title": "Biology - Remixed for Austin Community College, The Study of Life, The Scientific Method", "author": "Alice Sessions" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28778/overview	How Individuals Make Choices Based on Their Budget Constraint Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Calculate and graph budget constraints - Explain opportunity sets and opportunity costs - Evaluate the law of diminishing marginal utility - Explain how marginal analysis and utility influence choices The Budget Constraint Consider the typical consumer’s budget problem. Consumers have a limited amount of income to spend on the things they need and want. Suppose Alphonso has $10 in spending money each week that he can allocate between bus tickets for getting to work and the burgers that he eats for lunch. Burgers cost $2 each, and bus tickets are 50 cents each. We can see Alphonso's budget problem in Figure. The vertical axis in the figure shows burger purchases and the horizontal axis shows bus ticket purchases. If Alphonso spends all his money on burgers, he can afford five per week. ($10 per week/$2 per burger = 5 burgers per week.) However, if he does this, he will not be able to afford any bus tickets. Point A in the figure shows the choice (zero bus tickets and five burgers). Alternatively, if Alphonso spends all his money on bus tickets, he can afford 20 per week. ($10 per week/$0.50 per bus ticket = 20 bus tickets per week.) Then, however, he will not be able to afford any burgers. Point F shows this alternative choice (20 bus tickets and zero burgers). If we connect all the points between A and F, we get Alphonso's budget constraint. This indicates all the combination of burgers and bus tickets Alphonso can afford, given the price of the two goods and his budget amount. If Alphonso is like most people, he will choose some combination that includes both bus tickets and burgers. That is, he will choose some combination on the budget constraint that is between points A and F. Every point on (or inside) the constraint shows a combination of burgers and bus tickets that Alphonso can afford. Any point outside the constraint is not affordable, because it would cost more money than Alphonso has in his budget. The budget constraint clearly shows the tradeoff Alphonso faces in choosing between burgers and bus tickets. Suppose he is currently at point D, where he can afford 12 bus tickets and two burgers. What would it cost Alphonso for one more burger? It would be natural to answer $2, but that’s not the way economists think. Instead they ask, how many bus tickets would Alphonso have to give up to get one more burger, while staying within his budget? Since bus tickets cost 50 cents, Alphonso would have to give up four to afford one more burger. That is the true cost to Alphonso. The Concept of Opportunity Cost Economists use the term opportunity cost to indicate what one must give up to obtain what he or she desires. The idea behind opportunity cost is that the cost of one item is the lost opportunity to do or consume something else. In short, opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative. For Alphonso, the opportunity cost of a burger is the four bus tickets he would have to give up. He would decide whether or not to choose the burger depending on whether the value of the burger exceeds the value of the forgone alternative—in this case, bus tickets. Since people must choose, they inevitably face tradeoffs in which they have to give up things they desire to obtain other things they desire more. View this website for an example of opportunity cost—paying someone else to wait in line for you. A fundamental principle of economics is that every choice has an opportunity cost. If you sleep through your economics class, the opportunity cost is the learning you miss from not attending class. If you spend your income on video games, you cannot spend it on movies. If you choose to marry one person, you give up the opportunity to marry anyone else. In short, opportunity cost is all around us and part of human existence. The following Work It Out feature shows a step-by-step analysis of a budget constraint calculation. Read through it to understand another important concept—slope—that we further explain in the appendix The Use of Mathematics in Principles of Economics. Understanding Budget Constraints Budget constraints are easy to understand if you apply a little math. The appendix The Use of Mathematics in Principles of Economics explains all the math you are likely to need in this book. Therefore, if math is not your strength, you might want to take a look at the appendix. Step 1: The equation for any budget constraint is: where P and Q are the price and quantity of items purchased (which we assume here to be two items) and Budget is the amount of income one has to spend. Step 2. Apply the budget constraint equation to the scenario. In Alphonso’s case, this works out to be: Step 3. Using a little algebra, we can turn this into the familiar equation of a line: For Alphonso, this is: Step 4. Simplify the equation. Begin by multiplying both sides of the equation by 2: Step 5. Subtract one bus ticket from both sides: Divide each side by 4 to yield the answer: Step 6. Notice that this equation fits the budget constraint in Figure. The vertical intercept is 5 and the slope is –0.25, just as the equation says. If you plug 20 bus tickets into the equation, you get 0 burgers. If you plug other numbers of bus tickets into the equation, you get the results (see Table), which are the points on Alphonso’s budget constraint. \| Point \| Quantity of Burgers (at $2) \| Quantity of Bus Tickets (at 50 cents) \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| A \| 5 \| 0 \| \| B \| 4 \| 4 \| \| C \| 3 \| 8 \| \| D \| 2 \| 12 \| \| E \| 1 \| 16 \| \| F \| 0 \| 20 \| Step 7. Notice that the slope of a budget constraint always shows the opportunity cost of the good which is on the horizontal axis. For Alphonso, the slope is −0.25, indicating that for every bus ticket he buys, he must give up 1/4 burger. To phrase it differently, for every four tickets he buys, Alphonso must give up 1 burger. There are two important observations here. First, the algebraic sign of the slope is negative, which means that the only way to get more of one good is to give up some of the other. Second, we define the slope as the price of bus tickets (whatever is on the horizontal axis in the graph) divided by the price of burgers (whatever is on the vertical axis), in this case $0.50/$2 = 0.25. If you want to determine the opportunity cost quickly, just divide the two prices. Identifying Opportunity Cost In many cases, it is reasonable to refer to the opportunity cost as the price. If your cousin buys a new bicycle for $300, then $300 measures the amount of “other consumption” that he has forsaken. For practical purposes, there may be no special need to identify the specific alternative product or products that he could have bought with that $300, but sometimes the price as measured in dollars may not accurately capture the true opportunity cost. This problem can loom especially large when costs of time are involved. For example, consider a boss who decides that all employees will attend a two-day retreat to “build team spirit.” The out-of-pocket monetary cost of the event may involve hiring an outside consulting firm to run the retreat, as well as room and board for all participants. However, an opportunity cost exists as well: during the two days of the retreat, none of the employees are doing any other work. Attending college is another case where the opportunity cost exceeds the monetary cost. The out-of-pocket costs of attending college include tuition, books, room and board, and other expenses. However, in addition, during the hours that you are attending class and studying, it is impossible to work at a paying job. Thus, college imposes both an out-of-pocket cost and an opportunity cost of lost earnings. What is the opportunity cost associated with increased airport security measures? After the terrorist plane hijackings on September 11, 2001, many steps were proposed to improve air travel safety. For example, the federal government could provide armed “sky marshals” who would travel inconspicuously with the rest of the passengers. The cost of having a sky marshal on every flight would be roughly $3 billion per year. Retrofitting all U.S. planes with reinforced cockpit doors to make it harder for terrorists to take over the plane would have a price tag of $450 million. Buying more sophisticated security equipment for airports, like three-dimensional baggage scanners and cameras linked to face recognition software, could cost another $2 billion. However, the single biggest cost of greater airline security does not involve spending money. It is the opportunity cost of additional waiting time at the airport. According to the United States Department of Transportation (DOT), there were 895.5 million systemwide (domestic and international) scheduled service passengers in 2015. Since the 9/11 hijackings, security screening has become more intensive, and consequently, the procedure takes longer than in the past. Say that, on average, each air passenger spends an extra 30 minutes in the airport per trip. Economists commonly place a value on time to convert an opportunity cost in time into a monetary figure. Because many air travelers are relatively high-paid business people, conservative estimates set the average price of time for air travelers at $20 per hour. By these back-of-the-envelope calculations, the opportunity cost of delays in airports could be as much as 800 million × 0.5 hours × $20/hour, or $8 billion per year. Clearly, the opportunity costs of waiting time can be just as important as costs that involve direct spending. In some cases, realizing the opportunity cost can alter behavior. Imagine, for example, that you spend $8 on lunch every day at work. You may know perfectly well that bringing a lunch from home would cost only $3 a day, so the opportunity cost of buying lunch at the restaurant is $5 each day (that is, the $8 buying lunch costs minus the $3 your lunch from home would cost). Five dollars each day does not seem to be that much. However, if you project what that adds up to in a year—250 days a year × $5 per day equals $1,250, the cost, perhaps, of a decent vacation. If you describe the opportunity cost as “a nice vacation” instead of “$5 a day,” you might make different choices. Marginal Decision-Making and Diminishing Marginal Utility The budget constraint framework helps to emphasize that most choices in the real world are not about getting all of one thing or all of another; that is, they are not about choosing either the point at one end of the budget constraint or else the point all the way at the other end. Instead, most choices involve marginal analysis, which means examining the benefits and costs of choosing a little more or a little less of a good. People naturally compare costs and benefits, but often we look at total costs and total benefits, when the optimal choice necessitates comparing how costs and benefits change from one option to another. You might think of marginal analysis as “change analysis.” Marginal analysis is used throughout economics. We now turn to the notion of utility. People desire goods and services for the satisfaction or utility those goods and services provide. Utility, as we will see in the chapter on Consumer Choices, is subjective but that does not make it less real. Economists typically assume that the more of some good one consumes (for example, slices of pizza), the more utility one obtains. At the same time, the utility a person receives from consuming the first unit of a good is typically more than the utility received from consuming the fifth or the tenth unit of that same good. When Alphonso chooses between burgers and bus tickets, for example, the first few bus rides that he chooses might provide him with a great deal of utility—perhaps they help him get to a job interview or a doctor’s appointment. However, later bus rides might provide much less utility—they may only serve to kill time on a rainy day. Similarly, the first burger that Alphonso chooses to buy may be on a day when he missed breakfast and is ravenously hungry. However, if Alphonso has a burger every single day, the last few burgers may taste pretty boring. The general pattern that consumption of the first few units of any good tends to bring a higher level of utility to a person than consumption of later units is a common pattern. Economists refer to this pattern as the law of diminishing marginal utility, which means that as a person receives more of a good, the additional (or marginal) utility from each additional unit of the good declines. In other words, the first slice of pizza brings more satisfaction than the sixth. The law of diminishing marginal utility explains why people and societies rarely make all-or-nothing choices. You would not say, “My favorite food is ice cream, so I will eat nothing but ice cream from now on.” Instead, even if you get a very high level of utility from your favorite food, if you ate it exclusively, the additional or marginal utility from those last few servings would not be very high. Similarly, most workers do not say: “I enjoy leisure, so I’ll never work.” Instead, workers recognize that even though some leisure is very nice, a combination of all leisure and no income is not so attractive. The budget constraint framework suggests that when people make choices in a world of scarcity, they will use marginal analysis and think about whether they would prefer a little more or a little less. A rational consumer would only purchase additional units of some product as long as the marginal utility exceeds the opportunity cost. Suppose Alphonso moves down his budget constraint from Point A to Point B to Point C and further. As he consumes more bus tickets, the marginal utility of bus tickets will diminish, while the opportunity cost, that is, the marginal utility of foregone burgers, will increase. Eventually, the opportunity cost will exceed the marginal utility of an additional bus ticket. If Alphonso is rational, he won’t purchase more bus tickets once the marginal utility just equals the opportunity cost. While we can’t (yet) say exactly how many bus tickets Alphonso will buy, that number is unlikely to be the most he can afford, 20. Sunk Costs In the budget constraint framework, all decisions involve what will happen next: that is, what quantities of goods will you consume, how many hours will you work, or how much will you save. These decisions do not look back to past choices. Thus, the budget constraint framework assumes that sunk costs, which are costs that were incurred in the past and cannot be recovered, should not affect the current decision. Consider the case of Selena, who pays $8 to see a movie, but after watching the film for 30 minutes, she knows that it is truly terrible. Should she stay and watch the rest of the movie because she paid for the ticket, or should she leave? The money she spent is a sunk cost, and unless the theater manager is sympathetic, Selena will not get a refund. However, staying in the movie still means paying an opportunity cost in time. Her choice is whether to spend the next 90 minutes suffering through a cinematic disaster or to do something—anything—else. The lesson of sunk costs is to forget about the money and time that is irretrievably gone and instead to focus on the marginal costs and benefits of current and future options. For people and firms alike, dealing with sunk costs can be frustrating. It often means admitting an earlier error in judgment. Many firms, for example, find it hard to give up on a new product that is doing poorly because they spent so much money in creating and launching the product. However, the lesson of sunk costs is to ignore them and make decisions based on what will happen in the future. From a Model with Two Goods to One of Many Goods The budget constraint diagram containing just two goods, like most models used in this book, is not realistic. After all, in a modern economy people choose from thousands of goods. However, thinking about a model with many goods is a straightforward extension of what we discussed here. Instead of drawing just one budget constraint, showing the tradeoff between two goods, you can draw multiple budget constraints, showing the possible tradeoffs between many different pairs of goods. In more advanced classes in economics, you would use mathematical equations that include many possible goods and services that can be purchased, together with their quantities and prices, and show how the total spending on all goods and services is limited to the overall budget available. The graph with two goods that we presented here clearly illustrates that every choice has an opportunity cost, which is the point that does carry over to the real world. Key Concepts and Summary Economists see the real world as one of scarcity: that is, a world in which people’s desires exceed what is possible. As a result, economic behavior involves tradeoffs in which individuals, firms, and society must forgo something that they desire to obtain things that they desire more. Individuals face the tradeoff of what quantities of goods and services to consume. The budget constraint, which is the frontier of the opportunity set, illustrates the range of available choices. The relative price of the choices determines the slope of the budget constraint. Choices beyond the budget constraint are not affordable. Opportunity cost measures cost by what we forgo in exchange. Sometimes we can measure opportunity cost in money, but it is often useful to consider time as well, or to measure it in terms of the actual resources that we must forfeit. Most economic decisions and tradeoffs are not all-or-nothing. Instead, they involve marginal analysis, which means they are about decisions on the margin, involving a little more or a little less. The law of diminishing marginal utility points out that as a person receives more of something—whether it is a specific good or another resource—the additional marginal gains tend to become smaller. Because sunk costs occurred in the past and cannot be recovered, they should be disregarded in making current decisions. Self-Check Questions Suppose Alphonso’s town raised the price of bus tickets to $1 per trip (while the price of burgers stayed at $2 and his budget remained $10 per week.) Draw Alphonso’s new budget constraint. What happens to the opportunity cost of bus tickets? Hint: The opportunity cost of bus tickets is the number of burgers that must be given up to obtain one more bus ticket. Originally, when the price of bus tickets was 50 cents per trip, this opportunity cost was 0.50/2 = .25 burgers. The reason for this is that at the original prices, one burger ($2) costs the same as four bus tickets ($0.50), so the opportunity cost of a burger is four bus tickets, and the opportunity cost of a bus ticket is .25 (the inverse of the opportunity cost of a burger). With the new, higher price of bus tickets, the opportunity cost rises to $1/$2 or 0.50. You can see this graphically since the slope of the new budget constraint is steeper than the original one. If Alphonso spends all of his budget on burgers, the higher price of bus tickets has no impact so the vertical intercept of the budget constraint is the same. If he spends all of his budget on bus tickets, he can now afford only half as many, so the horizontal intercept is half as much. In short, the budget constraint rotates clockwise around the vertical intercept, steepening as it goes and the opportunity cost of bus tickets increases. Review Questions Explain why scarcity leads to tradeoffs. Explain why individuals make choices that are directly on the budget constraint, rather than inside the budget constraint or outside it. Critical Thinking Question Suppose Alphonso’s town raises the price of bus tickets from $0.50 to $1 and the price of burgers rises from $2 to $4. Why is the opportunity cost of bus tickets unchanged? Suppose Alphonso’s weekly spending money increases from $10 to $20. How is his budget constraint affected from all three changes? Explain. Problems If the price of a magazine is $4 each, what is the maximum number of magazines she could buy in a week? If the price of a pie is $12, what is the maximum number of pies she could buy in a week? Draw Marie’s budget constraint with pies on the horizontal axis and magazines on the vertical axis. What is the slope of the budget constraint? What is Marie’s opportunity cost of purchasing a pie? References Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 2015. “Median Weekly Earnings by Educational Attainment in 2014.” Accessed March 27, 2015. http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2015/median-weekly-earnings-by-education-gender-race-and-ethnicity-in-2014.htm. Robbins, Lionel. An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science. London: Macmillan. 1932. United States Department of Transportation. “Total Passengers on U.S Airlines and Foreign Airlines U.S. Flights Increased 1.3% in 2012 from 2011.” Accessed October 2013. http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/press_releases/bts016_13	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.616135	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28778/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Choice in a World of Scarcity, How Individuals Make Choices Based on Their Budget Constraint", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28796/overview	Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective Overview This module covers: - Measuring the Size of the Economy: Gross Domestic Product - Adjusting Nominal Values to Real Values - Tracking Real GDP over Time - Comparing GDP among Countries - How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective How is the Economy Doing? How Does One Tell? The 1990s were boom years for the U.S. economy. Beginning in the late 2000s, from 2007 to 2014 economic performance in in the U.S. was poor. What causes the economy to expand or contract? Why do businesses fail when they are making all the right decisions? Why do workers lose their jobs when they are hardworking and productive? Are bad economic times a failure of the market system? Are they a failure of the government? These are all questions of macroeconomics, which we will begin to address in this chapter. We will not be able to answer all of these questions here, but we will start with the basics: How is the economy doing? How can we tell? The macro economy includes all buying and selling, all production and consumption; everything that goes on in every market in the economy. How can we get a handle on that? The answer begins more than 80 years ago, during the Great Depression. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his economic advisers knew things were bad—but how could they express and measure just how bad it was? An economist named Simon Kuznets, who later won the Nobel Prize for his work, came up with a way to track what the entire economy is producing. In this chapter, you will learn how the government constructs GDP, how we use it, and why it is so important. Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective In this chapter, you will learn about: - Measuring the Size of the Economy: Gross Domestic Product - Adjusting Nominal Values to Real Values - Tracking Real GDP over Time - Comparing GDP among Countries - How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society Macroeconomics focuses on the economy as a whole (or on whole economies as they interact). What causes recessions? What makes unemployment stay high when recessions are supposed to be over? Why do some countries grow faster than others? Why do some countries have higher standards of living than others? These are all questions that macroeconomics addresses. Macroeconomics involves adding up the economic activity of all households and all businesses in all markets to obtain the overall demand and supply in the economy. However, when we do that, something curious happens. It is not unusual that what results at the macro level is different from the sum of the microeconomic parts. What seems sensible from a microeconomic point of view can have unexpected or counterproductive results at the macroeconomic level. Imagine that you are sitting at an event with a large audience, like a live concert or a basketball game. A few people decide that they want a better view, and so they stand up. However, when these people stand up, they block the view for other people, and the others need to stand up as well if they wish to see. Eventually, nearly everyone is standing up, and as a result, no one can see much better than before. The rational decision of some individuals at the micro level—to stand up for a better view—ended up as self-defeating at the macro level. This is not macroeconomics, but it is an apt analogy. Macroeconomics is a rather massive subject. How are we going to tackle it? Figure illustrates the structure we will use. We will study macroeconomics from three different perspectives: - What are the macroeconomic goals? (Macroeconomics as a discipline does not have goals, but we do have goals for the macro economy.) - What are the frameworks economists can use to analyze the macroeconomy? - Finally, what are the policy tools governments can use to manage the macroeconomy? Goals In thinking about the macroeconomy's overall health, it is useful to consider three primary goals: economic growth, low unemployment, and low inflation. - Economic growth ultimately determines the prevailing standard of living in a country. Economists measure growth by the percentage change in real (inflation-adjusted) gross domestic product. A growth rate of more than 3% is considered good. - Unemployment, as measured by the unemployment rate, is the percentage of people in the labor force who do not have a job. When people lack jobs, the economy is wasting a precious resource-labor, and the result is lower goods and services produced. Unemployment, however, is more than a statistic—it represents people’s livelihoods. While measured unemployment is unlikely to ever be zero, economists consider a measured unemployment rate of 5% or less low (good). - Inflation is a sustained increase in the overall level of prices, and is measured by the consumer price index. If many people face a situation where the prices that they pay for food, shelter, and healthcare are rising much faster than the wages they receive for their labor, there will be widespread unhappiness as their standard of living declines. For that reason, low inflation—an inflation rate of 1–2%—is a major goal. Frameworks As you learn in the micro part of this book, principal tools that economists use are theories and models (see Welcome to Economics! for more on this). In microeconomics, we used the theories of supply and demand. In macroeconomics, we use the theories of aggregate demand (AD) and aggregate supply (AS). This book presents two perspectives on macroeconomics: the Neoclassical perspective and the Keynesian perspective, each of which has its own version of AD and AS. Between the two perspectives, you will obtain a good understanding of what drives the macroeconomy. Policy Tools National governments have two tools for influencing the macroeconomy. The first is monetary policy, which involves managing the money supply and interest rates. The second is fiscal policy, which involves changes in government spending/purchases and taxes. We will explain each of the items in Figure in detail in one or more other chapters. As you learn these things, you will discover that the goals and the policy tools are in the news almost every day.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.638042	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28796/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Macroeconomic Perspective, Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51112/overview	The Science of Biology Overview What is biology? In simple terms, biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. This is a very broad definition because the scope of biology is vast. Biologists may study anything from the microscopic or submicroscopic view of a cell to ecosystems and the whole living planet (Figure 1.2). Listening to the daily news, you will quickly realize how many aspects of biology are discussed every day. For example, recent news topics include Escherichia coli (Figure 1.3) outbreaks in spinach and Salmonella contamination in peanut butter. Other subjects include efforts toward finding a cure for AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer. On a global scale, many researchers are committed to finding ways to protect the planet, solve environmental issues, and reduce the effects of climate change. All of these diverse endeavors are related to different facets of the discipline of biology. Introduction What is biology? In simple terms, biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. This is a very broad definition because the scope of biology is vast. Biologists may study anything from the microscopic or submicroscopic view of a cell to ecosystems and the whole living planet (Figure 1.2). Listening to the daily news, you will quickly realize how many aspects of biology are discussed every day. For example, recent news topics include Escherichia coli (Figure 1.3) outbreaks in spinach and Salmonella contamination in peanut butter. Other subjects include efforts toward finding a cure for AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer. On a global scale, many researchers are committed to finding ways to protect the planet, solve environmental issues, and reduce the effects of climate change. All of these diverse endeavors are related to different facets of the discipline of biology. The Process of Science Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge”) can be defined as knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method. It becomes clear from this definition that the application of the scientific method plays a major role in science. The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses by means of repeatable experiments. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested. Although using the scientific method is inherent to science, it is inadequate in determining what science is. This is because it is relatively easy to apply the scientific method to disciplines such as physics and chemistry, but when it comes to disciplines like archaeology, psychology, and geology, the scientific method becomes less applicable as it becomes more difficult to repeat experiments. These areas of study are still sciences, however. Consider archeology—even though one cannot perform repeatable experiments, hypotheses may still be supported. For instance, an archeologist can hypothesize that an ancient culture existed based on finding a piece of pottery. Further hypotheses could be made about various characteristics of this culture, and these hypotheses may be found to be correct or false through continued support or contradictions from other findings. A hypothesis may become a verified theory. A theory is a tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena. Science may be better defined as fields of study that attempt to comprehend the nature of the universe. Natural Sciences What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or, maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics (Figure 1.4). However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above. There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include, however. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences, which study living things and include biology, and physical sciences, which study nonliving matter and include astronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on both life and physical sciences and are interdisciplinary. Natural sciences are sometimes referred to as “hard science” because they rely on the use of quantitative data; social sciences that study society and human behavior are more likely to use qualitative assessments to drive investigations and findings. Not surprisingly, the natural science of biology has many branches or subdisciplines. Cell biologists study cell structure and function, while biologists who study anatomy investigate the structure of an entire organism. Those biologists studying physiology, however, focus on the internal functioning of an organism. Some areas of biology focus on only particular types of living things. For example, botanists explore plants, while zoologists specialize in animals. Scientific Reasoning One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. To do this, they use two methods of logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative or quantitative, and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies provide an example. In this type of research, many live brains are observed while people are doing a specific activity, such as viewing images of food. The part of the brain that “lights up” during this activity is then predicted to be the part controlling the response to the selected stimulus, in this case, images of food. The “lighting up” of the various areas of the brain is caused by excess absorption of radioactive sugar derivatives by active areas of the brain. The resultant increase in radioactivity is observed by a scanner. Then, researchers can stimulate that part of the brain to see if similar responses result. Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reason, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. Studies in climate change can illustrate this type of reasoning. For example, scientists may predict that if the climate becomes warmer in a particular region, then the distribution of plants and animals should change. These predictions have been made and tested, and many such changes have been found, such as the modification of arable areas for agriculture, with change based on temperature averages. Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science, which is usually inductive, aims to observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science, which is usually deductive, begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, and most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. The fuzzy boundary becomes apparent when thinking about how easily observation can lead to specific questions. For example, a gentleman in the 1940s observed that the burr seeds that stuck to his clothes and his dog’s fur had a tiny hook structure. On closer inspection, he discovered that the burrs’ gripping device was more reliable than a zipper. He eventually developed a company and produced the hook-and-loop fastener popularly known today as Velcro. Descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue. Exercises Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning. - All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they move through the air. Therefore, wings enable flight.Show Answer - Insects generally survive mild winters better than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will become more problematic if global temperatures increase.Show Answer - Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, separate into daughter cells during cell division. Therefore, DNA is the genetic material.Show Answer - Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore, social behavior must have an evolutionary advantage. Show Answer	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.658729	02/13/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51112/overview", "title": "Biology - Remixed for Austin Community College, The Study of Life, The Science of Biology", "author": "Alice Sessions" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53015/overview	Who is in control? Overview This migrant agricultural worker’s family might find participating with government difficult when daily life is a struggle. Does socioeconomic status affect civic participation? (Credit: Dorothea Lange; Library of Congress Collection) LEARNING OBJECTIVES · Define important concepts such as unalienable rights and consent of the governed. · Understand basic theories of government–elitism and pluralism. · Acknowledge the existence of trade-offs. The United States guarantees its citizens the right to participate in government. In fact, the republic is based upon the ideas of consent by those who are governed and individual participation. If each individual, regardless of birth or circumstances, has value and possesses unalienable rights, individuals may band together to protect and defend these rights. If individuals believe these rights are unalienable (inseparable) from the human condition either by human reasoning or personal recognition of divine authority, they may also believe that no government should separate them from their rights to life, liberty, and property without their consent. Individuals in the new republic formed a government based upon consent; unfortunately, consent was not expanded to all individuals living within the borders of the new nation at the time of formation. Ideally, all individual citizens would acknowledge consent for the government while allowing this government to balance protection of individual liberty with maintenance of security and order. Civic Participation, Political Equality, and Majoritarianism If citizens wish to form a representative government, participation in choosing representatives that will make the laws is necessary. This democratic ideal of civic participation is characterized by consent of the majority through citizen voting for these representatives. Moreover, in voting booths, each person has politically equal influence–one person/one vote. Thus, voting for representatives manifests three democratic ideals–civic participation, majority rule, and political equality. This conception of representative government has been called majoritarian and places its reliance on individual civic participation in the electoral process to achieve consent of the governed. (Credit: Gilens, Martin and Benjamin I. Page. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics, Sept. 2014, Vol 12/No. 3, Page 565.) Margaret V. Lally is pictured here at the door of a voting booth during the first election where women could vote. (Credit: Bain News Service, Library of Congress Collection) The founders of the U.S. Constitution understood that citizens might band together in organized groups to attempt to influence elected representatives as they develop rules and laws. This form of civic participation is guaranteed in the Bill of Rights through the First Amendment’s right to petition the government to address your concerns and the right to assemble or organize political meetings or groups. The United States has many different levels and branches of government that any citizen or group might approach with concerns about protection of liberty and property or maintenance of order and security. Who is really in control of the government? Patriotic Rally of the citizens of Philadelphia for the Home Defense Committee, March 31, 1917 (Credit: Library of Congress Panoramic Photographs Collection) Elitism and Pluralism: The Alternative to Majoritarianism Many people believe evidence indicates U.S. citizens, especially as represented by competing groups, are able to influence government actions. This viewpoint is called the pluralist theory of government, which states political power rests with competing interest groups sharing influence over governmental decisions. Some political theorists, however, argue that a minority of citizens, economic and political elite, control the government and others have no influence. This belief is called the elite theory of government or elitism. According to this theory, the United States is, in fact, an oligarchy where power is concentrated in the hands of the few. Pluralists argue, political power is distributed throughout society. Rather than resting in the hands of individuals, a variety of organized groups hold power, with some groups having more influence on certain issues than others. Thousands of interest groups exist in the United States.[1] Approximately 70–90 percent of Americans report belonging to at least one group.[2] A veterans’ interest group protests bonus bill delay. Protesting Congress’ delay in considering the soldiers’ cash bonus proposal, scores of Washington veterans paraded to the Capitol in a demonstration to seek immediate action. They were met on the Capitol steps by members of the House who are war veterans, where the photograph shows them being addressed by Rep. Patman of Texas. (Credit: Library of Congress Collection) According to pluralist theory, people with shared interests will form groups to make their desires known to politicians. These groups include environmental advocates, unions, and organizations representing various business interests. Because most people lack the inclination, time or expertise necessary to actively advocate for their interests in Washington, D.C., these groups assume this role. As groups compete with one another and find themselves opposed on important issues, government policy forms. In this way, government policy is shaped from the bottom up and not from the top down, as in elitist theory. Robert Dahl, author of Who Governs? was one of the first to advance the pluralist theory, and argued that politicians seeking an “electoral payoff” are attentive to the concerns of politically active citizens and through them become acquainted with the needs of ordinary people. They will attempt to give people what they want in exchange for their votes.[3] The foremost supporter of elite theory was C. Wright Mills. In his book, The Power Elite, Mills argued that government was controlled by a combination of business, military, and political elites.[4] Most political elites are highly educated, often graduating from prestigious universities. According to elite theory, the wealthy use their power to control the nation’s economy such that those with little influence cannot advance economically. Wealth or political connections allow the elite to secure for themselves the politically important positions used to make decisions and allocate resources in ways that benefit this group. Politicians do the bidding of the wealthy instead of attending to the needs of ordinary people. Those who favor government by the elite believe the elite are better fit to govern and that average citizens are content to allow them to do so.[5] In apparent support of the elite perspective, one-third of U.S. presidents have attended Ivy League schools, a much higher percentage than the rest of the U.S. population.[6] All five of the most recent U.S. presidents attended prestigious East Coast or Ivy League schools such as Harvard, Yale, Columbia or University of Pennsylvania. Currently, more than half of the members of Congress are millionaires; their median net worth is just over $1 million, and some have much more.[7] There is considerable dispute over the validity of elite theory. While a clearly differentiated socio-economic group appears to exist in positions of power, members of this group often do not have the same political viewpoints. For example, while Presidents Bush, Obama and Trump all attended prestigious east coast universities, they do not share similar political views on many issues. Outside government, extremely wealthy billionaires can often be found on different sides of the issues, such as George Soros supporting Democrats and Sheldon Adelson supporting Republicans. Representative Government: Pluralism and Elitism Do pluralist interests groups and lobbying efforts fulfill the original concept of representative government? Pluralism can undermine some of the basic democratic ideals of representative government. Since not all groups are equally powerful–they do not fulfill precisely the principle of political equality or one person/one vote. Moreover, lobbying influence is not the same as majority rule. Governmental responsiveness to interest groups, even when all are combined, do not represent the true majority view of the people–only the view of those organized individuals. Clearly, elitism does not fulfill the democratic principles of political equality or majority rule either. By definition an elite is not a majority of the population–it is then the opposite of political equality. The Center for Responsive Politics is a non-partisan research group that provides data on who gives to whom in elections. Visit OpenSecrets.org: Center for Responsive Politics to track campaign contributions, congressional bills and committees, and interest groups and lobbyists. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER - What is the difference between elite and pluralist theory? Show Answer government is controlled by a small group of powerful or well-connected individuals versus government is controlled by competing groups of individuals - Can you describe unalienable rights? Show Answer rights you have as a human being; life, liberty, property - From what/who/where do unalienable rights arise or originate? Show Answer right reason, because you are a human being; because a higher power gives you the rights (individual choice) - Is citizen consent to government essential to liberty? Show Answer if the people have no control over government there is no liberty; government control quashes liberty TERMS TO REMEMBER AND ATTRIBUTIONS consent–individual citizens of a government recognize governmental authority; individual citizens vote or give consent to be ruled by a particular elected group of representatives elite theory (elitism)–claims political power rests in the hands of a small, elite group of people pluralist theory (pluralism)–claims political power rests in the hands of groups of people; competing groups majoritarian theory (majoritarianism)—claims the majority of citizens exercise political power and achieve consent of the governed through elections unalienable rights–rights possessed by every person; rights not conferred by the government; individual rights to life, liberty, and property 1. "The Non-Governmental Order: Will NGOs Democratise, or Merely Disrupt, Global Governance?" The Economist, 9 December 1999. ↵ 2. Ronald J. Hrebenar. 1997. Interest Group Politics in America, 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 14; Clive S. Thomas. 2004. Research Guide to U.S. and International Interest Groups. Westport, CT: Praeger, 106. ↵ 3. Dahl, Who Governs? 91–93. ↵ 4. C. Wright Mills. 1956. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press. ↵ 5. Jack L. Walker. 1966. "A Critique of the Elitist Theory of Democracy," The American Political Science Review 60, No. 2: 295. ↵ 6. The Ivy League is technically an athletic conference in the Northeast comprised of sports teams from eight institutions of higher education—Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, and Yale University—however, the term is also used to connote academic excellence or social elitism. ↵ 7. Alan Rappeport, "Making it Rain: Members of Congress Are Mostly Millionaires," New York Times, 12 January 2016. ↵ LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY · American Government. Authored by: OpenStax. Provided by: OpenStax; Rice University. Located at: https://cnx.org/contents/W8wOWXNF@12.1:Y1CfqFju@5/Preface. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/9e28f580-0d1b-4d72-8795-c48329947ac2@1. · Share icon. Authored by: Quan Do. Provided by: The Noun Project. Located at: https://thenounproject.com/term/share/7671/. License: CC BY: Attribution · Adaption and Remix, and Original Content. Authored by: Deborah Smith Hoag. Provided by: Austin Community College. Located at: http://austincc.edu. Project: Achieving the Dream Grant. License: CC BY: Attribution PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT · Official Portraits of the U.S. Presidents, Bush, Clinton, & Bush. Authored by: White House Historical Association. Provided by: White House Collection at WhiteHouse.gov. Located at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/photos-and-video/photogallery/official-portraits-us-presidents. Project: Achieving the Dream Grant. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright · Photos of President Obama and President-Elect Trump. Authored by: WhiteHouse.gov. Provided by: WhiteHouse.gov. Located at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/images/Administration/People/president_official_portrait_hires.jpg. Project: Achieving the Dream Grant. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.685033	04/04/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53015/overview", "title": "United States Government - Austin Community College, United States Government, Who is in control?", "author": "Deb Hoag" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28773/overview	What Is Economics, and Why Is It Important? Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the importance of studying economics - Explain the relationship between production and division of labor - Evaluate the significance of scarcity What is Economics? Economics is the study of how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity. These can be individual decisions, family decisions, business decisions or societal decisions. If you look around carefully, you will see that scarcity is a fact of life. Scarcity means that human wants for goods, services and resources exceed what is available. Resources, such as labor, tools, land, and raw materials are necessary to produce the goods and services we want but they exist in limited supply. Of course, the ultimate scarce resource is time- everyone, rich or poor, has just 24 expendable hours in the day to earn income to acquire goods and services, for leisure time, or for sleep. At any point in time, there is only a finite amount of resources available. Think about it this way: In 2015 the labor force in the United States contained over 158 million workers, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The total land area was 3,794,101 square miles. While these are certainly large numbers, they are not infinite. Because these resources are limited, so are the numbers of goods and services we produce with them. Combine this with the fact that human wants seem to be virtually infinite, and you can see why scarcity is a problem. Introduction to FRED Data is very important in economics because it describes and measures the issues and problems that economics seek to understand. A variety of government agencies publish economic and social data. For this course, we will generally use data from the St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank's FRED database. FRED is very user friendly. It allows you to display data in tables or charges, and you can easily download it into spreadsheet form if you want to use the data for other purposes. The FRED website includes data on nearly 400,000 domestic and international variables over time, in the following broad categories: - Money, Banking & Finance - Population, Employment, & Labor Markets (including Income Distribution) - National Accounts (Gross Domestic Product & its components), Flow of Funds, and International Accounts - Production & Business Activity (including Business Cycles) - Prices & Inflation (including the Consumer Price Index, the Producer Price Index, and the Employment Cost Index) - International Data from other nations - U.S. Regional Data - Academic Data (including Penn World Tables & NBER Macrohistory database) For more information about how to use FRED, see the variety of videos on YouTube starting with this introduction. If you still do not believe that scarcity is a problem, consider the following: Does everyone require food to eat? Does everyone need a decent place to live? Does everyone have access to healthcare? In every country in the world, there are people who are hungry, homeless (for example, those who call park benches their beds, as Figure shows), and in need of healthcare, just to focus on a few critical goods and services. Why is this the case? It is because of scarcity. Let’s delve into the concept of scarcity a little deeper, because it is crucial to understanding economics. The Problem of Scarcity Think about all the things you consume: food, shelter, clothing, transportation, healthcare, and entertainment. How do you acquire those items? You do not produce them yourself. You buy them. How do you afford the things you buy? You work for pay. If you do not, someone else does on your behalf. Yet most of us never have enough income to buy all the things we want. This is because of scarcity. So how do we solve it? Visit this website to read about how the United States is dealing with scarcity in resources. Every society, at every level, must make choices about how to use its resources. Families must decide whether to spend their money on a new car or a fancy vacation. Towns must choose whether to put more of the budget into police and fire protection or into the school system. Nations must decide whether to devote more funds to national defense or to protecting the environment. In most cases, there just isn’t enough money in the budget to do everything. How do we use our limited resources the best way possible, that is, to obtain the most goods and services we can? There are a couple of options. First, we could each produce everything we each consume. Alternatively, we could each produce some of what we want to consume, and “trade” for the rest of what we want. Let’s explore these options. Why do we not each just produce all of the things we consume? Think back to pioneer days, when individuals knew how to do so much more than we do today, from building their homes, to growing their crops, to hunting for food, to repairing their equipment. Most of us do not know how to do all—or any—of those things, but it is not because we could not learn. Rather, we do not have to. The reason why is something called the division and specialization of labor, a production innovation first put forth by Adam Smith (Figure) in his book, The Wealth of Nations. The Division of and Specialization of Labor The formal study of economics began when Adam Smith (1723–1790) published his famous book The Wealth of Nations in 1776. Many authors had written on economics in the centuries before Smith, but he was the first to address the subject in a comprehensive way. In the first chapter, Smith introduces the concept of division of labor, which means that the way one produces a good or service is divided into a number of tasks that different workers perform, instead of all the tasks being done by the same person. To illustrate division of labor, Smith counted how many tasks went into making a pin: drawing out a piece of wire, cutting it to the right length, straightening it, putting a head on one end and a point on the other, and packaging pins for sale, to name just a few. Smith counted 18 distinct tasks that different people performed—all for a pin, believe it or not! Modern businesses divide tasks as well. Even a relatively simple business like a restaurant divides the task of serving meals into a range of jobs like top chef, sous chefs, less-skilled kitchen help, servers to wait on the tables, a greeter at the door, janitors to clean up, and a business manager to handle paychecks and bills—not to mention the economic connections a restaurant has with suppliers of food, furniture, kitchen equipment, and the building where it is located. A complex business like a large manufacturing factory, such as the shoe factory (Figure), or a hospital can have hundreds of job classifications. Why the Division of Labor Increases Production When we divide and subdivide the tasks involved with producing a good or service, workers and businesses can produce a greater quantity of output. In his observations of pin factories, Smith noticed that one worker alone might make 20 pins in a day, but that a small business of 10 workers (some of whom would need to complete two or three of the 18 tasks involved with pin-making), could make 48,000 pins in a day. How can a group of workers, each specializing in certain tasks, produce so much more than the same number of workers who try to produce the entire good or service by themselves? Smith offered three reasons. First, specialization in a particular small job allows workers to focus on the parts of the production process where they have an advantage. (In later chapters, we will develop this idea by discussing comparative advantage.) People have different skills, talents, and interests, so they will be better at some jobs than at others. The particular advantages may be based on educational choices, which are in turn shaped by interests and talents. Only those with medical degrees qualify to become doctors, for instance. For some goods, geography affects specialization. For example, it is easier to be a wheat farmer in North Dakota than in Florida, but easier to run a tourist hotel in Florida than in North Dakota. If you live in or near a big city, it is easier to attract enough customers to operate a successful dry cleaning business or movie theater than if you live in a sparsely populated rural area. Whatever the reason, if people specialize in the production of what they do best, they will be more effective than if they produce a combination of things, some of which they are good at and some of which they are not. Second, workers who specialize in certain tasks often learn to produce more quickly and with higher quality. This pattern holds true for many workers, including assembly line laborers who build cars, stylists who cut hair, and doctors who perform heart surgery. In fact, specialized workers often know their jobs well enough to suggest innovative ways to do their work faster and better. A similar pattern often operates within businesses. In many cases, a business that focuses on one or a few products (sometimes called its “core competency”) is more successful than firms that try to make a wide range of products. Third, specialization allows businesses to take advantage of economies of scale, which means that for many goods, as the level of production increases, the average cost of producing each individual unit declines. For example, if a factory produces only 100 cars per year, each car will be quite expensive to make on average. However, if a factory produces 50,000 cars each year, then it can set up an assembly line with huge machines and workers performing specialized tasks, and the average cost of production per car will be lower. The ultimate result of workers who can focus on their preferences and talents, learn to do their specialized jobs better, and work in larger organizations is that society as a whole can produce and consume far more than if each person tried to produce all of his or her own goods and services. The division and specialization of labor has been a force against the problem of scarcity. Trade and Markets Specialization only makes sense, though, if workers can use the pay they receive for doing their jobs to purchase the other goods and services that they need. In short, specialization requires trade. You do not have to know anything about electronics or sound systems to play music—you just buy an iPod or MP3 player, download the music, and listen. You do not have to know anything about artificial fibers or the construction of sewing machines if you need a jacket—you just buy the jacket and wear it. You do not need to know anything about internal combustion engines to operate a car—you just get in and drive. Instead of trying to acquire all the knowledge and skills involved in producing all of the goods and services that you wish to consume, the market allows you to learn a specialized set of skills and then use the pay you receive to buy the goods and services you need or want. This is how our modern society has evolved into a strong economy. Why Study Economics? Now that you have an overview on what economics studies, let’s quickly discuss why you are right to study it. Economics is not primarily a collection of facts to memorize, although there are plenty of important concepts to learn. Instead, think of economics as a collection of questions to answer or puzzles to work. Most importantly, economics provides the tools to solve those puzzles. If the economics “bug” has not bitten you yet, there are other reasons why you should study economics. - Virtually every major problem facing the world today, from global warming, to world poverty, to the conflicts in Syria, Afghanistan, and Somalia, has an economic dimension. If you are going to be part of solving those problems, you need to be able to understand them. Economics is crucial. - It is hard to overstate the importance of economics to good citizenship. You need to be able to vote intelligently on budgets, regulations, and laws in general. When the U.S. government came close to a standstill at the end of 2012 due to the “fiscal cliff,” what were the issues? Did you know? - A basic understanding of economics makes you a well-rounded thinker. When you read articles about economic issues, you will understand and be able to evaluate the writer’s argument. When you hear classmates, co-workers, or political candidates talking about economics, you will be able to distinguish between common sense and nonsense. You will find new ways of thinking about current events and about personal and business decisions, as well as current events and politics. The study of economics does not dictate the answers, but it can illuminate the different choices. Key Concepts and Summary Economics seeks to solve the problem of scarcity, which is when human wants for goods and services exceed the available supply. A modern economy displays a division of labor, in which people earn income by specializing in what they produce and then use that income to purchase the products they need or want. The division of labor allows individuals and firms to specialize and to produce more for several reasons: a) It allows the agents to focus on areas of advantage due to natural factors and skill levels; b) It encourages the agents to learn and invent; c) It allows agents to take advantage of economies of scale. Division and specialization of labor only work when individuals can purchase what they do not produce in markets. Learning about economics helps you understand the major problems facing the world today, prepares you to be a good citizen, and helps you become a well-rounded thinker. Self-Check Questions What is scarcity? Can you think of two causes of scarcity? Hint: Scarcity means human wants for goods and services exceed the available supply. Supply is limited because resources are limited. Demand, however, is virtually unlimited. Whatever the supply, it seems human nature to want more. Residents of the town of Smithfield like to consume hams, but each ham requires 10 people to produce it and takes a month. If the town has a total of 100 people, what is the maximum amount of ham the residents can consume in a month? Hint: 100 people / 10 people per ham = a maximum of 10 hams per month if all residents produce ham. Since consumption is limited by production, the maximum number of hams residents could consume per month is 10. A consultant works for $200 per hour. She likes to eat vegetables, but is not very good at growing them. Why does it make more economic sense for her to spend her time at the consulting job and shop for her vegetables? Hint: She is very productive at her consulting job, but not very productive growing vegetables. Time spent consulting would produce far more income than it what she could save growing her vegetables using the same amount of time. So on purely economic grounds, it makes more sense for her to maximize her income by applying her labor to what she does best (i.e. specialization of labor). A computer systems engineer could paint his house, but it makes more sense for him to hire a painter to do it. Explain why. Hint: The engineer is better at computer science than at painting. Thus, his time is better spent working for pay at his job and paying a painter to paint his house. Of course, this assumes he does not paint his house for fun! Review Questions Give the three reasons that explain why the division of labor increases an economy’s level of production. What are three reasons to study economics? Critical Thinking Questions Suppose you have a team of two workers: one is a baker and one is a chef. Explain why the kitchen can produce more meals in a given period of time if each worker specializes in what they do best than if each worker tries to do everything from appetizer to dessert. Why would division of labor without trade not work? Can you think of any examples of free goods, that is, goods or services that are not scarce? References Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 2015. "The Employment Situation—February 2015." Accessed March 27, 2015. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf. Williamson, Lisa. “US Labor Market in 2012.” Bureau of Labor Statistics. Accessed December 1, 2013. http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/03/art1full.pdf.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.719777	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28773/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Welcome to Economics!, What Is Economics, and Why Is It Important?", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66253/overview	Glossary Overview Glossary Glossary: Introduction to Texas History and Politics alcalde: a Mexican oﬃcial who often served as combined civil administrator, judge, and law enforcement oﬃcer cash crop: a crop grown to sell rather than for the farmer's sole use. cotton boom: the huge increase in cotton production that occurred in the U.S. following the War of 1812. empresario: a person who brought new settlers to Texas in exchange for a grant of land individualistic political culture: the belief that government should limit its role to providing order in society so that citizens can pursue their economic self-interests. mestizo: people of mixed Indian and European ancestry moralistic political culture: the belief that government should be active in promoting the public good and that citizens should participate in politics and civic activities to ensure that good. Tejanos: Mexican residents of Texas traditionalistic political culture: the belief that government should be dominated by political elites and guided by tradition Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Introduction to Texas History and Politics: Glossary. Authored by: John Osterman. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.736996	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66253/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Introduction to Texas History and Politics, Glossary", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66246/overview	The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 Overview The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the influence the Mexican-American War had on Texas Introduction Tensions between the United States and Mexico rapidly deteriorated in the 1840s as American expansionists eagerly eyed Mexican land to the west, including the lush northern Mexican province of California. Indeed, in 1842, a U.S. naval fleet, incorrectly believing war had broken out, seized Monterey, California, a part of Mexico. Monterey was returned the next day, but the episode only added to the uneasiness with which Mexico viewed its northern neighbor. The forces of expansion, however, could not be contained, and American voters elected James Polk in 1844 because he promised to deliver more lands. President Polk fulfilled his promise by gaining Oregon and, most spectacularly, provoking a war with Mexico that ultimately fulfilled the wildest fantasies of expansionists. By 1848, the United States encompassed much of North America, a republic that stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific. James K. Polk And The Triumph Of Expansion A fervent belief in expansion gripped the United States in the 1840s. In 1845, a New York newspaper editor, John O’Sullivan, introduced the concept of “manifest destiny” to describe the popular idea of the special role of the United States in overspreading the continent—the divine right and duty of white Americans to seize and settle the American West, thus spreading Protestant, democratic values. In this climate of opinion, voters in 1844 elected James K. Polk, a slaveholder from Tennessee, because he vowed to annex Texas as a new slave state and take Oregon. Annexing Oregon was an important objective for U.S. foreign policy because it appeared to be an area rich in commercial possibilities. Northerners favored U.S. control of Oregon because ports in the Pacific Northwest would be gateways for trade with Asia. Southerners hoped that, in exchange for their support of expansion into the northwest, northerners would not oppose plans for expansion into the southwest. President Polk—whose campaign slogan in 1844 had been “Fifty-four forty or fight!”—asserted the United States’ right to gain full control of what was known as Oregon Country, from its southern border at 42° latitude (the current boundary with California) to its northern border at 54° 40′ latitude. According to an 1818 agreement, Great Britain and the United States held joint ownership of this territory, but the 1827 Treaty of Joint Occupation opened the land to settlement by both countries. Realizing that the British were not willing to cede all claims to the territory, Polk proposed the land be divided at 49° latitude (the current border between Washington and Canada). The British, however, denied U.S. claims to land north of the Columbia River (Oregon’s current northern border). Indeed, the British foreign secretary refused even to relay Polk’s proposal to London. However, reports of the difficulty Great Britain would face defending Oregon in the event of a U.S. attack, combined with concerns over affairs at home and elsewhere in its empire, quickly changed the minds of the British, and in June 1846, Queen Victoria’s government agreed to a division at the forty-ninth parallel. In contrast to the diplomatic solution with Great Britain over Oregon, when it came to Mexico, Polk and the American people proved willing to use force to wrest more land for the United States. In keeping with voters’ expectations, President Polk set his sights on the Mexican state of California. After the mistaken capture of Monterey, negotiations about purchasing the port of San Francisco from Mexico broke off until September 1845. Then, following a revolt in California that left it divided in two, Polk attempted to purchase Upper California and New Mexico as well. These efforts went nowhere. The Mexican government, angered by U.S. actions, refused to recognize the independence of Texas. Finally, after nearly a decade of public clamoring for the annexation of Texas, in December 1845 Polk officially agreed to the annexation of the former Mexican state, making the Lone Star Republic an additional slave state. Incensed that the United States had annexed Texas, however, the Mexican government refused to discuss the matter of selling land to the United States. Indeed, Mexico refused even to acknowledge Polk’s emissary, John Slidell, who had been sent to Mexico City to negotiate. Not to be deterred, Polk encouraged Thomas O. Larkin, the U.S. consul in Monterey, to assist any American settlers and any Californios, the Mexican residents of the state, who wished to proclaim their independence from Mexico. By the end of 1845, having broken diplomatic ties with the United States over Texas and having grown alarmed by American actions in California, the Mexican government warily anticipated the next move. It did not have long to wait. War With Mexico, 1846–1848 Expansionistic fervor propelled the United States to war against Mexico in 1846. The United States had long argued that the Rio Grande was the border between Mexico and the United States, and at the end of the Texas war for independence Santa Anna had been pressured to agree. Mexico, however, refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and insisted the border lay farther north, at the Nueces River. To set it at the Rio Grande would, in effect, allow the United States to control land it had never occupied. In Mexico’s eyes, therefore, President Polk violated its sovereign territory when he ordered U.S. troops into the disputed lands in 1846. From the Mexican perspective, it appeared the United States had invaded their nation. In January 1846, the U.S. force that was ordered to the banks of the Rio Grande to build a fort on the “American” side encountered a Mexican cavalry unit on patrol. Shots rang out, and sixteen U.S. soldiers were killed or wounded. Angrily declaring that Mexico “has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil,” President Polk demanded the United States declare war on Mexico. On May 12, Congress obliged. The small but vocal antislavery faction decried the decision to go to war, arguing that Polk had deliberately provoked hostilities so the United States could annex more slave territory. Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln and other members of Congress issued the “Spot Resolutions” in which they demanded to know the precise spot on U.S. soil where American blood had been spilled. Many Whigs also denounced the war. Democrats, however, supported Polk’s decision, and volunteers for the army came forward in droves from every part of the country except New England, the seat of abolitionist activity. Enthusiasm for the war was aided by the widely held belief that Mexico was a weak, impoverished country and that the Mexican people, perceived as ignorant, lazy, and controlled by a corrupt Roman Catholic clergy, would be easy to defeat. U.S. military strategy had three main objectives: 1) Take control of northern Mexico, including New Mexico; 2) seize California; and 3) capture Mexico City. General Zachary Taylor and his Army of the Center were assigned to accomplish the first goal, and with superior weapons they soon captured the Mexican city of Monterrey. Taylor quickly became a hero in the eyes of the American people, and Polk appointed him commander of all U.S. forces. General Stephen Watts Kearny, commander of the Army of the West, accepted the surrender of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and moved on to take control of California, leaving Colonel Sterling Price in command. Despite Kearny’s assurances that New Mexicans need not fear for their lives or their property, and in fact the region’s residents rose in revolt in January 1847 in an effort to drive the Americans away. Although Price managed to put an end to the rebellion, tensions remained high. Kearny, meanwhile, arrived in California to find it already in American hands through the joint efforts of California settlers, U.S. naval commander John D. Sloat, and John C. Fremont, a former army captain and son-in-law of Missouri senator Thomas Benton. Sloat, at anchor off the coast of Mazatlan, learned that war had begun and quickly set sail for California. He seized the town of Monterey in July 1846, less than a month after a group of American settlers led by William B. Ide had taken control of Sonoma and declared California a republic. A week after the fall of Monterey, the navy took San Francisco with no resistance. Although some Californios staged a short-lived rebellion in September 1846, many others submitted to the U.S. takeover. Thus Kearny had little to do other than take command of California as its governor. Leading the Army of the South was General Winfield Scott. Both Taylor and Scott were potential competitors for the presidency, and believing—correctly—that whoever seized Mexico City would become a hero, Polk assigned Scott the campaign to avoid elevating the more popular Taylor, who was affectionately known as “Old Rough and Ready.” Scott captured Veracruz in March 1847, and moving in a northwesterly direction from there (much as Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés had done in 1519), he slowly closed in on the capital. Every step of the way was a hard-fought victory, however, and Mexican soldiers and civilians both fought bravely to save their land from the American invaders. Mexico City’s defenders, including young military cadets, fought to the end. According to legend, cadet Juan Escutia’s last act was to save the Mexican flag, and he leapt from the city’s walls with it wrapped around his body. On September 14, 1847, Scott entered Mexico City’s central plaza; the city had fallen. While Polk and other expansionists called for “all Mexico,” the Mexican government and the United States negotiated for peace in 1848, resulting in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, was a triumph for American expansionism under which Mexico ceded nearly half its land to the United States. The Mexican Cession, as the conquest of land west of the Rio Grande was called, included the current states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico also recognized the Rio Grande as the border with the United States. Mexican citizens in the ceded territory were promised U.S. citizenship in the future when the territories they were living in became states. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $3.35 million worth of Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens, paid Mexico $15 million for the loss of its land, and promised to guard the residents of the Mexican Cession from Indian raids. Explore the U.S.-Mexican War at PBS to read about life in the Mexican and U.S. armies during the war and to learn more about the various battles. \| As extensive as the Mexican Cession was, some argued the United States should not be satisfied until it had taken all of Mexico. Many who were opposed to this idea were southerners who, while desiring the annexation of more slave territory, did not want to make Mexico’s large mestizo (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) population part of the United States. Others did not want to absorb a large group of Roman Catholics. These expansionists could not accept the idea of new U.S. territory filled with mixed-race, Catholic populations. Licenses And Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY U.S. History. Authored by: OpenStax. Provided by: OpenStax; Rice University. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/a7ba2fb8-8925-4987- b182-5f4429d48daa@6.16. License: CC BY: Attribution License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/a7ba2fb8-8925-4987-b182-5f4429d48daa@6.16.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.761280	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66246/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Introduction to Texas History and Politics, The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53074/overview	Appendix B: The Articles of Confederation Overview Appendix B from United States Government - Austin Community College: The Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting. Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. I. The Stile of this Confederacy shall be “The United States of America”. II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. III. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. V. For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year. No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States. In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote. Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. VI. No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain. No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. VII. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. IX. The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article — of sending and receiving ambassadors — entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever — of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated — of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, ‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward’: provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States — fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States — regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated — establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office — appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers — appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States — making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated ‘A Committee of the States’, and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction — to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses — to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted — to build and equip a navy — to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so clothed armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled. The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. X. The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite. XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States. XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged. XIII. Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America. On the part & behalf of the State of New Hampshire: JOSIAH BARTLETT; JOHN WENTWORTH JUNR.; August 8th 1778 On the part and behalf of The State of Massachusetts Bay; JOHN HANCOCK; SAMUEL ADAMS; ELBRIDGE GERRY; FRANCIS DANA; JAMES LOVELL; SAMUEL HOLTEN On the part and behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations; WILLIAM ELLERY; HENRY MARCHANT; JOHN COLLINS On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut; ROGER SHERMAN; SAMUEL HUNTINGTON; OLIVER WOLCOTT; TITUS HOSMER ANDREW ADAMS On the Part and Behalf of the State of New York; JAMES DUANE; FRANCIS LEWIS; WM DUER; GOUV MORRIS On the Part and in Behalf of the State of New Jersey, November 26, 1778; JNO WITHERSPOON; NATHANIEL SCUDDER On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania; ROBT MORRIS; DANIEL ROBERDEAU; JOHN BAYARD SMITH; WILLIAM CLINGAN; JOSEPH REED; 22nd July 1778 On the part & behalf of the State of Delaware; THO McKEAN; February 12, 1779; JOHN DICKINSON; May 5th 1779; NICHOLAS VAN DYKE, On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland; JOHN HANSON; March 1 1781; DANIEL CARROLL do On the Part and Behalf of the State of Virginia; RICHARD HENRY LEE; JOHN BANISTER; THOMAS ADAMS; JNo HARVIE; FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE On the part and Behalf of the State of No Carolina; JOHN PENN; July 21st 1778; CORNs HARNETT; JNo WILLIAMS On the part & behalf of the State of South Carolina; HENRY LAURENS; WILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON; JNo MATHEWS; RICHD HUTSON; THOs HEYWARD Junr On the part & behalf of the State of Georgia JNo WALTON; 24th July 1778; EDWD TELFAIR; EDWD LANGWORTHY Enacted Maryland, 1 March 1781 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY · Adaption and Remix, and Original Content. Authored by: Deborah Smith Hoag. Provided by: Austin Community College. Located at: http://austincc.edu. Project: Achieving the Dream Grant. License: CC BY: Attribution PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT · The Articles of Confederation. Authored by: Library of Congress Original Document. Provided by: Library of Congress. Located at: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=127. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.794160	04/04/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53074/overview", "title": "United States Government - Austin Community College, Appendices, Appendix B: The Articles of Confederation", "author": "Deb Hoag" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66357/overview	Assessment Overview This is a quiz for Chapter 14. Texas Government Chapter Fourteen Quiz Check your knowledge of Chapter Fourteen by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab. This is a quiz for Chapter 14. Check your knowledge of Chapter Fourteen by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.812576	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66357/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Public Opinion and the Media in Texas, Assessment", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66317/overview	Political Parties in Texas Overview Political Parties in Texas Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the history and trends of Texas’ major political parties Introduction Political parties are organized at three diﬀerent levels: national, state, and local. National consists of the quadrennial national convention, the party’s national chairpersons, and the party’s national committee. Next is the state, which consists of state central committees and state conventions, and congressional district committees. Lastly, there is the local level of organizations, which include city and county committees, precinct and ward committees, party activists and volunteers, and party identifiers and voters. Recent trends between the three levels are that they tend to overlap, and more often then not, state and local parties have more influence than the national party around their region, and their decisions tend to override those of the national party. Major Political Parties in Texas As of September 9, 2019, the state of Texas oﬃcially recognized four political parties. These are listed in the table below. In order to be recognized by the state, a political party must fulfill certain requirements, which are detailed here: Ballot access requirements for political parties in Texas. Party \| Website \| By-Laws/Platform \| Democratic Party of Texas \| \|\| Green Party of Texas \| \|\| Libertarian Party of Texas \| \|\| Republican Party of Texas \| http://www.texasgop.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/SREC-Bylaw 2014-2016-06.06.15.pdf \| Table 9.1 Oﬃcial Political Parties in Texas In some states, a candidate may choose to have a label other than that of an oﬃcially recognized party appear alongside his or her name on the ballot. Such labels are called political party designations. A political party designation would be used when a candidate qualifies as an independent but prefers to use a diﬀerent label. Texas does not allow candidates to identify in this way. A total of 25 states allow candidates to use political party designations in non- presidential elections. The Cultural Background of Political Parties in Texas The 19th-century culture of Texas was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South, dependent on African-American slave labor, as well as the patron system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government’s primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving of individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. Historical Dominance of the Democratic Party From 1848 until Richard M. Nixon’s victory in 1972, Texas voted for the Democrat candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. A full century of Democratic Governors stretched between the departure of Republican Governor E.J. Davis (1874) and the election of Republican William P. Clements (1979). The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen’s Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League. His protégé Cuney was a mulatto whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in the Union League and the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics, and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in the South during the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, the Democrat-dominated legislature in Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites through the imposition of the poll tax and white primaries. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. Although blacks made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics. Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the so-called “German counties” – the rural Texas Hill Country inhabited by German immigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates. Harry M. Wurzbach was elected from the 14th district from 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power. Republicans Rising Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952, when Democrat Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands, oﬀshore lands claimed by both Texas and the national government which were believed to contain oil. Shivers led a movement often known as the Shivercrat movement, which forecast a dramatic change in party alignments a quarter-century later. He worked to help Texas native General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state. Eisenhower was generally highly respected due to his role as Commander of the Allies in World War II and was popular nationally, winning the election. Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding “country club suburbs” around Dallas and Houston. The election to Congress of Republicans such as John Tower (who had shifted from the Democrat Party) and George H. W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported the civil rights movement and achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democrat leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. Following passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, southern white Democrats began to leave the party and join the Republicans, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities’ constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower’s 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP oﬃceholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democrat presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Oﬃce while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican Dominance As of June 2017, Democrats were the minority party in the state legislature, did not hold any statewide elected offices, and occupied 11 of the state's 36 congressional seats. After the 2018 election cycle, Republicans retained trifecta control of Texas state government; The Republican Party gained the state government trifecta in 2003. Republicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. This makes Texas one of the most Republican states in the U.S. When one party controls the three vital centers of state political power—the oﬃce of the governor, the state House, and the state Senate — that party controls a trifecta. Trifectas make it easier for the dominant party to pursue its agenda, and more diﬃcult for opposition parties to challenge it. There are currently 36 trifectas: 22 Republican trifectas and 14 Democratic trifectas. Texas is one of the 22 state governments under Republican control. Despite overall Republican dominance, Austin, the state capital, is primarily Democrat, as are El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio and the Rio Grande Valley. However, the suburbs of these cities remain heavily Republican. What Does the Future Hold? The Hispanic population has continued to increase, based on both natural increase and continued immigration from Mexico. As of 2011, the Hispanic population accounted for 38.1% of the state’s population (compared to 44.8% for non-Hispanic whites). The state’s changing demographics may result in a change in its overall political alignment, as most Hispanic and Latino voters support the Democrat Party. Analysts with Gallup suggest that low turnout among Texas Hispanics is all that enables continued Republican dominance. In addition to the descendants of the state’s former slave population, the African American population in Texas is also increasing due to the New Great Migration; the majority supporting the Democrat party. In 2018, Democratic Congressman Beto O'Rourke lost his Senate bid to the incumbent Ted Cruz by about 200,000 votes; a significant gain for Democrats in the state. O'Rourke's performance in the 2018 Senate race has challenged the notion of Republican dominance in Texas, with analysts predicting greater gains for the Democrats going into the 2020s. References and Further Reading Texas Secretary of State. Candidate Information. Accessed September 9, 2019. Texas Secretary of State. 2014 Independent Candidates. Texas Election Code. Title 9, Section 142.009. Hales, Douglas (2003). A Southern Family in White & Black: The Cuneys of Texas. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-200-3. Democratic Party of Texas. Ballotpedia. Accessed September 21, 2019. 2010 Federal Census of Texas. Quick Facts. Dugan, Andrew (2014). Texan Hispanics Tilt Democratic, but State Likely to Stay Red. Gallup. Rosenburg, Eli (2018, November 7). In Texas, Beto O’Rourke loses the race for Senate but still makes a mark. Washington Post. Accessed September 21, 2019. Licensing and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Political Parties in Texas. Authored by: Ballotpedia. License: License: GNU FreeDocumentation License Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY American Government. Authored by: OpenStax. Provided by: OpenStax; Rice University. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/5bcc0e59-7345-421d-8507- a1e4608685e8@18.11 License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/5bcc0e59-7345-421d-8507-a1e4608685e8@18.11	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.852450	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66317/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Political Parties in Texas, Political Parties in Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66323/overview	Introduction: Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas Overview Introduction: Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas Chapter Learning Objective By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Evaluate the role played by interest groups in Texas Introduction: Lobbyists are Important for Democracy "Say you’re passionate about finding a cure for Parkinson’s disease. You can try to be a lone voice in the wilderness, but chances are there’s a lobbying organization that can bolster your argument with research and facts, and the ability to get that info to people who make the decisions. Critics like to slam lobbyists as stand-ins for special interests. That’s the funny thing about special interests. They’re easily dismissed as “special,” until they’re yours. Lobbyists represent all points of view on issues confronting the country: environment, labor, the elderly, veterans, but also privacy advocates, pet owners, and even online poker players. That’s the great thing about America. Everyone has a voice, and lobbyists are an eﬀective way to get those voices heard." Source: Brian Pallasch, former president of the American League of Lobbyists in Washington, D.C. Lobbyists are important for democracy [PODCAST]. February 13, 2008. American Public Media: Marketplace.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.868673	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66323/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas, Introduction: Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66346/overview	Texas' Revenue Sources Overview Texas' Revenue Sources Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the sources of state revenue in Texas Introduction This section discusses the sources of Texas' revenue. Revenue Sources Texas is one of only seven states that do not levy a state income tax. The other 43 collect an income tax ranging from 2% in Tennessee to more than 13% in California. Accordingly, Texas has to find other ways to pay for government services. The largest single source of revenue for state government in Texas is federal funding, which is slightly more than a third of all state revenue at $75 billion for the most recent two-year budget cycle. To put that number into perspective, Texas individuals and businesses paid $280 billion in federal income and employment taxes in Fiscal Year 2018 alone. Federal funding goes to a variety of state government functions but is used mostly to pay for healthcare programs. The sales tax is the state’s largest source of tax revenue. The sales tax is collected by local merchants and remitted to the state – 6.25 percent of the sales price of taxable goods. Local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special-purpose districts, and transit authorities) also may impose sales and use tax up to 2 percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25 percent. Many things, such as groceries, property used in manufacturing, agricultural items, gas, electricity, and water are exempt from the sales tax. Still, sales taxes brought over $62 billion into the state treasury during the most recent two-year budget cycle. Texas levies an oil production tax at 4.6% of market value and a natural gas production tax at 7.5% of market value, minus certain deductions. These “severance taxes” combined to produce an estimated $4.9 billion during the most recent budget cycle. An excise tax is a sales tax on a specific product or service. Texas taxes gasoline and diesel fuel at $0.20 per gallon, and charges a $0.15 per gallon equivalent on liquefied and compressed natural gas – which brought in an estimated $7.1 billion during the recent two-year budget cycle. Texas also charges excise taxes on cigarettes, cigars and tobacco that raised an estimated $2.9 billion, as well as an excise tax on alcoholic beverages that yielded an estimated $2.6 billion. A business margins tax, still referred to oﬃcially as a “franchise tax,” brought in an estimated $3.8 billion during the recent two-year budget cycle. A complex tax that is diﬃcult to collect, the margins tax that can be calculated in four completely diﬀerent ways by Texas businesses, which can then use whichever formula results in the lowest tax. This was necessary when legislators abolished the franchise tax that had been calculated as a corporate income tax in 2007 in favor of a tax on business gross receipts. State leaders quickly found that taking a percentage of a business’ gross receipts would be much harder on a grocery store, which turns a lot of inventory on very thin margins, than a jewelry store that may only sell a few items per day, but with a significant markup. Business now have a choice of paying tax on (1) 70% of total revenue, (2) total revenue minus costs of goods sold, (3) total revenue minus total compensation and benefits or (4) total revenue minus $1 million. An insurance premium tax brought in an estimated $5.3 billion during the most recent biennium. Insurance companies pay 1.75 % of accident, health, and life insurance gross premiums; 1.6 % of property and casualty insurance gross premiums; 1.35 % of title insurance premiums; and 4.85 % of independently procured insurance premiums. Other taxes include a hotel occupancy tax that yielded just over $1 billion, as well as miscellaneous taxes on cement, coin-operated amusement machines and oil well service receipts that brought in a total of less than $400 million. Non-tax revenue raised by the state includes various licenses, fees, fines and penalties that raised an estimated $12.6 billion during the most recent budget cycle. Interest and investment income yielded another $3.2 billion and the lottery netted just over $4 billion. Land income, derived from mineral royalties and leases, grazing, land sales and sale of timber and sand raised another $2.8 billion. References and Further Reading Loughead, K, & Wei, E. (2019, March 20). State Individual Income Tax Rates and Brackets for 2019. Tax Foundation. Retrieved October 22, 2019. The state of Texas (2018, September). Fiscal Size-up 2018–19 Biennium. Legislative Budget Board. Retrieved October 22, 2019. U.S. Government Revenue. Comparison: Federal Revenue by State. Retrieved October 22, 2019. Licensing and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Financing State Government. Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.890331	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66346/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Financing State Government, Texas' Revenue Sources", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66344/overview	Assessment Overview This is a quiz for Chapter 12. Texas Government Chapter Twelve Quiz Check your knowledge of Chapter Twelve by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab. This is a quiz for Chapter 12. Check your knowledge of Chapter Twelve by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.907279	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66344/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Criminal Justice System in Texas, Assessment", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66351/overview	Assessment Overview This is a quiz for Chapter Thirteen. Texas Government Chapter Thirteen Quiz Check your knowledge of Chapter Thirteen by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab. This is a quiz for Chapter Thirteen. Check your knowledge of Chapter Thirteen by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.923857	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66351/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Financing State Government, Assessment", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64605/overview	National Archives—Written Document Analysis Worksheet Introduction to College: Reading in College Overview In this activity, students are introduced to a worksheet that can be used to analyze a written primary source. The resource includes a written document, and written document analysis worksheet and a tutorial video to help you walk through both the reading of a primary source, annotating the source, and completing the worksheet. Analyzing Sources in a College Course One of the most important skill for first-year students is the reading of different texts in higher educations. These can range from textbooks to images. In most classes, instructors the reading and analysis of primar sources. Primary sources are sources that are written at the time an event occurs and can include: - public records - personal papers - orgainzation records - newspaper articles - original research - original works of literature - photographs - art Nearly every class in college requires you to read som type of primary source to truly understand the discipline you are learning. For this activity you will complete a primary source analysis using a worksheet created by the National Archives. The example that follows is based on a docment in a United States History course and analyzes a written source. The National Archives offers many different types of worksheets for different historical texts, and these can be adpated to to different types of sources for different disciplines. Link: National Archives Educator Resources—Document Analysis Worksheets Resources: - One of the document analysis worksheets from the National Archives - This activity used the following worksheet: Written Document Analysis Worksheet - A primary source - This activity used the following document: Thomas Newe's "Letter from Carolina", 1682 This source is from The American Yawp Reader CC BY-SA - This activity used the following document: Thomas Newe's "Letter from Carolina", 1682	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.944495	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64605/overview", "title": "Introduction to College: Reading in College", "author": "Primary Source" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96213/overview	Technical & Workplace Writing Resource List Overview A list of resources compiled by Jim Allen, Elizabeth Cicchetti, Jill Grauman, Augie Morado, and Annie Schnarr for English 1105: Workplace Writing and English 1110: Technical Writing at the College of DuPage. All materials are licensed as indicated in the source material Compiled by Jim Allen, Elizabeth Cicchetti, Jill Grauman, Augie Morado, and Annie Schnarr (Summer 2022) Using a COD-funded grant, a group of faculty who teach English 1105: Workplace Writing and English 1110: Technical Writing created this list of resources to support the course objectives for each class. Below, you can find at least two OER materials associated with each objective and a complete list of resources used for each class. If you have any sources to add or suggestions for revisions to this list, please reach out to Jill Grauman (graumanj@cod.edu)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.957761	College of DuPage	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96213/overview", "title": "Technical & Workplace Writing Resource List", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111952/overview	Digital and Environmental Approaches to World History Overview This presentation offers resources and strategies to encourage the use of digital and environmental approaches to teaching World History including the use of contemporary and historical maps to foster spatial reasoning skills; assigning students to create interactive maps and virtual globes; and using visualization tools that show environmental change over time. Attachments Attached is the PowerPoint presentation for this resource. About This Resource The sample lecture included here was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled, "Hot Topics in World History" for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This was a draft document that may subsequently have been revised in light of feedback and discussion during the event. This resource was contributed by Dr. Ruth Mostern, Associate Professor, Department of History, and Director of the World History Center, University of Pittsburgh.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:11.975662	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111952/overview", "title": "Digital and Environmental Approaches to World History", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88763/overview	Education and Careers Overview In this module, all reading, writing, speaking, and listening assignments focus on educaiton and careers. Objective In this module, our topic is Careers and Education. We will discuss your career goals and the education you need to meet those goals. The theme of the first part of the module is education. The theme of the second part of the module is career with a focus on resume writing and interviewing. Objectives - To increase academic vocabulary - To become familiar with college majors and career paths - To gain reading skills through reading academic catalogues and websites - To improve listening skills by listening to professional speeches - To build speaking skills by participating in practice interviews - To learn vocabulary and writing skills needed for resume writing and interviewing Education Focus Education Journal and Discussion Assignment Write about your educational goals. Discuss what your educational goals are and your plan to reach those goals. Be prepared to discuss these goals with classmates. . Reading and Journal Assignment ("A Guide to Different Types of College Degrees") Read the article Guide to Different types of College Degrees by Josh Moody in US News and World Report. After reading the article, enter the following words and definitions into your vocabulary journal: Associate Degree, Bachelor's Degree, Master's Degree, Doctorite Degree, Professional Degree. - Journal Assignment- In your journal, discuss the type or types of degrees you plan to pursue. Tell why the degree is best for you. Reading Assignment ("A Guide to College Majors") Read the article "A Guide to College Majors" by Josh Moody in US News and World Report. (U.S. News Guide to College Majors \| Best Colleges \| US News.) - Keep notes on the assignment so that you can complete a presentation and writing assignment at the end of the module. - Take the assessment test about choosing a major. - Discussion - With classmates, discuss the results of your test an your thoughts on college majors. Reading Your College Catalogue Explore the college catalogue from your college or university, paying close attention to programs offered. Explore those programs that interest you. Choose two. Review the requirements for each. Be prepared to discuss with your classmates the differences (how the programs are different) and similiarities (how the programs are the same) of the programs. Class Presentation and Paragraph Assignment For this assignment, you will present to the class your educational plan. You presentation should be 5 to 10 minutes long. Your presentation must include - Your major (or the major you are considering) and the reasons you chose your major - The type of degree or degrees you are seeking - If you have not decided, you should tell the degree (degrees) you are considering. - Your plan for completing your degree - How many courses will you take each semester? - When do you plan on graduating? Paragraph Assignment - With you presentation, you should submit to your instructor one paragraph discussing the reasons you have chosen your major or field of study. Your paragraph should have a topic sentence, at least three supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. Career Focus Alternative Reading Assignment if assignment in Module is too difficult: https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/interviewing/successful-interview, " Advice for Interviewing" Students shoudl not have trouble accessing the article from the Southwest library since all TBR students have access to all libraries; however, I am including a copy of the article. In this section the focus will be on careers and skills needed to be successful in your chosen field. Reading Activity - Read "Interviewing for Career Success" written by David Thaler in Journal of Personal Finance. - Journal Assignment -Choose three of the sample interview questions and answer in paragraph form. You should have three paragraphs for this assignment. Also be prepared to role play both the interviewer and interviewee in class assignments. Listening Activity - Listen to the Ted Talk "Your Body Language May Shape Who You Are." - After you have listened to the interview, answer questions on Listening Comprehension in the Assignment box. You may need to listen to the Ted Talk more than once. - Journal Assignement - After listening the Ted Talk about body language, respond to two or more of the questions below. - To what extent do you think body language is important during an interview in important? Why? - How much do you personally use body language to communicate? - How does your native culture use body language? How is it different from others? - What do you think about eye contact? When is it a positive thing and when can it be seen as negative? - How much do you notice other people's body language? - How can the information learned in this listening activity help you when you interview for a job? Thaler, David. "INTERVIEWING FOR CAREER SUCCESS." Journal of Personal Finance, vol. 4, no. 1, 2005, pp. 26-46. ProQuest, https://search-proquest-com.elib.southwest.tn.edu:3443/docview/198919483?accountid=28717. Pascual, Paola, "Your Body Language May Shape Who You Are,"[TED TALKLesson],TED, May2017. Career Writing a Resume Resume Writing Assignment For this assignment, you are to write a resume. This is to be a resume for you to use at this time if needed. You will also be able to add to it and use it as you continue your education and gain job experience. You should have the headings or categories listed below in your resume, but you can also add additional categories. - Name and information such as email address, mailing address, and phone number - Career Goal - Work Experience - Education - Skills Resources for Writing a Resume - Resume Writing Lesson (https://www.oercommons.org/courses/resume-writing-3/view) - Career Services at your college - https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80874	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.019404	Speaking and Listening	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88763/overview", "title": "Education and Careers", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74431/overview	Chapter 4: Manage Your Time Overview LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Understand the relationship between goals and time management. - Consider how your priorities impact your time. - Identify your time management personality. - Assess your current use of time. - Understand the basic principles of time management and planning. - Use a calendar planner and daily to-do list to plan ahead for study tasks and manage your time effectively. - Explore time management tips and strategies. - Identify procrastination behaviors and strategies to avoid them. Manage Your Time Manage Your Time Goals And Time Now that you have spent some time exploring your values and your goals, you can easily see how you need to manage your time well in order to accomplish your goals. When you have a long-term goal and break it down into mid-term and short-term goals, it leads to the question, “What do I need to do today in order to achieve my goal?” This question is at the heart of time management. Your goals guide how you spend your time and resources. Having clearly defined goals with specific deadlines leads you to be deliberate in planning your time and makes it easier to establish an effective time management system. As most students discover, college is not the same as high school. In high school teachers remind students to study, about upcoming tests and project deadlines. At home parents remind students to be responsible, to study and sleep early. For many students, college is the first time they are “on their own” in an environment filled with opportunity. And while this can be exciting, you may find that social opportunities and job responsibilities conflict with academic expectations. For example, a free day before an exam, if not wisely spent, can spell trouble for doing well on the exam. It is easy to fall behind when there are so many choices and freedoms. One of the main goals of a college education is learning how to learn. In this section, we zoom in on learning how to skillfully manage your time. To be successful in college, it’s imperative to be able to effectively manage your time and to manage all aspects of your life including school, work, and social opportunities. Time management isn’t actually difficult, but you do need to learn how to do it well. In the following Alleyoop Advice video, Alleyoop (Angel Aquino) discusses what many students discover about college: there is a lot of free time—and just as many challenges to balance free time with study time. Identifying Your Priorities Thinking about your goals gets you started, but it’s also important to think about priorities. We often use the word “priorities” to refer to how important something is to us. We might think, This is a really important goal, and that is less important. Try this experiment: go back to the goals you wrote in the last chapter and see if you can rank each goal as a 1 (top priority), 2 (middle priority), or 3 (lowest priority). It sounds easy, but do you actually feel comfortable doing that? Maybe you gave a priority 1 to passing your courses and a priority 3 to playing your guitar. So what does that mean—that you never play guitar again, or at least not while in college? Whenever you have an hour free between class and work, you have to study because that’s the higher priority? What about all your other goals—do you have to ignore everything that’s not a priority 1? And what happens when you have to choose between different goals that are both number 1 priorities? In reality, priorities don’t work quite that way. It doesn’t make a lot of sense to try to rank goals as always more or less important. The question of priority is really a question of what is more important at a specific time. It is important to do well in your classes, but it’s also important to earn money to support yourself and have a social life. You shouldn’t have to choose between these, except at any given time. Priorities always involve time: what is most important to do right now. Time management is mostly a way to juggle priorities so you can meet all your goals. When you manage your time well, you don’t have to ignore some goals completely in order to meet other goals. In other words, you don’t have to give up your life when you register for college, but you may need to work on managing your life and time more effectively. But, time management works only when you’re committed to your goals. Attitude and motivation are very important. If you haven’t yet developed an attitude for success, all the time management skills in the world won’t keep you focused and motivated to succeed. Identify Your Time Management Style People’s attitudes toward time vary widely. One person seems to be always rushing around but actually gets less done than another person who seems unconcerned about time and calmly goes about the day. Since there are so many different “time personalities,” it’s important to realize how you approach time. Try the following activity to help you identify your personal time management style. Activity 1: Identify your Time Management Style The following self-assessment survey can help you determine your time-management personality type. Read each question in the Questions column. Then read the possible responses. Select one response for each question. Each response should reflect what you probably would do in a given situation, not what you think is the “right” answer. Put a checkmark in the My Time Management Type column next to your likely response. \| QUESTIONS \| RESPONSES: Which response most closely matches what you would do? In the right column, check one response (a, b, c or d) for each question. \| MY TIME MANAGEMENT TYPE \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 1 \| Your instructor just gave your class the prompts for your first essay, which is due in two weeks. How do you proceed from here? \| a. Choose a prompt and begin working on a thesis immediately. Better to get it out of the way! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Read over the prompts and let them sink in for a week or so. You’ll still have one more week to finish the assignment, right? \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Read the prompts and maybe start playing around with ideas, but wait to really start writing until the day before. You swear it’s all in your head somewhere! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Look at the prompts the morning that assignment is due and quickly type up your essay. This makes you late for class, but at least you got it turned in on time. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 2 \| You are working on a group assignment that requires you to split up responsibilities with three other classmates. When would you typically finish your part? \| a. First. Then you’re done and don’t have to worry about it. Plus it could give you time in case you want to tweak anything later. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. After one or two of the others have submitted their materials to the group, but definitely not last. You wanted to see how they approached it first. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Maybe last, but definitely before the assignment due date and hopefully before any of the other group members ask about it. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Definitely last. You’ll wait until everyone else has done their work, so you can make sure you are not duplicating efforts. Whatever, this is why you hate group work. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 3 \| Your instructor just shared the instructions for your next assignment and you read them but don’t quite understand what he’s asking for in a certain part. What would you probably do? \| a. Send the instructor an email that afternoon. When he doesn’t respond that night, email him again. This is your worst nightmare—you just want to know what he wants!! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Send him an email asking for clarification, giving yourself enough time to wait for his response and then complete the assignment. Better to be safe than sorry. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Try to figure it out for yourself. You’re pretty sure what he’s trying to say, and you’ll give it your best shot. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Don’t say anything until after the assignment is due. Other people in the class felt the same way too, probably! \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 4 \| The course you are taking requires you to post in a weekly discussion forum by Sunday night each week so the class can talk about everyone’s posts on Monday. When do you submit your posts? \| a. Tuesday night, after the first day of class that week. Then it’s out of the way. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Thursday or Friday night. You want to let the week’s discussion sink in a little so you can collect your thoughts. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Sunday night. You always forget over the weekend! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Monday at 3 AM. That still counts as Sunday night, right? \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 5 \| You have an important assignment due Monday morning, and you have a social/work/family obligation that will keep you busy for most of the weekend. It is now the Wednesday before the assignment is due. How would you approach this dilemma? \| a. You already finished it yesterday, the day it was assigned. Done! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, and you manage this by chipping away at it over those 3 days. …Little. By. Little. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, so you can have your weekend free, but you still have a little left to do on Sunday—no big deal. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. You tell yourself that you’ll take the weekend off, then stay up late on Sunday or wake up early on Monday to finish it. It’s not a final or anything, and you have a life. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 6 \| You have to read 150 pages before your next class meeting. You have 4 days to do so. What would you most likely do? \| a. 150 pages divided by 4 days means… a little less than 40 pages a day. You like to chunk it this way because then you’ll also have time to go over your notes and highlights and come up with questions for the instructor. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. 150 pages divided by…well … 2 days (because it’s been a long week), means 75 pages a day. Totally doable. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. 150 pages, the day before it is due. You did this to yourself, it’s fine. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. How much time does it take to skim the text for keywords and/or find a summary online? \| Ο Improviser \| Assessing Your Responses Which of the four basic time-management personality types did you select the most? Which did you select the least? Do you feel like these selections match the student you have been in the past? Has your previous way of doing things worked for you, or do you think it’s time for a change? Remember, we can all always improve! Learn more below about your tendencies. Review traits, strengths, challenges, and tips for success for each of the four time-management personality types. The Early Bird - Traits: You like to make checklists and feel great satisfaction when you can cross something off of your to-do list. When it comes to assignments, you want to get started as soon as possible (and maybe start brainstorming before that), because it lets you stay in control. - Strengths: You know what you want and are driven to figure out how to achieve it. Motivation is never really a problem for you. - Challenges: Sometimes you can get more caught up in getting things done as quickly as possible and don’t give yourself enough time to really mull over issues in all of their complexity. - Tips for Success: You’re extremely organized and on top of your schoolwork, so make sure you take the time to really enjoy learning in your classes. Remember, school isn’t all deadlines and checkboxes—you also have the opportunity to think about big-picture intellectual problems that don’t necessarily have clear answers. The Balancing Act - Traits: You really know what you’re capable of and are ready to do what it takes to get the most out of your classes. Maybe you’re naturally gifted in this way or maybe it’s a skill that you have developed over time; in any case, you should have the basic organizational skills to succeed in any class, as long as you keep your balance. - Strengths: Your strength really lies in your ability to be well rounded. You may not always complete assignments perfectly every time, but you are remarkably consistent and usually manage to do very well in classes. - Challenges: Because you’re so consistent, sometimes you can get in a bit of a rut and begin to coast in class, rather than really challenging yourself. - Tips for Success: Instead of simply doing what works, use each class as an opportunity for growth by engaging thoughtfully with the material and constantly pushing the boundaries of your own expectations for yourself. The Pressure Cooker - Traits: You always get things done and almost always at the last minute. Hey, it takes time to really come up with good ideas! - Strengths: You work well under pressure, and when you do finally sit down to accomplish a task, you can sit and work for hours. In these times, you can be extremely focused and shut out the rest of the world in order to complete what’s needed. - Challenges: You sometimes use your ability to work under pressure as an excuse to procrastinate. Sure, you can really focus when the deadline is tomorrow but is it really the best work you could produce if you had a couple of days of cushion? - Tips for Success: Give yourself small, achievable deadlines, and stick to them. Make sure they’re goals that you really could (and would) achieve in a day. Then don’t allow yourself to make excuses. You’ll find that it’s actually a lot more enjoyable to not be stressed out when completing schoolwork. Who would have known? The Improviser - Traits: You frequently wait until the last minute to do assignments, but it’s because you’ve been able to get away with this habit in many classes. Sometimes you miss an assignment or two, or have to pretend to have done reading that you haven’t, but everyone does that sometimes, right? - Strengths: You think quickly on your feet, and while this is a true strength, it also can be a crutch that prevents you from being really successful in a class. - Challenges: As the saying goes, old habits die hard. If you find that you lack a foundation of discipline and personal accountability, it can be difficult to change, especially when the course material becomes challenging or you find yourself struggling to keep up with the pace of the class. - Tips for Success: The good news is you can turn this around! Make a plan to organize your time and materials in a reasonable way, and really stick with it. Also, don’t be afraid to ask your instructor for help, but be sure to do it before, rather than after, you fall behind. People also differ in how they respond to schedule changes. Some go with the flow and accept changes easily, while others function well only when following a planned schedule and may become upset if that schedule changes. If you do not react well to an unexpected disruption in your schedule, plan extra time for catching up if something throws you off. This is all part of understanding your time personality. Another aspect of your time personality involves the time of day. If you need to concentrate, such as when writing a class paper, are you more alert and focused in the morning, afternoon, or evening? Do you concentrate best when you look forward to a relaxing activity later on, or do you study better when you’ve finished all other activities? Do you function well if you get up early, or stay up late, to accomplish a task? How does that affect the rest of your day or the next day? Understanding this will help you better plan your study periods. While you may not be able to change your “time personality,” you can learn to manage your time more successfully. The key is to be realistic. The best way to improve your time management is to take an honest look at how you are currently spending your time. Assess Your Use Of Time The best way to know how you spend your time is to record what you do all day in a time log, every day for a week, and then add that up. First, you want to take your best guess at how you are currently spending your time so you can compare that with how you are actually spending your time. This helps you identify the areas you need to work on. Activity 2: Where Does the Time Go? See if you can account for a week’s worth of time. For each of the activity categories listed, make your best estimate of how many hours you spend in a week. (For categories that are about the same every day, just estimate for one day and multiply by seven for that line.) \| Category of activity \| Estimated Hours per week \| Actual Hours per week \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Sleeping \| \|\| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \|\| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \|\| \| Working (employment) \| \|\| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \|\| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \|\| \| Attending class \| \|\| \| Studying, homework, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \|\| \| Transportation to work or school \| \|\| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \|\| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \|\| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \|\| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \|\| \| Reading for fun or other interests done alone \| \|\| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| TOTAL (168 hours in a week) \| Now use your calculator to total your estimated hours. Is your number larger or smaller than 168, the total number of hours in a week? If your estimate is higher, go back through your list and adjust numbers to be more realistic. But if your estimated hours total fewer than 168, don’t just go back and add more time in certain categories. Instead, ponder this question: Where does the time go? We’ll come back to this question. Next, print the Time Log and carry it with you throughout the week. Every few hours, fill in what you have been doing. Do this for a week before adding up the times; then enter the total hours in the categories in Activity 2. You might be surprised that you spend a lot more time than you thought just hanging out with friends, or surfing the Web or playing around with Facebook or any of the many other things people do. You might find that you study well early in the morning even though you thought you are a night person, or vice versa. You might learn how long you can continue at a specific task before needing a break. Time Log \| SUNDAY \| MONDAY \| TUESDAY \| WEDNESDAY \| THURSDAY \| FRIDAY \| SATURDAY \| \| \| 6-7 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 pm \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 6-7 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| Establishing A Time Management System Now that you’ve evaluated how you have done things in the past, you’ll want to think about how you might create a schedule for managing your time well going forward. The best schedules have some flexibility built into them, as unexpected situations and circumstances will likely arise during your time as a student. For every hour in the classroom, college students should spend, on average, about two to three hours on that class reading, studying, writing papers, and so on. Look at the following scenarios to get an idea of how many hours you should be spending on your classes outside of class time. 12 credit hours over a 15-week session = 12 hours a week in class + 24-36 hours outside of class 6 credit hours over a 15-week session = 6 hours a week in class + 12-18 hours outside of class 3 credit hours over a 6-week session = 8 hours a week in class + 16-24 hours outside of class If you’re a full-time student with twelve hours a week in class plus your study time, that 36-42 hours is about the same as a typical full-time job, which is why you are considered to be a full-time student. If you work part-time or have a family, time management skills are even more essential. To succeed in college, everyone has to develop effective strategies for dealing with time. Look back at the number of hours you wrote in Activity 2 for a week of studying. Do you have two to three hours of study time for every hour in class? Many students begin college not knowing this much time is needed, so don’t be surprised if you underestimated this number of hours. Remember this is just an average amount of study time—you may need more or less for your own courses. To be safe, and to help ensure your success, add another five to ten hours a week for studying. To reserve this study time, you may need to adjust how much time you spend on other activities. Activity 3 will help you figure out what your typical week should look like. Activity 3: Where Should Your Time Go? Plan for the ideal use of a week’s worth of time. Fill in your hours in this order: - Hours attending class - Study hours (2 times the number of class hours plus 5 or more hours extra) - Work, internships, and fixed volunteer time - Fixed life activities (sleeping, eating, hygiene, chores, transportation, etc.) Now subtotal your hours so far and subtract that number from 168. How many hours are left? ____________ Then portion out the remaining hours for “discretionary activities” (things you don’t have to do for school, work, or a healthy life). - Discretionary activities \| CATEGORY OF ACTIVITY \| HOURS PER WEEK \| \| Attending class \| \| \| Studying, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \| \| Working (employment) \| \| \| Transportation to work or school \| \| \| Sleeping \| \| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \| \| Subtotal: \| \| \| Discretionary activities: \| \| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \| \| Hobbies or other interests done alone \| \| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| Activity 3 shows most college students that they do actually have plenty of time for their studies without losing sleep or giving up their social life. But you may have less time for discretionary activities, like video games or watching movies, than in the past. Something, somewhere has to give. That’s part of time management and why it’s important to keep your goals and priorities in mind. Below is an example of a student’s weekly schedule, with designated times for class, work and study time. Kai’s Schedule Since Kai’s Spanish class starts his schedule at 9:00 every day, Kai decides to use that as the base for his schedule. He doesn’t usually have trouble waking up in the mornings (except on the weekends), so he decides that he can do a bit of studying before class. His Spanish practice is often something he can do while eating or traveling, so this gives him a bit of leniency with his schedule. \| Sunday \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| Saturday \| \| \| 7:00 AM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 9:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 10:00 AM \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Work \| \| \| 11:00 AM \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| \|\| \| 12:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\|\|\| \| 1:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 2:00 PM \| US History I \| Work \| Work \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\| \| 3:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5:00 PM \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| \|\|\|\| \| 6:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 PM \| Intro to Psych \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 9:00 PM \| US History I \| US History I \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 10:00 PM \| Creating a Planner Now that you know what you need to be spending your time on, let’s work on getting it put into a schedule or calendar. The first thing you want to do is select what type of planner or calendar you want to use. There are several to choose from. The following chart outlines some pros and cons to different systems. online calendars, weekly calendars, monthly calendars and wall calendars. \| Type \| Example \| Cost \| Pros \| Cons \| \| Weekly Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Monthly Planner \| $5-$15 \| \| \| \| \| Daily Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Calendar \| Free \| \| \| \| \| Dry Erase Calendar \| $15 – $20 \| \| \| What Goes in Your Planner? Now that you have selected your planner, it’s time to fill it in. But what goes in it? Well, everything! Start by putting in your top priorities and then move on to your discretionary time. Priorities - Class time - Work Time - Designated study time (2-3 hours per hour in class) - Assignment due dates (check your syllabus) - Exam dates and quizzes (check your syllabus) - Appointments - Birthdays of family and friends Discretionary Time - Social events - Parties - Exercise - Club activities - Church activities Reminders - Birthdays - Anniversaries - Holidays Your schedule will vary depending on the course you’re taking. Transfer deadlines/assignments at the beginning of the semester. Pull out your syllabus for each class and try to determine the rhythm of the class by looking at the following factors: - Will you have tests or exams in this course? When are those scheduled? - Are there assignments and papers? When are those due? - Are there any group or collaborative assignments? You’ll want to pay particular attention to the timing of any assignment that requires you to work with others. - Create a system (color coding, symbols, etc.). - Keep it up to date and keep it with you whether it is a hard planner or an electronic one on your phone or tablet. Remember your goals. Does your schedule reflect your goals? Plan your weeks each week, set your short and long-term goals accordingly. Ask yourself the following: - What needs to get done today? - What needs to get done this week? - What needs to get done by the end the first month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end the second month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end of the semester? Don’t try to micromanage your schedule. Don’t try to estimate exactly how many minutes you’ll need two weeks from today to read a given chapter in a given textbook. Instead, just choose the blocks of time you will use for your studies. Don’t yet write in the exact study activity, just reserve the block. Next, look at the major deadlines for projects and exams that you wrote in earlier. Estimate how much time you may need for each and work backward on the schedule from the due date. Plan Backwards As a college student, you will likely have big assignments, papers, or projects that you are expected to work on throughout the semester. These are often tricky for students to schedule since it isn’t a regularly occurring event, like a weekly quiz or a homework assignment. These big projects often feel overwhelming so students have a tendency to shy away from them and procrastinate on them. This often results in a lot of last-minute stress and panic when the deadline is looming. A way to plan for these big projects is to plan backward. Start at the final project and then figure out all the steps that come before it and assign due dates for yourself. For example, you have a research paper due May 1. Start there! \| Assignment \| Due Date \| \| Research Paper Due \| May 1 \| \| Final Draft \| April 28 \| \| Rough Draft \| April 21 \| \| Final Outline \| April 7 \| \| Find sources \| March 24 \| \| Thesis statement \| March 17 \| \| Select topic \| March 10 \| You have now created a series of assignments for yourself that will keep you on track for your project. Put these dates in your planner the same way you would any other assignment. Establish A To-Do List Create to-do-lists and choose achievable deadlines. People use to-do lists in different ways, and you should find what works best for you. As with your planner, consistent use of your to-do list will make it an effective habit. Some people prefer not to carry their planner everywhere but instead, copy the key information for the day onto a to-do list. Using this approach, your daily to-do list starts out with your key scheduled activities and then adds other things you hope to do today. This is a good fit for those that prefer to keep a wall calendar at home rather than carry their planner with them. Some people use their to-do list only for things not included in their planners, such as short errands, phone calls or e-mail, and the like. This still includes important things, but they’re not scheduled out for specific times like your planner is. Although we call it a daily list, the to-do list can also include things you may not get to today but don’t want to forget about. Keeping these things on the list, even if they’re a low priority, helps ensure that eventually, you’ll get to it. Just as there are several options for planners, there are different types of to-do lists. Check your planner to see if it has one incorporated. If not, get a small notebook or pad of paper that you will designate as your to-do list. Of course, there’s always an app for that! Your smartphone likely came with a Reminder App or another type of To-Do List app. There are also many free apps to choose from and there are apps to help you manage your homework and assignments. Take a few minutes to look through your options to pick the best one for you. Your To-Do list should be a reflection of your goals and priorities and should support your planner Your To-Do List should answer the question, “What do I have to do today, this week, this month?” Here are some examples of different to-do lists. Use whatever format works best for you to prioritize or highlight the most important activities. Here are some more tips for effectively using your daily to-do list: - Be specific: “Read history chapter 2 (30 pages)”—not “History homework.” - Rank the tasks/activities you need to get done and want to do. - Put important things high on your list where you’ll see them every time you check the list. - Make your list at the same time every day so that it becomes a habit. - Don’t make your list overwhelming. If you added everything you eventually need to do, you could end up with so many things on the list that you’d never read through them all. If you worry you might forget something, write it in the margin of your planner’s page a week or two away. - Use your list. Lists often include little things that may take only a few minutes to do, so check your list anytime during the day you have a moment free. - Cross out or check off things after you’ve done them—doing this becomes rewarding. - Don’t use your to-do list to procrastinate. Don’t pull it out to find something else you just “have” to do instead of studying! Time Management Strategies Following are some strategies you can begin using immediately to make the most of your time: - Prepare to be successful. When planning ahead for studying, think yourself into the right mood. Focus on the positive. “When I get these chapters read tonight, I’ll be ahead in studying for the next test, and I’ll also have plenty of time tomorrow to do X.” Visualize yourself studying well! - Use your best—and most appropriate—time of day. Different tasks require different mental skills. Some kinds of studying you may be able to start first thing in the morning as you wake, while others need your most alert moments at another time. - Break up large projects into small pieces. Whether it’s writing a paper for class, studying for a final exam, or reading a long assignment or full book, students often feel daunted at the beginning of a large project. It’s easier to get going if you break it up into stages that you schedule at separate times—and then begin with the first section that requires only an hour or two. - Do the most important studying first. When two or more things require your attention, do the more crucial one first. If something happens and you can’t complete everything, you’ll suffer less if the most crucial work is done. - If you have trouble getting started, do an easier task first. Like large tasks, complex or difficult ones can be daunting. If you can’t get going, switch to an easier task you can accomplish quickly. That will give you momentum, and often you feel more confident in tackling the difficult task after being successful in the first one. - If you’re feeling overwhelmed and stressed because you have too much to do, revisit your time planner. Sometimes it’s hard to get started if you keep thinking about other things you need to get done. Review your schedule for the next few days and make sure everything important is scheduled, then relax and concentrate on the task at hand. - If you’re really floundering, talk to someone. Maybe you just don’t understand what you should be doing. Talk to your instructor or another student in the class to get back on track. - Take a break. We all need breaks to help us concentrate without becoming fatigued and burned out. As a general rule, a short break every hour or so is effective in helping recharge your study energy. Get up and move around to get your blood flowing, clear your thoughts, and work off stress. - Use unscheduled times to work ahead. You’ve scheduled that hundred pages of reading for later today, but you have the textbook with you as you’re waiting for the bus. Start reading now, or flip through the chapter to get a sense of what you’ll be reading later. Either way, you’ll save time later. You may be amazed at how much studying you can get done during downtimes throughout the day. - Keep your momentum. Prevent distractions, such as multitasking, that will only slow you down. Check for messages, for example, only at scheduled break times. - Reward yourself. It’s not easy to sit still for hours of studying. When you successfully complete the task, you should feel good and deserve a small reward. A healthy snack, a quick video game session, or social activity can help you feel even better about your successful use of time. - Factor in "Fun Time". Add it to your schedule. Remember it is important to practice self-care, you deserve it! - Just say no. Always tell others nearby when you’re studying, to reduce the chances of being interrupted. Still, interruptions happen, and if you are in a situation where you are frequently interrupted by a family member, spouse, roommate, or friend, it helps to have your “no” prepared in advance: “No, I really have to be ready for this test” or “That’s a great idea, but let’s do it tomorrow—I just can’t today.” You shouldn’t feel bad about saying no—especially if you told that person in advance that you needed to study. - Have a life. It is possible to balance school, family, friends, work, and your health. Never schedule your day or week so full of work and study that you have no time at all for yourself, your family and friends, and your larger life. - Use a calendar planner and a daily to-do list. Watch this supplemental video, College Survival Tips: Time Management for Beginners by MyCollegePalTeam6, for a brief re-cap of effective time management strategies. Time Management Tips for Students Who Work If you’re both working and taking classes, you seldom have large blocks of free time. Avoid temptations to stay up very late studying, for losing sleep can lead to a downward spiral in performance at both work and school. Instead, try to follow these guidelines: - If possible, adjust your work or sleep hours so that you don’t spend your most productive times at work. If your job offers flex time, arrange your schedule to be free to study at times when you perform best. - Try to arrange your class and work schedules to minimize commuting time. If you are a part-time student taking two classes, taking classes back-to-back two or three days a week uses less time than spreading them out over four or five days. Working four ten-hour days rather than five eight-hour days reduces time lost to travel, getting ready for work, and so on. - If you can’t arrange an effective schedule for classes and work, consider online courses that allow you to do most of the work on your own time. - Use your daily and weekly planner conscientiously. Anytime you have thirty minutes or more free, schedule a study activity. - Consider your “body clock” when you schedule activities. Plan easier tasks for those times when you’re often fatigued and reserve alert times for more demanding tasks. - Look for any “hidden” time potentials. Maybe you prefer the thirty-minute drive to work over a forty-five-minute train ride. But if you can read on the train, that’s a gain of ninety minutes every day at the cost of thirty minutes longer travel time. An hour a day can make a huge difference in your studies. - Can you do quick study tasks during slow times at work? Take your class notes with you and use even five minutes of free time wisely. - Remember your long-term goals. You need to work, but you also want to finish your college program. If you have the opportunity to volunteer for some overtime, consider whether it’s really worth it. Sure, the extra money would help, but could the extra time put you at risk for not doing well in your classes? - Be as organized on the job as you are academically. Use your planner and to-do list for work matters, too. The better organized you are at work, the less stress you’ll feel—and the more successful you’ll be as a student also. - If you have a family as well as a job, your time is even more limited. In addition to the previous tips, try some of the strategies that follow. Time Management Tips for Students with Family Living with family members often introduces additional time stresses. You may have family obligations that require careful time management. Use all the strategies described earlier, including family time in your daily plans the same as you would hours spent at work. Don’t assume that you’ll be “free” every hour you’re home, because family events or a family member’s need for your assistance may occur at unexpected times. Schedule your important academic work well ahead and in blocks of time you control. See also the earlier suggestions for controlling your space: you may need to use the library or another space to ensure you are not interrupted or distracted during important study times. Students with their own families are likely to feel time pressures. After all, you can’t just tell your partner or kids that you’ll see them in a couple years when you’re not so busy with job and college! In addition to all the planning and study strategies discussed so far, you also need to manage your family relationships and time spent with family. While there’s no magical solution for making more hours in the day, even with this added time pressure there are ways to balance your life well: - Talk everything over with your family. If you’re going back to school, your family members may not have realized changes will occur. Don’t let them be shocked by sudden household changes. Keep communication lines open so that your partner and children feel they’re together with you in this new adventure. Eventually, you will need their support. - Work to enjoy your time together, whatever you’re doing. You may not have as much time together as previously, but cherish the time you do have—even if it’s washing dishes together or cleaning house. If you’ve been studying for two hours and need a break, spend the next ten minutes with family instead of checking e-mail or watching television. Ultimately, the important thing is being together, not going out to movies or dinners or the special things you used to do when you had more time. Look forward to being with family and appreciate every moment you are together, and they will share your attitude. Overcoming Procrastination Procrastination Checklist Do any of the following descriptions apply to you? - My paper is due in two days and I haven’t really started writing it yet. - I’ve had to pull an all-nighter to get an assignment done on time. - I’ve turned in an assignment late or asked for an extension when I really didn’t have a good excuse not to get it done on time. - I’ve worked right up to the minute an assignment was due. - I’ve underestimated how long a reading assignment would take and didn’t finish it in time for class. - I’ve relied on the Internet for information (like a summary of a concept or a book) because I didn’t finish the reading on time. If these sound like issues you’ve struggled with in the past, you might want to consider whether you have the tendency to procrastinate and how you want to deal with it in your future classes. You’re already spending a lot of time, energy, and money on the classes you’re taking—don’t let all of that go to waste! Procrastination is a way of thinking that lets one put off doing something that should be done now. This can happen to anyone at any time. It’s like a voice inside your head keeps coming up with these brilliant ideas for things to do right now other than studying: “I really ought to get this room cleaned up before I study” or “I can study anytime, but tonight’s the only chance I have to do X.” That voice is also very good at rationalizing: “I really don’t need to read that chapter now; I’ll have plenty of time tomorrow at lunch.…” Procrastination is very powerful. It is the habit of putting off and delaying tasks. Some people battle it daily, others only occasionally. Most college students procrastinate often, and about half say they need help to avoid procrastination. Procrastination can threaten one’s ability to do well on an assignment or test. People procrastinate for different reasons. Some people are too relaxed in their priorities, seldom worry, and easily put off responsibilities. Others worry constantly, and that stress keeps them from focusing on the task at hand. Some procrastinate because they fear failure; others procrastinate because they fear success or are so perfectionistic that they don’t want to let themselves down. Some are dreamers. Many different factors are involved, and there are different styles of procrastinating. Strategies to Combat Procrastination Just as there are different causes, there are different possible solutions to procrastination. Different strategies work for different people. The time management strategies described earlier can help you avoid procrastination. Because this is a psychological issue, some additional psychological strategies can also help: - Since procrastination is usually a habit, accept that and work on breaking it as you would any other bad habit: one day at a time. Know that every time you overcome feelings of procrastination, the habit becomes weaker and eventually, you’ll have a new habit of being able to start studying right away. - Break large tasks into small ones. - Start with the easiest task and work your way up to the hardest. - Schedule times for studying using a daily or weekly planner. Commit to your study schedule in the same way you commit to other obligations like class time or school. Carry it with you and look at it often. Just being aware of the time and what you need to do today can help you get organized and stay on track. - If you keep thinking of something else you might forget to do later (making you feel like you “must” do it now), write yourself a note about it for later and get it out of your mind. - Counter a negative with a positive. If you’re procrastinating because you’re not looking forward to a certain task, try to think of the positive future results of doing the work, like getting a good grade or raising your GPA. - Counter a negative with a worse negative. If thinking about the positive results of completing the task doesn’t motivate you to get started, think about what could happen if you keep procrastinating. You’ll have to study tomorrow instead of doing something fun you had planned. Or you could fail the test. Some people can jolt themselves right out of procrastination. - On the other hand, fear causes procrastination in some people—so don’t dwell on the thought of failing. If you’re studying for a test, and you’re so afraid of failing it that you can’t focus on studying and you start procrastinating, try to put things in perspective. Even if it’s your most difficult class and you don’t understand everything about the topic, that doesn’t mean you’ll fail, even if you may not receive an A or a B. - Study with a motivated friend. - Form a study group and work with other students who are motivated and won’t procrastinate along with you. This will help keep you accountable and you will learn good habits from them while getting the work done now. - Keep your studying “bite-sized”: When confronted with 150 pages of reading or 50 problems to solve, it’s natural to feel overwhelmed. Try breaking it down: What if you decide that you will read for 45 minutes or that you will solve 10 problems? That sounds much more manageable. - Keep the consequences of not completing an assignment or study for an exam in mind. - Turn off your phone, close your chat windows, and block distracting Web sites. Treat your studying as if you’re in a movie theater—just turn it off. - Balance school and family demands. - Set up a reward system: If you read for 40 minutes, you can check your phone for 5 minutes. But keep in mind that reward-based systems only work if you stick to an honor system. - Study in a place reserved for studying ONLY. Your bedroom may have too many distractions (or temptations, such as taking a nap), so it may be best to avoid it when you’re working on school assignments. - Use checklists: Make your incremental accomplishments visible. Some people take great satisfaction and motivation from checking items off a to-do list. Be very specific when creating this list, and clearly describe each task one step at a time. - Get help. If you really can’t stay on track with your study schedule, or if you’re always putting things off until the last minute, see a college counselor. They have lots of experience with this common student problem and can help you find ways to overcome this habit. In the following video, Joseph Clough shares key strategies for conquering procrastination once and for all. Pomodoro Technique A well-known technique for managing time that can help with procrastination is called the Pomodoro Technique, developed by Francesco Cirillo in the 1980s and named after the popular tomato-shaped kitchen timer (pomodoro means “tomato” in Italian.) This simple technique is a method of managing procrastination by breaking down your work periods into small, manageable units. The system operates on the belief that by dividing your work and breaks into regular, short increments you can avoid feeling overwhelmed by a looming task while also avoiding burn out. Here are the basics: - Consider in advance how many pomodoros you might need to achieve your task. - Set a timer for 25 minutes, and start your task. - It doesn’t have to be a tomato timer. You can use your phone timer (but put it on Do Not Disturb.) - There are several online versions or apps for Pomodoro Timers – do a quick search to find one that works best for you. - It doesn’t have to be 25 minutes, you can tweak this as you get more comfortable with the method. - If a distraction pops into your head, write it down and immediately return to your task. - When the buzzer rings, you’ve completed one increment, also known as one pomodoro. - Take a five-minute break. You can check the distractions that popped into your head, stretch, grab a cup of tea, etc. - After four pomodoros, take a fifteen- to thirty-minute break. - Repeat! Give it a try if you’re interested in breaking your studying into manageable tomato-sized bites while developing a greater understanding of time management and how long it will take to complete a task. Watch this supplemental video that explains the Pomodoro Technique. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Your values help shape your goals and your goals help shape your time management. - Identifying your priorities is an important first step to creating an effective time management system. - Models like The Eisenhower Method help you prioritize and avoid unnecessarily stressful situations. - There are unique Time Management Styles and knowing yours will help you create your own system. - Having an accurate snapshot of how you currently spend your time is the first step in creating an effective time management system. - Once you know how you spend your time, you can make a specific plan for how you want to spend your time. - There are different types of planners, including hard-copy and electronic. Find a planner that works best for you and your preferences and habits. - Your planner should reflect your values, goals, and priorities. It should include class time, work time, appointments, due dates, exams, and reminders of special dates. - For big projects, plan backward to ensure you have enough time planned for each step. - There are several options for To-Do Lists including paper and electronic choices. Find a system that works with your planner and that you will actively use. - Implement Time Management Strategies to support your success and ultimately support your goals. - Understand procrastination and the reasons you personally procrastinate. Use this information to incorporate proactive strategies to help you avoid procrastinating. JOURNAL IDEA: AVOIDING TIME TRAPS Now that you have a better understanding of how you are spending your time, write a journal entry that identifies your time traps and what strategies you can implement to overcome those time traps. What is a time trap? A time trap is something you end up spending a lot of time that doesn’t support your goals or priorities. They take up your time, energy and focus if you let them. The way to avoid time traps is to be aware of what your personal time traps are and have a plan for how you will avoid or reduce them. We all have our own personal time traps. What are yours? To help you get started, here’s a list of some common time traps: - Web surfing - Streaming online videos - Video games - Social media - Checking your phone for texts or alerts - Television - Sleeping unnecessarily - Hanging out with friends when there’s nothing really happening - Watching movies from streaming services Directions Look at your Time Log from Activity #2. What were your two most common time traps? How did these time traps distract you from your priorities? For each of your two time traps, come up with two specific plans to effectively avoid or reduce those time traps. What time management strategies can you implement that can support your plans to avoid your time traps? LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Manage Your Time. Authored by: Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Image. Authored by: Flickr. Located at :https://www.flickr.com/photos/bionicteaching/45191993455. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Pomodoro Technique: Study More Efficiently, Take More Breaks Authored by: Gena Ellett. Provided by: The University of British Colombia Located at: https://learningcommons.ubc.ca/the-pomodoro-technique-study-more-efficiently-take-more-breaks/ License: CC BY: Attribution - The Pomodoro Technique. Authored by: Ryan MacGillivray. Provided by: SKETCHPLANTATIONS Located at: https://www.sketchplanations.com/post/179972023741/the-pomodoro-technique-a-super-simple-methodLicense: CC BY: Attribution PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - College Success Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - The Pomodoro Technique Authored by: Cirillo Company. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=VFW3Ld7JO0w License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License LUMEN LEARNING AUTHORED CONTENT - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.104610	Yecenia Tovar	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74431/overview", "title": "Chapter 4: Manage Your Time", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84258/overview	ENGL 101 Syllabus ENGL 101: Freshman Composition Overview Instruction in writing compositions from personal, reflective, and argumentative perspectives. Syllabus and Sample Assignment Instruction in writing compositions from personal, reflective, and argumentative perspectives.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.126693	Syllabus	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84258/overview", "title": "ENGL 101: Freshman Composition", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122908/overview	Learning Object "Adverbs of frequency" Overview Learning Object "Adverbs of frequency" TEFL, TESL Learning Object "Adverbs of frequency" Learning Object "Adverbs of frequency" TESL, TEFL	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.142658	12/11/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122908/overview", "title": "Learning Object \"Adverbs of frequency\"", "author": "Lizeth Rojas" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84472/overview	Curvature of a Curve: Calculus 3 project by Ryan Taylor Overview This Project has been completed as part of a standard 10 weeks Calculus 3 asynchronous online course with optional WebEx sessions during Summer 2021 Semester at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA. Curvature of a Curve What is Curvature Driving down the road you see a bend in the road, and you turn your wheel a little bit to make that bend. A little bit farther down the road, you see another bend, but this one is very tight, and you will have to turn very quickly, so you turn your steering wheel a lot more and you make the bend. The amount that turned your steering wheel is a good representation of curvature. Curvature measures how quickly a line is changing direction as it is travelled, so that tight turn where you had to turn your steering wheel a lot, had a large value for curvature while the first curve has a much smaller value. Another way to define this is that it is the inverse of the radius of the circle that would be created to fit that curve, the larger the radius, the smaller the curve. Figure 1: Created with Solidworks In this example, the radius of the circle that would hug the curve at that point is .5, since the curvature is the inverse of radius, the curvature would be 2 or 1/.5 Figure 2: Created with Solidworks In this example, the radius of the circle is greater, which means the curvature is going to be smaller which means this is a more gentle curve. If the line were a road, the driver would have to turn the steering wheel a lot less to stay on the road for this curve rather than the first curve shown. This curvature value would be ~.5714 or 1/1.75. The next challenge to overcome with curvature, is finding the curvature value when the radius of the curve is not given. That is what we will figure out next. Equations There are two equations to find curvature, they are as follows. $\displaystyle{k}=\frac{{\left\\|{\vec{{T}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)'}}\right\\|}} ~~ \text{ or }~~ {k}=\frac{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'\times\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}{''}}\right\\|}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}^{3}} ~~ \text{ and }~~ \displaystyle\vec{{T}}{\left({t}\right)}=\frac{{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}} $ To see how these equations come from, watch the the following 3 videos. They provide an excellent explanation of the curvature formulas. Let's use these formulas in a couple examples. Example 1 First let's find the curvature of $\displaystyle{\vec r}{\left({t}\right)}=<{4} \sin{{\left({t}\right)}},-{4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}>$ Start by finding $\vec {r}~'(t)$ $\vec {r}~'(t)=<4\cos(t),4\sin(t)>$ This will allow us to find $\vec{T}(t)$ $\displaystyle\vec{{T}}{\left({t}\right)}=\frac{{<{4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}},{4} \sin{{\left({t}\right)}}>}}{\sqrt{{{16}{{\cos}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}+{16}{{\sin}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}}}}=\frac{{<{4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}},{4} \sin{{\left({t}\right)}}>}}{{{4}\sqrt{{{{\cos}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}+{{\sin}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}}}}}=\frac{{<{4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}},{4} \sin{{\left({t}\right)}}>}}{{4}}=<\cos(t),\sin(t)>$ Next find $\vec{T}~'(t)$ $\displaystyle\vec{{{T}}}~'{\left({t}\right)}=<- \sin{{\left({t}\right)}}, \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}>$ Now that we have $\vec{T}~'(t)$ we need to find $\|\|\vec{T}~'(t)\|\|$ and $\|\|\vec{r}~'(t)\|\|$. $\displaystyle{\left\\|{\vec{{T}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}=\sqrt{{{\left(- \sin{{\left({t}\right)}}\right)}^{2}+{\left( \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}\right)}^{2}}}={1}$ $\displaystyle{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}=\sqrt{{{\left({4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}\right)}^{2}+{\left({4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}\right)}^{2}}}=\sqrt{{{16}{{\cos}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}+{16}{{\sin}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}}}={4}\sqrt{{{{\cos}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}+{{\sin}^{2}{\left({t}\right)}}}}={4}\times{1}={4}$ This will allow us to substitute these values into the first curvature equation. $\displaystyle\kappa=\frac{{\left\\|{\vec{{T}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}}=\frac{1}{{4}}$ The curvature of $\displaystyle{\vec r}{\left({t}\right)}=<{4} \sin{{\left({t}\right)}},-{4} \cos{{\left({t}\right)}}>$ is $\kappa= \dfrac{1}{4}$1/4 or .25. The inverse of this is 4, which is the radius of the equation. To check this, we can look at a graph of $\vec{r}(t)$. Figure 3: Created with Matlab Example 2 Let's find the curvature of $\displaystyle \vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}=<\frac{{t}^{3}}{{3}},{4}{t},\frac{{t}^{5}}{{5}}>$ To start, let's graph this equation. Figure 4: Created with Matlab 3D Graph.fig This time we are going to use the second formula for curvature. That equation is as follows: $\displaystyle\kappa=\frac{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'\times\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}{''}}\right\\|}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}^{3}}$ To make things simpler, we are going to find $\vec{r}~'(t)$ and $\vec{r}~''(t)$, then find the cross product, and then put everything into the equation. $\displaystyle\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'=<{t}^{2},{4},{t}^{4}>$ $\displaystyle\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}{''}=<{2}{t},{0},{4}{t}^{3}>$ Next we will need to find the cross product. $\displaystyle\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'\times\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}{''}={\left\|\begin{matrix}\hat{{i}}&\hat{{j}}&\hat{{k}}\\{t}^{2}&{4}&{t}^{4}\\{2}{t}&{0}&{4}{t}^{3}\end{matrix}\right\|}=<{16}{t}^{3},-{2}{t}^{5},-{8}{t}>$ From here we will put the vectors we found into the curvature formula. $\displaystyle\kappa=\frac{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'\times\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}{''}}\right\\|}}{{\left\\|{\vec{{r}}{\left({t}\right)}'}\right\\|}^{3}}=\frac{\sqrt{{{\left({16}{t}^{3}\right)}^{2}+{\left(-{2}{t}^{5}\right)}^{2}+{\left(-{8}{t}\right)}^{2}}}}{{\left(\sqrt{{{\left({t}^{2}\right)}^{2}+{\left({4}\right)}^{2}+{\left({t}^{4}\right)}^{2}}}\right)}^{3}}=\frac{\sqrt{{{256}{t}^{6}+{4}{t}^{10}+{64}{t}^{2}}}}{{\left(\sqrt{{{t}^{4}+{16}+{t}^{8}}}\right)}^{3}}$ To find the curvature at a specific point, a $t$ value can be inputted, for example, let's use $t=10$. $\displaystyle\frac{\sqrt{{{256}{t}^{6}+{4}{t}^{10}+{64}{t}^{2}}}}{{\left(\sqrt{{{t}^{4}+{16}+{t}^{8}}}\right)}^{3}}={2.0061}\times{10}^{ -{{7}}}$ Curvature Being able to calculate curvature can open a lot of doors and can be very helpful, and thankfully, it is fairly simple to do. The two formulas will both give the same results, but in some situations one may be easier than the other. Knowing when to use which equation will save you a lot of time and so practiving with each can be quite helpful. Now you will be able to calculate the curvature of the road you are driving on, or the curvature of a graph you are looking at. I hope you have found this to be a helpful guide! If you would like to learn more about calculus, I highly encourage you to visit the following wiki pages that I found very informative! Gradient and Directional Derivatives References	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.165584	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84472/overview", "title": "Curvature of a Curve: Calculus 3 project by Ryan Taylor", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113096/overview	AZ Regional Conference Keynote Video_Final_01.18.23 Connection_Collaboration_Creativity_AZ Regional Conference Keynote Keynote - Connection, Collaboration, and Creativity: An approach to synergistic efforts leading to greater impact Overview Archived session from the 2023 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Keynote - Connection, Collaboration, and Creativity: An approach to synergistic efforts leading to greater impact This resource includes the session abstract, presenters, PPT, and recording. Session Abstract, PPT, and Recording Session Abstract Educational attainment of people living in rural areas is markedly lower than urban areas in Arizona and the rest of the U.S. Eighty-three percent of Arizona geographically is classified as rural. Fifteen percent of people in rural Arizona live in poverty compared to 12% in urban Arizona and 11% in the U.S. Twenty-one percent of persons 25+ in rural Arizona have a bachelor’s degree or higher compared to 33% in both urban Arizona and in the U.S. Through connection, collaboration, and creativity, the Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona initiative has created a collective of eight rural Arizona community colleges, leveraging resources to increase student cost savings, collaboration, and access and knowledge of OER and Open Pedagogy. Dr. Diane Ryan and Ms. Megan Crossfield will explore the importance of collaboration in the context of Open Education and share effective strategies used to impact the greater Arizona community and beyond. Always keeping in mind, together we achieve more. Presenters Megan Crossfield, Manager of Academic Initiatives & Special Projects, Yavapai College Diane Ryan, Vice President of Academic Affairs, Yavapai College	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.186286	02/19/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113096/overview", "title": "Keynote - Connection, Collaboration, and Creativity: An approach to synergistic efforts leading to greater impact", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112831/overview	صناعة الروبوت التعليمي(mike education robot) Overview مرحبا بكم في موقع صناعةالروبوت التعليمي صناعة الروبوت التعليمي صناعة الروبوت التعليمي مرحبًا بكم في موقع صناعة الروبوت التعليمي إعداد : صفاء فضل العلاية إشراف : د/أنور عبد العزيز الوحش يهدف الموقع إلى التعرف على كيفية صناعة الروبوت التعليمي وذلك لتسهيل التعليم وجعله أكثر متعة ومرونة ويحتوى الموقع على تعريف الروبوت التعليمي، أنواع الروبوت التعليمي , ومكونات الروبوت التعليمي , مراحل صناعة الروبوت التعليمي , وطريقة استعمال الروبوت التعليمي ,ومميزاته , وسلبياته إن الروبوتات التعليمية هي بيئة تعلم يتم فيها تحفيز الأفراد المنخرطين فيها من خلال تصميم وإنشاء الابتكارات (وهي أشياء لها مميزات شبيهة بمميزات الحياة البشرية أو الحيوانية). وترد تلك الابتكارات في المقام الأول يلي ذلك إضفاء الشكل العقلي والجسدي، والتي يتم تصميمها مع أنواع مختلفة من المواد ويتحكم فيها نظام حاسوبي، بما يسمى بالنماذج أو المحاكيات الروبوت التعليمي هو نوع من الروبوتات الذكية التي تستخدم لتوفير التعليم والتدريب. يتم تصميم هذه الروبوتات لتكون قادرة على تقديم محتوى تعليمي متنوع وتفاعلي للطلاب في مختلف المجالات، مثل العلوم، الرياضيات، اللغات، البرمجة، وغيرها. الروبوتات التعليمية قادرة على توفير شرح وتوجيه للمفاهيم الصعبة، وتقديم أمثلة وتمارين تفاعلية لتطبيق هذه المفاهيم. كما يمكنها تقديم مراجعات واختبارات لقياس استيعاب الطلاب وتقييم تقدمهم. تستفيد الروبوتات التعليمية من التقنيات المتقدمة مثل الذكاء الاصطناعي وتعلم الآلة لتحليل سلوك الطلاب وفهم احتياجاتهم التعليمية الفردية وتخصيص المحتوى والتوجيه وفقًا لذلك. يهدف الروبوت التعليمي إلى تعزيز عملية التعلم وجعلها أكثر متعة وفعالية وملاءمة لاحتياجات الطلاب المختلفة. كما يمكن استخدامه في مجموعة متنوعة من البيئات التعليمية، بما في ذلك المدارس والجامعات والمراكز التعليمية وحتى في المنزل. ومن الجدير بالذكر أن الروبوتات التعليمية لا تهدف إلى استبدال الأدوار التعليمية التقليدية مثل المعلمين والمدرسين، بل تعمل بشكل تكاملي معهم لتعزيز عملية التعلم وتقديم تجارب تعليمية محسَّنة. أنواع الروبوتات التعليمية المستخدمة في مجال التعليم. وفيما يلي بعض الأمثلة الشائعة: 1. روبوتات التعليم البرمجي: تستخدم لتعليم البرمجة وتطوير مهارات البرمجة لدى الطلاب. تتضمن أمثلة على ذلك روبوتات مثل LEGO Mindstorms وDash and Dot. 2. روبوتات التعلم المبكر: تستخدم في تعليم الأطفال في المراحل المبكرة، وتركز على تطوير المهارات المبكرة مثل التفكير المنطقي والإبداع والتواصل. مثل روبوت Bee-Bot وCubetto. 3. روبوتات التعلم اللغوي: تستخدم لتعليم اللغات الأجنبية وتحسين مهارات التحدث والاستماع والقراءة والكتابة. مثل روبوتات EMYS وNao. 4. روبوتات التعلم العلمي: تستخدم لتعليم المفاهيم العلمية والتجارب والاكتشافات. توفر تجارب عملية وتفاعلية لتوضيح المفاهيم العلمية بشكل مرئي وتطبيقي. مثل روبوتات LEGO Education وVEX Robotics. 5. روبوتات التعلم التعاوني: تستخدم في تعزيز التعاون والعمل الجماعي بين الطلاب. يعمل الطلاب معًا لبرمجة وتشغيل الروبوتات لحل مشاكل معقدة وإنجاز المهام. مثل روبوتات Sphero وCozmo. 6. روبوتات التعلم الحركي: تستخدم لتعليم المهارات الحركية والتنسيق بين العين واليد والحركة العامة. مثل روبوتات NAO وPepper. هذه مجرد أمثلة قليلة من أنواع الروبوتات التعليمية المتاحة، وتوجد العديد من الروبوتات الأخرى التي تستخدم في مجال التعليم بطرق مختلفة. يعتمد اختيار الروبوت التعليمي على الأهداف التعليمية واحتياجات المستخدمين المستهدفين. استخدام الروبوت التعليمي يعتمد على نوع الروبوت والهدف الذي ترغب في تحقيقه. هناك عدة طرق يمكن استخدامها للاستفادة من الروبوت التعليمي، وفيما يلي بعض الأمثلة: 1. تعليم المفاهيم العلمية: يمكن استخدام الروبوت التعليمي لشرح وتوضيح المفاهيم العلمية المختلفة. يمكن للروبوت تقديم دروس تفاعلية، وإجراء تجارب واستعراض نماذج لشرح المفاهيم بشكل مرئي وتطبيقي. 2. تعليم البرمجة: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي أن يكون معلمًا للبرمجة. يمكنه تقديم دروس تعليمية لتعلم لغات البرمجة المختلفة وتوجيه الطلاب في كتابة الشفرة وتطبيق المفاهيم البرمجية. 3. تطوير المهارات العملية: يمكن استخدام الروبوت التعليمي لتطوير المهارات العملية مثل البرمجة والتصميم والهندسة. يمكن للروبوت توفير مشاريع وتحديات تطبيقية للطلاب لتنمية مهاراتهم عن طريق العمل الفعلي مع الروبوت. 4. تعليم المهارات الاجتماعية والتعاونية: يمكن للروبوتات التعليمية أن تساهم في تعليم المهارات الاجتماعية والتعاونية، حيث يتعاون الطلاب في بناء وبرمجة الروبوت وحل مشاكل معقدة كفريق واحد. 5. تعليم المهارات الحركية: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تعليم الطلاب المهارات الحركية، مثل التحكم في الروبوت عن بُعد أو تعلم الحركات والتفاعل مع البيئة المحيطة. 6. تعليم اللغات: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تعليم اللغات الأجنبية من خلال تقديم دروس تفاعلية ومحادثات طبيعية. استخدام الروبوت التعليمي يمكن أن يكون متعدد التخصصات ومتنوعًا حسب الاحتياجات والأهداف التعليمية. يجب تخصيص البرمجة والمحتوى لتلبية احتياجات المستخدمين المستهدفين وتعزيز عملية التعلم بطرق مبتكرة وتفاعلية. صناعة الروبوت التعليمي تشمل عدة خطوات ومراحل. هنا هي طريقة عامة لصناعة روبوت تعليمي: 1. تحديد الهدف: قبل البدء في صناعة الروبوت التعليمي، يجب عليك تحديد الهدف المحدد للروبوت. هل ترغب في بناء روبوت يعلم الأطفال البرمجة؟ أم ربما ترغب في بناء روبوت يعلم المفاهيم العلمية؟ يجب أن تكون لديك رؤية واضحة للهدف الذي تسعى لتحقيقه. 2. التخطيط والتصميم: بعد تحديد الهدف، يجب عليك التخطيط لتصميم الروبوت. ابحث عن المكونات والتقنيات المناسبة التي تلبي احتياجاتك. يمكنك استخدام مكونات جاهزة مثل الحساسات والمحركات ووحدة المعالجة المركزية، أو يمكنك تصميم مكونات خاصة بك إذا كنت تمتلك المهارات الفنية اللازمة. 3. جمع المواد والمكونات: بعد التخطيط والتصميم، قم بجمع المواد والمكونات اللازمة لبناء الروبوت. قد تحتاج إلى شراء الحساسات والمحركات والبطاريات والمواد الأخرى المطلوبة وفقًا لتصميمك. 4. برمجة الروبوت: بعد تجهيز المكونات الفعلية للروبوت، قم ببرمجته باستخدام لغة البرمجة المناسبة. يجب أن تكون لديك معرفة بالبرمجة لتتمكن من برمجة وظائف الروبوت وتفاعله مع المستخدم أو النظام الذي ترغب في تعليمه. 5. التجميع والاختبار: قم بتجميع المكونات والتأكد من أن الروبوت يعمل بشكل صحيح. قم بتوصيل الحساسات والمحركات ووحدة المعالجة المركزية وأي مكونات أخرى وفقًا لتصميمك. ثم قم بإجراء اختبارات للتحقق من أداء الروبوت ووظائفه المبرمجة. 6. تحسين وتطوير: بعد اختبار الروبوت، قد تحتاج إلى تحسينه وتطويره. استمع إلى ملاحظات المستخدمين واكتشف المشاكل المحتملة وقم بإجراء التغييرات اللازمة لتحسين أداء الروبوت وفقًا للهدف الذي حددته في البداية. 7. التوثيق والتدريب: قم بوثائق عملية البناءوالبرمجة ووظائف الروبوت. قد تحتاج إلى إنشاء دليل للمستخدم يشرح كيفية استخدام الروبوت واستفادته منه. كما يمكنك توفير تدريب أو ورش عمل للمستخدمين لمساعدتهم في التعامل مع الروبوت واستغلال إمكاناته التعليمية. 8. نشر الروبوت: بعد الانتهاء من بناء الروبوت وضمان أنه يعمل بشكل صحيح، يمكنك نشره وتوزيعه على المستخدمين المستهدفين. يمكنك بيع الروبوت أو توفيره في المدارس أو المؤسسات التعليمية أو حتى الجمهور العام. هذه هي طريقة عامة لصناعة الروبوت التعليمي. يجب أن تكون مهتمًا بالتطورات والابتكارات في مجال الروبوتات والتعليم للبقاء على اطلاع دائم بأحدث التقنيات والأفكار في هذا المجال. مكونات الروبوت التعليمي تختلف اعتمادًا على نوع الروبوت والمهام التي يقوم بها. ومع ذلك، إليك قائمة ببعض المكونات الشائعة التي قد تتواجد في الروبوتات التعليمية: 1. هيكل الروبوت: يتضمن الهيكل الجسم الرئيسي للروبوت ويمكن أن يكون مصنوعًا من البلاستيك أو المعدن أو أي مادة أخرى. يتم تصميم الهيكل ليكون قويًا ومتينًا ويستوعب المكونات الأخرى للروبوت. 2. المحركات: تستخدم المحركات لتحقيق الحركة والتنقل. قد يكون للروبوت محركات متعددة للحركة في الاتجاهات المختلفة والتفاعل مع البيئة. 3. الاستشعار: تعد الاستشعارات مكونًا مهمًا في الروبوتات التعليمية لجمع المعلومات من البيئة المحيطة. يمكن أن تشمل الاستشعارات الشائعة الحساسات الضوئية والاستشعار التلمسي والاستشعار الصوتي والاستشعار الحراري والاستشعار القرب. 4. الوحدة المركزية: تشمل وحدة المعالجة المركزية (CPU) والذاكرة ووحدات المعالجة الأخرى. تقوم وحدة المعالجة المركزية بتنفيذ البرامج والأوامر وإدارة وتنظيم أنشطة الروبوت. 5. البطارية أو مصدر الطاقة: توفر البطارية أو مصدر الطاقة اللازمة لتشغيل الروبوت ومكوناته. يعتمد نوع مصدر الطاقة على نوع الروبوت واحتياجاته الطاقوية. 6. لوحة تحكم: تستخدم لبرمجة وتشغيل الروبوت، وتقديم واجهة للتفاعل مع المستخدم. يمكن استخدام أجهزة الكمبيوتر أو الأجهزة اللوحية أو الهواتف الذكية كوحدات تحكم. 7. البرمجيات: تشمل البرمجيات بيئة التطوير المتكاملة (IDE) واللغات البرمجية المستخدمة لبرمجة الروبوت. توفر البرمجيات واجهة للطلاب لكتابة الشفرات وتنفيذها وتفاعل مع الروبوت. هذه مجرد مكونات أساسية، وقد يتم إضافة مكونات أخرى اعتمادًا على الروبوت التعليمي واحتياجاته. الروبوت التعليمي يوفر العديد من المميزات والفوائد في مجال التعليم. وإليك بعض المميزات الشائعة للروبوت التعليمي: 1. تعلم تفاعلي: يوفر الروبوت التعليمي تجربة تعلم تفاعلية وعملية. يمكن للطلاب التفاعل مع الروبوت بشكل مباشر من خلال البرمجة والتحكم في حركته والتفاعل معه في المهام المختلفة. 2. تعزيز المشاركة والتشارك: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تعزيز المشاركة الفعالة للطلاب في عملية التعلم. يشجع الطلاب على التعاون والتشارك في برمجة الروبوت وعمل المشاريع الجماعية، مما يعزز التواصل والعمل الجماعي. 3. تنمية المهارات التقنية: يساعد الروبوت التعليمي في تنمية المهارات التقنية لدى الطلاب. يتعلم الطلاب مفاهيم البرمجة والتحكم والتصميم والهندسة من خلال برمجة وتشغيل الروبوت. 4. تعزيز التفكير النقدي والمنطقي: يعزز الروبوت التعليمي التفكير النقدي والمنطقي لدى الطلاب. يتعين على الطلاب تطوير خطط واستراتيجيات لحل المشاكل وبرمجة الروبوت وتحليل النتائج وتقييمها. 5. تعزيز الإبداع والابتكار: يشجع الروبوت التعليمي الطلاب على الإبداع والابتكار في عملية التعلم. يتيح للطلاب التصميم وتنفيذ المشاريع الإبداعية التي تعتمد على استخدام الروبوت واستكشاف طرق جديدة لحل المشاكل. 6. تعلم متعدد التخصصات: يتيح الروبوت التعليمي تكامل المواد المختلفة مثل العلوم والتكنولوجيا والهندسة والرياضيات (STEM) في عملية التعلم. يمكن للطلاب تطبيق المفاهيم والمهارات من مواد مختلفة في برمجة واستخدام الروبوت. 7. تعزيز الثقة والاستقلالية: يساعد الروبوت التعليمي في بناء الثقة والاستقلالية لدى الطلاب. يمكن للطلاب تولي المسؤولية عن برمجة وتشغيل الروبوت والتعامل مع التحديات وحل المشاكل بشكل مستقل. هذه مجرد بعض المميزات الشائعة للروبوت التعليمي. قد تختلف المميزات اعتمميزات الروبوت التعليمي تعتمد على تصميمه واستخدامه. وإليك بعض المميزات العامة التي يمكن أن يوفرها: 1. تعلم مخصص: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تلبية احتياجات ومتطلبات الطلاب بشكل فردي. يمكن تخصيص برامج التعليم والأنشطة لتناسب مستوى وقدرات كل طالب. 2. توفير تجارب عملية: يتيح الروبوت التعليمي للطلاب التعلم من خلال التجارب العملية والتفاعل مع الروبوت بشكل مباشر. يمكن للطلاب تجربة البرمجة والتحكم ومشاهدة النتائج على الفور. 3. تحفيز المشاركة والاهتمام: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي أن يكون مصدرًا لتحفيز الطلاب وزيادة اهتمامهم بالتعلم. يمكن للروبوت أن يكون شخصية محببة ومثيرة للاهتمام للطلاب، مما يجعلهم يشاركون بنشاط في الأنشطة التعليمية. 4. تعزيز التفكير النقدي والمشكلة: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تعزيز التفكير النقدي ومهارات حل المشكلات لدى الطلاب. يحتاج الطلاب إلى تطوير استراتيجيات وبرمجة لحل التحديات والمشاكل المطروحة أمامهم. 5. تعزيز المهارات التقنية: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تنمية المهارات التقنية لدى الطلاب، مثل مفاهيم البرمجة والتحكم والهندسة. يمكن للروبوت أن يكون وسيلة فعالة لتعلم المواد المتعلقة بالعلوم والتكنولوجيا والهندسة والرياضيات. 6. تعزيز التعلم التعاوني: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي تعزيز التعلم التعاوني والعمل الجماعي بين الطلاب. يمكن للروبوت أن يتطلب التعاون في برمجته وتشغيله، مما يشجع الطلاب على التواصل والتعاون في حل المشاكل المشتركة. 7. تعزيز الإبداع والابتكار: يمكن للروبوت التعليمي أن يشجع الطلاب على التفكير الإبداعي والابتكار في عملية التعلم. يمكن للطلاب تصميم وتنفيذ مشاريع إبداعية تستخدم الروبوت وتطبيق أفكار جديدة لحل المشاكل على الرغم من المزايا التي يوفرها الروبوت التعليمي في مجال التعليم، إلا أنه يمكن أن يكون له بعض السلبيات. وفيما يلي بعض السلبيات المحتملة للروبوت التعليمي: 1. نقص التفاعل الإنساني: يعتبر التفاعل الإنساني والتواصل الشخصي بين المعلم والطالب أمرًا هامًا في عملية التعلم. قد يؤدي استخدام الروبوت التعليمي إلى نقص في التفاعل الإنساني والتجربة الشخصية للطلاب، حيث يكون التعلم محدودًا إلى التفاعل مع الروبوت بدلاً من التفاعل مع المعلم والزملاء. 2. قدرات محدودة في التعامل مع الثقافات المتنوعة: قد يكون للروبوت التعليمي صعوبة في التعامل مع التنوع الثقافي للطلاب. قد يتعذر على الروبوت فهم اللغة أو العادات والتقاليد المختلفة بشكل كامل، مما يؤثر على قدرته على تلبية احتياجات الطلاب من خلفيات ثقافية متنوعة. 3. قيود التعلم القائم على الشاشة: يعتمد الروبوت التعليمي على واجهات المستخدم والشاشات لتوصيل المحتوى التعليمي وتفاعل الطلاب معه. قد تكون هذه القيود محدودة في بعض الأحيان، حيث يفتقر الروبوت إلى القدرة على تقديم تجارب تعليمية عملية وحسية مثل التجارب المختبرية الحقيقية. 4. تهديدات أمنية وخصوصية: قد يكون للروبوت التعليمي قضايا تتعلق بالأمان والخصوصية. بما أن الروبوت يتفاعل مع الطلاب وقد يحتوي على بيانات شخصية، فقد تكون هناك مخاوف بشأن الحفاظ على سرية هذه البيانات ومنع الوصول غير المصرح به إليها. 5. الاعتماد الزائد على التكنولوجيا: يمكن أن يؤدي الاعتماد الكبير على التكنولوجيا في عملية التعلم إلى انقطاع أو تعطل التكنولوجيا، مما يؤثر سلبًا على استمرارية التعلم. قد يعتمد الروبوت التعليمي على الاتصال بالإنترنت أو الأجهزة الإلكترونية، وهذا يعني أن أي انقطاع أو خلل في التكنولوجيا يمكن أن يعطل عملية التعلم. 6. التكلفة: قالتكلفة قد تكون سلبية أخرى للروبوت التعليمي. تطوير وتنفيذ الروبوتات التعليمية قد يكون مكلفًا جدًا، وقد يتطلب صيانة وتحديثات مستمرة. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، قد يكون هناك تكاليف إضافية لتدريب المعلمين والطلاب على استخدام الروبوتات التعليمية بشكل فعال. على الرغم من وجود هذه السلبيات المحتملة، يجب أن نلاحظ أن الروبوتات التعليمية لديها أيضًا العديد من المزايا والفوائد في مجال التعليم. ومع تطور التكنولوجيا والابتكار المستمر، قد يتم التغلب على بعض هذه السلبيات في المستقبل.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.216706	02/15/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112831/overview", "title": "صناعة الروبوت التعليمي(mike education robot)", "author": "صناعة الروبوت التعليمي" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64710/overview	Bubbl.us Overview Instructions and ways to use Bubbl.us in Community College ESL courses. Bubbl Instructions Bubbl.us is a brainstorming tool that can be used for many types of assignments.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.248363	03/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64710/overview", "title": "Bubbl.us", "author": "Annemarie Roscello" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118474/overview	Improvisation Recipe Book (adpated) Improvisation Recipe Book Overview This open resource provides a comprehensive guide to learning and applying improvisation techniques, including historical context, key principles, and a variety of exercises for different group sizes and durations. It covers warm-ups, games, career applications, and devised theatre, making it suitable for both novice and experienced improvisers. Image Attribution: (Theatreland Masks by Garry Knight is licensed CC BY 2.0) Improvisation Recipe Book The Improvisation Recipe Book is an extensive guide that delves into the art of improvisational theater, outlining its historical context, fundamental rules, and various styles. It begins with a brief history of improv, tracing its roots from ancient practices such as the Atellan Farce in 391 BC to the development of modern improvisational techniques by influential figures like Viola Spolin and Keith Johnstone. The book emphasizes key principles essential for successful improvisation, including listening, agreement, teamwork, and maintaining character throughout performances. “The following recipes, or games, are intended to be used as reference and study for the college course: Improvisation. This format has been set up to help with ease of quick learning and immediate application. Bon Appétit !” - Dan Stone	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.266339	07/27/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118474/overview", "title": "Improvisation Recipe Book", "author": "Red Rocks CC" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84921/overview	MATH 125C Finite Mathematics Overview This textbook was prepared as an OER text for MATH 125C Finite Mathematics. Topics include matrices, linear programming, counting techniques, sets, probability, statistics, mathematics of finance, Markov chains, and game theory. Applications will be emphasized. Topics include matrices, linear programming, counting techniques, sets, probability, statistics, mathematics of finance, Markov chains, and game theory. Applications are emphasized. This textbook contains chapters from: Business Precalculus (OER), by David Lippman; Applied Finite Mathematics (OER) 2nd edition, 1996, by Rupinder Sekhon and Applied Finite Mathematics (OER) 3rd edition, 2016, by Roberta Bloom and Rupinder Sekhon; and Introductory Statistics, by Barbara lllowsky and Susan Dean. Complete Textbook Revised Spring 2022	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.284870	08/10/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84921/overview", "title": "MATH 125C Finite Mathematics", "author": "Valerie LaVoice" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89639/overview	Writing about Family Overview Activity for Adult ESL students in a non-credit class. Writing about family 1. Watch the video, "Lola's Work". 2. Write 2 sentences that have modals (would, could, should) from the video. 3. Write 2 paragraphs (5 sentences or more each paragraph): - Paragraph 1: summarize the story - Paragraph 2: describe what the story makes you think about, feel or remember.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.296978	01/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89639/overview", "title": "Writing about Family", "author": "Tanya Brauer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104976/overview	IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide Overview In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. May 11 - Section One: Landscape Analysis for Accessibility in OER in Local Context (Work on during May 11th implementation) In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. We exnourage to explore some of the questions from each category. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. We ask that you complete Parts One, Two and Six. Part One: Initial Thoughts What is your team's initial goal for this series? - Continue with our development of short courses/module on how to format for accessible online design, specifically on Pressbooks. - Present available resources to faculty and staff through the Center for Faculty Excellence meetings, in online meetings with our authors of OER (Textbook Affordability Grant winners), and email to past recipients of our Textbook Affordability Grant and other past authors of OER at CSU. Part Two: Introductory probing questions: What does accessibility look like in our organization? How do we measure accessibility? What does OER look like in our organization? How do we measure access to OER? CSU Center for eLearning currently has the following professional development courses for faculty and staff that introduce them to accessibility and goes over document accessibility in Word and PowerPoint: Creating Accessible Word Documents, Creating Accessible PowerPoint Presentations, Blackboard Ally for Creating Accessible Documents. We also have various video tutorials on how to format for accessibility in Pressbook assignments for a history course and a course titled Open Pedagogy and Pressbooks. The later tutorials are specific to assignments, but the techniques could be pulled out for a general audience. Our Office of Disability Services measures accessibility and gives feedback to faculty on what they need to do to make their course content accessible to students with disabilities in their course. Our Scholarly Publications director reviews content authored by faculty in Pressbooks and either applies formatting for accessibility herself and/or asks faculty authors to help. Heather Caprette in the Center for eLearning can check the accessibility of content and make recommendations. She also authors with accessible formatting when creating course materials. Part Three: Clarifying questions for accessibility: What is the organizational structure that supports accessibility? We Have - Courses on Word accessibility We Have - Courses on PPT accessibility We Have – Best practices in accessible learning courses Need – Accessibility in Pressbooks course Need - New authors need to review the relevant modules in a course titled Accessible Design Techniques for Authors of Open Educational Resources, depending on the authoring tool/s they are using. - Who generates most of the accessibility structures/conversation in our organization? The Office of Disability Services, The Center for eLearning, the Director of Scholarly Publications in the library. Where do most educators get support with accessibility? ODS ELearning What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to accessibility? It varies. It could be any and all areas. As an example, we don’t have the resources to pay for captioning for all recorded videos within courses. This is paid for by the Office of Disability Services when there is a student with a documented disability who needs captioning in a course. Part Four: Clarifying questions for OER: What is our organizational structure that supports curricular resources? The Center for eLearning, and sometimes the library What is our organizational structure that supports OER? The library primarily, and sometimes the Center for eLearning Who generates most of the curricular resources in our organization? Faculty Where do most educators get support with curricular resources? They mainly author them because of the vast quantity of resources that are created. They receive some help from the Center for eLearning. They also rely on paid publisher content a great deal. This could be in the form of course packages, and/or library subscriptions to ebooks and journals. When they create OER in Pressbooks, they get a team of staff helping them/ providing guidance from the library and Center for eLearning. What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to curricular resources/OER? There are and could be gaps in accessibility in any of our course materials no matter who was the author or the source. Part Five: Clarifying questions for Faculty learning and engagement: What Professional Learning (PL) structures have the best participation rates for our educators? It varies over time. In the past, faculty have attended Center for Faculty Excellence lunch talks and learning communities, face-to-face before the pandemic began and online when the vaccines were being developed and distributed. Since our return to face-to-face, it seems that attendance in person is less than before March of 2020. Participation in the Center for eLearning online workshop courses varies also. It could range from 2 to 20 participants per short course. What PL structures have the best "production" rates for our educators? What incentive do we have to offer people for participating in learning and engagement? The Center for eLearning gives a $500 stipend to faculty who successfully complete our Faculty Online Teaching and Design course. They also give $500 to faculty who successfully complete three or more FOTD and Beyond short workshops within a year. The Center for Teaching Excellence awards stipends for Teaching Enhancement Awards for faculty to improve their courses over a two-year period. The library offers Textbook Affordability Grants to faculty for authoring OER. Who are the educators that would be most creative with accessibility and OER? Those who have the time to review the accessibility training and learn how to use Pressbooks. Who are the educators that would benefit the most from accessibility and OER? The authors of the OER, no matter what platform they are using. Anyone creating content they are placing online for courses. Part Six: Final Probing questions: What is our current goal for Accessibility in OER and why is that our goal? To build a module on accessible formatting in Pressbooks because we don’t have on-demand training for this yet. To reach out to faculty who are currently authoring and have authored in the past. By reaching out to current authors, we can maximize the potential that OER created going forward are more accessible. By reaching out to past authors, we are hoping that they will find the time and be willing to implement the formatting for accessibility. Who have we not yet included while thinking about this work? Possibly offering the accessibility training to staff. In the past, The Center for eLearning asked all instructional designers and online course & materials developers to take a Best Practices in Accessible Online Design course, but several did not complete it. What barriers remain when considering this work? Time is always a limitation for everyone since universities have downsized their staffing. Attitude is another. Everyone needs to realize that formatting for accessibility is everyone’s responsibility, not just the task of several people at the institution. What would genuine change look like for our organization for this work? More resources to be given to accessibility efforts across the university, whether this be time off for training, stipends to encourage professional development, or requirements to take accessibility training. Section Two: Team Focus (Finish before May 25th to share during Implementation Session Two) Identifying and Describing a Problem of Practice The following questions should help your team ensure that you are focusing your collaboration. What is your Team’s specific goal for this series? You may consider using AEM Quality Indicators for Creating Accessible Materials to help add to or narrow your work. Require that Textbook Affordability Grant recipients whose work involves the creation of new content (not just adoption) complete one or more modules of a Blackboard course titled Accessible Design Techniques for Authors of Open Educational Resources. Offer a training session about accessibility in OER creation/adaptation in partnership with the Center for Faculty Excellence What other partners might support this work? Barb Loomis in the library (so we invited her – welcome, Barb!) Open Access and Affordability Team in the library? Disability Services? What is your desired timeframe for this work? Hoping to finish by Fall 2023 in time to require as part of the library's Fall 2023 Textbook Affordability Grants How will you include diverse voices and experiences in this work? Diversity of roles on the team (faculty, instructional designer, library staff, etc.) Section Three: Team Work Time and Next Steps (Complete by the end of Implementation Session Three) Sharing and Next Steps What was your redefined goal for this series? See Implementation Section Two What does your team want to celebrate? A great plan! The addition of Barb to our work What did your team accomplish? If you have links to resources, please include them here. A plan and agreement to divvy up the work What are your team’s next steps? First planning meeting for starting the creation process scheduled for June 16th	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.325559	06/08/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104976/overview", "title": "IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide", "author": "Mandi Goodsett" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104390/overview	Math M15: Introduction to Statistics - Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan The use of open pedagogy allow your students to have a say in their eductaion. This project is one slected by students and brings in a wonderful discussion about how racism played a role in forming neighborhoods. Enjoy. Course Description Math M15 - Introduction to Statistics Course Objectives Summarize data graphically by displaying data using methods from descriptive statistics, interpreting data in tables graphically by using histograms, frequency distributions, box-and whisker (five-number summary); find measures of central tendency for data sets: mean, median, and mode; find measures of variation for data sets: standard deviation, variance, and range; relative positions of data and distinguish among scales of measurements and their implications; distinguish between populations and samples; and identify the standard method of obtaining data and the ad- vantages and disadvantages of each. Interpreting data is 90% of the battle! These skills will prevent you from being fooled by misleading statistics. Find simple probabilities and probabilities of compound events and compute probabilities using the complement, discrete probability distributions, apply concepts of sample space, the binomial probability distribution. Like to gamble? I can teach you. Standardize a normally distributed random variable, use normal distribution tables to find probabilities for normally distributed random variables and the t-distribution, and use the Central Limit Theorem to find probabilities for sampling distributions. The most important probability model of all time. This will be fun for me to explain to you. Construct and interpret confidence intervals for proportions and means. This will allow you to become an efficient decision-making machine. You will be able to interpret so well your grandma will understand. Identify the basics of hypothesis testing and perform hypothesis testing for means, proportions and standard deviations from one population, and difference of means and proportions from two populations, including finding and interpreting p-value and examining Type I and Type II error. Find linear least-squares regression equations for appropriate data sets, graph least- square regression equations on the scatter plot for the data sets, and find and apply the coefficient of correlation. Use the chi-square distribution to test independence and to test goodness of fit. Conduct a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) hypothesis test. Select an appropriate hypothesis test and interpret the result using p-value; use ap- propriate statistical technique to analyze and interpret applications based on data related to business, social sciences, psychology, life sciences, health sciences or education, and interpret results using technology-based statistical analysis. Course Learning Outcomes - MATHM15 - Introductory Statistics - • construct a single-sample confidence interval, and draw an appropriate conclusion. This can be done by hand, with a graphing calculator, or with statistical software. - • construct a single-sample hypothesis test based on a given claim, and draw an appropriate conclusion. This can be done by hand, with a graphing calculator, or with statistical software. Antiracist Assignment / Module This module contains the course syllabus and class project. The project has students examine home prices within two different cities in Los Angeles, CA. Using statistics, they will collect data and run the appropriate hypothesis test. There will be a significant difference in average home prices. The students will further investigate the reason behind this and will learn that a root cause has to with race. They will learn about the history or redlining in the US and how it shaped Los Angeles today.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.352741	05/30/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104390/overview", "title": "Math M15: Introduction to Statistics - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Michael Nava" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16688/overview	Nice GIF Writing resource Tricky Cat Videos Overview These are the best videos and gifs about cats. Section 1 These are the best videos and gifs about cats.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.370160	09/07/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16688/overview", "title": "Tricky Cat Videos", "author": "Todd Conaway" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104233/overview	Biology Video Assignment - Research and Scientific Communication Overview This assignment is written as a final project for students in a biology class to create a video answering a question using scientific literature. It is scaffolded over the semester, with a brainstorming assignment, a submission of reference list, and the final video. Biology Video Assignment Dr. Darcy Ernst, Evergreen Valley College Introduction: Scientific research can be communicated in a variety of ways. A popular method for communication, especially in recent years, is in a video format. When people are watching videos online to be informed or entertained often shorter videos are better (studies have shown our attention and interest levels are highest for videos under 5 minutes). For your final project you will choose a question within the scope of our class, Organismal Biology & Biodiversity, and create a 5-minute video answering the question using peer-reviewed scientific literature. This question can be broad or specific, and the video is open to your creativity! As you are studying for the class I encourage you to write down any topic that interests you or any question you have about the material, so that when you go to decide on a project topic you have some ideas already. Part 1: Mind Map (Brainstorm) This assignment is designed to help you think about your topic for your video project. Complete the Mind Map thought activity below and submit it as an assignment. Your final project will be a 5-minute informational video on the topic of your choice (must be somewhat related to this class, but this class is broad so – get creative!). Your video can be animated, have slides, be in the style of a Tik-Tok, involve a song or dance, whatever you want to do. First, watch this TedEd animation video from Joao Pedro de Magalhaes to get an idea of content and scope of a question you might want to ask and answer for your project. This video is titled “Why do animals have such different lifespans?”. The title of your video will also be written as a question so that you can answer it in your video. To start coming up with ideas for your project you will create a Mind Map. There is a blank template below, or you can come up with your own. I have also put a completed sample Mind Map below the template based on my interests. Start with the project in the middle, then include at least three major topics you might be interested in branching off the main project. Then, write specific questions off of each topic. One of these questions could become the title of your project! Submit: Your mind map and a paragraph describing what you think you want to do for your project (what question, briefly how you might present it). Part 2: Collect and submit reference list This week, your list of references for your project is due. Most of you have already finalized your topics but, if you haven't or need more help, please email me to set up an appointment to talk or come to office hours. Your assignment is to provide a list of 10 peer-reviewed, primary literature sources (journal articles or books) that you will use as research for your final project. They must be correctly formatted and should not include links or websites. You will use CSE (council of science editors) format. You may also use APA or MLA format if you are more comfortable with one of those. CSE journal article format: Author last name first initial, second author last name first initial. Year published. Name of article. Name of journal. Volume(issue):Page numbers. Example: Dove CJ, Snow RW, Rochford MR, Mazzoti FJ. 2011. Birds consumed by the invasive Burmese python in Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. Wilson J Ornithol. 123(1):126-131. Note: not all journals have issues, and if you are finding it difficult to format your list click the CSE link above for more instructions/examples. Part 3: Create your video Your final project will be a 5 minute informational video on the topic of your choice (must be somewhat related to this class, but this class is broad so – get creative!). Your video can be animated, have slides, be in the style of a Tik-Tok, involve a song or dance, whatever you want to do. Your project must be centered around a question - this question should be your title. It should be sufficiently specific enough that you can give a decent answer in five minutes. Your video should thoughtfully answer your question, using scientific information (from peer-reviewed primary literature, review articles, books - no random websites!). See the attached rubric for how you will be graded. Example video from TedEd - note that it is centered around a question and seeks to answer that question using scientific information. This video is animated but you could do drawings, slides, anything you want! Feel free to get creative! You have already turned in your references, but your submission should include an updated reference page with all references you used for your project. All references must be peer-reviewed, primary literature (review articles and books are also ok). Creating your video: There are lots of tools available to you to record your video. If you are using powerpoint, you can record your voice over the slides. You can record in Canvas Studio, where you can share your screen or your screen+webcam. Zoom has a recording feature as well, and many phones will record video as an .mp4 or other format. You may choose to upload your video to YouTube and share it with the world! If you choose this option you can submit your YouTube link for your assignment. If your reference list does not appear in your video make sure to submit an updated reference list as a pdf or document as well. Rubric: - Title: single, succinct question - Scientific content: depth of explanation, use of references - Scientific content: full and clear explanation of the information presented - Organized project, logical order to information - Grammar and sentence structure - Presentation of information: clear voice, good quality slides or other visuals, professionalism in video - Updated reference page submitted in correct format, all primary references.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.390976	Darcy Ernst	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104233/overview", "title": "Biology Video Assignment - Research and Scientific Communication", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51722/overview	Open Educational Resources + Dual Enrollment Overview This practice brief provides guidance to help K12 and community college dual enrollment program instructors and administrators identify and implement programs using open educational resources (OERs). This practice brief focuses on how OERs can remove potential barriers to students’ access to higher education by promoting textbook affordability for all students. As high schools typically cover the cost of textbooks and other course materials, the costs of college textbooks may deter high school students from considering dual enrollment programs, particularly low-income students. The integration of OERs in dual enrollment courses may help mitigate this barrier. Section 1 This practice brief provides guidance to help K12 and community college dual enrollment program instructors and administrators identify and implement programs using open educational resources (OERs). This practice brief focuses on how OERs can remove potential barriers to students’ access to higher education by promoting textbook affordability for all students. As high schools typically cover the cost of textbooks and other course materials, the costs of college textbooks may deter high school students from considering dual enrollment programs, particularly low-income students. The integration of OERs in dual enrollment courses may help mitigate this barrier.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.408013	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51722/overview", "title": "Open Educational Resources + Dual Enrollment", "author": "Higher Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89766/overview	Jefferson Davis's Inaugural Address Montgomery, Alabama February 1861 Overview Davis, Jefferson. "First Inaugural Address." Transcript of speech delivered at the Alabama Capitol, Montgomery, Alabama, February 18, 1861. https://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/archives/documents/jefferson- davis-first-inaugural-address Description: The Confederate President addresses his countrymen Davis, Jefferson. "First Inaugural Address." Transcript of speech delivered at the Alabama Capitol, Montgomery, Alabama, February 18, 1861. https://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/archives/documents/jefferson- davis-first-inaugural-address Description: The Confederate President addresses his countrymen	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:12.425245	Christopher Gilliland	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89766/overview", "title": "Jefferson Davis's Inaugural Address Montgomery, Alabama February 1861", "author": "Susan Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65487/overview	PARA LEGAL EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL WORKERS Overview 15 Modules for Social Work Students Preface The western concept of 'Paralegals' has not been adopted in India so far. Full-fledged programs in para legal practice has not been developed in Indian Universities barring one (Indira Gandhi National Open University offering a diploma program in Para Legal Practice). However, the dire need for para legal in the local communities has tremendously increased due to increasing alienation and social exclusion. So, in order to fulfil the gap, four credits add on course in para legal practice is conceptualized with 15 simple and need-based modules for students of the schools of social work. The course participants will be trained in the basics of different Laws which would be applicable at the grassroots level with reference to their day-to-day life, the subtle nuances employed in the working of a judicial system, and the functioning of various other stakeholders like the Police, officials from Social Welfare Department, Woman and Child Welfare Department and other departments dealing with different beneficial schemes of Central and State Governments including the protection officers involved with Domestic Violence and Juvenile Justice Acts. With the basic knowledge in the laws and other available welfare measures and legislation, the social workers trained in para legal practice will be able to assist their immediate community and those who are in need of such assistance. Content - Context for Para Legal Volunteer Training - State and Polity - Constitutional Foundation of Indian State - Foundational Concepts in Human Rights - Human Rights of Different Social Groups - Human Rights Institutions in India - Indian Legal System and its Structure - Concepts and Procedures in Law Enforcement - Legal Aid and Writs - Para Legal Practice with Prisoners and their Families - Laws for Protection of Woman and Senior Citizens - Laws for Protection of Children - Laws for Protection of Labourers - Schemes for Poverty Alleviation and Social Development - Project Work Context of Para Legal Volunteer Training 1.1: Introduction The definition of paralegal varies by country to country. In the United States, they are not authorized to offer legal services in the same way as lawyers, nor are they officers of the court, nor are they usually subject to government-sanctioned or court-sanctioned rules of conduct. In contrast, in some provinces in Canada, paralegals are licensed and regulated the same way that lawyers are. For example, in Ontario Province of Canada, licensed paralegals provide permitted legal services to the public and appear before certain lower level courts and administrative tribunals. As per the census report of 2011, 68.84% of the total populations in India are the inhabitant of village areas. Out of these inhabitants 33.8% persons are living below the poverty line. Article 39 A of the constitution of India directs the state to ensure the delivery of free legal aid to all citizens of India. Further the article elaborates that legal aid should not be denied to any citizen on the ground of economic or other disabilities. With the change of the concept of the legal service in India from “court annexed layer-based legal services” to “need based people friendly system”, the importance of paralegal practitioner has emerged in the society during recent times. The word ‘para legal’ is neither defined in the Legal Services Authorites Act 1987, nor in General Clauses Act, 1897, but these words are similar to the para medical in medical terminology. The importance of the paralegal volunteers has come into notice when the Supreme Court of India gave its verdict in Sampurna Behrua Vs. Union of India & Others ( W.P. ( C ) No 473/2005). The All India Seminar on Legal Aid held in 1991 expressed the view that the para legal volunteers who are otherwise known as bare foot lawyers go to the villages and disseminate the legal literacy programmes and educate the common people particularly the exploited, depressed and the women about their rights guaranteed under the Constitution and various enactments. A paralegal volunteer can be associated or employed by NGO or CBO which performs phyco-social and legal intervention in the criminal and social justice systems. In 2009, National Legal Service Authority (NLSA) studied the informal practices associated with grassroots community organizations and brought out a formal “para legal volunteers’ scheme” which for the first time formally aimed at imparting legal training to selected volunteers from different walks of life. The volunteers are expected to act as intermediaries who will bridge the gap between the common people and the legal service institutions. Armed with awareness on laws and the legal system, and skills in counselling, para legal volunteers are supposed to settle simple disputes between different parties at the source itself, and thus save the aggrieved parties from the of travelling of all the way to the Legal Service Institutions. 1.2: Para-Legal Volunteers Trained by Legal Services Authority Para legal volunteers may be selected from any categories of the society like Teachers, Retired Government Servants, senior citizens, social work students, Doctors, Anganwadi workers, law students, educated prisoners with good behavior who are serving long term sentences in prisons, professionals from NGOs, SHG members, etc. Ideally every Taluk Legal Services Committee (TLSC) shall have a panel of PLVs; of a maximum number of 25 on their roll at any given point of time. The District Legal Services Authority (DLSA) shall have 50 active PLVs on their roll. The local legal aid services secretary ties up with colleges and other well known NGOs to implement the scheme in the locality. 1.3: Scope for Engagement under Legal Services Authority As per the provisions, the services of para legal volunteers may be availed in the Taluk Legal Service Committee, District Legal service Authority, Legal Aid Clinic etc. There is a provision for payment of honorarium to the volunteers for the services rendered by them. As the natures of services to be rendered by them are social type, this engagement is most suited for the persons who are not considering it as a mode of income. It is good for the persons with mindset of providing assistance to the needy and marginalized section of the society. The para legal volunteers’ contribution have been highly appreciated when they assist the villagers in obtaining BPL Cards, Election Identity Card, Aadhaar card , gas connection and other government welfare schemes during recent times. 1.4: Empanelment and Training Process under Legal Services Authority Applications are normally invited from the local residents by the respective DLSAs and TLSCs or Sub Divisional Legal Services Committee. There could be an advertisement, if required. The selection committee is entitled to use its discretion and shortlist the number of candidates for interview depending upon the number of applications received. Representation from suitable applicants belonging to SC/ST, minority and other backward classes must be ensured. In the supervision of chairman of DLSA, volunteers undergo training programme under the control of the Member Secretary. In consultation with the State Legal Services Authority, the chairman of DLSA shall identify the trainers for training the PLVs and other resource persons. Training that is to be provided by DLSA would be in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the NALSA After completion of the training, the volunteers may be subjected to a written and oral test before they are declared to have successfully completed the training. On being declared successful, they may be given identity cards bearing the emblem of the District Legal Services Authority. The identity card shall have (i) serial number;(ii) name and address; (iii) contact number; (iv) photograph; (v) the date of issue and the period of validity of the identity card. It shall be clearly printed on the reverse side of the identity card that the loss of the identity card should be reported to the nearest Police Station as also its recovery. The validity of the identity card shall be for a period of one year. A new card shall be issued if the chairman of District Legal Services Authority finds him/her eligible to continue as for more than one year. 1.5: Duties of Trained Para-Legal Volunteers under Legal Services Authority - Para-Legal Volunteer (PLV) shall educate people, especially those belonging to weaker sections of the society, to enable them to be aware of their right to live with human dignity, to enjoy all the constitutionally and statutorily guaranteed rights as also the duties and discharge of obligations as per law. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall make people aware of the nature of their disputes/issues/problems and inform them that they can approach the TLSC/DLSA/HCLSC/SLSA/SCLSC so as to resolve the dispute/issue/problems through these institutions. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall constantly keep a watch on transgressions of law or acts of injustice in their area of operation and bring them immediately to the notice of the TLSC through telephonic message or a written communication or in person to enable effective remedial action by the Committee. - When the PLV receives information about the arrest of a person in the locality, the PLV shall visit the Police Station and ensure that the arrested person gets legal assistance, if necessary, through the nearest legal services institutions. - The PLVs shall also ensure that the victims of crime also get proper care and attention. Efforts shall be made by the PLVs to secure compensation for the victims of crime under the provisions of Section 357-A Cr.P.C. - PLVs shall, with proper authorization from the DLSA/TLSC visit jails, lock-ups, psychiatric hospitals, children's homes/observation homes and shall ascertain the legal service needs of the inmates and intimate the authorities concerned about any absence noticed of basic essential necessities with special emphasis on hygiene. - PLVs shall report violations of child rights, child labour, missing children and trafficking of girl children to the nearest legal services institutions or to the child welfare committee. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall assist the DLSA/TLSC for organizing legal awareness camps in their area of operation. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall give information to the people of their locality about the legal services activities of SLSA/DLSA/TLSC/HCLSC/SCLSC and shall provide their addresses to the people so as to enable them to utilize the free services rendered by the above organizations to the eligible persons. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall generate awareness amongst people about the benefits of settlement of disputes including pre-litigation stage through LokAdalats, Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall make people aware of the benefits of inexpensive settlement of disputes relating to Public Utility Services like P&T, Telephones, Electricity, Water Supply, Insurance and hospital services through Permanent Lok Adalat (PLA). - Para-Legal Volunteers shall submit monthly reports of their activities to the DLSA/TLSC under whom they are working in the prescribed format. - A diary to record the daily activities shall be maintained by each PLVs. The diary shall be printed and given to PLVs by the District Legal Services Authority. Such diary shall be verified and endorsed by the Secretary, DLSA or the Chairman, TLSC as the case may be. - Para-Legal Volunteers shall see that publicity materials on legal services activities are exhibited at prominent places in their area of activity. - The PLVs shall take efforts to bring the parties of the locality involved in disputes, to settlement, by using the machinery of Lok Adalat, Mediation or Conciliation at the District ADR Centers. 1.6: Para Legal Education for Social Work Students Most of the social work students are placed in communities and social welfare agencies for field placement and gain first-hand knowledge and experience related to the poverty conditions, their training in the schools of social work help them to connect with specific communities in their own environment. They also have a participatory approach by involving various community stakeholders in the process of sustainable and equitable development. Social work professional also motivates the students to empower people to know and claim their rights and increase the ability and accountability of individuals and institutions who are responsible for respecting, protecting and fulfilling rights. Para legal education to social work students will help achieve the goals for which these services were designed. Training under this twinning approach can be organized with support of District Legal Aid Services Authority, local NGOs specializing in CJS field, and the School of Social Work either as part of the curriculum or as an add on course (4 Credit). The break up of the course are as follows: - Political and Human Rights Foundation: 25Marks (15 Hours/ 1Credits) - Legal Knowledge for Para Legals: 50 Marks (30 Hours/ 2 Credits) - Project Work : 25 Marks (15 Hours/ 1 Credits) (Includes Practicums, Visits and Viva) This book covers all the components and is developed by authors based on their experience and consultation with social workers and lawyers who work in the criminal justice space in the development sector. State and Polity 2.1: State The English word state comes from an 14th and 15th century Italian word stato. It primarily refers to a land and its people. State is also about a legal and political authority regulating the relationships of man in society. The state is related to other institutions such as the political parties, pressure groups, the opposition, etc. These institutions, existing outside of the state system, attempt to influence the functioning of the state by dominating or collaborating with it. State is an elaborate system with key institutions such as the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. In these institutions lies the power of the state and through these institutions, laws are enacted and from that arises the legal right of using physical force to maintain law and order in the society. State has meant different things to different people. We would be discussing the meaning of the state based on the understanding of political philosophers. Plato understood polis [state] as a system of relationships in which everyone does their own business and where the work of the state is to maintain, and promote such relationships. Aristotle, a pupil of Plato defined the state as a community, which exists for the supreme good. For Plato and Aristotle, the state was an organ and a part of the society. In fact, it was submerged in the society itself. Cicero, another Greek scholar, refuted the polis argument of Plato and Aristotle and gave a notion that the state is a commonwealth. The Commonwealth in Cicero’s understanding is the coming together of a considerable number of people who are united by a common agreement about law and rights, and by the desire to participate in mutual advantages. Thus for the first time, Cicero differentiated state from society. Hobbes (1588-1679) made a clear distinction between the state and society by making the state a matter of mere governance. Machiavelli believed that state exists for power, whose main interest is to maintain, enhance and enlarge its own authority. With the arrival of Locke (1632-1704), a liberal scholar, the concept of state attained different meaning. According to Locke, the role of state was to protect private property, and promote a better economic life. The later liberals such as J.S. Mill, T.H. Green and De Tocqueville felt that numerous/ plural social associations could become instruments through which individuals could fashion a political discourse which could limit the nature of state power. The Marxists, regard the state as a product of a class society, and believe the state to be a class institution, protecting and promoting the possessing class, and oppressing and coercing the non-possessing class. In the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) Marx, look upon the state as “a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie”. 2.2: Elements of the State The state has primarily four essential elements, namely population, territory, government and sovereignty. a. Population No state can be imagined without the people, as there must be some to rule and others to be ruled. Hence population is the first and foremost element of the state. It is however, difficult to fix the size of the population of a state. b. Territory A state should have a definite territory, with clearly demarcated boundaries over which it exercises undisputed authority. The state has full rights of control and use over its territory. Any interference with the rights of one state by others may lead to war. c. Government Government is indispensable machinery by means of which the state maintains its existence, carries on its functions and realizes its policies and objectives. Government consists of three branches, namely the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary. d. Sovereignty Sovereignty is an important element which distinguishes the state from all other associations such as caste association, football clubs, etc. The word sovereignty denotes supreme and final legal authority and beyond which no further legal power exists. Sovereignty has two aspects- internal and external. Internal sovereignty is the supreme authority of the state over all individuals and associations within its geographical limits. By virtue of it, the state makes and enforces laws on persons and associations. Any violation of these laws will lead to punishment. External sovereignty implies the freedom of the state from foreign control. No external authority can limit its power. Thus every state must have its population, a definite territory, a duly established government and sovereignty. Absence of any of these elements denies to it the status of statehood. 2.3 Functions of the state Oversees Development Institute lists out the 7 basic functions of the state: - To control and manage public finances - To invest in human capital - To delineate citizens’ rights and duties - To provide infrastructure services - To manage state’s assets - To build international relations - To administer the rule of law 2.4: Concept of democracy The word democracy comes from the Greek word demokratio, which is a combination of two words, namely demos (people) and kratos (rule). This gives democracy its meaning as a form of government which the people rule, whether directly or indirectly. Democracy was practiced in Greece even before 2500 years ago. As far as the modern history is concerned, Britain was the first country to bring the absolute monarchism to an end and hail democratic governance. Three concepts namely, autonomy, freedom and equality form the cornerstone of the liberal theory of democracy. Autonomy is the value that we attach to possessing control over our own individual lives, decisions and choices. Principle of freedom expresses the value that the state should play a limited and minimal role in society and it should not impose on us any particular view of the good life. The principle of equality expresses the value that decisions are made based on the views of the majority. Democracy has both intrinsic and instrumental value. When we value democracy as a good in itself and for itself, we assert the intrinsic value of democracy. On the other hand, democracy may also be valued instrumentally or as a means to some other end. Democracy is procedural as well as substantive. Elections, legislative assemblies, and constitutional governments arising out of democracy is related as procedural, where as substantive democracy focuses on point that democracy is and should be the principle of organisation not only of government, but also the principle of all collective life in society. 2.5: Types of democracy a. Representative Democracy The representative democracy is where people take part indirectly in government through electing representatives to claim their will. It is based on the principle of majority. Hobbes and Locke defined this as a form of government authorised by the people to act on its behalf. b. Participatory Democracy Rousseau and Mill are the forerunners of the idea of participatory democracy. According to them, participation is important not only in decision-making, but also as a way of protecting interests and ensuring good government. Participatory democracy is enhanced through strengthening local democracy, so that citizens are involved in community affairs. Advocates of participatory democracy generally follow Mill in attaching greater importance to civic education. c. Deliberative Democracy Deliberative democracy values open deliberation on public issues. It is based on the assumption that individuals as autonomous persons influence each other through reasoned argument and persuasion. Unlike participatory democracy, which requires individuals to be constantly engaged in making decisions, deliberative democracy allows for a political division of labour between citizens and professional politicians, though citizens are involved in deliberation about public issues. 2.6: Parliamentary and Presidential democracy In Parliamentary democracy, people select their representatives. The party forming government determines who the prime minister is and the parliament gives the vote of confidence. Prime minister determines his team from the representatives chosen by the people either directly or indirectly and the whole government tries to take the confidence vote of the parliament. In presidential system, people have right to choose their president directly and they vote for the candidate rather than the political party. People also choose their representatives in the assembly but the president enjoys a much greater autonomy and chooses his ministers by himself. We see this model in USA and in Latin American countries. 2.7: Political parties a. Meaning Political party is a group of persons organized to acquire and exercise political power. There are two types of political parties, namely mass based and cadre based. Mass based parties appeal for support to the whole electorate and cadre based parties aim at attracting only active elite. All parties develop a political program that defines their ideology and sets out the agenda they would pursue. b. Roles of political parties - Contesting in general elections - Forming and running governments - Making laws - Nominating candidates for public office - Monitoring work of elected officials - Shaping public opinion, etc c. Single-party, Two-party, and Multiparty systems Although people are free to form political parties, in some countries like China, only one party (namely Communist Party of China) is allowed to run the government. Free competition for power is not allowed in these regimes due to certain ideological bottlenecks. This arrangement is called the single party system. In certain other countries like the United States of America, two main parties representing two contrasting ideologies have the chance of winning majority of the seats to form the government. Such system is called as the two-party systems. But in countries like India several parties contest for attaining power and have more or less equal chance of forming the government at the appropriate levels. This is called as the multi party system. In the recent times, several parties (with same or competing ideological orientation) form an alliance or coalition to gain control. This arrangement in the multi party system is called as the coalition politics. Good example of coalition politics are the National Democratic Alliance headed by the BJP since the late 1990s, and the United Progressive headed by the Indian National Congress since 2004. d. National and State Level Parties There are about 750 political parties in India. But not all parties are recognized national or state level parties. In fact, every party has the right to be registered with the Election Commission of India, but only certain parties are offered special facilities such as to use a unique symbol (such as Hand for INC and Lotus for BJP). The parties which get these privileges are called as recognized political parties. In order to qualify for the same, the parties must get certain propotion of votes and seats. For example, a party that gets 6% votes and wins at least 2 seats is the state assembly an election is recognized as a state level party. In the similar vein, a party which gets 6% votes and wins at least 4 seats is recognized as a national party. Some of the prominent national parties are Indian National Congress (f. 1885), Bharatiya Janata Party (f. 1980), Bahujan Samaj Party (f.1984), Communist Part of India- Marxist (f. 1964), Communist Part of India (f. 1925), and Nationalist Congress Party (f. 1999). Some of the prominent state level parties include the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (f. 1939), Shiromani Akali Dal (f. 1920), Indian National Lok Dal (f. 1977), Janata Dal (f. 1999), Lok Jan Shakti Party (f. 2000), Rastriya Janata Dal (f. 1998), Assam Gana Parishad (f. 1985), Manipur People’s Party (f. 1968), Sikkim Democratic Front (f. 1993), Nagaland People’s Front (f. 2002), Arunachal Congress (f. 1996), Trinamool Congress (f. 1997), Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (f. 1973), Biju Janata Dal (f. 1977), Shiva Shena (f. 1966), Muslim League (f. 1948), Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (f. 1949), All India Anna DMK (F. 1972), etc. 2.8: Pressure Groups Pressure groups seek to promote its particular interests within the society by exerting pressure on public officials and agencies. Pressure groups direct their efforts toward influencing legislative and executive branches of government. Pressure groups also play a vital role in the democratic functioning of a polity. They help promote, discuss, debate and mobilise public opinion on major public issues. In this process, they educate people and widen their vision, enhance democratic participation and raise and articulate issues. 2.9: Public Opinion Public opinion is very important in democracy. It works as a constant check on the politicians and serves as a mandate of people/ guidelines for the government to follow. Public opinion can be formed by the following groups: - Social Movements: Social movements hold rallies, processions and public meetings to create public opinion in their favour. - Parties: Political parties organize public information meetings to share their vision and progress made to create public opinion. - Policy Makers: Elected representative create public opinion by discussing public issues in the floor of the parliament. - Press: The press influences a sizable section of the society, especially the literates through editorials, special columns, etc. - Religious Institutions and Associations: In a multi cultural and plural society like India, religious institutions and associations still influence policy through opinion building programs. Constitutional Foundation of Indian State 3.1: Constitution Constitution is the highest legal and political document of a country. It provides the framework for the powers and functions of the various organs of the government and the relationship between the state and the citizen. Aristotle defines constitution as “the way in which, citizens who are the component parts of the state are arranged in relation to one another”. Bouncier defines constitution as “the fundamental law of a state directing the principles upon which the government is founded and regulating the exercise of the sovereign powers, directly to what bodies of persons thee powers shall be confined and the manner of their exercise”. The Indian Constitution adopted on 26th January 1950 is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world. It contains 395 articles in 24 parts, 12 schedules and 94 amendments. It has a liberal democratic framework with broader scope of governmental intervention to promote social reform and welfare. The democratic character of the state allows the people to elect the members of the Parliament and the respective state Legislative Assemblies on the basis of adult franchise. Article 326 of the Indian constitution allows every adult citizen to be registered as a voter. 3.2: Values in Indian Constitution The India Constitution promises justice- social, economic and political to all citizens irrespective of caste, creed and religion; Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; Equality of status and of opportunity; Fraternity and assurance on the dignity of the individual. By an amendment in 1976, secularism; socialism; and promoting the unity and integrity of the nation were also proclaimed as the central values. 3.3: Salient Features of Indian Constitution Indian constitution is quite unique and peculiar. Some of the salient features and aspects are given below: a. Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic - Sovereign India was in slavery before 15th August 1947. By 26th January 1950 India became a sovereign country. A sovereign state is not intrigued by internal or external pressures. It is free to formulate its own foreign and home policies. - Secular A secular state implies that there would be no official religion of the state and it would not discriminate against any religion. It also implies that all religions, groups and sects are free to practice their own religion. - Democracy Democracy is where people elect their own government. The constitution guarantees the people of India to elect their own representatives. - Republic A republic is a state where the head of the state is a popularly elected person for a specific and definite period of time. It is opposed to monarchy where the king or the queen comes to thrown through hereditary right and holds the monarch position till his/her birth. b. Federal Structure The Indian constitution provides for a federal form of government. The first article of the constitution defines India as a union of states. A federation must have three aspects, namely a written constitution, distribution of powers between union and the states, and an independent judiciary. c. Parliamentary Form In the parliamentary form of government, the head of the state, i.e the President is titular or nominal head. The real powers are enjoyed by the prime minister and the council of ministers. The council of ministers is jointly responsible to the parliament. d. Fundamental Rights Six fundamental rights guaranteed in the Indian constitution are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and right to constitutional remedies. e. Directive Principles of State Policy Like the constitution of Ireland, the Indian constitution has a chapter on directive principles of state policy. The directive principles guide the government to achieve the ends of a welfare state. It also works as a yard-stick with the electorate to judge the performance of the government. f. Universal Adult Franchise The Indian constitution provides for universal adult franchise. It implies that every citizen of India above the age of 21 will be entitled to take part in the elections and to vote for candidates of his/her choice. g. Single Citizenship Like that of Canada, our constitution confers single citizenship. There is no separate citizenship for the federating states h. Independent and Singular Judiciary Our constitution does not approve of separate judicial systems for the federating units. It favors a singular judiciary with only one Supreme Court. 3.4: Fundamental Rights There are two kinds of rights under the Indian Constitution. One set of rights are universal (i.e granted to all people, irrespective of citizenship) and other are specific to the citizens only. The universal rights available to all people include the following: - Equality before the law and equal protection of the law (Article 14) - Protection against unlawful conviction (Article 20) - Right to life and personal liberty (Article 21) - Protection against unlawful detention (Article 22) - Right against exploitation in the form of human traffic and forced labour (Article 23) - Right of children against hazardous employment (Article 24) - Right to freedom of religion (Article 25) - Freedom of religious denominations to manage their religious affairs (Article 26) - Freedom from enforced religious instruction in schools (Article 28) - Protection of minorities (Article 29) - Right of minorities to establish educational institutions of their choice (Article 30 - Right to Constitutional Remedies (Articles 32 and 226) All other rights are granted specifically to the citizens. It includes the following: - Right against discrimination by the state (Article 15) - Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment (Article 16) - Right against practice of untouchability (Article 17) - Right against creation of state titles other than military or academic (Article 18) - Right to freedom of speech and expression, and to practice any profession (Article 19) The important thing to be kept in mind is that the fundamental rights are not absolute. These rights can be suspended when the president declares emergency. 3.5: Fundamental Duties The part IV A of the Indian Constitution imposes ten fundamental duties on the citizens of India. These duties were incorporated in the Indian constitution by 42nd Amendment of 1976. They are as follows: - To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the national flag and national anthem. - To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired out national struggle for freedom. - To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. - To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so. - To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women. - To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. - To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform. - To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures. - To safeguard public property and to abjure violence. - To strive toward excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement. 3.6: Directive Principles of State Policy Directive Principles of State Policy are directions given to the State to guide the establishment of an economic and social democracy, as proposed by the preamble. Through Directive Principles of State Policy are not directly enforceable by the law courts, it is fundamental in governance and making of laws. The most fundamental directive to the state is to strive to secure a social order in which justice, social, economic and political shall inform all the institutions of their national life. Based on it the following important social policy directives are made. - Minimizing inequalities in income/ status/ facilities/ opportunities/ vocations (Article 38) - Securing adequate means of livelihood and health with freedom and dignity (Article 39). - Ensuring opportunities for citizen of economic and other disabilities (Article 39A) - Empowering panchayats to function as units of self-government (Article 40). - Securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement (Article 41). - Raising the level of nutrition and standard of living of the people and the improvement of public health (Article 47). - Securing a living wage, conditions of work and decent standard of life (Article 43). - Securing the participation of workers in the management of public undertakings (Article 43A) - Promoting the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation (Article 46) The Directive Principles of State Policy are non- justicable and are not enforceable in any court of law. But they act as check on the state and yardstick in the hands of the electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of the government. They also serve to emphasise the welfare state model of the constitution and the stresses the positive role of state in promoting welfare and justice. 3.7: Constitution and Parliamentary Democracy Indian Constitution adopted a parliamentary democracy in which executive power is enjoyed by council of ministers and subject to check and balances by the parliament elected directed by people. Parliament alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all the political bodies in the country. The parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two houses, the Lok Sabha (house of the people) and Rajya Sabha (council of states). 3.8: Union Legislature- Composition Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of the adult suffrage. The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, which is made up by election of up to 530 members to represent the States, up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if, in his/her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House. Constitution lays down the maximum strength of Rajya Sabha as 250, out of which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 are representatives of the States and of the two Union Territories. The members nominated by the President are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. The President summons both the Houses of the parliament and prorogues them. He or she can dissolve the Lok Sabha. These powers are formal, and by convention, the President uses these powers according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. In the states, the Governor, as the representative of the President, is the head of Executive. Union Territories are administered by the President through an Administrator appointed by him/her. 3.9: Union Legislature- Functions Parliament in India has the cardinal functions of legislation, overseeing of administration, passing of the Budget, ventilation of public grievances, discussing national policies, etc. The scheme of distribution of powers between the Union and the States, followed in the Constitution of India, emphasizes in many ways the general predominance of Parliament in the Legislative field. Apart from the wide range of subjects allotted to it in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, even in normal times Parliament can, under certain circumstances, assume legislative power over a subject falling within the sphere exclusively reserved for the States. Further, in times of grave emergency when the security of India or any part thereof is threatened by war or external aggression or armed rebellion, and a Proclamation of Emergency is made by the President, Parliament acquires the power to make Laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India with respect to any of the matters enumerated in the State List. Similarly, in the event of the failure of the constitutional machinery in a State, the powers of the Legislature of that State become exercisable by or under the authority of Parliament.Besides the power to Legislate on a very wide field, the Constitution vests in the Union Parliament the constituent power or the power to initiate amendment of the Constitution. 3.10: Role Differences Lok Sabha has supremacy in financial matters. It is also the House to which the Council of Ministers, drawn from both Houses, is collectively responsible. On the other hand, the Rajya Sabha has a special role in enabling Parliament to legislate on a State subject if it is necessary in the national interest. 3.11: Union Executive Union Executive of India consists of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. President is the constitutional head of the executive of the Union of India. He/ she is elected by members of an Electoral College consisting of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of the states, with suitable weightage given to each vote. His/her term of office is five years. Executive power of the Union is vested in the President, and is exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution. The Vice-President, second highest constitutional officer of the country is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament. The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairperson of the Upper House or Council of States (Rajya Sabha). The Vice-President acts as President, during casual vacancy in the office of the President by reason of death, resignation or removal or otherwise, until a new President is elected as soon as practicable and, in no case, later than six months from the date of occurrence of the vacancy. When the President is unable to discharge his functions owing to absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President discharges those functions till the President resumes office. The real executive power of the union is with the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as head. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, the House of the People. The Council of Ministers comprises Cabinet Ministers, Minister of States and Deputy Ministers. Prime Minister heads the Council of Ministers and communicates all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to administration of affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation to the President. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are jointly accountable to the Lok Sabha. If there is a policy failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the members of the council are jointly responsible. If a vote of no confidence is passed against the government, then all the ministers headed by the Prime Minister have to resign. Every individual minister is in charge of a specific ministry or ministries. He is responsible for any act of failure in all the policies relating to his department. Generally, each department has an senior civil servant designated as secretary to the Government of India to advise the Ministers on policy matters and general administration. 3.12: Powers and Functions of the President a. Appointing Officers All the executive powers of the Union Government have been given to the President by the Constitution of India. He appoints the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Union Council of Ministers He also makes important appointments of the Union Government like the Attorney-General of the Union, the Comptroller and Auditor General, Chief Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, etc. The President administers the Union Territories through administrators. Besides the appointment of such high dignitaries, the President has the power to appoint the following administrative commissions: An Inter-State Council, the Union Public Service Commission and a Joint Commission for a group of States, the Finance Commission, the Election Commission, etc. b. Controlling the Military The President is also the Supreme Commander of the armed forces in India. Declaration of war and peace is done in the name of the President. c. Building International Relations All matters relating to foreign affairs are conducted in the name of the President. Diplomatic envoys including High Commissioners and Ambassadors are accredited in his name. All treaties and international agreements are negotiated and concluded in the name of the President. d. Legislative Powers The President has the power to summon and prorogue the sessions of both Houses of the Parliament and to dissolve the House of the People (Lok Sabha). He can even dissolve the Lok Sabha. A bill passed by the Parliament can become a law only after receiving the signature of the President. The President can issue an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session. Money bills can be introduced in the Lok Sabha only with the permission of the President of India. He also sees to it that the annual budget is laid in the Parliament in time. The Contingency Fund is placed at the disposal of the President from which he may make advances to meet unforeseen emergency situations. e. Judicial Powers The president of India, by virtue of his office can exercise the power of ‘prerogative of mercy’. He has the power to pardon offenders or suspend or commute their punishments. f. Emergency Powers The Constitution has given the President of India same special powers to meet emergency situations. He/she can declare national emergency under Article 352 when the country is threatened by war, external aggression or armed rebellion. He/she can issue state emergency order under Article 356 when there is break down of constitutional machinery and he/she can also declare financial emergency under Article 360 when there is a threat to the financial stability and credit of India. Though the above-mentioned powers are given to the President by the Constitution of India, in reality, it is exercised by the Council of Ministers in his name. 3.13: Powers and Functions of the Vice President Vice-President acts as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He presides over the meetings of the House. He has to maintain order in the House. No bill is regarded as passed by the House unless it is signed by the Chairman. His decision is final in the House 3.14: Powers and Functions of the Council of Ministers The Council of Ministers are responsible for the governance of the country. The functions of the government are divided into various departments and each department is placed under a particular minister. So, it is the duty of each minister to see that the function of his/her respective department is carried out effectively. Law making is another function of the Council of Ministers The council of ministers has three categories besides the Prime Minister. They are:- - Cabinet Ministers - Minister of State (Independent Charge) - Minister of State/ Deputy Minister The annual budget of the Government of India is prepared by the Finance Minister and most of the higher appointments of the Government of India are made as per the advice of the Council of Ministers. It also makes rules and regulations regarding appointment, promotion and transfer dismissal of higher officials. 3.15: Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister The Prime Minister is responsible for the real administration of the country. He is regarded as the chief administrator of the country. The Prime Minister plays a very important role in the formation of the Union Council of Ministers. He advises the President regarding appointment and removal of other ministers of the Council of Ministers. As the head of the Council of Ministers and cabinet, he presides over its meetings and co-ordinates the working of different ministers and tries to remove differences, if any, between them. The voice of the Prime Minister on any matter is regarded as the final voice of the Government of India. 3.16: Concept of Federalism As a theory of nation building, federalism seeks to define state-society relationships in such a manner as to allow autonomy of identity of social groups to flourish in the constitutionally secured and mandated institutional and political space. The federal constitution recognizes the special cultural rights of the people, especially the minorities. The three essential components of federalism are as follows: - Formation of states and territorialisation of federal-local administration - Distribution of federal powers - Creation of the institutions of shared rule 3.17: Federal features of Indian state Some of the prominent features of the Indian federalism are discussed below: a. Unionism Unionisation is an import feature which is bestows upon the union government with added responsibility of securing balanced economic growth and social change across the regions through means and measures of mixed economy and state regulated welfare planning. Beyond this, the unionisation process has no more political meaning and relevance b. Unitarianism Indian federalism also assumes unitarian status (centralized federalism) when there is a perceived threat to the maintenance of national unity, integrity and territorial sovereignty, and the maintenance of constitutional-political order. c. Regionalism and regionalization The constitution of India acknowledges and recommends the formation of a multilevel or multilayered federation with multiple modes of power distribution. The multilayered federation may consist of a union, the states, the sub-state institutional arrangements like regional development/ autonomous councils, and the units of local self-government at the lower levels. While the union and the state constitute the federal superstructure, the remaining two constitutes the federal substructure. d. Special distribution of competence and power Article 370, 371, 371A-H, and the fifth and sixth schedules allows for a special type of union-state relations. To put succinctly, these provisions restrict the application of many union laws; delimit the territorial extent of the application of the parliamentary acts having bearing upon the law making power of parliament and the concerned state legislatures; and, bestows upon the office of Governor with special powers and responsibility in some states like Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Thus, federalism in India has been fine tuned to accommodate ethnic diversity and ethnic demands like application of customary law in the administration of civil and criminal justice etc. It is for reasons of accommodating ethnic features in the formation of polities that the constitution permits for the ethnic self governance through specially created institutions like autonomous regional or district councils. A few dozen such councils exist in the northeast regions and other parts of India. These councils seek to protect and promote the indigenous identity and development. With the passage of 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts, the constitution of India further federalised its powers and authority at the village and municipal levels. Constituted through direct election, the Panchayats and Municipal bodies are expected to do the below: - Build infrastructure of development - Build and maintain community assets - Promote agricultural development, soil conservation and land improvement; - Promote social forestry and animal husbandry, dairy and poultry; - Promote the development of village industry; - Manage and control of education and health at the local level. 3.18: Centre- State relations in Indian federalism Centre- state relations in Indian federalism can be studied under three divisions, namely legislative relations, administrative relations and financial relations. As far as the legislative relations between the Central government and the State governments are concerned, the Central government has been given exclusive power to make law on the subjects of the Union list. The union list has 96 subjects. These subjects are of great importance for the country and uniform in character. So, these subjects are given to the Union government. Some such subjects are defense, foreign affairs, currency and coinage, citizenship, census, etc. The State governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in the State list. The State list has 61 subjects. The subjects which are of local importance are included in the State list. Some subjects of the State list are - law and order, public health, forests, revenue, sanitation, etc. The Concurrent list has 52 subjects. On these subjects both the central and the state governments can make laws. Some subjects of this list are economic planning, social security, electricity, education, printing and news papers, etc. In case of residuary powers, the Union government has exclusive power to make laws. The States have nothing to do in this regard. Thus, we find that in legislative matters, the Union Parliament is very powerful. It has not only exclusive control over the Union list and the residuary powers, but it has also dominance over the Concurrent list and the State list. Foundational Concepts in Human Rights 4.1: Introduction Human rights are those inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled to. Human rights are universal (applicable anywhere and everywhere), egalitarian (same irrespective of sex, caste, status), natural and legal. The idea of human rights evolved from the human rights movements across the globe and culminated with the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. In the ancient world, there was no concept of universal human rights. The nearest and true forerunner of human rights discourse is the concept of natural rights which appeared in the medieval and enlightenment period. There are three categories of rights, such as civil and political rights; economic, social, and cultural rights; and solidarity rights. Civil and Political Rights Civil rights include such rights as the right to life, liberty, equality before the law, fair trial, right to religious freedom, etc. Political rights include such rights as the right to speech, association, political participation, etc. Both civil and political rights have been considered as fundamental human rights. Social, Economic and Cultural Rights Social and economic rights include rights such as the right to a have a family, education, health, work, fair remuneration, social security, etc. When protected, these rights help promote individual social and economic development and self-esteem. Cultural rights, on the other hand include such rights as the right to indigenous land, rituals, cultural practices, etc. In contrast to the civil and political rights, the social, economic, and cultural rights is an aspirational set of rights that national governments ought to strive to achieve through progressive legislations. Thus the same are called ‘positive’ rights whose realisation depends heavily on the fiscal capacity of nation states. Solidarity Rights Solidarity rights include rights to public goods such as development and the environment. It seek to guarantee that all individuals and groups have the right to share in the benefits of the natural resources, as well as those goods and products that are made through processes of economic growth, expansion, and innovation. 4.2: Definition of Human Rights Justice D. D Basu defines human rights as those minimal rights, which every individual must have against the State, or other public authority, by virtue of his being a member of human family irrespective of any consideration.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) defines human rights as rights derived from the inherent dignity of the human person. There are two basic characteristics of human rights. They are as follows: - Firstly, human rights are inherent (it is in all human beings, they do not have to be granted), inalienable and equal. - Secondly, the main duties deriving from human rights fall on states and their authorities or agents, not on individuals. 4.3: Origin and Evolution of the Notion of Rights During the ancient ages, people with position held enormous powers and controlled the others as slaves. Around 550 BC, Cyrus the Great, issued a declaration that citizens of his empire would be allowed to practice their religious beliefs freely and be free of slavery. The incident in history is considered as the first substantial step in establishing the rights of human beings. After a period of slumber, the 12th century AD saw the awakening of the idea of rights of human beings. The Magna Charta of 1215 (in England), the Golden Bull of 1222 (in Hungary), Håndfaestning of 1282 (in Denmark) laid the foundation. The Joyeuse Entrée of 1356 (in Brussels), the Union of Utrecht of 1579 (in Netherlands) and the Bill of Rights of 1689 (in England) also helped in consolidation of the idea. All these decrees and declarations lacked a philosophical base and did not talk individual freedom and liberty. During the middle ages, the concept of liberty gained prominence. Francisco de Vitoria (1486-1546) and Bartolomé de las Casas (1474-1566) of Spain laid the doctrinal foundation for the recognition of freedom and dignity of all humans by defending the personal rights of the indigenous peoples inhabiting the territories colonised by the Spanish Crown. The Enlightenment was another important period in the development of human rights concepts. Locke was one of the first scholars to develop a comprehensive concept of natural rights (rights to life, liberty and property) in the 18th century Europe. Later, Rousseau elaborated the concept using the social contract theory. The American Declaration of Independence in 1776 set the practical tone that all human beings are equal. Thomas Jefferson referred to the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness as the core of freedom. Later, these ideas were adopted in the American Constitution also. The French declaration of 1789 and the French Constitution of 1793 also reflected the idea of universal rights. The atrocities of World War II pushed the formation of United Nations (UN) on 26 June 1945. The UN urged its members to protect human rights and established the UN Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) in 1946. Finally the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was passed in the UN General Assembly on 10th December 1948. Since the 1950s, the UDHR has been backed up by a large number of international conventions. The most significant of these conventions are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). These two Covenants together with the UDHR form the International Bill of Human Rights. The UN continues its commitment to human rights and pressurized the nation states to establish national human rights commissions to protect the rights of the people. Indian government set up the national commission of human rights in 1993. 4.4: Concept of Natural Rights The idea that individual have certain basic, inalienable rights as against a sovereign State had its origin in the doctrines of natural law and natural rights. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau are the three main thinkers of Natural Rights theory. Thomas Hobbes was the first champion of the theory of natural rights. In his Leviathan, he advocated that no individual could ever be deprived of the right to life. He asserted that all human beings are equal, without any consideration. John Locke developed the idea further in his Two Treatises on Government. He argued that every human being has a natural right to life, personal liberty, and property, and that no governmental authority has power to deprive individuals of these rights because they had enjoyed them even before the creation of the civil or political society. Rousseau in his Social Contract finally established the natural rights theory. The famous quotation of Rousseau “all men are born free but everywhere they are in chains” captured the imagination of many people. He proclaimed that human beings are bestowed with inalienable rights of liberty, equality and fraternity. Natural rights theory helped in the evolution of the human rights discourse and gave a much needed philosophical background for the debate. 4.5: American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights The United States Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The main formulator of the declaration is Thomas Jefferson, an American statesman. Following the declaration of independence, the constitution of the United States of America was written. The first ten amendments to the constitution are collectively called the Bill of Rights. It came to effect on 15th December 1791. The Bill of Rights limits the powers of the federal government and protects the freedom of citizens. The Bill of Rights also prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty and property without due process of law. 4.6: The French Declaration Inspired by the natural rights theory, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French Declaration) is the fundamental source of the French revolution and constitution. There are 17 articles of the declaration. They are listed below: - Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. - The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. - The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. Nobody nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. - Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law. - Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided forby law. - Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents. - No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense. - The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense. - As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law. - No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law. - The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. - The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted. - A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all citizens in proportion to means. - All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes. - Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration. - A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all. - Since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified. 4.7: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. It was drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world. The Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. 4.8: Slavery Convention 192 The Slavery Convention or the Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery was an international treaty facilitated by the erstwhile League of Nations in 1926. The objective of the Convention was to confirm and advance the suppression of slavery and slave trade. The Convention entered into force in 9 March 1927, in accordance with article 12. It was amended by the Protocol done at the Headquarters of the United Nations, New York, on 7 December 1953. The amended Convention entered into force on 7 July 1955. The Economic and Social Council within the United Nations was instrumental in monitoring the Slavery Conventions, in addition to dealing with other issues of contemporary slavery. In 1974, the United Nations Working Group on Slavery was formed, which now takes care of the issue. 4.9: Convention of the Political Rights of Women (1952) The Convention on the Political Rights of Women was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1953. It is one of the first international legislation protecting the equal status of women to exercise political rights. The Convention entered into force in 1954. As of 2013, it has 122 state parties to the convention. 4.10: Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) In 1963, the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities submitted a draft declaration on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination to the Commission on Human Rights. The Commission submitted the draft convention to the Economic and Social Council, which in turn, submitted it to the General Assembly. Finally, the Convention on the Elimination of All Racial Discrimination was adopted by the General Assembly on 21 December 1965 by resolution 2106 (XX), and it entered into force on 4 January 1969. The Convention consists of a preamble and 25 articles. By the Convention, States parties condemn racial discrimination and undertake to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating racial discrimination in all its forms. 4.11: Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination. The Convention defines discrimination against women as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end discrimination against women in all forms, including: - to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women; - to establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against discrimination; and - to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or enterprises. 4.12: The International Bill on Human Rights The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds, the Declaration was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in Paris on 10-12-1948. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a multilateral international treaty adopted by the UN General on 16 December 1966, and in came to force from 3 January 1976. It commits its parties to work toward the granting economic, social and cultural rights to individuals. As on January 2013, the Covenant has been signed by 160 parties. Seven other countries including the United States of America have signed the convention but not yet ratified. The core provisions include principle of progressive realisation, labour rights, social security rights, family rights, health rights, free education rights. It also includes cultural participation and right to adequate standard of living. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 1966, and in force from March 1976. It commits its parties to respect the civil and political of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to due process and a fair trial. As of May 2013, the Covenant had 74 signatories and 167 parties Optional Protocols Often, human rights treaties are followed by optional protocols which may either provide for procedures with regard to the principal treaty or address a substantive area related to the treaty. Optional Protocols to human rights treaties are treaties in their own right, and are open to signature, accession or ratification by countries who are party to the main treaty. The Optional Protocol establishes the competence of the Human Rights Committee to receive individual communications in relation to violations of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 4.13: India and Human Rights Covenants India is party to the six core human rights covenants/conventions, namely, the International Covenant on civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (and its two Optional Protocols) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In 2007 India became one of the earliest countries to ratify the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Human Rights of Different Social Groups 5.1: Rights of Women The Constitution of India not only grants equality to women but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for neutralizing the cumulative socio economic, education and political disadvantages faced by them. Fundamental Rights, among others, ensure equality before the law and equal protection of law; prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, and guarantee equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters relating to employment. Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c) and 42 of the Constitution are of specific importance in this regard. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. Over fifty countries that have ratified the convention. In 1993, the UN World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna confirmed that women’s rights were human rights. In the following year, the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo affirmed the relationship between advancement and fulfilment of rights and gender equality and equity. The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 finally generated the much needed global commitments to advance a wider range of women’s rights. 5.2: Rights of Children There was a common belief of people till the Middle Ages that the father had absolute rights over his children to do what so ever with him/her. This was the predominant argument because family and relationship were considered paramount during those days. It was believed that the well being of children depended wholly on parents only and nobody else is responsible for it. Later during the Victorian age, welfare emerged as the key role of the state and therefore the state took the position of protector of the children left outside the system. The trend continued till the 1980's. At this juncture, the UN sponsored the international year of children in 1978. Following which a convention was held on Rights of the Child in 1989. Based on this, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) was developed. It is the first legally binding international instrument. The Convention sets out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. Convention on the Rights of the Child spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. The four core principles of the Convention are non-discrimination; devotion to the best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and respect for the views of the child. Every right spelled out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious development of every child. The Convention protects children's rights by setting standards in health care; education; and legal, civil and social services. By agreeing to undertake the obligations of the Convention (by ratifying or acceding to it), national governments have committed themselves to protecting and ensuring children's rights and they have agreed to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. States parties to the Convention are obliged to develop and undertake all actions and policies in the light of the best interests of the child. 5.3: Rights of Aged Since 1982, the international community has explored the situation of older persons in a series of international declarations such as the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing which called for the elimination of age discrimination, neglect, abuse and violence. In India, the right of parents, without any means, to be supported by their children having sufficient means has been recognised by section 125 (1) (d) of the Code of Criminal Procedure 1973, and Section 20 (1&3) of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956. The central government came out with the National Policy for Older Persons in 1999 to promote the health, safety, social security and well being of senior citizens in India. The Policy recognizes a person aged 60 years and above as a senior citizen. This policy strives to encourage families to take care of their older family members. A National Council for Older Persons (NCOP) has been constituted by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment to operationalize the National Policy on Older Persons. 5.4: Rights of Mentally and Physically Challenged United Nations Convention for Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) was adopted in 2006, which marks a paradigm shift in respect of disabilities to a human right issue. The new paradigm is based on presumption of legal capacity, equality and dignity. Following ratification of the convention by India in 2008, it became obligatory to revise all the disability laws to bring them in harmony with the UNCRPD. Therefore, the Mental Health Act (1987) and Persons with Disability Act (1995) are under process of revision and draft bills have been prepared. Human right activists groups are pressing for provisions for legal capacity for persons with mental illness in absolute terms, whereas the psychiatrists are in favour of retaining provisions for involuntary hospitalization in special circumstances. 5.5: Rights of PLHA In 1998, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) issued the International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. These Guidelines built on expert advice to integrate the principles and standards of international human rights law into the HIV/AIDS response. United Nations adopted a Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS in June 2001 which pledged to scale up the response to HIV/AIDS within a human rights framework. In response to these developments, in 2002, and 2006, the OHCHR and UNAIDS convened a group of experts to update the International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. 5.6: Rights of Refugees India is not a party to the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) and the Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (1967). India maintains that the 1951 Convention is Euro-centric and cannot be effectively implemented in the South Asian region. The outdated Foreigners Act 1946 is the national legislation that defines the nature of treatment of refugees in India. 5.7: Rights of Nomadic and Denotified Tribes The social category generally known as the Denotified and Nomadic tribes of India covers a population approximately of 60 million. Some of them are included in the list of Scheduled castes, some others in the Scheduled Tribes, and quite a few in Other Backward Classes. But there are many of these tribes, which find place in none of the above. There are 313 Nomadic Tribes and 198 Denotified Tribes in India. There is a wide range of atrocities perpetrated on members of these denotified tribes by those whose prejudice has not subsided. The National Advisory Council set up a working group to identify some key recommendations to lift DNT communities. But there has not been any legislations specially on them and protecting their rights. 5.8: Rights of Minorities (Regional, Religious, Linguistic) The Indian Constitution ensures “justice, social, economic and political” to all citizens. The Indian Constitution has adopted measures for the protection of the rights of the religious and ethnic minorities. Some of the major rights according to the constitution are as follows: Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions 5.9: Caste Based Social Exclusion and Violations According to Thorat, social exclusion is “the denial of equal opportunities imposed by certain groups of society on others, leading to the inability of an individual to participate in the basic political, economic and social functioning of society”. Dalits in India face social exclusion in various spheres of everyday life. Atrocities also happen against dalits in various parts of the country. The following are some of the forms of atrocities: 1. Causing injury, insult, or annoynance to a dalit; 2. Assaulting, raping, or using force of any kind against a dalit woman or a dalit girl; 3. Physically injuring or murdering a dalit; 4. Occupying or cultivating any land owned by or alloted to a dalit; 5. Forcing a dalit to leave his/her house, village, or other place of residence; 6. Interfering with a dalit’s legal rights to land, premises, or water; 7. Compelling or enticing a dalit to ‘beg’ or similar forms of forced or bonded labour; 8. Intentionally insulting or intimidating a dalit with the intent to humiliate him. Ostracism (individual or the family is excluded from the caste group/ society) is also common in various parts of the country. The newspaper article given below gives a chance to understand the issue at hand. 5.10: Rights of Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes Denial of justice to dalits and adivasis and violence directed at them continues in India today despite constitutional safeguards. Article 17 of the Constitution which abolishes untouchability has to be read with Article 35 which confers on Parliament the exclusive power to make laws prescribing punishments for those acts that are declared to be offences under Part III of the Constitution. Pursuant to this, the Untouchability (Offences) Act was enacted in 1955 to award punishment for offences amounting to the observance of the practice of untouchability. This was amended in 1976, and more stringent provisions were introduced. The name of the Act was changed to the Protection of Civil Rights Act. The normal provisions of the existing laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 and Indian Penal Code have been found inadequate to check these atrocities continuing the gross indignities and offences against Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribes. Recognizing these existing problems the Parliament passed “Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 and Rules, 1995. The Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 is a landmark Indian legislation dealing with their human rights. The purpose of the act is to prevent crimes against members of DALITS (scheduled castes) and ADIVASIS (scheduled tribes), and to provide for relief and rehabilitation of victims of such offences. Any person who is not a member of a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe and commits an offence listed in the Act against a member of a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe is an offender. The victim is a member of a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe against whom any of the following offences is committed by the offender: - forced to eat or drink an offensive or uneatable substance - caused annoyance, injury or insult by any excreta or waste matter being dumped in his premises or neighborhood - paraded naked or with painted face or body - wrongfully deprived of cultivation of his land - wrongfully deprived of his rights over any land, premises or water - forced to beg or work as a bonded labourer - prevented from exercising his right to vote or according to his wishes - subjected to false legal proceedings - caused injury or annoyance by a public servant on the basis of false information given - deliberately insulted and humiliated in public view - deprived of his right to clean drinking water - deprived of his right of passage to a public place - forced to leave his house or village, etc All offences listed in the Act are cognizable. The police can arrest the offender without warrant and start investigation into the case without taking any orders from the court. The Act prescribes both minimum as well as maximum punishment. The minimum in most cases is six months imprisonment while the maximum is five years sentence and with fine. 5.11: Rights of Victims of Crime In 1985, the United Nations adopted the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. The Declaration recognised four types of rights and entitlements of victims of crime. They are: (a) Access to justice and fair treatment — which includes prompt redress, right to be informed of benefits and entitlements under law, right to necessary support services throughout the proceedings, and right to protection of privacy and safety. (b) Right to restitution — return of property lost or payment for any harm or loss suffered as a result of the crime. (c) Compensation — when compensation is not fully available from the offender or other sources, the State should provide it at least in violent crimes that result in serious bodily injury, for which a national fund should be established. (d) Personal assistance and support services — includes material, medical, psychological, and social assistance through governmental, voluntary, and community-based mechanisms. Human Rights Institutions in India 6.1: National Human Rights Commission Human Rights Act, 1993 (with Amendment Act, 2006) and the NHRC (Procedure) Amendment Regulations, 1997 are the major legislations and regulations governing the National Human Rights Commission. The NHRC is responsible for the protection and promotion of human rights, defined by the Act as "rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants. NHRC to perform the following functions: - proactively or reactively inquire into violations of human rights or negligence in the prevention of such violation by a public servant - to intervene in court proceeding relating to human rights - visit any institution under the control of the State Government, where persons are detained or lodged for purposes of treatment, reformation or protection, for the study of the living conditions of the inmates and make recommendations - review the safeguards provided by or under the constitution or any law for the time being in force for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective implementation - review the factors, including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights and recommend appropriate remedial measures - study treatise and other international instruments on human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation - undertake and promote research in the field of human rights - engage in human rights education among various sections of society and promote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through publications, the media, seminars and other available means - encourage the efforts of NGOs and institutions working in the field of human rights - such other function as it may consider it necessary for the protection of human rights The NHRC has been accredited with "A status" by the ICCNHRI, indicating that it is in conformity with the Paris Principles-1991, and therefore endorsed by the UN General Assembly. The commission is thus entitled to participate in the ICC and in its regional sub-groups and may take part in certain sessions of the UN human rights committees. The NCHR consist of the following members: (a) Chairperson (who has been a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court) (b) Membér (who is or has been, a Judge of the Supreme Court) (c) Member (who is, or has been the Chief Justice of a High Court) (d)Two Members (appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human rights). (e)The Chair person of the National Commission for Minorities, the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes, the National Commission for the Scheduled Tribes and the National Commission for Women are the ex-officio members of the NRHC 6.2: National Commission for Minorities The government set up the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) through the passage of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Five religious communities, namely Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis) have been notified as minority communities by the Union Government. The NCM adheres to the UN Declaration of 18 December 1992 which states that States shall protect the existence of the National or Ethnic, Cultural, Religious and Linguistic identity of minorities within their respective territories and encourage conditions for the promotion of that identity. The Commission has the following functions: - Evaluate the progress of the development of Minorities under the Union and States. - Monitor the working of the safeguards provided in the Constitution and in laws enacted by Parliament and the State Legislatures. - Make recommendations for the effective implementation of safeguards for the protection of the interests of Minorities by the Central Governments or the State Governments. - Look into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and safeguards of the Minorities and take up such matters with the appropriate authorities. The Commission consists of a Chairperson, a Vice Chairperson and five Members nominated by the Central Government from amongst persons of eminence, ability and integrity. All the Members including the Chairperson are from the Minority communities. 6.3: National Commission for Schedule Castes National Commission for Scheduled Castes is established with a view to provide safeguards against the exploitation of SCs and to promote and protect their social, educational, economic and cultural interests, special provisions were made in the Constitution. The following are the functions of the commission: - To investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled Castes under the Constitution or under any other law for the time being in force or under any order of the Government and to evaluate the working of such safeguards; - To inquire into specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights and safeguards of the Scheduled Castes; - To participate and advise on the planning process of socio-economic development of the Scheduled Castes and to evaluate the progress of their development under the Union and any State; - To present to the President, annually and at such other times as the Commission may deem fit, reports upon the working of those safeguards; - To make in such reports recommendations as to the measures that should be taken by the Union or any State for the effective implementation of those safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare and socio-economic development of the Scheduled Castes; and - To discharge such other functions in relation to the protection, welfare and development and advancement of the Scheduled Castes as the President may, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, by rule specify. The Commission consists of a Chairperson, a Vice Chairperson and three Members nominated by the Central Government. The Chairperson and the Vice-Chairperson are conferred the status of Cabinet Minister and Minister of State respectively. 6.4: National Commission for Schedule Tribes The 89th Amendment of the Constitution helped in the creation of the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. It has been setup under Article 338A on bifurcation of erstwhile National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to oversee the implementation of various safeguards provided to Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution. The following are the functions of the commission: - To investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the STs under the Constitution or under any other law for the time being in force or under any order of the Government and to evaluate the working of such safeguards; - To inquire into specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights and safeguards of the Scheduled Tribes; - To participate and advise in the planning process of socio-economic development of the Scheduled Tribes and to evaluate the progress of their development under the Union and any State; - To present to the President, annually and at such other times as the Commission may deem fit, reports upon the working of those safeguards; - To make in such reports, recommendations as to the measures that should be taken by the Union or any State for effective implementation of those safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare and socio-economic development of the Scheduled Tribes, and - To discharge such other functions in relation to the protection, welfare and development and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes as the President may, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, by rule specify. The Commission consists of a Chairperson, a Vice Chairperson and three Members nominated by the Central Government. 6.5: National Commission for De‐notified, Nomadic and Semi Nomadic Tribes The Government of India vide Resolution No. dated 14th march, 2005 Constituted National Commission for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi Nomadic tribes to study various developmental aspects of these Tribes. The commission had following functions: - To specify the economic interventions required for raising the living standards of Denotified, Nomadic and Semi Nomadic Tribes by asset creation and self-employment opportunities; - To recommend measures to utilize the existing channeling agencies set up for the economic development of SC/STs and OBCs for extending an economic development package to these groups, keeping in view their specific requirements; and - To identify programmes required for their education, development and health; - To make any other connected or incidental recommendation, that the Commission deems necessary. Currently there are three members in the commission. The chairperson of the commission holds the status of the minister of state. 6.6: National Commission for Women National Commission for Women is the apex national level organization of India with the mandate of protecting and promoting the interests of women. It was established in 1992. The objective of the NCW is to represent the rights of women in India and to provide a voice for their issues and concerns. The subjects of their campaigns have included issues of dowry harassment, equal representation for women in jobs, and the exploitation of women’s labour, etc. The commission consists of a chairperson and five eminent members (among them one has to be from the SC/ST background). 6.7: National Commission for Protection of Child Rights The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) was set up in March 2007 under the Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005, an Act of Parliament (December 2005). The Commission's Mandate is to ensure that all Laws, Policies, Programmes, and Administrative Mechanisms are in consonance with the Child Rights perspective as enshrined in the Constitution of India and also the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.The Commission, while enquiring into any matter, has all powers of the Civil Court trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedures, 1908 and in particular, with respect to the following matters: - Summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining them on oath - Requiring the discovery and production of any documents - Receiving evidence on Affidavits - Requisitioning of any Public Record or copy thereof from any Court of Office - Issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents - Forwarding cases to Magistrates who have jurisdiction to try the same - On completion of inquiry, the Commission has the powers to take the following actions: - To recommend to concerned Government for initiation of proceedings for prosecution or other suitable action on finding any violation of child rights and provisions of law during the course of an inquiry - To approach the Supreme Court or the High Court concerned for such directions, orders or writs as that Court may deem necessary - To recommend to concerned Government or authority for grant of such interim relief to the victim or the members of his family as considered necessary 6.8: Role of NGOs in Furthering Human Rights In the area of Human Rights Promotion and protection, NGOs and Voluntary Organizations have performed and continue to perform a myriad roles and functions .The following are some of their roles or functions in the promotion and protection of Human Rights - Agenda Setting - Drafting Legislations - Fact Finding Mission - Solidarity with Human Rights Defenders - Human Rights Education, etc 6.9: Social Work Profession and Human Rights According to the International Federation Social Workers, meeting human rights needs of people is one of the everyday tasks of social workers whether working with individuals, families or communities, or at the policy levels. The content given below refers to the commitment of social workers towards human rights agenda. The professional task of social workers is to help people achieve change in their lives, and they do this through three phases, namely, helping people undertake a social analysis of where they are now, facilitating in helping people find and achieve change in their lives, and building up trust and the social relationship with the person making that change in their lives. Each member association of IFSW has a Code of Ethics to which individual members of their associations have to adhere and IFSW has an overarching Statement of Ethical Principles covering all members associations. Each Code of Ethics requires members of their association to implement the recognition of Human Rights in social work practice (http://ifsw.org/resources/publications/human-rights/the-centrality-of-human-rights-to-social-work/). 6.10: Contribution of Social Movements towards Human Rights in India According to britannica.com, social movements refer to “loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically either the implementation or the prevention of a change in social structure or values. Although social movements differ in size, they are all essentially collective”. The history of human rights is partly the history of various social movements working towards attaining human rights and dignity. The first substantial movement is the anti slavery movement which helped in the establishment of the international anti slavery convention in the 1920s under the aegis of the League of Nations. The anti colonial movements, especially the Congo Reform Association not only resisted colonialism, but also helped in the consolidation of the human rights in the Africa and Asia. The Civil Liberties Union formed by Jawaharlal Nehru in the early 1930s with the objective of providing legal aid to nationalists accused of sedition against the colonial authorities was one of the first social movements related to human rights. The triggered a lot of social movements fighting for the rights of traditionally oppressed peoples such as landless labour, marginal and small peasants, the unorganized working class, etc. Notable amongst these were the Association for the Protection of Democratic Rights (APDR) in West Bengal, the Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee (APCLC) the Association for Democratic Rights (AFDR) in Punjab. The JP (Jayaprakash Narayan) movement in the 1970s launched a major attack on authoritarianism and a large number of prominent people came together in 1975 to form People's Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCLDR), the first national human rights organisation in the country. Today, there are wide range of organizations specifically concerned with issues of civil liberties and democratic rights. There have been five major activities taken up by these organisations: 1) fact-finding missions and investigations, 2) public interest litigation, 3) citizen awareness programmes, 4) campaigns, and 5) the production of supportive literature for movements and organisations. These groups have successfully raised three kinds of issues: 1) direct or indirect violations by the state, 2) denial in practice of legally stipulated rights as well as the inability of government institutions to perform their functions, and 3) structural constraints which restrict realisation of rights. Indian Legal System 7.1: Origin of the Legal System in India Indian scholars and administrators had a good understanding of law even before the age of Chanakya, a scholar at the ancient Takshashila University. But in the 400 BC, Chanakya’s Arthashastra helped in the establishment of an independent school of thought on law and governance. In the 10th century AD, Manu wrote the Manusmriti which also became an influencial treatise along with the Arthashastra. The later Gupta period saw a rise of international trade and commerce, resulting in the enhancement of legal treatise on this subject in India. However, it was only in the Mughal period, many humanitarian and neutral legal conventions were developed. With the establishment of Mayor’s Courts in 1726, the victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1772, and the First War of Indian Independence, the British broke the established Mughal legal systems and paved a way for the common law system (now practiced in most of the commonwealth countries). The Indian High Courts Act passed by the British parliament in 1862 gave full supremacy to the common law system. After independence in 1947, the development of the constitution, a framework for all other laws fell in to the able hands of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar. The constitution was accepted by the legislative assembly and India became a republic country on 26th January 1950. Since the last 60 years or so, the constitution is acting as a guiding light in matters of executive, legal and judicial decision making 7.2: Indian Constitution and Judicial System The Indian Judicial System is inheritance from the British and shares the legacy with the English Legal System. The frame work for the current legal system has been laid down by the Indian Constitution and the judicial system derives its powers from it. The Constitution has provided guidelines for the setting up of a single integrated system of courts to administer both Union and State laws. The Supreme Court is the apex court of India, followed by the various High Courts at the state level which cater to one or more number of states. Below the High Courts there are subordinate courts comprising of the District Courts at the district level and other lower courts at Tehsil or Block level. 7.3: Hierarchy of Courts The Supreme Court is the top court of the country. It is followed by the high court and subordinate courts. is the powers and the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, the High Courts and subordinate courts like the District Courts are discussed below. Supreme Court of India One of the most important powers of the Supreme Court of India is that any law declared or order/judgment passed by it is binding on all the courts within the territory of India. The jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court (SC) are defined under Articles 131 to 142 of the Indian Constitution. The jurisdiction includes original, writ, and appellate jurisdiction. Original Jurisdiction refers to the power of the court to hear disputes when they arise for the first time. By exercising its power of original jurisdiction the Supreme Court can hear disputes between:- - Government of India (GoI) and one or more States, or - GoI & any State or States on one side and one or more States on the other, or - Two or more States, if it involves a question - of law or fact - on which depends the existence or extent of a legal right. The Supreme Court has also been conferred the power to issue directions or order or writs under Article 32 of the Constitution for the enforcement of any of the rights provided under Part III of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights. This is referred to as the Writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The writ jurisdiction of the Apex court under Article 32 is part of its original jurisdiction. [For more details on Original jurisdiction kindly refer to Articles 32&131 of the Indian Constitution.] Appellate jurisdiction refers to the power of the Apex court to hear appeals against any judgment, decree or final order (or sentence) of a High Court in a constitutional, civil or criminal case, where exists a substantial question of interpretation of - the constitution, or - a law of general importance in case of a death sentence awarded in criminal matters. However, an additional requirement is that the concerned High Court (HC) under Article 134A has to certify that the case in question is fit for an appeal to the SC. The jurisdiction of SC also encompasses matters which fell within the jurisdiction of the Federal Court under any law just before the commencement of the Indian Constitution. The Supreme Court can also grant special leave to appeal against any judgment, decree, determination, sentence or order passed by any court or tribunal in the territory of India in any matter. The exception to this rule is the orders, judgments etc passed by any court or tribunal constituted by or under any law relating to the Armed Forces. [The Appellate jurisdiction of SC can be read in more detail under Articles 132 – 136.] Apart from the original, appellate and writ jurisdiction, the Supreme Court also has special advisory jurisdiction regarding matters referred to it by the President if India under Article 143 of the Constitution. The Apex court also has the power and authority to review any order or judgment passed by it as well as transfer cases from one High Court to another or from the District Court of one state to the District Court of another State. High Courts of India The High Courts of India are the supreme judicial authority at the State level. There are currently 21 High Courts in the country and of these the oldest High Court of India is the Kolkata High Court, which was established in the year 1862. Their powers and jurisdiction are similar to that of the Apex court, but with a few differences – - Any law declared or orders/judgments passed by them are not binding on the other High Courts (HCs) of the country or the subordinate courts which fall under the purview of the other HCs unless the other High Courts choose to follow such law or order or judgment. - Their territorial jurisdiction is varied. The High Courts are the appellate authority for a State or group of States and get a lot of matters in appeal from the subordinate courts. They have the power to issue writs, just like the Apex court, under Article 226 of the Constitution, but with one difference. While the Supreme Court has the power to issue writs to enforce only the rights provided under Part III of the Constitution, the High Courts can issue writs for enforcement of the rights under Part III as well as “for any other purpose”. Just like in the case of the Supreme Court, the writ jurisdiction of the High Court is also part of their Original jurisdiction, since all writ petitions are filed directly before the High Court. Apart from writ petitions, any civil or criminal case which does not fall within the purview or ambit of the subordinate courts of a State, due to lack of pecuniary or territorial jurisdiction, can be heard by the High Court of that State. Also certain other matters or issues may be heard by the High Court as part of its original jurisdiction, if the law laid down by the legislature provides for it. For example, the company law cases fall within the original jurisdiction of the High Court. Therefore, the High Courts’ work primarily consists of appeals from the lower courts as well as the writ petitions filed before it under Article 226. The territorial jurisdiction of a High Court, as mentioned earlier, is varied. Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are courts of record and have all the powers associated with such a court including the power to punish for contempt of itself. The Subordinate Courts The District Courts are at the top of all the subordinate or lower courts. They are however under the administrative control of the High Court of the State to which the district court belongs to. Their jurisdiction is confined to the districts they are responsible for, which could be just one or more than one. The original jurisdiction of the District Courts in civil matters is confined by not just the territorial limitations, but by pecuniary limitations as well. The pecuniary limitations are laid down by the legislature and if the amount in dispute in a matter is way above the pecuniary jurisdiction of the District Court, then the matter will be heard by the concerned High Court of that State. In case of criminal matters, the jurisdiction of the courts is laid down by the legislature. The decisions of the District Courts are of course subject to the appellate jurisdiction of the High Courts. Apart from these judicial bodies who enforce the laws and rules laid down by the legislature and executive and also interpret them (the Supreme Court & High Courts), there are numerous quasi judicial bodies who are involved in dispute resolutions. These quasi judicial bodies are the Tribunals and Regulators. Tribunals are constituted as per relevant statutory provisions and are seen as an alternative forum for redressal of grievances and adjudication of disputes other than the Courts. Some of the important tribunals are, Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT), Telecom Disputes Settlement Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT), Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT), Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT), Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT), etc. The kind of cases the tribunals hear are limited to their specific area. That is TDSAT can hear only matters related to telecom disputes and not matters of armed forces personnel. So the area of operation of these tribunals are marked out at the beginning itself by the statute under which its constituted. The same hold true for the various Regulators like – TRAI, DERC, etc. They regulate the activities of companies which fall under their purview as per the statute. 7.5: Civil and Criminal Courts Civil court plays an important role in solving cases related to any kind of property, land, house, marriage, etc. But the sessions court has its own importance as it solves criminal cases. Civil and session courts are present in almost all districts. The court of the district judges is the highest civil court in a district. The district judge combines in himself the powers of trying both civil as well as criminal cases. Thus he is designated as the District and Sessions Judge. Below the court of the District Judge are the courts of Sub-judge, Additional Sub-Judge and Munsif Courts, which are located in the sub-divisional and district headquarters. Most of the civil cases are filed in the court of the Munsif. A case can be taken in appeal from the court of the Munsif to the court of the sub-Judge or the Additional Sub-Judge. Appeals from the courts of the sub- Judges and Additional sub-Judges shall lie in the District-Court. The Court of the District Judge has both original and appellate jurisdiction. Against the decision of the District judge an appeal-shall lie in the High Court. As discussed above, the District and Sessions Judge heads the criminal courts also. Under him/her, there are courts of the, Additional Sessions Judges, Assistant Sessions Judge and the courts of the first class magistrates. The District and Sessions judge may pass any legal sentence but a death sentence is subject to confirmation by the High Court. 7.6: Nature and Types of Civil Cases The law which seeks to solve non-criminal disputes such as disagreements over the meaning of contracts, property ownership, family disputes, etc is called civil law. The major provision for civil litigations rests on the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908. There are the following types of civil cases such as civil suits (Recovery, Partition, Injunction, Declaration, etc), consumer cases, and cases under Companies, Act, Labor Laws, Personal Laws, etc. The most prominent among the civil cases are the civil suits. Civil suits are of 3 types, namely: - suits in respect to immovable properties - suits for torts to person or movable property - suits of other kinds A civil suit is a civil action brought in a court law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defender’s actions, demands a legal remedy. The defended is required to respond to the plaintiff's compliant. If the plaintiff is successful, the judgment is in the plaintiff's favor, and a court may award compensation for damages, or impose a temporary or permanent order to prevent an act or compel an act. An affidavit is a formal written document setting out a person’s own account of events. The affidavit is to be presented in the court of law as evidence. They are a means of telling the court about the facts (evidence) which support particular issues raised by each party. Affidavits as a form of evidence allow the court to weigh up differing versions of events. In layman’s language, plaint is the written complaint/allegation. One who files the plaint is the "Plaintiff" and against whom it is filed is known as "Defendant". The plaint has to be filed within the time limit prescribed in the Limitation Act, and should be typed copy, in double line space. Name of the court, nature of complaint, names and address of parties has to be clearly mentioned. Plaint should also contain verification from plaintiff, stating that, contents of the plaint are true and correct. The plaint shall contain the following particulars:— (a) the name of the Court in which the suit is brought; (b) the name, description and place of residence of the plaintiff; (c) the name, description and place of residence of the defendant, so far as they can be ascertained; (d) where the plaintiff or the defendant is a minor or a person of unsound mind, a statement to that effect; (e) the facts constituting the cause of action and when it arose; (f) the facts showing that the Court has jurisdiction; (g) the relief which the plaintiff claims; (h) where the plaintiff has allowed a set-off or relinquished a portion of his claim, the amount so allowed or relinquished; and (i) a statement of the value of the subject-matter of the suit for the purposes of jurisdiction and of court fees, so far as the case admits. 7.7: Nature and Types of Criminal Cases The major criminal law is the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), 1973. There are two major types of criminal cases, namely warrant cases and summon cases. Warrant case means a case punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment exceeding two years. Summons case has been defined as a case in which the extent of punishment is less than two years. 7.8: Other Courts The Family Courts Act 1984 is the chief law in family subject. The matters which are dealt in the family court are matrimonial relief (which includes nullity of marriage), judicial separation, divorce, restitution of conjugal rights, declaration as to the validity of marriage and matrimonial status of the person, property of the spouses or any of them and declaration as to the legitimacy of any person, guardianship of a person or custody of any minor, etc. Consumer Court is the special purpose court that deals with cases regarding consumer disputes and grievances. Consumers can file a case against a seller if they are harassed or exploited by sellers. The court will give positive verdict to the consumers/customers if they have proof such as bills or other documents. 7.9: Structure of Police The Indian Police Act, 1861 is the basic foundation of the present day Indian Police. The constitution of India placed police in the state list, therefore, police matters fall into the jurisdiction of the respective State governments. Police organizations are therefore identified by the name of the State to which they belong, such as the Tamilnadu Police, Rajasthan Police, Kerala Police, etc. Each state police have their own police manual which contains instructions and guidelines to be followed by all officers of the organization while dealing with various administrative, functional, professional and financial matters. There are two systems of police, one is the district police system and other is the independent commisionarate system (in select cities in India). But the entire police organisation in the state is headed by one Director General of Police. For example in the state of Maharashtra, there are 10 commisionarates and 35 district police units. In the city based commisionarate system, a police officer/ commissioner of the rank of Inspector General of Police heads the unit. But in the district system, a police office of the rank of Superintendent of Police heads the unit. In Maharashtra, there are 302 IPS officers, 282 Superintendents of Police, 523 Deputy Superintendents of Police, 3522 Inspectors, 3123 Assistant Police Inspectors, 6230 Sub Inspectors, and 1,80, 550 constables. It is one of the largest police force in India. 7.10: Hierarchy of Prison Administration Prisons is a state subject and is covered by item 4 under the state list in the 7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Therefore, the management and administration of prisons falls on the state governments. The Prisons Act, 1894 and the respective prison manuals of the state provides the rules and regulations for day to day administration of prisoners. In most of the states, an officer of the rank of Inspector General administers the affairs of the prisoners.Prison inmates lodged in Indian jails are categorised as Convicts, Undertrials and Detenues. A convict is a person found guilty of a crime and sentenced by a court or a person serving a sentence in prison. An undertrial is a person who is currently on trial in a court of law. A detenu is any person held in custody.There are 8 categories of jails. They are Central Jails, District Jails, Sub Jails. Women Jails, Borstal Schools, Open Jails and Special Jails. Prisoners sentenced to imprisonment for a long period (more than 2 years) are confined in the Central Jails. District jail houses the inmates who are sentenced for less than 2 years. Sub Jails usually is a place where under trail prisoners are kept. Women jails are exclusively used for women prisoners. Borstal Schools are juvenile detention centres where minors are kept. Open jails are minimum security prisons. Prisoners with good behaviour satisfying certain norms prescribed in the prison rules are admitted in open prisons. Special jails are high security facilities that have specialized arrangements for keeping offenders and prisoners who are convicted of terrorism, insurgency and violent crimes. In Maharashtra, prison is headed by an IG (Prisons). Each region is headed by Deputy Inspector General (Prisons). Normally, a central jail is headed by a Superintendent of Prisons. He is assisted by ministerial staff (such as office manager, accountant, etc), executive staff (additional superintendent, jailor, deputy jailor, chief head warders, and warders), medical staff (civil assistant surgeon, staff nurse, pharmacist, etc) and correctional staff (social worker, WO, etc). A district jail is normally headed by an additional superintendent or a senior jailor and sub- jail is headed by jailor or deputy jailor. Concepts and Procedures in Law Enforcement 8.1: Classification of Criminal Major Laws The major criminal laws include (a) Indian Penal Code, 1860, (b) Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 and (c) Indian Evidence Act, 1872 Indian Penal Code (IPC) The Indian Penal Code of 1860 (IPC) is a comprehensive code covering all substantive aspects criminal law. It is sub-divided into twenty three chapters and consists of five hundred and eleven sections. Criminal Procedure Code The Code of Criminal Procedure was enacted in 1973. It provides the machinery for the investigation of crime, apprehension of suspected criminals, collection of evidence, determination of guilt or innocence of the accused person and the determination of punishment of the guilty. Additionally, it also deals with public nuisance, prevention of offences and maintenance of spouse, children and parents. The Act has 484 sections, 2 schedules and 56 forms. The sections are divided into 38 chapters. Evidence Act The Indian Evidence Act was originally passed by the British parliament in 1872. It contains a set of rules and allied issues governing admissibility of evidence in courts of law. The Indian Evidence Act, 1872, has eleven chapters and 167 sections. 8.2: Classification of Crimes under IPC Broad classification of crimes under the Indian Penal Code is given below: - Crimes Against Body: Murder, Its attempt, Culpable Homicide not amounting to Murder, Kidnapping & Abduction, Hurt, Causing Death by Negligence, etc - Crimes Against Property: Dacoity, its preparation & assembly, Robbery, Burglary, Theft, etc - Crimes Against Public order : Riots, Arson, etc - Economic Crimes: Criminal Breach of Trust, Cheating, Counterfeiting, etc - Crimes Against Women: Rape, Dowry Death, Cruelty by Husband and Relatives, Molestation, Sexual harassment and Importation of Girls, etc - Crimes Against Children : Child Rape, Kidnapping & Abduction of Children, Procreation of minor girls, Selling/Buying of girls for Prostitution, Abetment to Suicide, Exposure and Abandonment, Infanticide, etc - Other IPC crimes. 8.4: Other Concepts First Information Report (FIR) FIR refers to the information on the commission of an offence given to a police officer by the first informant. In other words, it is basically a complaint document that sets the provisions of the criminal law in motion. As soon as the crime happens, the aggravated person must file the FIR immediately. If given orally, it must be taken down in writing. There should be four copies recorded simultaneously, with carbon sheets in place. It is important that the FIR must be recorded in first person. The complainant has the right to and must get a copy of FIR. He/she is not required to pay for the same. The complainant must make sure that the following information is there in the FIR: - Who is the perpetrator of the crime? - Who has the crime been committed against - victim /complainant? - When was it committed (time)? - Where was it committed (specific place /locality/area)? - Why do you think it was committed? - Which way (actual process involved) was it committed? - Were there any witnesses? (Names will be required here.) - What were the losses? (Money /valuables/ possessions /physical damage etc.) - What were the traces at the scene of the crime? (Weapons/evidence if any.) Cognizable Offence - Cognizable offences are those where a police officer can arrest without warrant. - And such cases, after arrest has been made, the accused will be produced before a magistrate, and he may require the police officer to investigate the matter. - After investigation, if the case is made out, i.e. charge sheet filed goes against accused, the magistrate can order for arrest. - During the pendency of trial, bail application can be moved before the concerned magistrate. - Cognizable offences are both bailable, and non-bailable. Examples of cognizable offences are as follows: - Offences of waging or attempting to wage war, or abetting the waging of war against the government of India. - Wearing the dress or carrying any token used by a soldier, sailor or airman with intent that it may be believed that he is such a soldier, sailor or airman. - Rioting armed with deadly weapon. - Hiring, engaging or employing person to take part in an unlawful assembly or taking part in self. - Being or expecting to be a public servant, and taking, and taking a gratification other than legal remuneration in respect of an official act. - Public servant obtaining any valuable thinks, without consideration, from a person concerned in any proceeding or business transacted by such public servant. - Counterfeiting, or performing any pat of the process of counterfeiting Indian coin. - Having possession of a counterfeit government stamp. - Making or selling false weights or measures for fraudulent use. - Negligently doing any act known to be likely to spread infection of any disease dangerous to life. - Causing a disturbance to an assembly engaged in religious worships Non Cognizable Offense Non cognizable offences are those, where a police officer cannot arrest without a warrant. In such offences for arrest, all the steps have to be followed like - Filing of complaint/F.I.R. - Investigation - Charge sheet, - Charge sheet to be filed in court - Trial - Final order of arrest if case has been made out. Following are some examples of non-cognizable offences. - Owner or occupier of land not giving information of riot etc. - A public servant disobeying a direction of the law with intent to cause injury to any person. - A public servant unlawfully engaging in trade. - Bribery during elections. - Making any false statement in connection with an election. - Absconding to avoid service of summons or other proceeding from a public servant, like where summons or notice require attendance in person etc, in a court of justice. - Refusing to take oath when duly required taking oath by a pubic servant. - Obstructing public servant in discharge of his public functions. - Giving or fabricating false evidence in a judicial proceeding. - False claim in a court of justice. - Fraudulent use of false instrument for weighting. - Selling any food or drink as food and drink knowing the same to be noxious. - Offering for sale or issuing from a dispensary any drug or medical preparation known to have been adulterated. - Voluntarily causing hurt on grave and sudden provocation, not intending to hurt any other than the person, who gave the provocation. - Buying or disposing of any person as a slave. - Dishonest misappropriation of movable property, or converting it to one's own use. Arrest Arrest means the taking, seizing, or detaining of the person with an intention to take in to custody. According to section 41 (1) of CrPC, a police office can arrest with or without warrant, if he/she suspects the person. Persons arrested must be informed of the full particulars of the offence committed and the grounds for arrest (Sec.50 Cr. P.C. & Art 22 (1) - Constitution of India). All persons arrested must be served a custody memo (as per Supreme Court directions in D.K. Basu Vs State of West Bengal). Persons arrested cannot be detained for more than 24 hours in Police Custody (Sec.56/57 Cr.P.C. & Art 22 (2) Constitution of India). An Accused person is entitled to a copy, free of cost, of the Police Final Report, First Information Report (FIR), statements of all persons whom prosecution proposes to examine as its witnesses (Sec 207, Sec. 154, Sec. 161 [3]) confessions and statements if any recorded and any other documents, relevant extracts forwarded to the magistrate. The person arrested, has a right to be examined by a registered medical practitioner (Sec.54) to disprove, the commission of Offence or to prove the ill-treatment of the police or any other suitable reason. (S.54 Cr. P.C).In the case of a woman the medical examination has to be made only by a female registered medical practitioner. Warrant A warrant of arrest is a written authority given by a competent magistrate for the arrest of a person. It is a more drastic step than the issue of a summons. It is addressed to a person, usually a police officer, to apprehend and produce the offender in front of the court. As per CrPC section 70(1) every warrant of arrest shall be in writing. It must be signed by the presiding officer of the court and must bear the seal of the court. Bail In general, an individual accused of a crime must be held in the custody of the court until his or her guilt or innocence is determined. However, the court has the option of releasing the individual before that determination is made, and this option is called bail. In case of bailable offenses, as per section 436 of CrPC, bail has to be granted as a matter of right. But for certain non bailable cases also, the court can grant bail. Charge Sheet When the police investigation is complete, the police officer in-charge of the case is required to submit a report under Section 173 of the Cr PC to the Magistrate stating the name of the parties, the nature of crime, other information, etc. This report is known as the charge-sheet. Police Custody A Magistrate may order for the remand of the arrested person to police custody u/s 167 (3) of the Cr.P.C. The Magistrate should be fully satisfied that there is good ground to remand the accused to police custody. For example if Mr. Ram is arrested for murder of Mr. Samuel, the police will ask for police custody with the view to have clues of evidence. Police custody cannot be given beyond 15 days. When remand to police custody is granted (subject to Supreme Court orders in D.K. Basu), the accused in police custody can be kept in police lock - up. He/she can be taken to any place for purposes of investigation within this period. He/she can be kept at any place for purposes of investigation within this period. But, there should be an entry in the Daily Diary about when the accused is taken out of police lock-up or readmitted. If the accused falls ill in police lock-up, he must be given medical aid or treatment admitted for in a hospital. If an accused dies in police custody, officer - in - charge shall immediately inform the nearest Executive Magistrate empowered to hold inquests, for investigation u/s 176 CrPC and intimated to the National Human Rights Commission within 24 hours. Judicial Custody Judicial custody means that the accused is in the custody of the magistrate (usually in the prison). Police cannot interrogate the person in judicial custody without the permission of the concerned magistrate/ court. 8.5: Powers of Police According to Section 41 and 41A of the Code of Criminal Procedure, police have the following powers: - Arrest a person without warrant (if the crime is done in the presence of a police officer, if there are reasonable suspicion of the person, if the officer suspects anything which the person posses as a stolen thing, if the person obstructs the police officer from performing his/her duty, if the person has past criminal records, etc) - Issue notice of appearance before a police officer - If a bond with sufficient sureties is given, the court may direct the police officer to release the accused from custody (Section 71). The Executive magistrate or district superintendent of police or commissioner can alternatively direct a person’s removal in custody to the court (Section 81) - To maintain public order and tranquillity, a police officer, not below the rank of sub-inspector can command an assembly of five persons or more to disperse (Section 129). The DM or SDM can give conditional order for removal of nuisance (Section 133). The police are directed by the section 41-B of the Code of Criminal Procedure to bear identification tag while making the arrest. He/ she should prepare memorandum of arrest attested by one witness and counter signed by the person arrested. 8.6: Brief Process of Trail The police officers make immediate efforts to investigate in case of cognizable cases (Section 154, 156) and if it’s a non cognizable case, the police will not investigate without the order of a magistrate (Section 155). Based on the report of the police to the magistrate (Section 158), he/ she may hold a preliminary inquiry or dispose the case (Section 159). The public prosecutor opens the case during the initiation of the trail (Section 225, 226). If there is no sufficient ground, the accused is discharged (Section 227). But if there is considerable evidence, the judge shall frae charges against the accused (Section 228). If the accused pleads guilty, the judge convicts him/her thereon (Section 229). But is the accused refuses, the judge fixes a date of examination of the witnesses (Section 230). On the fixed days prosecution and cross examination is done (Section 231). At this point if the judge considers that there is no evidence, the judge shall order an acquittal (Section 232). But if he/ she is not acquitted, he /she shall be called to enter on his defence (Section 233). When the examination of witnesses is complete, the prosecutor sums up the argument and the pleader/ accused is also entitled to reply (Section 234). After hearing the arguments, the judge gives his final judgement (Section 235) 8.7: Rights of arrested person according to CrPC - Right to be informed about the right to have a relative or friend named by him/her to be informed of his arrest (Section 41-B) - Right to meet an advocate of choice during interrogation, though not throughout the entire interrogation (Section 41-D) - The police officer is obligated to inform the arrest to the nominated person (Section 50- A) - The police officer should make arrangements for examination of the arrested person by medical officer (Section 54) - If a sub-ordinate police officer is sent to make an arrest without the warrant, an order of arrest has to be issued (Section 55). The health of the arrested has to be taken care of (Section 55-A) 8.8: Rights of arrested person according to Justice Basu Judgment - The police personnel carrying out the arrest and handling the interrogation of the arrestee should bear accurate, visible and clear identification and name clear identification and name tags with their designations. The particulars of all such police personnel who handle interrogation of the arrestee must be recorded in a register. - That the police officer carrying out the arrest of the arrestee shall prepare a memo of arrest at the time of arrest and such memo shall be attested by at least one witness, who may either be a member of the family of the arrestee or a respectable person of the locality from where the arrest is made. It shall also be countersigned by the arrestee and shall contain the time and date of arrest. - A person who has been arrested or detained and is being held in custody in a police station or interrogation centre or other lock- up, shall be entitled to have one friend or relative or other person know to him or having interest in his welfare being informed, as soon as practicable, that he has been arrested and is being detained at the particular place, unless the attesting witness of the memo of arrest is himself such a friend or a relative of the arrestee. - The time, place of arrest and venue of custody of an arrestee must be notified by the police where the next friend or relative of the arrestee lives outside the district or town through the Legal Aid Organisation in the District and the police station of the area concerned telegraphically within a period of 8 to 12 hours after the arrest. - The person arrested must be made aware of this right to have someone informed of his arrest or detention as soon as he is put under arrest or is detained. - An entry must be made in the diary at the place of detention regarding the arrest of the person which shall also disclose the name of the next fried of the person who has been informed of the arrest and the names and particulars of the police officials in whose custody the arrestee is. - The arrestee should, where he so requests, be also examined at the time of his arrest and major and minor injuries, if any present on his/her body, must be recorded at that time. The "Inspection Memo" must be signed both by the arrestee and the police officer effecting the arrest and its copy provided to the arrestee and the police officer effecting the arrest and its copy provided to the arrestee. - The arrestee should be subjected to medical examination by a trained doctor every 48 hours during his detention in custody by a doctor on the panel of approved doctors appointed by Director, Health Services of the State or Union Territory concerned. Director, Health Services should prepare such a penal for all tehsils and districts as well. - Copies of all the documents including the memo of arrest, referred to above, should be sent to the Magistrate for his record. - The arrestee may be permitted to meet his lawyer during interrogation, though not throughout the interrogation. - A police control room could be provided at all district and State headquarters, where information regarding the arrest and the place of custody of the arrestee shall be communicated by the officer causing the arrest, within 12 hours Legal Aid and Writs 9.1: Concept of Legal aid Legal aid is the provision of assistance to people otherwise unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system. Legal aid is regarded as central in providing access to justice by ensuring equality before the law, the right to counsel and the right to a fair trial. The concept of legal aid is in the form of Article 39A into our constitutional framework. Hence, legal aid is not a charity, but is a constitutional mandate and the right of the citizens. Since 1952, the Government began addressing the question of legal aid for the poor. In particular, during 1960s, some guidelines were drawn for legal aid schemes. In 1980, a national level committee under the able leadership of Justice P.N.Bhagawati was set-up to oversee and supervise the legal aid programmes. This Committee, known as the Committee for Implementing Legal Aid Schemes started monitoring legal aid activities throughout the country. In 1987, Legal Services Authorities Act was enacted to give a statutory base to legal aid programs throughout the country on a uniform pattern. This act was finally enforced on 9th of November 1995. Section 12 of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 prescribes the criteria for giving legal services to the eligible persons. Section 12 of the Act reads as under:- Every person who has to file/defend a case shall be entitled to legal services if that person is – (a) a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe; (b) a victim of trafficking in human beings or begar as referred to in Article 23 of the Constitution; (c) a woman or a child; (d) a mentally ill or otherwise disabled person; (e) a person under circumstances of undeserved want such as being a victim of a mass disaster, ethnic violence, caste atrocity, flood, drought, earthquake or industrial disaster; or (f) an industrial workman; or (g) in custody, including custody in a protective home within the meaning of clause (g) of section 2 of the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (104 of 1956); or in a juvenile home within the meaning of clause (j) of section 2 of the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 (53 of 1986) or in a psychiatric hospital or psychiatric nursing home within the meaning of clause (g) of section 2 of the Mental Health Act, 1987 (14 of 1987); or (h) in receipt of annual income less than rupees nine thousand or such other higher amount as may be prescribed by the State Govt., if the case is before a court other than the Supreme Court, and less than rupees twelve thousand or such other higher amount as may be prescribed by the Central Govt., if the case is before the Supreme Court." 9.2: Need for Legal Aid There are millions of poor people in India who are not able to access justice. Poverty, illiteracy and other problems leads poor people to languish in the prison without engaging lawyers for their case. State sponsored legal aid is the only possible solution for such people to defend themselves in the court of law. Hence there is a need for free legal aid services across the country. 9.3: Legal Aid Schemes The National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) has been constituted under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 to provide free Legal Services and conceive various legal aid schemes. In every State, State Legal Services Authority has been constituted to give effect to the policies and directions of the NALSA. In every District, District Legal Services Authority has been constituted to implement Legal Services Programmes in the District. Some of the schemes of NALSA are as follows: - Para-Legal Volunteers Scheme The para-legal volunteers’ scheme is aimed at imparting legal awareness to volunteers selected from certain target groups who in turn act as harbingers of legal awareness and legal aid to all sections of people. 100 volunteers are selected from arts and science colleges in the district level and 50 volunteers are selected in each taluk level. They are given training and are given the mandate for creating legal awareness. - Legal Services to Workers in Unorganised Sector Scheme Through the legal services to workers in unorganised sector scheme, legal services authorities at appropriate levels can come to the help of the workers in the unorganised sector in the following manner: - Identifying the unorganised workers within the jurisdiction of each legal services authority - Conducting legal awareness programmes for the identified groups of unorganised workers - Persuading and assisting the workers in the unorganised sector to avail of the benefits under the different social welfare legislations, administrative programmes and schemes put in place by the State Governments. - Reaching out to the unorganised labourers and facilitating their bargaining capacity with the employers and the institutional mechanisms for their welfare. - Providing legal assistance in appropriate cases. - Scheme for Mentally Ill The scheme for mentally ill urges the legal services authorities at appropriate levels to the help the mentally ill in the following manner: - To work on the right of mentally ill persons to get treatment - To provide legal services during the proceedings for reception orders - To provide legal services to the mentally ill persons confined in psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric nursing homes - To provide legal services in case of forced admission into the psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric nursing homes - To provide legal services during inquisition proceedings - To provide legal services when there is attempt to misappropriation of property of mentally ill persons, etc. - Scheme for Legal Aid Clinics Legal aid clinic is one of the thrust areas envisioned in the NALSA’s vision & strategy document. NALSA plans to set up legal aid clinics in all villages. - Scheme for Disaster Victims Sub clause (e) of Section 12 Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 makes the victims of disasters who are under circumstances of undeserved want as a result of such disaster eligible for free legal services to file or defend a case. Beyond this, the thrust of the scheme is strengthening the capacity of the victims for managing the disaster at all levels and to coordinate with the Government departments and non-governmental organisations for providing legal aid to the victims. 9.4: Lok Adalat Lok Adalat is a system of alternative dispute resolution process. India, being an ancient civilisation has had a long history of resolving disputes through the mediation of village elders. The system of lok adalats is an improvisation of this system. A large number of criminal compoundable cases, cheque bounce and bank recovery cases, civil suits, motor accident claims, and family and matrimonial disputes are taken up lok adalats. Lok adalats usually have retired judicial officers, advocates and social workers on the benches and deal with the cases pending before any court and referred to the them. In this respect, cases can be referred to lok adalat if the parties agree or if one of the parties makes an application to the court. The award made by lok adalat court shall be final and binding on all the parties to the dispute. The significant feature is that the bench guides the parties in arriving at a compromise or settlement in friendly and harmonious atmosphere. Most importantly, no fee is required to be paid by the parties to settle their cases before the lok adalat court. In the recent years, lok adalat courts are becoming immensely popular. The national lok adalat held on 23rd November 2013, wiped out a record 28.26 lakh cases pending in various courts. In Maharashtra alone, 4,07,670 cases were resolved and in particular 37,860 cases were solved in Mumbai alone on 23rd November 2013. Thus the lok adalats are able to ensure speedy justice to the litigants 9.5: Public Interest Litigation Public-Interest Litigation (PIL) is a legal mechanism which connects the public with judiciary. The provisions of PIL allow any person to pray to the Supreme Court by sending a letter or telegram (previously). Only a person having sufficient interest in the case can approach the court. The Supreme Court takes the help of journalists, social workers and judicial officers to ascertain the facts of the PIL. The Husnara Khatoon Vs State of Bihar helped in the establishment of the PIL proceedings. In December 1979, a number of under trail prisoners in Bihar invoked the Supreme Court by filing a single case. The case was placed before a bench headed by Justice P.N Bhagwati. The court in its verdict upheld that the prisoners should get benefit of free legal aid and fast hearing. Because of this case 40,000 prisoners, whose suits were pending in the court, were released from the jail. Later, Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.K. Krishna Iyer began to admit more cases like this. Thus PIL as a simple legal tool was born. The recent years, the PIL submitted by PUCL is worth mentioning. “In 2001, during a visit to Jaipur the PUCL functionaries observed that the Food Corporation of India godowns were overflowing and the grains kept outside the godowns were rotting. The PUCL also found out that government had 40 million tonnes above the buffer stock and people were dying of starvation. On this proposition, the PUCL in Rajasthan filed a case, which came to the Supreme Court. The court affirmed the right to food as necessary to uphold Article 21 of the Constitution of India. It decreed that all the PDS shops, if closed, were to be re-opened within one week. The Food Corporation of India (FCI) was ordered to ensure that food grains do not go to waste. The states were given the responsibility over implementation of schemes such as Mid-day Meal Scheme, Annapurna Scheme, and Public Distribution Scheme for BPL & APL families, etc. Since the inception of the case in 2001, 427 affidavits have been submitted by the petitioner and respondents and 71 IA’s (interlocutory applications) have been filed. 21 important orders are issued so far. In a classic example, the combined action of a people’s campaign and the Courts has resulted in positively impacting millions of poor in India”. 9.6: NGOs in Legal Aid Involvement of the NGOs in the legal services activities is very much useful and vital for the success of various such schemes evolved by NALSA. Therefore the legal aid services authorities are empowered to accredit NGOs that wish to work with them. The NGOs can approach the Chairman / Secretary of the District Legal Services Authority concerned and submit the application in the prescribed format along with the required documents seeking accreditation. After perusing the application and documents, the State Legal Services Authority will give accreditation to such NGOs enabling them to coordinate and participate in the legal services activities of the concerned District Legal Services Authority. The NGOs that seeks to involve in the legal services activities should have personnel with legal expertise and should have experience in working with various target groups. 9.7: Utilizing Writs Article 32 of the Constitution confers original jurisdiction on the Supreme Court to issue directions, orders or writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights. Similar powers are conferred on the High Court under article 226 of the Constitution. The writ jurisdiction of the High court is wider than that of the Supreme Court. The High Court can issue writs for the violation of fundamental rights or for any other purpose. There are five types of Writs- Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo warranto. Habeas Corpus "Habeas Corpus" is a Latin term which literally means "you may have the body." The writ is issued to release a person who has been detained unlawfully whether in prison or in private custody. When the writ is issued, the detenue should be produced before the Court and if the detention is found illegal the Court will order that he be immediately released. However in Kanu sanyal Vs District Magistrate, Darjeeling(A.I.R.1974S.C 510) the Supreme Court held that while dealing with the application of writ of habeas corpus, production of the body of the person alleged to be unlawfully detained was not essential. Mandamus Mandamus is a Latin word, which means "We Command". Mandamus is an order from the Supreme Court or High Court to a lower court or tribunal or public authority to perform a public or statutory duty.. It is issued to secure the performance of public duties and to enforce private rights with held by the public authorities. Certiorari The writ of certiorari can be issued by the Supreme Court or any High Court for quashing the order already passed by an inferior court, tribunal or quasi judicial authority. There are several conditions necessary for the issue of writ of certiorari (a) There should be court, tribunal or an officer having legal authority to determine the question with a duty to act judicially. (b) Such a court, tribunal or officer must have passed an order acting without jurisdiction or in excess of the judicial authority vested by law in such court, tribunal or officer. (c) The order could also be against the principles of natural justice or (d) it could contain an error of judgment in appreciating the facts of the case. Prohibition The Writ of prohibition means to forbid or to stop and it is popularly known as 'Stay Order'. This writ is issued when a lower court or a body tries to transgress the limits or powers vested in it. The writ of prohibition is issued by any High Court or the Supreme Court to any inferior court, or quasi-judicial body prohibiting the latter from continuing the proceedings in a particular case, where it has no jurisdiction to try. After the issue of this writ, proceedings in the lower court etc. come to a stop. While the writ of prohibition is available at the earlier stage, the writ of certiorari is available on similar grounds at a later stage. It can also be said that the writ of prohibition is available during the pendency of proceedings the writ of certiorari can be resorted to only after the order or decision has been announced. Quo-Warranto The word Quo-Warranto literally means "by what warrants?" or "what is your authority"? It is a writ issued with a view to restrain a person from holding a public office which he is not entitled. The writ of quo-warranto is used to prevent illegal assumption of any public office or usurpation of any public office by any body. For example, a person of 62 years has been appointed to fill a public office whereas the retirement age is 60 years. Now, the appropriate High Court has a right to issue a writ of quo-warranto against the person and declare the office vacant. (Reference: Prasanna, A. Courts and Procedure, IMG: Kerela) Para Legal Practice with Prisoners and Families 10.1 Introduction In India, the prison organization is formally entrusted with the task of reforming and rehabilitating the offenders. For the rehabilitation to be successful, there are several crucial factors which has to be taken care of, namely education, skill development, legal support, mental health, post release employment and intervention with families and communities. According to the NCRB (2011) only a meagre 6.29 % of prisoners are graduates or technical diploma holders. A very large number, namely 93.70 % of prisoners have education till secondary level or lesser than that. In fact, a substantial 44.41 % have education below 10th standard and another 29.60% are illiterate. Thus it is clear that mostly less educated people land up in jail. Hence, it is important to offer formal/ informal education and develop skill development programmes for the inmates. The legal rights entitled to needy under-trials have been mandated by the Constitution. The state funded legal aid programme is organized under the Legal Aid Services Authorities Act, 1987. Though each person is entitled to free legal aid from the point of arrest, this objective is not achieved many times, due to the lack of awareness on the part of the accused/victim, and the lack of initiative and coordination between the police and the legal aid authorities. Maintaining good mental health is a crucial for the survival of human being. This is true in the case of prisoners too. According to Mansoor et al (2015), factors in prisons that may adversely affect mental health include overcrowding, dirty and depressing environments, poor food, inadequate health care, and physical or verbal aggression. The children of women prisoners living with the women prisoners in jails are being deprived of their basic rights, entitlements and amenities for their development. Similarly children living in institution and those left outside face several vulnerable situations. The effects of incarceration can be catastrophic on the families too. In this context, prisoners find it difficult to maintain relationship with family members. This leads to lack of trust, misconceptions, and even separation. Similarly preparing the community for receiving the ex-prisoner is also vital. This will reduce the guilt and stigma attached towards imprisonment. There has been very few instance of the government or NGOs working on this aspects. Evidence from studies suggests that ex-prisoners who are employed are less likely to re-offend. Employment facilitates the creation of social links, and provides a sense of stability, and provides income which reduces the likelihood of entering the crime cycle (Healy 2010). On the other hand, most of the released prisoners in India do not get a decent job, thus falling back on criminality. 10.2 Working with Undertrail Prisoners In 2016, the Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court comprising of Chief Justice of India T.S. Thakur observed that if “life” implies not only life in the physical sense but a bundle of rights that makes life worth living, there is no juristic or other basis for holding that denial of “access to justice” will not affect the quality of human life so as to take access to justice out of the purview of right to life guaranteed under Article 21. They articulated that access to justice is indeed a facet of right to life guaranteed under Article 21. According to the bench, the four main facets that constitute the essence of access to justice are (a) effective adjudicatory mechanism, (b) accessibility in terms of distance, (c) speedy adjudication, and (d) affordable adjudicatory process. Among the four facets, speedy adjudication is one of the most important constituent. If the process of administration of justice is so time consuming, laborious, indolent and frustrating for those who seek justice that it dissuades or deters them from even considering resort to that process. Let’s us have a look at some of the vital statistics made available by the National Crime Records Bureau Report titled Prison Statistics India 2015 . The total capacity of Jails in the Country is 3,66,781. However, the total number of jail inmates as on 31.12.2015 is 4,19,623. Therefore the occupancy rate at 2015 is as high as 114.4% Under-trial prisoners constitute a significant majority of the prison population (67.2%). All the 2,82, 086 persons who are within prisons as under-trials are deemed to be innocent in the eyes of the law. However, 64.8% undertrail prisoners were detained for more than 3 month at the end of 2015. A total of 3,599 undertrials were detained in jails for more than 5 years at the end of the year 2015. Interestingly, though the number of undertrial prisoners facing murder charge decreased by 3.2% in 2015 (61,190) over 2014 (63,225), the number of undertrial prisoners just decreased by a megre 0.3% only in 2015 (2,82,076) over 2014 (2,82,879). Moti Ram and Ors. V. State of Madhya Pradesh (1978) highlighted that the consequences of pre-trial detention are grave. Defendants presumed innocent are subjected to the psychological and physical deprivations of jail life. The jailed defendant loses his job and the burden of his detention frequently falls heavily on the innocent members of his family. Most of the under trail prisoners are youth (48.1% undertrial inmates were in the age group of 18 - 30 years as on 2015) and one fourth of the under trail prisoners are illiterates. (Out of 2,82,076 undertrial inmates, 80,528 were illiterates). This clearly shows the vulnerability of the under trail prisoners in India. The main question here is why there are so many under trial prisoners in the first place? The answer is quite complex. However, the main reasons include indiscriminate arrests, highly discriminatory bail system, delay in investigation and trial, prolonged detention, and poor performance of legal aid advocates resulting in less acquittals. The power of the police to arrest people is very wide and they arrest people even when they cooperate with the investigation and are not likely to evade trial. This results in unnecessary detentions. As suggested by the CHRI in cases, where the specified conditions are not met, the police officer may, instead of arresting a person, issue to her/him a notice of appearance. This requires the accused to appear before the police officer when required and to cooperate with the police officer in the investigation of the offence. This provision available in section 41 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act 2006, if properly implemented, will lead to a vast reduction in the number of persons – accused for offences punishable up to 7 years. As observed by Justice P.N. Bhagwati, the bail system causes discrimination against the poor since the poor would not be able to furnish bail on account of their poverty while the wealthier persons otherwise similarly situated would be able to secure their freedom because they can afford to furnish bail. This discrimination arises even if the amount of the bail fixed by the Magistrate is not high, for a large majority of those who are brought before the Courts in criminal cases are so poor that they would find it difficult to furnish bail even in a small amount. Section 436 Cr.P.C., mandates the police or court to release an indigent person on personal bond without asking for any surety. The section states that the court shall consider any person who is unable to furnish bail within 7 days from the date of her/his arrest as indigent. Therefore, a person accused for a bailable offence can be detained in prison for a maximum period of 7 days. This provision of law is grossly under-applied. Many prisoners languish in prisons because the police do not finish investigation, and file the charge sheet in time. Section 167 Cr.P.C. lays down a period of 90 days for offences punishable with death, life imprisonment or imprisonment for a term of not less than ten years, and 60 days for all other offences. Where the investigation has not been completed within the stipulated timeframe, it is mandatory upon the Magistrate to release the accused on bail, if he is ready to furnish bail. Many prisoners are charged with a non-bailable offence which is not very serious and is triable by a Magistrate. Section 437(6) Cr.P.C makes it mandatory for a person to be released on bail where the trial has not concluded within 60 days from the first date fixed for taking evidence. These two provisions, along with the provision under Section 436A Cr.P.C which lays down the right of an undertrial to apply for bail once s/he has served one half of the maximum term of sentence s/he would have served had s/he been convicted have been severely underutilized. Prison Statistics (2015) shows that out of a total of 12,92,357 undertrials released, only 82,585 undertrails were acquitted. This shows the status of performance of the legal aid advocates. According to our constitution, it is the duty of the State to see that the legal system promotes justice on the basis of equal opportunity for all its citizens. It must therefore arrange to provide free legal aid to those who cannot access justice due to economic and other disabilities. Sec. 304 of Code of Criminal Procedure states that if the accused does not have sufficient means to engage a lawyer the court must provide one for the defense of the accused at the expense of the state. A person entitled to appeal against his/her sentence has the right to ask for a counsel, to prepare and argue the appeal, as revealed in the Madav Hayavadanrao Hoskot Vs. State of Maharastra Case (1978). Low fees prescribed for the legal aid counsels attract very few talented lawyers and as a result Legal Service Authorities failed to execute the concept of "Poverty Jurisprudence". Sincere and honest advocates who are interested in the case and competent to handle should be appointed for legal aid, and not merely on the basis of seniority. To create confidence in the litigant about the system of legal aid, appointment of legal aid counsel plays a vital role. Main strategies for para legal volunteers to work with under trail prisoners include the following: - Advocating with the district/ state police for judicious implementation of the Sec 41 of Cr.P.C with regards to arrest. - Promoting section 436 Cr.P.C., which mandates the police/ court to release an indigent/ poor person on personal bond without asking for any surety - Utilizing the provision of Section 436A of Cr.P.C to help release the under trail person on bail According to Section 436 of Code of Criminal Procedure, a person other than a person accused of a non-bailable offence may be released on bail on such terms as may appear reasonable to the police officer or the Court. A person released under this section by the police officer need not approach the Court for a fresh bail as held by the High Court of Rajasthan. But the Allahabad High Court has opined that a person released on bail by the police must seek fresh bail from the Court for the purpose of appearing before the Court. This provision can be used by para legal volunteers. The right to be released on bail in case of a bailable offence being a legal and constitutional right of the accused person, refusal of this right is a curtailment of the right of personal liberty guaranteed by Article 21 of the Constitution of India and, therefore, there should be no question of discretion in granting bail. In Rasiklal v. Kishore Khanchand Wadhwani, the accused was released on bail for the offence of defamation which is bailable offence. Held, the Court is not bound to issue notice to the complainant and hear him before allowing the accused his release on bail. The sub section of this is very useful if the person is under detention. Section 436 A clearly states that if a person has, during the period of investigation, inquiry or trial (not being an offence for which the punishment of death has been specified as one of the punishments under that law) undergone detention for a period extending upto one-half of the maximum period of imprisonment specified for that offence under that law, he shall be released by the Court on his personal bond with or without sureties. Based on experiences of Tata Trust supported NGOs (http://tatatrusts.org/upload/pdf/social-work-india-criminal-justice-institutions.pdf ) the role of para legal volunteer in under trail cases includes the following: - Visit prisons two to three times a week and provide legal guidance and counselling to acquaint undertrial prisoners with relevant provisions of the law and how to fill out applications. - Finding out if lawyers have been appointed by the State, and whether the case is progressing satisfactorily. - If a lawyer hasn’t been appointed, taking the matter up with district legal aid cells. - If a lawyer has been appointed but has not yet met the client, the PLVs gets in touch with the lawyer and ensures that regular meetings take place between both parties. - PLVs help bring cases to court quickly by gathering relevant information about the undertrial’s family, and procuring documents such as birth certificates and ration cards. Often, social workers are required to travel to the undertrial’s hometown to get hold of the documents. - They keep in regular touch with lawyers to ensure that the case moves forward. When it is a bailable offence, or a petty case, they write an application for release on personal bond, especially if some time has elapsed after bail has been granted and the prisoner is still in jail because of lack of suitable sureties or inability to pay the bail amount. 10.3 Working with Convict Prisoners Convict prisoners are behind the bars for years, lamenting for visiting their family. The number of convicted prisoners in jails in Maharashtra was 7891 at the end of 2015. It accounted for 5.88% of the number of convicted prisoners in jails in India at the end of 2015. India does not have a Uniform Policy for premature release of prisoners. The law provides for executive remissions, which is completely based on discretion. Discretion is based on the basis of guidelines framed at state level. There is no minimum standard that the states have to keep in mind when drafting these schemes. The release of a prisoner is subjected to executive discretion. There are three kinds of remissions –constitutional, statutory and remissions earned in accordance with jail manuals. Article 72 of the constitution empowers the President of India to grant pardon, reprieve, respite or remission. Section 432 empowers the ‘appropriate government’ to suspend or remit the sentence of a prisoner. The government is not required to give reasons for its decision. Section 432(2) provides that the government may seek the opinion of the judge who convicted the prisoner. In this connection, para legal volunteers can advocate with the government for premature relase of prisoners with good conduct. In states where such decision were never taken, it is good to consider premature release/ develop such law based on Section 77 of the Kerala Prisons and Correctional Services (Management) Act, 2010 which prematurely releases with the objective of reformation and rehabilitation, either suo motu or on the recommendations of an advisory committee. Based on experiences of Tata Trust supported NGOs (http://tatatrusts.org/upload/pdf/social-work-india-criminal-justice-institutions.pdf ) the role of para legal volunteer in convict cases also includes proving support to avail parole or furlough. Under the furlough system, a convicted prisoner is granted release for a short period of time, usually two weeks, to attend to family emergencies. Under the parole programme, a convicted prisoner is granted longer leave —up to two or three months —to address family-related problems. The leave is not considered part of the sentence served. A prerequisite for securing parole or furlough is the submission of positive reports about the applicant by the local police and officials like the district magistrate or tehsildar. Family members have to furnish sureties too. PLVs play an important role in this process. They talk to family members to identify sureties and to ensure that they welcome the convict. They then follow up the processing of positive reports by the police. PLVs contact the sanctioning authorities (regional deputy inspector general of prisons for furlough, and the divisional revenue commissioner for parole) for quick disposal of applications. Finally, it helps family members to furnish sureties at the relevant offices. 10.4 Working with Children of Prisoners Children of prisoners are the unseen victims of crime. They have done nothing wrong, yet they are the ones who often carry the guilt and shame of what their parent has done. Unless they are already known to statutory children’s services or are assessed as children in need, they are unlikely to receive any specific support to help them cope. Over the past few decades, numerous books and articles have been written discussing the effects of parental incarceration on young children’s developmental outcomes and addressing the specific issue of the impact of parental incarceration on families of excluded communities. There are four main stages from arrest to release, each of which can profoundly affect a child: - Arrest: Police may arrest a parent in front of the child. This causes upset and trauma. - Court: Is where sentence is decided. It may be the last time a child sees their parent before they go to prison. - Prison: Mother or father may be taken to prison miles from home. They may be moved around a lot. The child may never gain the opportunity to visit. - Release: The family might find it difficult to adjust when a parent comes home. Children of prisoners often experience stress, possibly having witnessed their parent’s arrest, and managing feelings of unresolved loss. Maternal incarceration can be particularly destabilizing for young children when mother is a primary caregiver. Children may feel abandoned and express anger toward the caregiver, and in turn, caregivers may be angry with the incarcerated parent and/or resent or punish a child who rejects help. Caregivers may lack the skills to provide children with nurturing and stimulating environments, and be overwhelmed by the responsibility of caring for a child who may be struggling at home and in school. Grandparents are the most common kin caregivers; their poor health and social isolation can make it challenging to care for young. Interventions for individuals with incarcerated family members may be most effective if delivered in non-threatening, non-stigmatizing settings that connect caregivers with others in their position. In this connection, some areas where para legal volunteers can focus includes the following: - Working in the prions where women prisoners are lodged with their children. Para legal volunteers can monitor whether prison officials are strictly aligning with the Supreme Court guidelines in the RD Upadhyay vs State of AP case to ensure that certain basic standards are observed with regard to children of women prisoners - Para legal volunteers can interact with child welfare committee regarding the condition of children whose both the parents ar ein prison and make sure to get them admitted in government run child carte institutions 10.5 Working with Released Prisoners Evidence from studies suggests that ex-prisoners who are employed are less likely to re-offend. Employment facilitates the creation of social links, and provides a sense of stability, and provides income which reduces the likelihood of entering the crime cycle (Healy 2010). On the other hand, most of the released prisoners in India do not get a decent job, thus falling back on criminality. In this connection, para legal volunteers can work on strengthening Prisoners Aid Society which can facilitate in creating livelihood opportunities for the released prisoners 10.6 Conclusion The best help is self-help. A program to train inmates as paralegals was established at a large state prison in the Midwest. Qualified inmates were randomly assigned to the training or to a control condition. The trainee group showed a significant increase in its amount of legal knowledge after training. Members of the trainee group also reported a significant increase in the number of other inmates requesting aid from them on legal problems. In addition, interviews were conducted with two random samples of the general inmate population, before and after the paralegal training program. These interviews revealed strong support for the training program, and this support increased over the period of the program. An experiment of this sort can be tied in Indian context with a group of prisoners who have shown good conduct. The overall goal is to help prisoners get access to justice and avail their rights at their door steps on time. Healy, D. (2010). The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change. Cullompton: Willan Emshoff, J., Davidson, W., & Conner, R. (1980). Training prison inmates as paralegals: An experimental project. Journal of Criminal Justice, 8 (1), 27-38 http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/download/1457162682Undertrial%20Prisoners%20and%20the%20Criminal%20Justice%20System.pdf Report of the Legal Aid Committee appointed by the Government of Gujarat in 1971 (p. 185) http://www.communitycare.co.uk/2008/10/06/professional-support-for-prisoners-families-and-children Mansoor, M., Perwez, S., Swamy, T., Ramaseshan. H. (2015). A Critical Review on Role of Prison Environment on Stress and Psychiatric Problems among Prisoners. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6 (1), 218-223 Healy, D. (2010). The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change. Cullompton: Willan http://www.livelaw.in/access-justice-fundamental-right-guaranteed-article-14-21-constitution-sc-constitution-bench/ Para Legal Practice with Women and Senior Citizens 11.1 Marriage Law People solemnize marriages in accordance with religious rituals and ceremonies, which are mostly codified by statutory personal laws. Therefore, the matrimonial laws in India, including laws on marriage, divorce and other connected issues, are essentially governed by the personal laws of the parties depending on their religion: - Hindu: Hindu Marriage Act 1955. - Muslim: Muslim marriage is a contract under Muslim law. - Christian: Indian Christian Marriage Act 1872 and the Divorce Act 1869. - Parsi: Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act 1936. - Special Marriage Act 1954 applies to all persons of all religions. (All these laws apply throughout India (except for in Jammu and Kashmir, and Goa). Personal laws governing marriage contain provisions to ensure the welfare of children born in wedlock. There is a general law, the Guardian and Wards Act 1890, which applies to all communities. The Guardian and Wards Act 1890 is a complete code defining the rights and liabilities of guardians and wards. It applies to minor children of any caste and creed. However, while approving and declaring a person as a minor's guardian, the court will also consider the minor's personal law. The Guardian and Wards Act 1890 aims to protect the minor child's person and property. The Family Court Act 1984 provides for the establishment of Family Courts with a view to promote conciliation, and secure speedy settlement of, disputes relating to marriage and family affairs, and for matters connected with them. The Family Courts hear matters relating to marriage, marital breakdown and the welfare of children. These courts are trial courts and are presided over by Additional District Judges which undertake trials and review evidence. The Family Courts follow the Civil Procedure Code. Marriages in India can also be dissolved by means of annulment. The procedure for annulment is same as that of divorce, except that the grounds for annulment are different from that of divorce. Reasons for annulment are fraud, the pregnancy of wife by a person other than the husband, impotence before the marriage and subsisting even at the time of filing the case. A marriage is automatically void and is automatically annulled when law prohibits it. A voidable marriage is one where an annulment is not automatic and must be sought by one of the parties. Generally, an annulment may be sought by one of the parties to a marriage if the intent to enter into the civil contract of marriage was not present at the time of the marriage, either due to mental illness, intoxication, duress or fraud. 11.2 Divorce Law Divorce among Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains is governed by the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Muslims by the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939, Parsis by the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 and Christians by the Indian Divorce Act, 1869. All civil and inter-community marriages are governed by the Special Marriage Act, 1956. A couple can get a divorce with mutual consent, or either spouse may file for divorce without the consent of the other. When husband and wife both agree to a divorce, the courts will consider a divorce with mutual consent. For the petition to be accepted, however, the couple should be separated for over a year or two years and be able to prove that they have not been able to live together. Often, even when either husband or wife is reluctant, they still agree to such a divorce because it is relatively inexpensive and not as traumatic as a contested divorce. Matters such as children’s custody, maintenance and property rights could be agreed mutually. There are three aspects regarding which a husband and wife have to reach a consensus, namely alimony, child custody, and property. As per law, there is no minimum or maximum limit for alimony. The second consideration is custody of the child. Child custody in a mutual consent divorce can also be shared or joint or exclusive depending upon the understanding of the spouses. The third is property. The husband and wife must decide who gets what part of the property. This includes both movable and immovable property. Right down to the bank accounts, everything must be divided. It is not necessary for it to be fair, so long as it is agreed to by both parties. In case of a contested divorce, there are specific grounds on which the petition can be made, namely cruelty, adultery, desertation, conversion, mental disorder, communicable disease, etc . 11.3 Inheritance Law Related to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 is the law that was passed by the parliament of India in 1956 to amend and codify the law relating to intestate or unwilled succession, among Hindus. It applies to all those who practice the Hindu religion as well as those who fall under the term Hindu within the Indian Legal system, including Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs. It is hailed for its consolidation of Hindu laws on succession into one Act. The Hindu woman's limited estate is abolished by the Act. Any property, possessed by a Hindu female, is to be held by her absolute property and she is given full power to deal with it and dispose of it by will as she likes. The Act was amended in 2005 by Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005. A will or testament is a legal declaration expressing the wishes of a person, containing the names of one or more persons who are to manage his estate and provide for the transfer of his property at death. The person who prepares such a will is known as the testator. The distinction exists because if there is no will, or the will is found not to be valid, the property will be divided and transferred as per the rules of intestate succession. A probate means a copy of the Will, certified under the seal of a competent Court with a grant of administration of the estate to the executor of the testator. It is the official evidence of an executor's authority. After the death of the person concerned, a proceeding may be initiated in court to determine the validity of the will that the testator may have created, known as a probate proceeding, which will satisfy the legal requirements. In most cases, during probate, at least one witness is called upon to testify or sign a "proof of witness" affidavit. If the will is ruled invalid in probate, then inheritance will occur under the laws of intestacy as if a will were never drafted. For executing the Will the person must be fully competent. The Will has to be in writing and has to state that the person executing the same is making it out of his own free will and in a sound disposing state of mind. It has to be signed by the executor of the Will and has to be attested by two witnesses. A probate granted by a competent court is proof of the validity of the will, and the right of the executor named in the Will to represent the estate of the deceased. However, it only establishes the legal character of the Will and the executor and in no way decides upon the manner of distribution of the property, and does not even determine whether the property referred to is in existence. Law of succession provides for the method of distribution of property (known as devolution) in case the deceased passes away without leaving behind a Will. Dying without leaving behind a will is known as dying intestate. As a general principle whenever a Hindu died intestate then a legal presumption comes in to force that the property get vested in to legal heir automatically and it belongs to Joint Hindu Family. Hindu Law has four schedule or categories of Legal heirs. First category are direct relatives, second category is second line relative and third category is of agnate that is relatives from father side and forth categories are cognates that is relatives of mother side. If any Hindu dies intestate and without any relatives as discussed above then the property get vested with the State Government under due procedure of Law. 11.4 Inheritance Law Related to Muslims There is no concept of ancestral property or rights by birth in Islamic law. Muslim law recognises that persons may leave behind a will, but a will (unless ratified by all the heirs of the person leaving behind the will) is valid only to the extent of one-third of the deceased's property. Insofar as it is valid, it is governed by the regular laws applicable to wills in India. - A Muslim wife cannot be dispossessed. - Even though she has to share with other wives if there is more than one wife. - The widow gets a definite share. - Mohammedan Law gives the male heirs, the sons, twice the share of the daughters The residuaries are those who are entitled to the estate, if any, left after the sharers have received their respective shares. Of course, this is only a broad rule and there are several just and equitable exceptions to this rule. Failing any Sharers or Residuaries, the next level of relations who would succeed to the estate of a deceased Muslim male or female, are a class of persons known as Distant Kindred. 11.5 Inheritance Law Related to Christians Christian Law of Succession is governed by the provisions in the Indian Succession Act, 1925. Section 42 of the Act mandates that if a son dies intestate (without writing a will) and has no lineal descendants (children, grandchildren), his property, excluding his widow’s share, should go entirely to his father. His mother, even if she is alive, will not get a share. The next Section says if the father is already dead at the time of his son’s untimely demise, the assets of the deceased son will not go entirely to his mother. Instead, she would have to share it equally with the dead son’s surviving siblings. 11.6 Laws against Dowry and Domestic Violence The Indian criminal laws were comprehensively amended to include dowry as a punishable offence. Section 304B was added to the Indian Penal Code, 1860 ("IPC"), which made dowry death a specific offence punishable with a minimum sentence of imprisonment for 7 years and a maximum imprisonment for life. Dowry is a demand for property of valuable security having an inextricable nexus with the marriage, i.e., it is a consideration from the side of the bride's parents or relatives to the groom or his parents and/or guardian for the agreement to wed the bride-to-be. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 consolidated the anti-dowry laws which had been passed on certain states.This legislation provides for a penalty in section 3 , that if any person gives, takes or abets giving or receiving of dowry, the punishment could be imprisonment for minimum 5 years and a fine more than ₹15,000 or the value of the dowry received, whichever is higher.[ The Act provides the penalty for directly or indirectly demanding dowry and provides for a penalty involving a prison term of not less than 6 months and extendable up to two years along with a fine of ₹10,000. The burden of proving that an offense was not committed is on the persons charged and not on the victim or her family.Under its powers to frame rules for carrying out its objectives under the Act, the government of India has framed the Maintenance of Lists of Presents to the Bride and the Bridegroom Rules, 1985. There are also several state level amendments to the Dowry Prohibition Act. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (D.V Act) was passed in order to provide a civil law remedy for the protection of women from domestic violence in India. The Domestic Violence Act encompasses all forms of physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse and forms a subset of the anti-dowry laws to the extent it is one of the reasons for domestic violence. Section 3 of the Domestic Violence Act specifically incorporates all forms of harassment, injury and harms inflicted to coerce a woman to meet an unlawful demand for dowry. Some of the common remedies under the Domestic Violence Act include: - Protection orders - prohibiting a person from committing domestic violence; - Residence orders - dispossessing such person from a shared household; - Custody orders - granting custody of a child; and - Compensation orders - directing payment of compensation. 11.7 Dealing with Pre-Natal Diagnostics and Termination of Pregnancy Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (PND) are diagnostic or pre-symptomatic tests carried out on a developing fetus. The prenatal diagnostic techniques involve the use of technologies, such as ultrasonography, amniocentesis, chorion villi biopsy, foetoscopy, maternal serum analysis, etc. The law governing the practice of PND in India is provided for in the Pre-Conception and Pre- Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994 (PC-PNDT Act). The Act was enacted with the intent to prohibit prenatal diagnostic techniques for determination of the sex of the fetus. While it is legally permissible to abort a fetus at risk of serious physical or mental disabilities, as per the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971, it is not permissible to select a fetus of a sex which is less likely to suffer from a sex-linked disease. Pre-natal diagnostic techniques can only be used for the detection of the following: - Genetic abnormalities - Metabolic disorders - Chromosomal abnormalities - Haemoglobinopathies - Sex-linked disorders. - Certain other congenital abnormalities and diseases, as may be specified by the Central Supervisory Board The offences under this Act are cognizable, non-bailable and non-compoundable. The act prohibits the advertisement, including visible representation to that effect, relating to the prenatal determination of sex, in any form, by any person or organization. Contravention of such order, by anyone, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees. If any qualified person under the Act, who owns or is a part of any Genetic Counselling Centre, or Genetic Clinic, or Genetic Laboratory, contravenes any provision of the Act or rules made thereunder, will face the same penalty as above, and on any subsequent conviction, with imprisonment which may extend to five years and with fine which may extend to fifty thousand rupees. Any other person who seeks the help/assistance of qualified persons and registered places for the purpose of any procedure prohibited by the Act on any pregnant woman, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to fifty thousand rupees for the first offence and for any subsequent offence with imprisonment which may extend to five years and with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees. The above penalty does not apply to a pregnant woman who has been compelled to undergo such procedure or selection. To report an offence under the Act, and file a complaint therewith, one must approach the Appropriate Authority (a District Civil Surgeon/ CMO or Corporation Medical Officer of Health), via a written complaint. The appropriate authority (AA), acknowledges the receipt of the complaint. They are required to take action within 15 days of such complaint and file a complaint to the court of Metropolitan Magistrate or Chief Judicial Magistrate. This can also be done suo moto by the AA. In certain cases, it can also issue a show-cause notice to the entity against whom the complaint has been made, before filing the complaint in court. Before filing a complaint, the AA should call an Advisory Meeting, and pass a resolution for the filing of case and suspension of registration of centre. They need to ensure all documents are available- statements of accused, visit and inspection report, statement of decoy and witnesses, panchanama of seized material. If the AA takes no action within 15 days, the complainant can go to Court with the acknowledgement receipt. 11. 8 Tackling Sexual Harassment at Workplace Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition And Redressal) Act, 2013 makes it illegal to sexually harass women in the workplace. It talks about the different ways in which someone can be sexually harassed and how they can complain against this kind of behaviour. The Act defines sexual harassment at the work place and creates a mechanism for redressal of complaints. It also provides safeguards against false or malicious charges. The Act also covers concepts of 'quid pro quo harassment' and ‘hostile work environment’ as forms of sexual harassment if it occurs in connection with an act or behaviour of sexual harassment. The definition of "aggrieved woman", who will get protection under the Act is extremely wide to cover all women, irrespective of her age or employment status, whether in the organised or unorganised sectors, public or private and covers clients, customers and domestic workers as well.\ Workplace in the Vishaka Guidelines is confined to the traditional office set-up where there is a clear employer-employee relationship. However, this Act goes much further to include organisations, department, office, branch unit etc. in the public and private sector, organized and unorganized, hospitals, nursing homes, educational institutions, sports institutes, stadiums, sports complex and any place visited by the employee during the course of employment including the transportation. Even non-traditional workplaces which involve tele-commuting will get covered under this law. For this purpose, sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined behaviour (whether directly or by implication) as: a) Physical contact and advances; b) A demand or request for sexual favours; c) Sexually coloured remarks; d) Showing pornography; e) Any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature. According to this act, every employer is required to constitute an Internal Complaints Committee at each office or branch with 10 or more employees. The District Officer is required to constitute a Local Complaints Committee at each district, and if required at the block level. The Committee is required to complete the inquiry within a time period of 90 days. On completion of the inquiry, the report will be sent to the employer or the District Officer, as the case may be, they are mandated to take action on the report within 60 days. The Complaints Committees have the powers of civil courts for gathering evidence. The Complaints Committees are required to provide for conciliation before initiating an inquiry, if requested by the complainant. The inquiry process under the Act should be confidential and the Act lays down a penalty of Rs 5000 on the person who has breached confidentiality. After inquiry, where such conduct amounts to misconduct in employment as defined by the relevant service rules, appropriate disciplinary action should be initiated by the employer in accordance with those rules. The Act requires employers to conduct education and sensitisation programmes and develop policies against sexual harassment, among other obligations. Penalties have been prescribed for employers. Non-compliance with the provisions of the Act shall be punishable with a fine of up to ₹ 50,000. There are other legal provisions including filing a criminal case under sections of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act and/or filing a civil suit. The sections of the Indian Penal Code that can be applicable to sexual harassment (which makes it a criminal case) are as follows: - Section 234: This clarifies the concept of person causing annoyance as, (a) anybody doing obscene act in any public place, or (b) sings, recites and utters any obscene songs, ballads or words, in or near any public space, etc. A person found guilty of this offense is punished with imprisonment of either description for a term that may extend to three months, or with fine, or with both. This provision is cognisable, bailable and triable by any magistrate. - Section 354: Whoever assaults or uses criminal force on any woman, intending to outrage her modesty or knowing it likely that he will thereby outrage her modesty, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine, or with both. - Section 509: Whoever, intending to insult the modesty of a woman, utters any word, makes any sound or gesture, or exhibits any object, intending that such word or sound shall be heard, or that such gesture is seen by such woman, or intrudes upon the privacy of such woman, shall be punished with simple imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year, or with fine, or with both. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (1987): If an individual harasses another with books, photographs, paintings, films, pamphlets, packages, etc. containing the “indecent representation of women”, they are liable for a minimum sentence of 2 years. Section 7 (Offenses by Companies) further holds companies where there has been “indecent representation of women” (such as the display of pornography) on the premises, guilty of offenses under this act, with a minimum sentence of 2 years. A civil suit can be filed for damages under tort laws. That is, the basis for filing the case would be mental anguish, physical harassment, loss of income and employment caused by the sexual harassment. 11. 9 Law Protecting Older Parents Provisions are mentioned in the Constitution of India for senior citizens of India. Directive principles of state policy talk about these provisions. Article 41 and article 46 are the constitutional provisions for them. Although directive principles are not enforceable under the law, but it creates a positive obligation towards the state while making any law. Section 20 of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, makes it an obligatory provision to maintain an aged parent. Muslim law makes it obligatory for a man to provide maintenance for his father, mother, grandfather and grandmother. There is no personal law for Christian and Parsi for providing maintenance to the aged parents. If the parents want to seek maintenance from their children, they can apply through the Criminal Procedure Code to seek maintenance. Under Section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code, the elder parents can claim maintenance from their children. A senior citizen including parent who is unable to maintain him/ herself from own earning or out of the property owned by him, is entitled to get relief under Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007. The Act states that, if the person claiming the maintenance is a parent or grandparent, then he can do so against one or more of his children not being a minor. However if the claimant is a childless senior citizen, then he can do so against his relative. Here ‘relative’ would mean any legal heir of the childless senior citizen who is not a minor and is in possession of or would inherit his property after his death An application for claiming maintenance can be made before Tribunal. The Tribunal then will issue the notice to the child or relative or other concerned parties. The Tribunal is also empowered to make such interim orders regarding monthly allowances for maintaining the parent or senior citizen, and can ask the child or relative to pay the maintenance amount during the pendency of the original application, as it thinks fit. Also such order has to be made by Tribunal within 90 days from the date of service of the notice. However in exceptional circumstances, the Tribunal may extend such time for a further period of 30 days. The Tribunal may pass an order directing children or relatives to make a monthly allowance at such monthly rate for the maintenance of such senior citizen or parent, as it thinks fit, to such parent or senior citizen. However, before passing such order the Tribunal has to take care of these points: - that the children or relatives, as the case may be, have neglected or refused to maintain that parent or the senior citizen concerned. - that the parent or senior citizen, as the case may be, is unable to maintain himself; and - that the Tribunal is satisfied with such neglect or refusal by the children or relatives. The maximum maintenance allowance which may be ordered by such Tribunal should be prescribed by the State Government, but the amount in no case can exceed ten thousand rupees per month. The Tribunal has further been given the power to review its order under Section 10 of the Act. It states that where it is proved that there was any misrepresentation or mistake of fact or a change in the circumstances of any person has to take place, who has been receiving a monthly allowance, then in those situations, the Tribunal is empowered to make such alteration, as it thinks fit, in the allowance for the maintenance. The Tribunal is also empowered to vary or cancel the earlier orders regarding monthly allowances, if the Tribunal considers it fit to do so, in consequences of any decision passed by any competent Civil Courts. In the situations where a senior citizen after the commencement of this Act, has transferred his property( movable or immovable), by way of gift or any such transfer, but the condition that the transferee shall provide him basic amenities and physical needs, is attached with the transfer, and thereafter such transferee refuses or fails to fulfill such condition, such transfer of property shall be deemed to have been made by fraud, coercion or undue influence and the Tribunal can declare such transfer as void. Before this Act came into existence, the only remedy available to senior citizens in such a cases was to approach the court to ask for the maintenance from the children to whom he had transferred the property but then also such property would be the exclusive property of the transferee and the senior citizen had no right on such property. But by applying the provisions of this Act, a senior citizen can reclaim his property from the transferee. Laws for Protection of Children 12.1 Introduction Child protection is the protection of children from violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect. Article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child provides for the protection of children in and out of the home. Child protection systems are a set of usually government-run services designed to protect children and young people who are underage and to encourage family stability. UNICEF defines ‘child protection system’ as set of laws, policies, regulations and services needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, health, security and justice – to support prevention and response to protection-related risks. In India, the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) is entrusted with the mandate of protection of child rights. It was set up in March 2007 under the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights (CPCR) Act, 2005, an Act of Parliament (December 2005). NCPCR is a statutory body under the CPCR Act,2005 under the administrative control of the Ministry of Women & Child Development ,Government of India. The Commission's Mandate is to ensure that all Laws, Policies, Programmes, and Administrative Mechanisms are in consonance with the Child Rights perspective as enshrined in the Constitution of India and also the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Child is defined as a person in the 0 to 18 years age group. The Commission visualizes a rights-based perspective flowing into National Policies and Programmes, along with nuanced responses at the State, District and Block levels, taking care of specificities and strengths of each region. In order to touch every child, it seeks a deeper penetration to communities and households and expects that the ground experiences gathered at the field are taken into consideration by all the authorities at the higher level. Thus the Commission sees an indispensable role for the State, sound institution-building processes, respect for decentralization at the local bodies and community level and larger societal concern for children and their well-being. Some of the prominents laws regarding child protection includes Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act 2012, Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016, etc. 12.2 Defining Vulnerable Children According to Childline (http://childlineindia.org.in), all children due to their age are considered to be at risk for exploitation, abuse, violence and neglect. Hence along with age, vulnerability is also measured by the child's capability for self-protection. The concept of self-protection is more about the ability of the child to lead a healthy life within a child protection system; the ability to protect themselves or get help from people who can provide protection. There are two categories of vulnerable children, namely - children in need of care and protection and children in conflict with law. Children in need of care and protection is defined as a child who comes under the following classification: - Doesn't have a home or shelter and no means to obtain such an abode - Resides with a person(s) who has threatened to harm them and is likely to carry out that threat, harmed other children and hence is likely to kill, abuse or neglect the child. - Is mentally or physically handicapped, or has an illness, terminal or incurable disease and has no one to provide and care for him/her. - Has a parent or guardian deemed unfit or unable to take care of the child. - Is an orphan, has no family to take care of him/her, or is a runaway or missing child whose parents cannot be located after a reasonable search period. - Is being or is likely to be sexual, mentally, emotionally or physically abused, tortured or exploited. - Is being trafficked or abusing drug substances. - Is being abused for unthinkable gains or illegal activities. - Is a victim of arm conflict, civil unrest or a natural disaster Children in conflict with law are juveniles who have allegedly committed. It refers to any person below the age of 18 who has come in contact with the justice system as a result of committing a crime or being suspected of committing a crime. In this chapter, we will have discussion on major protection issues which children face today, namely child labour, child marriage, sexual abuse, etc. 12.3 Child Labour Child labour is an evil socio-economic practice which deprives children of their childhood, and is harmful to their physical and mental development. Poverty, lack of good schools and the growth of the informal economy are considered to be the key causes of child labour in India. Child labour in India is prominent due to cheap wages and accessibility to factories that can produce the maximum amount of goods for the lowest possible price. As per Census 2011, the total child population in India in the age group (5-14) years is 259.6 million. Of these, 10.1 million (3.9% of total child population) are working, either as ‘main worker’ or as ‘marginal worker’. In addition, more than 42.7 million children in India are out of school (http://www.ilo.org/newdelhi/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_557089/lang--en/index.htm). As per the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, amended in 2016, a child is defined as any person below the age of 14 and the CLPR Act prohibits employment of a Child in any employment including as a domestic help (except helping own family in non-hazardous occupations). It is a cognizable criminal offence to employ a Child for any work. Children between age of 14 and 18 are defined as "adolescent" and the law allows adolescent to be employed except in the listed hazardous occupation and processes which include mining, inflammable substance and explosives related work and any other hazardous process as per the Factories Act, 1948. If you have observed that a child labour is employed by someone in your locality, you can file a complaint with the police or the Magistrate. The offence is cognizable, meaning that a police officer can make an arrest or state an investigation without a warrant in case someone is employing a child or adolescent in a hazardous job in violation of the law. Any person who employs a child below 14 or a child between 14 and 18 in a hazardous occupation or process can be punished with jail time of between six months and two years and/or fine between Rs. 20,000 and Rs. 50,000. A person can be punished for all other violations (for example, with respect to maintenance of register, work hours, health and safety conditions) with jail time of up to one month and/ or a fine of up to Rs. 10,000. 12.4 Child Marriage The definition of child marriage was last updated by India with its Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006, which applies only (a) to Hindus, Christians, Jains, Buddhists and those who are non-Muslims of India, and (b) outside the state of Jammu and Kashmir. For Muslims of India, child marriage definition and regulations based on Sharia and Nikah has been claimed as a personal law subject. For all others, Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006 defines "child marriage" means a marriage, or a marriage about to be solemnized, to which either of the contracting parties is a child; and child for purposes of marriage is defined based on gender of the person - if a male, it is 21 years of age, and if a female, 18 years of age. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006, seeks to prevent child marriages by making certain actions punishable and by appointing certain authorities responsible for the prevention and prohibition of child marriages. These persons are responsible for ensuring that the law is implemented. It is also the responsibility of the community to make use of the law. More specifically, under the law solemnisation of child marriages is a cognisable and non-bailable offence. Child Marriage Prohibition Officers (CMPOs) are appointed in some states to prevent child marriages, ensure protection of the victims as well as prosecution of the offenders. The Courts have the power to issue injunction for prohibiting child marriages from taking place. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, under section 11 provides punishment for those who permit and promote child marriages. Hence, it is necessary that every individual who is aware of any child marriage that is going to be conducted or is being conducted or has been conducted, to make sure that he/she does not permit or promote the child marriage by not reporting about it. He/she can be made liable under the present law and also the Indian Penal Code for abetting the offence. Any person can report an incidence of child marriage before or after it has been solemnised. An immediate report needs to be made to: Police, or Child Marriage Prohibition Officer or such persons as may be appointed to assist him/her. A First Class Judicial Magistrate is empowered to take suo moto cognisance of any reliable report of information of child marriage. In case of mass marriages the District Magistrate is also deemed to have the powers of a Child Marriage Prohibition Officer and therefore has the powers to stop or prevent solemnisation of child marriages. Child marriage is an offence punishable with rigorous imprisonment, which may extend to 2 years, or with fine up to Rs.1 Lakh, or both. Courts can issue injunctions prohibiting solemnisation of child marriages (Section 13, PCMA 2006). The CMPO is empowered to provide support and all possible aid including medical and legal aid to children affected by child marriages (Section 16 (3) (g), PCMA 2006). The adult husband must pay maintenance to the minor girl until her re-marriage. In case the husband is a minor at the time of marriage, his guardian will pay maintenance (Section 4 (1), PCMA 2006). Children born from a child marriage are entitled to custody and maintenance because the law considers such children legitimate for all purposes even after the marriage has been annulled (Sections 5 and 6, PCMA 2006). A District Court is empowered to add to, modify or revoke any order relating to maintenance and custody of children born from a child marriage (Section 7, PCMA 2006). 12.5 Child Sexual Abuse Sexual abuse is one form of child abuse. It includes a wide range of actions between a child and an adult or older child. Often these involve body contact, but not always. Exposing one's genitals to children or pressuring them for sex is sexual abuse. Using a child for pornography is also sexual abuse. Most sexual abusers know the child they abuse. They may be family friends, neighbors or babysitters. About one-third of abusers are related to the child. Most abusers are men. If you think a child may have been abused, it's important to report it. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act (POCSO Act) 2012 was formulated in order to effectively address sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children. The act defines a child as any person below eighteen years of age. It defines different forms of sexual abuse, including penetrative and non-penetrative assault, as well as sexual harassment and pornography. It deems a sexual assault to be “aggravated” under certain circumstances, such as when the abused child is mentally ill or when the abuse is committed by a person in a position of trust or authority like a family member, police officer, teacher, or doctor. The Act also casts the police in the role of child protectors during the investigative process. Thus, the police personnel receiving a report of sexual abuse of a child are given the responsibility of making urgent arrangements for the care and protection of the child. The Act further makes provisions for avoiding the re-victimisation of the child at the hands of the judicial system. It provides for special courts that conduct the trial in-camera and without revealing the identity of the child, in a manner that is as child-friendly as possible. Hence, the child may have a parent or other trusted person present at the time of testifying and can call for assistance from an interpreter, special educator, or other professional while giving evidence. Above all, the Act stipulates that a case of child sexual abuse must be disposed of within one year from the date the offence is reported. The Act also provides for mandatory reporting of sexual offences. This casts a legal duty upon a person who has knowledge that a child has been sexually abused to report the offence; if he fails to do so, he may be punished with six months’ imprisonment and/ or a fine. 12. 6 Children in Conflict with Law ‘Juveniles’ or ‘Children in Conflict with Law’ is a term given to boys or girls who have allegedly committed crimes and are below eighteen years of age. Sec 2 (20) of the new Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 mandates the establishment of Children‘s Court. Sec 2 (26)of the said act also mandates the establishment of the District Child Protection Unit, which is the focal point to ensure the implementation of this Act and other child protection measures in the district. The JJ Act 2015 also mandates the State Government to constitute for every district, one or more Juvenile Justice Boards for exercising the powers and discharging its functions relating to children in conflict with law under this Act. The JJ Board shall consist of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of First Class not being Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or Chief Judicial Magistrate (hereinafter referred to as Principal Magistrate) with at least three years‘ experience and two social workers selected in such manner as may be prescribed, of whom at least one shall be a woman, forming a Bench and every such Bench shall have the powers conferred by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 on a Metropolitan Magistrate or, as the case may be, a Judicial Magistrate of First Class. Where an inquiry has been initiated in respect of any child under this Act, and during the course of such inquiry, the child completes the age of eighteen years, then, the inquiry may be continued by the Board and orders may be passed in respect of such person as if such person had continued to be a child. The board has to power to direct the Probation Officer, or in case a Probation Officer is not available to the Child Welfare Officer or a social worker, to undertake a social investigation into the case and submit a social investigation report within a period of fifteen days from the date of first production before the Board to ascertain the circumstances in which the alleged offence was committed. Section 10 (1) of the Act details the process of apprehension of child alleged to be in conflict with law. As soon as a child alleged to be in conflict with law is apprehended by the police, such child shall be placed under the charge of the special juvenile police unit or the designated child welfare police officer, who shall produce the child before the Board without any loss of time but within a period of twenty-four hours of apprehending the child, excluding the time necessary for the journey, from the place where such child was apprehended Section 12 of the Act talks about bail to a person who is apparently a child alleged to be in conflict with law. When such child is alleged to have committed a bailable or non-bailable offence, is apprehended or detained by the police or appears or brought before a Board, such person shall, notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 or in any other law for the time being in force, be released on bail with or without surety or placed under the supervision of a probation officer or under the care of any fit person, provided that such person shall not be so released if there appears reasonable grounds for believing that the release is likely to bring that person into association with any known criminal or expose the said person to moral, physical or psychological danger or the person‘s release would defeat the ends of justice, and the Board shall record the reasons for denying the bail and circumstances that led to such a decision. When such person having been apprehended is not released on bail under Section 12, sub- section (1) by the officer in-charge of the police station, such officer shall cause the person to be kept only in an observation home in such manner as may be prescribed until the person can be brought before a Board. When such person is not released on bail under sub-section (1) by the Board, it shall make an order sending him to an observation home or a place of safety, as the case may be, for such period during the pendency of the inquiry regarding the person, as may be specified in the order. When a child in conflict with law is unable to fulfil the conditions of bail order within seven days of the bail order, such child shall be produced before the Board for modification of the conditions of bail. In case of a heinous offence alleged to have been committed by a child, who has completed or is above the age of sixteen years, the Board shall conduct a preliminary assessment with regard to his mental and physical capacity to commit such offence, ability to understand the consequences of the offence and the circumstances in which he allegedly committed the offence, and may pass an order in accordance with the provisions of sub- section (3) of section 18. Board may take the assistance of experienced psychologists or psycho-social workers or other experts. Where the Board is satisfied on preliminary assessment that the matter should be disposed of by the Board, then the Board shall follow the procedure, as far as may be, for trial in summons case under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. Where a Board is satisfied on inquiry that a child irrespective of age has committed a petty offence, or a serious offence, the following dispositional orders can be passed: - Giving the child a firm warning, letting the child go home while simultaneously counselling the parents; - Ordering the child to attend group counselling sessions; - Ordering the child to perform supervised community service; - Ordering the parents or guardians to pay fine. - Releasing the child on probation. The parents or guardians will have to execute a bond (up to 3 years) which may include surety and be responsible for the child’s behaviour. The responsibility can also be handed over to a ‘fit person’ or ‘fit facility’ which is a recognized person or government organization or NGO which is prepared to accept the child’s responsibility. - Sending the child to a Special Home for up to three years. 12.7 Right to Education of Children Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE) is considered a watershed in the history of elementary education (roughly up to 8th standard) in India. The Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’. ‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.17. Some of the salient features of the act are as follows: - It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class. - It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments. - It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to pupil teacher ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours. - It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief. - It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications. - It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition. - It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centered learning. Children from ‘disadvantaged groups’ and ‘weaker sections’ can get free education in a private school. These terms are explained below. Every private school has to keep 25% of its seats in class 1 for children from ‘disadvantaged groups’ and ‘weaker sections’. The school has to give free education to these children till class 8. 12. 8 Obligation of Police Officers dealing with Child Issues A Police Officer dealing with Children in Need of Care and Protection should strictly follow the provisions of Juvenile Justice Act, and Rules. He / She should also be conversant with the provisions of Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 and Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, and rules framed under these acts. He / She should also make sincere effort to acquire knowledge of other acts/laws/notifications which recognize and protect rights of children. A Police Officer while dealing with Children in Need Children in Need of Care and of Care and Protection should always be in plain clothes. All basic amenities and food requirements of child should be taken care of by the police officer during the period child remains in his/her charge. A police officer should be fully aware of the Child Welfare Committee(s), its place and days of sittings as well as of the names, addresses and phone numbers of its individual members. A list of various governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) working with children in the area should be kept with the SHO and Duty Officer of the concerned police station. The SHO should also have a list of shelter homes/children homes/fit institutions/child helplines, recognized and certified under the JJ Act. Laws for Protection of Labourers 13. 1 Introduction Marginalization is the process of pushing a particular group or groups of people to the edge of society by not allowing them an active voice, identity, or place in it. Some individuals identify with multiple marginalized groups, and may experience further marginalization as a result of their intersecting identities. In India poor labourers, dalits and adivasis are the most marginalized sections of the populations. In this chapter we will be discussing about the laws for the protection of such social groups. 13. 2 Labourers Some of the key laws related to laborers includes the Minimum Wages Act 1948, Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, Workmen's Compensation Act 1923, Unorganised Workers Welfare and Social Security Act 2008, Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979, and legal assistance under the NALSA Scheme (Legal Services to the Workers in the Unorganised Sector) Scheme, 2010. Minimum Wages Act 1948 The Minimum Wages Act, 1948 (the Minimum Wages Act) provides for fixing of minimum rates of wages in certain employments. The minimum wages are prescribed by States through notifications in the State's Gazette under the Minimum Wages Rules of the specific State. In terms of the provisions of the Minimum Wages Act, an employee means (i) any person who is employed for hire or reward to do any work, skilled or unskilled manual or clerical, in a scheduled employment in respect of which minimum rates of wages have been fixed; (ii) an outworker, to whom any articles or materials are given out by another person to be made up, cleaned, washed, altered, ornamented, finished, repaired, adapted or otherwise processed for sale for the purposes of the trade or business of that other person; and (iii) an employee declared to be an employee by the appropriate Government. The term "wages" has been defined to mean all remuneration capable of being expressed in terms of money which would, if the terms of the contract of employment express or implied were fulfilled, be payable to a person employed in respect of his employment or work done in such an employment and includes house rent allowance but does not include: The value of: - Any house accommodation or supply of light, water and medical attendance; or - Any other amenity or any service excluded by general or special order of the appropriate Government; - Any contribution paid by the employer to any personal fund or provident fund or under any scheme of social insurance; - Any travelling allowance or the value of any travelling concession; - Any sum paid to the person employed to defray special expenses entailed on him by the nature of his employment; or - Any gratuity payable on discharge. Further, the Minimum Wages Act requires the employer to pay to every employee engaged in schedule employment wages at a rate not less than minimum rates of wages as fixed by a notification without any deduction (other than prescribed deductions, if any). Automobile engineering units, brick kiln industry, cement working establishments, confectionery and daily products units, food preservation units, construction companies, dal and flour mills, ice factories and cold storage, laundry, cleaning and dyeing plants, oil mills, pottery industries, printing press, stone breaking/stone crushing industry, textile sector, saw mills, private-unrecognised teaching institutions, hospitals & nursing home not carried on by government or local authorities, etc are covered under scheduled employments. Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 The Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 (the "ID Act") has been enacted for the investigation and settlement of industrial disputes in any industrial establishment. The Industrial Disputes Act defines "Industrial dispute" as a dispute or difference between workmen and employers or between workmen and workmen, which is connected with employment or non-employment or the terms of employment or with the conditions of labour. Dismissal of an individual workman is deemed to be an industrial dispute. The ID Act provides for the constitution of the Works Committee, consisting of employers and workmen, to promote measures for securing and preserving amity and good relations between the employer and the workmen and, to that end, endeavours to resolve any material difference of opinion in respect of such matters. The ID Act provides for the appointment of Conciliation Officers, Board of Conciliation, Courts of Inquiry, Labour Courts, Tribunals, and National Tribunals for settlement of disputes. Another method recognised for settlement of disputes is through arbitration. The Industrial disputes Act provides a legalistic way of settling disputes. The goal of preventive machinery as provided under the Act is to create an environment where the disputes do not arise at all. The ID Act prohibits unfair labour practices which are defined in the Fifth Schedule—strikes and lockouts (except under certain defined conditions and with proper notice). It also provides for penalties for illegal strikes and lockouts and unfair labour practices and provisions regarding lay off and retrenchment as well as compensation payable thereof. The ID Act provides that an employer who intends to close down an industrial establishment shall obtain prior permission at least ninety days before the date on which he intends to close down the industrial establishment, giving the reasons thereof. Payment of Bonus Act, 1965 The Payment of Bonus Act, 1965 (the "Bonus Act") provides for the payment of bonus to persons employed in certain establishments in India either on the basis of profits or on the basis of production or productivity and is applicable to every establishment in which 20 or more persons are employed and to all employees drawing a remuneration of less than Rs 10,000. Those employees who have worked for less than thirty days are not eligible to receive bonus under the Bonus Act. The Bonus Act provides for the payment of bonus between 8.33% (minimum) to 20% (maximum). However, for the calculation of bonus, a maximum salary of Rs 3,500 is considered. Employees Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 The Employees Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 (the "EPF Act") provides for the institution of provident funds, pension funds, and deposit-linked insurance funds for employees and applies to all establishments employing 20 or more persons or class of persons. An establishment to which the EPF Act applies shall continue to be governed by this Act, notwithstanding that the number of persons employed therein at any time falls below 20. On account of 2014 Amendment to the said Act, The definition of "excluded employee" has been amended whereby the members drawing wages exceeding Rs 15,000 per month have been excluded from the provisions of the PF Scheme. Accordingly, the wage ceiling for an employee to be eligible for the PF Scheme has been increased from Rs 6,500 per month to Rs 15,000 per month. It further provides that every employee employed in or in connection with the work of a factory or other establishment is required to become a member of the Provident Fund. The 2014 Amendment further lays down the following changes: - New members (joining on or after 1 September 2014) drawing wages above Rs 15,000 per month shall not be eligible to voluntarily contribute to the Pension Scheme. - The pensionable salary shall be calculated on the average monthly pay for the contribution period of the last 60 months (earlier 12 months) preceding the date of exit from the membership. - The monthly pension for any existing or future member shall not be less than Rs 1,000 for the financial year 2014-2015. - The contribution payable under the Insurance Scheme shall also be calculated on a monthly pay of Rs 15,000, instead of Rs 6,500. - In the event of death of a member (on or after 1 September 2014), the assurance benefits available under the Insurance Scheme has been increased by twenty percent (20%) in addition to the already admissible benefits. - Contributions to the Provident Fund are to be made at the rate of 12% of the wages by the employers with the employee contributing an equal amount. The employee may voluntarily contribute a higher amount but the employer is not obliged to contribute more than the prescribed amount. Further, the EPF Act contains provisions for transfer of accumulations in case of change of employment. Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 The Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 (the ESI Act) is a social welfare legislation enacted with the objective of providing certain benefits to employees in case of sickness, maternity and employment injury. In terms of the provisions of the ESI Act, the eligible employees will receive medical relief, cash benefits, maternity benefits, pension to dependants of deceased workers and compensation for fatal or other injuries and diseases. It is applicable to establishments where 10 or more persons are employed. All employees, including casual, temporary or contract employees drawing wages less than Rs 15,000 per month, are covered under the ESI Act. This limit has been increased from Rs 10,000 to Rs 15,000 w.e.f. May 1, 2010. The Government enacted as the Employees' State Insurance (Amendment) Act, 2010 (No.18 of 2010). All the provisions of the ESI (Amendment) Act 2010 (except s 18) have come into effect from June 1, 2010. The salient features of the ESI (Amendment) Act are as under: - facilitating coverage of smaller factories; - enhancing age limit of dependent children for eligibility to dependants benefit; - extending medical benefit to dependant minor brother/sister in case of insured persons not having own family and whose parents are also not alive; - streamlining the procedure for assessment of dues from defaulting employers; - providing an Appellate Authority within the ESI Corporation against assessment to avoid unnecessary litigation; - continuing medical benefit to insured persons retiring under VRS scheme or taking premature retirement; - treating commuting accidents as employment injury; - streamlining the procedure for grant of exemptions; - third party participation in commissioning and running of the hospitals; - opening of medical/ dental/ paramedical/ nursing colleges to improve quality of medical care; - making an enabling provision for extending medical care to other beneficiaries against payment of user charges to facilitate providing of medical care from under utilised ESI Hospitals to the BPL families covered under the Rashtriya Swasthaya Bima Yojana introduced by the Ministry of Labour & Employment w.e.f. 1.4.2008; - reducing duration of notice period for extension of the Act to new classes of establishments from six months to one month; - empowering State Governments to set up autonomous Corporations for administering medical benefit in the States for bringing autonomy and efficiency in the working. The employer should get his factory or establishment registered with the Employees' State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) within 15 days after the Act becomes applicable to it, and obtain the employer's code number. The employer is required to contribute at the rate of 4.75% of the wages paid/ payable in respect of every wage period. The employees are also required to contribute at the rate of 1.75% of their wages. It is the responsibility of the employer to deposit such contributions (employer's and employees') in respect of all employees (including the contract labour) into the ESI account. Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 (the Gratuity Act) applies to (i) every factory, mine, oilfield, plantation, port and railway company; (ii) every shop or establishment within the meaning of any law, for the time being in force, in relation to shops and establishments in a State, in which 10 or more persons are employed or were employed on any day of the preceding twelve months; and (iii) such other establishments or classes of establishments, in which 10 or more persons are employed or were employed on any day of the preceding twelve months, as the Central Government may, by notification, specify in this behalf. The Gratuity Act provides for a scheme for the payment of gratuity to employees engaged in factories, mines, oilfields, plantations, ports, railway companies, shops or other establishments. The Gratuity Act enforces the payment of "gratuity", a reward for long service, as a statutory retiral benefit. Every employee, who has completed continuous service of five years or more, irrespective of his wages, is entitled to receive gratuity upon termination of his employment, on account of (i) superannuation; or (ii) retirement; or (iii) death or disablement due to accident or disease. However, the completion of continuous service of five years shall not be necessary where the termination of employment of any employee is due to death or disablement. The gratuity is payable even to an employee who resigns after completing at least five years of service. The gratuity is payable at the rate of fifteen days wages for every year of completed service, subject to an aggregate amount of Rupees ten lacs only. Factories Act, 1948 The Factories Act, 1948 (the Factories Act) lays down provisions for the health, safety, welfare and service conditions of workmen working in factories. It contains provisions for working hours of adults, employment of young persons, leaves, overtime, etc. It applies to all factories employing more than 10 people and working with the aid of power, or employing 20 people and working without the aid of power. It covers all workers employed in the factory premises or precincts directly or through an agency including a contractor, involved in any manufacture. Some provisions of the Act may vary according to the nature of work of the establishment. Some Major provisions of the Factories Act are explained below: - Section 11 of the Act provides that every factory shall be kept clean and free from effluvia arising from any drain, privy or other nuisance. Section 13 of the Act focuses on ventilation and temperature maintenance at workplace. Every factory should work on proper arrangements for adequate ventilation and circulation of fresh air. - Section 18 of the Act specifies regarding arrangements for sufficient and pure drinking water for the workers. - Section 19 further mentions that in every factory there should be sufficient accommodation for urinals which should be provided at conveniently situated place. It should be kept clean and maintained. - Section 21 of the Act provides from proper fencing of machinery. And that any moving part of the machinery or machinery that is dangerous in kind should be properly fenced - Section 45 of the said Act specifies that every factory should have a properly maintained and well equipped first aid box or cupboard with the prescribed contents. For every 150 workers employed at one time, there shall not be less than 1 first aid box in the factory. Also in case where there are more than 500 workers there should be well maintained ambulance room of prescribed size and containing proper facility. Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946 The Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946 (the IESO Act) is applicable to every industrial establishment wherein 100 or more workmen are employed or were employed on any day of the preceding twelve months. The IESO Act Amis to bring uniform terms and conditions of service in various industrial establishments. The IESO Act requires every employer in an industrial establishment to clearly define and publish standing orders with respect to conditions of employment / service rules and to make them known to the workmen employed by it. The Act further specifies that every employer is required to submit to the Certifying Officer five draft copies of the standing orders which he intends to adopt for his establishment. Further, the IESO Act requires display of standing orders in a prominent place for the knowledge of workers. Shops and Commercial Establishments Act (of respective States) The Shops and Commercial Establishments Act(s) of the respective States generally contain provisions relating to registration of an establishment, working hours, overtime, leave, privilege leave, notice pay, working conditions for women employees, etc. The provisions of the Shops and Commercial Establishments Act apply to both white collar and blue-collar employees. IT and IT-enabled services have been given relaxations by various State Governments in respect of the observance of certain provisions of their respective Shops and Commercial Establishments Act. The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923 The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923 (the EC Act) aims to provide financial protection to workmen and their dependents in case of any accidental injury arising out of or in course of employment and causing either death or disablement of the worker by means of compensation. This Act applies to factories, mines, docks, construction establishments, plantations, oilfields and other establishments listed in Schedules II and III of the said Act, but excludes establishments covered by the ESI Act. The Act provides for payment of compensation by the employer to the employees covered under this Act for injury caused by accident. Generally, companies take insurance policies to cover their liability under the EC Act. Inter-state Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment & Conditions of Service) Act, 1979 The Inter-state Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979 (the ISMW Act) is an Act to regulate the employment of inter-state migrant workmen and to provide for the conditions of service and for matters connected therewith. The ISMW Act applies to (i) any establishment in which five or more inter-state migrant workmen are employed or who were employed on any day of the preceding twelve months; and (ii) every contractor who employs or who employed five or more inter-state migrant workmen on any day of the preceding twelve months. For the purpose of the ISMW Act, an inter-state migrant workman means any person who is recruited by or through a contractor in one state under an agreement or other arrangement for employment in an establishment in another state, whether with or without the knowledge of the principal employer in relation to such an establishment. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Maternity Benefit Act) regulates the employment of women in certain establishments for a certain period before and after childbirth and provides for maternity benefits and certain other benefits including maternity leave, wages, bonus, nursing breaks, etc, to women employees. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 applies to (a) a factory, mine or plantation including any such establishment belonging to Government and to every establishment wherein persons are employed for the exhibition of equestrian, acrobatic and other performances; (b) every shops or establishments within the meaning of any law for the time being in force in relation to shops and establishments in a State, in which ten or more persons are employed, or were employed on any day of the preceding 12 months. Except for s 5A and 5B, the provisions of the Maternity Benefit Act shall not apply to the employees who are covered under the Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 for certain periods before and after child-birth and for which the ESI Act provides for maternity and other benefits. The coverage under the ESI Act is, however, at present restricted to factories and certain other specified categories of establishments located in specified areas. The Maternity Benefit Act is, therefore, still applicable to women employees employed in establishments which are not covered by the ESI Act, as also to women employees, employed in establishments covered by the ESI Act, but who are out of its coverage because of the wage-limit. Under the Maternity Benefit Act, an employer has to give paid leave to a woman worker for six weeks immediately following the day of her delivery or miscarriage and two weeks following a tubectomy operation. The maximum period for which a woman shall be entitled to maternity benefit shall be 12 weeks, of which not more than six weeks shall precede the date of her expected delivery. A pregnant woman is also entitled to request her employer not to give her work of arduous nature or which involves long hours of standing, etc, during the period of one month immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery or any period during the said period of six weeks for which the woman does not avail leave of absence. When a woman absents herself from work in accordance with the provisions of the Maternity Benefit Act, it shall be unlawful for her employer to discharge or dismiss her during or on account of such absence. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 ( Bonded Labour Abolition Act) is a prohibiting legislation which provides for the abolition of the bonded labour system with a view to prevent the economic and physical exploitation of the weaker sections of the society, and matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The term "bonded labour system" has been defined to mean the system of, forced or partly forced, labour under which a debtor enters or has, or is presumed to have, entered into an agreement with the creditor to the effect that: - In consideration of an advance obtained by him or by any of his lineal ascendants or descendants (whether or not such advance is evidenced by the document) and in consideration of the interest, if any, due on such advance; or - In pursuance of any customary or social obligation; or - In pursuance of any obligation devolving on him by succession; or - For any economic consideration received by him or by any of his lineal ascendants or descendants; or - By reason of his birth in any particular caste or community. The debtor would render, by himself or through any member of his family, or any person dependent on him, labour or service, to the creditor, or for the benefit of the creditor, for a specific period or for an unspecified period, either without wages or for nominal wages. Section 3 of the Bonded Labour Abolition Act provides that the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any enactment other than this Act or in any instrument having effect by virtue of any enactment other than this Act. Section 20 of the Bonded Labour Abolition Act provides that whoever abets any offence punishable under this Act shall, whether or not the offence abetted is committed, be punishable with the same punishment as is provided for the offence which has been abetted. For the purpose of this Act, "abetment" has the meaning assigned to it in the Indian Penal Code. Unorganized Workers Welfare and Social Security Act 2008 This act was enacted to provide for the social security and welfare of the unorganised workers (meaning home-based workers, self-employed workers or daily-wage workers). The act provides for constitution of National Social Security Board at the Central level which shall recommend formulation of social security schemes viz life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, old age protection and any other benefit as may be determined by the Government for unorganised workers. As a follow up to the implementation of the Act, the National Social Security Board was set up on 18 August 2009 Schemes for Poverty Reduction and Social Development 14. 1 Poverty Alleviation The poverty alleviation programmes in India can be categorized based on whether it is targeted for rural areas or urban areas. Most of the programmes are designed to target rural poverty as prevalence of poverty is high in rural areas. Old Age Pension Scheme The Old Age Pension Scheme came into effect on 15 August 1995. The scheme provides pension to old people who were above the age of 65 (now 60) who could not find for themselves and did not have any means of subsistence. The pension that was given was Rs 200 a month. This pension is given by the central government.. The states contribution may vary depending on the state. The amount of old age pension is Rs. 200 per month for applicants aged 60–79. For applicants aged above 80 years, the amount has been revised to Rs. 500 a month according to the 2011–2012 Budget National Family Benefit Scheme The National Family Benefit Scheme is sponsored by the state government. This scheme provides a sum of Rs 20000 to a person of a family who becomes the head of the family after the death of its primary breadwinner. The breadwinner is defined as a person who is above 18 who earns the most for the family and on whose earnings the family survives. National Maternity Benefit Scheme National Maternity Benefit Scheme provides a sum of 6000 Rs to a pregnant mother in three installments. The women have to be older than 19 years of age. It is given normally 12–8 weeks before the birth and in case of the death of the child the women can still avail it. The NMBS is implemented by states and union territories with the help of panchayats and municipalities. During 1999–2000 the total allocation of funds for this scheme was 767.05 crores and the amount used was Rs 4444.13 crore. It is for families below the poverty line. The scheme was updated in 2005-06 into Janani Suraksha Yojana with Rs 1400 for every institutional birth. Annapurna Scheme Annapurna scheme was started by the government in 1999–2000 to provide food to senior citizens who cannot take care of themselves and are not under the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), and who have no one to take care of them in their village. This scheme would provide 10 kg of free food grains a month for the eligible senior citizens. This schemes mostly targets 'poorest of the poor' and 'indigent senior citizens'. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) IRDP in India is among the world's most ambitious programs to alleviate rural poverty by providing income-generated assets to the poorest of the poor. The main objective of IRDP is to raise families of identified target group below poverty line by creation of sustainable opportunities for self-employment in the rural sector. Assistance is given in the form of subsidy by the government and term credit advanced by financial institutions (commercial banks, cooperatives and regional rural banks.) The program is implemented in all blocks of the country as centrally sponsored scheme funded on 50:50 basis by the center and the states. The target group under IRDP consists of small and marginal farmers, agricultural laborers and rural artisans having annual income below Rs. 11,000 defined as poverty line. In order to ensure that benefits under the program reach the more vulnerable sectors of the society, it is stipulated that at least 50 per cent of assisted families should be from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Furthermore, 40 per cent of the coverage should be of women beneficiaries and 3 per cent of physically challenged persons. At the grassroots level, the block staff is responsible for implementation of the program. The State Level Coordination Committee (SLCC) monitors the program at state level whereas the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment is responsible for the release of central share of funds, policy formation, overall guidance, monitoring and evaluation of the program Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) This scheme guarantees 100 days now 150 days of paid work to people in the rural areas. The scheme has proved to be a major boost in Indian rural population's income. The objective of the scheme is to augment wage employment opportunities by providing employment on demand and by specific guaranteed wage employment every year to households whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work to thereby extend a security net to the people and simultaneously create durable assets to alleviate some aspects of poverty and address the issue of development in the rural areas. Ministry of Rural Development is the nodal Ministry for the implementation of MGNREGA. It is responsible for ensuring timely and adequate resource support to the States and to the Central Council. It has to undertake regular review, monitoring and evaluation of processes and outcomes. It is responsible for maintaining and operating the MIS to capture and track data on critical aspects of implementation, and assess the utilization of resources through a set of performance indicators. Atal Pension Yojana Atal Pension Yojana is the pension scheme of government. For every contribution made to the pension fund, Central Government would also co-contribute 50% of the total contribution or ₹1,000 per annum, whichever is lower, to each eligible subscriber account, for a period of 5 years. The minimum age of joining APY is 18 years and maximum age is 40 years. The age of exit and start of pension would be 60 years. Therefore, minimum period of contribution by the subscriber under APY would be 20 years or more. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) ICDS is a government programme in India for children under 6 years of age and their mothers. The following services are sponsored under ICDS to help achieve its objectives: - Immunization - Supplementary nutrition - Health checkup - Referral services - Pre-school education - Nutrition and Health information For nutritional purposes ICDS provides 500 kilocalories (with 12-15 grams of protein) every day to every child below 6 years of age. For adolescent girls it is up to 500 kilo calories with up to 25 grams of protein every day. The services of immunization, health check-up and referral services are delivered through public health infrastructure. 14.2 Obtaining Documents for Social Development Caste Certificate Person who requires Caste Certificate has to fill up the application in the prescribed form available at the Collectors office. Submit the application form along with the required documents. - Court fee stamp of Rs.5/- is to be affixed on the application. - School leaving certificate/ extract of birth certificate/ copy of the first page of the service book, if the applicant is a Govt. or semi-Govt. servant. - Attested copies of the first page and last page of the Ration Card/ extract of the electoral roll/ rent receipt. In the case of a married woman: - The married women has to produce school leaving certificate/ extract of her birth certificate/ a copy of the first page of the service book, if the applicant is a Government or semi-Government servant, to prove her caste before marriage. - Attested copy of the marriage certificate or marriage invitation card. - Attested copy of the extract of the Govt. Gazette wherein her change of name after marriage is published. An applicant who has migrated from other States/ Districts has to produce the caste certificate issued to his/her father/ grandfather by the competent authority of that State/District. Disability Certificate Disability certificate is necessary to avail benefits related to education, employment or various Government scheme applicable for disable persons. Government is updating its functionality and accuracy in every field; on these lines Government expects that the benefits and rights available for disables should be provisioned to real disables. For this purpose Government has launched ‘(Software for Assessment of Disability, Maharashtra’) SADM certification system and is expected that malpractices will be eliminated by the use of this system. Conditions that should be satisfied by an individual for a certificate: - Must be an Indian citizen - Should possess appropriate medical reports with a detailed explanation of their disability - The minimum degree of disability should be 40%. In Mumbai, disability certificates can be obtained at:JJ Hospital, Byculla, for physical and mental disabilities, on Wednesdays (http://www.grantmedicalcollegejjhospital.org/) The All India Institute for Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (AIIPMR), Haji Ali, for locomotor or multiple handicaps, on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays (http://www.aiipmr.gov.in/Disability_Certificates.aspx) Birth Certificate The birth certificate can be applied by visiting nearest office of Municipal Corporation, which is also the birth certificate issuing authority in Maharashtra. You need to first register the name of child by filling the form that can get from the office by paying Rs 5/-. The cost can range from time to time. After getting registered, the birth certificate application form can be taken from hospital or from Municipal Corporation office, candidate has to provide all the details regarding name, place where child was born, mother and father name, hospitals name where child was born and residence address. The birth certificate will have a stamp of Municipal officer if applied from such authority or doctor name and hospital stamp if applied through hospital. You need to wait for few days which will informed by the officer to collect the certificate. Birth Certificate in Mumbai can be applied online by logging into the official website of mcgm.gov.in where you can check whether the name of the ward is registered or not. If the information is correct, then the applicant can fill the application form online. If you are a first time user then register yourself first by entering the following details such as: name, e-mail address and phone number. Then select the state, district, sub-division, taluka, Village/ Town etc. and click on the Registration Button. The Birth Certificate issuance must be reported within 21 days of the event Income Certificate To get income certificate, you can approach the concerned Tehsildar office in your area. Your application may be written in plain paper affixing with court fee of 25 paisa. Your form is accepted with - TC (transfer certificate) from the school or leaving certificate - Caste certificate copy with attested - Copy of ration card, electricity bill, water bill, passport for address - Form 16 of ITR for Govt employees - Slip for salary for private company employee - Nagrik Sevak certificate if you belong Ration Card An applicant who desires to obtain a ration card has to apply to the Rationing Office of his area in the prescribed form. The Mumbai-Thane Rationing area is controlled by the Controller of the Rationing Office. At the district & Tehsil levels, the District Supply Officer and the Tehsildar respectively are the authorities for the processing of applications. An application in the prescribed format is to be submitted along with a copy of residential proof such as house rent receipt, bank passbook, electricity/telephone bill, driving licence, identity card, allotment letter towards quarters issued by the Govt. MHADA, CIDCO, and NOC from house owner or a copy of the agreement if the premises is rented. An affidavit that the applicant does not have a ration card, is also required. In case of transfer of a ration card, the applicant has to produce the certificate of cancellation of the previous ration card from the issuing authority. For the addition of a child's name in the existing ration card, a copy of the birth certificate of the child whose name is being added is required. Similarly, to add spouse's name, the certificate of deletion of the name of the spouse from the previous ration card is required Aadhar Card An Aadhaar card is a 12-digit unique number issued by the Government of India. Modelled on similar offerings across other countries, the Aadhaar card is issued to resident Indians. The aim behind the creation of the Aadhaar card is to enable better regulation and distribution of public welfare scheme services. Applying for an Aadhaar card is a simple and seamless process as the government has streamlined the entire procedure. The very first step in applying for an Aadhar card, assuming that you have all the document you’ll need, will be to book the appointment and then visiting the enrolment centre. You can book an appointment by visiting the official website of UIDAI. Submit the Aadhaar enrolment form along with the identity proof documents (proof of age, proof of address, proof of identity). The submitted documents will be verified against the information entered in the application form, after which the individual’s biometrics will be taken. The biometric process includes taking an iris scan and all ten fingerprints. This is not done for applicants below the age of 5 years. An acknowledgement slip will then be generated which will contain the applicant’s Aadhaar enrolment ID. The applicant will receive their Aadhaar card by post at the address mentioned on the application form. After the procedures at the enrolment centre, applicants will receive an enrolment ID which can be used to check the status of Aadhaar. To check the status, one can follow these steps: Step 1. Go to the official website UIDAI Step 2. Click ‘Check Aadhaar status’ and enter the enrolment number Step 3. The applicants have to submit a security code. Step 4. Click the ‘check status’ button. Step 5. The status of the applicant’s Aadhaar card will be shown on the screen. In case, the applicant has not received his/her Aadhaar card via mail which takes up to 90 days; the UIDAI provides online service to download and print the soft copy of Aadhaar card which is accepted everywhere. Voter ID-Card The Chief Electoral Officer in Maharashtra has introduced a process of online applications for registering for a voter’s identity card. The procedure to apply for one have also been simplified, making it convenient for individuals to apply no matter where they are. This system also helps save time since they do not have to visit the Electoral Office to collect the necessary forms. The online process for applying for a voter ID card in Maharashtra is a simple one, as described below: - Visit the Chief Electoral Officer of Maharashtra’s website (www.ceo.maharashtra.gov.in) at and select the “Online Voter Registration” option from the tab. - A page will open up with a list of forms and their descriptions. If you are registering as a new voter, click on Form 6. - Fill in the details requested in the form that will be displayed. - Upload the necessary documents (photograph, address proof, identity proof) along with the form and click “submit”. You could also fill in a portion of the form and save it to be completed later. - If you have filled in all the information as requested, you will receive an application number, which you can use to track the status of your application. - Once you have submitted the form, the details will be verified by a Booth Level Officer (BLO) who will visit your home. - On successful verification of the details submitted by you, you will be notified and your voter ID card will be sent to your address by post. The procedure for applying for a voter ID card offline is mentioned below: - Visit the nearest Electoral Office to your residence and request for Form 6, which is the form to register a new voter in the electoral rolls. - Enter all the details and submit the form along with the required supporting documents to the Electoral Office. - You could also submit the form at the nearest specially designated Voter Help Centres, the list of which is available on the website. - Once submitted, a Booth Level Officer will make a visit to your home to verify the details and documents submitted by you. - After successful verification, you will be notified once your application has been processed and will receive your voter ID card through the post at the address mentioned in the application form. Documents to be Submitted for Voter ID Card Application: - Recent passport sized photographs - Proof of age- for applicants between the ages of 18 and 21 years (school certificate/birth certificate/passport/Aadhaar card/PAN card/bank pass book/driving licence etc) - Proof of residence (passport/driving licence/Aadhaar card/ration card/recent utility bills/bank or post office passbook) Passport Applying for a passport entails booking an appointment at the Passport Seva Kendra (PSK) or passport center which is done by logging into the website viz. www.passportindia.gov.in, filling and submitting the application form and paying the passport fee online. Once you schedule, pay and book the passport appointment, you will have to print out the ARN receipt and visit the PSK to process your application. 14.3 Information as Power Information is data that is accurate and timely, specific and organized for a purpose, presented within a context that gives it meaning and relevance, and can lead to an increase in understanding and decrease in uncertainty. Information is valuable because it can affect behavior, a decision, or an outcome. For example, if a manager is told his/her company's net profit decreased in the past month, he/she may use this information as a reason to cut financial spending for the next month. A piece of information is considered valueless if, after receiving it, things remain unchanged.. (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information.html) During Lord Curzon’s times, the Indian Official Secrets Act (1904) was enacted mainly to restrict the freedom of the press. This act was replaced with Official Secrets Act, 1923 to govern all matters of secrecy and confidentiality in governance in India. The tendency of secrecy has been furthered by Civil Service Conduct Rules, 1964, which prohibit the communication of an official document to anyone without authorization. Further, Section 123 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 prohibits giving of evidence from unpublished official records without the permission of the Head of the Department, who has abundant discretion in the matter. A major contributor to the secrecy culture in India is the tendency to classify information even where such classification is clearly unwarranted. Right to Information Act, 2005 is an Act to provide for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens and replaces the erstwhile Freedom of information Act, 2002. Under the provisions of the Act, any citizen of India may request information from a "public authority" (a body of Government or "instrumentality of State") which is required to reply expeditiously or within thirty days. The Act also requires every public authority to computerise their records for wide dissemination and to proactively certain categories of information so that the citizens need minimum recourse to request for information formally. The Act specifies that citizens have a right to - request any information - take copies of document - inspect documents, works and records - take certified samples of materials of work - obtain information in form of printouts, diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes 'or in any other electronic mode' or through printouts. A Public Information Officer (PIO) is the person responsible in a department for receiving RTI applications, and sending responses, or rejecting applications if applicable. PIO is liable for penalty of Rs 250 per day in case of delay beyond 30 days, or even disciplinary action if information is delayed or denied on no just grounds. Constituents of an RTI application includes: - Name and address of applicant. - Name and address of PIO - Particulars of information required - Postal order, draft, cash etc How to go about solving a problem using RTI - State a personal or public problem area which you need to solve.\ - Find the department responsible for that area. - Find the address of PIO responsible for that area. - Draft an RTI application addressed to PIO. - Enclose a postal order (of Rs 10 in most cases) addressed to PIO and send letter by registered or speed post to the PIO. Postal order is most convenient since it can be purchased in bulk at a post office, and then one can file RTIs one by one. 6. Wait for 30 days for response. If response is not received within 30 days or rejected, you can file appeal Project Work 1. Students should visit nearby police station, court, prison, etc and understand the structure of work from the office in charge. 2. Students also visit law libraries, bar associations and para legegal social workers to understand the work of NGOs and law officers. 3. As a group of students, select a socio-legal issue, and then find important judgements and legal opinion from All India Reporter (AIR) Supreme court cases (SCC) etc. There can also refer Manupatra, or indiacode.nic.in to find all the acts of parliament. All these three assignments are part of the project work. About Content Writers Dr. Ronald Yesudhas is a social work educator. His research and consultation interests are in the field of nonprofit management, social intervention, and social work education. Dr. Laavanya Vinayagaswami is social work practitioner and researcher. Her expertise is in the field of child and adolescent mental health. Mr. Ravindra Vaidya is social work practitioner and Director of VARHAD, an NGO working in the CJS. He dedicated his life to work for crime prevention, reformation of the offender (both under trial & convicted) and re-integration of prisoners with the families and community.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:13.113065	04/21/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65487/overview", "title": "PARA LEGAL EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL WORKERS", "author": "RONALD YESUDHAS" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118163/overview	Digital Fundamentals: From Concept to Reality Overview This textbook represents a transformative force in educational pedagogy and publishing, significantly enhancing value for both students and faculty by redefining the creation, distribution, and utilization of educational materials. Advocating for an open, collaborative approach to textbook development, it aims to create a future where educational resources are more accessible, equitable, and responsive to the diverse needs of learners. The content is meticulously organized into 10 structured modules, including two intensive capstone projects, which align with dual-dimensional learning outcomes that meet and surpass specific programmatic ABET accreditation standards. By introducing a novel 3D pedagogical approach and adopting a quasi-Competency-Based Education (CBE) strategy, this textbook moves beyond traditional grading systems, employing digital credentials to assess student mastery. This innovative approach not only enhances learning outcomes but also sets a new standard in educational practices, promising to reshape the educational landscape. To My Lovely Daughters Alicia & Sarai Preface..............................................................................................................X Prologue: The Paradigm Shift This Text Offers 1 2D Learning Outcomes……………………..........……………2 3D Pedagogy………………………….……………………….3 A Quasi Competency-Based Education (q-CBE) Strategy..….4 A Road Map to 2D ABET Accreditation……………………..5 Artificial Intelligence…………………….………………..….6 Module 1. Basic Concepts Module 2. Understanding Binary Digits Module 3. Logic Gates Capstone Project: Designing and implementing a 2-bit Binary Adder Module 4. Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification Capstone Project: Radar Signal Processing Module 5. Combinational Logic Capstone Project: Integrated Radar and AI System Module 6. Key Roels of Combinational Logic: Adders/Multiplexers/Encoders/Decoders Project: 7-segment Display Module 7. Sequential Logic & Synchronous Sequential Logic Project: 555 Timer Capstone Projects Module 8. State Machines – Moore Machine Module 9. AI Traffic Control System Module 10. Microprocessor: Arithmetic Logic Unit Appendix A. Project Report Template Appendix B. SLOs Mapping Appendix C. Solutions to Odd Projects Appendix D. Syllabus Example Preface This text, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license and generously supported by the California Community College's Zero Textbook Cost (ZTC) acceleration grant, is designed to democratize education by making high-quality resources freely available for non-commercial use. As such, it can be freely distributed, remixed, tweaked, and expanded upon, provided the use is non-commercial, thus encouraging innovation and accessibility in educational materials. Serving as a pioneering work, this text heralds a new era in educational resource creation. Its prologue meticulously outlines the foundational framework, setting the stage for a comprehensive exploration of achieving ABET accreditation. This exploration is unique in its approach, as it skillfully weaves together two-dimensional (2D) learning outcomes with a three-dimensional (3D) pedagogy and Artificial Intelligence, all situated within the framework of a quasi Competency-Base Education (q-CBE) strategy. This innovative integration promises to enhance educational effectiveness and foster a deeper contextualization of digital fundamentals. The design of the text is intentionally diverse, accommodating a variety of learning environments. It supports traditional lecture-based courses as well as self-paced online and hybrid study options, making it an invaluable resource for a broad spectrum of learners. The inclusion of reading materials, projects, simulations, and project-based learning activities further enriches the learning experience. The content is thoughtfully organized into 10 modular units, each designed to progressively build upon the learner's understanding and mastery of digital fundamentals. This 10-module structure, culminating in three capstone projects, is deliberated design to move beyond a "one-size-fits-all" approach, offering faculty the flexibility to tailor the timeline for completing the capstone projects to the needs of different student groups. It also allows for the expansion of learning spaces, such as project scope, the inclusion of makeup sessions, or new topics, ensuring a customizable and adaptive learning experience. These modules encapsulate the essence of a 3D pedagogy, offering insights through analytical reasoning, simulations, and practical engineering applications. Central to the text's pedagogy is its emphasis on transitioning from theoretical concepts to their practical application as an essential part of active learning. This journey is exemplified in the capstone projects, which challenge students to apply their accumulated knowledge and skills in designing a microprocessor, an automated basic version of an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). This project not only serves as a culmination of the learning experience but also as a tangible demonstration of the students' proficiency and creativity in digital design. Tailored specifically for introductory courses in digital design, this text is an ideal resource for community college and high school students alike. It assumes no more than a basic understanding of algebra, making it accessible to a wide audience. Each topic is introduced with clear, foundational explanations, ensuring that learners can progress from simple to complex concepts at a comfortable pace. The genesis of this text is rooted in over a decade of dedicated teaching in digital design courses. Its content is a distillation of the author's extensive notes, slides, countless hours of preparation and teaching, and student’s feedback reflecting a deep commitment to education. The development of this text was a collaborative effort, benefiting from the contributions of numerous individuals. Special gratitude is extended to the author's mentors from both academic and industry backgrounds, whose sage advice, profound knowledge, and unwavering support have been instrumental in shaping this educational endeavor. This text stands not just as a significant milestone in the realm of electrical engineering and digital design education, but as a monumental shift in the very paradigm of textbook creation itself. This paradigm shift is characterized by its embrace of the CC BY-NC licensing, a choice that signals a departure from the conventional, often restrictive, publishing models. This open license fosters a dynamic educational environment where resources can be freely shared, modified, and improved upon, thus accelerating the dissemination of knowledge and the evolution of educational content. This innovative approach to teaching and learning transcends traditional boundaries, aiming to not only impart knowledge and skills vital for success in the digital age but to do so in a manner that is both inclusive, equitable, and accessible. Moreover, the text's methodical integration of CBE strategies with a multidimensional pedagogy and Artificial Intelligence reflects a holistic approach to education. This blend not only facilitates the mastery of technical skills but also nurtures critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving abilities, ensuring that students are well-equipped for the challenges and opportunities of the future. The collaborative effort behind this text, supported by the California Community College's ZTC acceleration grant, exemplifies the power of collective endeavor in education. By pooling resources, knowledge, and expertise, the creators have produced a resource that is not only academically rigorous but also reflective of the latest industry standards and educational theories as well as paradigm shifts e.g., Artificial Intelligence. In conclusion, this text stands not only as a significant milestone in the realm of electrical engineering and digital design education but also as a monumental shift in the very paradigm of textbook creation itself. By embodying a profound commitment to the cultivation of open educational resources, it sets a new standard for academic material and challenges educators, policymakers, and institutions to reconsider the ways in which educational materials are created, distributed, and utilized. This innovative approach transcends traditional boundaries, aiming to impart knowledge and skills vital for success in the digital age in a manner that is both inclusive and accessible and with the potential to transform educational practices worldwide. Thus, honoring the collective wisdom of the educational community and empowering students to excel in an increasingly digital and changing world. Prologue: The Paradigm Shift This Text Offers The Value of This Text This textbook represents a transformative force in educational pedagogy and publishing, significantly enhancing value for both students and faculty by redefining the creation, distribution, and utilization of educational materials. Advocating for an open, collaborative approach to textbook development, it aims to create a future where educational resources are more accessible, equitable, and responsive to the diverse needs of learners. The content is meticulously organized into 10 structured modules, including three intensive capstone projects, which align with dual-dimensional learning outcomes that meet and surpass specific programmatic ABET accreditation standards. By introducing a novel 3D pedagogical approach and adopting a quasi-Competency-Based Education (CBE) strategy, this textbook moves beyond traditional grading systems, employing digital credentials to assess student mastery. This innovative approach not only enhances learning outcomes but also sets a new standard in educational practices, promising to reshape the educational landscape. 2D Learning Outcomes: Each module within this textbook is meticulously designed to align two-dimensional learning outcomes with both specific course requirements and ABET accreditation objectives. This strategic alignment creates a robust framework that not only supports the achievement of accreditation but also promotes a holistic approach to education. By integrating these outcomes, the textbook facilitates a comprehensive evaluation of student learning, covering two crucial dimensions: cognitive processes and knowledge types. The cognitive dimension focuses on how students think and includes skills such as analysis, synthesis, and application. This aspect is crucial for developing the ability to solve complex problems and think critically about technical issues. The knowledge dimension, on the other hand, addresses what students know. It encompasses factual knowledge, conceptual understanding, procedural proficiency, and metacognitive awareness. This dual focus ensures that students are not only learning and memorizing facts but are also understanding concepts, applying procedures, and reflecting on their own learning process. By covering these dimensions, the textbook ensures that the learning objectives are not merely about passing exams but are geared towards building a deep and durable understanding of the subject matter. This approach prepares students for real-world challenges and supports lifelong learning, aligning with ABET’s criteria for preparing graduates to enter the global workforce with a competitive edge. The detailed alignment with ABET standards also reassures educational institutions and students alike that the curriculum meets the highest standards of quality and relevance in the field of engineering and technology education. This dual-dimensional assessment model was expanded upon by Krathwohl, Anderson, et al., in their 2001 publication, "Theory into Practice," which is also recognized as "The Revised Taxonomy" [1]. Krathwohl’s introduction of this two-dimensional framework for learning outcomes—encompassing both cognitive processes and knowledge types—serves as an enhancement to Bloom's original taxonomy from 1956, which was primarily one-dimensional, focusing on cognitive processes alone. The Revised Taxonomy modernizes Bloom's six cognitive process levels—remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create—by integrating a second dimension, knowledge. This knowledge dimension is categorized into four levels: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive [1]. This revision not only updates the taxonomy but also enriches the approach to categorizing and assessing educational outcomes. 3D Pedagogy: The text introduces an innovative 3D approach to teaching and learning, wherein students first grasp concepts analytically and then validate such concepts through a simulation and hardware implementation, akin to the security measures we employ for protecting sensitive digital accounts nowadays. This learning process begins with a theoretical understanding and mastery of concepts through mathematical analysis, followed by validation through simulation, leading to identical outcomes. This process ensures students recognize the coherence between analytical thinking and simulation. However, the true moment of enlightenment—the "Aha! moment"—occurs in the third dimension: engineering. Through active learning methodologies and a project-based approach, students come to understand that engineering is a discipline of approximations, unlike the absolute nature of mathematics and simulations. By constructing a tangible device, they bring the third dimension into play, demonstrating the practical application and validation of theoretical and simulated outcomes. This hands-on experience underscores the difference between theoretical knowledge and its application in the real world, increasing students’ engagement, participation, learning, communication, interactivity, community, connectedness, satisfaction, and flexibility [2]. A Quasi Competency Based Education Strategy Competency-based education (CBD) grants academic credit upon the achievement of specific, well-defined competencies. Unlike traditional education models where learning duration (time) is fixed and the extent of learning varies, CBE operates on a flexible timeframe with consistent learning outcomes. Under this model, students advance by proving their mastery of specific skills or competencies at their own pace, regardless of the learning setting. This approach is tailored to support a variety of learning needs, frequently leading to more effective educational results. Furthermore, conventional grades are not necessarily assigned, students earn digital certificates by demonstrating that they’ve mastered and can successfully apply the knowledge and skills required for a particular competence through tasks that aligned with well-defined learning outcomes [3]. The CBE approach moves away from the traditional educational model that measures achievement through credit or clock hours, emphasizing time spent on a subject. This traditional model was derived from the Andrew Carnegie unit, initially devised not for educational purposes but to facilitate pensions for college professors. Over time, the Carnegie unit became a standard measure despite its lack of connection to the quality of education or learning outcomes, focusing instead on the time allocated to a subject [4]. CBE is experiencing significant growth. The Chancellor's Office of the California Community Colleges has established a collaboration involving 10 colleges aimed at supporting the implementation of direct assessment CBE programs for associate degrees [5]. Simultaneously, there is an ongoing proposal to modify Title 5 regulations for California community colleges to reflect an "intentional outcomes-based and equity-minded approach to earning a college degree where learning expectations remain constant, but the time commitment is flexible, incorporating self-paced, high-touch, and innovative practices." [6] Furthermore, in 2024, the U.S. Department of Education approved guidelines for institutions seeking to have their CBE programs recognized under Title IV of the Higher Education Act. [7]. This textbook is thoughtfully structured to span across 10 detailed modules, encompassing three substantial capstone projects. These projects are integral components that allow students to apply theoretical knowledge to practical challenges, reinforcing the real-world application of their learning. Designed to fit comfortably within the confines of a traditional 16-week semester, the content is scaffolded to be flexible, adapting to the varying paces at which students learn. This adaptability aligns with a quasi- CBE approach, where the focus is on mastering skills over simply logging hours. Breaking away from the conventional grading system, this textbook adopts an innovative approach to assessing student performance. Instead of assigning traditional letter grades, it tracks student mastery of skills through a series of digital credentials. These credentials are awarded as students demonstrate proficiency in specific competencies, allowing for a more nuanced and motivating evaluation system. Over the course of the semester, these credentials accumulate to form a comprehensive final grade that reflects the depth and breadth of each student's learning and accomplishments. This method not only provides a clear path of progression for students but also encourages a deeper engagement with the material, as it places a premium on actual skill acquisition rather than rote memorization of content. Furthermore, the digital nature of the credentials makes it easy to share and showcase achievements, potentially aiding students in future educational or professional pursuits. In this way, the textbook not only educates but also empowers students, providing them with tangible evidence of their skills and readiness to tackle real-world problems. A Road Map to 2D ABET Accreditation ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) accreditation is a hallmark of excellence in engineering, technology, computing, and applied and natural sciences education. It provides numerous benefits. Educational programs that receive ABET accreditation have met stringent standards that ensure graduates are prepared to enter a competitive, global workforce. This rigorous review process compels programs to maintain high standards and demonstrate their dedication to educational excellence consistently. Institutions that achieve this status are globally recognized for their educational quality, attracting top-tier faculty. For graduates, ABET accreditation markedly improves employment opportunities. Employers often seek candidates who have completed accredited programs, understanding that such credentials signify a robust educational foundation. In some technical fields, particularly engineering, many positions explicitly require a degree from an ABET-accredited program, thereby prioritizing these graduates in the hiring process. Global mobility is another significant benefit. Since ABET accreditation is recognized internationally, graduates from accredited programs are well-prepared and eligible to work in numerous countries around the world. This global recognition facilitates professional opportunities and enhances the versatility of a graduate's career prospects. Lastly, the continuous improvement required by ABET accreditation ensures that programs do not become complacent. Accredited programs must engage in ongoing evaluation and development to maintain their status, which encourages adaptation to emerging technologies and alignment with industry practices. In conclusion, ABET accreditation offers profound advantages that underscore its importance in the landscape of higher education. By ensuring quality, enhancing reputation, and improving graduate outcomes, ABET accreditation remains a critical standard for educational programs aiming for excellence in engineering, technology, and related fields. This textbook is meticulously crafted to align with the engineering learning outcomes prescribed by ABET accreditation, using these outcomes as the foundational competencies expected of students by the course's conclusion. ABET's framework predominantly focuses on cognitive learning aspects, emphasizing the development and assessment of intellectual skills. However, this book takes a broader approach by incorporating an additional evaluative perspective: the knowledge dimension. By doing so, it expands the assessment framework to include not only cognitive skills, but also a thorough understanding and application of knowledge. Thus, in this textbook, student proficiency is evaluated across two distinct dimensions: cognitive and knowledge. The cognitive dimension assesses how well students process information, think deeply about content, and apply what they have learned in practical scenarios. The knowledge dimension, on the other hand, examines the depth and breadth of students' understanding of the subject matter, including their ability to recall facts, understand concepts, and synthesize new ideas from what they have learned. This dual-dimensional approach ensures a holistic assessment of student skills, promoting a more comprehensive educational experience that prepares students not only to meet but to exceed the rigorous standards set by ABET. Through this enhanced learning and assessment model, the textbook aims to cultivate a richer, more versatile skill set in engineering students, empowering them for future academic and professional endeavors. Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is profoundly transforming the educational landscape, introducing innovative methods that enhance learning experiences and outcomes. In the realm of digital engineering courses, particularly those adopting a project-based approach, AI integration is pivotal. AI tools and platforms facilitate real-time feedback and personalized learning paths, enabling students to engage with complex engineering problems more interactively and effectively. For instance, AI can simulate real-world engineering challenges, allowing students to experiment, analyze, and iterate solutions in a controlled yet dynamic virtual environment. This capability not only deepens understanding but also sharpens problem-solving skills critical to engineering. Moreover, AI-driven analytics can help educators tailor their instructional strategies by providing insights into individual and class-wide performance trends. As students work on collaborative projects, AI systems can enhance team collaboration through intelligent automation and data integration, ensuring that learning is both individualized and synergistically enhanced. The result is a more engaging, responsive, and efficient educational experience that aligns closely with the evolving demands of the engineering field. In this textbook, students are presented with a unique and invaluable opportunity to undertake a capstone project that incorporates artificial intelligence, providing a profound and enriching learning experience. The project, which is seamlessly integrated with the comprehensive knowledge acquired throughout the course, focuses on designing a smart traffic control system. This system leverages the fundamentals of digital logic and design to address real-world challenges. By applying AI technologies, students will explore how to optimize traffic flow and enhance road safety, utilizing sensors and data analytics to make real-time decisions. This hands-on project not only cements their understanding of digital engineering principles but also encourages innovative thinking and problem-solving skills. The capstone project is designed to simulate a professional engineering environment, offering students the chance to apply theoretical knowledge in practical, impactful ways. REFERENCES [1] Krathwohl, R. David (2022) . A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory into Practice , Volume 41, Number 4, Autumn 2002 [2] Allsop, Jared; Young, Sarah J.; Nelson, Erik J.; Piatt, Jennifer; Knapp, Doug (2020). Examining the Benefits Associated with Implementing an Active Learning Classroom among Undergraduate Students. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, v32 n3 p418-426 2020. [3] Wright, Paul (2023). A Narrative Review of Selected Studies in Competency-Based and Standards-Based Grading and Reporting Practices. marzanoacademies.org [4] Laitinen, Amy (2012). Cracking the Credit Hour. New America Foundation [5] California Community Colleges Chancellor Office (2021). Direct Assessment Competency-Based Education Collaborative. Extracted from https://www.mtsac.edu/president/cabinet-notes/2020-21/12-dec/6_CCCCO_Direct_Assessment_CBE_Collaborative_Request_for_Applications.pdf [6] California Community Colleges Chancellor Office (2020). Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to California Code of Regulations, Title 5 Regarding Direct Assessment Competency-Based Education. Extracted from https://go.boarddocs.com/ca/cccchan/Board.nsf/files/BTBSYG6A32F4/$file/proposed-title-5-regs-for-direct-assessment-cbe-a11y.pdf [7] U.S. Department of Education (2024). Applying for Title IV Eligibility for Direct Assessment (Competency-Based) Programs. Extracted from https://fsapartners.ed.gov/knowledge-center/library/dear-colleague-letters/2024-02-14/applying-title-iv-eligibility-direct-assessment-competency-based-programs Module 1 Basic Concepts Module 1: Basic Concepts Module Content 1.0 Digital and Analog Signals 1.1 Logic Gates 1.2 Microprocessors 1.3 Summary 1.4 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| Identify various types of analog signals and their sources. \| Define analog quantities and describe their continuous nature. \| Describe the process of analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital-to-analog conversion (DAC). \| \| \| Understand \| Explain the role of sampling rate and quantization in digital signal processing. \| Define digital quantities and explain their discrete representation. \| Illustrate the functioning of basic logic gates with truth tables and circuit diagrams. \| \| \| Apply \| \| Distinguish the fundamental differences between digital and analog data representation. \| Demonstrate understanding by providing examples of digital and analog applications in electronics. \| \| \| Analyze \| \| Relate the integration of analog/digital signals, logic gates, and microprocessors in real-world applications. \| Analyze the architecture and operation of a simple microprocessor. \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| Evaluate and articulate the key advantages that digital systems have over analog systems. \| \| \| Create \| \| \| \| \| Table 1. Module 1’s 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives 1.0 Digital and Analog Signals The fundamental difference between analog and digital signals lies in how they represent information, which has significant implications for how signals are processed, transmitted, and stored in various electronic systems. Analog Signals Analog signals are continuous, meaning they vary smoothly over time and can take on any value within a given range. These signals are a direct representation of physical quantities. Because of their continuous nature, analog signals can provide a very accurate depiction of a sound wave, light intensity, temperature, or other natural phenomena. Examples of analog signal applications include traditional radios, where frequencies modulate to transmit sound, and thermometers that use mercury to indicate temperature through a continuous scale. Digital Signals Digital signals, in contrast, are discrete. They represent information in binary form, using only two distinct states (typically 0 and 1). This quantization process involves converting the continuous range of values found in an analog signal into a countable set of levels. This binary representation is fundamental to all digital technology because it provides a simple and robust way to store and transmit data. Examples include digital watches that use numbers to display time, digital computers that process and store all types of data in binary form, and digital communication systems like cellular phones. Link to Digital Fundamentals Understanding the difference between these two types of signals is crucial for grasping the fundamentals of digital technology. Digital systems operate using binary data, which is integral to how computers function. By converting analog signals (such as human speech or video) into digital signals, modern technology can process vast amounts of information efficiently and with reduced susceptibility to noise and interference compared to analog systems. For instance, in digital audio technology, an analog audio signal (like music or voice) is sampled at discrete intervals and then quantized into a digital signal for processing, storage, and playback. This digital representation allows for easier manipulation (like equalization and mixing), better storage efficiency, and exact replication of the sound without degradation over time or with copies. In telecommunications, digital signals allow for more efficient and secure communication. Data encoded digitally can be encrypted, making it harder to intercept and tamper with. Moreover, digital communication systems can compress data, allowing more conversations or data transmissions to occur over the same channel than with analog systems. Advantages of Digital over Analog The advantages of digital signals over analog signals include: - Higher Precision and Less Susceptibility to Noise: Digital signals are not affected by noise as much as analog signals. This makes digital systems more reliable, especially over long distances. - Easier Manipulation and Processing: Digital data can be easily manipulated using algorithms, making it more flexible for applications like image editing, sound production, and complex computations. - Consistency and Replicability: Digital signals can be replicated without degradation, unlike analog signals that degrade with each copy. - Efficient Storage: Digital data requires less physical space for storage and can be compressed to take up even less space. These distinctions underpin much of modern technology, from the smartphones and computers we use every day to sophisticated systems controlling everything from traffic lights to space missions. As technology evolves, the role of digital systems and their advantages over analog methods continue to grow, shaping the future of communication, entertainment, and information processing. To illustrate the difference between an analog signal and a discrete (digital) signal, a MATLAB plot displays both signals on the same graph for direct comparison. A 5 Hz sine wave serves as the analog signal, and its discretized version represents the discrete signal. This version is created by sampling the sine wave at specific intervals, 20 samples. Figure 1 effectively demonstrates the continuous nature of analog signals versus the discrete nature of digital signals, providing a visual understanding of how analog signals are sampled and represented in digital form. 1.1 Logic Gates Logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits, operating on binary inputs, 0 or 1, to produce binary outputs. They perform fundamental logical operations: AND gates output true only if both inputs are true; OR gates output true if at least one input is true; and NOT gates invert the input signal. More complex gates like NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR are combinations of these basic gates, allowing for more sophisticated logical functions. Figure 2 shows diagrams of the three most fundamental gates from which the entire digital world is created. Figure 2. Basic Gates The relationship between signals and logic gates is integral to digital circuitry. Digital signals serve as inputs to logic gates, which then process these signals according to Boolean logic. For example, in an ADC, the continuous analog signal is sampled and quantized into a digital representation that can be manipulated by logic gates. These gates then perform various operations, such as addition, subtraction, and comparison, on digital data. 1.2 Microprocessors Microprocessors are complex assemblies of logic gates organized into functional units like the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit, and registers. The ALU, comprising multiple logic gates, performs arithmetic and logical operations on binary data. The Control Unit directs the flow of data within the microprocessor and manages the execution of instructions by coordinating with other components. Registers, small storage locations within the CPU, hold intermediate data and instructions. The correlation between logic gates and microprocessors is evident in the microprocessor's structure and function. Logic gates form the fundamental circuits that make up the microprocessor's components. The microprocessor's ability to execute instructions, perform calculations, and manage data flow relies on the coordinated operation of these gates. Integrated Functionality The integration of analog/digital signals, logic gates, and microprocessors facilitates the development of sophisticated electronic systems. For instance, in a digital audio system, sound (an analog signal) is captured by a microphone and converted into a digital signal via an ADC. This digital signal is then processed by the microprocessor, which uses logic gates to perform operations like filtering, amplification, and encoding. The processed digital signal can be stored, transmitted, or converted back to an analog signal using a DAC for playback through speakers. 1.3 Summary The interplay between analog/digital signals, logic gates, and microprocessors is foundational to modern electronics. Analog signals, representing real-world phenomena, are converted to digital form to be processed by logic gates within microprocessors. This conversion and subsequent processing enable a wide range of applications, from simple data computation to complex control systems in consumer electronics, industrial automation, and medical devices. Understanding this correlation highlights the seamless integration of basic electronic principles to create advanced technological solutions. 1.4 Projects Remember (knowledge dimension: Factual Knowledge) 1. Identify various types of analog signals. Problem: List at least three types of analog signals and their common sources in everyday life. Understand (knowledge dimension: Conceptual Knowledge) 2. Explain the role of sampling rate in digital signal processing. Problem: Describe what sampling rate is and explain its significance in converting an analog signal to a digital signal. 3. Define digital quantities and explain their discrete representation. Problem: What are digital quantities, and how do they differ from analog quantities in terms of representation? Apply (knowledge dimension: Procedural Knowledge) 4. Provide examples of digital and analog applications in electronics. Problem: Give two examples of digital applications and two examples of analog applications in modern electronics, explaining the basic functionality of each. Analyze (knowledge dimension: Conceptual Knowledge) 5. Distinguish between digital and analog data representation. Problem: Compare and contrast digital and analog data representation, highlighting at least three fundamental differences. 6. Analyze the architecture of a simple microprocessor. Problem: Describe the basic components and operation of a simple microprocessor, explaining how it processes data. (knowledge dimension: Procedural Knowledge) Evaluate (knowledge dimension: Conceptual Knowledge) 7. Evaluate the key advantages of digital systems over analog systems. Problem: Discuss at least three advantages that digital systems have over analog systems, providing examples to support your points. Create (knowledge dimension: Procedural Knowledge) 8. Design a simple digital circuit using basic logic gates. Problem: Create a truth table and corresponding circuit diagram for a digital circuit that outputs a high signal only when at least two of its three inputs are high. 9. Describe the process of analog-to-digital conversion (ADC). Problem: Outline the steps involved in converting an analog signal to a digital signal, explaining the importance of each step. 10. Relate the integration of analog/digital signals, logic gates, and microprocessors in a real-world application. Problem: Describe a real-world application that integrates analog signals, digital signals, logic gates, and a microprocessor, explaining how these components work together to achieve the desired functionality. (knowledge dimension: Metacognitive Knowledge) Module 2 Understanding Binary Digits Module 2: Understanding Binary Digits Module Content - Introduction to Binary Digits - Why Binary? - The Role of Bits in Digital Systems - Binary Numbers in Everyday Devices - The Basics of Binary - Binary Information in Digital Systems - Practical Applications of Binary - Complements of Binary Numbers - Signed Numbers - Octal Numbers - Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) - Digital Codes - Error Codes - Binary to Hexadecimal and Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion - Summary - Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| \| \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| \| \| \| Analyze \| \| \| \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| \| \| \| Create \| \| \| \| \| Table 2. Module 2’s 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives * For a complete explanation of the cognitive and knowledge objectives mapping to the ABET Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs), see Appendix B. Explanation of the 2D Mapping Understand - Understand the significance and basics of binary digits. This falls under Factual Knowledge because it involves knowing specific facts about what binary digits are and how they function. It also falls under Conceptual Knowledge because it involves comprehending how binary digits fit into the broader context of digital systems and computing. - Explain how binary information is represented and processed in digital systems: This falls under Conceptual Knowledge because it involves understanding how binary systems function. - Identify practical applications of binary digits in various fields: This also falls under Conceptual Knowledge as it involves recognizing the applications of binary digits in different contexts. - Understand the concepts of complements and signed numbers: This is Procedural Knowledge, requiring comprehension of specific methods and processes used in binary arithmetic. - Recognize various digital and error codes used in digital systems: This is Conceptual Knowledge involving understanding different types of codes and their functions in digital systems. - Understand the representation and conversion of Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): This falls under Procedural Knowledge as it involves understanding the method of converting and representing numbers in BCD format. Apply - Convert numbers between binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal systems: This is Procedural Knowledge because it involves the application of conversion techniques. - Perform basic binary arithmetic operations: This is Procedural Knowledge as it involves applying rules and procedures to perform arithmetic operations in binary. - Perform arithmetic operations with signed binary numbers: This also falls under Procedural Knowledge, involving specific methods for handling signed numbers in binary arithmetic. Analyze - Explain the practical benefits of hexadecimal representation: This is Procedural Knowledge since it involves understanding the utility and application of hexadecimal numbers in simplifying binary data representation and operations. 2.0 Introduction to Binary Digits What are Binary Digits? Binary digits, commonly known as bits, form the foundation of digital technology. A bit is the most basic unit of data in computing and digital communications, represented by a binary number—either 0 or 1. This dual-state system aligns perfectly with the physical realities of electronic devices, which can easily distinguish between two states such as on/off, high/low voltage, or true/false. Historical Context The binary system has a rich history that predates modern computers. The ancient Egyptians and Chinese used binary-like systems for calculations and decision-making. However, it was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a 17th-century mathematician and philosopher, who formalized binary arithmetic and recognized its potential for simplifying logic and computation. In the 20th century, the advent of digital computers brought binary digits to the forefront of technology. Engineers and scientists realized that electronic circuits could be designed to handle binary data efficiently, leading to the rapid development of computer technology. 2.1 Why Binary? The simplicity of the binary system offers several advantages that make it ideal for digital computing: - Simplicity and Reliability: Binary systems are less prone to errors than systems with more states. A device only needs to differentiate between two states, reducing the chance of misinterpretation. - Ease of Implementation: Binary states can be easily represented in electronic circuits using transistors, which act as switches that can be either on (1) or off (0). - Compatibility with Digital Logic: Binary logic (Boolean algebra) simplifies the design of digital circuits, allowing for straightforward implementation of arithmetic and logic operations. - Efficient Error Detection and Correction: Binary data can incorporate error-detection and error-correction codes, enhancing the reliability of data transmission and storage. 2.2 The Role of Bits in Digital Systems Bits are the building blocks of all digital data. Each bit can hold a value of either 0 or 1. By grouping bits together, we can represent more complex information. For instance, a group of 8 bits forms a byte, which can represent 256 different values (from 0 to 255). This allows for the encoding of a wide range of data, from simple numerical values to characters in text. When multiple bytes are combined, they can represent even more complex data types, such as integers, floating-point numbers, and more intricate structures like images, audio files, and video streams. This is possible because bits, when grouped and processed together, can encode various types of information using different encoding schemes and standards. For example, In text representation, combinations of bits are used to encode characters using systems like ASCII or Unicode. In ASCII, each character is represented by a unique 7-bit or 8-bit code. In Unicode, more bits are used, allowing for the representation of a vast array of characters from different languages and symbol sets. In images, bits are grouped to represent the color and brightness of each pixel. For instance, in a standard RGB color model, 24 bits (8 bits for each of the red, green, and blue channels) are used to define the color of a single pixel. In audio, bits are used to encode sound waves digitally. The quality of the audio is determined by the bit depth (the number of bits used to represent each sample) and the sampling rate (how many samples are taken per second). In videos, bits represent a sequence of images (frames) and often include additional information for synchronization and compression. Video compression algorithms, like those used in MP4 files, reduce the file size by efficiently encoding the data while maintaining visual quality. Overall, the ability to group and manipulate bits is fundamental to the functionality of computers and digital devices, enabling them to process, store, and transmit complex information efficiently. By grouping bits together, we can represent more complex information. For example: - A nibble consists of 4 bits. - A byte consists of 8 bits and can represent 256 different values (28). - A word typically refers to a group of 16, 32, or 64 bits, depending on the computer architecture. 2.3 Binary Numbers in Everyday Devices Binary numbers are the foundation of all modern digital devices and systems, as they are used to represent and process information. Here’s an overview of how binary numbers are applied in everyday devices: 1. Computers - Data Representation: All data in computers, including text, images, and videos, is represented using binary numbers. Each character in text is encoded using binary codes (e.g., ASCII, Unicode). - Processing: Central Processing Units (CPUs) process data in binary form, using binary arithmetic and logic operations. - Memory: Binary numbers are used to address memory locations and store data in RAM and storage devices (HDDs, SSDs). 2. Smartphones - Applications: Apps use binary data for functioning, from calculating numbers in a calculator app to rendering graphics in games. - Communication: Data transmitted over networks (Wi-Fi, cellular) is encoded in binary form. - Storage: Photos, videos, and other data are stored in binary format in the phone’s memory. 3. Digital Cameras - Image Sensors: Capture light and convert it into binary data representing pixel values. - Storage: Images and videos are saved in binary formats (e.g., JPEG, MP4) on memory cards. 4. Television and Streaming Devices - Video and Audio Encoding: Videos and audio are encoded in binary formats (e.g., MPEG, MP3) for storage and transmission. - Display: Pixels on screens are controlled using binary signals to display images and videos. 5. Internet and Networking - Data Transmission: All data sent over the internet is transmitted in binary form using protocols like TCP/IP. - Routing and Switching: Routers and switches use binary addresses (IP addresses) to forward data packets to their destinations. 6. Smart Home Devices - Control Systems: Devices like smart thermostats, lights, and locks use binary signals for control and communication. - Sensors: Binary data from sensors (e.g., motion, temperature) is processed to make decisions. 7. Automobiles - Engine Control Units (ECUs): Use binary data to monitor and control engine performance, fuel injection, and other systems. - Infotainment Systems: Display and process audio, video, and navigation data in binary form. 8. Medical Devices - Imaging: MRI and CT scanners convert captured data into binary form for processing and visualization. - Monitoring: Devices like heart rate monitors and blood glucose meters use binary data to record and analyze readings. 9. Wearable Technology - Fitness Trackers: Monitor activities and vital signs, converting data into binary for processing and display. - Smartwatches: Use binary data for running applications, communicating with smartphones, and displaying information. 10. Gaming Consoles - Graphics Processing: Use binary data to render images and animations on the screen. - Storage: Games and saved data are stored in binary formats on internal or external storage devices. Binary numbers are crucial for the functioning of modern digital systems, enabling the storage, processing, and transmission of all forms of data in a reliable and efficient manner. 2.4 The Basics of Binary Binary numbers are positional, similar to decimal numbers, but they use base 2 instead of base 10. Each digit in a binary number represents a power of 2, starting from 20 on the right. Example: Binary Number 1011 Let's calculate the decimal value of the binary number 1011: - Write the binary number: - 1011 - Assign each digit its positional value: - From right to left: - The rightmost digit (1) is 20. - The next digit (1) is 21. - The next digit (0) is 22. - The leftmost digit (1) is 23. - From right to left: - Calculate the value of each digit: - 1×20 = 1 - 1×21 = 2 - 0×22 = 0 - 1×23 = 8 - Sum the values: - 1 + 2 + 0 + 8 = 11 Therefore, the binary number 1011 equals 11 in decimal. Detailed Explanation - 20 = 1: Any number to the power of 0 is 1. So, 1×20 = 1 - 21 = 2: 2 raised to the power of 1 is 2. So, 1×21 = 2 - 22 = 4: 2 raised to the power of 2 is 4. Since the digit is 0, 0×22 = 0. - 23 = 8: 2 raised to the power of 3 is 8. So, 1×23 = 8 Adding these values together gives us 1 + 2 + 0 + 8 = 11 Binary Arithmetic Binary arithmetic is essential for digital systems and includes operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Here’s a brief overview with examples: Addition: Adding binary numbers involves carrying over when the sum exceeds 1. Example: 1010 + 0111 ------ 10001 (In decimal: 10 + 7 = 17) Subtraction: Binary subtraction uses borrowing. Example: 1011 - 0010 ------ 1001 (In decimal: 11 - 2 = 9) Multiplication: Binary multiplication is similar to decimal but simpler. Example: 101 x 11 ------ 101 +101 ------ 1111 (In decimal: 5 × 3 = 15) Division: Binary division follows the same principles as decimal. Example: 1010 ÷ 10 = 101 (In decimal: 10 ÷ 2 = 5) 2.5 Binary Information in Digital Systems In digital systems, binary information is carried and processed using digital signals. These signals exist in one of two states: high (1) or low (0). Binary information is fundamental to the operation of computers, communication systems, and various digital devices. Here's how binary information is managed in digital systems: - Digital Circuits: Digital circuits, such as logic gates, transistors, and flip-flops, manipulate binary data by switching between high and low voltage levels. Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR) perform basic operations on binary inputs to produce a binary output. Transistors, as basic building blocks, switch on and off to represent binary states, forming the foundation of CPUs and memory cells. Flip-flops store binary data and are used in memory and register circuits. - Data Representation: Every piece of data, whether it's text, images, audio, or video, is encoded in binary form. Text characters are represented by binary codes defined by standards like ASCII or Unicode. Images are stored as binary representations of pixel values. Audio is digitized by sampling sound waves and converting them into binary data. Video is represented as sequences of binary-encoded frames. - Storage: Binary data is stored in memory devices like RAM (Random Access Memory), hard drives, and SSDs (Solid State Drives). In RAM, data is stored temporarily and accessed quickly by the CPU. Hard drives store binary data magnetically, while SSDs use flash memory to store data electronically. Each storage cell holds a bit, represented by a high or low electrical charge or a magnetic state. - Transmission: Binary data is transmitted over networks as sequences of bits. Network protocols define how these bits are packaged, addressed, and error-checked during transmission. Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and optical fiber networks all transmit data in binary form. Protocols like TCP/IP ensure that these bits are correctly assembled and interpreted at the receiving end, enabling reliable communication over the internet and other networks. 2.6 Practical Applications of Binary Binary digits, or bits, are the fundamental building blocks of all modern digital electronics and computing systems. Their simplicity and efficiency enable complex operations, data storage, and communication in a wide variety of devices and applications, applications including: - Computers and Processors: All computations and data processing on computers are performed using binary digits. Processors execute machine code instructions, which are sequences of binary digits. This enables everything from simple arithmetic operations to complex algorithms that run software applications and operating systems. The binary system's simplicity and efficiency make it ideal for fast and reliable data processing in CPUs and GPUs. - Memory and Storage: Data in RAM, hard drives, and SSDs is stored and accessed in binary form. Each bit represents a state, either 0 or 1. For instance, a single character in a text file is typically represented by a byte, which consists of 8 bits. Large multimedia files, such as videos and high-resolution images, are composed of millions or even billions of bits. Binary storage ensures accurate and efficient data retrieval and manipulation. - Networking and Communication: Binary encoding is used in networking protocols and data transmission. Data packets are transmitted as sequences of bits over various communication mediums, including Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, and fiber optics. Protocols like TCP/IP manage data transmission over the internet, ensuring data integrity and efficient routing. Binary data transmission allows for high-speed communication and robust error detection and correction mechanisms. - Embedded Systems: Binary digits are used extensively in embedded systems, which are specialized computing systems that perform dedicated functions within larger systems. Examples include microcontrollers in household appliances, automotive control systems, medical devices, and industrial automation systems. These systems rely on binary data to operate sensors, control actuators, and execute real-time processing tasks. Embedded systems benefit from binary's simplicity and efficiency, ensuring reliable and low-power operation. - Digital Media: Binary digits are used to encode digital media, such as audio, video, and images. For example, digital audio files (like MP3s) represent sound waves as sequences of bits, while digital video files (like MP4s) represent frames of visual data. Image formats (like JPEG) use binary encoding to store pixel information. Binary encoding allows for efficient compression, storage, and transmission of digital media, enabling high-quality multimedia experiences. - Cryptography and Security: Binary data is crucial in cryptography, which involves encoding information to protect it from unauthorized access. Binary codes and algorithms are used to encrypt and decrypt data, ensuring secure communication and data storage. Techniques like public-key cryptography, symmetric encryption, and hash functions rely on binary operations to safeguard sensitive information. Binary cryptography enables secure online transactions, confidential communication, and data integrity verification. 2.7 Complements of Binary Numbers In binary arithmetic, complements are used to perform operations more efficiently, particularly subtraction and the representation of negative numbers. There are two main types of complements used: - One's Complement One's complement of a binary number is obtained by inverting all the bits in the number (changing 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s). Example: Binary Number: 1010 One's Complement: 0101 One's complement simplifies subtraction by converting it into addition of the complement. However, it has some drawbacks, such as having two representations for zero (positive zero and negative zero). - Two's Complement Two's complement is more commonly used because it overcomes the drawbacks of one's complement. The two's complement of a binary number is obtained by inverting all the bits (like one's complement) and then adding 1 to the least significant bit (LSB). Example: Binary Number: 1010 One's Complement: 0101 Add 1: 0101 + 1 = 0110 Two's Complement: 0110 Benefits of Using Two's Complement - Single Representation of Zero: Unlike one's complement, two's complement has a unique representation for zero. - Simplified Arithmetic Operations: Two's complement simplifies binary arithmetic operations, especially subtraction and addition, by treating all numbers (positive and negative) uniformly. How Complements Simplify Subtraction In binary arithmetic, subtraction can be performed using addition by employing the complement method. Here's how: Example: Subtract 0110 from 1001 using Two's Complement - Find the Two's Complement of the Subtrahend (0110): - One's Complement of 0110: 1001 - Add 1: 1001 + 1 = 1010 - Two's Complement of 0110: 1010 - Add the Two's Complement of the Subtrahend to the Minuend (1001): 1001 + 1010 ---------- 10011 - Discard the Carry Bit: - Result: 0011 Thus, 1001 - 0110 = 0011 in binary, which is 9 - 6 = 3 in decimal. Handling Negative Numbers Two's complement is also used to represent negative numbers in binary: Example: Represent -6 in an 8-bit Binary Number - Find the Binary Representation of 6: - 6 in binary (8-bit): 00000110 - Find the Two's Complement: - One's Complement of 00000110: 11111001 - Add 1: 11111001 + 1 = 11111010 Thus, -6 is represented as 11111010 in an 8-bit binary number. Arithmetic with Two's Complement When adding binary numbers, if both are in two's complement form (representing positive or negative integers), the operation remains straightforward: Example: Add -6 (11111010) and 3 (00000011) 11111010 + 00000011 ------------- 000000101 (discard carry) The result is 00000101, which represents 5 in binary. The carry bit is discarded, ensuring proper handling of the sign. Summary - One's Complement: Inverts all bits. Simplifies subtraction but has two representations of zero. - Two's Complement: Inverts all bits and adds 1. Provides unique zero representation and simplifies binary arithmetic. - Subtraction via Addition: Subtraction can be performed by adding the two's complement of the subtrahend to the minuend. - Handling Negatives: Two's complement allows for straightforward representation and arithmetic with negative numbers. Using complements in binary arithmetic simplifies the process of subtraction and ensures consistent handling of positive and negative numbers, making it a fundamental concept in computer science and digital electronics. 2.8 Signed Numbers Signed numbers represent both positive and negative values, with the most common method being the two's complement. The leftmost bit indicates the sign: 0 for positive and 1 for negative. - Positive Number: 0101 (5 in decimal) - Negative Number: 1011 (−5 in decimal using two's complement) Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers Addition: Add numbers as usual, discarding any carry out of the leftmost bit. Example: 0101 (5) + 1011 (−5) = 0000 Subtraction: Convert the number to be subtracted to its two's complement and add. Example: 0101 (5) - 0011 (3): - Two's complement of 0011: 1101 - Add: 0101 + 1101 = 0010 (2) 2.9 Octal Numbers The octal system (base-8) uses digits 0 to 7. Each digit in an octal number represents a power of 8, starting from 8080 on the right. This system is particularly useful in computing and digital electronics because of its straightforward relationship with the binary system. Since 8 is a power of 2 (2323), each octal digit corresponds to exactly three binary digits, making conversion between the two systems efficient and simple. 2.10 Binary to Octal Conversion Group binary digits into sets of three, starting from the right, and convert each group to its octal equivalent. Example: Convert 110110101 to octal: - Group: 110 110 101 - Convert: 110 = 6, 110 = 6, 101 = 5 - Result: 665 Octal to Binary Conversion Convert each octal digit to its three-bit binary equivalent. Example: Convert 736 to binary: - Convert: 7 = 111, 3 = 011, 6 = 110 - Result: 111011110 Benefits of Using Octal - Simplification: Octal reduces the length of binary representations by one-third, making them easier to read and write. - Grouping: Easier grouping of binary numbers into octal for compactness and clarity. - Error Detection: Octal grouping helps in quickly identifying and correcting errors in binary sequences. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) BCD encodes decimal numbers where each digit is represented by its own binary sequence. BCD simplifies the conversion and representation of decimal numbers in binary form, particularly in applications involving digital displays and financial calculations. Example: Decimal: 45 BCD: 0100 0101 (4 = 0100, 5 = 0101) Benefits of Using BCD - Accuracy: BCD maintains exact decimal representation, avoiding rounding errors common in floating-point arithmetic. - Ease of Conversion: Directly maps decimal digits to binary, simplifying conversion processes. - Applications: Useful in digital clocks, calculators, and electronic meters where decimal data needs to be displayed directly. 2.11 Digital Codes Importance of Digital Codes Digital codes represent data in digital systems, providing a standardized way to encode, transmit, and store information. They play a crucial role in ensuring data consistency, accuracy, and interoperability across different systems and devices. These codes enable the consistent representation of information, ensuring data integrity and reliability in digital communications and storage. By using digital codes, systems can efficiently handle and process data, minimizing errors and enhancing the overall performance of digital systems. Key Roles of Digital Codes - Data Consistency: Digital codes ensure that data is represented uniformly across different platforms, allowing for seamless data exchange between various devices and systems. - Accuracy: By using standardized encoding schemes, digital codes help in maintaining the accuracy of data during transmission and storage, reducing the chances of data corruption. - Interoperability: Digital codes facilitate communication between different systems and devices by providing a common language for data representation. This interoperability is crucial for integrating diverse technologies and platforms. - Data Integrity: Ensuring that data remains intact and unaltered during transmission and storage is vital for reliable digital communications. Digital codes provide mechanisms for error detection and correction, enhancing data integrity. - Efficiency: Digital codes optimize the encoding and transmission processes, allowing for efficient data handling. This efficiency is essential for high-speed data communication and storage systems. Examples of Important Digital Codes - Several digital codes are widely used in digital systems to achieve these goals. Some of the most important include: - Binary Code: The fundamental language of computers, representing data using two states, 0 and 1. - ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): A character encoding standard for text data in computers and communication devices. - Unicode: An extended character encoding standard that supports a wide range of characters from different languages and scripts, ensuring global text representation. - Gray Code: A binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit, used in error correction and digital signal processing. - Error Detection and Correction Codes: Codes like Hamming Code and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) are designed to detect and correct errors in data transmission and storage. 2.12 Error Codes Error codes are essential in digital communication and storage for detecting and correcting errors. They ensure data integrity and reliability, enabling accurate data transmission and storage even in the presence of noise and other disturbances. Common error detection and correction methods include: - Parity Bits: A parity bit is an additional bit added to a binary string to make the number of 1s either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). Parity bits are used to detect single-bit errors in data transmission. If the parity of the received data does not match the expected parity, an error is detected. - Checksums: A checksum is a value computed from a data set to detect errors. It is calculated by summing the binary values of the data segments and then appending the sum (checksum) to the data. The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the received checksum to detect errors. Checksums are commonly used in software and communication protocols. - Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): CRC is a robust error-detecting code used to identify errors in digital data. It involves dividing the data by a fixed polynomial and appending the remainder (CRC) to the data. The receiver performs the same division and checks the remainder. If the remainder is zero, the data is error-free; otherwise, an error is detected. CRCs are widely used in network communications and storage devices. - Hamming Code: Hamming code is an error-correcting code that can detect and correct single-bit errors and detect two-bit errors. It adds multiple parity bits to the data to create a code that allows error detection and correction. Hamming code is used in memory systems and communication channels where data integrity is critical. - Reed-Solomon Code: Reed-Solomon code is a powerful error-correcting code used to detect and correct burst errors in data. It adds redundant data to the original data to create codewords that can correct multiple errors. Reed-Solomon code is used in CDs, DVDs, QR codes, and digital television broadcasting. 2.13 Binary to Hexadecimal and Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion Binary and hexadecimal systems are closely related, with each hex digit representing four binary digits. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion 1. Group the binary number into sets of four digits, starting from the right. 2. Convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent. Example: Convert the binary number 11011101 to hexadecimal: 1. Group into sets of four: 1101 1101 2. Convert each group: 1101 = D 1101 = D So, 11011101 in binary is DD in hexadecimal. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion 1. Convert each hex digit to its four-bit binary equivalent. Example: Convert the hexadecimal number 3F to binary: 1. Convert each hex digit: 3 = 0011 F = 1111 2. Combine the binary groups: 3F in hexadecimal is 00111111 in binary. Practical Benefits Using hexadecimal representation simplifies the reading, writing, and debugging of binary-coded values in digital systems. Hex is especially useful in contexts like: - Memory Addresses: Memory addresses are often represented in hex because they can be very large and cumbersome to write in binary. - Color Codes: In web design, colors are often represented as hex values, where each pair of hex digits represents the intensity of red, green, and blue. - Machine Code: Assembly language and machine code instructions are typically shown in hex to make them more readable. Understanding how to convert between binary and hexadecimal, and recognizing the practical applications of hex representation, is crucial for anyone working in computer science and digital technology. 2.14 Summary Understanding binary digits is essential to the operation of modern technology. Grasping the basics of binary, including arithmetic operations and data representation, provides a fundamental insight into how computers and digital systems process information. This knowledge is crucial for anyone involved in fields related to computer science, electrical engineering, and information technology. The simplicity and efficiency of binary make it the ideal choice for digital systems, enabling the complex functionalities we rely on every day. Furthermore, understanding how to work with hexadecimal and octal systems, as well as Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) and error codes, enriches one’s ability to design, debug, and optimize digital systems. Hexadecimal representation, in particular, offers a compact and convenient way to manage binary data, enhancing the efficiency of digital systems. Additionally, the practical applications of digital codes and error detection methods are vital for ensuring reliable and accurate data transmission and storage in various digital communication systems. Binary digits are the backbone of digital technology, and a comprehensive understanding of their application and manipulation is crucial for leveraging the full potential of modern computing and electronic systems. From fundamental operations to advanced error correction, mastering binary concepts empowers professionals to innovate and excel in the rapidly evolving digital landscape. 2.15 Projects Remember - Binary Addition: Add the binary numbers 1101 and 1011. Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Binary Subtraction: Subtract the binary number 1001 from 1110. Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Binary to Decimal Conversion: Convert the binary number 1101011 to its decimal equivalent. Show your work. - Decimal to Binary Conversion: Convert the decimal number 58 to its binary equivalent. Show your work. - Binary to Octal Conversion: Convert the binary number 110110101 to its octal equivalent. Show your work. - Octal to Binary Conversion: Convert the octal number 736 to its binary equivalent. Show your work. - Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion: Convert the binary number 1010111110 to its hexadecimal equivalent. Show your work. - Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion: Convert the hexadecimal number 3A7 to its binary equivalent. Show your work. - Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Conversion: Convert the decimal number 123 to its BCD equivalent. Show your work. Understand - Explain the Importance of Binary Numbers: Describe why binary numbers are fundamental to digital systems and how they are used in computing. Apply - Signed Binary Addition: Add the signed binary numbers 1101 (−3 in two's complement) and 0011 (3 in two's complement). Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Signed Binary Subtraction: Subtract the signed binary number 0101 (5 in two's complement) from 1110 (−2 in two's complement). Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Binary Multiplication: Multiply the binary numbers 101 (5 in decimal) and 11 (3 in decimal). Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Binary Division: Divide the binary number 1100 (12 in decimal) by 10 (2 in decimal). Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Gray Code Conversion: Convert the binary number 1010 to its Gray code equivalent. Show your work. - ASCII Code: Find the ASCII code for the character 'Z'. Show your work and provide the result in binary. - Unicode Conversion: Convert the character '€' (Euro sign) to its Unicode equivalent in UTF-8. Show your work. Analyze - Error Detection with Parity Bits: Given the binary string 1101011, add an even parity bit and show the resulting binary string. - Two's Complement: Find the two's complement of the binary number 101101. Show your work. - Explain Two's Complement: Explain how two's complement is used to represent negative numbers in binary and perform subtraction operations. Evaluate - Error Detection with CRC: Explain how CRC can be used to detect errors in the binary string 1101011011. Show the steps involved in generating and verifying the CRC. - Reed-Solomon Code: Explain how Reed-Solomon code can correct errors in a data block. Provide an example with a block of binary data and show the error correction process. Create - Design a Binary to Octal Converter: Create an algorithm or a program that converts binary numbers to their octal equivalents. - Design a Parity Bit Generator: Develop a circuit or program that generates parity bits for a given binary string to ensure error detection. References ABET (2024-2025). Accreditation Criteria. Retrieved from http://www.abet.org Krathwohl, R. David (2022) . A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory into Practice , Volume 41, Number 4, Autumn 2002 Module 3 Logic Gates Module 3 Logic Gates Module Content Part I Analytical Dimension 3.0 Introduction to Logic Gates 3.1 The Inverter 3.2 The AND Gate 3.3 The OR Gate 3.4 The NAND Gate 3.5 The NOR Gate 3.6 The Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-Nor Gates Part II Simulation Dimension 3.7 Simulators Part III Engineering Dimension 3.8 Hardware Implementation 3.9 Summary 3.10 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| 1. Recall the basic definitions, functions, and truth tables of primary logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR). (ABET SLO 1)* AI application: Identify different types of logic gates and understand their roles in AI systems. \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| \| 2. Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. (ABET SLO 1) AI application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| 3. Apply the principles of logic gate operation to design a simple AI-based digital circuit. (ABET SLO 2) AI application Construct a digital circuit using basic logic gates to implement a simple AI decision-making process. 7. Collaborate effectively with a technical team to design, build, and test a digital circuit incorporating AI elements. (ABET SLO 5) AI application: Work as part of a team to develop and test AI-integrated digital circuits, ensuring that all members contribute and learn. \| AI application: Work as part of a team to develop and test AI-integrated digital circuits, ensuring that all members contribute and learn. \| \| Analyze \| \| 4. Analyze the performance and efficiency of different logic gates within an AI-driven digital circuit. (ABET SLO 4) AI application: Evaluate the effectiveness of various logic gates in optimizing AI algorithms and decision-making processes. \| \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| 5. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. (ABET SLO 3) AI application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. \| \| \| Create \| \| \| AI application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. \| \| Table 1. 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives Explanation of the 2D Mapping Remember (Factual Knowledge) Recall the basic definitions, functions, and truth tables of primary logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR). Remember is the lowest level of cognitive complexity, involving the recall of facts and basic concepts. This objective requires students to remember and reproduce definitions, functions, and truth tables of logic gates. Factual Knowledge involves the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it. In this context, students need to know the fundamental facts about logic gates. Understand (Conceptual Knowledge) Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. The "Understand" level involves comprehending information and grasping its meaning. This objective requires students to explain concepts and applications, demonstrating that they understand the principles behind combinational logic circuits. Conceptual Knowledge, in this context, involves understanding the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure. Students must grasp how combinational logic circuits function and their applications in broader systems, showcasing their ability to see the connections and roles of individual components within the overall framework. Apply (Procedural Knowledge) Apply the principles of logic gate operation to design a simple AI-based digital circuit. Applying knowledge involves using information in new situations, which, in this context, requires students to use their understanding of logic gate operations to design a digital circuit. This objective indicates that students can take what they've learned theoretically and implement it in a practical scenario. Procedural knowledge, which encompasses knowing how to perform tasks, methods of inquiry, and the criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods, is essential here. Students must apply this procedural knowledge to design and construct functional circuits, demonstrating their ability to translate theoretical concepts into practical applications. Analyze (Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge) Analyze the performance and efficiency of different logic gates within an AI-driven digital circuit. Analyzing involves breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships. This objective requires students to analyze performance and efficiency, indicating they can deconstruct circuits and understand their components' interactions. Conceptual knowledge involves understanding the relationships and principles behind the circuits. Procedural knowledge involves evaluating the performance metrics and efficiency criteria, requiring an understanding of the methods used to measure and compare them. Evaluate (Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge) Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. Evaluating involves making judgments based on criteria and standards. This objective requires students to assess the pros and cons of using NAND and NOR gates, indicating they can make informed evaluations. Conceptual knowledge involves understanding the principles and criteria used to evaluate the effectiveness of universal gates. Procedural knowledge involves knowing how to apply these criteria to specific instances in complex AI systems. Create (Procedural Knowledge) Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. Create is the highest level of cognitive complexity, involving the synthesis of elements to form a novel structure or pattern. This objective requires students to design and implement a complex digital circuit, demonstrating their ability to integrate knowledge and skills into creating new systems. Procedural Knowledge is essential in this context, as it encompasses the steps, processes, and methods required to design and implement these complex systems, including the integration of AI algorithms. Create (Procedural and Metacognitive Knowledge) Collaborate effectively with a technical team to design, build, and test a digital circuit incorporating AI elements. This objective falls within the Bloom's levels of Create, Procedural, and Metacognitive knowledge because it requires students to generate new solutions by designing, building, and testing a digital circuit, which involves synthesizing different elements into a functional system (Create). It also necessitates understanding and applying structured methods and processes to achieve the desired outcome (Procedural). Additionally, effective collaboration requires students to manage their own learning, reflect on their contributions, understand team dynamics, communicate effectively, and oversee project development, ensuring all members contribute and the project stays on track (Metacognitive). This combination of high-level cognitive skills, practical application, and self-awareness is essential for successfully completing complex, collaborative projects. Part I: Analytical Dimension 3.0 Introduction to Logic Gates Logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits. They perform fundamental logical functions that are essential in various computing and electronic applications. Each gate processes one or more binary inputs (0s and 1s) to produce a single binary output. The basic logic gates include the inverter (NOT gate), AND gate, OR gate, NAND gate, NOR gate, XOR gate, and XNOR gate. These gates can be combined in multiple ways to create more complex circuits and perform a variety of tasks. The concept of logic gates is rooted in Boolean algebra, which deals with variables that have two possible values: true (1) and false (0). In digital electronics, these values are represented by different voltage levels. Logic gates interpret these voltages to execute simple logical operations that are fundamental to digital systems. Logic gates are ubiquitous in modern technology, powering everything from basic household electronics to advanced computing systems. For example, they are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, and smartphones. In more complex applications, logic gates form the backbone of processors, memory devices, and complex integrated circuits. In the context of artificial intelligence (AI), logic gates play a crucial role in creating hardware that can efficiently execute AI algorithms. AI systems often rely on binary decisions and logic operations to process data and make decisions. For instance, in machine learning, neural networks consist of numerous interconnected nodes that perform logical operations similar to logic gates. The ability to process and analyze large volumes of binary data quickly and accurately is essential for AI applications. Understanding how logic gates work is fundamental for designing and analyzing digital systems. In the following sections, we will explore each type of logic gate in detail, including their operations, truth tables, examples, and applications in both general digital circuits and AI systems. This foundational knowledge will provide insight into how complex digital systems are built and how they function. 3.1 The Inverter The inverter, also known as the NOT gate, is the simplest type of logic gate. It performs a fundamental operation: it inverts or reverses the input signal. If the input is a binary 1 (high voltage), the output will be a binary 0 (low voltage), and if the input is a binary 0, the output will be a binary 1. This gate is crucial in digital circuits for generating complementary signals and implementing logical negations. Operation: Symbol: \| The inverter takes a single input and produces a single output that is always the opposite of the input. This can be mathematically expressed as A, where ‾ denotes the NOT operation. Truth Table: A \| Output (A) \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| The truth table for the inverter is straightforward. It shows that when the input (A) is 0, the output is 1, and when the input is 1, the output is 0. This simple relationship is fundamental to many digital logic circuits. Example: Consider a digital signal that needs to be inverted for a specific application. If we have a signal representing a logic 1, passing it through an inverter will change it to logic 0. Conversely, a logic 0 input will be converted to logic 1. Simple Application: Inverters are used in various applications where signal inversion is required. One common use is in digital clocks to toggle between AM and PM. In this case, the inverter can flip a signal representing AM to PM and vice versa. Another example is in digital communication systems, where inverters are used to create the complement of a signal. This can be useful in error detection and correction schemes, where the original data and its complement are compared to identify errors. AI Application: In AI circuits, inverters are used to handle binary decisions and toggle states. For example, in a neural network, the activation function might require an inverted signal to control the activation of a neuron. Inverters can also be used in digital control systems within AI applications to ensure that certain conditions are negated when making decisions. Inverters are also essential in creating more complex logic functions. By combining inverters with other logic gates, we can build intricate logic circuits that perform a wide range of operations. For instance, in combinational logic circuits, inverters are used to implement logical expressions that require negation. Hardware Implementation: Inverters can be implemented using various electronic components. The most common implementations are using transistors, such as MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors) in CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technology. A basic CMOS inverter consists of a pair of transistors: one p-type and one n-type, arranged in a push-pull configuration. When the input is high, the n-type transistor conducts, pulling the output low. When the input is low, the p-type transistor conducts, pulling the output high. Integration in Complex Circuits: Inverters are often integrated into more complex circuits, such as flip-flops, which are the building blocks of memory devices. In a flip-flop, inverters are used to maintain the state of the memory cell. They are also used in oscillators, where the inverting property creates feedback that sustains oscillation. Understanding the inverter and its operation is crucial for anyone involved in digital electronics and AI hardware design. This basic gate's simplicity belies its importance in creating complex logical structures and performing critical operations in digital systems. 3.2 The AND Gate The AND gate is one of the most fundamental logic gates in digital electronics. It performs a logical conjunction, meaning it only outputs a high signal (1) if all of its inputs are high (1). If any input is low (0), the output will be low (0). This gate is essential in situations where multiple conditions must be met simultaneously for an action to occur. Operation: Symbol: \| The AND gate takes two or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The output is 1 only when all the inputs are 1. This can be mathematically expressed as A⋅B, where ⋅ denotes the AND operation. Truth Table: A \| B \| Output (A ⋅ B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| The truth table for the AND gate clearly shows that the output is high (1) only when both inputs A and B are high (1). For all other combinations of inputs, the output is low (0). Example: Consider a scenario where a system requires two conditions to be true simultaneously for an action to occur. For instance, an industrial machine might be set to operate only when two safety switches are engaged. If either switch is off, the machine will not run. This ensures that the machine operates only under safe conditions. Simple Application: One common application of the AND gate is in security systems. For example, a door might only unlock if both a keycard and a PIN code are presented. The keycard and the PIN code can be thought of as the two inputs to an AND gate. Only when both inputs are valid (high) will the output be high, unlocking the door. Another simple application is in digital electronics, where AND gates are used to create combinational logic circuits. For instance, in a binary adder circuit, AND gates are used to determine carry-out bits, ensuring accurate binary addition. AI Application: In AI systems, AND gates are crucial in decision-making processes where multiple conditions need to be satisfied. For example, in a neural network, an AND gate might be used to activate a neuron only when multiple preceding neurons have fired, indicating a combined pattern of inputs. AND gates are also used in AI algorithms for tasks such as image processing and pattern recognition. For instance, in a system designed to recognize specific features in an image, multiple conditions (features) might need to be detected simultaneously for the system to identify the object correctly. Hardware Implementation: AND gates can be implemented using various technologies, including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. In CMOS technology, an AND gate can be constructed using a combination of n-type and p-type transistors arranged to ensure the output is high only when both inputs are high. In a basic CMOS AND gate, the circuit typically consists of series and parallel combinations of transistors. When both inputs are high, the n-type transistors conduct, and the output is connected to the ground, producing a high output. Integration in Complex Circuits: AND gates are often integrated into more complex digital circuits, such as multiplexers and demultiplexers. In a multiplexer, AND gates are used to control which input signal is passed to the output, based on the selection lines. In demultiplexers, AND gates direct the input signal to one of several outputs. AND gates are also fundamental in the design of arithmetic logic units (ALUs) within microprocessors. In an ALU, AND gates are used for logical operations, such as bitwise AND operations, which are essential for processing binary data. Real-World Example: A practical example of an AND gate in a real-world application is in automotive safety systems. For instance, the airbag deployment system in a car might use AND gates to ensure that airbags deploy only when multiple sensors indicate a collision. The sensors might include accelerometers detecting sudden deceleration and pressure sensors detecting impact. The AND gate ensures that the airbag deploys only when both conditions are met, preventing accidental deployment. Understanding the AND gate and its operation is crucial for designing and analyzing digital systems. This gate's ability to combine multiple conditions into a single logical operation makes it indispensable in both basic and advanced digital circuits. Its applications range from simple control systems to complex AI algorithms, highlighting its versatility and importance in modern technology. 3.3 The OR Gate The OR gate is a fundamental logic gate in digital electronics that performs a logical disjunction. It outputs a high signal (1) if at least one of its inputs is high (1). If all inputs are low (0), the output will be low (0). This gate is essential in situations where at least one condition needs to be met for an action to occur. Operation: Symbol: \| The OR gate takes two or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The output is 1 when at least one input is 1. This can be mathematically expressed as A+B, where + denotes the OR operation. Truth Table: A \| B \| Output (A + B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| The truth table for the OR gate shows that the output is high (1) if either input A or B or both are high. The output is low (0) only when both inputs are low. Example: Consider a scenario where a light should be turned on if either of two switches is flipped. If Switch A or Switch B is on, the light will be on. This scenario can be implemented using an OR gate where the two switches are the inputs. Simple Application: One common application of the OR gate is in control systems where multiple conditions can trigger the same action. For example, in a fire alarm system, an alarm might sound if any of several sensors detect smoke or heat. Each sensor can be connected to an OR gate, ensuring that the alarm is triggered if any sensor detects a potential fire. Another simple application is in logic circuits used for basic decision-making processes. For instance, in a voting system, an OR gate can be used to determine if a proposal passes by considering votes from multiple sources. If any source votes yes, the proposal passes. AI Application: In AI systems, OR gates are crucial in decision-making processes where any one of multiple conditions can trigger an action. For example, in an AI-driven home automation system, an OR gate might be used to turn on the heating if the temperature drops below a certain threshold or if the user manually activates the heating system. This flexibility allows the system to respond to multiple triggers. OR gates are also used in machine learning algorithms, particularly in neural networks where multiple neurons may activate a particular neuron in the next layer. The OR gate can facilitate this process by ensuring that the next neuron activates if any of the preceding neurons fire. Hardware Implementation: OR gates can be implemented using various technologies, including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. In CMOS technology, an OR gate can be constructed using a combination of n-type and p-type transistors arranged to ensure the output is high if at least one input is high. In a basic CMOS OR gate, the circuit typically consists of parallel combinations of transistors. When any input is high, the p-type transistors conduct, connecting the output to the positive supply, producing a high output. Integration in Complex Circuits: OR gates are often integrated into more complex digital circuits, such as multiplexers and arithmetic logic units (ALUs). In a multiplexer, OR gates are used to combine multiple input signals based on the selection lines. In ALUs, OR gates perform bitwise OR operations, which are essential for logical operations on binary data. OR gates are also used in timing circuits where they can control the flow of signals based on multiple timing conditions. For example, in a digital clock, an OR gate can be used to ensure that an alarm sounds if any of several timing conditions are met. Real-World Example: A practical example of an OR gate in a real-world application is in automotive systems. For instance, the hazard warning lights in a car can be activated by either the driver pressing the hazard button or an automatic system detecting a sudden stop. The OR gate ensures that the hazard lights are turned on if either condition is met, improving safety. Understanding the OR gate and its operation is crucial for designing and analyzing digital systems. This gate's ability to respond to multiple conditions makes it indispensable in both simple and complex digital circuits. Its applications range from basic control systems to advanced AI algorithms, highlighting its versatility and importance in modern technology. 3.4 The NAND Gate The NAND gate, short for "Not AND" gate, is a fundamental logic gate that performs a combination of the AND operation followed by a NOT operation. It outputs a low signal (0) only if all of its inputs are high (1). If any input is low (0), the output will be high (1). The NAND gate is one of the most versatile and widely used gates in digital electronics, often serving as a universal gate since any other logic gate can be constructed using NAND gates alone. Operation: Symbol: \| The NAND gate takes two or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The output is 0 only when all inputs are 1. This can be mathematically expressed as A∙B , where ⋅ denotes the AND operation and ‾ denotes the NOT operation. Truth Table: A \| B \| Output (A∙B ) \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| The truth table for the NAND gate shows that the output is high (1) unless both inputs A and B are high, in which case the output is low (0). Example: Consider a scenario where a system should only remain off if two conditions are true simultaneously. For instance, a machine might stop working if both an overheat sensor and a high-pressure sensor are triggered. If either or both sensors are not triggered, the machine continues to operate. This can be implemented using a NAND gate where the sensors are the inputs. Simple Application: One common application of the NAND gate is in digital logic circuits where negation of an AND operation is required. For example, in a simple safety interlock system, the machine will shut down only if both safety conditions are met. If either condition is not met, the NAND gate ensures that the machine continues to operate. Another simple application is in the construction of flip-flops, which are the basic building blocks of memory cells. A flip-flop can be created using NAND gates to store a single bit of data, making them essential for building registers and memory units in digital systems. AI Application: In AI systems, NAND gates play a crucial role in building the hardware for neural networks and other logic-based AI algorithms. For example, in a neural network, a NAND gate can be used to implement logic functions that require the negation of an AND operation. This is particularly useful in circuits that perform thresholding operations, where a certain condition must not be met to trigger an output. NAND gates are also used in AI algorithms for tasks such as decision-making and control systems. For instance, in a robotic control system, a NAND gate can ensure that a robot stops only when both a collision sensor and a critical battery level sensor are activated, providing a fail-safe mechanism. Hardware Implementation: NAND gates can be implemented using various technologies, including transistors and integrated circuits. In CMOS technology, a NAND gate is constructed using a combination of n-type and p-type transistors arranged to ensure the output is low only when all inputs are high. In a basic CMOS NAND gate, the circuit typically consists of series and parallel combinations of transistors. When both inputs are high, the n-type transistors conduct, and the p-type transistors turn off, pulling the output low. When any input is low, the output is pulled high. Integration in Complex Circuits: NAND gates are often integrated into more complex digital circuits, such as multiplexers, decoders, and memory units. In a multiplexer, NAND gates are used to combine multiple input signals based on selection lines. In decoders, NAND gates are used to decode binary inputs into specific outputs, which is crucial for memory addressing. NAND gates are also fundamental in the design of arithmetic logic units (ALUs) within microprocessors. In an ALU, NAND gates perform essential logical operations, contributing to the processing and manipulation of binary data. Real-World Example: A practical example of a NAND gate in a real-world application is in electronic security systems. For instance, an electronic safe might use NAND gates to ensure that the safe remains locked unless two specific conditions are met simultaneously, such as entering the correct PIN code and using a valid keycard. If either condition is not met, the safe remains locked, providing an additional layer of security. Universal Gate: The NAND gate is known as a universal gate because any other logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, NOR, XOR, XNOR) can be constructed using only NAND gates. This property makes the NAND gate incredibly versatile and valuable in digital circuit design. For instance, a NOT gate can be created by connecting both inputs of a NAND gate together, and an AND gate can be created using two NAND gates. Understanding the NAND gate and its operation is crucial for designing and analyzing digital systems. This gate's ability to perform a combination of AND and NOT operations makes it indispensable in both simple and complex digital circuits. Its applications range from basic safety interlocks to advanced AI hardware, highlighting its versatility and importance in modern technology. 3.5 The NOR Gate The NOR gate, short for "Not OR" gate, is a fundamental logic gate that performs a combination of the OR operation followed by a NOT operation. It outputs a low signal (0) if at least one of its inputs is high (1). If all inputs are low (0), the output will be high (1). The NOR gate is often considered a universal gate because, like the NAND gate, any other logic gate can be constructed using only NOR gates. Operation: Symbol: \| \| The NOR gate takes two or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The output is 1 only when all inputs are 0. This can be mathematically expressed as A+B , where + denotes the OR operation and ‾ denotes the NOT operation. Truth Table: A \| B \| Output (A+B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| The truth table for the NOR gate shows that the output is high (1) only when both inputs A and B are low. For all other combinations of inputs, the output is low (0). Example: Consider a scenario where a system should remain inactive unless all input conditions are false. For instance, a security alarm might be designed to remain silent unless all entry points (doors and windows) are closed. If any entry point is open, the alarm should sound. This can be implemented using a NOR gate where the sensors for each entry point are the inputs. Simple Application: One common application of the NOR gate is in control systems where the output should be active only when all conditions are false. For example, in a water-level monitoring system, a pump might be activated only when all water level sensors indicate that the tank is empty. The NOR gate ensures that the pump is off if any sensor detects water. Another simple application is in the construction of flip-flops, particularly the SR (Set-Reset) flip-flop, which can be built using two cross-coupled NOR gates. This configuration allows the flip-flop to store a single bit of data, making it essential for building registers and memory units in digital systems. AI Application: In AI systems, NOR gates play a crucial role in building the hardware for logic-based AI algorithms. For example, in a neural network, a NOR gate can be used to implement logic functions that require the negation of an OR operation. This is particularly useful in circuits that perform inhibitory functions, where the activation of a particular node is suppressed if any input condition is true. NOR gates are also used in AI algorithms for tasks such as decision-making and control systems. For instance, in an autonomous vehicle control system, a NOR gate can ensure that a safety mechanism is activated only when all sensors indicate safe conditions, providing a fail-safe mechanism. Hardware Implementation: NOR gates can be implemented using various technologies, including transistors and integrated circuits. In CMOS technology, a NOR gate is constructed using a combination of n-type and p-type transistors arranged to ensure the output is high only when all inputs are low. In a basic CMOS NOR gate, the circuit typically consists of parallel combinations of transistors. When all inputs are low, the p-type transistors conduct, and the n-type transistors turn off, pulling the output high. When any input is high, the output is pulled low. Integration in Complex Circuits: NOR gates are often integrated into more complex digital circuits, such as multiplexers, decoders, and memory units. In a multiplexer, NOR gates are used to combine multiple input signals based on selection lines. In decoders, NOR gates are used to decode binary inputs into specific outputs, which is crucial for memory addressing. NOR gates are also fundamental in the design of arithmetic logic units (ALUs) within microprocessors. In an ALU, NOR gates perform essential logical operations, contributing to the processing and manipulation of binary data. Real-World Example: A practical example of a NOR gate in a real-world application is in electronic control systems. For instance, a car's braking system might use NOR gates to ensure that the brake lights turn on only when neither the brake pedal is pressed nor the parking brake is engaged. This ensures that the brake lights indicate when braking action is happening, improving safety. Universal Gate: The NOR gate is known as a universal gate because any other logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, XOR, XNOR) can be constructed using only NOR gates. This property makes the NOR gate incredibly versatile and valuable in digital circuit design. For instance, a NOT gate can be created by connecting both inputs of a NOR gate together, and an OR gate can be created using two NOR gates. Understanding the NOR Gate in AI and Digital Systems: In AI systems, NOR gates are used to simplify the design of complex logic circuits. They help in creating efficient circuits for decision-making processes, ensuring that certain conditions must be false for a particular action to be taken. This is essential in AI algorithms that require inhibitory functions or safety mechanisms. NOR gates are also used in digital signal processing, where they help in filtering and controlling signals based on multiple conditions. In AI applications, this can be critical for tasks such as image recognition and data analysis, where multiple conditions need to be evaluated simultaneously. Understanding the NOR gate and its operation is crucial for designing and analyzing digital systems. This gate's ability to perform a combination of OR and NOT operations makes it indispensable in both simple and complex digital circuits. Its applications range from basic control systems to advanced AI hardware, highlighting its versatility and importance in modern technology. 3.6 The Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-NOR Gates The Exclusive-OR (XOR) and Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gates are two special types of logic gates that perform unique logical operations. These gates are crucial in digital electronics for tasks that require differentiation between inputs or comparison of binary values. The Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gate The XOR gate outputs a high signal (1) if and only if an odd number of its inputs are high (1). For two inputs, this means the output is high when one input is high and the other is low. The XOR gate is widely used in digital systems for error detection, parity checking, and arithmetic operations. Operation: Symbol: \| \| The XOR gate takes two or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The output is 1 when the number of high inputs is odd. Truth Table: A \| B \| Output (A ⊕ B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| The truth table for the XOR gate shows that the output is high (1) only when one of the inputs is high and the other is low. If both inputs are the same, the output is low (0). Example: Consider a scenario where a light should turn on only if one of two switches is flipped, but not both. If Switch A is on and Switch B is off, or vice versa, the light turns on. This can be implemented using an XOR gate where the two switches are the inputs. Simple Application: One common application of the XOR gate is in digital circuits for parity checking. Parity bits are added to data to ensure it is transmitted correctly. An XOR gate can be used to generate the parity bit by comparing the number of 1s in the data. If the number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to 1; otherwise, it is set to 0. Another simple application is in binary addition. In a half-adder circuit, the XOR gate is used to sum two binary digits, providing the sum bit while an AND gate generates the carry bit. AI Application: In AI systems, XOR gates are crucial in neural networks for tasks such as learning and pattern recognition. For instance, an XOR gate can be used in a neural network to implement logic functions that require differentiation between inputs. This is particularly useful in training neural networks to recognize patterns and make decisions based on unique combinations of inputs. XOR gates are also used in encryption algorithms where data is encoded and decoded using logical operations. In AI-driven security systems, XOR gates ensure that data is securely transmitted and received, protecting it from unauthorized access. Hardware Implementation: XOR gates can be implemented using various technologies, including transistors and integrated circuits. In CMOS technology, an XOR gate is constructed using a combination of n-type and p-type transistors arranged to produce the desired output based on the input conditions. In a basic CMOS XOR gate, the circuit typically consists of multiple transistors arranged in a way that the output is high only when an odd number of inputs are high. This configuration ensures the accurate execution of the XOR operation. Integration in Complex Circuits: XOR gates are often integrated into more complex digital circuits, such as arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and error detection and correction systems. In an ALU, XOR gates perform essential logical operations, contributing to the processing and manipulation of binary data. XOR gates are also used in digital signal processing, where they help in comparing and combining signals based on unique conditions. In AI applications, this can be critical for tasks such as image recognition and data analysis, where specific patterns need to be detected and differentiated. PART II – Simulation Dimension Simulating logic circuits offers numerous advantages that significantly enhance the design and learning process in both educational and professional contexts. One of the primary benefits is the ability to test and debug circuits without the need for physical components, saving time and reducing costs associated with prototyping. Simulations provide immediate feedback, allowing designers and students to quickly identify and rectify errors, thereby improving understanding and efficiency. Furthermore, they enable the exploration of complex circuits and scenarios that might be impractical or impossible to create physically. For instance, Figure 1 below displays a simulation of an AND logic gate. In this simulation, the inputs A and B can be adjusted, allowing the output, OUT, to be observed and verified against the corresponding truth table. Figure 1. Simulation of AND gate using web-based Circuitverse simulator. The concept of a "second dimension" in learning and validating logic circuits refers to simulation, complementing the "first dimension" of Boolean algebra and truth tables. While Boolean algebra and truth tables provide the theoretical foundation for understanding the behavior of logic gates such as AND, OR, and NOT, simulations offer a practical, dynamic way to visualize and validate these analytical results. By using simulation tools, users can see real-time outputs of their logic designs, confirming the correctness of their theoretical analyses and gaining deeper insights into circuit behavior. The diversity of simulators available online, such as CircuitVerse, CircuitLab, and Multisim, caters to a wide range of needs from educational purposes to professional-grade design and analysis, ensuring that users can find a tool that fits their specific requirements. This variety in simulation tools further enhances accessibility and flexibility, making it easier for individuals and teams to leverage the benefits of circuit simulation in their projects. Overall, integrating the second dimension of simulation with the first dimension of Boolean algebra and truth tables not only streamlines the development process and enhances educational experiences but also fosters innovation in electronic design. To help you navigate the plethora of available tools and choose the best one for your needs, I have compiled a comprehensive review of three popular logic circuit simulators: CircuitVerse, CircuitLab, and Multisim. Each of these simulators offers unique features and capabilities, catering to different user requirements and preferences. The following review will provide a detailed comparison of these tools, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and guiding you in selecting the most suitable simulator for your specific applications. - CircuitVerse Overview: CircuitVerse is an open-source platform designed specifically for digital logic circuit design and simulation. It is widely used in educational settings due to its user-friendly interface and collaborative features. Features: - User Interface: CircuitVerse offers an intuitive drag-and-drop interface, making it easy for beginners to create and simulate circuits. - Component Library: Includes a comprehensive library of digital components, including various types of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and more. - Simulation: Real-time simulation with a clear visualization of the logic state of each component, facilitating immediate feedback and learning. - Collaboration: Allows multiple users to work on the same project, which is beneficial for group projects and remote learning. - Educational Tools: Integrated with features like circuit sharing, project gallery, and interactive tutorials, which are excellent for classroom use. - Accessibility: Web-based platform, accessible from any device with a browser, without the need for installation. Pros: - Free and open source. - User-friendly interface ideal for educational purposes. - Supports collaborative work. - No installation required. Cons: - Limited to digital circuits; lacks support for analog circuits. - Performance can be slow for complex circuits. - Less suited for professional use compared to more advanced simulators. - CircuitLab Overview: CircuitLab is a versatile online platform for designing and simulating both analog and digital circuits. It caters to a broad range of users from hobbyists to professionals. Features: - User Interface: Features a clean, intuitive drag-and-drop interface with advanced options for more experienced users. - Component Library: Extensive library covering both analog and digital components, including resistors, capacitors, logic gates, and operational amplifiers. - Simulation: Supports both time-domain and frequency-domain simulations, providing detailed analysis tools like Bode plots, transient analysis, and DC sweeps. - Educational Tools: Offers a variety of resources including interactive tutorials, examples, and problem sets that are beneficial for learning and teaching. - Accessibility: Web-based, ensuring compatibility across different platforms without installation hassles. Pros: - Supports both analog and digital circuit simulation. - Detailed simulation and analysis tools. - Suitable for educational and professional use. - Web-based, with no need for installation. Cons: - Subscription-based service, which might be a barrier for some users. - The interface, while user-friendly, might be overwhelming for absolute beginners. - Some advanced features are locked behind the paid version. - Multisim Overview: Multisim, developed by National Instruments, is a professional-grade circuit design and simulation software widely used in academia and industry. It is known for its comprehensive features and high-quality simulations. Features: - User Interface: Professional interface with extensive customization options, suitable for complex circuit design tasks. - Component Library: Vast library including analog, digital, and mixed-signal components, as well as advanced models like microcontrollers and FPGAs. - Simulation: High-fidelity simulations with support for various types of analysis, including SPICE simulation, AC/DC analysis, transient analysis, and more. - Educational Tools: Integrates with NI hardware and offers a suite of educational tools, making it a popular choice for university courses and labs. - Accessibility: Desktop application available for Windows, requiring installation and licensing. Pros: - Comprehensive and professional-grade tool. - Extensive component library and simulation capabilities. - High-fidelity simulations suitable for both educational and professional use. - Integration with NI hardware. Cons: - Expensive, with a significant cost for licensing. - Steeper learning curve compared to other tools. - Requires installation and is limited to specific operating systems. - Logisim Overview: Logisim is an open-source educational tool designed for creating and simulating digital logic circuits. It is particularly popular in academic settings for teaching the basics of digital logic design. Features: - User Interface: Simple and user-friendly drag-and-drop interface, making it accessible for beginners. - Component Library: Includes basic digital components such as logic gates, multiplexers, flip-flops, and more. - Simulation: Real-time simulation with easy-to-understand visual representation of the circuit states. - Educational Tools: Supports hierarchical circuit design, allowing the creation of complex circuits from simpler sub-circuits, which is beneficial for learning and teaching. - Accessibility: Standalone application available for Windows, macOS, and Linux, requiring minimal installation. Pros: - Free and open source. - Extremely user-friendly, ideal for beginners. - Lightweight and requires minimal installation. - Excellent for educational purposes, particularly in introductory courses. Cons: - Limited to digital circuits; does not support analog simulation. - Basic compared to more advanced simulators; lacks some professional features. - Not as suitable for complex or large-scale circuit designs. Conclusion Each of these simulators has its strengths and weaknesses, making them suitable for different use cases: - CircuitVerse is ideal for educational purposes, particularly for beginners and collaborative learning environments. - CircuitLab offers a good balance between ease of use and advanced features, making it suitable for both hobbyists and professionals. - Multisim stands out as a professional-grade tool with extensive features, best suited for advanced users in academia and industry who require high-fidelity simulations and comprehensive analysis tools. - Logisim is perfect for educational settings, especially for those starting with digital logic design due to its simplicity and ease of use. Take notice that there are many more simulators; this is a very short list. Any of the simulators mentioned in this textbook would work for your assignments. However, CircuitLab and Multisim require a premium service, whereas Circuitverse and Logisim are open-source. Selecting the right tool depends on your specific needs and context, whether for educational use, professional circuit design, or a blend of both. Part III – Engineering Dimension To truly bring the concepts to life, a "third dimension" of learning and validation is introduced: engineering. This dimension merges the theoretical and simulated aspects into a tangible form through hands-on experimentation. In this stage, students use breadboards to physically build their circuits, converting concepts into reality. The breadboard allows for the practical assembly of components like resistors, capacitors, and logic gates, providing a platform for final validation of the designs. This step serves as a crucial bridge between abstract theoretical understanding and real-world application, ensuring that students can see and handle the physical representations of their logic circuits. Building circuits on a breadboard enables students to experience the practical challenges and intricacies of electronic design, such as managing connections, troubleshooting faults, and understanding component behaviors in a real environment. This hands-on practice reinforces the learning from the previous dimensions and solidifies their comprehension through practical application. By merging Boolean algebra, simulation, and physical construction, students achieve a comprehensive understanding of logic circuits, fully prepared to tackle real-world engineering problems. Table 2 shows simulations of how logic circuits are built on a breadboard. Using Tinkercad's free web-based simulator, we can accurately replicate the process of building a circuit on a real breadboard. Tinkercad is particularly useful because it provides a realistic simulation environment, enabling students to practice and perfect their designs virtually. Another neat feature of Tinkercad is its ability to show if too much voltage or current is used for the IC, as demonstrated in the figure below, which indicates that some circuit elements may be harmed if such voltage is applied as shown in Table 3. Notice that a 9V battery is used instead of a DC power supply, where a specific voltage and current can be specified accordingly. This predictive fault indication is a significant advantage, as it cannot be done in real life, giving students the ability to foresee and correct potential issues before implementing their designs physically. In the simulations shown below, IC 74HC08 is utilized, which contains four two-input AND gates as shown in its technical sheet and the figure below. For the IC to function, it must be grounded and powered. In the simulations, you can observe that when both switches are low (0), the LED is off, indicating the output is low (0). This also occurs when one of the switches is low. Conversely, when both switches are high (1), the LED lights up, signifying that the output of the AND gate is high (1), thus validating the AND gate's Boolean function (Y = AB) and truth table. A=0 B=0 Y = 0 \| A=0 B=1 Y = 0 \| A=B=1 Y=1 LED is ON \| Table 2 Tinkercad Simulations of an AND Gate Built on a Breadboard. Visualization of faulty predictability \| IC 74HC08 Pin assignments \| Table 3 Tinkercad Simulation of a foreseen anomaly and IC pin assignment diagram. 3.7 Summary In this module, we have explored the fundamental concepts and operations of various logic gates, which are the essential building blocks of digital electronics and computing systems. Understanding these gates is crucial for anyone involved in electronics, computer science, and AI development. Let's summarize the key points discussed for each type of logic gate and their significance in digital and AI applications. Introduction to Logic Gates: Logic gates process binary inputs to produce specific binary outputs based on their logical functions. They form the backbone of digital circuits and systems, enabling complex computations and decision-making processes in both simple and advanced technologies. The Inverter (NOT Gate): The inverter is a basic logic gate that inverts the input signal. It outputs a high signal when the input is low and vice versa. This gate is used in digital circuits to generate complementary signals and implement logical negations. In AI systems, inverters help toggle binary states and handle binary decisions. The AND Gate: The AND gate outputs a high signal only when all its inputs are high. It performs a logical conjunction, making it essential in scenarios where multiple conditions must be met simultaneously. AND gates are used in security systems, control systems, and AI decision-making processes where combined conditions must be satisfied. The OR Gate: The OR gate outputs a high signal if at least one of its inputs is high. It performs a logical disjunction, allowing flexibility in input combinations. OR gates are widely used in control systems, digital electronics, and AI applications where multiple triggers can initiate the same action. The NAND Gate: The NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate followed by an inverter. It outputs a low signal only when all its inputs are high. As a universal gate, NAND gates can construct any other logic gate, making them versatile in digital circuit design. In AI systems, NAND gates provide fail-safe mechanisms and implement essential logic functions. The NOR Gate: The NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by an inverter. It outputs a low signal if at least one of its inputs is high. NOR gates, like NAND gates, are universal and can construct any other logic gate. They are used in control systems, digital comparators, and AI applications requiring inhibitory functions and safety mechanisms. The Exclusive-OR (XOR) and Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gates: The XOR gate outputs a high signal if an odd number of its inputs are high, while the XNOR gate outputs a high signal if an even number of its inputs are high. These gates are crucial for error detection, parity checking, and equality comparison in digital systems. In AI applications, XOR and XNOR gates facilitate pattern recognition, decision-making, and secure data transmission. Applications in Digital and AI Systems: Logic gates are integral to various applications, from simple control systems to complex AI algorithms. In digital systems, they form the basis of arithmetic operations, memory storage, and data processing. In AI systems, logic gates enable neural network functions, decision-making processes, and secure data handling. Integration and Implementation: Logic gates can be implemented using different technologies, including transistors and integrated circuits. CMOS technology is commonly used to construct efficient and reliable logic gates. These gates are integrated into complex circuits such as multiplexers, ALUs, and memory units, forming the core of digital and AI hardware. Significance in AI: In AI applications, logic gates are fundamental in creating hardware that efficiently processes AI algorithms. They ensure accurate and fast binary decisions, critical for machine learning and neural networks. Logic gates help AI systems perform tasks such as pattern recognition, decision-making, error detection, and secure data transmission. Universal Nature of NAND and NOR Gates: The NAND and NOR gates' universal nature makes them particularly important, as any other logic gate can be constructed using only these gates. This property simplifies circuit design and enhances flexibility in implementing complex digital systems. Future of Logic Gates in AI and Digital Systems: As technology advances, the role of logic gates in AI and digital systems will continue to grow. Innovations in quantum computing, neuromorphic engineering, and advanced semiconductor technologies will further enhance the capabilities and applications of logic gates, driving the next generation of AI and digital solutions. Simulation and Engineering Dimensions: To reinforce our understanding, we introduced two additional dimensions beyond the theoretical analysis of logic gates: simulation and engineering. The simulation dimension, utilizing tools such as Tinkercad, allows for virtual construction and testing of logic circuits, providing immediate feedback and visual confirmation of theoretical results. This step bridges the gap between Boolean algebra and practical application by enabling users to adjust inputs and observe outputs in real-time, validating the functionality of gates like AND, OR, and NOT. The engineering dimension brings the concepts to life through hands-on experimentation. Using breadboards, students physically build their circuits, merging theoretical knowledge and simulated practices into tangible projects. This practical approach highlights real-world challenges, such as managing connections and troubleshooting, which are crucial for deepening understanding and ensuring accurate application of logic gates in physical circuits. In conclusion, logic gates are the foundational elements of digital electronics, enabling a wide range of applications from simple control systems to advanced AI algorithms. Understanding their operations, applications, and significance is crucial for designing and analyzing digital systems. As technology evolves, logic gates will remain at the heart of innovation in computing and AI, driving progress and enabling new possibilities. 2.15 Problems Remembering Problem 1: Define the basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. Include their symbols and truth tables. - Objective: Recall the basic definitions, functions, and truth tables of primary logic gates. - AI Application: Identify different types of logic gates and understand their roles in AI systems. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 2: List the primary differences between combinational and sequential logic circuits. - Objective: Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. - AI Application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 3: Describe the concept of a universal gate and name the two universal gates. - Objective: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. - AI Application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. - ABET SLO: 3 Understanding Problem 4: Explain why NAND and NOR gates are considered universal gates. - Objective: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. - AI Application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. - ABET SLO: 3 Problem 5: Describe how logic gates can be combined to create a simple AI decision-making system. - Objective: Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. - AI Application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 6: Illustrate the working of an adder circuit using basic logic gates. - Objective: Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. - AI Application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. - ABET SLO: 2 Applying Problem 7: Construct a truth table for a given logic circuit and simplify it using Boolean algebra. - Objective: Recall the basic definitions, functions, and truth tables of primary logic gates. - AI Application: Identify different types of logic gates and understand their roles in AI systems. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 8: Design a simple combinational logic circuit to control a traffic light system. Simulate the circuit using a simulator of your preference. - Objective: Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. - AI Application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 9: Implement a digital circuit that uses NAND gates exclusively to perform the function of an OR gate. Simulate the circuit to verify its correctness. - Objective: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. - AI Application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. - ABET SLO: 3 Problem 10: Use logic gates to design a 2-bit binary adder. Simulate the circuit using a simulator of your preference to verify its functionality. - Objective: Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. - AI Application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 11: Build a logic gate circuit on a breadboard to implement a given Boolean expression (e.g., A(B + C)). - Objective: Apply practical skills in constructing digital circuits on a breadboard. - AI Application: Gain hands-on experience in building and testing logic circuits, essential for developing AI hardware systems. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 12: Design and simulate a simple digital circuit that converts binary to decimal using basic logic gates. Use a simulator of your preference. - Objective: Apply knowledge of logic gates and digital circuits to solve practical problems. - AI Application: Use simulation tools to design and test digital circuits for AI applications. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 13: Simulate a 4-bit binary adder circuit using basic logic gates in Logisim or Multisim. Verify the simulation results. - Objective: Understand the design and operation of combinational logic circuits. - AI Application: Use simulations to verify the design and operation of digital systems used in AI. - ABET SLO: 3 Problem 14: Design and simulate a 3-bit binary multiplier circuit using basic logic gates in a simulator of your preference. Verify its operation. - Objective: Apply digital circuit design techniques to create a multiplier circuit. - AI Application: Use simulation tools to design and verify complex digital circuits for AI applications. - ABET SLO: 2 Analyzing Problem 15: Analyze a given digital circuit (e.g., a 3-input AND gate circuit) and determine its output for all possible inputs. - Objective: Recall the basic definitions, functions, and truth tables of primary logic gates. - AI Application: Identify different types of logic gates and understand their roles in AI systems. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 16: Compare the efficiency of using NAND gates versus NOR gates in a given 4-bit binary adder circuit. Simulate both versions in a simulator of your preference and compare the results. - Objective: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. - AI Application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. - ABET SLO: 3 Problem 17: Break down the steps needed to design a combinational logic circuit that outputs the sum and carry of a 2-bit binary number. Simulate the circuit using a simulator of your preference to verify its functionality. - Objective: Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. - AI Application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 18: Simulate a logic gate circuit (e.g., a half-adder circuit) using a simulator of your preference to verify its functionality. - Objective: Use simulation tools to analyze and validate digital circuit designs. - AI Application: Leverage simulation software to test and optimize AI hardware components before physical implementation. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 19: Analyze the power consumption of a digital circuit (e.g., a 4-bit binary adder) simulated using different logic gates. Compare the results and suggest improvements. - Objective: Assess the impact of using different logic gates on the power consumption of a digital circuit. - AI Application: Optimize AI hardware design for energy efficiency. - ABET SLO: 3 Evaluating Problem 20: Evaluate the trade-offs in using a more complex combinational circuit versus a simpler one in terms of speed and resource usage. Simulate both circuits using a simulator of your preference to compare. - Objective: Explain the concepts of combinational logic circuits and their applications in digital systems and AI. - AI Application: Describe how combinational logic circuits are used to perform basic AI functions. - ABET SLO: 1 Problem 21: Assess the impact of using different logic gates on the power consumption of a digital circuit (e.g., a 2-bit binary multiplier). Simulate the circuit in a simulator of your preference to measure power usage. - Objective: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using NAND and NOR gates as universal gates in complex AI systems. - AI Application: Assess the impact of universal gates on the efficiency and flexibility of AI hardware design. - ABET SLO: 3 Problem 22: Critically evaluate the design of a peer's digital circuit that incorporates AI elements for autonomous decision-making. Simulate the circuit in a simulator of your preference to verify its functionality. - Objective: Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. - AI Application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. - ABET SLO: 2 Creating Problem 23: Design a digital circuit using logic gates to implement a simple AI algorithm for sorting binary numbers. Simulate the circuit in a simulator of your preference to verify its operation. - Objective: Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. - AI Application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 24: Collaborate with a team to design and build a digital circuit that uses AI to control a robotic arm. Simulate the design in a simulator of your preference before physical implementation. - Objective: Collaborate effectively with a technical team to design, build, and test a digital circuit incorporating AI elements. - AI Application: Work as part of a team to develop and test AI-integrated digital circuits, ensuring that all members contribute and learn. - ABET SLO: 5 Problem 25: Develop a digital circuit that incorporates an AI algorithm to play a simple game like Tic-Tac-Toe. Simulate the circuit in a simulator of your preference to test its functionality. - Objective: Design and implement a sophisticated digital circuit that incorporates AI algorithms for autonomous decision-making. - AI Application: Develop an AI-driven system using a combination of logic gates to perform autonomous tasks. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 26: Create a simulation of a digital circuit (e.g., a 2-bit binary counter) using MATLAB and demonstrate its functionality. - Objective: Use MATLAB to analyze and validate digital circuit designs. - AI Application: Leverage MATLAB to test and optimize AI hardware components before physical implementation. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 27: Design and simulate a digital circuit that performs binary subtraction using basic logic gates. Verify its operation through simulation. - Objective: Apply digital circuit design techniques to create a subtractor circuit. - AI Application: Use simulation tools to design and verify complex digital circuits for AI applications. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 28: Design a digital circuit that uses logic gates to perform parity checking. Simulate the circuit to verify its correctness. - Objective: Apply digital circuit design techniques to create a parity checker. - AI Application: Use simulation tools to design and verify circuits used in AI systems. - ABET SLO: 2 Problem 29: Create a digital circuit to implement a priority encoder using basic logic gates. Simulate the circuit to ensure it operates correctly. - Objective: Design and simulate a priority encoder circuit. - AI Application: Use simulation tools to design and test priority encoders for AI applications. - ABET SLO: 2 30. Capstone Project: Designing and Implementing a 2-bit Binary Adder Overall Objective: Collaborate as a team to design, simulate, and build a digital circuit implementing a 2-bit binary adder using basic logic gates. This project aims to provide hands-on experience in digital logic design and practical circuit implementation. AI Application: Work as part of a team to develop and test AI-integrated digital circuits, ensuring that all members contribute and learn. ABET Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs): - SLO 1: An ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering problems by applying principles of engineering, science, and mathematics. - SLO 2: An ability to apply both analysis and synthesis in the engineering design process, resulting in designs that meet desired needs. - SLO 5: An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership, create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives. Section 1: Analysis Objective: Understand the functionality of a 2-bit binary adder and derive the necessary logic equations. Tasks: - Research the concept of a binary adder: - A 2-bit binary adder adds two 2-bit binary numbers and produces a sum and a carry output. - The adder can be constructed using full adders, each capable of adding two single bits along with a carry-in bit to produce a sum and carry-out. - Determine the input-output relationship for a 2-bit binary adder: - Inputs: A1,A0A1,A0 and B1,B0B1,B0 (two 2-bit binary numbers), CinCin (initial carry-in, typically 0) - Outputs: S1,S0S1,S0 (2-bit sum), CoutCout (final carry-out) - Create a truth table for a single full adder: A \| B \| C_{in} \| Sum \| C_{out} \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| - Derive the logic equations for a full adder: - Sum = A⊕B⊕CinA⊕B⊕Cin - Cout=(A⋅B)+(Cin⋅(A⊕B))Cout=(A⋅B)+(Cin⋅(A⊕B)) Deliverables: - Completed truth table for the full adder. - Logic equations for the sum and carry outputs. Section 2: Simulation Objective: Verify the logic design through simulation in a digital circuit simulator such as Multisim or Logisim. Tasks: - Use the derived logic equations to design the full adder circuit in the chosen simulator: - Open the simulator and create a new project. - Add logic gates to represent the derived equations. - Connect the gates according to the equations for Sum and CoutCout. - Simulate the full adder and then the 2-bit binary adder: - Cascade two full adders to create a 2-bit binary adder. - Apply different combinations of inputs and verify the outputs. - Adjust the circuit as necessary based on simulation results: - Verify that the outputs match the expected results. - Modify the circuit if there are any discrepancies. Deliverables: - Simulation file (.ms14 for Multisim, .circ for Logisim) of the 2-bit binary adder. - Screenshots or reports showing the simulation results for different input combinations. Section 3: Construction Objective: Implement the 2-bit binary adder on a physical breadboard or simulate it in Tinkercad. Tasks: - If using a breadboard: - Gather the required components: logic gates (ICs), wires, power supply, and LEDs for output indication. - Construct the circuit according to the design: - Place the ICs on the breadboard. - Connect the inputs and outputs to the corresponding pins. - Use LEDs to display the sum and carry outputs. - Ensure proper power connections to the ICs. - Test the circuit with various input combinations and verify the outputs: - Apply different combinations of inputs. - Observe the LEDs for the sum and carry outputs. - If using Tinkercad: - Design the 2-bit binary adder circuit using Tinkercad's simulation tools. - Test the circuit within Tinkercad to ensure correct operation. Deliverables: - Photos or videos of the breadboard circuit with working demonstrations. - Tinkercad simulation files and screenshots of the working circuit. Section 4: Documentation and Presentation Objective: Document the project process and present the results. Tasks: - Write a technical report covering the entire project: - Introduction and objective: - Explain the project's goal and the importance of a 2-bit binary adder. - Analysis and design process: - Detail the steps taken to derive the truth table and logic equations. - Simulation results and findings: - Include screenshots and descriptions of the simulation process. - Construction process and testing results: - Describe the breadboard construction or Tinkercad design. - Document the testing results. - Introduction and objective: - Create a 2-minute video presentation summarizing the project: - Introduction to the project and its objectives: - Briefly explain what a 2-bit binary adder is. - Explanation of the adder and its functionality: - Describe how the binary adder works. - Highlights from the simulation and construction phases: - Show the simulation setup and results. - Include footage of the breadboard or Tinkercad circuit. - Demonstration of the working circuit: - Showcase the circuit in action with different input combinations. - Introduction to the project and its objectives: Deliverables: - Technical report (PDF or Word document) detailing the project. - 2-minute video presentation (MP4 or a shareable link). Example Technical Report Outline: - Introduction: - Overview of the project. - Objectives of creating a 2-bit binary adder. - Analysis: - Explanation of binary adders. - Truth table and derived logic equations. - Simulation: - Description of the simulation process. - Screenshots and results of the simulations. - Construction: - Steps taken to build the circuit on a breadboard or in Tinkercad. - Testing process and results. - Conclusion: - Summary of the project outcomes. - Challenges faced and lessons learned. By completing this capstone project, you will gain hands-on experience in designing, simulating, constructing, and documenting a digital circuit, reinforcing their understanding of digital logic design principles and practical applications. You will also develop teamwork and project management skills crucial for engineering practice. References ABET (2024-2025). Accreditation Criteria. Retrieved from http://www.abet.org Krathwohl, R. David (2022) . A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory into Practice , Volume 41, Number 4, Autumn 2002 Module 4 Boolean Algebra Module 4 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification Module Content 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Boolean Operations and Expressions 4.2 Fundamental Laws of Boolean Algebra 4.3 DeMorgan’s Theorems 4.4 Analyzing Logic Circuits Using Boolean Algebra 4.5 Simplifying Logic Circuits with Boolean Algebra 4.6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions 4.7 Constructing and Analyzing Truth Tables 4.8 Using Karnaugh Maps for Simplification 4.9 SOP Minimization with Karnaugh Maps 4.10 POS Minimization with Karnaugh Maps 4.11 Simplification Using the Quine-McCluskey Method 4.12 Implementing Boolean Expressions with VHDL Part II Simulation Dimension 4.13 Online Boolean Algebra Calculators and Simulators Part III Engineering Dimension 4.14 Practical Application: Building and Simplifying Circuits 4.15 Summary and Further Reading 4.16 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| 1. Understand and Apply Basic Boolean Operations and Laws (ABET SLO 1)* AI application: Develop basic algorithms for digital logic design in AI hardware systems. \| 1. Understand and Apply Basic Boolean Operations and Laws (ABET SLO 1)* AI application: Develop basic algorithms for digital logic design in AI hardware systems. \| \| \| \| Understand \| 1. Understand and Apply Basic Boolean Operations and Laws (ABET SLO 1)* AI application: Develop basic algorithms for digital logic design in AI hardware systems. \| 1. Understand and Apply Basic Boolean Operations and Laws (ABET SLO 1)* AI application: Develop basic algorithms for digital logic design in AI hardware systems. \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| 2. Analyze and Simplify Boolean Expressions Using Fundamental Laws and Theorems (ABET SLO 1) AI Application: AI-driven symbolic computation tools (e.g., Wolfram Alpha) to automate and verify the simplification process. 4. Utilize Karnaugh Maps for Boolean Expression Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-assisted K-Map solvers to provide step-by-step guidance and automatic minimization of Boolean expressions. 5. Apply the Quine-McCluskey Method for Logic Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: Use of AI algorithms for tabular simplification, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of the Quine-McCluskey method. 6. Implement Boolean Expressions in VHDL and Simulate Digital Circuits. (ABET SLO 3) AI Applications: AI-powered code generation tools to convert Boolean expressions to VHDL code, and AI-driven simulators for testing and verifying digital circuits. 7. Integrate Hands-On Experiments with Breadboards to Validate Logic Circuits. (ABET SLO 6) AI Applications: Virtual AI labs for simulating breadboard circuits, providing real-time feedback and troubleshooting assistance. \| 2. Analyze and Simplify Boolean Expressions Using Fundamental Laws and Theorems (ABET SLO 1) AI Application: AI-driven symbolic computation tools (e.g., Wolfram Alpha) to automate and verify the simplification process. 3. Construct and Interpret Truth Tables for Boolean Expressions. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-based platforms to generate and visualize truth tables dynamically, assisting in understanding various input-output combinations. 4. Utilize Karnaugh Maps for Boolean Expression Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-assisted K-Map solvers to provide step-by-step guidance and automatic minimization of Boolean expressions. 5. Apply the Quine-McCluskey Method for Logic Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: Use of AI algorithms for tabular simplification, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of the Quine-McCluskey method. 6. Implement Boolean Expressions in VHDL and Simulate Digital Circuits. (ABET SLO 3) AI Applications: AI-powered code generation tools to convert Boolean expressions to VHDL code, and AI-driven simulators for testing and verifying digital circuits. 7. Integrate Hands-On Experiments with Breadboards to Validate Logic Circuits. (ABET SLO 6) AI Applications: Virtual AI labs for simulating breadboard circuits, providing real-time feedback and troubleshooting assistance. \| 8. Collaborate Effectively in a Team to Design and Implement a Simplified Logic Circuit. (ABET SLO 5) AI Applications: Team-based projects to develop AI systems, emphasizing collaborative problem-solving and integration of multiple AI components into a cohesive design. \| \| Analyze \| \| 2. Analyze and Simplify Boolean Expressions Using Fundamental Laws and Theorems (ABET SLO 1) AI Application: AI-driven symbolic computation tools (e.g., Wolfram Alpha) to automate and verify the simplification process. 4. Utilize Karnaugh Maps for Boolean Expression Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-assisted K-Map solvers to provide step-by-step guidance and automatic minimization of Boolean expressions. 5. Apply the Quine-McCluskey Method for Logic Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: Use of AI algorithms for tabular simplification, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of the Quine-McCluskey method. \| 2. Analyze and Simplify Boolean Expressions Using Fundamental Laws and Theorems (ABET SLO 1) AI Application: AI-driven symbolic computation tools (e.g., Wolfram Alpha) to automate and verify the simplification process. 3. Construct and Interpret Truth Tables for Boolean Expressions. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-based platforms to generate and visualize truth tables dynamically, assisting in understanding various input-output combinations. 4. Utilize Karnaugh Maps for Boolean Expression Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: AI-assisted K-Map solvers to provide step-by-step guidance and automatic minimization of Boolean expressions. 5. Apply the Quine-McCluskey Method for Logic Simplification. (ABET SLO 1) AI Applications: Use of AI algorithms for tabular simplification, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of the Quine-McCluskey method. \| 8. Collaborate Effectively in a Team to Design and Implement a Simplified Logic Circuit. (ABET SLO 5) AI Applications: Team-based projects to develop AI systems, emphasizing collaborative problem-solving and integration of multiple AI components into a cohesive design. \| \| Evaluate \| \| 7. Integrate Hands-On Experiments with Breadboards to Validate Logic Circuits. (ABET SLO 6) AI Applications: Virtual AI labs for simulating breadboard circuits, providing real-time feedback and troubleshooting assistance. \| 7. Integrate Hands-On Experiments with Breadboards to Validate Logic Circuits. (ABET SLO 6) AI Applications: Virtual AI labs for simulating breadboard circuits, providing real-time feedback and troubleshooting assistance. \| \| \| Create \| \| 6. Implement Boolean Expressions in VHDL and Simulate Digital Circuits. (ABET SLO 3) AI Applications: AI-powered code generation tools to convert Boolean expressions to VHDL code, and AI-driven simulators for testing and verifying digital circuits. \| 6. Implement Boolean Expressions in VHDL and Simulate Digital Circuits. (ABET SLO 3) AI Applications: AI-powered code generation tools to convert Boolean expressions to VHDL code, and AI-driven simulators for testing and verifying digital circuits. \| 8. Collaborate Effectively in a Team to Design and Implement a Simplified Logic Circuit. (ABET SLO 5) AI Applications: Team-based projects to develop AI systems, emphasizing collaborative problem-solving and integration of multiple AI components into a cohesive design. \| Table 1. 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives Explanation of the 2D Mapping Remember (Factual and Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 1: Understand Basic Boolean Operations and Expressions This objective falls within the cognitive dimensions of Remembering and Understanding because students must recall basic operations like AND, OR, and NOT, and comprehend how these operations are applied in Boolean expressions. This objective also aligns with the factual and conceptual knowledge dimensions as it requires knowledge of specific facts, such as the definitions and functions of Boolean operations, and an understanding of the broader concepts related to forming and manipulating Boolean expressions. Apply, Analyzing (Procedural and Conceptual Knolwedge) Objective 2: Apply Fundamental Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra to Simplify Expressions This objective focuses on applying the fundamental laws and rules of Boolean algebra to simplify expressions, falls within the cognitive dimensions of applying and analyzing because it requires students to use learned laws in practical situations, then break down and assess the resulting simplified expressions for correctness and efficiency. It aligns with the knowledge dimensions of procedural and conceptual, as it necessitates a thorough understanding of the step-by-step processes involved in simplification, as well as the foundational concepts of Boolean algebra that underpin these procedures. Objective 3: Utilize DeMorgan’s Theorems in Boolean Expression Transformation This objective falls within the cognitive levels of Applying and Analyzing because it requires students to apply DeMorgan’s Theorems to transform Boolean expressions and analyze the resulting expressions for correctness and simplification. In terms of knowledge levels, it encompasses Procedural knowledge as students must follow specific steps to correctly apply the theorems, and Conceptual knowledge as they need to understand the underlying principles and logical implications of these transformations. This combination ensures that students can effectively use theorems in practical scenarios and comprehend their significance in the broader context of Boolean algebra. Objective 4: Construct and Analyze Logic Circuits Using Boolean Algebra This objective falls within the cognitive levels of Applying, Analyzing, and Evaluating because it involves students actively applying Boolean algebra principles to build logic circuits, analyzing how these circuits operate, and evaluating their efficiency and effectiveness. This objective also encompasses procedural and conceptual knowledge dimensions, as students must understand the procedures for circuit construction and possess a deep conceptual understanding to analyze and assess the circuit's functionality and performance accurately. Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating (Procedural and Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 5: Simplify Logic Circuits with Karnaugh Maps and the Quine-McCluskey Method This objective falls within the cognitive levels of applying, analyzing, and evaluating because it requires students to apply these methods to real circuits, analyze the resulting simplified expressions, and evaluate their effectiveness in terms of circuit efficiency and resource usage. This objective also spans the procedural and conceptual knowledge dimensions as it involves following specific steps in the simplification process (procedural knowledge) and understanding the underlying principles and applications of these methods in optimizing digital circuits (conceptual knowledge). Applying and Creating ( Procedural and Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 6: Implement Boolean Expressions Using VHDL This objective falls within the cognitive dimensions of applying and creating because students must utilize their understanding of Boolean expressions to develop VHDL code, demonstrating their ability to apply theoretical knowledge in a practical programming environment. It requires procedural knowledge as students need to know the specific syntax and steps for writing VHDL code, as well as conceptual knowledge to understand the broader context of digital design and how Boolean logic integrates into digital systems. Thus, students are not only executing known procedures but also synthesizing new implementations that reflect their grasp of complex concepts. Applying, Analyzing, Creating (Procedural and Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 7: Collaborate Effectively in a Team to Design and Implement a Simplified Logic Circuit This objective involves collaborating effectively in a team to design and implement a simplified logic circuit, falls within the cognitive dimensions of applying, analyzing, and creating because it requires students to actively use their knowledge in a practical setting, dissect and evaluate the contributions and interactions within their team, and synthesize this understanding to develop a cohesive, functional circuit. This objective also encompasses the procedural knowledge necessary for effective collaboration and the conceptual understanding required to grasp both the technical aspects of circuit design and the dynamics of working within a team. Together, these dimensions ensure that students not only learn the technical skills but also develop essential teamwork and problem-solving abilities. Part I: Analytical Dimension 4.0 Introduction Boolean algebra, named after the mathematician George Boole, is a mathematical framework that was developed in the mid-19th century. George Boole introduced this algebraic system in his seminal work, "An Investigation of the Laws of Thought," published in 1854. Boolean algebra was initially conceived as a way to formalize logical reasoning and provide a mathematical structure to logic. Its primary purpose was to simplify and solve logical expressions and problems systematically. The development of Boolean algebra was revolutionary because it provided a clear, mathematical method for dealing with logical statements and operations. Prior to this, logic was primarily handled through philosophical discourse and lacked a rigorous mathematical foundation. Boolean algebra introduced binary variables, where each variable could have only one of two values: true or false (or 1 and 0 in binary terms). This binary system formed the basis for Boolean operations such as AND, OR, and NOT, which correspond to basic logical operations. Boolean algebra's significance became even more pronounced with the advent of digital electronics and computer science in the 20th century. Claude Shannon, in his groundbreaking master's thesis in 1937, applied Boolean algebra to electrical circuits, demonstrating that it could be used to design and simplify complex switching circuits. This marked the beginning of the modern digital age, where Boolean algebra became the foundational theory behind digital logic design and computer architecture. In digital systems, Boolean algebra is used to describe and manipulate binary signals that represent logical states. It enables the design and analysis of digital circuits, which are the building blocks of computers, communication devices, and many other electronic systems. By using Boolean algebra, engineers can simplify and optimize logic circuits, making them more efficient, cost-effective, and reliable. Boolean algebra also plays a crucial role in the development of programming languages and algorithms. It is used in decision-making processes, control structures, and data manipulation within software. Additionally, it provides the theoretical underpinnings for various fields such as information theory, coding theory, and cryptography. In summary, Boolean algebra was developed to provide a mathematical structure to logical reasoning and has since become an indispensable tool in the design and analysis of digital systems. Its principles are applied in various fields, from electrical engineering to computer science, making it a fundamental concept for anyone involved in the study or development of digital technology. 4.1 Boolean Operations and Expressions Boolean algebra involves the manipulation of binary variables and logical operations to describe and simplify the behavior of digital circuits. This section delves into the fundamental concepts of Boolean operations and expressions, including the terms variable, complement, and literal, with illustrative examples and diagrams. Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra that deals with variables that have two possible values: true and false, or equivalently, 1 and 0. These binary variables are manipulated using logical operations such as AND, OR, and NOT, which form the basis of digital circuit design and analysis Variables, Complements, and Literals In the realm of Boolean algebra, understanding the basic elements—variables, complements, and literals—is fundamental to mastering the manipulation and simplification of logical expressions. These elements serve as the building blocks of digital logic, representing the binary states that underpin all digital circuits. Variables denote the binary inputs and outputs, complements provide the inverse of these values, and literals combine these aspects to form the core components of Boolean expressions. This section explores these foundational concepts, providing the essential knowledge needed to analyze and design efficient digital systems. Variables In Boolean algebra, a variable represents a binary quantity that can have one of two possible values: 0 or 1. These values correspond to the logical states of false and true, respectively. Variables are typically denoted by uppercase letters such as A, B, C, and so on. Complements The complement of a variable is its opposite value. If the variable is 1, its complement is 0, and if the variable is 0, its complement is 1. The complement is denoted by an apostrophe (') or an overline (¯) placed over the variable. - If A=1, then A′=0 - If B=0, then B′=1 Literals A literal is a variable or its complement within a Boolean expression. For instance, in the expression A+B′A+B′, A and B' are literals. Literals are the basic elements used to construct Boolean expressions. Basic Boolean Operations There are three primary Boolean operations: AND, OR, and NOT. These operations form the basis of Boolean algebra and are used to create complex Boolean expressions. AND Operation The AND operation is represented by a dot (·) or simply by juxtaposition (AB). It yields true if and only if both operands are true. - Symbol: ⋅ - Expression: A⋅B Truth Table: \| Diagram: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| OR Operation The OR operation is represented by a plus sign (+). It yields true if at least one of the operands is true. - Symbol: + - Expression: A+B Truth Table: \| Diagram: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| NOT Operation The NOT operation, also known as the complement, is represented by an apostrophe (') or an overline (¯) placed over the variable. It inverts the value of the variable. - Symbol: ′ or ‾ - Expression: A′ or A Truth Table: \| Diagram: \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Example: Combining Operations Consider a Boolean expression that combines these operations: Y=A⋅(B+C′). - First, calculate C′: - If C=1, then C′=0 - If C=0, then C′=1 - Next, compute B+C′: - If B=0 and C=1, then B+C′=0+0=0 - If B=1 and C=0, then B+C′=1+1=1 - Finally, calculate A⋅(B+C′): - If A=1, B=1, and C=0, then A⋅(B+C′)=1⋅1=1 Diagram: Here is a diagram to visualize the expression Y=A⋅(B+C′): In this diagram: - The NOT gate inverts C to produce C′. - The OR gate takes B and C′ as inputs and outputs B+C′. - The AND gate then takes A and the output of the OR gate to produce the final output Y. Understanding Boolean operations and expressions is fundamental to designing and analyzing digital circuits. By mastering these concepts, you can simplify complex logic circuits, making them more efficient and easier to implement. 4.2 Fundamental Laws of Boolean Algebra Boolean algebra operates under a set of fundamental laws and rules that facilitate the manipulation and simplification of Boolean expressions. These laws, analogous to those in conventional algebra, enable the logical operations within digital circuits to be transformed and simplified for more efficient design and analysis. Understanding and applying these laws is crucial for anyone working with digital logic circuits. Identity Law The identity law states that a variable OR'd with 0 or AND'd with 1 retains its original value. - OR Operation: - A+0=A - Example: X+0=X - If X=1, then 1+0=1 - If X=0, then 0+0=0 - AND Operation: - A⋅1=A - Example: Y⋅1=Y - If Y=1, then 1⋅1=1 - If Y=0, then 0⋅1=0 Null Law The null law states that a variable OR'd with 1 always yields 1, and a variable AND'd with 0 always yields 0. - OR Operation: - A+1=1 - Example: X+1=1 - If X=0, then 0+1=1. - If X=1, then 1+1=1. - AND Operation: - A⋅0=0 - Example: Y⋅0=0 - If Y=0, then 0⋅0=0. - If Y=1, then 1⋅0=0. Idempotent Law The idempotent law asserts that OR'ing or AND'ing a variable with itself leaves it unchanged. - OR Operation: - A+A=A - Example: X+X=X - If X=1, then 1+1=1. - If X=0, then 0+0=0. - AND Operation: - A⋅A=A - Example: Y⋅Y=Y - If Y=1, then 1⋅1=1. - If Y=0, then 0⋅0=0. Complement Law The complement law states that a variable OR'd with its complement is always 1, and a variable AND'd with its complement is always 0. - OR Operation: - A+A′=1 - Example: X+X′=1 - If X=1, then 1+0=1. - If X=0, then 0+1=1. - AND Operation: - A⋅A′=0 - Example: Y⋅Y′=0 - If Y=1, then 1⋅0=0. - If Y=0, then 0⋅1=0. Commutative Law The commutative law indicates that the order of variables does not affect the result of an OR or AND operation. - OR Operation: - A+B=B+A - Example: X+Y=Y+X - If X=0 and Y=1, then 0+1=1 and 1+0=1. - AND Operation: - A⋅B=B⋅A - Example: X⋅Y=Y⋅X - If X=1 and Y=0, then 1⋅0=0 and 0⋅1=0. Associative Law The associative law states that when three or more variables are OR'd or AND'd, the grouping of the variables does not change the result. - OR Operation: - (A+B) + C = A + (B+C) - Example: (X+Y) + Z = X + (Y+Z) - If X=0, Y=1, and Z=1, then (0+1) + 1 = 0 + (1+1) = 1. - AND Operation: - (A⋅B)⋅C=A⋅(B⋅C) - Example: (X⋅Y)⋅Z=X⋅(Y⋅Z) - If X=1, Y=0, and Z=1, then (1⋅0)⋅1 = 1⋅(0⋅1) = 0. Distributive Law The distributive law states that AND distributes over OR and OR distributes over AND. - AND Distributes Over OR: - A⋅(B+C) = (A⋅B) + (A⋅C) - Example: X⋅(Y+Z) = (X⋅Y) + (X⋅Z) - If X=1, Y=0, and Z=1, then 1⋅(0+1)=(1⋅0)+(1⋅1)=1. - OR Distributes Over AND: - A + (B⋅C) = (A+B)⋅(A+C) - Example: X+(Y⋅Z) = (X+Y) ⋅ (X+Z) - If X=0, Y=1, and Z=0, then 0 + (1⋅0) = (0+1)⋅(0+0)=0. These laws and rules form the foundation of Boolean algebra and are essential for simplifying and analyzing digital logic circuits. By mastering these principles, one can efficiently design and optimize complex digital systems. 4.3 DeMorgan’s Theorems DeMorgan's theorems are fundamental tools in Boolean algebra that simplify the process of complementing expressions and logic functions. They provide a systematic method for transforming complex Boolean expressions into more manageable forms. These theorems are especially useful in digital logic design for minimizing the number of gates required to implement a logic circuit. Understanding and applying DeMorgan’s theorems can lead to more efficient and cost-effective designs. DeMorgan's First Theorem DeMorgan’s first theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements. This theorem allows us to distribute the NOT operation over an AND operation by changing it to an OR operation. - Mathematical Formulation: (A⋅B)′ = A′ + B′ Example 1: Applying DeMorgan's First Theorem Consider the Boolean expression (X⋅Y)′. - Original Expression: (X⋅Y)′ - Using DeMorgan's First Theorem: X′ + Y′ Example 2: Circuit Analysis Suppose we have a circuit with the expression (A⋅B)′. Using DeMorgan's first theorem, this expression can be simplified to A′+B′. This means that instead of using a NAND gate, we can use two NOT gates followed by an OR gate, as shown below. DeMorgan's Second Theorem DeMorgan’s second theorem states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements. This theorem allows us to distribute the NOT operation over an OR operation by changing it to an AND operation. - Mathematical Formulation: (A+B)′ = A′⋅B′ Example 3: Applying DeMorgan's Second Theorem Consider the Boolean expression (P+Q)′. - Original Expression: (P+Q)′ - Using DeMorgan's Second Theorem: P′⋅Q′ Example 4: Circuit Analysis Suppose we have a circuit with the expression (C+D)′. Using DeMorgan's second theorem, this expression can be simplified to C′⋅D′. This means that instead of using a NOR gate, we can use two NOT gates followed by an AND gate. Practical Application: Simplifying Complex Expressions By applying DeMorgan’s theorems, we can simplify more complex Boolean expressions, making them easier to implement in hardware. Example 5: Complex Expression Simplification Simplify the Boolean expression (A⋅B⋅C)′. - Original Expression: (A⋅B⋅C)′ - Apply DeMorgan’s First Theorem iteratively: - First Step: (A⋅B⋅C)′ = (A⋅(B⋅C))′ - Apply DeMorgan: A′ + (B⋅C)′ - Further Simplify: A′ + (B′+C′) - Final Simplified Expression: A′+B′+C′ DeMorgan's theorems are indispensable tools in Boolean algebra and digital logic design. They provide a straightforward method for simplifying the complement of complex expressions, making the design and analysis of digital circuits more efficient. By mastering these theorems, engineers can optimize logic circuits, reducing the number of required gates and ultimately saving on costs and improving performance. 4.4 Analyzing Logic Circuits Using Boolean Algebra Boolean analysis is a crucial step in digital circuit design and analysis. It involves translating a given logic circuit into a Boolean expression that accurately describes the circuit's operation. This process allows engineers to understand the functionality of the circuit, optimize its design, and verify its behavior through simplification. By systematically breaking down complex circuits into simpler Boolean expressions, one can gain insight into the underlying logic and identify opportunities for efficiency improvements. Example 1: Simple AND-OR Circuit Consider a logic circuit with two inputs, A and B, connected to an AND gate, and the output of the AND gate is connected to an OR gate along with a third input, C. The circuit can be represented as follows: - Inputs: A, B, C - Gates: AND, OR The Boolean expression for this circuit is derived by following the signal flow through the gates: - The AND gate has inputs A and B, so its output is A⋅B. - The OR gate takes the output of the AND gate and input C, so the final output is (A⋅B) + C. Thus, the Boolean expression for the circuit is: Y = (A⋅B) + C Example 2: NAND-NOR Circuit Consider a more complex circuit with three inputs, X, Y, and Z. The circuit consists of a NAND gate followed by a NOR gate. The NAND gate takes inputs X and Y, and the NOR gate takes the output of the NAND gate and input Z. The circuit is represented as follows: - Inputs: X, Y, Z - Gates: NAND, NOR The Boolean expression for this circuit is derived as follows: - The NAND gate has inputs X and Y, so its output is (X⋅Y)′. - The NOR gate takes the output of the NAND gate and input Z, so the final output is [(X⋅Y)′ + Z]′. Thus, the Boolean expression for the circuit is: Y = [(X⋅Y)′ + Z]′ Example 3: Multi-level Circuit Consider a multi-level logic circuit with four inputs, A, B, C, and D. The circuit consists of an AND gate, an OR gate, and a NAND gate arranged as follows: - The AND gate takes inputs A and B. - The OR gate takes inputs C and D. - The outputs of the AND and OR gates are connected to a NAND gate. To analyze this circuit: - The AND gate output is A⋅B. - The OR gate output is C+D. - The NAND gate output is [(A⋅B)⋅(C+D)]′. The Boolean expression for the circuit is: Y = [(A⋅B)⋅(C+D)]′ Example 4: XOR Gate Circuit Consider a circuit with two inputs, A and B, connected to an XOR gate. The XOR gate's output is high when the inputs are different and low when they are the same. The Boolean expression for an XOR gate is: Y = A⋅B′ + A′⋅B This expression captures the exclusive nature of the XOR operation, where the output is true only when exactly one of the inputs is true. Example 5: Combination of Basic Gates Consider a circuit with three inputs, P, Q, and R, and the following gates: an AND gate, an OR gate, and a NOT gate. The circuit is designed as follows: - The AND gate takes inputs P and Q. - The OR gate takes the output of the AND gate and input R. - The NOT gate takes the output of the OR gate. To derive the Boolean expression: - The AND gate output is P⋅Q. - The OR gate output is (P⋅Q) + R. - The NOT gate output is [(P⋅Q) + R]′. Thus, the Boolean expression for the circuit is: Y = [(P⋅Q) + R]′ These examples illustrate the process of deriving Boolean expressions from logic circuits, providing a clear understanding of how different gates and configurations translate into mathematical representations. This analysis is foundational for optimizing and designing efficient digital systems. 4.5 Simplifying Logic Circuits with Boolean Algebra Logic simplification is a crucial step in digital circuit design, aimed at reducing the complexity of Boolean expressions and, consequently, the number of logic gates required to implement them. This reduction leads to cost savings, improved performance, and more efficient use of resources. Boolean algebra provides a set of rules and theorems that facilitate the simplification process. This section delves into various techniques for simplifying Boolean expressions, including practical examples to illustrate the concepts. Basic Simplification Techniques Simplification can be achieved by applying the fundamental laws and theorems of Boolean algebra, such as the Identity Law, Null Law, Idempotent Law, Complement Law, and DeMorgan's Theorems. These rules help combine and reduce terms systematically. Example 1: Basic Simplification Original Expression: Y = A⋅A′ + B Simplification Steps: - Apply the Complement Law: A⋅A′ = 0 Y = 0 + B - Apply the Identity Law: 0 + B = B Simplified Expression: Y = B In this example, the expression A⋅A′ is always zero, simplifying the original expression to just B. Example 2: Combining Like Terms Original Expression: Y=AB+AB′ Simplification Steps: - Factor out the common term A: Y = A(B + B′) - Apply the Complement Law: B + B′ = 1 Y=A⋅1 - Apply the Identity Law: A⋅1 = A Simplified Expression: Y=A In this example, the terms AB and AB′ are combined using the Distributive Law, and the Complement Law simplifies the expression further. Example 3: Using DeMorgan's Theorems Original Expression: Y = (A+B)⋅C Simplification Steps: - Apply DeMorgan's First Theorem: (A+B) ′ = A′⋅B′ Y = (A′⋅B′⋅C′)′ - Apply DeMorgan's Second Theorem: (X⋅Y) ′ =X′ + Y′ Y=A′′+B‾′′+C - Apply the Double Negation Law: A′′ = A and B′′ = B Y=A + B + C Simplified Expression: Y = A + B + C In this example, DeMorgan's Theorems and the Double Negation Law are applied to simplify the expression significantly. Example 4: Complex Simplification Original Expression: Y = A⋅B + A′⋅B + A⋅B′ +A′⋅B′ Simplification Steps: - Group terms using the Distributive Law: Y = (A+A′)⋅B + (A+A′)⋅B′ - Apply the Complement Law: A+A′ = 1 Y = 1⋅B + 1⋅B′ - Apply the Identity Law: 1⋅B = B and 1⋅B′=B′ Y = B + B′ - Apply the Complement Law: B + B′ = 1 Simplified Expression: Y = 1 In this example, the expression is simplified to a constant value of 1, indicating that the original circuit always outputs true, regardless of the inputs. Simplifying Boolean expressions using Boolean algebra helps optimize digital circuits by reducing the number of gates and components required. This process involves applying fundamental laws and theorems systematically. The examples provided illustrate how various techniques can be used to simplify complex expressions, enhancing circuit efficiency and performance. 4.6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions Boolean expressions can be represented in various standard forms that facilitate analysis and simplification of digital logic circuits. The most common standard forms are the Sum of Products (SOP) and the Product of Sums (POS). These forms provide a systematic way of expressing logic functions, making it easier to apply Boolean algebra laws and simplification techniques. Understanding and utilizing these standard forms are essential for designing efficient digital circuits. Sum of Products (SOP) The Sum of Products (SOP) form is a Boolean expression that is a sum (OR) of multiple product (AND) terms. Each product term is called a minterm, representing a unique combination of variables that result in the expression being true. Example 1: Given the truth table for a function F: A \| B \| C \| F \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| From the truth table, the SOP expression includes the minterms where F is 1: - A′B′C - A′BC - AB′C′ - ABC The SOP form is: F = A′B′C + A′BC + AB′C′ + ABC Example 2: For a simpler function G with the following truth table: A \| B \| G \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| The SOP expression is: - A′B - AB′ - AB The SOP form is: G = A′B + AB′ + AB Product of Sums (POS) The Product of Sums (POS) form is a Boolean expression that is a product (AND) of multiple sum (OR) terms. Each sum term is called a maxterm, representing a unique combination of variables that result in the expression being false. Example 1: Given the same truth table for function F: A \| B \| C \| F \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| From the truth table, the POS expression includes the maxterms where F is 0: - (A+B+C) - (A+B+C′) - (A+B′+C) - (A′+B+C) The POS form is: F=(A+B+C)(A+B+C′)(A+B′+C)(A′+B+C) Example 2: For the same simpler function GGG: A \| B \| G \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| The POS expression is: - (A+B) The POS form is: G=(A+B) Converting Between SOP and POS Converting between SOP and POS forms involves using the principles of Boolean algebra, particularly DeMorgan’s theorems. Here’s a brief outline of the process: - SOP to POS: - Write the SOP expression. - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to each product term to convert ANDs to ORs and ORs to ANDs. - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem again to obtain the POS form. - POS to SOP: - Write the POS expression. - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to each sum term to convert ORs to ANDs and ANDs to ORs. - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem again to obtain the SOP form. Example Conversion: Given an SOP expression: F = A′B + AB′ To convert to POS: - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to each term: F = (A′B)′(AB′)′ - Apply DeMorgan’s theorem again to each term: F = (A+B′)(A′+B) Thus, the POS form is: F = (A+B′)(A′+B) Understanding SOP and POS forms allows for a structured approach to simplifying and implementing digital logic circuits, providing a foundation for more advanced techniques such as Karnaugh maps and the Quine-McCluskey method. 4.7 Constructing and Analyzing Truth Tables Boolean expressions and truth tables are fundamental tools in digital logic design, allowing designers to understand and visualize the behavior of logic circuits. A Boolean expression represents a logical relationship using Boolean algebra's variables and operators. In contrast, a truth table lists all possible input combinations and their corresponding outputs, providing a comprehensive view of the logic circuit's behavior. By converting Boolean expressions to truth tables, and vice versa, designers can verify the correctness of their designs and simplify complex logic circuits. 4.7.1 Constructing a Truth Table from a Boolean Expression To construct a truth table from a Boolean expression, follow these steps: - List all possible combinations of input variables. - Calculate the output for each combination using the Boolean expression. Example 1: Simple AND Operation Consider the Boolean expression Y = A⋅B Truth Table: A \| B \| Y = A⋅B \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| In this example, the output Y is 1 only when both inputs A and B are 1. Example 2: Complex Boolean Expression Consider the Boolean expression Y = (A⋅B) + C. Truth Table: A \| B \| C \| A⋅B \| Y = (A⋅B) + C \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| Here, the output Y is 1 if C is 1 or if both A and B are 1. 4.7.2 Deriving a Boolean Expression from a Truth Table To derive a Boolean expression from a truth table, identify the rows where the output is 1. Then, write a product (AND) term for each row with the inputs corresponding to the values in that row. Sum (OR) these product terms to get the final expression. Example 3: Deriving Expression from a Truth Table Given the truth table: A \| B \| C \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| Deriving the Boolean Expression: - Identify rows where Y=1: - A′⋅B′⋅C - A′⋅B⋅C′ - A′⋅B⋅C - A⋅B′⋅C′ - Combine these terms: - Y = (A′⋅B′⋅C) + (A′⋅B⋅C′) + (A′⋅B⋅C) + (A⋅B′⋅C′) Example 4: Simplified Expression The derived expression can often be simplified using Boolean algebra. For the expression Y = (A′⋅B′⋅C) + (A′⋅B⋅C′) + (A′⋅B⋅C) + (A⋅B′⋅C′), simplification might result in a more compact form, but this example shows the process of deriving from a truth table. Example 5: Simplification Using K-Map For simplification, a Karnaugh Map (K-Map) can be used: - Plot the truth table values on the K-Map. - Group 1s in the K-Map in powers of 2. - Write the simplified expression from the groups. For the given truth table, the K-Map method would help in further simplifying the Boolean expression, demonstrating the practical utility of truth tables and K-Maps in logic design. By understanding and using Boolean expressions and truth tables, designers can accurately describe and analyze the behavior of digital circuits, ensuring correct functionality and optimizing designs for performance and efficiency. 4.8 Using Karnaugh Maps for Simplification The Karnaugh Map (K-Map) is a powerful tool used in simplifying Boolean expressions. Named after Maurice Karnaugh, this graphical method provides a visual way to minimize logical functions without the need for complex algebraic manipulations. K-Maps reduce the complexity of digital circuits by minimizing the number of logical gates required. This method is especially useful for functions involving up to six variables, allowing engineers to systematically identify and eliminate redundancies in the Boolean expressions. 4.8.1 Introduction to Karnaugh Maps A K-Map is essentially a truth table organized into a grid format, where each cell represents a possible combination of input variables. The cells are arranged so that adjacent cells differ by only one variable, making it easier to identify opportunities for simplification. By grouping adjacent cells with the same output value, you can create simplified Boolean expressions that represent the same logic as the original, more complex expressions. 4.8.2 Constructing a Karnaugh Map To construct a K-Map: - Determine the Number of Variables: The number of variables (n) determines the size of the K-Map, which has 2n cells. - Label the Map: Label the rows and columns using Gray code, where only one bit changes between adjacent cells. - Fill the Map: Populate the K-Map with the output values from the truth table. Example: 3-Variable K-Map Consider a Boolean function F(A,B,C). A 3-variable K-Map has 8 cells, as shown below: AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 1 \| 0 \| 4.8.3 Grouping and Simplifying The key to K-Map simplification is grouping the adjacent 1s (or 0s for POS minimization). These groups should be formed in sizes of powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.). Each group represents a simplified product term in the Boolean expression. Grouping Example From the K-Map provided, we can identify groups of 1s: - Group 1: Cells (001, 011) = A′B′C and A′BC can be combined to form A′C. - Group 2: Cells (110, 100) = AB′C′ and AB′C can be combined to form AB′. AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 1 \| 0 \| Combining these groups, we get the simplified expression: F = A′C + AB′ 4.8.4 Examples of Karnaugh Map Simplification Example 1: Simplifying F(A,B,C,D) Given the truth table for F(A,B,C,D): ABCD \| F \| 0000 \| 0 \| 0001 \| 1 \| 0010 \| 0 \| 0011 \| 1 \| 0100 \| 1 \| 0101 \| 0 \| 0110 \| 0 \| 0111 \| 0 \| 1000 \| 0 \| 1001 \| 0 \| 1010 \| 1 \| 1011 \| 0 \| 1100 \| 1 \| 1101 \| 1 \| 1110 \| 0 \| 1111 \| 1 \| Construct the K-Map and fill it with the output values: AB \ CD \| 00 \| 01 \| 11 \| 10 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 01 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 11 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Identify groups of 1s and combine them: - Group 1: Cells (0001, 0011) = A′B′C′D and A′B′CD combine to A′B′D. - Group 2: Cells (0100, 1100) = A′BC′D′ and ABC′D′ combine to BC′D′. - Group 3: Cells (1101, 1111) = ABC′D and ABCD combine to ABD. AB \ CD \| 00 \| 01 \| 11 \| 10 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 01 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 11 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| The simplified expression is: F = A′B′D + BC′D′ + ABD Example 2: Simplifying G(A,B,C) Given the truth table for G(A,B,C): ABC \| G \| 000 \| 0 \| 001 \| 1 \| 010 \| 1 \| 011 \| 0 \| 100 \| 1 \| 101 \| 1 \| 110 \| 0 \| 111 \| 0 \| Construct the K-Map and fill it with the output values: AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 0 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 1 \| 10 \| 1 \| 1 \| Identify groups of 1s and combine them: - Group 1: Cells (011, 111) = A′BC and ABC combine to BC. - Group 2: Cells (100, 101, 110, 111) = AB′C′ and AB′C and ABC′ and ABC combine to A. AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 0 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 1 \| 10 \| 1 \| 1 \| The simplified expression is: G = BC + A These examples illustrate how Karnaugh Maps can simplify Boolean expressions, making the design of digital circuits more efficient and manageable. By grouping adjacent cells, engineers can quickly identify and eliminate redundancies, leading to more straightforward and cost-effective circuit designs. 4.9 SOP Minimization with Karnaugh Maps Minimizing Boolean expressions using the Sum of Products (SOP) method with Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) is a powerful technique for simplifying logic circuits. This method allows for visual grouping of adjacent cells representing the '1's in the truth table, making it easier to identify and eliminate redundant terms. By organizing the truth table values into a K-Map, engineers can quickly see patterns and groupings that lead to a more efficient Boolean expression. In this section, we will explore the process of SOP minimization using K-Maps and provide detailed examples to illustrate this technique. Steps for SOP Minimization Using Karnaugh Maps - Construct the K-Map: - Draw a K-Map corresponding to the number of variables in the Boolean function. - Fill in the K-Map with the output values from the truth table, placing '1' in the cells where the output is true. - Identify Groups: - Group the adjacent '1's in rectangles. Each group must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, etc. cells. - The groups should be as large as possible while still covering all '1's. - Write the Simplified Expression: - For each group, write the product term (AND) that represents the variables that remain constant within the group. - Combine these product terms with OR operations to form the final SOP expression. Example 1: Three-Variable K-Map Minimization Consider a Boolean function with three variables (A, B, and C) and the following truth table: A \| B \| C \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| Step 1: Construct the K-Map AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 0 \| 1 \| 10 \| 1 \| 1 \| Step 2: Identify Groups - Group 1: Cells (000, 001, 100, 101) - Simplified to: A′B′C′+A′B′C + AB′C′ + AB′C = B′ - Group 2: Cells (001, 011, 111, 101) - Simplified to: A′B′C+A′BC + ABC + AB′C = C AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 0 \| 1 \| 10 \| 1 \| 1 \| Step 3: Write the Simplified Expression Combining the product terms: Y = B′ + C Example 2: Four-Variable K-Map Minimization Consider a Boolean function with four variables (A, B, C, and D) and the following truth table: A \| B \| C \| D \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| Step 1: Construct the K-Map AB \ CD \| 00 \| 01 \| 11 \| 10 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 11 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Step 2: Identify Groups - Group 1: Cells (0000, 0001, 0011, 0010) - Simplified to: A′B′ - Group 2: Cells (0001, 0011, 0101, 0111) - Simplified to: A′D - Group 3: Cells (0111, 1111) - Simplified to: BCD - Group 4: Cell (0010, 1010) - Simplified to: B′CD′ AB \ CD \| 00 \| 01 \| 11 \| 10 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 11 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Step 3: Write the Simplified Expression Combining the product terms: Y = A′B′ + A′D + BCD + AB′CD′ By using Karnaugh Maps for SOP minimization, we can efficiently reduce complex Boolean expressions into simpler forms, resulting in more efficient digital circuits. This process not only saves on the number of gates required but also enhances the overall performance and reliability of the design. 4.10 POS Minimization with Karnaugh Maps Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) are a powerful tool for simplifying Boolean expressions. While Sum of Products (SOP) minimization focuses on grouping 1s in the K-Map, Product of Sums (POS) minimization involves grouping 0s. POS forms are particularly useful when dealing with logic circuits that are more naturally expressed in terms of OR operations followed by AND operations. The objective of POS minimization is to simplify the Boolean expression to its minimal form, reducing the number of logic gates required to implement the circuit. Example: Karnaugh Map POS Minimization Consider the Boolean function Y(A,B,C) defined by the following truth table: A \| B \| C \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| From the truth table, we identify the minterms where the output Y is 0. These minterms are Y=0 at the positions ABC = 010, 011, 101, 111. Step-by-Step POS Minimization Using K-Map Step 1: Construct the K-Map Place the values from the truth table into the K-Map: AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 0 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 1 \| 0 \| Step 2: Identify Groups of 0s To minimize the expression in POS form, we look for groups of adjacent 0s. These groups can be combined to form simplified product terms. AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 1 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 0 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 1 \| 0 \| Step 3: Form the Simplified POS Expression From the K-Map, we group the 0s: - Group 1: 010, 011 - Group 2: 111, 101 Each group corresponds to a sum term where the variables are negated if the corresponding cell is 0. The simplified POS expression is the product of these sum terms: Simplified POS Expression: Y=(A+B′)⋅(A′+C′) Another Example: POS Minimization Consider another Boolean function Y(A,B,C) with the following truth table: A \| B \| C \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| From the truth table, the minterms where Y is 0 are at the positions ABC=000, 010, 100, 111. Step 1: Construct the K-Map AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 1 \| Step 2: Identify Groups of 0s We identify and group the adjacent 0s: AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| 0 \| 1 \| 01 \| 0 \| 1 \| 11 \| 1 \| 0 \| 10 \| 0 \| 1 \| Step 3: Form the Simplified POS Expression From the K-Map, groupings: - Group 1: minterms 000, 010 - Group 2: minterms 111 - Group 3: minterms 000, 10 The simplified POS expression is: Y = (A+C)⋅(A′+B′+C′)⋅(B+C) POS minimization using Karnaugh Maps is an effective way to reduce the complexity of Boolean expressions, making digital circuit designs more efficient. 4.11 Simplification Using the Quine-McCluskey Method The Quine-McCluskey method, also known as the tabular method, is a systematic approach for minimizing Boolean functions. Unlike the Karnaugh Map, which is more visual, the Quine-McCluskey method is algebraic and suitable for handling functions with a large number of variables. It reduces Boolean expressions to their simplest forms by identifying and eliminating redundant terms through a series of systematic steps. This method is especially useful for computer-based logic minimization. Steps of the Quine-McCluskey Method - List All Minterms in Binary Form: Identify and list all the minterms of the Boolean function in binary form, organized by the number of 1s in their binary representation. - Group Minterms by the Number of 1s: Group the minterms according to the number of 1s they contain. This step helps in identifying which minterms can be combined. - Combine Minterms to Eliminate Variables: Combine adjacent minterms to eliminate one variable at a time. This step involves comparing minterms from adjacent groups and checking if they differ by only one bit. If they do, combine them and mark the combined minterms as used. - Identify Prime Implicants: Continue combining minterms until no further combinations are possible. The resulting terms are known as prime implicants. - Use the Prime Implicant Chart: Construct a prime implicant chart to determine which prime implicants cover all original minterms. This step involves selecting the essential prime implicants that cover each minterm at least once. - Find the Essential Prime Implicants: Identify and select the essential prime implicants, which are necessary to cover all minterms. Example 1: Simplifying a Boolean Function Given the Boolean function: F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 14) Step 1: List Minterms in Binary Form Minterm \| Binary Representation \| 0 \| 0000 \| 1 \| 0001 \| 2 \| 0010 \| 5 \| 0101 \| 8 \| 1000 \| 9 \| 1001 \| 10 \| 1010 \| 14 \| 1110 \| Step 2: Group Minterms by the Number of 1s Number of 1s \| Minterms \| 0 \| 0000 \| 1 \| 0001, 0010, 1000 \| 2 \| 0101, 1001, 1010 \| 3 \| 1110 \| Step 3: Combine Minterms to Eliminate Variables - Combine 0000 and 0001 to get 000− - Combine 0001 and 0010 to get 00−1 - Combine 1000 and 1001 to get 100− - Combine 1001 and 1010 to get 10−1 Step 4: Identify Prime Implicants From the combinations: - 000− (covers 0 and 1) - 00−1 (covers 1 and 2) - 100− (covers 8 and 9) - 10−1 (covers 9 and 10) Step 5: Use the Prime Implicant Chart Minterm \| 000- \| 00-1 \| 100- \| 10-1 \| 1110 \| 0 \| X \| \|\|\|\| 1 \| X \| X \| \|\|\| 2 \| X \| \|\|\|\| 5 \| \|\|\|\|\| 8 \| X \| \|\|\|\| 9 \| X \| X \| \|\|\| 10 \| X \| \|\|\|\| 14 \| X \| Step 6: Find the Essential Prime Implicants - Essential prime implicants: 000−, 00−1, 100−, 1110 So, the minimized Boolean function is: F(A,B,C,D) = A′B′C′ + A′B′D′ + ABC′D + ABCD′ Example 2: Another Boolean Function Simplification Given the Boolean function: F(A,B,C) = ∑ (1, 2, 3, 5, 7) Step 1: List Minterms in Binary Form Minterm \| Binary Representation \| 1 \| 001 \| 2 \| 010 \| 3 \| 011 \| 5 \| 101 \| 7 \| 111 \| Step 2: Group Minterms by the Number of 1s Number of 1s \| Minterms \| 1 \| 001 \| 2 \| 010, 011, 101 \| 3 \| 111 \| Step 3: Combine Minterms to Eliminate Variables - Combine 001 and 011 to get 0−1 - Combine 010 and 011 to get −10 - Combine 011 and 111 to get −11 Step 4: Identify Prime Implicants From the combinations: - 0−1 (covers 1 and 3) - −10 (covers 2 and 6) - −11 (covers 3 and 7) Step 5: Use the Prime Implicant Chart Minterm \| 0-1 \| -10 \| -11 \| 1 \| X \| \|\| 2 \| X \| \|\| 3 \| X \| X \| \| 5 \| \|\|\| 7 \| X \| Step 6: Find the Essential Prime Implicants - Essential prime implicants: 0−1, −10, −11 So, the minimized Boolean function is: F(A,B,C) = B′C + AB′ + BC The Quine-McCluskey method provides a structured way to minimize Boolean expressions, which is particularly advantageous for complex functions that may be cumbersome to simplify using graphical methods like Karnaugh maps. This method ensures that the simplest, most efficient form of the Boolean function is achieved. 4.12 Implementing Boolean Expressions with VHDL VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language) is a hardware description language used to model and simulate digital systems. It allows engineers to describe the behavior and structure of electronic circuits and systems in a textual format. This section introduces VHDL, explains how Boolean expressions can be represented in VHDL, and provides examples to illustrate the application of Boolean algebra in VHDL programming. 4.12.1 Introduction to VHDL VHDL is widely used in the design and verification of digital circuits. It supports various levels of abstraction, from high-level behavioral descriptions to low-level gate-level descriptions. VHDL allows for concurrent execution of statements, which makes it suitable for modeling the parallel nature of hardware. The language includes constructs for defining signals, variables, and processes, enabling precise control over the timing and functionality of digital circuits. 4.12.2 Representing Boolean Expressions in VHDL In VHDL, Boolean expressions are typically used to describe combinational logic. These expressions can be directly mapped to the logic gates and circuits they represent. VHDL syntax allows for the use of logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT to build Boolean expressions. The result of these expressions can then be assigned to signals or variables. Basic Boolean Operations in VHDL - AND operation: A AND B - OR operation: A OR B - NOT operation: NOT A 4.12.3 Example 1: Simple Boolean Expression Consider the Boolean expression Y=A⋅B+C. This can be translated into VHDL as follows: use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Boolean_Expression_1 is Port ( A, B, C : in STD_LOGIC; Y : out STD_LOGIC); end Boolean_Expression_1; architecture Behavioral of Boolean_Expression_1 is begin Y <= (A AND B) OR C; end Behavioral; \| In this example, the entity declaration defines the inputs (A, B, and C) and the output (Y). The architecture body contains the Boolean expression, using VHDL's logical operators to describe the desired behavior. 4.12.4 Example 2: Complex Boolean Expression Consider a more complex Boolean expression Y=(A⋅B+C′)⋅(D+E′). This can be written in VHDL as follows: use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Boolean_Expression_2 is Port ( A, B, C, D, E : in STD_LOGIC; Y : out STD_LOGIC); end Boolean_Expression_2; architecture Behavioral of Boolean_Expression_2 is begin Y <= ((A AND B) OR (NOT C)) AND (D OR (NOT E)); end Behavioral; \| In this example, the entity defines five inputs (A, B, C, D, and E) and one output (Y). The architecture body includes the complex Boolean expression, demonstrating the use of both AND, OR, and NOT operations within nested expressions. 4.12.5 Example 3: Using a Process Block VHDL also allows the use of process blocks for describing sequential logic. However, for combinational logic, process blocks can also be used to organize the code better, especially when dealing with more complex expressions or multiple outputs. use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Boolean_Expression_3 is Port ( A, B, C, D, E : in STD_LOGIC; Y : out STD_LOGIC); end Boolean_Expression_3; architecture Behavioral of Boolean_Expression_3 is begin process(A, B, C, D, E) begin Y <= ((A AND B) OR (NOT C)) AND (D OR (NOT E)); end process; end Behavioral; \| Here, a process block is used, with the sensitivity list including all the input signals (A, B, C, D, and E). Inside the process block, the Boolean expression is evaluated whenever any of the input signals change. 4.12.6 Example 4: Multiple Outputs Consider a scenario with multiple outputs, each derived from different Boolean expressions: library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Multi_Output is Port ( A, B, C, D : in STD_LOGIC; Y1, Y2 : out STD_LOGIC); end Multi_Output; architecture Behavioral of Multi_Output is begin Y1 <= (A AND B) OR (C AND D); Y2 <= (A OR B) AND (C OR D); end Behavioral; \| In this example, two outputs (Y1 and Y2) are defined, each with its Boolean expression. The architecture body contains the assignments for both Y1 and Y2, demonstrating how multiple expressions can be handled within a single VHDL module. 4.12.7 Synthesis and Simulation Once the Boolean expressions are defined in VHDL, the next steps involve synthesizing the code to create a gate-level representation and simulating the design to verify its correctness. VHDL tools such as ModelSim, Quartus, and Vivado can be used for these purposes. - Synthesis: Converts the VHDL code into a netlist, which maps the design to actual hardware components. - Simulation: Allows testing of the VHDL code to ensure it behaves as expected before implementation on physical hardware. VHDL provides a powerful platform for describing and implementing Boolean expressions in digital circuits. By leveraging VHDL, engineers can efficiently model, simulate, and synthesize complex digital systems. The examples provided demonstrate how Boolean expressions can be translated into VHDL code, highlighting the practical application of Boolean algebra in digital design. Part II Simulation Dimension 4.13 Online Boolean Algebra Calculators and Simulators In the modern educational landscape, online tools such as Boolean algebra calculators and simulators have become invaluable resources for learning and teaching digital logic design. These tools provide interactive platforms for students to practice and visualize Boolean algebra concepts, making complex topics more accessible and engaging. This section highlights some popular online calculators and simulators, discusses their benefits, and provides examples to demonstrate their usage. 4.13.1 Introduction to Boolean Algebra Calculators and Simulators Boolean algebra calculators and simulators are web-based tools that allow users to input Boolean expressions and receive simplified results, truth tables, and visual representations of logic circuits. These tools often feature user-friendly interfaces and instant feedback, enabling students to experiment with different expressions and understand the underlying principles of Boolean algebra. 4.13.2 Benefits of Using Online Tools in Learning - Interactive Learning: Online calculators and simulators offer an interactive way for students to engage with Boolean algebra. They can immediately see the results of their inputs, helping to reinforce concepts through practice and experimentation. - Visualization: Many of these tools provide visual representations of logic circuits, aiding in the understanding of how Boolean expressions translate into physical hardware components. - Instant Feedback: Students receive immediate feedback on their work, allowing them to correct mistakes and learn from them in real-time. - Accessibility: These tools are easily accessible from any device with an internet connection, making it convenient for students to practice anytime and anywhere. - Cost-Effective: Most online calculators and simulators are free to use, making them an affordable resource for students and educators alike. 4.13.3 Popular Boolean Algebra Calculators and Simulators 1. Boolean Calculator (Boolean Algebra Calculator) - URL: Boolean Calculator - Features: Simplifies Boolean expressions, generates truth tables, and provides step-by-step solutions. - Example: - Input: (A⋅B)′ + C⋅D - Output: The tool simplifies the expression, shows the intermediate steps, and generates the corresponding truth table. 2. Symbolab Boolean Algebra Calculator - URL: Symbolab Boolean Algebra Calculator - Features: Simplifies expressions, generates truth tables, and shows graphical representations of logic circuits. - Example: - Input: A⋅(B+C′) - Output: Provides a simplified expression and visualizes the logic gate diagram. 3. Wolfram Alpha Boolean Algebra Calculator - URL: Wolfram Alpha Boolean Algebra Calculator - Features: Offers advanced Boolean algebra capabilities, including simplification, truth tables, and detailed explanations. - Example: - Input: A⋅B + A⋅B′ - Output: Simplifies the expression and explains the steps taken to reach the solution. 4. Logic Circuit Simulator Pro - URL: Logic Circuit Simulator Pro - Features: A comprehensive tool for designing and simulating digital circuits. Allows users to create and test circuits using a drag-and-drop interface. - Example: - Project: Design a full adder circuit. The tool enables users to connect logic gates and test the functionality of the circuit in real-time. 4.13.4 Examples of Using Online Tools Example 1: Simplifying a Boolean Expression - Tool: Boolean Calculator - Expression: (A+B)⋅(A′+B′) - Process: - Enter the expression in the input field. - The calculator simplifies the expression step-by-step. - Result: The simplified expression is provided along with a truth table. Example 2: Creating a Truth Table - Tool: Symbolab Boolean Algebra Calculator - Expression: A⋅B + C - Process: - Enter the Boolean expression. - The calculator generates a truth table showing all possible input combinations and corresponding outputs. - Result: A detailed truth table is displayed, helping students understand how different inputs affect the output. Example 3: Visualizing a Logic Circuit - Tool: Logic Circuit Simulator Pro - Project: Designing a simple OR gate circuit. - Process: - Drag and drop OR gate and input/output nodes onto the canvas. - Connect the inputs and outputs to the OR gate. - Simulate the circuit to see the real-time behavior. - Result: The simulator shows the logical operation of the OR gate, allowing students to visualize the functioning of the circuit. Online Boolean algebra calculators and simulators are powerful tools that enhance the learning experience by providing interactive, visual, and instant feedback. These tools help students grasp complex concepts more effectively and offer a practical approach to understanding and applying Boolean algebra in digital logic design. Integrating these tools into educational curricula can significantly improve comprehension and retention of Boolean algebra principles. Part III Engineering Dimension 4.14 Practical Application: Building and Simplifying Circuits To truly bring the concepts of Boolean algebra to life, a "third dimension" of learning and validation is introduced: engineering. This dimension merges theoretical and simulated aspects into tangible form through hands-on experimentation. In this stage, students use breadboards to physically build their circuits, converting concepts into reality. The breadboard allows for the practical assembly of components like resistors, capacitors, and logic gates, providing a platform for final validation of the designs. This step serves as a crucial bridge between abstract theoretical understanding and real-world application, ensuring that students can see and handle the physical representations of their logic circuits. Building circuits on a breadboard enables students to experience the practical challenges and intricacies of electronic design, such as managing connections, troubleshooting faults, and understanding component behaviors in a real environment. This hands-on practice reinforces the learning from the previous dimensions and solidifies their comprehension through practical application. By merging Boolean algebra, simulation, and physical construction, students achieve a comprehensive understanding of logic circuits, fully prepared to tackle real-world engineering problems. 4.14.1 Applying Boolean Algebra Simplification One effective way to understand and apply Boolean algebra is by simplifying Boolean expressions and implementing both the original and simplified circuits. This process not only reinforces theoretical knowledge but also provides practical insights into the efficiency and functionality of digital designs. Step-by-Step Example Boolean Expression: Y = AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C) Step 1: Simplification Using an Online Boolean Calculator Using the Boolean Calculator, we can simplify the expression: - Enter the expression Y = AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C) into the calculator. - The calculator simplifies the expression and provides the result: Y = AC + B. Step 2: Truth Table Generation Generate the truth table for both the original and simplified expressions to verify their equivalence. A \| B \| C \| Original Y=AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C) \| Simplified Y=AC+B \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| Step 3: Simulate Circuits Step 4: Building the Original Circuit Using a breadboard and components, build the original circuit described by the expression Y = AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C): - Components Needed: - AND gates (e.g., IC 74HC08) - OR gates (e.g., IC 74HC32) - Breadboard - Wires - Power supply (e.g., 9V battery) - Circuit Assembly: - Connect inputs A, B, and C to the respective gates. - Implement the expression step-by-step on the breadboard. - Verify the functionality using LEDs or a logic analyzer. Step 4: Building the Simplified Circuit Next, build the simplified circuit using the expression Y=AC + B: - Components Needed: - OR gate (e.g., IC 74HC32) - Breadboard - Wires - Power supply - Circuit Assembly: - Connect inputs A and B to the OR gate. - Implement the simplified expression on the breadboard. - Verify the functionality using LEDs or a logic analyzer. 4.14.2 Using Tinkercad for Virtual Simulation To practice and perfect designs virtually, Tinkercad's free web-based simulator can be used to replicate the process of building a circuit on a real breadboard. - Create an Account and Access Tinkercad: - Go to Tinkercad. - Create a free account or log in if you already have one. - Design the Circuit: - Use the drag-and-drop interface to place the necessary components (AND, OR, and NOT gates). - Connect the components according to the Boolean expression. - Simulate the Circuit: - Run the simulation to observe the circuit behavior. - Check for any errors or issues indicated by the simulator, such as excessive voltage or current. - Example: - Design and simulate the simplified circuit Y=AC + B. - Observe the output when inputs A, B, and C are varied. Incorporating hands-on experimentation with breadboards and utilizing online tools like Boolean calculators and simulators, such as Tinkercad, provides a comprehensive learning experience. This approach not only strengthens their theoretical understanding of Boolean algebra but also equips them with practical skills essential for real-world engineering challenges. Through this multifaceted learning method, students can bridge the gap between abstract concepts and tangible applications, fostering a deeper and more holistic comprehension of digital logic design. 4.15 Summary Module 4 delves into the essential concepts of Boolean algebra, a cornerstone of digital logic design. It begins by introducing the basic Boolean operations (AND, OR, NOT) and fundamental laws, including Identity, Null, Idempotent, Complement, Commutative, Associative, and Distributive laws. These foundational principles are crucial for simplifying and analyzing Boolean expressions, which are then further explored through DeMorgan's Theorems and practical examples of logic circuit analysis. A significant portion of the chapter is dedicated to methods for simplifying Boolean expressions and logic circuits. Techniques such as using Sum of Products (SOP) and Product of Sums (POS) forms, Karnaugh maps (K-Maps), and the Quine-McCluskey method are discussed in detail. These tools help in minimizing complex Boolean functions, making digital designs more efficient and cost-effective. The chapter also highlights the practical applications of these simplification techniques through hands-on experiments with breadboards and virtual simulations using Tinkercad. The chapter concludes by integrating Boolean algebra with VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language), demonstrating how Boolean expressions can be implemented in digital designs through VHDL code. It also introduces online Boolean algebra calculators and simulators, emphasizing their role in enhancing learning through interactive and visual tools. By merging theoretical concepts with practical applications, the chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of Boolean algebra, preparing students to tackle real-world digital logic design challenges. 4.16 Projects Remembering (Factual; ABET SLOs 1) - Identify the basic Boolean operations used in digital circuits. (AI Applications: Fundamental logic used in AI decision-making.) - List the fundamental laws of Boolean algebra.(AI Applications: Basis for logical operations in AI.) - Define DeMorgan’s Theorems. (AI Applications: Logical transformations in AI algorithms.) - Describe the difference between SOP and POS forms. (Conceptual; AI Applications: Different representations for optimizing AI logic.) Understanding (Conceptual; ABET SLOs 1) - Explain how the Identity Law simplifies Boolean expressions. (AI Applications: Simplifying logical conditions in AI models.) - Illustrate the application of the Complement Law with an example. (AI Applications: Handling inverse conditions in AI.) - Interpret a truth table for the expression A⋅(B+C). (AI Applications: Building and understanding decision tables in AI.) - Summarize the process of constructing a Karnaugh Map. (Procedural; AI Applications: Visual method for optimizing logical expressions in AI.) Applying (Procedural; ABET SLOs 1) - Simplify the Boolean expression A⋅B + A⋅C using Boolean algebra laws. (AI Applications: Optimizing logical conditions in AI code.) - Apply DeMorgan’s Theorems to the expression (A+B)′(A + B)'(A+B)′. (AI Applications: Simplifying conditions in AI algorithms.) - Construct a logic circuit from the Boolean expression A + B⋅C using Tinkercad. (ABET SLOs 1 & 3; AI Applications: Prototyping AI hardware.) - Use a Boolean calculator to simplify the expression A⋅B + A′⋅(B + C). (AI Applications: Automated simplification in AI preprocessing.) Analyzing - Analyze the logic circuit of the expression A⋅(B + C) + B′⋅C. (Conceptual & Procedural; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Understanding complex AI decision processes.) - Determine the minimized expression using a Karnaugh Map for Y = A⋅B + A⋅C + B⋅C. (Procedural; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Logic optimization in AI systems.) - Compare the original and simplified circuits for the expression A⋅(B + C) + A′⋅B⋅C. (Conceptual; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Evaluating efficiency in AI logic implementations. - Examine the output behavior of a VHDL implementation for the expression A + B⋅C. (Procedural; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Hardware-level AI implementation.) Evaluating - Evaluate the efficiency of different simplification methods for the expression A⋅B + A⋅(C + D) + B⋅D. (Procedural & Conceptual; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Choosing optimal simplification techniques in AI development.) - Assess the correctness of a logic circuit implemented in Tinkercad for the expression A + B⋅C. (Procedural; ABET SLOs 1 & 3; AI Applications: Validating AI hardware prototypes.) - Judge the practicality of using Boolean algebra simplification in a given AI algorithm. (Conceptual; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Applying logical optimizations in AI algorithms.) - Critique the design of a VHDL code that implements the expression A + B⋅(C + D). (Procedural; ABET SLOs: 1 & 3; AI Applications: Reviewing AI hardware code.) Creating - Design a logic circuit for the expression A⋅B + C⋅D using both SOP and POS forms in Tinkercad. (Procedural; ABET SLOs: 1 & 3; AI Applications: Designing efficient AI logic circuits.) - Develop a simplified Boolean expression from a complex AI decision-making process. (Procedural & Conceptual; ABET SLOs: 1; AI Applications: Streamlining AI decision algorithms.) - Formulate a VHDL module to implement the expression (A + B)⋅(C + D) and test it in a simulator. (Procedural; ABET SLOs: 1 & 3; AI Applications: Creating AI hardware descriptions.) - Invent a novel circuit design using Boolean algebra to optimize a specific AI function. (Procedural & Conceptual; ABET SLOs 1; AI Applications: Innovating new AI hardware solutions.) Team Collaboration - Collaborate with a Team to Design and Implement a Boolean Expression for a Complex Logic Circuit (Cognitive Dimension: Applying, Analyzing, Creating; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural, Conceptual; ABET SLOs: 5; AI Applications: Team-based AI hardware projects.) Objective: Collaborate with a team to design and implement a Boolean expression for a logic circuit that controls a traffic light system. Steps: - Form a Team: - Assign roles (e.g., team leader, circuit designer, simulation specialist). - Schedule regular meetings to discuss progress and challenges. - Define the Problem: - The traffic light system needs to control three lights (Red, Yellow, Green) based on two inputs: sensor inputs indicating the presence of vehicles. - Design Boolean Expressions: - Let A and B be the sensor inputs. - Red Light: R = A' - Yellow Light: Y = A · B' - Green Light: G = B - Simplify the Expressions: - Use Boolean algebra to simplify the expressions if necessary. - Implement the Circuit in Tinkercad: - Use AND, OR, and NOT gates to build the circuit. - Connect LEDs to represent the traffic lights. - Test and Verify: - Simulate the circuit in Tinkercad to ensure it works as expected. - Make adjustments based on test results. Implementation in Tinkercad: - Construct the circuit with input switches for A and B. - Use logic gates to create the R, Y, and G outputs. - Connect LEDs to visualize the traffic light states. Capstone Project: Radar Signal Processing - Capstone Project: Design a radar signal processing circuit using Boolean algebra simplification. (Cognitive Dimension: Creating, Evaluating, Analyzing; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural, Conceptual; ABET SLOs: 1, 3, 5; AI Applications: AI-enhanced radar signal processing.) Objective: Design a radar signal processing circuit that identifies objects based on signal input patterns. Steps: - Define the Requirements: - The radar system should detect objects and classify them based on input signals (S1, S2, S3). - Develop Boolean Expressions: - Object detected: D = S1 · S2 - Object classified as Type 1: T1 = S1' · S3 - Object classified as Type 2: T2 = S2' · S3' - Simplify the Expressions: - Simplify the Boolean expressions using Boolean algebra laws. - Implement the Circuit: - Build the logic circuit using AND, OR, and NOT gates. - Use a breadboard for physical implementation or Tinkercad for simulation. - Test the Circuit: - Simulate different signal patterns and verify the detection and classification logic. Implementation in Tinkercad: - Use logic gates to create the detection (D) and classification (T1, T2) circuits. - Connect LEDs to indicate object detection and classification types. - Develop the Boolean expressions for the radar signal processing algorithm. (Cognitive Dimension: Creating; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural, Conceptual ABET SLOs: 1; AI Applications: Logical processing in AI radar systems.) Objective: Develop Boolean expressions to represent the radar signal processing algorithm. Steps: - Identify Signal Patterns: - Define input signals S1, S2, and S3 representing radar echoes. - Create Detection Expression: - D = S1 · S2 (Object detected when both S1 and S2 are high). - Create Classification Expressions: - T1 = S1' · S3 (Type 1 object when S1 is low and S3 is high). - T2 = S2' · S3' (Type 2 object when S2 is low and S3 is low). - Simplify the Expressions: - Simplify using Boolean algebra: No further simplification needed for these expressions. Example Boolean Expressions: - Detection: D = S1 · S2 - Classification Type 1: T1 = S1' · S3 - Classification Type 2: T2 = S2' · S3' - Simplify the Boolean expressions using Karnaugh Maps and Boolean calculators. (Cognitive Dimension: Applying & Analyzing; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural ABET SLOs: 1; AI Applications: Optimization of AI radar algorithms.) Objective: Simplify the radar signal processing Boolean expressions using Karnaugh Maps and Boolean calculators. Steps: - Plot Karnaugh Maps: - Create K-Maps for each Boolean expression (D, T1, T2). - Simplify Using K-Maps: - Group adjacent 1s to find simplified expressions. - Verify with Boolean Calculator: - Use an online Boolean calculator to cross-check the simplified expressions. Karnaugh Maps and Simplification: - Detection (D = S1 · S2): - Classification Type 1 (T1 = S1' · S3): - Classification Type 2 (T2 = S2' · S3'): Simplified Expressions: - Detection: D = S1⋅S2 (Already simplified). - Type 1: T1 = S1′⋅S3 (Already simplified). - Type 2: T2 = S2′⋅S3 (Already simplified). - Implement the simplified radar signal processing circuit in Tinkercad. (Cognitive Dimension: Applying & Creating; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural ABET SLOs: 1 & 3; AI Applications: Prototyping AI-enhanced radar hardware.) Objective: Implement the simplified radar signal processing circuit using Tinkercad. Steps: - Set Up Tinkercad: - Open Tinkercad and create a new circuit project. - Place Components: - Add AND, OR, and NOT gates as needed. - Use input switches for S1, S2, and S3. - Add LEDs to represent the outputs (D, T1, T2). - Connect the Circuit: - Wire the inputs to the logic gates according to the simplified expressions. - Connect the outputs of the gates to the LEDs. - Simulate and Test: - Run the simulation. - Test different input combinations and verify the outputs. Implementation in Tinkercad: - Construct the circuit with the following connections: - D = S1⋅S2 - T1 = S1′⋅S3 - T2 = S2′⋅S3′ - Connect the corresponding LEDs to visualize detection and classification. - Evaluate the performance of the original and simplified radar signal processing circuits. (Cognitive Dimension: Evaluating; Knowledge Dimension: Procedural, Conceptual ABET SLOs: 1; AI Applications: Performance assessment in AI radar systems.) Objective: Evaluate and compare the performance of the original and simplified radar signal processing circuits. Steps: - Define Performance Metrics: - Number of gates used. - Circuit complexity. - Processing speed. - Power consumption (if applicable). - Build Original Circuit: - Implement the original (non-simplified) circuit in Tinkercad. - Test and document the performance. - Build Simplified Circuit: - Implement the simplified circuit in Tinkercad. - Test and document the performance. - Compare Results: - Compare the performance metrics of both circuits. - Identify benefits and drawbacks of simplification. Evaluation: - Original Circuit: - More gates and connections. - Higher complexity. - Potentially slower processing. - Simplified Circuit: - Fewer gates and connections. - Lower complexity. - Faster processing and reduced power consumption. Module 5 Combinational Logic Module 5 Combinational Logic Module Content 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Basic Combinational Logic Circuits 5.2 Implementing and Minimizing Combinational Logic 5.3 Universal Properties of NAND and NOR Gates 5.4 Implementing Logic Functions with NAND and NOR Gates 5.5 Analyzing Logic Circuits with Pulse Waveform Inputs 5.6 VHDL for Combinational Logic Part II Simulation Dimension 5.7 Simulating Combinational Logic Circuits Part III Engineering Dimension 5.8 Practical Application: Building and Simplifying Circuits 5.9 Practical Examples in Radar and AI 5.10 Summary 5.11 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| \| 6. Understand the universal properties of NAND and NOR gates and their applications in AI and radar systems. (ABET SLO 3) \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| 4. Build and simulate logic circuits on a breadboard and using Tinkercad. (ABET SLO 5) \| \| \| Analyze \| \| \| 1. Analyze combinational logic circuits and develop timing diagrams. (ABET SLO 1) \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| 3. Evaluate the efficiency of logic circuits and optimize them using Karnaugh maps. (ABET SLO 6) \| \| \| \| Create \| \| \| 2. Design and implement combinational logic circuits using Boolean expressions and VHDL. (ABET SLO 2) \| 5. Collaborate with a team to design and implement a complex combinational logic circuit project. (ABET SLO 7) \| Table 1. 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives Explanation of the 2D Mapping Remember (No specific objectives in this module focus solely on remembering, as the module targets higher-order thinking skills.) Understand (Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 6: Understand the universal properties of NAND and NOR gates and their applications in AI and radar systems. This objective ensures students grasp fundamental concepts and can explain the applications of these gates in AI and radar systems. Apply (Procedural Knowledge) Objective 4: Build and simulate logic circuits on a breadboard and using Tinkercad. This hands-on objective requires students to apply their knowledge practically by building and simulating circuits. Objective 7: Implement and test AI-based decision-making circuits using combinational logic. This objective requires students to apply procedural knowledge to design, implement, and test AI-based circuits, considering ethical and professional implications. Analyze (Procedural Knowledge) Objective 1: Analyze combinational logic circuits and develop timing diagrams. This objective requires students to break down and understand how combinational logic circuits work and how to represent their operation over time using timing diagrams. Evaluate (Conceptual Knowledge) Objective 3: Evaluate the efficiency of logic circuits and optimize them using Karnaugh maps. Students must judge the efficiency of given circuits and optimize them, which requires evaluating and understanding concepts. Create (Procedural Knowledge) Objective 2: Design and implement combinational logic circuits using Boolean expressions and VHDL. This objective focuses on synthesizing knowledge to create new circuit designs using Boolean expressions and VHDL. Create (Metacognitive Knowledge) Objective 5: Collaborate with a team to design and implement a complex combinational logic circuit project. Team collaboration fosters the creation of complex projects, requiring students to utilize metacognitive strategies to manage and apply new knowledge. Part I: Analytical Dimension 5.0 Introduction Combinational logic circuits form the cornerstone of digital systems, enabling the execution of a wide range of logical operations without memory elements. These circuits produce outputs based solely on the current inputs, making them crucial for performing tasks such as arithmetic operations, data routing, and signal processing. In this chapter, we will explore advanced combinational logic circuits, delving into their design, implementation, and practical applications. Understanding advanced combinational logic is essential for several reasons. First, combinational logic circuits are the building blocks of more complex digital systems, such as microprocessors, memory units, and digital signal processors. Mastery of these circuits is fundamental for any aspiring digital designer or engineer. Second, advanced techniques in combinational logic allow for the optimization of circuits, making them more efficient in terms of speed, power consumption, and resource utilization. This efficiency is crucial in modern electronics, where performance and energy efficiency are paramount. Third, combinational logic circuits are employed in a myriad of real-world applications, from consumer electronics to industrial automation and communications. Understanding their design and functionality enables the development of innovative solutions in these fields. Finally, practical experimentation with combinational logic circuits solidifies theoretical knowledge. By building and testing circuits, students gain valuable hands-on experience, bridging the gap between concept and reality. In this chapter, you will examine basic combinational logic circuits, exploring fundamental circuits such as AND-OR, AND-OR-invert (AOI), XOR, and XNOR gates, and learning their functions, applications, and how to read and create logic diagrams with ANSI standard symbols. You will learn to implement and minimize combinational logic circuits from Boolean expressions and truth tables, discovering techniques for minimization using Karnaugh maps (K-maps) with practical examples related to radar and AI. The universality of NAND and NOR gates will be explored, showing how to implement any Boolean function using these gates, along with examples and applications in radar and AI. You will analyze combinational logic circuits with pulse waveform inputs, create timing diagrams for specific circuits, and apply these concepts to radar and AI examples. Using VHDL, you will describe and simulate combinational logic circuits, learning both data flow and structural approaches, understanding VHDL components, and utilizing software development tools. Additionally, you will gain experience with free online simulation tools like Tinkercad, CircuitVerse, and Logisim, simulating NAND and NOR gate circuits, and applying these simulations to radar and AI applications. Transitioning from simulation to physical implementation, you will build and simplify physical circuits using breadboards, resistors, wires, and LEDs, conducting hands-on experiments. Finally, you will integrate AI algorithms in the design and optimization of combinational logic circuits, exploring examples that demonstrate AI applications in digital circuit design. Overview of Sections 5.1 Basic Combinational Logic Circuits: In this section, we will cover the fundamental logic gates and their combinations, providing detailed examples and truth tables to illustrate their functionality. 5.2 Implementing and Minimizing Combinational Logic: We will discuss the steps to implement logic circuits from Boolean expressions and truth tables, and introduce techniques for minimizing these circuits. 5.3 Universal Properties of NAND and NOR Gates: This section explores the universality of NAND and NOR gates, showing how they can be used to implement any logic function. 5.4 Implementing Logic Functions with NAND and NOR Gates: Learn how to use NAND and NOR gates to simplify the design of complex logic functions and make diagrams easier to read. 5.5 Analyzing Logic Circuits with Pulse Waveform Inputs: Understand how to analyze combinational logic circuits with pulse waveform inputs and develop timing diagrams. 5.6 VHDL for Combinational Logic: Explore the use of VHDL for designing and simulating combinational logic circuits, including both data flow and structural approaches. 5.7 Simulating Combinational Logic Circuits: Gain experience with online simulation tools, learning how to simulate NAND and NOR gate circuits and apply these simulations to practical applications. 5.8 Practical Applications: Building and Simplifying Logic Circuits: Conduct hands-on experiments to build and simplify logic circuits using breadboards and various components. 5.9 AI Applications in Combinational Logic Design: Integrate AI into the design and optimization of combinational logic circuits, exploring practical applications in digital design. By the end of this chapter, you will have a comprehensive understanding of advanced combinational logic circuits, from theoretical concepts to practical implementation and optimization. 5.1 Basic Combinational Logic Circuits Combinational logic circuits are the building blocks of digital systems. They perform operations based on the current inputs, without any memory of past inputs. This section examines fundamental combinational logic circuits including AND-OR, AND-OR-invert, exclusive-OR (XOR), and exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gates, providing detailed examples, logic diagrams, ANSI standard symbols, and truth tables. 5.1.1 AND-OR Logic AND-OR logic circuits combine AND and OR gates to produce a specific output. These circuits are used to implement complex Boolean expressions. Example: Implementing the Boolean Expression X = (A AND B) OR (C AND D) The Boolean expression can be implemented using two AND gates and one OR gate. Logic Diagram: \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.1.2 AND-OR-Invert (AOI) Logic AND-OR-invert (AOI) logic circuits are similar to AND-OR circuits but include an additional inversion (NOT gate) at the output. This configuration is useful for implementing certain types of Boolean functions more efficiently. Example: Implementing the Boolean Expression Y = NOT((A AND B) OR (C AND D)) The Boolean expression can be implemented using two AND gates, one OR gate, and one NOT gate. Logic Diagram: \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.1.3 Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gate The exclusive-OR (XOR) gate outputs true only when the number of true inputs is odd. It is commonly used in arithmetic circuits and error detection systems. Example: Implementing a 2-input XOR Gate The Boolean expression for a 2-input XOR gate is F = A ⊕ B. Logic Diagram: \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| ANSI Diagram \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| 5.1.4 Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gate The exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate outputs true only when the number of true inputs is even. It is the complement of the XOR gate and is used in equality comparison circuits. Example: Implementing a 2-input XNOR Gate The Boolean expression for a 2-input XNOR gate is F = NOT(A ⊕ B). Logic Diagram: \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| ANSI Diagram \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| 5.1.5 Summary of Basic Logic Gates Understanding the function and implementation of these basic combinational logic circuits is crucial for designing more complex digital systems. AND-OR and AND-OR-invert configurations allow for the realization of intricate Boolean functions, while XOR and XNOR gates are essential in arithmetic operations and comparison functions. The following examples and diagrams illustrate how these gates can be used in practical applications. 5.2 Implementing and Minimizing Combinational Logic Implementing combinational logic involves translating Boolean expressions and truth tables into logic circuits. This section illustrates how to design logic circuits from Boolean expressions and truth tables and how to minimize these circuits using various methods. Examples related to radar systems and AI applications will be provided to demonstrate practical applications. 5.2.1 Implementing Logic Circuits from Boolean Expressions Example 1: Implementing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean Expression Consider the Boolean expression: F = A⋅B + C′⋅D Step-by-Step Implementation: - Identify the individual terms: - A⋅B - C′⋅D - Implement each term using AND gates: - AND gate for A⋅B - AND gate for C′⋅D (with an inverter for C′) - Combine the terms using an OR gate: - OR gate to combine A⋅B and C′⋅D Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.2.2 Implementing Logic Circuits from Truth Tables Example 2: Implementing a Logic Circuit from a Truth Table Consider the following truth table for a logic function: A \| B \| C \| F \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| Step-by-Step Implementation: - Derive the Boolean expression from the truth table: Identify the rows where F = 1: F = A′⋅B′⋅C + A′⋅B⋅C + A⋅B′⋅C′ + A⋅B⋅C′ - Implement each term using AND gates: AND gates for A′⋅B′⋅C, A′⋅B⋅C, A⋅B′⋅C′, and A⋅B⋅C′ - Combine the terms using OR gates: OR gate to combine the results of the AND gates Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.2.3 Minimizing Logic Circuits Example 3: Minimizing a Logic Circuit Using Karnaugh Maps (K-maps) Consider the Boolean expression derived from the truth table: F = A′⋅B′⋅C + A′⋅B⋅C + A⋅B′⋅C′ + A⋅B⋅C′ Step-by-Step Minimization: - Construct the K-map: AB \ C \| 0 \| 1 \| 00 \| \| 1 \| 01 \| \| 1 \| 10 \| 1 \| \| 11 \| 1 \| \| - Group the 1s in the K-map: - Group (A=0,B=0,C=1) and (A=0,B=1,C=1) - Group (A=1,B=0,C=0) and (A=1,B=1,C=0) - Write the simplified Boolean expression: F = A′⋅C + A⋅C′ Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.2.4 Examples in Radar Systems Example 4: Implementing a Radar Signal Processing Circuit Radar systems often use digital logic to process signals and determine the presence and location of objects. Consider a simplified circuit that detects an object if two conditions are met: the signal strength exceeds a threshold (A) and the velocity is within a specific range (B). Boolean Expression: F = A⋅B Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.2.5 Examples in AI Applications Example 5: Implementing a Logic Circuit for an AI Decision-Making Process Consider an AI system that makes a decision based on three inputs: sensor data (A), user command (B), and system status (C). The decision (F) is made if the sensor data is valid (A), the user command is active (B), or the system status indicates readiness (C). Boolean Expression: F = A + B + C Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| By implementing and minimizing combinational logic circuits using Boolean expressions, truth tables, and K-maps, we can design efficient and reliable digital systems for a wide range of applications, including radar and AI. 5.3 Universal Properties of NAND and NOR Gates NAND and NOR gates are fundamental in digital electronics due to their universal properties. These gates can be used to implement any Boolean function, making them extremely versatile in digital circuit design. This section explores the universal properties of NAND and NOR gates, providing examples related to radar and AI systems along with truth tables and diagrams. 5.3.1 Universal Property of the NAND Gate The NAND gate is a universal gate, meaning that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates. This property arises because a NAND gate can be configured to function as any of the basic logic gates: AND, OR, and NOT. Implementing Basic Gates Using NAND Gates NOT Gate Using NAND Gate: The output of a NAND gate with both inputs connected together acts as a NOT gate. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| AND Gate Using NAND Gates: An AND gate can be created by connecting the output of a NAND gate to the input of another NAND gate configured as a NOT gate. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| OR Gate Using NAND Gates: An OR gate can be created by inverting both inputs using NAND gates and then NANDing the results. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.3.2 Universal Property of the NOR Gate The NOR gate, like the NAND gate, is a universal gate and can be used to implement any Boolean function. Implementing Basic Gates Using NOR Gates NOT Gate Using NOR Gate: The output of a NOR gate with both inputs connected together acts as a NOT gate. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| AND Gate Using NOR Gates: An AND gate can be created by inverting the inputs and the output of a NOR gate. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| OR Gate Using NOR Gates: An OR gate can be created by connecting the output of a NOR gate to the input of another NOR gate configured as a NOT gate. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.3.3 Examples in Radar Systems Example 1: Radar Signal Processing Circuit Using NAND Gates Consider a radar system that detects objects based on two conditions: signal strength (A) and object velocity (B). The system should trigger an alarm (F) if both conditions are met. Boolean Expression: F = A⋅B Implementation Using NAND Gates: Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.3.4 Examples in AI Applications Example 2: AI Decision-Making Circuit Using NOR Gates Consider an AI system that makes decisions based on three inputs: sensor data (A), user command (B), and system status (C). The decision (F) is made if any of the conditions are true. Boolean Expression: F = A + B + C Implementation Using NOR Gates: Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.3.5 Summary of Universal Gates The universal properties of NAND and NOR gates make them invaluable in digital circuit design. By using only NAND or NOR gates, any Boolean function can be implemented, providing a flexible and efficient approach to building complex digital systems. Examples in radar systems and AI applications highlight the practical significance of these gates in real-world scenarios. 5.4 Implementing Logic Functions with NAND and NOR Gates NAND and NOR gates are not only fundamental building blocks in digital electronics due to their universality but also because their use can simplify the design and implementation of logic functions. Representing logic functions with the appropriate symbols can make reading and understanding logic diagrams more straightforward. This section discusses how to implement logic functions using NAND and NOR gates and includes examples related to radar and AI systems, complete with truth tables and diagrams. 5.4.1 Implementing Logic Functions Using NAND Gates To demonstrate the versatility of NAND gates, we will implement a simple Boolean function and show how using the appropriate symbols can simplify the logic diagram. Example 1: Implementing a Logic Function Using NAND Gates Consider the Boolean function: F = (A+B)⋅( C+D) Step-by-Step Implementation: - Convert to NAND Logic: - Use De Morgan’s theorem to express the function in terms of NAND gates: - Implement each part using NAND gates: - Combine the parts using NAND gates: - The output is then the NAND of these parts. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5.4.2 Implementing Logic Functions Using NOR Gates Similarly, NOR gates can be used to implement any logic function. Using the correct symbols can simplify the design process and make the diagrams easier to read. Example 2: Implementing a Logic Function Using NOR Gates Consider the Boolean function: Step-by-Step Implementation: - Convert to NOR Logic: - Use De Morgan’s theorem to express the function in terms of NOR gates: - Implement each part using NOR gates: - Combine the parts using NOR gates: - The output is then the NOR of these parts. Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.4.3 Examples in Radar Systems Example 3: Radar Signal Processing Circuit Using NAND Gates Consider a radar system that needs to detect objects based on signal strength (A) and velocity (B). The system should trigger an alarm (F) if either condition is not met. Boolean Expression: F = AB Implementation Using NAND Gates: Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.4.4 Examples in AI Applications Example 4: AI Decision-Making Circuit Using NOR Gates Consider an AI system that makes decisions based on three inputs: sensor data (A), user command (B), and system status (C). The decision (F) is made if none of the conditions are true. Boolean Expression: F = A + B + C Implementation Using NOR Gates: Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| 5.4.5 Simplified Reading of Logic Diagrams Using appropriate symbols for NAND and NOR gates simplifies the reading and interpretation of logic diagrams. By representing complex functions with these universal gates, designers can easily visualize and understand the structure and behavior of the circuit. Simplified Logic Diagram: Consider the previous radar signal processing example with NAND gates: This diagram is much simpler and easier to understand than a detailed implementation with multiple AND, OR, and NOT gates. Summary: NAND and NOR gates offer a powerful and flexible way to implement any logic function. Their universal properties and the use of appropriate symbols make designing and reading logic diagrams more straightforward, allowing for efficient and effective digital circuit design. Examples in radar systems and AI applications highlight their practical use and significance. 5.5 Analyzing Logic Circuits with Pulse Waveform Inputs Pulse waveforms are essential in digital electronics as they represent the timing and control signals used in combinational logic circuits. Analyzing combinational logic circuits with pulse waveform inputs involves understanding how the circuit responds to changes in the input signals over time. This section discusses how to analyze these circuits and develop timing diagrams for given inputs, with examples related to radar and AI systems. To analyze a combinational logic circuit with pulse waveform inputs, follow these steps: - Identify the input signals and their respective waveforms. - Determine the logic function implemented by the circuit. - Evaluate the circuit's response to the input waveforms at each time interval. - Develop a timing diagram showing the input and output waveforms over time. Example 1: Pulse Waveform Analysis in a Simple AND Gate Circuit Consider a simple AND gate with two pulse waveform inputs, A and B. Boolean Expression: F = A⋅B To draw a timing diagram for an AND gate with two pulse waveform inputs, A and B, we need to follow these steps: - Draw the time axis. - Draw the waveforms for inputs A and B. - Draw the output waveform for F = A ⋅ B, based on the logical AND operation. Let's assume the following pulse waveforms for A and B: - Input A: High (1) from 0 to 2 ms, Low (0) from 2 to 4 ms, High (1) from 4 to 6 ms. - Input B: Low (0) from 0 to 1 ms, High (1) from 1 to 3 ms, Low (0) from 3 to 5 ms, High (1) from 5 to 6 ms. Given these inputs, we can derive the output F as follows: - F = 1 when both A and B are 1. - Otherwise, F = 0. This diagram shows how the output F changes based on the logical AND operation of inputs A and B over time. Explanation: - From 0 to 1 ms: A is 1, B is 0 → F = 0 - From 1 to 2 ms: A is 1, B is 1 → F = 1 - From 2 to 3 ms: A is 0, B is 1 → F = 0 - From 3 to 4 ms: A is 0, B is 0 → F = 0 - From 4 to 5 ms: A is 1, B is 0 → F = 0 - From 5 to 6 ms: A is 1, B is 1 → F = 1 5.5.2 Developing Timing Diagrams for Combinational Logic Circuits Developing a timing diagram involves plotting the input and output waveforms over time, showing the circuit's behavior as the inputs change. Example 2: Timing Diagram for a Combinational Logic Circuit in a Radar System Consider a radar system that uses a combinational logic circuit to trigger an alarm (F) based on signal strength (A) and velocity (B). The circuit uses a NAND gate to implement the logic function. Boolean Expression: F = A⋅B Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| Let's assume the following pulse waveforms for A and B: - Input A: Low (0) from 0 to 1 ms, High (1) from 1 to 3 ms, Low (0) from 3 to 4 ms, High (1) from 4 to 5 ms, Low (0) from 5 to 6 ms. - Input B: Low (0) from 0 to 2 ms, High (1) from 2 to 5 ms, Low (0) from 5 to 6 ms. Inputs and output waveforms, and timing diagram: Inputs & Output Waveforms: \| Timing diagram: \| Time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Input A: _____\|‾‾‾‾‾‾‾\|___\|‾‾‾\|___ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Input B: ________\|‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾\|___ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Output F: _\|‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾\|__\|‾‾‾\|___\|‾‾‾‾ \| 5.5.3 Examples in AI Applications Example 3: Timing Diagram for AI Decision-Making Circuit Consider an AI system that makes decisions based on three inputs: sensor data (A), user command (B), and system status (C). The decision (F) is made using an OR gate. Boolean Expression: F = A + B + C Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| Inputs and output waveforms, and timing diagram: Inputs & Output Waveforms: \| Timing diagram: \| \| 5.5.4 Summary Analyzing combinational logic circuits with pulse waveform inputs and developing timing diagrams are crucial skills in digital electronics. These techniques help in understanding how circuits respond to changing inputs and in verifying the correct operation of logic designs. Examples in radar and AI applications highlight the practical importance of these concepts. By following the steps outlined and using the provided examples, designers can effectively analyze and create timing diagrams for various combinational logic circuits. 5.6 VHDL for Combinational Logic VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language) is a powerful tool for designing and simulating digital circuits. It allows for both the data flow approach using Boolean expressions and the structural approach to develop comprehensive descriptions of logic circuits. This section explores these two approaches, introduces the concept of a VHDL component, and discusses software development tools used in VHDL programming. 5.6.1 Data Flow Approach Using Boolean Expressions The data flow approach in VHDL involves describing the logic circuit behavior using Boolean expressions. This approach is useful for designing combinational logic circuits as it allows direct mapping of the logic function to VHDL code. Example: Implementing an AND-OR-Invert (AOI) Circuit Consider the Boolean expression: F = (A⋅B) + (C⋅D) VHDL Code (Data Flow Approach): library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity AOI_Circuit is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; C : in STD_LOGIC; D : in STD_LOGIC; F : out STD_LOGIC); end AOI_Circuit; architecture DataFlow of AOI_Circuit is begin F <= not ((A and B) or (C and D)); end DataFlow; \| 5.6.2 Structural Approach to Developing VHDL Code The structural approach in VHDL involves describing the circuit as an interconnection of components, mirroring the physical design of the circuit. This approach is beneficial for large and complex designs, as it allows modular design and reuse of components. Example: Implementing the Same AOI Circuit Using Structural Approach Step-by-Step Implementation: - Define the AND, OR, and NOT gates as components. - Interconnect the components to form the desired logic circuit. VHDL Code (Structural Approach): library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity AOI_Circuit is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; C : in STD_LOGIC; D : in STD_LOGIC; F : out STD_LOGIC); end AOI_Circuit; architecture Structural of AOI_Circuit is component AND_Gate Port ( X : in STD_LOGIC; Y : in STD_LOGIC; Z : out STD_LOGIC); end component; component OR_Gate Port ( P : in STD_LOGIC; Q : in STD_LOGIC; R : out STD_LOGIC); end component; component NOT_Gate Port ( M : in STD_LOGIC; N : out STD_LOGIC); end component; signal W1, W2, W3 : STD_LOGIC; begin U1: AND_Gate Port map (A, B, W1); U2: AND_Gate Port map (C, D, W2); U3: OR_Gate Port map (W1, W2, W3); U4: NOT_Gate Port map (W3, F); end Structural; \| Components Definition: -- AND Gate library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity AND_Gate is Port ( X : in STD_LOGIC; Y : in STD_LOGIC; Z : out STD_LOGIC); end AND_Gate; architecture Behavioral of AND_Gate is begin Z <= X and Y; end Behavioral; -- OR Gate library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity OR_Gate is Port ( P : in STD_LOGIC; Q : in STD_LOGIC; R : out STD_LOGIC); end OR_Gate; architecture Behavioral of OR_Gate is begin R <= P or Q; end Behavioral; -- NOT Gate library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity NOT_Gate is Port ( M : in STD_LOGIC; N : out STD_LOGIC); end NOT_Gate; architecture Behavioral of NOT_Gate is begin N <= not M; end Behavioral; \| 5.6.3 VHDL Component A VHDL component is a reusable module that can be instantiated in other designs. Components allow for modular design and ease of maintenance. In VHDL, a component is defined with an entity and architecture. The entity declares the interface (inputs and outputs), and the architecture describes the behavior. Using a VHDL Component - Define the component with an entity and architecture. - Instantiate the component in the main design. - Map the signals to the component's ports. 5.6.4 Applying Structural and Data Flow Approaches Both structural and data flow approaches have their advantages. The data flow approach is straightforward and ideal for simple designs, while the structural approach is better suited for complex and modular designs. Example: Implementing a Full Adder Using Both Approaches Data Flow Approach: library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Full_Adder is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; Cin : in STD_LOGIC; Sum : out STD_LOGIC; Cout : out STD_LOGIC); end Full_Adder; architecture DataFlow of Full_Adder is begin Sum <= A xor B xor Cin; Cout <= (A and B) or (B and Cin) or (Cin and A); end DataFlow; \| Structural Approach: library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity Full_Adder is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; Cin : in STD_LOGIC; Sum : out STD_LOGIC; Cout : out STD_LOGIC); end Full_Adder; architecture Structural of Full_Adder is component XOR_Gate Port ( X : in STD_LOGIC; Y : in STD_LOGIC; Z : out STD_LOGIC); end component; component AND_Gate Port ( X : in STD_LOGIC; Y : in STD_LOGIC; Z : out STD_LOGIC); end component; component OR_Gate Port ( P : in STD_LOGIC; Q : in STD_LOGIC; R : out STD_LOGIC); end component; signal S1, S2, S3, C1, C2, C3 : STD_LOGIC; begin U1: XOR_Gate Port map (A, B, S1); U2: XOR_Gate Port map (S1, Cin, Sum); U3: AND_Gate Port map (A, B, C1); U4: AND_Gate Port map (B, Cin, C2); U5: AND_Gate Port map (Cin, A, C3); U6: OR_Gate Port map (C1, C2, S2); U7: OR_Gate Port map (S2, C3, Cout); end Structural; \| 5.6.5 Software Development Tools for VHDL Two basic software development tools for VHDL are: - Simulation Tools (e.g., ModelSim, QuestaSim): - Used to verify the functionality of VHDL code by simulating the design before hardware implementation. - Allows for the detection and debugging of errors in the design. - Example: ModelSim allows for detailed waveform analysis to ensure the correct operation of the logic circuits. - Synthesis Tools (e.g., Xilinx Vivado, Altera Quartus): - Used to convert VHDL code into a hardware description that can be implemented on an FPGA or ASIC. - Optimizes the design for performance, area, and power consumption. - Example: Xilinx Vivado provides tools for synthesis, placement, routing, and timing analysis to ensure the design meets specified constraints. Summary In VHDL, both the data flow and structural approaches offer flexibility in describing and implementing combinational logic circuits. Components in VHDL allow for modular design, facilitating reuse and maintenance. Simulation and synthesis tools play a crucial role in verifying and implementing VHDL designs, ensuring they meet functional and performance requirements. Through examples in radar and AI applications, we have illustrated the practical application of these approaches and tools in designing digital systems. Part II Simulation Dimension 5.7 Simulating Combinational Logic Circuits 5.7.1 Introduction Simulation plays a crucial role in the design and verification of combinational logic circuits. It allows designers to test their circuits in a virtual environment before implementing them in hardware, saving time and resources. Simulations can detect errors, optimize performance, and validate the functionality of the design under various conditions. Online free simulation tools make it accessible for students and professionals to learn and experiment with digital circuits without needing expensive hardware or software licenses. 5.7.2 Benefits and Merits of Simulation - Error Detection: Identify and fix design errors early in the development process. - Cost Efficiency: Reduce the need for physical prototypes, saving on materials and manufacturing costs. - Time Savings: Quickly iterate and test different designs without the delays of physical assembly. - Performance Analysis: Evaluate the circuit's performance under different scenarios and optimize accordingly. - Educational Value: Provides a practical learning experience for students and beginners in digital design. 5.7.3 Using Online Free Software for Simulation There are several online free tools available for simulating combinational logic circuits, such as Logisim, CircuitVerse, and Tinkercad. These tools offer a user-friendly interface for designing, simulating, and analyzing digital circuits. Example: Simulating a NAND Gate Circuit Let's use CircuitVerse to simulate a basic NAND gate circuit. - Design the Circuit: Drag and drop NAND gates from the toolbox and connect the inputs and outputs. - Run the Simulation: Apply different input combinations and observe the output. - Analyze the Results: Verify that the output matches the expected truth table. Truth Table for NAND Gate: Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| Simulation Results: When simulating the above NAND gate in CircuitVerse, the output F should follow the truth table. Example: Radar Signal Processing Using NOR Gates Consider a radar system that detects objects based on signal strength (A) and velocity (B). The circuit should trigger an alarm (F) if either condition is not met, implemented using a NOR gate. Boolean Expression: F = A + B Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| Simulation Steps: - Design the Circuit: Use CircuitVerse to place a NOR gate and connect the inputs and outputs. - Apply Inputs: Test different combinations of A and B. - Observe Output: Check that the output F matches the truth table. Simulation Results: For the radar signal processing circuit, when both A and B are 0, the alarm (F) should be 1, indicating no detection. For all other combinations, the alarm should be 0. 5.7.4 AI Decision-Making Circuit Simulation Let's simulate an AI decision-making circuit using an OR gate. The decision (F) is made if any of the inputs—sensor data (A), user command (B), or system status (C)—is true. Boolean Expression: F = A + B + C Logic Diagram \| Truth Table: \| Simulation Steps: - Design the Circuit: Use CircuitVerse to create an OR gate with three inputs. - Apply Inputs: Test various combinations of A, B, and C. - Observe Output: Verify that the output F matches the expected truth table. Simulation Results: For the AI decision-making circuit, the output F should be 1 if any of the inputs (A, B, or C) is 1, indicating a decision is made. 5.7.5 Summary Simulation tools like CircuitVerse, Logisim, and Tinkercad provide a valuable platform for designing and testing combinational logic circuits. They enable efficient error detection, cost-saving, and performance optimization, making them essential in both educational and professional settings. By simulating circuits in radar and AI applications, designers can ensure their functionality and reliability before implementation. Part III Engineering Dimension 5.8 Practical Applications: Building and Simplifying Logic Circuits 5.8.1 Introduction Transitioning from theoretical concepts to tangible outcomes is a vital step in engineering education. Building circuits bridges the gap between abstract ideas and real-world applications, enhancing understanding through hands-on experimentation. This third dimension of learning allows students to see the practical implications of their designs, fostering a deeper comprehension of combinational logic circuits. Using tools like Tinkercad for virtual prototyping and breadboards for physical construction, students can experiment with components such as NAND and NOR gates, resistors, wires, and LEDs. This process not only solidifies theoretical knowledge but also develops practical skills essential for future engineering challenges. 5.8.2 Building Circuits with Tinkercad Tinkercad is a user-friendly online platform that enables the design and simulation of electronic circuits. It’s ideal for beginners and educators to create, simulate, and visualize circuits before physical implementation. Example: Simulating a NAND Gate in Tinkercad - Create an Account and Start a New Project: - Sign up or log in to Tinkercad. - Navigate to the Circuits section and start a new project. - Build the Circuit: - Select the components: NAND gate, power supply, switch, resistor, and LEDs. - Connect the components according to the circuit diagram shown below. - Circuit Diagram and Code: - Draw the circuit as per the schematic diagram with appropriate connections. - Use the following truth table to test the NAND gate functionality: Simulation Results: A NAND gate circuit in Tinkercad. Note that the truth table is included as text. 5.8.3 Building Physical Circuits on a Breadboard Using a breadboard, resistors, wires, and LEDs, students can construct physical circuits. This hands-on approach helps to understand the practical aspects of circuit design and debugging. To build the circuit on a breadboard, follow the exact diagram provided above. One of the advantages of using Tinkercad is that it allows students to construct the circuit precisely as it should be on a breadboard. Testing the Circuit: - Toggle the switches to apply different input combinations (A and B). - Observe the LED status to verify the NAND gate operation against the truth table. - Led will be on when the value is high (1) or indicates presence of voltage Additionally, be sure to review the NAND gate technical sheet to understand the internal connectivity of the integrated circuit, IC 74H132. Below is a snapshot of the diagram. The top notch is the reference for the pin numbering: Top view of IC 74H132. 5.8.4 Building a NOR Gate Circuit Building a NOR gate circuit using similar components is a great way to understand its functionality and practical applications. Example: Building a NOR Gate on a Breadboard - Components Required: - NOR Gate IC (e.g., 7402 series) - Breadboard - Jumper wires - LEDs - Resistors (220 ohms for LEDs) - Steps to Build the Circuit: - Insert the NOR Gate IC: Place the NOR gate IC on the breadboard. - Power Connections: Connect Vcc (pin 14) to the positive rail and GND (pin 7) to the ground rail. - Input Setup: Connect the input pins (e.g., pins 1 and 2) to switches or jumpers. - LED Connection: Connect an LED with a 220-ohm resistor to the output pin (e.g., pin 3). - Circuit Diagram and Code: - Draw the circuit as per the schematic diagram with appropriate connections. - Use the following truth table to test the NOR gate functionality: Simulation Results: A NOR gate circuit in Tinkercad. Note that the truth table is included as text. - Testing the Circuit: - Set different input combinations using switches. - Check the LED to confirm the NOR gate functionality as per the truth table. 5.9 Practical Examples in Radar and AI Radar Signal Processing with NOR Gates - Objective: Design a circuit to detect radar signals based on conditions using NOR gates. - Circuit Design: Use NOR gates to implement logic that activates an alarm when no signal is detected. Boolean Expression: F = A+B Truth Table: A \| B \| F (A NOR B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| Circuit Setup: - Build the NOR gate circuit as described above in section 5.8.4. - Connect the radar signal inputs (A and B) to switches. - Use an LED to indicate the radar signal status. AI Decision-Making Circuit Using NAND Gates - Objective: Create a decision-making circuit for AI applications with NAND gates. - Circuit Design: Implement logic to process sensor data and make decisions. Boolean Expression: F = (A⋅B) Truth Table: A \| B \| F (A NAND B) \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| Circuit Setup: - Build the NAND gate circuit on a breadboard as described above in section 5.8.2. - Connect the AI sensors to the input pins. - Use LEDs to indicate decision outcomes based on sensor data. 5.10 Summary Building and testing circuits on breadboards, along with simulating them in Tinkercad, provides a comprehensive understanding of combinational logic circuits. These practical experiences enhance problem-solving skills, deepen theoretical knowledge, and prepare students for real-world engineering challenges. By working with components such as NAND and NOR gates, resistors, wires, and LEDs, students can effectively bring their designs from concept to reality, making the learning process both engaging and educational. 5.11 Projects Remembering and Understanding Problem 1: Basic Logic Gates Describe the function of an AND gate. Provide a truth table for an AND gate with two inputs. Problem 2: NAND Gate Properties Explain why the NAND gate is considered a universal gate. Provide a truth table for a NAND gate with two inputs. Problem 3: NOR Gate Properties Explain why the NOR gate is considered a universal gate. Provide a truth table for a NOR gate with two inputs. Problem 4: XOR Gate Characteristics Describe the function of an XOR gate. Provide a truth table for an XOR gate with two inputs. Problem 5: XNOR Gate Characteristics Describe the function of an XNOR gate. Provide a truth table for an XNOR gate with two inputs. Problem 6: AOI Logic Explain the AND-OR-Invert (AOI) logic. Provide a truth table for an AOI circuit with inputs A, B, C, and D. Applying Problem 7: Implementing Boolean Expressions Implement the Boolean expression F = A⋅B + C⋅D using basic logic gates. Draw the circuit diagram and provide the truth table. Problem 8: Minimizing Boolean Expressions Minimize the Boolean expression F = A⋅B + A⋅B + A⋅B using Karnaugh maps. Provide the minimized expression and the truth table. Problem 9: Timing Diagram Analysis Develop a timing diagram for a combinational circuit with pulse waveform inputs. Given the inputs, A and B, as pulse waveforms, show the output for an AND gate. Problem 10: VHDL Data Flow Description Write a VHDL code using the data flow approach to describe the Boolean expression F = A⋅B + C⋅D. Problem 11: VHDL Structural Description Write a VHDL code using the structural approach to describe the same Boolean expression F = A⋅B + C⋅D. Problem 12: Tinkercad Simulation Use Tinkercad to simulate a NAND gate circuit with two inputs. Provide screenshots of the simulation and the resulting output for different input combinations. Analyzing Problem 13: Logic Circuit Analysis Analyze the given combinational logic circuit and determine its Boolean expression. Provide a truth table and a simplified Boolean expression. Problem 14: Pulse Waveform Operation Analyze the output of a combinational logic circuit with pulse waveform inputs for an OR gate. Given the input waveforms, A and B, provide the output waveform, F. Where: Inputs A and B are periodic pulse waveforms with a time period T. The waveform alternates between 0 and 1as follow: - At t0, both A and B are 0. - At t1, A is 1 and B is 0. - At t2, both A and B are 1. - At t3, A is 0 and B is 1. - At t4, both A and B are 1. - At t5, both A and B are 0. Problem 15: Structural VHDL Analysis Analyze the VHDL structural code provided and describe the function of the circuit. Given the code, determine the logic function and provide a truth table. library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity LogicCircuit is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; C : in STD_LOGIC; D : in STD_LOGIC; F : out STD_LOGIC); end LogicCircuit; architecture Structural of LogicCircuit is signal W1, W2 : STD_LOGIC; component AND_Gate Port ( X : in STD_LOGIC; Y : in STD_LOGIC; Z : out STD_LOGIC); end component; component OR_Gate Port ( P : in STD_LOGIC; Q : in STD_LOGIC; R : out STD_LOGIC); end component; begin U1: AND_Gate Port map (A, B, W1); U2: AND_Gate Port map (C, D, W2); U3: OR_Gate Port map (W1, W2, F); end Structural; \| Problem 16: Simulation Tool Comparison Compare the simulation results of a NOR gate using CircuitVerse and Tinkercad. Provide screenshots and discuss any differences in the results. Problem 17: Radar Signal Processing Circuit Analysis Analyze the radar signal processing circuit using NAND gates. Given the circuit diagram below, provide the truth table and describe the circuit’s function. Problem 18: AI Decision-Making Circuit Analysis Analyze the AI decision-making circuit from section 5.7.4, shown below, using NOR gates. Given the circuit diagram, provide the truth table and describe the circuit’s function. Evaluating Problem 19: Circuit Optimization Evaluate and optimize the given combinational logic circuit for minimal gate usage. Provide the optimized circuit diagram and the truth table. Original circuit: F = A⋅B + A⋅B + A⋅B Problem 20: VHDL Code Evaluation Evaluate the VHDL code for a combinational logic circuit and identify any errors. Provide the corrected code and a detailed explanation of the corrections. Original code: \| library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL; entity LogicCircuit is Port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : in STD_LOGIC; C : in STD_LOGIC; D : in STD_LOGIC; F : out STD_LOGIC); end LogicCircuit; architecture DataFlow of LogicCircuit is begin F <= A and B or not (C and D); end DataFlow; \| Problem 21: Timing Diagram Evaluation Evaluate the given timing diagram for a combinational logic circuit an AND gate. Identify any discrepancies and provide the corrected timing diagram. A: ___\|‾‾‾‾\|_______\|‾‾‾‾\|______ B: ______\|‾‾‾‾\|____\|‾‾‾‾\|______ F: ___\|‾‾‾‾\|____\|‾‾‾‾\|______ Problem 22: Simulation Accuracy Evaluate the accuracy of the simulation results for a NAND gate circuit in Tinkercad. Provide a detailed comparison with the theoretical truth table. Problem 23: Radar Signal Processing Circuit Evaluation Evaluate the design of a radar signal processing circuit using NOR gates. Provide recommendations for improvement and a detailed explanation of the changes. Original circuit: F = A + B Problem 24: AI Decision-Making Circuit Evaluation Evaluate the design of an AI decision-making circuit using NAND gates. Provide recommendations for improvement and a detailed explanation of the changes. Original circuit: F = A ∙ B Creating Problem 25: Design a Combinational Logic Circuit Design a combinational logic circuit that implements the Boolean expression F = A⋅B + C⋅D. Provide the circuit diagram, truth table, and VHDL code. Problem 26: VHDL Component Design Create a VHDL component for a 4-input AND gate. Provide the VHDL code, and a testbench to verify its functionality. Problem 27: Simulation Project Using Tinkercad Design and simulate a full adder circuit using Tinkercad. Provide the circuit diagram, truth table, and screenshots of the simulation results. Problem 28: Radar Signal Processing System Design Objective: Design a radar signal processing system using combinational logic circuits to detect objects based on input conditions such as Signal Strength (A) and Velocity (B). This project will involve creating a digital system that processes radar signals to produce an output indicating object detection. Detailed Steps and Requirements: - System Overview: - The radar signal processing system will detect objects based on two primary conditions: Signal Strength (A) and Velocity (B). - The system will use combinational logic gates to process these inputs and produce an output (R) indicating object detection. - Understanding the Radar Signal Processing: - Signal Strength (A): Represents the intensity of the radar signal. - Velocity (B): Represents the speed of the detected object. - Detection Output (R): Indicates whether an object is detected based on the input conditions. Truth Table for Radar Signal Processing: Boolean Expression: R = A⋅B - Circuit Design: - Design a combinational logic circuit to implement the Boolean expression R=A⋅B - VHDL Code for Radar Signal Processing: - Write the VHDL code to describe the radar signal processing system. - Simulation and Testing: - Use Tinkercad or another simulation tool to design and test the radar signal processing circuit. - Verify that the output R matches the expected results for all input combinations of A and B. - Implementing the Circuit in Tinkercad: - Step 1: Create a new circuit in Tinkercad. - Step 2: Drag and drop the necessary components: AND gate, input switches, LED, and resistors. - Step 3: Connect the input switches (A and B) to the AND gate inputs. - Step 4: Connect the AND gate output to an LED (through a resistor) to display the detection result (R). - Step 5: Ensure all components are properly connected and powered. - Simulation Results: - Run the simulation in Tinkercad and toggle the input switches (A and B) for all possible combinations. - Record the output R for each combination and verify it against the truth table. Example Simulation Results: - Inputs (A=0, B=0): - Output R: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (A=0, B=1): - Output R: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (A=1, B=0): - Output R: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (A=1, B=1): - Output R: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (A=0, B=0): - Discussion and Conclusion: - Discuss the design choices and the implementation process. - Explain how the radar signal processing system detects objects based on the input conditions. - Highlight the advantages of using combinational logic circuits for real-time signal processing. Detailed Observations for Each Input Combination: - Inputs (A=0, B=0): - Expected Output: R = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (R = 0) - Explanation: With both inputs low, the AND gate produces a low output, indicating no detection. - Inputs (A=0, B=1): - Expected Output: R = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (R = 0) - Explanation: With one input high and the other low, the AND gate produces a low output, indicating no detection. - Inputs (A=1, B=0): - Expected Output: R = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (R = 0) - Explanation: With one input high and the other low, the AND gate produces a low output, indicating no detection. - Inputs (A=1, B=1): - Expected Output: R = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (R = 1) - Explanation: With both inputs high, the AND gate produces a high output, indicating detection. By designing and simulating a radar signal processing system using combinational logic circuits, students gain practical experience in digital circuit design. This project reinforces theoretical knowledge and provides insights into the application of logic circuits in real-world scenarios, such as radar signal processing and AI-based decision-making. The use of Tinkercad for simulation allows for hands-on experimentation and validation of the designed circuit, ensuring a comprehensive learning experience. Additionally, Tinkercad's simulation feature allows for a smooth transition from virtual circuit design to building the circuit on a breadboard. Problem 29: AI Decision-Making System Design Objective: Design and implement an AI decision-making system using combinational logic circuits. This project will involve creating a digital system that processes inputs and makes decisions based on specific conditions using logic gates. Detailed Steps and Requirements: - System Overview: - The AI decision-making system will use combinational logic circuits to process multiple inputs and produce a decision output. - The system will consist of logic gates that evaluate conditions and generate a decision based on these evaluations. - Understanding the AI Decision-Making System: - Inputs: The system will have three primary inputs: Radar Detection (R), Condition 1 (C), and Condition 2 (D). - Output (F): The decision output will be high if either the radar detects an object (R is high) or both conditions (C and D) are met. Truth Table for AI Decision-Making: Boolean Expression: F = R + (C⋅D) - Circuit Design: - Design a combinational logic circuit to implement the Boolean expression F = R + (C⋅D) - VHDL Code for AI Decision-Making System: - Write the VHDL code to describe the AI decision-making system. - Simulation and Testing: - Use Tinkercad or another simulation tool to design and test the AI decision-making circuit. - Verify that the output F matches the expected results for all input combinations of R, C, and D. - Implementing the Circuit in Tinkercad: - Step 1: Create a new circuit in Tinkercad. - Step 2: Drag and drop the necessary components: OR gate, AND gate, input switches, LED, and resistors. - Step 3: Connect the input switches (R, C, and D) to the appropriate gate inputs. - Step 4: Connect the output of the AND gate to one input of the OR gate. - Step 5: Connect the output of the OR gate to an LED (through a resistor) to display the decision result (F). - Step 6: Ensure all components are properly connected and powered. - Simulation Results: - Run the simulation in Tinkercad and toggle the input switches (R, C, and D) for all possible combinations. - Record the output F for each combination and verify it against the truth table. Example Simulation Results: - Inputs (R=0, C=0, D=0): - Output F: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (R=0, C=0, D=1): - Output F: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (R=0, C=1, D=0): - Output F: 0 (LED OFF) - Inputs (R=0, C=1, D=1): - Output F: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (R=1, C=0, D=0): - Output F: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (R=1, C=0, D=1): - Output F: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (R=1, C=1, D=0): - Output F: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (R=1, C=1, D=1): - Output F: 1 (LED ON) - Inputs (R=0, C=0, D=0): - Integrating AI Algorithms: - Explore integrating AI algorithms for decision-making based on the input signals. - Use machine learning techniques to optimize the logic circuit for improved performance and accuracy. - Example: Train a simple neural network to recognize patterns in the input signals and produce the decision output (F). - Detailed Observations for Each Input Combination: - Inputs (R=0, C=0, D=0): - Expected Output: F = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (F = 0) - Explanation: With all inputs low, the OR gate and AND gate both produce low outputs, resulting in no decision. - Inputs (R=0, C=0, D=1): - Expected Output: F = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (F = 0) - Explanation: With one input high and the others low, the AND gate produces a low output, resulting in no decision. - Inputs (R=0, C=1, D=0): - Expected Output: F = 0 - Observed Output: LED OFF (F = 0) - Explanation: With one input high and the others low, the AND gate produces a low output, resulting in no decision. - Inputs (R=0, C=1, D=1): - Expected Output: F = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (F = 1) - Explanation: With both C and D high, the AND gate produces a high output, resulting in a decision. - Inputs (R=1, C=0, D=0): - Expected Output: F = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (F = 1) - Explanation: With R high, the OR gate produces a high output, resulting in a decision. - Inputs (R=1, C=0, D=1): - Expected Output: F = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (F = 1) - Explanation: With R high, the OR gate produces a high output, resulting in a decision. - Inputs (R=1, C=1, D=0): - Expected Output: F = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (F = 1) - Explanation: With R high, the OR gate produces a high output, resulting in a decision. - Inputs (R=1, C=1, D=1): - Expected Output: F = 1 - Observed Output: LED ON (F = 1) - Explanation: With both R high and the AND gate producing a high output, the OR gate produces a high output, resulting in a decision. - Discussion and Conclusion: - Discuss the design choices and the implementation process. - Explain how the AI decision-making system evaluates conditions and produces a decision based on the input signals. - Highlight the advantages of using combinational logic circuits for real-time decision-making and the potential applications in AI. By designing and simulating an AI decision-making system using combinational logic circuits, students gain practical experience in digital circuit design. This project reinforces theoretical knowledge and provides insights into the application of logic circuits in AI-based decision-making scenarios. The use of Tinkercad for simulation allows for hands-on experimentation and validation of the designed circuit, ensuring a comprehensive learning experience. Integrating AI algorithms enhances the system's decision-making capabilities, demonstrating the intersection of combinational logic and artificial intelligence. Problem 30: Capstone Project - Integrated Radar and AI System Objective: Design and implement an integrated radar and AI system using combinational logic circuits. This project will involve creating a digital system that processes radar signals to detect objects and makes decisions based on these detections using AI algorithms. Detailed Steps and Requirements: - System Overview: - The integrated system will consist of two main components: the radar signal processing circuit and the AI decision-making circuit. - The radar signal processing circuit will detect objects based on input signals. - The AI decision-making circuit will use the outputs from the radar processing circuit to make decisions. - Radar Signal Processing Circuit: - Design a circuit to detect objects based on two conditions: Signal Strength (A) and Velocity (B). - Use combinational logic gates to process these inputs and produce an output (R) indicating object detection. Truth Table for Radar Signal Processing: Boolean Expression: R = A⋅B - AI Decision-Making Circuit: - The AI decision-making circuit will use the output from the radar processing circuit (R) along with additional inputs (C and D) to make decisions. - The decision output (F) will be high if either R is high, or C and D meet specific conditions. Truth Table for AI Decision-Making: Boolean Expression: F = R + (C⋅D) - Integrating the System: - Combine the radar signal processing circuit and the AI decision-making circuit into a single integrated system. - Ensure the output of the radar processing circuit (R) is fed into the AI decision-making circuit. - Write the VHDL code for the Integrated system. - Simulation and Testing: - Use Tinkercad or another simulation tool to design and test the integrated circuit. - Verify that the output F matches the expected results for all input combinations. - Implementing AI Algorithms: - Integrate AI algorithms for decision-making based on radar signal inputs. - Use machine learning techniques to optimize the logic circuit for real-time detection and decision-making. - Simulation Results: - Provide detailed simulation results, showing the output F for different input combinations A, B, C, and D. Example Simulation Results: - Inputs (A=1, B=1, C=0, D=0): R: 1 F: 1 - Inputs (A=0, B=0, C=1, D=1): R: 0 F: 1 - Inputs (A=1, B=1, C=1, D=1): R: 1 F: 1 - Discussion and Conclusion: - Discuss the design choices and the integration of AI algorithms. - Explain the potential applications of the integrated system in radar and AI fields. - Highlight the advantages of using combinational logic circuits for real-time signal processing and decision-making. Detailed Simulation and Testing Results: - Initial Setup: - Ensure all components are correctly placed and connected in Tinkercad. - Verify power supply and ground connections. - Running the Simulation: - Toggle the input switches (A, B, C, D) for all possible combinations. - Observe and record the output F for each combination. - Results Validation: - Compare the observed outputs with the expected outputs from the truth table. - Confirm the accuracy and reliability of the designed circuit. Example Test Cases: - Case 1: A = 1, B = 1, C = 0, D = 0 - Expected Output: R = 1, F = 1 - Observed Output: F = 1 - Case 2: A = 0, B = 0, C = 1, D = 1 - Expected Output: R = 0, F = 1 - Observed Output: F = 1 - Case 3: A = 1, B = 1, C = 1, D = 1 - Expected Output: R = 1, F = 1 - Observed Output: F = 1 - Case 4: A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, D = 0 - Expected Output: R = 0, F = 0 - Observed Output: F = 0 - Case 5: A = 1, B = 0, C = 0, D = 1 - Expected Output: R = 0, F = 0 - Observed Output: F = 0 The integrated radar and AI system designed using combinational logic circuits successfully detects objects and makes decisions based on the radar inputs and additional conditions. The system performs as expected, with accurate outputs for all test cases. This project demonstrates the practical application of combinational logic in real-world scenarios and highlights the integration of AI algorithms to enhance system functionality. Module 6 Key Roles of Combinational Logic Module 6 Key Roles of Combinational Logic Module Content 6.0 Introduction 6.1 Fundamentals of Combinational Logic 6.2 Half and Full Adders 6.3 Parallel Binary Adders 6.4 Ripple Carry and Look-Ahead Carry Adders 6.5 Comparators 6.6 Decoders 6.7 Encoders 6.8 Code Converters 6.9 Multiplexers 6.10 Demultiplexers 6.11 Parity Generators/Checkers Part II: Simulation Dimension 6.12 Simulating Combinational Logic Circuits 6.13 Simulation of Half and Full Adders 6.14 Simulation of Parallel Binary Adders 6.15 Simulation of Comparators, Decoders, and Encoders 6.16 Code Converters Simulation 6.17 Simulation of Multiplexers and Demultiplexers Part III: Engineering Dimension 6.18 Practical Applications 6.19 Practical Examples in Radar Systems 6.20 Practical Examples in AI 6.21 Practical Examples in Radar and AI 6.22 Radar concept implemented on a breadboard using Tinkercad and a comparator. 6.23 Summary 6.24 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| 1.Understand the Basics of Combinational Logic Circuits. ABET 1. \| 4.Understand the Role of Combinational Logic in Radar and AI Systems. ABET 1. \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| 3.Implement Combinational Logic Circuits Using Simulation Tools. ABET 6. 7.Apply Combinational Logic Concepts to Real-world Engineering Problems. ABET 2. \| \| \| Analyze \| \| \| 2.Analyze and Design Basic Logic Gates and Circuits. ABET 3. \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| \| 6.Evaluate the Performance of Combinational Logic Circuits. ABET 4. \| \| Create \| \| \| 5. Design and Simulate Complex Combinational Logic Circuits. ABET 5. \| \| Table 1. 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives Explanation of the 2D Mapping Objective 1: Understand the Basics of Combinational Logic Circuits Explanation: Students will learn the fundamental concepts of combinational logic circuits, including their characteristics, basic building blocks, and how they differ from sequential logic circuits. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Understand - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Factual Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 1 - An ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering problems by applying principles of engineering, science, and mathematics. Objective 2: Analyze and Design Basic Logic Gates and Circuits Explanation: Students will be able to analyze and design basic logic gates and simple combinational logic circuits, such as adders, comparators, and decoders, using Boolean algebra and truth tables. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Analyze - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Procedural Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 3 - An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences. Objective 3: Implement Combinational Logic Circuits Using Simulation Tools Explanation: Students will use simulation tools like Logisim or Multisim to design, test, and validate combinational logic circuits, ensuring they meet specified performance criteria. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Apply - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Procedural Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 6 - An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret data, and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions. Objective 4: Understand the Role of Combinational Logic in Radar and AI Systems Explanation: Students will explore the applications of combinational logic in radar and AI systems, including how these circuits enhance signal processing, target detection, and data routing. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Understand - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Conceptual Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 1 - An ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering problems by applying principles of engineering, science, and mathematics. Objective 5: Design and Simulate Complex Combinational Logic Circuits Explanation: Students will design and simulate more complex combinational logic circuits, such as multipliers and more advanced encoders/decoders, using procedural and conceptual knowledge. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Create - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Procedural Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 5 - An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership, create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives. Objective 6: Evaluate the Performance of Combinational Logic Circuits Explanation: Students will learn to evaluate the performance of combinational logic circuits by analyzing metrics such as propagation delay, power consumption, and resource utilization. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Evaluate - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Metacognitive Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 4 - An ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations and make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global, economic, environmental, and societal contexts. Objective 7: Apply Combinational Logic Concepts to Real-world Engineering Problems Explanation: Students will apply their knowledge of combinational logic circuits to solve real-world engineering problems, demonstrating their ability to integrate theoretical knowledge with practical applications. - Bloom's Cognitive Dimension: Apply - Bloom's Knowledge Dimension: Procedural Knowledge - ABET SLOs: 2 - An ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet specified needs with consideration of public health, safety, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social, environmental, and economic factors. Part I: Analytical Dimension 6.0 Introduction Overview of Combinational Logic Combinational logic circuits form the backbone of digital systems, functioning without the need for memory elements. Unlike sequential logic circuits, which depend on both current inputs and previous states, combinational logic circuits output results purely based on the current inputs. These circuits are designed using basic logic gates like AND, OR, and NOT, which are combined to perform complex computations and data processing tasks. The study of combinational logic includes understanding how these gates interact to produce specific outputs based on various input conditions. The fundamental concepts of truth tables and Boolean algebra are essential in analyzing and designing these circuits. Importance in Modern Technology The importance of combinational logic in modern technology cannot be overstated. It is at the heart of various digital applications, from simple calculators to complex microprocessors. In computing systems, combinational logic is used to perform arithmetic operations, data manipulation, and decision-making processes. Its applications extend to communication systems, where it helps in encoding and decoding data, error detection, and correction. Moreover, in the realm of consumer electronics, combinational logic circuits are crucial in the operation of devices such as smartphones, digital cameras, and home automation systems. The efficiency, speed, and reliability of combinational logic make it indispensable in the development and functioning of contemporary digital technology. Application in Radar and AI Systems Combinational logic plays a critical role in advanced technologies such as radar systems and artificial intelligence (AI). In radar systems, combinational logic is used to process signals for target detection, identification, and tracking. The precision and speed of these logic circuits enable radar systems to analyze vast amounts of data in real time, improving accuracy and response times. In AI, combinational logic circuits are integral to the implementation of neural networks and machine learning algorithms. They facilitate the rapid computation of data and the execution of complex algorithms that underpin AI applications. Whether it's in autonomous vehicles, robotics, or natural language processing, the application of combinational logic in AI enhances the capability and performance of these systems, pushing the boundaries of what is technologically possible. Overview of Sections 6.1 Overview of Combinational Logic Definition and Characteristics Combinational logic circuits are a fundamental type of digital circuit where the output is a pure function of the present input values. These circuits do not have any memory elements, meaning they do not store any past input information. Their behavior is determined solely by the current inputs, making them predictable and straightforward to design and analyze. The absence of feedback loops and memory elements ensures that combinational logic circuits have no internal state, which differentiates them from sequential logic circuits that rely on both present and past inputs. Basic Building Blocks The basic building blocks of combinational logic circuits are logic gates such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. Each of these gates performs a specific logical operation on one or more input signals to produce an output signal. By combining these gates in various ways, more complex circuits can be created to perform a wide range of functions, from simple arithmetic operations to intricate data processing tasks. The interconnection of these gates to achieve desired logical operations is guided by Boolean algebra, which provides the theoretical foundation for designing and simplifying logic circuits. Truth Tables and Boolean Expressions Truth tables and Boolean expressions are essential tools for analyzing and designing combinational logic circuits. A truth table lists all possible input combinations and their corresponding output values, providing a clear and comprehensive representation of the circuit's behavior. Boolean expressions, on the other hand, are algebraic representations of the logic performed by the circuit. They use variables and logical operators to describe the relationship between inputs and outputs. By simplifying Boolean expressions using Boolean algebra rules, designers can optimize circuits for efficiency and performance. Together, truth tables and Boolean expressions enable the systematic design, verification, and optimization of combinational logic circuits. 6.2 Half and Full Adders Concept and Functionality Half adders and full adders are fundamental combinational logic circuits used for binary addition. A half adder is the simplest form, designed to add two single-bit binary numbers (A and B) and produce a sum (S) and a carry-out (C). The half adder does not consider carry-in values from previous stages, making it suitable only for the least significant bit in a multi-bit binary addition. In contrast, a full adder extends the functionality of the half adder by including an additional input for carry-in (Cin). This allows the full adder to add three binary digits (A, B, and Cin) and produce a sum (S) and a carry-out (Cout), making it essential for multi-bit binary addition in digital systems. Boolean Equations The operation of half adders and full adders can be described using Boolean equations. For a half adder, the sum (S) and carry (C) outputs are given by: S = A ⊕ B C = A⋅B where ⊕ denotes the XOR operation, and ⋅ denotes the AND operation. For a full adder, the Boolean equations for the sum (S) and carry-out (Cout) are more complex, incorporating the carry-in (Cin) input: S = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin Cout = (A⋅B) + (B⋅Cin) + (A⋅Cin) These equations highlight the logical relationships between inputs and outputs, providing the basis for designing the corresponding circuits. Truth Tables and Circuit Diagrams Truth tables and circuit diagrams are crucial for understanding and implementing half and full adders. The truth table for a half adder is as follows: For a full adder, the truth table is: Circuit diagrams visually represent these operations, with logic gates arranged to perform the necessary calculations based on the input values. In a half adder circuit diagram, an XOR gate and an AND gate are used to produce the sum and carry outputs, respectively. In a full adder circuit diagram, multiple gates (XOR, AND, and OR) are interconnected to handle the three input values and generate the correct sum and carry-out outputs. These elements—Boolean equations, truth tables, and circuit diagrams—provide a comprehensive understanding of half and full adders, illustrating their critical role in binary addition within digital systems. Half Adder \| Full Adder \| 6.3 Parallel Binary Adders Basic Concept Parallel binary adders are designed to perform binary addition on multi-bit numbers. These adders consist of multiple single-bit adders, such as full adders, arranged in parallel to handle each bit of the input numbers simultaneously. A common type of parallel adder is the ripple carry adder, which connects full adders in series, with the carry-out of each adder feeding into the carry-in of the next. For example, to add two 4-bit binary numbers, four full adders are used, each responsible for adding corresponding bits and carrying the result to the next significant bit. The basic concept of parallel binary adders allows for efficient and scalable binary addition in digital systems. Advantages and Applications Parallel binary adders offer several advantages, including simplicity, scalability, and speed. Their straightforward design makes them easy to implement and expand for larger bit-widths. The primary advantage is the ability to handle multiple bits simultaneously, significantly improving addition speed compared to single-bit adders. These adders are widely used in arithmetic logic units (ALUs) of microprocessors, where fast and accurate binary addition is crucial. They also play a vital role in digital signal processing, where rapid arithmetic operations are necessary for real-time data analysis and manipulation. Analytical Comparison When comparing different types of parallel binary adders, the ripple carry adder and the carry look-ahead adder are often analyzed. The ripple carry adder is simple and cost-effective but suffers from a delay proportional to the number of bits being added, as each bit must wait for the previous carry bit. In contrast, the carry look-ahead adder reduces this delay by calculating carry bits in advance, using more complex logic to speed up the addition process. The following truth tables and circuit diagrams illustrate the operation of a 4-bit ripple carry adder: Ripple Carry Adder Truth Table: Ripple Carry Adder Circuit Diagram: A 4-bit ripple carry adder can be represented with four full adders connected in series, as shown below. Each full adder receives an input bit from the two numbers being added (A and B) and the carry-in from the previous adder. The output is a sum bit (S) and a carry-out that is passed to the next full adder. A 4-bit Adder Carry Look-Ahead Adder: The carry look-ahead adder improves speed by reducing the propagation delay inherent in ripple carry adders. It uses generate and propagate signals to compute carry bits in advance. This optimization allows for faster arithmetic operations, especially beneficial in high-speed computing environments. Carry Look-Ahead Adder Truth Table: Carry Look-Ahead Adder Circuit Diagram: A carry look-ahead adder uses additional logic gates to calculate the carry signals faster. It generates carry and propagate signals based on the inputs and uses these signals to determine the carry-out for each bit position more efficiently. A carry look-ahead adder These examples highlight the operational differences and benefits of using parallel binary adders, illustrating their importance in digital systems where speed and efficiency are paramount. 6.4 Ripple Carry and Look-Ahead Carry Adders Ripple Carry Adders Design and Operation Ripple carry adders (RCAs) are a straightforward implementation of multi-bit binary addition. They consist of a series of full adders connected in sequence, where each full adder is responsible for adding the corresponding bits of the two binary numbers and the carry from the previous less significant bit. The design begins with the least significant bit (LSB) full adder, which adds the LSBs of the input numbers and produces a sum and a carry-out. This carry-out is then fed into the next full adder along with the next bits of the input numbers. This process continues until the most significant bit (MSB) is added. The ripple carry adder is simple to design and implement, making it a common choice for basic addition operations. Propagation Delay One of the main drawbacks of ripple carry adders is their propagation delay. This delay occurs because each full adder must wait for the carry-in from its predecessor before it can produce a valid output. The cumulative effect of this waiting time leads to a delay proportional to the number of bits being added. For instance, in an 8-bit ripple carry adder, the carry-out of the first bit must propagate through all eight full adders before the final sum can be determined. This delay can significantly impact the performance of the adder, especially in high-speed applications. The following truth table and circuit diagram illustrate the operation of a 4-bit ripple carry adder: Ripple Carry Adder Truth Table: Ripple Carry Adder Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of a 4-bit ripple carry adder shows four full adders connected in series, where each full adder's carry-out is connected to the carry-in of the next full adder. A 4-bit Adder Look-Ahead Carry Adders Design and Operation Look-ahead carry adders (LCAs) address the propagation delay problem of ripple carry adders by using additional logic to calculate carry signals in advance. The design involves generating two signals for each bit: the generate (G) and propagate (P) signals. The generate signal indicates if a particular bit pair will produce a carry, while the propagate signal indicates if a carry will be passed to the next bit. These signals are used in conjunction with each other to quickly compute the carry-out for each bit position without waiting for the previous bits' carry-out, thereby significantly speeding up the addition process. Speed Enhancement The key advantage of look-ahead carry adders is their speed enhancement. By computing the carry signals in parallel rather than sequentially, LCAs reduce the overall delay associated with multi-bit addition. This speed improvement is crucial in high-performance computing systems where quick arithmetic operations are necessary. The complexity of the logic increases with the number of bits, but the trade-off is a substantial reduction in propagation delay compared to ripple carry adders. The following truth table and circuit diagram illustrate the operation of a 4-bit look-ahead carry adder: Look-Ahead Carry Adder Truth Table: Look-Ahead Carry Adder Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of a 4-bit look-ahead carry adder includes the additional logic for generate and propagate signals. These signals are used to calculate the carry-out for each bit position in parallel, significantly reducing the overall delay. By comparing these two types of adders, we see the trade-offs between simplicity and speed, with look-ahead carry adders providing a more efficient solution for high-speed digital systems. A Look-Ahead Carry Adder Circuit Diagram 6.5 Comparators Basic Operation Comparators are essential combinational logic circuits used to compare binary numbers. Their primary function is to determine the equality or inequality between two binary inputs. A basic comparator takes two binary numbers, A and B, and generates outputs indicating whether A is greater than, less than, or equal to B. The simplest form is a one-bit comparator, which directly compares two single-bit values. More complex multi-bit comparators extend this functionality to compare multi-bit binary numbers. The outputs of a comparator are typically three signals: A > B, A < B, and A = B. These signals are generated using logical operations that evaluate the relative values of the input bits. Types and Uses Comparators come in various types, including equality comparators and magnitude comparators. An equality comparator checks if two binary numbers are equal and outputs a single signal indicating equality. In contrast, a magnitude comparator not only checks for equality but also evaluates which of the two numbers is greater. Comparators are widely used in digital systems for a variety of applications. In arithmetic logic units (ALUs), they help in decision-making processes by comparing operands. In sorting algorithms and data retrieval systems, comparators play a crucial role in determining the order and precedence of data elements. Additionally, comparators are used in digital signal processing, where they assist in threshold detection and level comparison tasks. Analytical Examples To illustrate the operation of a comparator, consider a 2-bit magnitude comparator. The comparator receives two 2-bit binary numbers, A = A1A0 and B = B1B0, and produces three outputs: A > B, A < B, and A = B. The truth table for this comparator is as follows: Comparator Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of a 2-bit magnitude comparator consists of a series of logic gates arranged to evaluate the input bits. For each pair of bits, the comparator generates signals to determine whether one number is greater than, less than, or equal to the other. The diagram includes AND, OR, and NOT gates to perform the necessary logical operations and produce the correct outputs based on the truth table. Circuit Diagram for a 2-Bit Magnitude Comparator: Simplified Block Diagram: \| Schematic Diagram: \| Through these examples, we can see how comparators are designed and used in digital systems to perform essential comparison operations, providing vital functionality in a wide range of applications. 6.6 Decoders Function and Design Decoders are combinational logic circuits designed to convert coded inputs into coded outputs, where the input and output codes are different. The primary function of a decoder is to decode a binary input pattern into a unique output pattern. For example, a binary-to-decimal decoder takes an n-bit binary input and activates one of its 2^n outputs, corresponding to the binary value of the input. The design of a basic 2-to-4 decoder involves two inputs and four outputs. Each output represents one of the possible combinations of the input bits, and only one output is active at any time, corresponding to the binary input value. The design utilizes AND gates to generate the appropriate output for each input combination. Types of Decoders There are several types of decoders, each serving different purposes in digital systems. Common types include binary decoders, BCD (binary-coded decimal) decoders, and seven-segment decoders. A binary decoder, such as a 3-to-8 decoder, has three binary inputs and eight outputs, where each output corresponds to one of the binary input combinations. A BCD decoder converts a binary input into a decimal output, typically used in digital clocks and calculators. Seven-segment decoders are specialized decoders used to drive seven-segment displays, translating binary or BCD inputs into the appropriate segment activations to display numbers and characters. Application Scenarios Decoders are widely used in various digital applications, from simple data routing to complex system control. In memory systems, decoders are used to select specific memory locations based on the address input, enabling efficient data retrieval and storage. In microprocessor systems, instruction decoders translate binary instruction codes into control signals that manage the operation of the CPU. Decoders also play a crucial role in display systems, such as converting binary inputs to drive seven-segment displays in digital clocks, meters, and other readout devices. Another application is in communication systems, where decoders are used to decode encoded data signals for proper data interpretation. Example: 2-to-4 Decoder Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of a 2-to-4 decoder includes two inputs (B1 and B0) and four outputs (D0, D1, D2, and D3). The decoder uses AND gates to produce the correct output based on the combination of inputs. For example, the output D0 is active when both inputs are 0 (B1 = 0 and B0 = 0), which is achieved by using an AND gate with inputs tied to the inverted values of B1 and B0. Similarly, D1 is active when B1 = 0 and B0 = 1, and so on. The following diagram represents a 2-to-4 decoder: Through these sections, we see the importance of decoders in digital systems, their various types, and their wide range of applications, from memory addressing to display driving. 6.7 Encoders Basic Principles Encoders are combinational logic circuits that perform the reverse operation of decoders. They convert an active input signal into a coded output signal. The basic principle of an encoder is to take multiple input lines and encode them into a smaller number of output lines. A simple example is a 4-to-2 binary encoder, which takes four input lines and produces a two-bit binary code representing which input is active. Only one input should be active at any time to ensure accurate encoding. If multiple inputs are active, the encoder may produce an incorrect output, unless it is a priority encoder that can handle such situations. Encoders reduce the number of data lines required for communication and processing, making them essential in digital systems for data compression and efficient signal representation. Priority Encoders Priority encoders are a special type of encoder that address the issue of multiple active inputs by assigning priority to each input. When more than one input is active, the priority encoder outputs the binary code corresponding to the highest-priority active input. This feature ensures reliable encoding even in the presence of multiple simultaneous signals. For instance, in an 8-to-3 priority encoder, if both the third and fifth inputs are active, the encoder will output the binary code for the fifth input if it has higher priority. This mechanism is crucial in systems where multiple signals can be active simultaneously and need to be prioritized, such as interrupt handling in microprocessors and control systems. Use Cases Encoders have a wide range of applications in digital electronics and computing. One common use is in keyboard encoding, where each key press generates a unique binary code that the computer interprets as a specific character or command. Encoders are also used in data multiplexing, where multiple data sources share a single communication line. The encoder ensures that the data from the active source is correctly identified and transmitted. In control systems, encoders help in translating sensor inputs into coded signals that the system can process and act upon. Priority encoders are particularly useful in interrupt systems of microprocessors, where they manage multiple interrupt requests by encoding the highest-priority request for immediate attention by the CPU. Example: 4-to-2 Binary Encoder Truth Table: Inputs \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\| D3 \| D2 \| D1 \| D0 \| Y1 \| Y0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a 4-to-2 binary encoder includes four input lines (D0 to D3) and two output lines (Y0 and Y1). The encoder uses OR gates to combine the input signals in such a way that the correct binary code is produced based on which input is active. 4-to-2 Binary Encoder Circuit Diagram: Example: 8-to-3 Priority Encoder Truth Table: Inputs \| Outputs \| \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| D7 \| D6 \| D5 \| D4 \| D3 \| D2 \| D1 \| D0 \| Y2 \| Y1 \| Y0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| In this truth table, 'X' represents a don't-care condition, meaning the output does not depend on these inputs. 8-to-3 Priority Encoder Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of an 8-to-3 priority encoder includes eight input lines and three output lines. The encoder uses a combination of AND, OR, and NOT gates to implement the priority logic, ensuring that the highest-priority active input is encoded correctly. Through these examples and explanations, the basic principles, types, and applications of encoders, including priority encoders, are illustrated, highlighting their importance in efficient data representation and processing in digital systems. 6.8 Code Converters Binary to BCD Conversion Binary to BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) conversion is a process that translates a binary number into its equivalent BCD representation. BCD is a form of decimal representation where each digit of a decimal number is represented by its four-bit binary equivalent. This conversion is crucial in digital systems that interface with human-readable displays, such as digital clocks and calculators. For example, to convert the binary number 1010 (which is 10 in decimal) into BCD, it is represented as 0001 0000. Each digit of the decimal number is independently converted into its binary form. The following table illustrates the conversion process: Binary to BCD Conversion Table: Binary to BCD Converter Circuit Diagram: The circuit for a binary to BCD converter typically includes a combination of adders and logic gates to handle the conversion process, especially when dealing with multi-bit numbers. For example, converting a 4-bit binary number to a BCD can be achieved using a series of logic operations to ensure each decimal digit is correctly represented in BCD format. Gray Code Conversion Gray code is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit. This property is particularly useful in error correction in digital communications and minimizing errors in analog to digital conversions. The process of converting a binary number to Gray code involves a specific algorithm where the most significant bit (MSB) remains the same, and each subsequent bit is obtained by XORing the previous bit with the current bit. For example, to convert the binary number 1011 to Gray code, we start with the MSB (which is 1), and then XOR each subsequent bit with its previous bit: 1, 1^0 = 1, 0^1 = 1, 1^1 = 0, resulting in 1110. The following table illustrates the conversion: Binary to Gray Code Conversion Table: Gray Code Converter Circuit Diagram: The circuit for a binary to Gray code converter consists of XOR gates arranged to perform the necessary bitwise operations. For a 4-bit binary number, the converter would have four XOR gates to handle each bit's transformation according to the Gray code conversion rules. Analytical Importance The analytical importance of code converters lies in their ability to facilitate communication and data processing in digital systems. Binary to BCD converters are essential in applications requiring human-readable outputs, ensuring that binary data can be easily displayed and interpreted. Gray code converters, on the other hand, are crucial in reducing errors in digital systems, particularly where synchronization and precision are vital, such as in rotary encoders and digital communication systems. By minimizing bit errors during transitions, Gray code improves the reliability and accuracy of data representation and transmission. Understanding the design and operation of these converters allows for the development of more efficient and error-resistant digital systems. Example: 4-bit Binary to Gray Code Converter Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a 4-bit binary to Gray code converter includes XOR gates. The MSB (most significant bit) of the Gray code output is the same as the MSB of the binary input. Each subsequent Gray code bit is obtained by XORing the current binary bit with the previous binary bit. Through these sections, we understand the importance and functionality of code converters in digital systems, highlighting their applications and the underlying principles that make them essential components in data processing and communication. 6.9 Multiplexers Definition and Function A multiplexer, often abbreviated as MUX, is a combinational logic circuit that selects one of several input signals and forwards the selected input to a single output line. It is essentially a data selector, used to channel multiple data sources into a single output line, based on the control inputs. The selection of the input signal is governed by control signals or select lines, which determine which input line is connected to the output at any given time. Multiplexers can handle various numbers of input lines, such as 2-to-1, 4-to-1, 8-to-1, etc., depending on the number of control lines available. For example, a 4-to-1 multiplexer has four input lines, two control lines, and one output line. Design and Implementation The design and implementation of a multiplexer involve the use of logic gates to route the selected input to the output. For a 4-to-1 multiplexer, there are four input lines (I0, I1, I2, I3), two select lines (S0, S1), and one output line (Y). The select lines determine which input is connected to the output. The Boolean expression for the output can be derived from the truth table, which specifies the output for each combination of select lines. The implementation typically involves AND, OR, and NOT gates arranged to ensure that only the selected input is routed to the output. The following truth table and circuit diagram illustrate a 4-to-1 multiplexer: 4-to-1 Multiplexer Truth Table: S1 \| S0 \| I0 \| I1 \| I2 \| I3 \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| I0 \| X \| X \| X \| I0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| I1 \| X \| X \| I1 \| 1 \| 0 \| X \| X \| I2 \| X \| I2 \| 1 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| I3 \| I3 \| 4-to-1 Multiplexer Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of a 4-to-1 multiplexer includes four AND gates, one OR gate, and two NOT gates. Each AND gate is associated with one of the input lines and is enabled by the corresponding combination of select lines. The outputs of the AND gates are combined using an OR gate to produce the final output. Simplified Diagram: \| Schematic Diagram: \| Analytical Examples Multiplexers are widely used in digital systems for data routing and selection. For instance, in digital communication systems, a multiplexer can be used to combine multiple data streams into a single stream, facilitating efficient data transmission over a single communication line. In computer systems, multiplexers are used to select data from different sources, such as registers, memory, or input devices, and direct it to the appropriate destination, such as the CPU or output devices. Another common application is in control systems, where multiplexers select sensor inputs or control signals based on system requirements. Example: 8-to-1 Multiplexer 8-to-1 Multiplexer Truth Table: S2 \| S1 \| S0 \| I0 \| I1 \| I2 \| I3 \| I4 \| I5 \| I6 \| I7 \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| I0 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| I1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| X \| X \| I2 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I2 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| I3 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I3 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I4 \| X \| X \| X \| I4 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I5 \| X \| X \| I5 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I6 \| X \| I6 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| X \| I7 \| I7 \| 8-to-1 Multiplexer Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram of an 8-to-1 multiplexer is more complex, involving eight AND gates, one OR gate, and three select lines (S0, S1, S2). Each AND gate is controlled by a unique combination of the select lines, ensuring that only the selected input is routed to the output. Schematics of an 8 to1 Multiplexer: \| \|\| Through these sections, we see the importance and versatility of multiplexers in digital systems, highlighting their functionality, design, and practical applications in efficiently managing and routing data. 6.10 Demultiplexers Functionality and Types A demultiplexer, often abbreviated as DEMUX, is a combinational logic circuit that performs the inverse operation of a multiplexer. It takes a single input signal and distributes it to one of the several output lines, based on the values of the select lines. The primary function of a demultiplexer is to route a single data input to one of the many outputs, enabling a single data source to be shared among multiple destinations. There are various types of demultiplexers, such as 1-to-2, 1-to-4, 1-to-8, etc., depending on the number of output lines. For instance, a 1-to-4 demultiplexer has one input line, two select lines, and four output lines, where the select lines determine which output line will carry the input signal. Design Aspects The design of a demultiplexer involves the use of logic gates to control the distribution of the input signal to the appropriate output line. For a 1-to-4 demultiplexer, the input is connected to four AND gates, each corresponding to one of the output lines. The select lines control these AND gates such that only one AND gate is enabled at a time, allowing the input signal to pass through to the corresponding output. The truth table and circuit diagram for a 1-to-4 demultiplexer are as follows: 1-to-4 Demultiplexer Truth Table: Select Lines \| Input \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\| S1 \| S0 \| I \| D0 \| D1 \| D2 \| D3 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1-to-4 Demultiplexer Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a 1-to-4 demultiplexer includes one input line, four output lines, and two select lines. It uses AND gates to ensure that the input signal is routed to the selected output based on the select line values. Demultiplexer 1 to 4. Practical Use Demultiplexers are widely used in various digital and communication systems for routing and signal distribution. In digital communication systems, demultiplexers are used to direct incoming signals to the appropriate receiver, allowing a single communication channel to serve multiple destinations. In microprocessor systems, demultiplexers can be used to manage data lines, controlling the flow of data from the CPU to different peripheral devices based on control signals. Another practical application is in data storage systems, where demultiplexers facilitate the writing of data to specific memory locations. Additionally, demultiplexers are essential in digital display systems, where they route input signals to specific segments of the display, enabling the correct visualization of data. Example: 1-to-8 Demultiplexer 1-to-8 Demultiplexer Truth Table: Select Lines \| Input \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| S2 \| S1 \| S0 \| I \| Y0 \| Y1 \| Y2 \| Y3 \| Y4 \| Y5 \| Y6 \| Y7 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1-to-8 Demultiplexer Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a 1-to-8 demultiplexer involves one input line, eight output lines, and three select lines. It uses a combination of AND gates to ensure that the input signal is routed to the correct output line based on the values of the select lines. 1 to 8 Demultiplexer. Through these sections, we see the essential functionality and versatility of demultiplexers in digital systems, highlighting their design, practical applications, and importance in managing and routing signals effectively. 6.11 Parity Generators/Checkers Basics of Parity Parity is a simple and widely used error detection mechanism in digital communication and data storage systems. It involves adding an extra bit, known as the parity bit, to a binary message to ensure that the total number of 1s in the message is either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). This additional bit helps in identifying errors that may occur during data transmission or storage. If the number of 1s in the message, including the parity bit, does not match the expected parity, an error is detected. Parity is particularly effective for detecting single-bit errors, making it a fundamental technique in ensuring data integrity. Design and Application The design of a parity generator and checker involves using XOR gates to calculate the parity bit and verify the parity of received data. A parity generator circuit takes a binary input and produces a parity bit, which is appended to the original data before transmission or storage. For example, a 4-bit parity generator for even parity calculates the parity bit (P) as follows: P = A ⊕ B ⊕ C ⊕ D where A, B, C, and D are the input bits. The circuit for a parity generator typically includes a series of XOR gates arranged to compute the parity bit based on the input bits. A parity checker circuit, on the other hand, verifies the received data by recalculating the parity bit and comparing it with the received parity bit. If the recalculated parity does not match the received parity, an error is indicated. Example: 4-bit Even Parity Generator Truth Table: Parity Generator Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a 4-bit even parity generator uses XOR gates to compute the parity bit. Each XOR gate takes two input bits and produces an output based on their XOR operation. The outputs are then combined to produce the final parity bit. Error Detection Parity generators and checkers are essential for error detection in digital systems. When data is transmitted or stored, the parity bit is generated and appended to the original data. Upon reception or retrieval, the parity checker recalculates the parity bit and compares it with the received parity bit. If there is a discrepancy, an error is detected, indicating that the data may have been corrupted. Parity is particularly effective in detecting single-bit errors, where only one bit in the data has changed. For example, if a transmitted 4-bit data with even parity is "1101" (with parity bit 0), and it is received as "1100" (with parity bit 0), the parity checker will detect an error since the recalculated parity does not match the received parity bit. Example: Parity Checker Truth Table: Parity Checker Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram for a parity checker involves XOR gates arranged to recompute the parity bit from the received data and compare it with the received parity bit. Any mismatch between the recomputed and received parity bits indicates an error. \| By using parity generators and checkers, digital systems can effectively detect errors, ensuring data integrity and reliability in communication and storage applications. These circuits are simple yet powerful tools for maintaining data accuracy and preventing errors from propagating through digital systems. Part II Simulation Dimension 6.12 Simulating Combinational Logic Circuits Simulation Tools and Software Simulation tools and software are essential for designing and testing combinational logic circuits before they are physically implemented. These tools provide a virtual environment where circuits can be created, modified, and tested for functionality. Popular simulation software includes tools like CircuitVerse, Logical Circuit, Logisim, Multisim, and Tinkercad, which offer user-friendly interfaces for building and simulating digital circuits. These tools allow designers to input logic gates, connect them, and simulate their operation to observe the output in response to various inputs. They also provide features such as real-time simulation, error checking, and visualization of signal propagation, making them invaluable for educational and professional purposes. Steps in Simulation Simulating a combinational logic circuit involves several key steps. First, the circuit is designed using the chosen simulation tool, which typically involves placing and connecting logic gates according to the circuit diagram. Next, the input values are defined, and the simulation is run to observe the output. The process can be broken down into the following steps: - Design the Circuit: Use the simulation tool to create the circuit by placing logic gates and connecting them according to the desired logic function. For example, to simulate a 4-bit binary adder, place four full adders and connect their inputs and outputs accordingly. - Define Inputs: Set the input values that the circuit will process. In the case of a 4-bit adder, define the binary numbers to be added. - Run the Simulation: Execute the simulation to observe the behavior of the circuit. The tool will process the inputs through the logic gates and provide the output. - Analyze Outputs: Check the output values to ensure they match the expected results. This involves comparing the simulation results with the theoretical values calculated using Boolean algebra or truth tables. - Modify and Repeat: If the outputs do not match the expected results, modify the circuit design as necessary and rerun the simulation. This iterative process continues until the circuit operates correctly. Example: Simulating a 4-bit Binary Adder Truth Table: Circuit Diagram for a 4-bit Binary Adder Simulation: The circuit diagram for simulating a 4-bit binary adder consists of four full adders connected in series. Each full adder handles one bit of the binary numbers and passes the carry to the next adder. 4-bit Binary Adder Remember, a full adder consists of two half-adders: Validation and Verification Validation and verification are critical steps in the simulation process to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the circuit design. Validation involves checking that the circuit performs the intended function and meets the design specifications. This can be done by comparing the simulation results with expected outcomes derived from theoretical calculations or truth tables. Verification, on the other hand, ensures that the circuit design is free of errors and operates correctly under all possible input conditions. This process often includes testing the circuit with a comprehensive set of input combinations to detect any discrepancies or faults. Example: Validation and Verification of a 4-bit Binary Adder - Validation: - Compare the simulation results with the theoretical values in the truth table. For instance, if the inputs are A = 0101 and B = 0011, the expected sum is 1000. Run the simulation and check if the output matches this expected value. - Verification: - Test the circuit with all possible input combinations to ensure it functions correctly in every case. For a 4-bit adder, this involves 256 different input combinations (2^8). Verify that the outputs are correct for each combination. By using simulation tools and following these steps, designers can efficiently create, test, and validate combinational logic circuits, ensuring they function correctly before physical implementation. This process helps in identifying and correcting errors early, saving time and resources in the development of digital systems. 6.13 Simulation of Half and Full Adders Setup and Implementation Simulating half and full adders involves setting up the logic circuit in a simulation environment using appropriate tools like Logisim, Multisim, or Tinkercad. The setup process begins by selecting the necessary logic gates (AND, OR, XOR, NOT) and arranging them to form the desired adder circuits. For a half adder, the circuit is relatively simple, requiring only two gates: an XOR gate for the sum output and an AND gate for the carry output. The inputs for the half adder are two single-bit binary numbers (A and B), and the outputs are the sum (S) and carry (C). A full adder is slightly more complex, requiring three inputs (A, B, and Cin) and producing two outputs (Sum and Carry). The full adder circuit combines two half adders and an OR gate. The first half adder computes the sum of A and B, while the second half adder adds the carry-in (Cin) to the result. The carry outputs from both half adders are combined using an OR gate to produce the final carry-out. Example: Half Adder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: Example: Full Adder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: Testing and Results After setting up the half and full adder circuits in the simulation tool, the next step is to test them by providing various input combinations and observing the outputs. For the half adder, test all possible combinations of the input bits (A and B) to ensure that the sum and carry outputs match the expected values in the truth table. Similarly, for the full adder, test all combinations of A, B, and Cin. Example: Half Adder Testing - Input: A=0, B=0 - Expected Output: Sum=0, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=0, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=0, B=1 - Expected Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=1, B=0 - Expected Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=1, B=1 - Expected Output: Sum=0, Carry=1 - Simulation Output: Sum=0, Carry=1 (Correct) Example: Full Adder Testing - Input: A=0, B=0, Cin=0 - Expected Output: Sum=0, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=0, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=0, B=1, Cin=0 - Expected Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=1, B=0, Cin=0 - Expected Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 - Simulation Output: Sum=1, Carry=0 (Correct) - Input: A=1, B=1, Cin=1 - Expected Output: Sum=1, Carry=1 - Simulation Output: Sum=1, Carry=1 (Correct) During testing, the simulation results should match the expected outputs in the truth tables for each input combination. Any discrepancies indicate errors in the circuit design, which can be corrected by revisiting the setup and ensuring all connections and logic gates are correctly implemented. Once the outputs consistently match the expected values, the adder circuits are verified to be functioning correctly. This process of testing and validating ensures that the combinational logic circuits are reliable and ready for practical use in digital systems. 6.14 Simulation of Parallel Binary Adders Simulation Approach Simulating parallel binary adders, such as ripple carry adders and carry look-ahead adders, involves using a simulation tool to design and test these circuits virtually. The first step is to construct the adder circuits using logic gates (AND, OR, XOR) and connect them according to the desired architecture. For a ripple carry adder, the simulation involves connecting multiple full adders in series, where the carry-out of one adder is connected to the carry-in of the next. This approach allows the simulation tool to model the propagation of the carry through each stage of the adder. In contrast, a carry look-ahead adder uses additional logic to calculate carry bits in advance, reducing the propagation delay. The simulation setup for a carry look-ahead adder involves constructing the carry generation and propagation logic alongside the addition logic. By modeling both types of adders, the simulation tool can compare their performance and demonstrate the advantages of carry look-ahead techniques. Example: 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram for a 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder: The diagram includes four full adders connected in series, with the carry-out of each adder feeding into the carry-in of the next. Example: 4-bit Carry Look-Ahead Adder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram for a 4-bit Carry Look-Ahead Adder: The diagram includes logic gates to generate carry-in signals in advance, reducing delay. Analyzing Performance Analyzing the performance of parallel binary adders involves comparing metrics such as propagation delay, circuit complexity, and power consumption. In a ripple carry adder, the primary performance concern is the propagation delay, as each bit addition depends on the carry-out of the previous bit. This delay accumulates linearly with the number of bits, making ripple carry adders slower for large bit-widths. Example: Ripple Carry Adder Performance Analysis In a 4-bit ripple carry adder, the delay is the sum of the delays of the four full adders. If each full adder has a delay of t, the total delay is approximately 4t. Example: Carry Look-Ahead Adder Performance Analysis In a 4-bit carry look-ahead adder, the carry signals are computed in parallel, significantly reducing the propagation delay. If the carry look-ahead logic adds a delay of t, the total delay is closer to 2t, making it much faster than the ripple carry adder for the same bit-width. Performance Comparison Table: By simulating and analyzing these parallel binary adders, designers can understand the trade-offs between speed and complexity, guiding them in choosing the appropriate adder architecture for their specific application requirements. 6.15 Simulation of Comparators, Decoders, and Encoders Setup for Comparators Simulating comparators involves creating a circuit that can compare two binary numbers and determine their relative magnitudes. A basic 2-bit comparator, for example, compares two 2-bit binary numbers (A and B) and produces three outputs: A>B, A<B, and A=B. The setup includes defining the inputs and designing the logic to produce the correct outputs based on the comparison. This typically involves using AND, OR, and NOT gates to implement the logic equations derived from the truth table. Example: 2-bit Comparator Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: Setup for Decoders Simulating decoders involves creating a circuit that converts binary input values into a unique output line. For example, a 2-to-4 decoder takes two binary inputs and activates one of four outputs based on the input combination. The setup includes defining the inputs, designing the logic to decode the inputs correctly, and connecting the output lines. Example: 2-to-4 Decoder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: Setup for Encoders Simulating encoders involves creating a circuit that performs the reverse operation of a decoder. It converts multiple input lines into a smaller number of output lines. For example, a 4-to-2 binary encoder takes four input lines and generates a two-bit binary output corresponding to the active input line. The setup includes defining the inputs, designing the logic to encode the inputs, and ensuring that only one input is active at a time to avoid incorrect encoding. Example: 4-to-2 Encoder Setup Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: Setup for Comparators - Design the Comparator Circuit: Place the logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) in the simulation tool. - Define the Inputs: Set the input bits A and B. - Connect the Gates: Arrange the gates to compare the inputs and produce the outputs A > B, A < B, and A = B. - Run the Simulation: Test the comparator with different input values to verify its functionality. Setup for Decoders - Design the Decoder Circuit: Use AND gates and NOT gates to decode the binary input. - Define the Inputs: Set the binary input lines. - Connect the Gates: Ensure the gates are connected to activate the correct output based on the input combination. - Run the Simulation: Test the decoder with different input combinations to verify the correct output activation. Setup for Encoders - Design the Encoder Circuit: Use OR gates to encode the input lines into the output. - Define the Inputs: Set the input lines such that only one input is active at a time. - Connect the Gates: Arrange the gates to encode the active input into the binary output. - Run the Simulation: Test the encoder with different active inputs to verify the correct binary output. Through these sections, the setup and simulation of comparators, decoders, and encoders are explained, highlighting the necessary steps and providing practical examples to demonstrate their functionality in digital systems. 6.16 Code Converters Simulation Binary to BCD Conversion Binary to BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) conversion is a crucial process in digital systems, especially those that interface with human-readable displays. BCD is a representation of decimal numbers where each digit is encoded separately in binary form. For instance, the decimal number 93 is represented in BCD as 1001 0011. Simulating a binary to BCD converter involves designing a circuit that takes a binary number as input and outputs its BCD equivalent. This process can be implemented using combinational logic circuits or more sophisticated algorithms in simulation software. Example: 4-bit Binary to BCD Converter Truth Table: Circuit Diagram: The circuit can be implemented using combinational logic. This 4-bit binary to BCD converter is useful in digital systems that need to display binary numbers in a human-readable decimal format, such as digital clocks, calculators, and other digital display devices. Gray Code Conversion Gray code is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit. This property is particularly useful in error correction in digital communications and reducing errors in analog-to-digital conversions. Simulating a binary to Gray code converter involves designing a circuit that takes a binary number as input and outputs the corresponding Gray code. Example: 4-bit Binary to Gray Code Converter Truth Table Circuit Diagram: The circuit for a binary to Gray code converter is simpler compared to binary to BCD conversion. Each bit of the Gray code is derived using XOR gates. The MSB (most significant bit) remains the same, while each subsequent bit is obtained by XORing the corresponding binary bit with the previous bit. Simulation Approach for Binary to BCD and Gray Code Converters - Design the Circuit: Use the simulation tool to place and connect the necessary logic gates (XOR for Gray code, adders, and logic gates for BCD). - Define Inputs: Set the input lines representing the binary number. - Run the Simulation: Execute the simulation to observe the output values in BCD or Gray code. - Verify the Outputs: Compare the simulation results with the expected values in the truth tables to ensure correctness. Analyzing Performance: For both converters, performance can be analyzed in terms of accuracy, speed, and resource utilization. Gray code conversion is generally faster and requires fewer resources, making it suitable for high-speed and error-sensitive applications. Binary to BCD conversion, while more complex, is essential for applications requiring human-readable numerical output. By simulating and verifying these converters, designers can ensure their functionality and performance, making them reliable components in digital systems. 6.17 Simulation of Multiplexers and Demultiplexers Designing Simulations Simulating multiplexers and demultiplexers involves creating virtual models of these circuits using simulation tools like CircuitVerse, Logical Circuit, Logisim, Multisim, or Tinkercad. A multiplexer (MUX) selects one of many input signals and forwards it to a single output line, controlled by select lines. Conversely, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) takes a single input signal and distributes it to one of many output lines based on select lines. The design process begins by selecting the appropriate MUX or DEMUX circuit type and arranging the logic gates to reflect the desired functionality. For instance, a 4-to-1 multiplexer uses four input lines, two select lines, and one output line, while a 1-to-4 demultiplexer has one input line, two select lines, and four output lines. Example: 4-to-1 Multiplexer Setup Truth Table: Select Lines \| Outputs \| \| \|\|\|\| S1 \| S0 \| I0 \| I1 \| I2 \| I3 \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| I0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| I1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| I2 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| I3 \| Circuit Diagram: Example: 1-to-4 Demultiplexer Setup Truth Table: Select Lines \| Input \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\| S1 \| S0 \| I \| Y0 \| Y1 \| Y2 \| Y3 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Circuit Diagram: Performance Evaluation Evaluating the performance of multiplexers and demultiplexers involves analyzing metrics such as propagation delay, power consumption, and resource utilization. Propagation Delay: Propagation delay is the time taken for a signal to travel through the circuit from the input to the output. In a multiplexer, the delay depends on the number of logic gates the signal must pass through, which increases with the number of inputs. Similarly, in a demultiplexer, the propagation delay is influenced by the complexity of the logic required to route the input signal to the correct output line. Example: Evaluating a 4-to-1 Multiplexer In a 4-to-1 multiplexer, the delay is the cumulative delay of the AND and OR gates through which the signal passes. If each gate introduces a delay of t nanoseconds, the total delay can be approximated by summing the delays of all gates in the path from the selected input to the output. Example: Evaluating a 1-to-4 Demultiplexer For a 1-to-4 demultiplexer, the delay is also determined by the number of gates involved. With each AND gate introducing a delay, the total delay is the sum of the delays of all gates the signal passes through. Power Consumption: Power consumption is another critical factor, influenced by the number of gates and the switching activity within the circuit. More complex multiplexers and demultiplexers with higher input/output lines typically consume more power due to increased gate count and activity. Resource Utilization: Resource utilization refers to the number of logic gates and interconnections required to implement the circuit. Efficient design aims to minimize the number of gates and optimize the layout to reduce chip area and complexity. Performance Comparison Table: Circuit Type \| Propagation Delay \| Power Consumption \| Resource Utilization \| 4-to-1 Multiplexer 1-to-4 Demultiplexer \| 4t 3t \| Moderate Moderate \| Low Low \| By simulating and evaluating these performance metrics, designers can determine the suitability of multiplexers and demultiplexers for specific applications, ensuring optimal functionality and efficiency in digital systems. Part III Engineering Dimension 6.18 Practical Applications Real-world Usage Combinational logic circuits, including multiplexers and demultiplexers, comparators, encoders, decoders, and adders, have extensive applications in real-world scenarios. For instance, multiplexers are essential in data routing and selection processes within communication systems. In a digital communication network, a multiplexer can combine multiple data streams into a single channel for transmission, maximizing the use of the communication link. At the receiver's end, a demultiplexer separates the combined data stream back into its original channels. This efficient data management is crucial in telecommunications, data centers, and network routers. Example: Multiplexer in a Communication System Circuit Diagram: Truth Table: Comparators are widely used in digital systems for tasks requiring decision-making and comparison, such as in arithmetic logic units (ALUs) within CPUs, where they compare binary numbers and generate results for further operations. Encoders and decoders are pivotal in data conversion and communication systems, translating data between different formats for processing or transmission. For example, in keyboard encoding, each key press is encoded into a specific binary code that the computer's processor can understand. Example: Comparator in an ALU Circuit Diagram: Block Diagram: \| Schematic Diagram: \| \| Truth Table: Industry Standards Industry standards ensure interoperability, reliability, and performance consistency across digital systems and components. For example, IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) sets standards for digital logic design, including specifications for logic gate operation, signal timing, and power consumption. These standards guide the design and implementation of combinational logic circuits, ensuring they meet the necessary performance and reliability criteria. In telecommunications, standards like ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standardization Sector) provide guidelines for multiplexing techniques, enabling seamless integration and communication across different systems and devices. These standards ensure that multiplexers and demultiplexers used in communication networks can handle various data formats and transmission protocols efficiently. Example: IEEE Standard for Logic Gates The IEEE 91 standard specifies the characteristics of logic gates, including propagation delay, power consumption, and voltage levels, ensuring uniform performance across different manufacturers and applications. This standardization is crucial for designing reliable and compatible digital systems. Performance Comparison Table: By adhering to industry standards, designers ensure that their combinational logic circuits perform reliably and integrate seamlessly into larger systems. This standardization is essential for developing robust digital systems used in various industries, from telecommunications to computing and consumer electronics. 6.19 Practical Examples in Radar Systems Use of Adders in Signal Processing Adders are crucial in signal processing within radar systems, where they are used for various arithmetic operations required for signal analysis and processing. In radar signal processing, digital adders are used to combine signals from multiple sources, integrate data over time, and perform fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) for frequency analysis. For example, when processing the reflected radar signals, adders sum the incoming signal data to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, enhancing the clarity and accuracy of the detected objects. Adders can also be used in correlation operations, where the received signal is compared with a known pattern to identify the presence and position of objects. Example: 4-bit Adder in Radar Signal Processing Circuit Diagram: Truth Table: Comparators in Radar Detection Comparators play a significant role in radar detection systems by comparing incoming signal amplitudes with predefined thresholds. This comparison helps in identifying the presence of targets and filtering out noise. For example, in a radar system, a comparator can be used to compare the amplitude of the received echo signal with a threshold value to determine whether an object is present. If the signal amplitude exceeds the threshold, the comparator outputs a high signal indicating the detection of a target. Example: Comparator in Radar Detection Circuit Diagram: COMPARATOR \| Input Signal ------------ ---- Output (Object Detected) Threshold Value ------- Truth Table: Multiplexers and Demultiplexers in Radar Communication Multiplexers and demultiplexers are used in radar communication systems to manage the routing and distribution of signals. A multiplexer can select and transmit one of several input signals to a single output line, which is essential in scenarios where multiple radar signals need to be processed sequentially. Conversely, a demultiplexer can take a single input signal and distribute it to one of several output lines, enabling efficient signal routing to different processing units or display systems. Example: Multiplexer and Demultiplexer in Radar Communication Multiplexer Circuit Diagram: Truth Table: Select Lines \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\| S1 \| S0 \| I0 \| I1 \| I2 \| Y \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| X \| I0 \| 0 \| 1 \| X \| 1 \| X \| I1 \| 1 \| 0 \| X \| X \| 1 \| I2 \| 1 \| 1 \| X \| X \| X \| 0 \| Demultiplexer Circuit Diagram: DEMUX \| ------------ Output 1 Single Inpute-------- ------------ Output 2 ------------ Output 3 Truth Table: Select Lines \| Input \| Outputs \| \|\|\|\| S1 \| S0 \| I \| Y0 \| Y1 \| Y2 \| Y3 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Through these practical examples, we see how combinational logic circuits like adders, comparators, multiplexers, and demultiplexers are used in radar systems to enhance signal processing, detection, and communication. These components are integral to the efficient functioning and accuracy of modern radar technology. 6.20 Practical Examples in AI Adders in AI Algorithms Adders are fundamental components in AI algorithms, particularly in operations involving neural networks and deep learning models. In neural networks, adders are used to compute weighted sums of inputs, which are then passed through activation functions to produce outputs. This process is essential for training and inference in AI models. For example, in a fully connected layer of a neural network, each neuron's output is the sum of the weighted inputs plus a bias term. This weighted sum operation is efficiently implemented using adders. Example: Adder in Neural Network Computation Circuit Diagram: Truth Table: Encoders and Decoders in Machine Learning Encoders and decoders are vital in machine learning, particularly in applications involving data preprocessing and transformation. Encoders convert categorical data into numerical format, which is necessary for machine learning algorithms to process the data effectively. Decoders, on the other hand, are used in models like autoencoders and sequence-to-sequence models for tasks such as image compression, natural language processing, and translation. In an autoencoder, the encoder compresses the input data into a latent space representation, and the decoder reconstructs the original data from this representation. Example: Encoder-Decoder in Autoencoder Circuit Diagram: Truth Table for Encoder: Truth Table for Decoder: Parity Checkers in Data Integrity Parity checkers are essential for maintaining data integrity in AI systems, particularly when dealing with large datasets and ensuring error-free data transmission. Parity checkers generate parity bits for data blocks, which help in detecting and correcting single-bit errors during data transmission or storage. In AI applications, parity checkers are crucial for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of data used for training and inference. Example: Parity Checker in Data Transmission Circuit Diagram: Truth Table for Parity Generator: Truth Table for Parity Checker: Through these practical examples, we see how combinational logic circuits like adders, encoders, decoders, and parity checkers are integral to AI algorithms, machine learning models, and data integrity. These components ensure efficient computation, accurate data processing, and reliable data transmission in various AI applications. 6.21 Practical Examples in Radar and AI Integrated Radar and AI Systems Integrating radar systems with artificial intelligence (AI) enhances the capabilities of radar technology by enabling more sophisticated data analysis, decision-making, and automation. AI algorithms can process and interpret radar data more effectively, improving target detection, classification, and tracking. For instance, machine learning models can be trained to recognize patterns in radar signals that indicate the presence of specific objects or activities. In autonomous vehicles, radar systems integrated with AI can detect obstacles, pedestrians, and other vehicles, enabling real-time decision-making for navigation and safety. Example: Radar and AI Integration for Autonomous Vehicles Circuit Diagram: Process Flow: - Radar Sensor: Captures radar signals reflecting off objects. - Signal Processing: Filters and preprocesses the radar signals. - Feature Extraction: Identifies key features (e.g., distance, speed) from the processed signals. - Machine Learning Model: Uses extracted features to classify objects and make decisions. Simulation and Real-world Testing Simulating integrated radar and AI systems involves creating virtual models to test and validate the interactions between radar sensors, signal processing algorithms, and AI models. Simulation tools can replicate various scenarios, such as different weather conditions, object types, and movement patterns, allowing developers to refine algorithms and improve system performance before real-world deployment. Example: Simulation of Radar and AI Integration Simulation Setup: - Design the Simulation Environment: Create a virtual scenario representing the real-world environment (e.g., a city street for autonomous vehicles). - Model the Radar System: Simulate the radar sensor capturing signals from objects in the environment. - Implement Signal Processing Algorithms: Apply filtering, noise reduction, and feature extraction techniques. - Integrate AI Models: Use pre-trained machine learning models to analyze the radar data and make decisions. - Run the Simulation: Test the integrated system under various conditions and evaluate its performance. Circuit Diagram: Real-world Testing After successful simulation, real-world testing is essential to validate the performance of the integrated radar and AI system under actual operating conditions. This involves deploying the system in a controlled environment, such as a test track for autonomous vehicles or a specific area for surveillance systems. Real-world testing helps identify any discrepancies between simulation and reality, allowing for further refinement of the system. Example: Real-world Testing of Autonomous Vehicle Radar and AI System Testing Steps: - Setup the Test Environment: Use a controlled area with various objects and movement patterns. - Deploy the Radar and AI System: Install the radar sensors and AI processing unit in the vehicle. - Conduct Test Runs: Drive the vehicle through the test area under different conditions (e.g., day, night, rain). - Collect Data: Record the radar signals, AI decisions, and actual outcomes. - Analyze Performance: Compare the AI decisions with the actual outcomes to evaluate accuracy and reliability. Performance Metrics: Test Scenario \| Condition \| Detection Accuracy \| Classification Accuracy \| Decision Accuracy \| Daytime Nighttime Daytime Nighttime \| Clear Clear Rain Rain \| 95% 90% 85% 80% \| 90% 85% 80% 75% \| 92% 88% 83% 78% \| Diagram: Through these sections, we see the importance of integrating radar and AI systems for advanced applications, the role of simulation in developing and refining these systems, and the necessity of real-world testing to ensure their reliability and effectiveness in practical scenarios. This comprehensive approach enables the creation of robust, intelligent systems capable of operating effectively in diverse real-world environments. 6.22 Radar concept implemented on a breadboard using Tinkercad and a comparator. A photodiode sensor with an LM339 comparator circuit can be useful for light-based detection in radar systems. Here's an explanation of how it works: Components: - Photodiode: - Converts light into an electrical current. The amount of current generated is proportional to the intensity of the light. - LM339 Comparator: - A comparator is an electronic device that compares two voltages and outputs a digital signal indicating which is larger. - The LM339 is a quad comparator, meaning it has four independent comparators in a single package. Working Principle: - Photodiode Operation: - When light hits the photodiode, it generates a current proportional to the light intensity. - This current is then converted to a voltage using a resistor or operational amplifier in a current-to-voltage conversion setup. - Voltage Comparison: - The generated voltage from the photodiode is fed into one of the inputs of the LM339 comparator. - A reference voltage is fed into the other input of the comparator. This reference voltage can be set using a voltage divider or a potentiometer. - Comparator Output: - The LM339 compares the photodiode voltage with the reference voltage. - If the photodiode voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the comparator outputs a high signal (logic 1). - If the photodiode voltage is below the reference voltage, the comparator outputs a low signal (logic 0). Example Application: - Light Sensor: The photodiode and LM339 can be used to create a light sensor that turns on or off a device (like an LED) based on the light intensity. For instance, you can set the reference voltage to a level corresponding to a desired light threshold, and the output can then trigger other components in the circuit. Circuit Design in Tinkercad: - Photodiode Placement: Place the photodiode in the circuit so that it can receive light. - Connection to Comparator: Connect the photodiode output to one input of the LM339. - Setting Reference Voltage: Use a voltage divider or potentiometer to set the reference voltage at the other input of the LM339. - Output Usage: The output of the LM339 can be connected to an indicator like an LED or to a microcontroller for further processing. Photodiode voltage > reference voltage, the comparator outputs a high signal (logic 1) or LED is on: \| Photodiode voltage < reference voltage, the comparator outputs a low signal (logic 0) or LED is off: \| \| \| 6.23 Summary Combinational logic circuits are essential components in digital systems, performing specific functions based on current input signals without the need for memory or storage elements. These circuits, constructed from logic gates like AND, OR, and XOR, are fundamental to executing arithmetic operations, data processing, and control functions across various applications. They are crucial in modern technology due to their speed and reliability, facilitating efficient operations in microprocessors, digital communication systems, and control units. Tools like Logisim, Multisim, and Tinkercad enable the design and testing of these circuits in a virtual environment, ensuring accurate and efficient circuit implementation through validation and verification processes. In radar and AI systems, combinational logic circuits play a pivotal role in signal processing, target detection, and data routing. For example, parallel binary adders are used for arithmetic operations in AI algorithms, enabling neural networks to compute weighted sums of inputs. Comparators, encoders, and decoders are utilized in machine learning for data comparison and transformation, while parity checkers ensure data integrity by detecting and correcting errors. Integrating radar systems with AI enhances the capabilities of radar technology, enabling sophisticated data analysis and real-time decision-making, crucial for applications like autonomous vehicles and surveillance systems. Simulating these integrated systems involves creating virtual models to test interactions between radar sensors, signal processing algorithms, and AI models. This process includes designing the simulation environment, modeling the radar system, implementing signal processing algorithms, and integrating AI models for performance evaluation. Real-world testing follows successful simulation to validate system performance under actual operating conditions, using metrics such as detection accuracy, classification accuracy, and decision accuracy. This comprehensive approach ensures the creation of robust, intelligent systems capable of operating effectively in diverse real-world environments, illustrating the importance and versatility of combinational logic circuits in enhancing modern technology. 6.24 Projects Remember - Define Basic Logic Gates (Knowledge - Factual, ABET SLO 1) List the types of basic logic gates and their symbols. Identify AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates with their symbols. - Truth Tables for Basic Gates (Knowledge - Factual, ABET SLO 1) Construct truth tables for basic logic gates. Provide truth tables for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates. - Boolean Expressions for Basic Gates (Knowledge - Factual, ABET SLO 1) Write Boolean expressions for basic logic gates. Write Boolean expressions for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates. Understand - Explain Combinational Logic Circuits (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 1) Explain the concept and characteristics of combinational logic circuits. Describe how combinational logic circuits work and their key characteristics. For example, explain the difference between combinational and sequential logic circuits. - Applications of Adders in Digital Systems (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 1) Describe the applications of adders in digital systems. Explain where and how adders are used in digital systems. For example, describe the use of adders in microprocessors. - Role of Encoders and Decoders (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 1) Explain the role of encoders and decoders in digital systems. Describe how encoders and decoders function and their applications. For example, explain how a 4-to-2 encoder works. Apply - Design a Half Adder Using Logic Gates (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 6) Design and simulate a half adder using logic gates. Use simulation tools to design and test a half adder circuit. For example, design and simulate a half adder using a simulator of your choice e.g., Multisim, Logical Circuit, CircuitVerse, Logisim, etc. - Implement a 2-to-4 Decoder (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 6) Design and simulate a 2-to-4 decoder. Use simulation tools to create and test a 2-to-4 decoder circuit. For example, implement a 2-to-4 decoder in Tinkercad. - Use Tinkercad for Logic Circuit Simulation (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 6) Use Tinkercad to simulate a basic combinational logic circuit. Simulate a basic logic circuit using Tinkercad. For example, simulate a 4-bit binary adder in Tinkercad. Analyze - Analyze Ripple Carry Adder Performance (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 6) Analyze the performance of a ripple carry adder. Evaluate the propagation delay and efficiency of a ripple carry adder. For example, calculate the propagation delay for a 4-bit ripple carry adder. - Compare Ripple Carry and Look-Ahead Carry Adders (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 6) Compare the efficiency of ripple carry adders and look-ahead carry adders. Analyze the differences in speed and complexity between the two types of adders. For example, compare the delays and gate counts of a 4-bit ripple carry adder and a 4-bit carry look-ahead adder. - Evaluate the Use of Comparators in ALUs (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 4) Evaluate the role of comparators in Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs). Analyze how comparators function in ALUs and their impact on performance. For example, explain how a comparator is used in an ALU to determine the equality of two numbers. Evaluate - Assess Multiplexers in Digital Communication (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 4) Assess the effectiveness of multiplexers in digital communication systems. Evaluate the performance and applications of multiplexers in communication systems. For example, assess the role of a multiplexer in a digital communication network. - Performance Analysis of Encoders and Decoders (Knowledge - Metacognitive, ABET SLO 4) Analyze the performance of encoders and decoders in data communication. Evaluate the efficiency and reliability of encoders and decoders in various applications. For example, analyze the performance of a 4-to-2 encoder in data transmission. - Evaluate Gray Code Conversion in Digital Systems (Knowledge - Conceptual, ABET SLO 4) Evaluate the use of Gray code in digital systems. Assess the advantages of Gray code over binary code in specific applications. For example, evaluate the benefits of using Gray code in rotary encoders. Create - Design a Complex Combinational Circuit (Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 5) Design and implement a complex combinational logic circuit. Use simulation tools to create a complex circuit such as a binary multiplier or a BCD converter. For example, design and simulate a 4-bit binary multiplier. Capstone Projects Capstone Project 1: Design and Simulate a Signal Processing Circuit Using a Neural Network (Cognitive: Apply; Procedural Knowledge, ABET SLOs 2, 5, 6) Objective: Design a simple signal processing circuit that uses basic combinational logic gates and simulate it in CircuitVerse or Tinkercad. Details: Create a circuit that processes a binary signal using an XOR gate for feature extraction and a multiplexer for decision-making. Example: Design a circuit that takes two input signals, processes them using an XOR gate to extract a feature, and uses a 2-to-1 multiplexer to decide which signal to pass based on a control input. Step-by-Step Instructions - Design the Circuit: - Inputs: A, B (binary signals), and S (control signal) - Feature Extraction: Use an XOR gate to process inputs A and B - Decision Making: Use a 2-to-1 multiplexer controlled by S to select either the XOR output or input A - Simulation Tools: - CircuitVerse or Tinkercad - Components Needed: - XOR Gate - 2-to-1 Multiplexer - Input switches for A, B, and S - Output LED for the final output Circuit Diagram and Truth Table Circuit Diagram - XOR Gate: - Connect inputs A and B to the XOR gate. - Output of the XOR gate is the extracted feature. - 2-to-1 Multiplexer: - Connect input A to the first data input of the multiplexer. - Connect the XOR gate output to the second data input of the multiplexer. - Connect the control signal S to the select input of the multiplexer. - The output of the multiplexer is the final decision output. Truth Table Instructions for CircuitVerse or Tinkercad - Open CircuitVerse or Tinkercad: - Create a new project. - Place the Components: - Add input switches for A, B, and S. - Place an XOR gate and connect inputs A and B to it. - Place a 2-to-1 multiplexer and connect input A to the first data input, the XOR gate output to the second data input, and S to the select input. - Add an LED to the output of the multiplexer to visualize the final output. - Connect the Components: - Connect the input switches to the appropriate inputs of the XOR gate and multiplexer. - Connect the output of the XOR gate to the second data input of the multiplexer. - Connect the select input (S) to the control input of the multiplexer. - Connect the output of the multiplexer to the LED. - Run the Simulation: - Toggle the input switches and observe the LED to verify the correct operation of the circuit as per the truth table. Expected Outcomes - When S is 0, the output follows input A. - When S is 1, the output follows the XOR of A and B. Capstone Project 2: Design and Simulate a Simple Radar Detection System Using Combinational Logic (Cognitive: Apply and Analyze; Knowledge - Procedural, ABET SLO 2, 5, 6) Objective: Design a basic radar detection system using a 4-bit comparator and simulate it in CircuitVerse or Tinkercad. Details: Create a circuit that compares a received signal with a threshold value using a 4-bit comparator and lights up an LED if the signal exceeds the threshold, indicating target detection. Example: Design a circuit that takes a 4-bit received signal and a 4-bit threshold value, compares them using a 4-bit comparator, and lights an LED if the received signal is greater than the threshold. Step-by-Step Instructions - Design the Circuit: - Inputs: Received signal (A) and threshold value (B) - Comparator: Use a 4-bit comparator to compare the received signal and threshold value. - Output: An LED that lights up if the received signal exceeds the threshold. - Simulation Tools: - CircuitVerse or Tinkercad - Components Needed: - 4-bit Comparator - Input switches for A and B - Output LED for target detection Circuit Diagram and Truth Table Circuit Diagram - 4-bit Comparator: - Connect inputs A and B to the 4-bit comparator. - The output of the comparator should indicate if A > B. - LED Output: - Connect the output of the comparator to an LED. The LED lights up when A > B. Truth Table: Instructions for CircuitVerse or Tinkercad - Open CircuitVerse or Tinkercad: - Create a new project. - Place the Components: - Add input switches for A and B. - Place a 4-bit comparator and connect inputs A and B to it. - Add an LED to the output of the comparator to visualize the detection. - Connect the Components: - Connect the input switches to the appropriate inputs of the comparator. - Connect the output of the comparator to the LED. - Run the Simulation: - Toggle the input switches and observe the LED to verify the correct operation of the circuit as per the truth table. Expected Outcomes - When the received signal (A) is greater than the threshold (B), the LED lights up. - When the received signal (A) is less than or equal to the threshold (B), the LED remains off. Module 7 Sequential Logic Module 7 Sequential Logic & Synchronous Sequential Logic Module Content Part I Analytical Dimension 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Latches 7.2 Flip-Flops 7.3 Flip-Flop Operating Characteristics 7.4 Flip-Flop Applications 7.5 One-Shots 7.6 The Astable Multivibrator Part II Simulation Dimension 7.7 Simulating a 555 Timer in Tinkercad Part III Engineering Dimension 7.8 Practical Examples in Radar and AI 7.9 Summary 7.10 Projects Module Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| \| 1, Understand and explain the fundamental concepts of latches, flip-flops, one-shots, and astable multivibrators. ABET SLO 1. 6. explore and discuss the role of memory elements like latches and flip-flops in digital systems, particularly focusing on their application in advanced technologies such as AI and radar. ABET SLO 3. \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| 2. Apply knowledge to design and simulate flip-flop circuits within AI and radar systems using software tools such as Tinkercad. ABET SLO 7 \| \| \| Analyze \| \| 3. Analyze the operational characteristics of flip-flops, such as setup time, hold time, and propagation delay, and their impact on AI and radar system performance. ABET SLO 1. \| \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| 4. Evaluate different design solutions for implementing flip-flops and one-shots in AI and radar applications, considering factors like efficiency, speed, and reliability. ABET SLO 2. \| \| \| Create \| \| \| 5. Design and implement astable multivibrator circuits for specific tasks in AI signal processing and radar systems. ABET SLO 6. \| 7. develop metacognitive awareness by reflecting on their design processes and the decision-making involved in creating effective AI and radar systems. ABET SLO 4. \| Table 1. 2D Mapping of Cognitive and Knowledge Objectives Part I: Analytical Dimension 7.0 Introduction to Fundamentals of Sequential Logic This module provides an in-depth exploration of sequential logic, a cornerstone of digital systems, and its applications in advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and radar systems. Sequential logic circuits, characterized by their ability to remember past inputs, play a vital role in developing modern digital solutions. Understanding these circuits is essential for students aspiring to excel in fields involving real-time data processing, automation, and signal detection. Additionally, it sets the stage by introducing the intersection of sequential logic with AI and radar technologies. It provides a conceptual framework, outlining how digital systems leverage the memory and timing capabilities of sequential circuits to enhance their functionality. This foundation is crucial for understanding how latches, flip-flops, one-shots, and multivibrators contribute to sophisticated applications. In section 7.1, latches are the simplest form of sequential logic devices. This section covers their operation and function as fundamental storage elements. It emphasizes the role of latches in maintaining data states and introduces their applications in AI and radar systems, where reliable data storage and retrieval are critical. In section 7.2, building upon the concept of latches, this section delves into flip-flops, which are more advanced storage elements. It explores various types of flip-flops, their configuration, and their pivotal role in state machines and counters. Practical examples illustrate how flip-flops are used to control complex sequences in AI algorithms and radar signal processing. In section 7.3, understanding the operating characteristics of flip-flops is crucial for designing efficient sequential circuits. This section discusses parameters such as setup time, hold time, and propagation delay, and their impact on system performance. Students will learn to analyze these characteristics through simulation exercises, ensuring robust design practices in AI and radar applications. Section 7.4 highlights the practical use of flip-flops in real-world scenarios, focusing on their implementation in AI and radar systems. It includes case studies and examples where flip-flops form the backbone of digital designs, demonstrating their essential role in processing and decision-making functions. In section 7.5, one-shot multivibrators are used to generate single pulse outputs in response to triggering events. This section explores the design and function of one-shots, emphasizing their application in timing control within AI control circuits and radar pulse modulation techniques. In section 7.6, the astable multivibrator, a type of free-running oscillator, is examined in this section. Its role in generating continuous waveforms for signal processing tasks is discussed, with applications in both AI and radar systems. Practical simulations and real-world examples will showcase its utility in creating repetitive signals necessary for various communication and data processing functions. Section 7.7 introduces the 555 timer IC, a versatile component used for generating precise timing delays, pulses, and oscillations. Students will learn how to simulate a 555-timer circuit in Tinkercad, configuring it in various modes to understand its behavior and applications. This hands-on approach helps students grasp the practical aspects of timing control in digital systems. In section 7.8, Radar and AI systems both rely heavily on sequential logic to function effectively, making the study of these components critical for understanding modern technology. By exploring practical examples, students can see how latches, flip-flops, and timers are used to manage timing, store data, and synchronize signals in radar systems, ensuring accurate detection and measurement. Similarly, AI applications require precise timing, synchronization, and state management, which are achieved through the use of state machines for decision-making, D latches for data storage, and 555 timers for generating clock signals. Through these real-world applications, students move from learning theoretical concepts to seeing how sequential logic enables intelligent, responsive, and highly accurate systems in both radar and AI, bridging the gap between concept and reality. In summary, this module ensures a comprehensive understanding of the fundamentals of sequential logic and its critical role in modern technology by guiding students from concept to reality. Through a structured learning path that intertwines with Bloom’s cognitive and knowledge dimensions—such as understanding, applying, analyzing, and creating—students will develop the ability to design, analyze, and implement digital circuits essential for AI and radar applications. These skills are mapped to ABET Student Learning Outcomes, ensuring that students can solve complex engineering problems, apply engineering design principles, and effectively communicate their findings. By incorporating practical examples, hands-on simulations, and real-world case studies, the module bridges theoretical knowledge with real-world application, equipping students for successful careers in fields that rely heavily on digital communication, automation, and intelligent system design. 7.1 Latches and Their Role in AI and Radar Systems Latches are fundamental building blocks of sequential logic circuits, which are crucial for creating memory elements that can store and maintain binary information. Unlike combinational logic circuits, which produce outputs solely based on current inputs, latches have the capability to remember past inputs due to their feedback nature. This memory characteristic is essential for applications requiring data retention, state preservation, or synchronization. In AI and radar systems, latches are used to maintain the state of a signal, act as temporary storage, and ensure that information is processed in a controlled and timed manner. This section explores different types of latches—basic S-R latch, gated S-R latch, and gated D latch—focusing on their operation and implementation using basic logic gates. 7.1.1 Basic S-R (Set-Reset) Latch Operation: The basic S-R latch, also known as an SR or RS latch, is the simplest type of latch. It is constructed using two cross-coupled NOR gates or NAND gates. The latch has two inputs, labeled Set (S) and Reset (R), and two outputs, typically denoted as Q (the main output) and Q' (the complement of Q). - Set (S) input: When the S input is activated (logic high), the latch sets the output Q to high (1) and Q' to low (0). This action stores a binary '1' in the latch. - Reset (R) input: When the R input is activated, the latch resets the output Q to low (0) and Q' to high (1). This action stores a binary '0' in the latch. - No Change: If both S and R are low (0), the latch maintains its current state (whatever value Q and Q' had before remains unchanged). - Invalid State: When both S and R are high (1), it creates an invalid state where both Q and Q' are set to 0, which contradicts the requirement that Q and Q' should always be opposite. This condition is avoided in practical designs. Truth Table for Basic S-R Latch (using NOR gates): Applications in AI and Radar Systems: The S-R latch's ability to store a single bit of information makes it valuable for holding state information, which is critical in sequential state machines used in AI algorithms and radar signal processing. 7.1.2 Gated S-R Latch Operation: A gated S-R latch is an enhancement of the basic S-R latch, incorporating an additional control signal called the Enable or Gate input. The purpose of the enable signal is to control when the S and R inputs can affect the latch's state. This structure provides better control over when data is latched, making it suitable for synchronous systems where precise timing is required. - Enable (EN) input: When EN is high (1), the latch responds to the S and R inputs, operating like a basic S-R latch. When EN is low (0), changes in S and R do not affect the state of the latch, effectively isolating the outputs from the inputs and maintaining the current state. Truth Table for Gated S-R Latch: Applications in AI and Radar Systems: The gated S-R latch is useful in applications where precise control over when data is stored is essential, such as in timing circuits and synchronization processes in AI-driven systems and radar data acquisition. 7.1.3 Gated D (Data) Latch Operation: The gated D latch, often simply referred to as a D latch, is a modified version of the S-R latch designed to eliminate the invalid state issue of having both S and R set to 1 simultaneously. The D latch has only one data input (D) and an enable input (EN). - Data (D) input: When the enable input is high, the D input value is passed directly to the output Q. If D is high (1), Q is set to 1; if D is low (0), Q is set to 0. This operation makes the D latch act as a transparent latch, following the D input. - Enable (EN) input: When EN is low (0), the latch maintains its previous state, regardless of the D input. Truth Table for Gated D Latch: Applications in AI and Radar Systems: The D latch is widely used for temporary data storage, edge detection, and synchronization in digital systems. In AI and radar applications, D latches can store sampled data, align signals, or synchronize operations across different clock domains. 7.1.4 Implementing S-R and D Latches with Logic Gates Implementing a Basic S-R Latch Using NOR Gates: - Structure: - Two cross-coupled NOR gates. - The output of each NOR gate is connected to one of the inputs of the other. - The S input is connected to the first NOR gate, and the R input to the second. - Outputs are Q and Q' from the first and second NOR gates, respectively. - Operation: - When S is high (1) and R is low (0), the output Q is set to high (1), and Q' is set to low (0). - When S is low (0) and R is high (1), Q is reset to low (0), and Q' is set to high (1). Implementing a Gated D Latch Using NAND Gates: - Structure: - Two NAND gates form the basic S-R structure. - An additional NAND gate takes inputs from the D input and the enable input, controlling the S and R lines. - D is connected directly to one input of a NAND gate, while its complement (via an inverter) is connected to another. - Operation: - When EN is high (1), the value at D is passed to Q. - When EN is low (0), the latch retains its current state, effectively isolating the output from any changes at D. In summary, understanding the operation of latches and their implementation with basic logic gates is crucial for building more complex sequential logic circuits. These fundamental components are extensively used in AI and radar systems for data storage, synchronization, and state management, providing a solid foundation for developing intelligent and responsive digital systems. The next sections will build upon these basics to explore more complex sequential devices and their applications in real-world scenarios. 7.2 Flip-Flops: The Building Blocks of AI and Radar Applications Flip-flops are fundamental memory elements used in digital circuits that store a single bit of binary information. Unlike latches, flip-flops change their state only at specific points determined by a control signal known as the clock signal. This clocked behavior makes flip-flops essential for synchronized operations, enabling them to be the foundational building blocks in the design of registers, state machines, and counters. Their ability to maintain a stable output until the next clock cycle is crucial for ensuring reliable data storage and sequential processing, making them indispensable in AI algorithms and radar systems. 7.2.1 Concept and Operation of Flip-Flops Basic Operation: A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator, meaning it has two stable states (0 and 1) and can switch between these states in response to input signals. Flip-flops typically have a control input (such as a clock) and data inputs that dictate the behavior and transition between states. The state of a flip-flop is represented by its output, often labeled as Q, with the complementary output being Q' (not Q). - Clock Signal: The clock signal is the control input that synchronizes the operation of flip-flops. It determines when the flip-flop should sample the input data and possibly change its output state. This synchronization is vital for coordinating the timing across various components in digital systems. - Edge-Triggered Behavior: Flip-flops are usually edge-triggered, meaning they respond to changes in the clock signal, either on the rising edge (transition from low to high) or falling edge (transition from high to low). This property ensures that flip-flops update their states only once per clock cycle, preventing unwanted state changes due to noise or glitches. 7.2.2 Types of Flip-Flops 1. D (Data or Delay) Flip-Flop: The D flip-flop, also known as a Data or Delay flip-flop, is the most commonly used type of flip-flop. It has a single data input (D), a clock input (CLK), and two outputs (Q and Q'). The D flip-flop captures the value of the D input at the moment of the clock edge (either rising or falling, depending on the design) and holds this value until the next clock edge. - Operation: When the clock signal transitions, the D flip-flop samples the value at the D input and sets Q to match this value. If D is high (1), Q becomes high; if D is low (0), Q becomes low. - Application: D flip-flops are widely used for data storage in registers, where each flip-flop stores a single bit of data. They are also used in shift registers, where data is shifted in or out bit by bit, synchronized with the clock. 2. T (Toggle) Flip-Flop: The T flip-flop, or Toggle flip-flop, has a single input (T) that determines whether the flip-flop should toggle its output state. If T is high, the flip-flop changes state (from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0) on the clock edge. If T is low, the state remains unchanged. - Operation: The output Q toggles its state each time the clock signal transitions if T is high. This behavior makes T flip-flops useful for implementing counters, where each clock pulse increments the count by one. - Application: T flip-flops are commonly used in frequency division circuits and asynchronous counters, where the toggling action naturally divides the input clock frequency by two for each flip-flop stage. 3. JK Flip-Flop: The JK flip-flop is a versatile type of flip-flop with two inputs, labeled J and K, in addition to the clock input. The JK flip-flop combines the functionalities of the S-R (Set-Reset) and T flip-flops. When both J and K are high, the flip-flop toggles its state on each clock cycle. - Operation: - J = 0, K = 0: No change. - J = 0, K = 1: Reset (Q = 0). - J = 1, K = 0: Set (Q = 1). - J = 1, K = 1: Toggle the output state. - Application: JK flip-flops are used in more complex counters and control circuits where precise toggling and state changes are needed. Their flexibility makes them suitable for use in sequential state machines that require multiple states and transitions. 4. SR (Set-Reset) Flip-Flop: The SR flip-flop has two inputs, S (Set) and R (Reset), and operates like a basic latch but with a clock input. It changes state only on the clock edge, making it a synchronous version of the S-R latch. - Operation: The flip-flop sets the output Q to high when S is high, resets it to low when R is high, and maintains the current state when both S and R are low. - Application: SR flip-flops are used where simple set/reset functionality is needed with clocked control, such as in basic storage elements and simple control circuits. 7.2.3 Role of Flip-Flops in State Machines and Counters State Machines: State machines are digital systems that transition through a series of predefined states based on input conditions and timing signals. Flip-flops form the core of state machines by storing the current state and enabling the transition to the next state. For example, a finite state machine (FSM) designed for a simple traffic light controller might use flip-flops to store the state (e.g., red, yellow, green) and change states based on timer inputs. - Application in AI: In AI algorithms, state machines implemented with flip-flops can control complex sequences of actions, such as in robotics, where each state represents a specific behavior or set of actions, and transitions are triggered by sensor inputs or timing signals. Counters: Counters are sequential circuits that count pulses or events. They are made up of flip-flops connected in a series configuration where the output of one flip-flop acts as the clock input to the next. The counter progresses through a predefined sequence of states with each clock pulse. - Binary Counters: Binary counters count in binary (0, 1, 2, 3, ...). They use a series of flip-flops to represent binary numbers, with each flip-flop representing a bit in the count. - Up/Down Counters: These counters can count both upwards and downwards based on a control input. Flip-flops are configured with additional logic gates to support both counting directions. - Application in Radar Signal Processing: In radar systems, counters are used to track the number of pulses sent and received, measure time intervals, and perform other counting operations crucial for distance and speed measurements. 7.2.4 Practical Examples of Flip-Flops in AI Algorithms and Radar Signal Processing 1. AI Algorithms: - Neural Networks: Flip-flops can store the states of neurons in digital implementations of neural networks. D flip-flops capture the activation state of each neuron and synchronize updates across multiple layers during the training process. - Sequence Controllers: In AI-controlled robotic systems, flip-flops are used to implement sequence controllers that manage the robot's actions. For instance, a sequence controller using JK flip-flops might handle tasks like navigating a path, picking up objects, and avoiding obstacles by changing states based on sensor inputs. 2. Radar Signal Processing: - Pulse Generation and Synchronization: Flip-flops control the timing and synchronization of radar pulses, ensuring that the transmitted and received signals are accurately aligned. D flip-flops in combination with 555 timers can generate precise timing signals for pulse modulation. - Digital Signal Processing (DSP): Flip-flops are used to implement shift registers in radar DSP units, where they temporarily hold data samples for processing. These registers store digitized radar echoes, allowing for sequential processing and analysis of the reflected signals. In summary, flip-flops are essential components in sequential logic, providing the necessary memory and control capabilities to manage complex sequences and state transitions. By understanding the operation, types, and practical applications of flip-flops, students gain the skills needed to design advanced digital systems for AI and radar technologies. These skills not only enhance their theoretical understanding but also prepare them for practical challenges in fields that demand precise timing, synchronization, and control. 7.3 Flip-Flop Operating Characteristics in AI and Radar Systems Flip-flops are vital in sequential logic circuits, serving as fundamental building blocks for data storage, synchronization, and control functions. To design efficient and reliable digital systems, particularly in applications like AI and radar that demand high-speed and precise timing, it is essential to understand the key operating characteristics of flip-flops. These characteristics include setup time, hold time, and propagation delay. Analyzing and optimizing these parameters helps ensure the correct functioning of sequential circuits and minimizes errors due to timing violations, which can lead to data corruption or system malfunction. 7.3.1 Key Operating Characteristics of Flip-Flops 1. Setup Time (t_setup): Setup time is the minimum time period before the clock edge during which the data input (D) must remain stable. If the data changes during this period, the flip-flop may not correctly capture the input value, leading to potential errors in the output state. - Explanation: For a flip-flop to reliably store the input data at the moment of the clock edge (either rising or falling), the input signal needs to be stable for a certain duration before the clock triggers. This duration is known as the setup time. Violating the setup time constraint can cause the flip-flop to enter a metastable state, where it neither fully captures a '0' nor a '1', leading to unpredictable behavior. - Impact on System Performance: In AI and radar systems, where data processing and timing synchronization are critical, ensuring the setup time is adhered to prevents erroneous data from being stored. For example, in a radar signal processing chain, violating setup time can lead to incorrect pulse counts or incorrect timing measurements, compromising the accuracy of distance or speed detection. 2. Hold Time (t_hold): Hold time is the minimum time period after the clock edge during which the data input must remain stable. This ensures that the data is correctly latched and avoids glitches or unexpected changes in the output. - Explanation: After the clock edge has triggered a change in the flip-flop's state, the data input must remain unchanged for at least the hold time to ensure that the output reflects the intended input value. If the data input changes during this hold time, it might cause the flip-flop to latch onto an incorrect value. - Impact on System Performance: In practical applications, hold time violations can cause erratic behavior in sequential circuits, leading to unreliable outputs. In AI systems, for instance, this could result in incorrect decision-making or sequence execution in neural networks or robotic controllers, affecting overall system performance. 3. Propagation Delay (t_pd): Propagation delay is the time taken for a change in the input of a flip-flop (such as the data input or the clock) to propagate through the flip-flop and reflect at the output. It measures the response time of the flip-flop. - Explanation: Propagation delay is defined as the time interval between a clock edge and the corresponding change in the output of the flip-flop. This delay is a result of the internal circuitry within the flip-flop and affects how quickly it can respond to changes in input. - Impact on System Performance: In high-speed digital systems, propagation delay determines the maximum clock frequency at which the system can operate reliably. Lower propagation delays allow for higher clock speeds and faster data processing. In radar applications, minimizing propagation delay is crucial to accurately measure the time intervals between transmitted and received signals, which directly impacts the precision of distance and speed calculations. 7.3.2 Analyzing Flip-Flop Characteristics Through Simulation Understanding and optimizing these operating characteristics are critical for designing robust and efficient digital systems. Simulation exercises provide a practical approach to analyzing how these parameters affect flip-flop behavior and overall circuit performance. 1. Simulation of Setup and Hold Time: Students can use simulation tools like Tinkercad or specialized software like SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) to create flip-flop circuits and observe their behavior under different timing conditions. - Setup Time Simulation: By introducing changes to the data input signal close to the clock edge, students can observe how violations of setup time lead to incorrect outputs or metastable states. Adjusting the timing of the data input relative to the clock allows students to find the minimum setup time required for reliable operation. - Hold Time Simulation: Similarly, students can change the data input immediately after the clock edge to test hold time constraints. Observing the resulting behavior helps them understand the importance of maintaining input stability during the hold period. 2. Propagation Delay Analysis: Propagation delay can be measured in simulations by applying a clock pulse and timing how long it takes for the output to change. By experimenting with different flip-flop designs and observing the delays, students can learn how propagation delay affects overall system speed and performance. 3. Impact on System Design: Through simulation exercises, students can apply these timing concepts to real-world scenarios, such as designing a radar pulse generator or an AI sequence controller. By testing the timing constraints, they learn how to avoid setup and hold time violations and optimize propagation delay for high-speed operation. This hands-on approach ensures that students not only understand the theoretical concepts but can also apply them in practical design situations. 7.3.3 Importance of Timing Analysis in AI and Radar Applications 1. AI Systems: In AI systems, especially those involving neural networks or state machines, precise timing is essential to ensure accurate data processing and decision-making. Flip-flop timing characteristics directly impact how well these systems can handle high-speed data, synchronize signals, and prevent data corruption. For example, in a robotics application, violating setup or hold time constraints could lead to incorrect sensor readings, causing the robot to make wrong decisions or fail to respond appropriately to its environment. 2. Radar Systems: Radar systems rely on precise timing to measure distances and speeds accurately. The timing of transmitted and received pulses must be meticulously controlled to calculate these measurements correctly. Any deviations caused by setup or hold time violations or excessive propagation delays could result in inaccurate readings, which can have significant consequences in applications such as air traffic control, weather monitoring, or military surveillance. 7.3.4 Ensuring Robust Design Practices Understanding the operating characteristics of flip-flops is crucial for students to design sequential circuits that perform reliably under real-world conditions. By analyzing setup time, hold time, and propagation delay through simulations, students develop the skills to: - Identify Potential Timing Violations: Recognize scenarios where setup or hold time might be violated and take corrective measures. - Optimize Performance: Minimize propagation delay to enhance the speed of data processing and synchronization in AI and radar systems. - Design Reliable Systems: Implement robust sequential circuits that maintain data integrity and ensure accurate operation, even in high-speed and complex environments. In summary, by mastering the operating characteristics of flip-flops, students can ensure that their designs meet the rigorous demands of modern digital systems. This knowledge not only enhances their understanding of sequential logic but also equips them with the practical skills needed to excel in AI, radar, and other advanced technological fields. Through hands-on simulation and analysis, students bridge the gap between theory and real-world application, preparing them for the challenges of designing efficient, reliable, and high-performance digital circuits. 7.4 Applications of Flip-Flops in AI and Radar Technology Introduction to Practical Applications of Flip-Flops: Flip-flops are fundamental components in sequential logic circuits, serving as basic memory elements that can store and toggle binary information based on clock signals. Their ability to reliably store state information and synchronize data transitions makes them indispensable in many digital applications. This section highlights the practical use of flip-flops in real-world scenarios, particularly focusing on their implementation in AI and radar systems. These applications showcase how flip-flops form the backbone of digital designs, enabling complex processing and decision-making functions crucial for the performance and reliability of these systems. 7.4.1 Flip-Flops in Artificial Intelligence (AI) Systems 1. State Machines in AI: In AI systems, state machines are used to model and control complex sequences of operations. Flip-flops play a crucial role in the design of these state machines by storing the current state and facilitating transitions based on input conditions and clock signals. - Example: Robotic Control Systems: In robotics, state machines are employed to manage different modes of operation, such as movement, object detection, and interaction with the environment. Flip-flops, such as D or JK flip-flops, are used to maintain the state of the robot's control system. For instance, a JK flip-flop can toggle between states based on sensor inputs, allowing the robot to switch from a 'patrolling' state to an 'alert' state when an obstacle is detected. This enables the robot to make real-time decisions based on its environment, enhancing its autonomy and responsiveness. - Example: Autonomous Vehicles: In autonomous driving applications, flip-flops are used to track the state of various subsystems, such as speed control, lane keeping, and obstacle avoidance. The state machine implemented with flip-flops ensures that the vehicle responds correctly to changing traffic conditions and sensor inputs, maintaining safety and efficiency in real-time. 2. Memory Storage and Data Synchronization: AI systems often require temporary storage of data and synchronization between different processing units. Flip-flops provide the necessary storage and timing control to ensure that data is accurately captured and processed. - Example: Neural Network Implementation: In digital implementations of neural networks, flip-flops are used to store the activation states of neurons and synchronize the flow of data between different layers. For example, a series of D flip-flops might be used to hold the output of each neuron in a layer, ensuring that all neurons are updated simultaneously on the clock edge. This synchronization is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the neural network's learning process and ensuring accurate data propagation. - Example: AI Signal Processing: Flip-flops are also used in digital signal processing (DSP) units within AI systems to store and shift data samples. For instance, shift registers built from flip-flops can delay signals by a fixed number of clock cycles, allowing for synchronized signal processing tasks such as filtering or modulation. This capability is essential in AI applications that require precise timing and data alignment, such as audio or image processing. 7.4.2 Flip-Flops in Radar Systems 1. Pulse Timing and Generation: Radar systems rely on precise timing of transmitted and received pulses to measure distances, speeds, and other characteristics of objects. Flip-flops play a critical role in generating and synchronizing these pulses. - Example: Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) Control: In radar transmitters, the pulse repetition frequency is controlled using flip-flops to divide and synchronize clock signals. For example, T flip-flops can be configured in a counter circuit to generate a specific number of pulses per second. This precise control over pulse timing is essential for accurately determining the range and speed of detected objects. - Example: Pulse Modulation: In advanced radar systems, pulse modulation techniques such as pulse compression are used to improve resolution and detection accuracy. Flip-flops are used to control the timing and duration of the modulated pulses, ensuring that the transmitted signal is correctly shaped and synchronized with the receiver. For instance, D flip-flops can be used to gate the output of a waveform generator, creating a modulated pulse train that enhances the radar's ability to distinguish between closely spaced targets. 2. Data Storage and Signal Processing: Radar systems generate large amounts of data that must be stored and processed in real-time. Flip-flops provide the storage and synchronization needed for accurate data acquisition and analysis. - Example: Radar Data Acquisition: In radar receivers, flip-flops are used to capture and store the digital representation of the reflected radar signal. For example, a series of D flip-flops might be used in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to sample and hold the received signal at regular intervals. This sampled data is then processed to extract information about the target's distance, speed, and other characteristics. - Example: Digital Beamforming: In phased-array radar systems, digital beamforming techniques are used to steer the radar beam electronically. Flip-flops are used to store and delay the phase-shifted signals from each antenna element, allowing for precise control over the direction of the radar beam. By synchronizing the timing of these signals, flip-flops enable the radar system to focus on specific areas of interest and track moving targets with high accuracy. 3. Frequency Division and Synchronization: Radar systems often require frequency division and synchronization to manage different operational modes and ensure coherent signal processing. - Example: Frequency Synthesizers: Flip-flops are used in frequency synthesizers to divide and generate different clock frequencies required for radar operation. For example, a chain of T flip-flops can be configured to divide a high-frequency clock signal into lower frequencies used for different stages of signal processing. This frequency division is essential for generating local oscillator signals and ensuring that all radar components operate in synchronization. - Example: Coherent Detection: In coherent radar systems, the phase of the received signal must be matched with the transmitted signal to accurately measure Doppler shifts and target velocity. Flip-flops are used to maintain phase coherence between the transmitted and received signals, ensuring that the radar can detect small changes in frequency caused by moving targets. This coherence is achieved by synchronizing the local oscillator and receiver circuits using flip-flops, which maintain the correct phase relationship between the signals. 7.4.3 Case Studies Demonstrating the Role of Flip-Flops Case Study 1: AI-Based Traffic Management System In an AI-based traffic management system, flip-flops are used to control the state of traffic lights at intersections. The system uses a state machine implemented with JK flip-flops to transition between different light configurations based on real-time traffic data and sensor inputs. The flip-flops store the current state of each traffic light and trigger changes based on predefined timing sequences and sensor information. This use of flip-flops ensures that the traffic lights operate reliably and respond dynamically to changing traffic conditions, reducing congestion and improving safety. Case Study 2: Phased-Array Radar for Air Traffic Control Phased-array radar systems used in air traffic control employ flip-flops for digital beamforming and signal processing. Flip-flops are used to store phase-shifted signals from each antenna element and synchronize their transmission to steer the radar beam electronically. This capability allows the radar to scan large areas of airspace, track multiple aircraft simultaneously, and provide precise information about their positions and velocities. The use of flip-flops ensures accurate timing and synchronization, which are critical for maintaining the radar's performance and reliability in monitoring air traffic. Case Study 3: AI-Powered Industrial Automation In an AI-powered industrial automation system, flip-flops are used to control the sequence of operations in assembly lines. D flip-flops store the status of sensors and actuators, while T flip-flops are used in counters to track production cycles. These flip-flops are integrated into a state machine that manages the timing and execution of tasks, such as material handling, welding, and quality inspection. The flip-flops ensure that each operation is performed in the correct sequence and at the right time, optimizing production efficiency and minimizing errors. In summary, flip-flops are indispensable components in the design and operation of AI and radar systems. Their ability to store, toggle, and synchronize binary information makes them essential for implementing state machines, controlling timing sequences, and managing data storage in real-world applications. By understanding the practical use of flip-flops in these scenarios, students gain valuable insights into how digital designs are realized and optimized for performance and reliability. These applications not only demonstrate the versatility of flip-flops but also highlight their critical role in enabling advanced technologies that drive modern communication, automation, and sensing 7.5 One-Shot Multivibrators and Their Applications in AI and Radar One-shot multivibrators, also known as monostable multivibrators, are crucial sequential logic components used to generate a single, time-defined output pulse in response to a triggering event. Unlike other types of multivibrators that oscillate continuously, a one-shot multivibrator changes its state only once per trigger, then returns to its stable state after a predetermined time. This behavior makes one-shots invaluable in timing applications, where precise control of pulse duration and timing is required. This section delves into the design and function of one-shot multivibrators and highlights their critical role in timing control within AI control circuits and radar pulse modulation techniques. 7.5.1 Design and Function of One-Shot Multivibrators 1. Basic Operation: A one-shot multivibrator has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. In its stable state, the output remains at a predefined level (typically low). When triggered by an input pulse, the circuit switches to its quasi-stable state, producing a single output pulse that lasts for a predetermined time before automatically returning to its stable state. - Trigger Input: The one-shot requires a triggering signal, which can be a rising edge, falling edge, or a level change on its input. This trigger initiates the transition from the stable state to the quasi-stable state. - Pulse Duration: The duration of the output pulse is determined by the design parameters, typically involving a combination of resistors and capacitors (RC network) in analog implementations, or clock cycles in digital implementations. The output pulse width is independent of the trigger duration, which is a defining characteristic of one-shot multivibrators. 2. Types of One-Shot Multivibrators: - Edge-Triggered One-Shot: This type of one-shot responds to the rising or falling edge of a trigger signal. It generates a single output pulse regardless of how long the trigger input remains active. Edge-triggered designs are commonly used in digital circuits where precise timing is essential. - Level-Triggered One-Shot: This one-shot is activated by a specific logic level (high or low) on the trigger input. It maintains the quasi-stable state as long as the trigger level is maintained and then returns to the stable state after the predefined pulse duration. 3. Design Considerations: Designing a one-shot multivibrator requires careful selection of components to achieve the desired pulse width and response characteristics. The pulse width is typically set by an RC time constant in analog designs, which can be fine-tuned to match specific timing requirements. In digital designs, the pulse duration may be set by counting clock cycles or using delay lines. - Component Selection: The choice of resistors, capacitors, or clock frequency directly affects the pulse width and the stability of the one-shot's operation. - Timing Precision: Ensuring precise timing control is crucial for applications where accurate pulse duration is necessary, such as in synchronizing events or controlling processes that depend on strict timing constraints. 7.5.2 Applications of One-Shot Multivibrators in AI Control Circuits 1. Timing Control in AI Systems: AI systems often rely on precise timing for operations such as data sampling, sensor triggering, and actuator control. One-shot multivibrators provide the necessary timing control by generating single pulses that can be used to synchronize these operations. - Example: Sensor Activation: In AI-based robotics, sensors might need to be activated for a brief, defined period to conserve power or avoid interference. A one-shot multivibrator can generate a pulse to activate a sensor just long enough to take a measurement, after which the system returns to a low-power state. This efficient timing control optimizes energy usage and reduces noise in the sensor data. - Example: Triggering Neural Responses: In neuromorphic computing, which mimics the human brain's neural networks, one-shots can simulate the firing of neurons. Each trigger input can generate a single spike or pulse, representing a neuron firing, which then influences other neurons in the network. This behavior is critical for timing-based AI algorithms that rely on the precise synchronization of neural spikes. 2. Debouncing and Synchronization: In digital systems, mechanical switches and sensors can generate noise or multiple unintended signals when activated. One-shot multivibrators are used to debounce these signals, ensuring that only a single clean pulse is generated in response to each trigger. - Example: Button Press Detection: In an AI interface device, a button press might generate a noisy signal due to mechanical contacts bouncing. A one-shot can filter out the noise, producing a single, clean pulse that accurately represents the user's input. This debounced pulse ensures reliable operation and accurate data input to the AI system. - Example: Synchronizing Data Transfers: One-shots are used to synchronize data transfers between different parts of an AI system. For instance, generating a single pulse when data is ready for transmission ensures that both the sender and receiver are synchronized, preventing data loss or corruption. 7.5.3 Applications of One-Shot Multivibrators in Radar Pulse Modulation Techniques 1. Pulse Generation and Modulation: In radar systems, one-shot multivibrators are critical for generating precise pulses used in radar signal transmission. These pulses are then modulated to carry information, allowing the radar to detect and measure the distance, speed, and size of objects. - Example: Pulse Radar Systems: In a pulse radar system, the one-shot multivibrator generates short, well-defined pulses that are transmitted as radar signals. The duration of these pulses is carefully controlled to match the radar system's operational requirements, ensuring that the system can distinguish between closely spaced objects. By controlling the pulse width, one-shots help optimize the radar's resolution and range capabilities. - Example: Pulse Compression Techniques: Advanced radar systems use pulse compression to improve resolution while maintaining high signal-to-noise ratios. One-shot multivibrators generate the initial pulse that is then modulated using techniques such as chirp modulation. The precise control of pulse width and timing provided by the one-shot is crucial for effective pulse compression and accurate target detection. 2. Timing and Synchronization in Radar Systems: Radar systems require precise synchronization of transmitted and received signals to accurately measure time intervals and determine target range. One-shot multivibrators provide this synchronization by generating timing pulses that control the transmission and reception cycles. - Example: Range-Gated Radar: In range-gated radar systems, one-shots are used to generate gating pulses that determine the time window during which the radar receiver is active. By controlling this time window, the radar can focus on specific ranges, filtering out signals from unwanted distances and reducing interference. The precise timing control provided by the one-shot multivibrator ensures that the radar only processes signals from the desired range. - Example: Doppler Radar Systems: In Doppler radar systems, which measure the velocity of moving objects, one-shots generate timing pulses that control the sampling rate of the received signal. This synchronization is essential for accurately measuring the frequency shift caused by the Doppler effect, allowing the radar to determine the speed of a target accurately. 3. Frequency Division and Pulse Shaping: One-shot multivibrators are also used in radar systems to divide high-frequency signals and shape pulses for specific applications. By generating single pulses in response to high-frequency triggers, one-shots can effectively create lower-frequency signals used in various radar operations. - Example: Pulse Shaping: In radar applications, pulse shaping is used to control the rise and fall times of transmitted pulses, reducing spectral spreading and minimizing interference with other systems. One-shot multivibrators can shape the output pulse by controlling the duration and form of the generated pulse, ensuring that the radar operates within its spectral limits and complies with regulatory standards. - Example: Frequency Division: In radar systems that operate over multiple frequency bands, one-shot multivibrators can divide high-frequency signals into lower-frequency pulses. This division is essential for generating intermediate frequencies used in signal processing and for synchronizing different radar components operating at various frequencies. In summary, one-shot multivibrators are essential tools in the design and operation of AI control circuits and radar systems. Their ability to generate precise, single pulses in response to triggering events makes them invaluable for timing control, synchronization, and pulse modulation. By understanding the design, function, and applications of one-shot multivibrators, students gain critical insights into how timing control is achieved in advanced digital systems. These components play a vital role in ensuring accurate data processing, efficient power management, and reliable operation in both AI and radar technologies, highlighting their importance in modern engineering and technological innovation. 7.6 The Astable Multivibrator: Simulation and Real-World Examples in AI and Radar An astable multivibrator is a type of electronic oscillator that continuously switches between two states without requiring any external triggering. Because of its self-oscillating nature, it is often referred to as a free-running oscillator. Astable multivibrators are fundamental in generating continuous square wave signals, which are used in various signal processing tasks and timing applications. This section explores the design, operation, and practical applications of astable multivibrators, focusing on their role in AI and radar systems. By examining simulations and real-world examples, students will understand how these circuits are used to create repetitive signals necessary for communication, synchronization, and data processing. 7.6.1 Design and Operation of Astable Multivibrators 1. Basic Operation: Astable multivibrators have no stable state; instead, they continuously oscillate between high (logic 1) and low (logic 0) output states. The oscillation is determined by the charging and discharging cycles of capacitors in the circuit, controlled by resistors. These components set the frequency and duty cycle of the output waveform. - Circuit Components: A typical astable multivibrator circuit consists of two transistors, two capacitors, and resistors arranged in a feedback configuration. In integrated circuit implementations, a 555 timer IC is commonly used to create an astable multivibrator, with external resistors and capacitors defining the oscillation frequency. - Output Waveform: The output of an astable multivibrator is a continuous square wave signal. The frequency of this signal is determined by the RC time constants in the circuit. The output frequency can be calculated using the formula: f= 1T= 1.44R1+2R2C where R1R_1R1, R2R_2R2, and CCC are the resistors and capacitor values in the circuit. The duty cycle, which determines the proportion of time the signal is high versus low, can also be adjusted by selecting appropriate resistor and capacitor values. 2. Simulation of Astable Multivibrators: Students can use simulation tools like Tinkercad, Multisim, or SPICE to create and analyze astable multivibrator circuits. Simulations allow students to visualize the output waveform and experiment with different component values to observe changes in frequency and duty cycle. - Building the Circuit: In a simulation environment, students can build a basic astable multivibrator using a 555 timer IC, resistors, and capacitors. By connecting the components according to the astable configuration, they can generate a continuous square wave output. - Observing the Waveform: Using virtual oscilloscopes in the simulation tools, students can measure the frequency and duty cycle of the generated waveform. This hands-on experience helps students understand the relationship between the component values and the output signal characteristics. - Frequency and Duty Cycle Adjustment: By changing the values of the resistors and capacitor, students can see how the output frequency and duty cycle are affected. This experimentation demonstrates the flexibility of astable multivibrators in generating distinct types of timing signals. 7.6.2 Applications of Astable Multivibrators in AI Systems 1. Clock Signal Generation: In digital circuits, clock signals are essential for timing and synchronization. Astable multivibrators are commonly used to generate clock signals that control the timing of operations in AI systems. - Example: Neural Network Timing: In AI hardware implementations, such as digital neural networks, clock signals generated by astable multivibrators are used to synchronize the data flow between neurons and layers. Each clock cycle represents a time step, allowing neurons to update their states simultaneously. This synchronization ensures that the neural network processes information accurately and efficiently. - Example: Digital Counters and Registers: In AI-based microcontrollers and digital processing units, astable multivibrators provide the clock signals needed for counters and registers. These counters might be used to track the number of operations performed, time intervals for sensor readings, or cycles for machine learning algorithms. The continuous clock signal ensures that these components operate in unison, maintaining the integrity of data processing. 2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for Motor Control: AI systems that involve robotics and automation often require precise control of motor speed and position. Astable multivibrators can generate PWM signals, which control the power delivered to motors. - Example: AI-Driven Robotic Arm: In an AI-controlled robotic arm, astable multivibrators generate PWM signals that vary the duty cycle to control the speed and torque of the motors. By adjusting the frequency and duty cycle of the PWM signal, the robotic arm can perform smooth and precise movements, following the commands of the AI controller. This capability is crucial for tasks that require fine motor control, such as assembly, painting, or medical surgery. - Example: Autonomous Vehicles: In autonomous vehicles, PWM signals are used to control electric motors for steering, acceleration, and braking. Astable multivibrators generate these signals based on AI-driven inputs, ensuring that the vehicle responds accurately to changes in speed, direction, and environmental conditions. 7.6.3 Applications of Astable Multivibrators in Radar Systems 1. Pulse Generation for Radar Transmission: Radar systems rely on the transmission of continuous or pulsed signals to detect and measure objects. Astable multivibrators are commonly used to generate these signals, providing a stable and repeatable waveform that can be modulated or directly transmitted. - Example: Continuous Wave (CW) Radar: In continuous wave radar systems, astable multivibrators generate a steady stream of high-frequency pulses that are transmitted continuously. These pulses are used to measure the Doppler shift caused by moving objects, allowing the radar to determine the speed of targets accurately. The stability and frequency control provided by the astable multivibrator are essential for maintaining the accuracy of velocity measurements. - Example: Pulsed Radar Systems: In pulsed radar systems, astable multivibrators are used to generate the timing pulses that control the transmission of radar bursts. The frequency and duty cycle of these pulses are set to match the radar's operational requirements, ensuring that the transmitted signal has the desired range and resolution. By adjusting the pulse width, the radar can optimize its performance for different detection scenarios, such as long-range surveillance or short-range tracking. 2. Modulation and Demodulation in Radar Signal Processing: Astable multivibrators play a key role in modulating and demodulating radar signals, enabling the transmission and reception of information over radio waves. - Example: Frequency Modulation (FM) Radar: In FM radar systems, astable multivibrators generate the carrier wave that is frequency-modulated with the information signal. The continuous oscillation of the multivibrator provides a stable carrier frequency, which is then modulated to carry data about the target's range and speed. This modulation technique improves the radar's ability to distinguish between multiple targets and reduces interference from other signals. - Example: Synchronous Detection: In radar receivers, astable multivibrators provide the local oscillator signal needed for synchronous detection. The continuous waveform generated by the multivibrator is mixed with the received radar signal to extract information about the target's distance and velocity. The precision and stability of the astable multivibrator's output are crucial for maintaining the accuracy of the detection process. 3. Timing Control and Synchronization: Accurate timing and synchronization are essential in radar systems to ensure coherent signal processing and minimize errors in target detection. - Example: Range Gating: Astable multivibrators generate timing signals that control the activation of range gates in radar systems. These gates determine the specific time intervals during which the radar receiver is active, filtering out signals from unwanted distances and focusing on the desired range. By providing a continuous and precise timing reference, astable multivibrators ensure that the radar system accurately measures the distance to targets. - Example: Beamforming and Phased Arrays: In phased-array radar systems, astable multivibrators provide the clock signals needed to synchronize the timing of signals from multiple antenna elements. This synchronization allows the radar to steer its beam electronically, focusing on specific areas of interest and tracking moving targets with high accuracy. The continuous oscillation of the multivibrator ensures that all antenna elements operate in phase, maintaining the coherence of the radar beam. 7.6.4 Practical Simulations and Real-World Examples 1. Simulation of Astable Multivibrators: Students can use simulation tools to design and analyze astable multivibrator circuits. By constructing a basic astable multivibrator using a 555 timer IC and measuring the output waveform with a virtual oscilloscope, students can observe the effects of changing resistor and capacitor values on frequency and duty cycle. - Example Simulation Exercise: Design an astable multivibrator circuit to generate a 1 kHz square wave with a 50% duty cycle. Use a 555 timer IC in Tinkercad, adjusting the values of R1, R2, and C to achieve the desired output. Measure the frequency and duty cycle using a virtual oscilloscope and compare the results with theoretical calculations. 2. Real-World Example: AI-Driven Home Automation Systems In AI-driven home automation systems, astable multivibrators generate clock signals for timing control. For instance, in a smart lighting system, astable multivibrators can provide the timing pulses that control the dimming and brightness levels of lights based on the time of day or user preferences. These signals ensure that the lights operate smoothly and respond accurately to AI-generated commands, enhancing the comfort and energy efficiency of the home. 3. Real-World Example: Ground-Based Air Traffic Control Radar In ground-based air traffic control radar, astable multivibrators generate the timing pulses that control the radar's transmission cycles. These pulses determine when the radar sends out signals and when it listens for echoes, ensuring that the radar accurately detects and tracks aircraft within its coverage area. The continuous and precise oscillation of the multivibrator provides the necessary timing reference for these operations, maintaining the safety and efficiency of air traffic management. In summary, astable multivibrators are essential components in generating continuous waveforms for various signal processing tasks in AI and radar systems. Their ability to provide stable, repetitive signals makes them invaluable for applications requiring precise timing, synchronization, and modulation. By understanding the design, operation, and applications of astable multivibrators, students gain insights into the critical role these circuits play in communication and data processing. Through practical simulations and real-world examples, students can see firsthand how astable multivibrators are used to create reliable and efficient digital systems that drive modern technological advancements. Part II Simulation Dimension 7.7 Simulating the 555 Timer IC in Tinkercad The 555 timer IC is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits used in electronics. Introduced in the early 1970s, the 555 timer has been a staple in both analog and digital circuit designs due to its reliability, simplicity, and ability to generate precise timing delays, pulses, and oscillations. The IC can operate in different modes, including astable, monostable, and bistable, making it suitable for a wide range of applications in timing, waveform generation, and pulse width modulation. This section explores the design, configuration, and simulation of the 555-timer using Tinkercad, an online simulation tool, to provide students with hands-on experience in understanding its practical applications in digital systems. 7.7.1 Overview of the 555 Timer IC 1. Basic Structure and Pin Configuration: The 555 timer IC typically comes in an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP) configuration. Its internal structure consists of two voltage comparators, a flip-flop, a discharge transistor, and a resistor divider network. The following are the key pins and their functions: - Pin 1 (Ground): Connects to the circuit's ground. - Pin 2 (Trigger): When the voltage on this pin drops below 1/3 of the supply voltage, it causes the output to go high. It is used to start the timing cycle. - Pin 3 (Output): Provides the output signal. It goes high or low based on the internal state of the 555 timer. - Pin 4 (Reset): Resets the timing operation when pulled low. It is typically connected to the supply voltage for normal operation. - Pin 5 (Control Voltage): Allows adjustment of the threshold voltage, affecting the timing intervals. It is often left unconnected or connected to ground through a capacitor to reduce noise. - Pin 6 (Threshold): When the voltage on this pin exceeds 2/3 of the supply voltage, it causes the output to go low, ending the timing cycle. - Pin 7 (Discharge): Connected to the discharge transistor; it discharges the external capacitor to ground. - Pin 8 (VCC): Connects to the positive supply voltage (typically 5V to 15V). 2. Operating Modes of the 555 Timer: The 555 timer can be configured in three primary modes, each serving different applications: - Astable Mode: In this mode, the 555 timer operates as a free-running oscillator, continuously switching between high and low states. It generates a continuous square wave output. This configuration is used in clock generators, LED flashers, and tone generation. - Monostable Mode: Also known as the one-shot mode, the 555 timer produces a single pulse of a defined duration in response to a triggering event. After the pulse, it returns to its stable state. This mode is used in applications like timers, pulse generation, and debouncing switches. - Bistable Mode: In this mode, the 555 timer functions as a flip-flop, with two stable states (high and low). The output state changes only when triggered by an external signal. Bistable mode is used in toggling applications and memory storage. 555 Timer in Multisim, astable mode. 7.7.2 Simulating a 555 Timer Circuit in Tinkercad 1. Introduction to Tinkercad: Tinkercad is an online platform that provides a virtual environment for building and simulating electronic circuits. It is an excellent tool for students to explore the practical aspects of electronic components like the 555 timer without needing physical hardware. By simulating 555 timer circuits in Tinkercad, students can gain hands-on experience and visualize how changes in configuration affect the circuit's behavior. - Configuring the 555 Timer in Astable Mode: Astable mode is commonly used for generating continuous square waves. In this configuration, the 555 timer oscillates between high and low states, creating a waveform with a specific frequency and duty cycle. - Step-by-Step Guide to Simulation: - Setup the Circuit: Place a 555 timer IC on the Tinkercad breadboard. Connect Pin 1 to ground (GND) and Pin 8 to the positive supply voltage (e.g., 9V). Connect Pin 4 (Reset) to Pin 8 to disable the reset functionality. - Connect the Timing Components: Place two resistors R1R_1R1 and R2R_2R2 and a capacitor C in the circuit. Connect R1 between Pin 7 (Discharge) and Pin 8 (VCC) and connect R between Pin 7 and Pin 6 (Threshold). Connect Pin 6 to Pin 2 (Trigger) and Pin 2 to one side of the capacitor. The other side of the capacitor should be connected to ground. - Output Connection: Connect an LED or oscilloscope probe to Pin 3 (Output) to visualize the square wave signal. The LED will blink according to the frequency of the generated signal, or the oscilloscope will display the waveform. - Run the Simulation: Start the Tinkercad simulation to observe the output. Measure the frequency and duty cycle using the oscilloscope. 555 Timer in Tinkercad, astable mode. - Frequency Calculation: The frequency of the output square wave is determined by the values of R1, R2, and C. The formula for the frequency f is: f= 1T= 1.44R1+2R2C Students can experiment with different resistor and capacitor values to observe how the frequency and duty cycle change. 3. Configuring the 555 Timer in Monostable Mode: In monostable mode, the 555 timer generates a single pulse in response to a trigger. This pulse has a duration determined by the external resistor and capacitor. - Step-by-Step Guide to Simulation: - Setup the Circuit: Place a 555 timer IC on the Tinkercad breadboard. Connect Pin 1 to ground and Pin 8 to the positive supply voltage (e.g., 9V). Connect Pin 4 (Reset) to Pin 8. - Trigger Configuration: Connect a push button to Pin 2 (Trigger) and to ground. When the button is pressed, it will send a low pulse to trigger the timer. - Timing Components: Connect a resistor RRR between Pin 7 (Discharge) and Pin 8 (VCC). Connect a capacitor CCC between Pin 6 (Threshold) and ground. Also, connect Pin 6 to Pin 7. - Output Connection: Connect an LED or oscilloscope probe to Pin 3 (Output). When the button is pressed, the LED will light up for a duration determined by the timing components, or the oscilloscope will show the pulse waveform. - Run the Simulation: Start the Tinkercad simulation and press the push button. Observe the output pulse on the LED or oscilloscope. - Pulse Width Calculation: The duration of the pulse t is calculated using the formula: t=1.1 RC Changing the resistor and capacitor values will alter the pulse duration, providing a practical demonstration of timing control. 4. Configuring the 555 Timer in Bistable Mode: In bistable mode, the 555 timer functions as a flip-flop, toggling its output state between high and low with each trigger. - Step-by-Step Guide to Simulation: - Setup the Circuit: Place a 555 timer IC on the Tinkercad breadboard. Connect Pin 1 to ground and Pin 8 to the positive supply voltage (e.g., 9V). Connect Pin 4 (Reset) to Pin 8. - Trigger and Reset Configuration: Connect two push buttons—one to Pin 2 (Trigger) and the other to Pin 4 (Reset). Pressing the trigger button will set the output high, while pressing the reset button will set it low. - Output Connection: Connect an LED to Pin 3 (Output). The LED will turn on or off based on the state of the 555 timer. - Run the Simulation: Start the Tinkercad simulation. Press the trigger button to set the LED on and the reset button to turn it off, demonstrating the bistable operation. 7.7.3 Practical Applications of the 555 Timer in AI and Digital Systems 1. Timing and Delays in AI Systems: Precise timing control is critical in AI systems for synchronization, data sampling, and event triggering. The 555 timer is commonly used to create time delays and control sequences in AI-driven applications. - Example: Neural Network Timing: In hardware implementations of neural networks, 555 timers can provide precise timing signals to control the propagation of data through different layers. By configuring the timer in monostable mode, it can generate controlled pulses that synchronize the activation of neurons, ensuring that the network processes inputs in the correct sequence. - Example: Sensor Debouncing: AI systems often rely on sensors that can produce noisy signals when activated. A 555-timer configured in monostable mode can be used to debounce these signals, generating a clean and stable pulse each time a sensor is triggered. This ensures accurate data input and reliable operation of the AI system. 2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for AI-Controlled Devices: The 555 timer's ability to generate square waves with variable duty cycles makes it ideal for creating PWM signals, which are used to control the speed and intensity of devices like motors and LEDs. - Example: Motor Speed Control in Robotics: In AI-driven robotic systems, the 555 timer can generate PWM signals that control the speed of DC motors. By adjusting the duty cycle, the AI controller can vary the motor speed, enabling precise movement and control. This capability is essential for tasks requiring smooth acceleration and deceleration, such as robotic arm manipulation or autonomous vehicle navigation. - Example: LED Dimming: In smart lighting systems controlled by AI, the 555 timer can generate PWM signals to adjust the brightness of LEDs. The duty cycle of the PWM signal determines the perceived brightness, allowing the AI system to create dynamic lighting effects based on user preferences or environmental conditions. 3. Waveform Generation in Radar Systems: In radar applications, the 555 timer is used to generate timing pulses and continuous waveforms required for signal transmission and processing. - Example: Pulse Radar Timing: In pulse radar systems, the 555 timer in monostable mode generates precise timing pulses that control the transmission of radar signals. These pulses ensure that the radar operates within its designed frequency and timing parameters, optimizing its ability to detect and measure targets. - Example: Signal Modulation: The 555 timer in astable mode can generate continuous waveforms that are modulated to carry information. In radar systems, these modulated signals are used to encode data about the distance and speed of objects, improving the radar's resolution and accuracy. 7.7.4 Educational Benefits of Simulating the 555 Timer in Tinkercad 1. Hands-On Learning: Simulating the 555 timer in Tinkercad provides students with a practical understanding of timing control in digital systems. By building and modifying circuits, students gain experience with component selection, circuit design, and signal analysis, reinforcing theoretical knowledge through hands-on application. 2. Experimentation and Exploration: Tinkercad allows students to experiment with different configurations of the 555 timer, observing how changes in resistor and capacitor values affect the output. This experimentation encourages critical thinking and problem-solving, as students learn to optimize circuits for specific timing requirements. 3. Real-World Relevance: By simulating real-world applications of the 555 timer, students see how this versatile component is used in AI and radar technologies. Understanding these practical applications prepares students for careers in electronics, engineering, and technology development, where timing control is a fundamental aspect of system design. In summary, the 555 timer IC is a versatile and widely used component in electronic design, providing precise timing control for a variety of applications. By simulating the 555 timer in Tinkercad, students gain valuable hands-on experience in configuring circuits, understanding timing principles, and exploring practical applications in AI and radar systems. This interactive approach bridges the gap between theory and practice, equipping students with the skills and knowledge necessary to design and implement effective timing solutions in modern digital systems. Part III Engineering Dimension 7.8 Practical Examples of Sequential Logic in Radar and AI Systems Radar and AI systems are integral to many modern technologies, ranging from communication and surveillance to autonomous vehicles and intelligent automation. Both systems rely heavily on sequential logic components to perform tasks that require precise timing, data storage, signal processing, and decision-making. Understanding how latches, flip-flops, timers, and state machines operate within these systems is crucial for students aiming to design and implement sophisticated digital technologies. This section explores practical examples that demonstrate the critical role of sequential logic in radar and AI, highlighting how these components manage timing, store data, and synchronize signals, thereby ensuring accurate, responsive, and intelligent system behavior. 7.8.1 Sequential Logic in Radar Systems 1. Timing Management and Signal Synchronization: Radar systems operate by transmitting electromagnetic pulses and analyzing the echoes reflected back from objects. Accurate timing management is essential for measuring the time interval between transmission and reception, which is directly related to the distance of the target. Sequential logic components, such as latches, flip-flops, and timers, play a vital role in controlling this timing. - Example: Pulse Generation and Echo Detection: In pulse radar systems, a 555-timer configured in monostable mode generates precise timing pulses that control the transmission of radar signals. Latches are used to capture the received echo signal, storing the data until it can be processed. Flip-flops synchronize the timing of pulse generation and echo detection, ensuring that the system can accurately measure the time interval between sending and receiving pulses. This synchronization is crucial for determining the distance of objects and ensuring reliable detection. - Example: Continuous Wave (CW) Radar: In CW radar systems, astable multivibrators generate continuous waveforms used to detect the Doppler shift caused by moving objects. Flip-flops and counters are used to synchronize the transmitted and received signals, allowing the radar to accurately measure the frequency shift and calculate the speed of the target. This precise timing control enables CW radar systems to track the velocity of objects with high accuracy. 2. Data Storage and Processing: Radar systems generate large amounts of data that must be stored and processed in real-time. Sequential logic components are used to manage data storage and ensure that the processing is synchronized with the timing of signal transmission and reception. - Example: Range Gate Control: In radar systems with range gating, D latches are used to store data from specific range intervals. These latches capture and hold the received signal for a particular time window, allowing the radar to focus on specific distances and filter out signals from unwanted ranges. This capability is essential for improving the accuracy and resolution of radar measurements. - Example: Digital Signal Processing (DSP) Units: Radar systems often include DSP units to analyze and interpret the received signals. Flip-flops are used in shift registers to store and sequentially process the digital data. By shifting data through a series of flip-flops, the radar can perform operations such as filtering, modulation, and correlation, enhancing the quality of the information extracted from the echoes. 3. State Machines for Decision-Making: State machines are used in radar systems to manage different modes of operation, such as transmitting, receiving, processing, and idle states. Sequential logic components are used to implement these state machines, ensuring that the radar system transitions smoothly between different states based on input conditions and timing signals. - Example: Air Traffic Control Radar: In air traffic control radar systems, state machines manage the sequence of operations required for tracking multiple aircraft. Flip-flops store the current state of each radar beam, while latches capture data from the detected targets. The state machine ensures that the radar system can handle multiple targets simultaneously, switching between different states to track the position and speed of each aircraft. This state management is crucial for maintaining the safety and efficiency of air traffic control operations. - Example: Weather Radar Systems: Weather radar systems use state machines to control the scanning patterns and data collection processes. Flip-flops and latches store information about the radar's position and the atmospheric conditions being measured. By transitioning between different states based on weather patterns and detected anomalies, the radar system can focus on areas of interest, providing accurate and timely weather forecasts. 7.8.2 Sequential Logic in AI Systems 1. Timing and Synchronization: AI systems, particularly those involving real-time data processing, require precise timing and synchronization to ensure that data is processed accurately and consistently. Sequential logic components are used to generate clock signals and control the timing of operations. - Example: Clock Signal Generation for AI Processors: In AI processors and neural network hardware, 555 timers configured in astable mode generate clock signals that synchronize the timing of data flow between processing units. These clock signals ensure that neurons update their states simultaneously, maintaining the integrity of the network's computations. This timing control is essential for high-speed processing and real-time decision-making in AI applications. - Example: Synchronizing Data Transfers: In AI systems that process data from multiple sensors, flip-flops and latches synchronize the timing of data transfers. For instance, in an AI-driven autonomous vehicle, data from cameras, lidar, radar, and ultrasonic sensors must be synchronized to create a cohesive understanding of the environment. Flip-flops capture and align the data from different sensors, ensuring that the AI system can make accurate decisions based on a complete and consistent set of information. 2. State Management and Decision-Making: AI systems often rely on state machines to manage complex sequences of actions and decisions. Sequential logic components are used to implement these state machines, enabling AI systems to transition between different operational modes based on sensor inputs and predefined rules. - Example: AI-Controlled Robotics: In AI-driven robotic systems, state machines manage the sequence of actions required for tasks such as navigation, object manipulation, and interaction with humans. Flip-flops store the current state of the robot's control system, while latches capture inputs from sensors and actuators. The state machine transitions between different states based on these inputs, allowing the robot to perform tasks autonomously and adapt to changes in its environment. - Example: Industrial Automation: In industrial automation, AI systems use state machines to control assembly lines and manufacturing processes. Flip-flops and latches store information about the status of machines, products, and safety conditions. The state machine ensures that each step of the manufacturing process is executed in the correct order and that the system can respond to faults or emergencies by transitioning to safe states. This state management is critical for maintaining productivity, quality, and safety in automated industrial environments. 3. Data Storage and Processing: AI applications often involve large datasets that need to be stored and processed efficiently. Sequential logic components play a crucial role in managing data storage and ensuring that data is processed in a synchronized and controlled manner. - Example: Memory Storage in Neural Networks: In digital neural networks, D latches are used to store the activation states of neurons and the weights of connections between neurons. These latches hold the data until the next clock cycle, ensuring that the network updates its state consistently. This data storage is essential for training neural networks and for running inference tasks in real-time AI applications. - Example: Signal Processing in AI Systems: AI systems that analyze audio, video, or sensor data use flip-flops in shift registers to store and process digital signals. These shift registers allow the AI system to perform operations such as filtering, feature extraction, and pattern recognition. By using sequential logic to manage data storage and processing, AI systems can handle complex data streams and make accurate predictions or decisions based on the processed information. 7.8.3 Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice 1. From Concept to Real-World Application: The practical examples of sequential logic in radar and AI systems demonstrate how theoretical concepts are applied in real-world scenarios. By studying these examples, students move beyond understanding the abstract principles of latches, flip-flops, and timers, and see how these components are integrated into complex systems that perform critical functions. - Hands-On Learning: Through simulations and practical exercises, students can build and test sequential logic circuits, gaining hands-on experience in designing and optimizing systems for specific applications. This approach helps students develop problem-solving skills and understand the real-world challenges of timing control, data storage, and signal synchronization. - Case Studies and Project Work: By analyzing case studies and working on projects that involve sequential logic in radar and AI, students can see the impact of their designs on system performance and accuracy. This practical experience prepares students for careers in engineering, technology development, and research, where sequential logic is a fundamental aspect of system design and implementation. - It is highly recommended to do the capstone project for this module since it is a signature and fundamental building block in the final capstone project for the course, ALU. 2. Enhancing System Intelligence and Responsiveness: Sequential logic components enable intelligent and responsive behavior in radar and AI systems by managing the flow of information and ensuring that decisions are made based on accurate and timely data. By understanding how these components work together, students can design systems that adapt to changing conditions, process large amounts of data efficiently, and perform complex tasks autonomously. - Intelligent Decision-Making: State machines and sequential logic enable AI systems to make intelligent decisions based on sensor inputs and predefined rules. This capability is essential for applications such as autonomous vehicles, where the AI system must navigate complex environments, avoid obstacles, and respond to dynamic situations in real-time. - Accurate Measurement and Detection: In radar systems, sequential logic ensures that signals are transmitted, received, and processed with precise timing, enabling accurate measurement and detection of objects. This accuracy is crucial for applications ranging from air traffic control and weather monitoring to military surveillance and space exploration. In summary, the study of sequential logic components, such as latches, flip-flops, and timers, is critical for understanding and designing modern radar and AI systems. By exploring practical examples, students can see how these components manage timing, store data, and synchronize signals, ensuring that radar and AI systems operate effectively and accurately. Through simulations, hands-on learning, and real-world applications, students move from theoretical concepts to practical implementation, gaining the knowledge and skills needed to create intelligent, responsive, and highly accurate systems. This understanding bridges the gap between concept and reality, preparing students for the challenges and opportunities of modern technology. 7.9 Summary This module provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamentals of sequential logic, demonstrating how these concepts are foundational to modern technology, particularly in AI and radar systems. Starting with an introduction to latches, flip-flops, one-shots, and astable multivibrators, students are guided through the essential building blocks of digital circuits. The module emphasizes the critical role these components play in managing timing, data storage, and signal processing. Students are introduced to the versatile 555 timer IC, a crucial tool in generating precise timing delays, pulses, and oscillations. By learning how to configure these circuits in various modes using Tinkercad, students gain hands-on experience and a practical understanding of timing control in digital systems, which is essential for real-world applications. Through a combination of theoretical discussions, practical simulations, and real-world examples, students move from concept to reality, seeing how sequential logic underpins intelligent and responsive system design. The module demonstrates how AI applications require precise timing, synchronization, and state management through state machines for decision-making, D latches for data storage, and 555 timers for generating clock signals. Similarly, radar systems rely on sequential logic for accurate pulse generation, echo detection, and signal synchronization, essential for measuring distance and speed with high precision. By implementing these components in Tinkercad simulations and relating them to real-world AI and radar scenarios, students gain a comprehensive understanding of how sequential logic circuits are applied to solve complex engineering problems, thus preparing them for careers in fields that rely heavily on digital communication, automation, and intelligent system design. The module aligns its objectives with Bloom’s cognitive and knowledge dimensions, ensuring that students’ progress through understanding, applying, analyzing, and creating. By intertwining theoretical knowledge with practical simulation and hands-on circuit building, students are engaged in learning experiences that develop both their conceptual understanding and procedural skills. This approach directly supports ABET Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs), such as the ability to apply engineering principles to solve complex problems, develop and conduct experiments, interpret data, and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions. The integration of simulation tools like Tinkercad, along with real-world applications in AI and radar systems, not only enhances students’ technical skills but also fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and innovation, equipping them with the expertise needed to excel in the evolving landscape of digital technology. 7.10 Projects Understanding - Project 1: Basic Concepts of the 555 Timer - Explain how the 555 timer operates in astable mode. What are the roles of the resistors and capacitor in this configuration? - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Understanding (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Used for generating clock pulses in AI-controlled systems. - Project 2: Identifying Sequential Logic Components - List the primary components of a sequential logic circuit and their functions. - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Understanding (Cognitive), Factual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Fundamental for understanding AI state machines and neural networks. - Project 3: Describe Monostable Mode Operation - Describe how a 555 timer works in monostable mode and provide a real-world example of its application. - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Understanding (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Triggering specific AI responses based on sensor inputs. - Project 4: Role of Flip-Flops in Sequential Logic - Explain the function of flip-flops in digital circuits and provide examples of their use in AI applications. - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Understanding (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Storing states in AI-driven decision-making processes. - Project 5: The Importance of Setup and Hold Times - Explain the concepts of setup time and hold time in flip-flop circuits and their importance in digital system design. - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Understanding (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Timing synchronization in AI-based hardware systems. Applying - Project 6: Simulate a 555 Timer Astable Circuit in Tinkercad - Design and simulate a 555-timer circuit in astable mode with a frequency of 1 Hz. Connect an LED to visualize the output. - Tool: Tinkercad - Mapping: Applying (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Generating clock pulses for AI signal processing. - Project 7: Multisim Simulation of a Monostable 555 Timer - Configure a 555 timer in monostable mode using Multisim. Trigger the circuit to produce a pulse and measure its duration. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Applying (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Used in AI systems for timing precise operations. - Project 8: Implementing Flip-Flops in AI State Machines - Use GPT to describe how flip-flops can be used to design a simple state machine for an AI-controlled robot. Implement this using Tinkercad. - Tool: GPT, Tinkercad - Mapping: Applying (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Controlling robot states based on sensor input. - Project 9: Pulse Width Modulation with a 555 Timer - Design a 555-timer circuit in Tinkercad to generate a PWM signal. Vary the duty cycle by adjusting the resistors and capacitor values. - Tool: Tinkercad - Mapping: Applying (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Used in AI-controlled motor speed regulation. - Project 10: Designing an Oscillator Circuit for AI Systems - Develop a 555-timer oscillator circuit in Multisim to provide a clock signal to an AI system. Ensure the frequency matches AI timing requirements. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Applying (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Provides synchronized timing for AI-based hardware processing. Analyzing - Project 11: Analyze Circuit Performance using Multisim. - Simulate a 555-timer oscillator in Multisim and analyze the waveform using an oscilloscope. Determine frequency, duty cycle, and amplitude. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Analyzing (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Ensures accurate timing signals in AI systems. - Project 12: Timing Analysis in Flip-Flop Circuits - Simulate a JK flip-flop circuit in Tinkercad. Analyze setup time, hold time, and propagation delay. Explain their impact on circuit performance. - Tool: Tinkercad - Mapping: Analyzing (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Timing analysis critical for reliable AI operations. - Project 13: Comparing Monostable and A stable Modes - Compare the operation of a 555 timer in monostable and astable modes using simulations in Multisim. Document differences in behavior and applications. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Analyzing (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Selection of timing modes for AI signal generation. - Project 14: Signal Synchronization in AI Systems - Describe how signal synchronization is achieved using latches and flip-flops in AI-driven data acquisition systems. Implement a simulation in Tinkercad. - Tool: GPT, Tinkercad - Mapping: Analyzing (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (7) - AI Application: Ensures reliable data acquisition in AI systems. - Project 15: Evaluating the Role of Timers in Radar Systems - Explain how 555 timers are used for pulse generation in radar systems. Use GPT to outline key timing requirements and simulate a pulse generator in Multisim. - Tool: GPT, Multisim - Mapping: Analyzing (Cognitive), Conceptual (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Precision timing for radar signal processing. Evaluating - Project 16: Testing and Validating Circuit Designs - Design a 555 timer-based oscillator in Tinkercad, build it physically, and test its performance. Validate the frequency and waveform consistency. - Tool: Tinkercad, Physical Hardware - Mapping: Evaluating (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (6) - AI Application: Validates timing accuracy in AI systems. - Project 17: Optimize Circuit Parameters for Desired Performance - Optimize a 555 timer oscillator’s component values in Multisim to achieve a specific frequency. Compare the simulation results to theoretical calculations. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Evaluating (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (1) - AI Application: Optimizes signal generation for AI applications. - Project 18: Review and Critique a Flip-Flop-Based State Machine Design - Evaluate the design of a state machine using flip-flops for an AI application. Suggest improvements for reliability and efficiency. - Tool: GPT - Mapping: Evaluating (Cognitive), Metacognitive (Knowledge), ABET SLO (2) - AI Application: Improves decision-making efficiency in AI systems. Creating - Project 19: Design a Complex AI-Controlled Circuit Using 555 Timers - Design a circuit that uses multiple 555 timers to control various components (e.g., motors, LEDs) in an AI-driven robotic system. Simulate using Multisim. - Tool: Multisim - Mapping: Creating (Cognitive), Procedural (Knowledge), ABET SLO (2) - AI Application: Integration of sequential logic for multitasking AI systems. - Project 20: Develop a Comprehensive AI-Based System Simulation - Develop and simulate a complete AI-based system using Tinkercad, incorporating 555 timers, flip-flops, and latches. The system should include timing, data storage, and state management functions. - Tool: Tinkercad - Mapping: Creating (Cognitive), Metacognitive (Knowledge), ABET SLO (7) - AI Application: Full-scale simulation of an AI-based timing and control system. - Capstone Project Digital Design Module 7 - Capstone Project Building, Designing, Developing, and Testing a 555 Timer Oscillator Circuit for Radar and AI Applications Objective The objective of this capstone project is to design, develop, simulate, build, and test a 555-timer oscillator circuit, in astable mode, to generate a continuous square wave signal that controls an LED's blinking rate. Introduction This capstone project focuses on the practical application of the 555 timer IC, a versatile component used for generating timing delays, pulses, and oscillations. Students will design, build, develop, and test a 555-timer circuit configured as an oscillator. The primary output of this oscillator will be an LED, which will blink at varying rates depending on the frequency of the oscillation. By experimenting with different resistor and capacitor values, students will control the frequency and observe how it impacts the blinking rate of the LED. Through this hands-on project, students will not only gain experience in circuit design and implementation but also understand the broader applications of oscillators in real-world technologies, particularly in AI and radar systems. Oscillators are critical in generating timing signals for synchronization in AI processors and pulse generation in radar systems, where precise timing is crucial for accurate detection and measurement. By building a 555-timer oscillator, students will see how a simple circuit can be fundamental to the operation of complex digital systems, bridging theoretical concepts with practical application. Learning Outcomes Upon successful completion of this project, students will be able to: \| Knowledge Dimension \| \|\|\|\| Cognitive Dimension \| \| Factual \| Conceptual \| Procedural \| Metacognitive \| Remember \| \| \| \| \| \| Understand \| \| 1.Understand the operation of the 555 timer IC and its configurations as an oscillator. ABET SLO 1. 6. Demonstrate understanding of how 555 timer oscillators can be used in AI and radar applications for timing and pulse generation. ABET SLO 7. \| \| \| \| Apply \| \| \| 2. Apply knowledge to design and build a 555-timer circuit to function as an oscillator. ABET SLO 6. \| \| \| Analyze \| \| 3. Analyze the effect of varying resistor and capacitor values on the frequency of the oscillator and LED blinking rate. ABET SLO 1. \| \| \| \| Evaluate \| \| \| 5. Evaluate the circuit’s performance and reliability by measuring the frequency and duty cycle of the output waveform. ABET SLO 2. \| \| \| Create \| \| \| 4. Create a functional 555 timer oscillator circuit and test its performance using simulation tools like Tinkercad. ABET SLO 6. \| 7. Document the design, development, and testing process in a technical report, demonstrating effective communication skills. ABET SLO 3. \| Step-by-Step Process to Design, Simulate, Build, and Test a 555 Timer Oscillator in Multisim and Tinkercad This step-by-step guide will help students design, simulate, build, and test a 555-timer oscillator circuit using both Multisim and Tinkercad platforms. The objective is to create an oscillator where the output will control an LED, making it blink at varying rates based on the frequency of the oscillation. Step 1: Design the 555 Timer Oscillator Circuit 1.1 Understand the Circuit Configuration - The 555 timer will be used in astable mode, where it continuously switches between high and low states, generating a square wave output. - The circuit requires the following components: - 1 x 555 Timer IC - 2 x Resistors (R1, R2) - 1 x Capacitor (C) - 1 x LED (output indicator) - 1 x Current limiting resistor for the LED - 1 x Power supply (5V to 15V, typically 9V for this project) 1.2 Calculate Component Values - Determine the desired frequency of the oscillator (e.g., 1 Hz for demonstration purposes). - Use the formula for frequency in astable mode: f= 1T= 1.44R1+2R2C - Choose R1 and R2 such that the LED blinking rate is noticeable. For example, set R1=1kΩ, R2=4.7kΩ, and C=100μF. - Calculate the duty cycle (the ratio of time the signal is high versus low): Duty Cycle= R1+R2R1+2R2 1.3 Circuit Diagram - Draw the circuit diagram using standard symbols for the 555 timer, resistors, capacitor, and LED. Label all components clearly, showing connections to power (VCC) and ground (GND). Step 2: Simulate the Circuit in Multisim 2.1 Setting Up Multisim - Open Multisim software and create a new project. - Select the 555 Timer IC from the component library and place it on the workspace. 2.2 Placing Components - Place resistors R1 and R2, capacitor C, LED, and the current-limiting resistor onto the workspace. - Connect R1 between Pin 7 (Discharge) and VCC. - Connect R2 between Pin 7 and Pin 6 (Threshold). - Connect C between Pin 6 and GND. - Short Pin 2 (Trigger) and Pin 6 together. - Connect Pin 4 (Reset) to VCC to disable reset functionality. - Place the LED in series with a current-limiting resistor (e.g., 220Ω) between Pin 3 (Output) and GND. 2.3 Running the Simulation - Use an oscilloscope to connect to Pin 3 (Output) to observe the waveform. - Run the simulation and check the frequency of the output signal. - Observe the LED blinking rate to confirm that the circuit is operating as designed. Adjust the component values as needed to achieve the desired frequency. Step 3: Simulate the Circuit in Tinkercad 3.1 Setting Up Tinkercad - Log in to Tinkercad and create a new circuit design. - Use the Tinkercad component library to find and place the 555 Timer IC on the virtual breadboard. 3.2 Building the Circuit - Place resistors R1 and R2, capacitor CCC, LED, and a current-limiting resistor. - Connect the components as described in the design step: - R1 between Pin 7 and VCC. - R2 between Pin 7 and Pin 6. - C between Pin 6 and GND. - Short Pin 2 and Pin 6 together. - Connect Pin 4 to VCC. - Connect LED and current-limiting resistor in series with the output at Pin 3. 3.3 Running the Simulation - Start the Tinkercad simulation. - Observe the LED blinking. If the LED blinks at a different rate than expected, adjust R1, R2, or C and rerun the simulation to achieve the desired frequency. - Verify the frequency using a virtual oscilloscope connected to the output. Step 4: Building the Physical Circuit (Optional) - If hardware is available, students can build the physical circuit using a breadboard, a real 555 Timer IC, resistors, capacitors, LED, and a 9V battery. - Follow the same wiring instructions used in the simulations. - Use a multimeter or oscilloscope to check the output waveform and frequency and confirm the LED blinking rate. Step 5: Testing and Troubleshooting 5.1 Testing the Circuit - Check all connections to ensure they are secure and correctly placed. - Measure the voltage at different points in the circuit using a multimeter to ensure proper power supply and signal levels. - Confirm that the LED blinks according to the design frequency. 5.2 Troubleshooting - If the LED does not blink or the circuit does not operate correctly: - Double-check the wiring against the circuit diagram. - Verify component values (resistors, capacitor) are correct. - Ensure that the 555 timer IC is oriented correctly with the pins in the right positions. - Check for loose connections or faulty components. Step 6: Documenting the Results 6.1 Recording Observations - Record the frequency of the output signal as observed in the simulations and on the physical circuit (if applicable). - Note the LED blinking rate and how it changes with different resistor and capacitor values. 6.2 Analysis and Reporting - Analyze how changing R1, R2, and C affects the frequency and duty cycle. - Discuss the implications of these changes for real-world applications in AI and radar systems. - Document all findings, including circuit diagrams, oscilloscope screenshots, and a summary of results. Technical Report Recommendations - Title: Provide a descriptive title reflecting the scope of the project, such as "Design and Implementation of a 555 Timer Oscillator for AI and Radar Applications." - Abstract: Summarize the project's objectives, methods, key findings, and significance. - Introduction: Explain the importance of the 555 timer in timing and pulse generation. Discuss its relevance in AI and radar systems for synchronization and signal processing. - Materials and Methods: Detail the components used, circuit design, and configuration. Include diagrams and a step-by-step account of the simulation and building process. - Results: Present the results of the simulations and physical testing. Include measurements of frequency, duty cycle, and LED blinking rate. Use graphs, oscilloscope screenshots, and tables for clarity. - Discussion: Analyze the results, compare them with theoretical calculations, and discuss the impact of component variations on circuit performance. Relate the findings to AI and radar applications. - Conclusion: Summarize the project's outcomes, the learning objectives achieved, and the practical implications for digital system design. - References: List all sources used, including textbooks, research papers, and online resources. - Appendices: Include additional data, calculations, component datasheets, or other supplementary material. Required Deliverables - A Multisim Simulation - A Tinkercad Simulation - A breadboard circuit fully functional Multisim Simulation \| Tinkercad Simulation \| Fully Functional Circuit \| Evaluation Criteria: Evaluation Criteria \| Success \| Almost There \| Circuit Design \| Design is innovative and meets all project requirements; components are selected correctly and integrated seamlessly. \| Design meets most project requirements, but some components may not be selected optimally; minor adjustments needed. \| Circuit Development \| Circuit built with precision and operated as intended without errors. \| Circuit is built, but there are minor issues that require adjustment for optimal performance. \| Testing and Analysis \| Comprehensive testing conducted; results are analyzed thoroughly and documented effectively. \| Testing is conducted, but analysis is incomplete or lacks thorough documentation. \| Application in AI and Radar \| Demonstrates a clear understanding and application of 555 timer oscillators in AI and radar systems. \| Shows basic understanding of applications in AI and radar but lacks depth in explanation or examples. \| Technical Report \| Report is well-organized, detailed, and uses visuals effectively to illustrate key points. \| Report is organized but lacks some detail or effective use of visuals; some sections are less clear. \| Presentation and Communication \| Presentation is clear, concise, and engaging; ideas are communicated effectively. \| Presentation is understandable but may lack clarity or engagement; some difficulty in conveying ideas clearly. \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.532557	Carlos E. Perez	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118163/overview", "title": "Digital Fundamentals: From Concept to Reality", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82171/overview	Presentation Slides OER Focused on the Students' Projects by Igor Baryakhtar, Brandon Choque Molina, Joshua Dover, Joseph Remondi Overview Presentation slides at the 2021 Northeast OER Summit Presentation Slides OER Focused on the Students’ Projects. Roundtable Igor Baryakhtar, Joshua Dover, Brandon Choque Molina, Joseph Remondi Massachusetts Bay Community College Presentation at the 2021 Northeast OER Summit, May 24th 2021 Our Postings Joshua Dover's Calculus 3 Project: Point in Cartesian, Polar, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinate systems Brandon Choque Molina's Calculus 3 Project: How to Visualize Functions of Several Variables with MATLAB Joseph Remondi's Calculus 3 Project: Cycloids and Related Problems	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.583116	Igor Baryakhtar	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82171/overview", "title": "OER Focused on the Students' Projects by Igor Baryakhtar, Brandon Choque Molina, Joshua Dover, Joseph Remondi", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86016/overview	Classification of Chromatography Overview The topic is 'Classification of Chromatography'. Powerpoint application has been used for making the infographic. It briefly explains what is chromatography and its various types. The topic is 'Classification of Chromatography'. Powerpoint application has been used for making the infographic. It briefly explains what is chromatography and its various types.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.598239	09/20/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86016/overview", "title": "Classification of Chromatography", "author": "Shifa Chaudhari" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64545/overview	Priority Management Overview A lesson on priority management with self-exploration and direction from a Ted Talks with Laura Vanderkam. Students will learn about priorities and how they spend their time. They will evaluate where they currently are with their priority management and make necessary changes to their daily lives. Time/Priority Management There are many tools to help someone with managing their time. One of the best places to start is to manage your priorities. What is a priority? Well for me, my job is a priority. So is my wife. I also like to eat. And hangout with my family and friends. Sleeping is important too! Throughout life our priorities will change and that is okay. Right now, this class should be high on your priority list. So should your health. But we are all different and have different desires in life. What we are going to try to accomplish today is find what is most important to you and how to put that into your weekly schedule. First, let's make a list. Write down on a Word or Google doc., in no particular order, what you spend time on during a given day and throughout a typical week. Once you have your list I want you to number this list with number 1 being what you send the most time on, then 2 being the second most time, and so on. Second, I want you to make another list next to or below the one that you just made. This list is what you think are your priorities. There is a high probability that the same words show up on both lists. Now just like you did with your first list I want you to number your priority list. Number 1 is what you feel is of the highest priority down to your lowest priority. Do your priorities match up with what you spend most of your day doing? Third, watch the video below by Laura Vanderkam on TED Talks, How to gain control of your free time. You'll want to take notes of main ideas or concepts that stuck with you. With the assignment you'll need to write a few sentences on what you learned. Here is an article by Laura Vanderkam found on her website that is very useful as well. Fourth, I want you to make a list of the things you value (love, wealth, family, nature, popularity, freedom, friends, power, etc). Same as your lists from earlier, number them from 1 being what you want to spend the most time on during the week down to the least, or what you want your highest priorities to be down to your lowest priority. Now compare the three lists. Are they the same? Do you spend your week doing the things you value the most? Are your priorities in line? Are you ready to make a change to your typical week? Fifth, download this excel sheet, Time Management. You will need two copies of this excel sheet. For the first schedule, fill out what your typical week looks like right now (normal work/school week). It should include everything that you do (eat, meal prep, sleep, study, work, commute, play video games, spend time with family, etc.) in your current week. Exactly how you spend your time. Every minute of it. How does it look? For the second schedule you are to make your schedule based on your values/what you want to make a priority. Hopefully this is very similar to our first schedule, but there is a chance it will be completely different. This should be based off of your priority list. The higher the priority, the more you should see it in your schedule. Now this should be realistic. Make it something that you can apply to your life right now. What can you do to make your priorities and values line up with your typical week? We want to spend more time on what matters and less time on what doesn't. We need to understand our values, priorities, how much time we actually have, and how we want to spend it. Let's make a little change that can have a positive impact on our daily lives. Here is what you accomplished with this worksheet: - A short paragraph (minimum of 5 sentences) of what you learned from the video. - A list of what you spend time on today. - A list of what you prioritize today. - A list of what you want to prioritize tomorrow based on your values. - Two schedules, one of what your week looks like now and one of what you want it to look like. - A better understanding of who you are and what you spend your time on.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.613726	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64545/overview", "title": "Priority Management", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74107/overview	A summary of empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education by OpenEd Group Overview This is a web site containing a summary of empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education by OpenEd Group A summary of empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education Here is a summary of all known empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education https://openedgroup.org/review	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.627033	10/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74107/overview", "title": "A summary of empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education by OpenEd Group", "author": "Aubree Evans" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92601/overview	The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 11] Overview The eleventh episode of "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast", discussing the recognition of prior learning and open education with Marc Singer. The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 11] Episode 11 - Recognising prior learning in the open [Marc Singer] Originally published on June 7th, 2018 Marc Singer [Vice Provost, Thomas Edison State University, NJ) and I take some time out of the 2018 OE Global Conference to discuss the intersection of open education and recognising prior learning. Marc outlines the types of transferable support mechanisms available for students, and how open informal learning might be translated into degree credit. We also cover a number of reasons why institutions would become involved in this type of activity, and the student benefits to doing so. The resources refered to in this episode: - Walter McMahon’s work at the University of Illinois - Lindsey Carfagna’s research - Thomas Edison State University’s page on Open Education (with links to a few open courses toward the bottom) - American Council on Education’s Adult Learner’s Guide to PLA - The Council for Adult and Experiential Learning’s Resources on Prior Learning Assessment - Achieving the Dream’s very detailed PLA Handbook Hosts: Adrian Stagg & Marc Singer	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.652253	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92601/overview", "title": "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 11]", "author": "Adrian Stagg" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92600/overview	The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 10] Overview The tenth episode of "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast", discussing open data with Sander van der Waal. The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 10] Episode 10 - Open Data [Sander van der Waal] Originally published on May 27th, 2018 Following the trend of live recordings at recent open conferences, I'm joined by Sander van der Waal of the Open Knowledge International for a brief discussion on the role of open data. Sander's work brought him to the 2018 Creative Commons Summit in Toronto, where we explored open data for governments, and the place of open data in the curriculum (open data as OER). - Visit the Open Knowledge International: https://okfn.org/network/ - Follow Sander and the Network on Twitter via @sandervdwaal and @okfn Hosts: Adrian Stagg & Sander van der Waal	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.673013	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92600/overview", "title": "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 10]", "author": "Adrian Stagg" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89595/overview	BIOL 1010 Chapter 1 Lecture Overview This PowerPoint presentation was created with content from the OpenStax Biolgy 2E texbook and is designed to be presented in cojunction with the adoption of Biology 2e. BIOL 1010 Module 1 Lecture PPT This PowerPoint presentation is designed to provide a foundation for lecture instruction from Chapter 1, OpenStax Biology 2e textbook.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.688204	01/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89595/overview", "title": "BIOL 1010 Chapter 1 Lecture", "author": "Robert Blaudow" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86022/overview	Classification of chromatographic methods Overview The illustration contains explaination of all classifcation of the chromatographic methods. And this illustration also contains the informations about different types of chromatogrpahy with the explaination of mobile and stationary phases. I have made this illustration using 'Microsoft Power Point Presentations'. And I have added the refernces sources and name at the bottom of the page.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.700675	09/20/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86022/overview", "title": "Classification of chromatographic methods", "author": "SHAFIQA ANSARI" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79352/overview	ENG 261: World Literature Syllabus Overview Syllabus for ENG 261: World Literature at the University of the Virgin Islands An interdisciplinary exploration of the short story and novel from a global perspective, the terminology of literary analysis, interdisciplinary critical approaches, and selected criticism leading to the production of aesthetic and critical analyses of works of fiction. Introduction Dr. Patricia Harkins-Pierre Chairperson: English, Humanities, Modern Languages and Philosophy College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Office: H209 340-693-1357 pharkin@uvi.edu UVI Catalog Description of the Course: An interdisciplinary exploration of the short story and novel from a global perspective, the terminology of literary analysis, interdisciplinary critical approaches, and selected criticism leading to the production of aesthetic and critical analyses of works of fiction. 3 credits. Prerequisite: ENG 201 Required Resources Required Textbook: Introduction to Literature Required Textbook: The Caribbean Writer You will need to purchase a copy of Vol. 34, 2020 for $20. Here is the link UVI, EHMLA students must use to purchase hard or e-copies of The Caribbean Writer volume 34: https://www.thecaribbeanwriter.org/product/volume-34/ Please note that purchases must be made with a UVI email address in order to obtain the $20 price option. If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to pose/share them; contact TCW by email (thecaribbeanwriter@uvi.edu) or call 340-693-4152.) UVI’s creative journal, is now in its 35th year, a remarkable feat for any university publication. Outcomes and Measurements a) Exposure to and knowledge of selected works of world literature in English (or translated to English), to be demonstrated through the student’s Double Column Reading Log, which will be submitted to SafeAssign as a way of assessing the work for academic integrity. b) Cultivating skills in expression, analysis and the application of methodology derived from studies of literary and other arts. c) Demonstrating a sound grasp of the language of the discipline and the nature of aesthetic expression by This will be demonstrated through required Chapter Notes on material in our OER d) Creating a researched, analytical paper that gives evidence of understanding and ethically applying MLA citations General Outcomes General Outcomes: World Literature I embraces multicultural readings in a range of literary conventions. Upon successfully completing ENG 261, students will be able to: 1) Assess the merits of literary artistry in fiction from a variety of cultures and time periods 2) Explore the vocabulary of literary analysis 3) Annotate and Explicate, using methodologies applicable to literary and other arts 4) Understand and Apply interdisciplinary methodologies traditional in literary analyses Students become a learning community of budding literary scholars through collaborative work and cooperating in required weekly Discussion Exercises posted at our BB class site. Action Steps a) Studying selected works of world literature in English (or translated to English) b) Cultivating skills in expression, analysis and the application of methodologies derived from studies of literature and other arts c)Llearning about the language of the discipline and the nature of aesthetic expression d) Composing literary critical work, as well as original creative work, and sharing work orally Your Responsibilities as a Member of our Learning Community Include: - Participating in all required course activities and assignments. - Respecting and being courteous to fellow students and your professor at all times. During phone or video or zoom conferences or activities: Turn off any distracting electronic equipment, for example, and do not smack or pop gum. Do not use rude or obscene gestures or body language. Do not use rude or obscene language, whether online or not. Do not interrupt others, even online. Do not dominate; give others an opportunity to be heard—or read. Do actively and consistently contribute to the class in positive ways. - Reading of all texts and all other assigned reading. Refer to your Syllabus and Assignment Schedule consistently and often, as well as your online course textbook(s). - Completing all assigned work, on time. Remember, late assignments will not be accepted without prior approval from PHP. - Carefully following directions at all times. Read written directions completely. Always ask questions when you need clarification. Check our online Blackboard class site daily. - Taking notes consistently and often. Learn to take effective notes that suit your learning style. Ask your instructor for suggestions; be willing to change, and try new tactics. - Complying with the University’s Academic Standards and Academic Integrity Policies. (Refer to the UVI [hard copy or online] catalog (pp. 59; 64-65) and be sure you understand and comply with these policies as part of our class commitment to excellence.) - Seeking tutorial help when necessary and attending tutorial sessions and conferences as determined by the instructor.(Keep a verifiable record of sessions and conferences signed by both the student and the tutor or instructor.) Notes 1. Students with disabilities should contact the Counseling and Placement Office prior to registration and advisement. Counselors facilitate the coordination of services with other departments of the university in order to accommodate students’ special needs. (Refer to p 47 of the UVI Catalog). 2. *Class Participation: UNEXCUSED LATE WORK WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED. Late work will be penalized. Work cannot be made up, without official, verifiable documentation explaining the reason—and which is accepted at your instructor’s discretion. If you know you will miss class work, contact your instructor in advance. Discovery Journal and Exercises Every student will be asked to write Discovery Journal Assignments and Discussion Board Exercises. Pay attention to due dates and directions. Follow directions carefully. I = Incomplete will result in 0-50% being earned. NOTE: Each Analytical and/or Critical Essay = Discovery Journal Assignment will follow MLA (Modern Language Association) format unless otherwise instructed. Class work must be word processed, double spaced, 12 pt plain black type, one-inch margins. (450-500 words total unless otherwise instructed.) Research Projects I and II Closely follow the professor’s guidelines and any information concerning steps and timelines Unless you are otherwise instructed, all work in essay format will consist of at least these steps: 1. prewriting (brain storming list or cluster); 2. MLA format sentence outline (with title and thesis; introductory idea, major body points, concluding idea); 3. full edited draft (400-500 words)—sometimes a revised draft will also be required. 4. Bibliography and/or Works Cited page if appropriate—attach proof of any research; sometimes a revised draft will also be required. Exit Essay = Final Reflective Assignment: Intro = What I expected in the class + Body = 2-3 paragraphs, each explaining one aspect of the class that worked well for you + Conclusion = Suggestions for the future (such as possible Fieldtrips). Quizzes and Exams Expect a Pre-Assessment and Post-Assessment Assignment. Assigned Module Notes = Quizzes linked to our required OER Introduction to Literature textbook. There will a comprehensive final exam. Final Exam = Comprehensive Essay Exam with possible short answer components: Closely follow your professor’s guidelines concerning steps and timelines. Specific Information Regarding Reading Logs and Completion Dates The Reading Log is a record of what you read, when you read it, where you read it and any reflections, analysis or questions you have connected to what you read. This log takes the place of Quizzes or Journals on the assigned short novel or novella you will be responsible for reading, and writing about, in ENG 261 OL. Please make entries in your log no less than 3 times a week and no more than 5 times a week, Wks. 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 (read and respond to five chapters per week of the assigned book, unless otherwise instructed). The format of your log is in a Double Column 'tried and proven' method explained by Robert DiYanni in his textbook, Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry and Drama. He titles it the "Double-column Notebook” (1287). For our purposes, you don't use a literal notebook since you'll be creating your Reading Log online. Instead, you will "divide a page in half vertically. . .. On one side take notes, “summarizing" what you've read. "On the other side, the responding side, make notes, recording your thinking about what you summarized: ask questions; speculate; make connections." Weekly Schedule Weekly Schedule Readings Assigned from Lumen Learning's Introduction to Literature and additional sources. Unit One: Warming Up Week One \| READIntroduction To Literature: Module One, Genre Introduction Introduction to Literature: Module 8, Nonfiction Readings and ResponsesCaribbean Short-Short Story (Flash Fiction) \| Week Two \| READIntroduction To Literature: Module 2, Literary Conventions (To be finished by the end of week three) Introduction to Literature: Module 7, Fiction Readings and Responses WRITE \| Unit Two: Best Foot Forward Unit Three: Stepping Up the Pace Week Five \| READ Introduction to Literature: Module 7, Fiction Readings and ResponsesWRITE \| Week Six \| READIntroduction to Literature: Module 4, Literary Analysis From Other Sources WRITE \| Unit Four: Strength Training Week SevenMidterm Week I \| READ WRITE \| Week EightMidterm Week II \| READ WRITE \| Week Nine \| READ WRITE \| Unit Five: Reaching For the Stars Week Ten \| READCreative Nonfiction AutobiographyChoose to listen or read the user-friendly version found hereWRITE \| Week Eleven \| READCreative Nonfiction AutobiographyChoose to listen or read the user-friendly version found hereWRITE \| Week Twelve \| READCreative Nonfiction AutobiographyChoose to listen or read the user-friendly version found hereWRITE \| Week Thirteen \| READCreative Nonfiction AutobiographyChoose to listen or read the user-friendly version found hereWRITE \| Week Fourteen \| READFinish Creative Nonfiction AutobiographyChoose to listen or read the user-friendly version found hereWRITE \| Unit Six: Home Stretch Week Fifteen \| READ WRITE \| Week Sixteen \| WRITE \| Grade Analysis The FINAL GRADE in ENG 261 is based on the evidence of work received. Keep count of points earned; all grades may not show up in Black Board. NOTE – The penalty for submitting late or incomplete work is at the discretion of the teacher.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.755454	04/16/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79352/overview", "title": "ENG 261: World Literature Syllabus", "author": "Nicole Hatfield" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114695/overview	Day 1 Welcome & Keynote Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Day one welcome and keynote. This resource includes the session abstract, presenters information, and recording. Session Abstract and Recording Session Abstract Day one welcome from our host institutions and sponsors. Presenter(s) - Megan Crossfield, Yavapai College - Doug Berry, Yavapai College - Matthew Bloom, Scottsdale Community College - Debra Riley-Huff, Arizona State University Doug Berry's Recorded Welcome Keynote Session Title & Abstract Title: In Cyborg Luddite Solidarity In this keynote, Jennryn explores the challenges and promises generative AI poses for creators and open educators. From concerns around privacy, consent, bias, economic and environmental impacts, access to and control over technology further entrenching inequities, copyright, misinformation and more, generative AI remains a contentious advancement. Simultaneously, the benefits and promises witnessed in 2023 alone were awe-inspiring. AI advanced life-saving medical knowledge, enhanced educational curriculum alignment across national borders, and made creative expression more accessible to untrained creators. Using generative AI, international projects strengthened linguistic diversity online -- work vital to addressing one of the major inequities of the internet. While our new landscape continues to evolve, Jennryn draws from the Luddite Movement and Cyborg Manifesto, to highlight ethics from our collective pasts that may apply today. Presenter(s) Jennryn Wetzler, DIrector of Learning and Training at Creative Commons Jennryn Wetzler is the Director of Learning and Training at Creative Commons. At Creative Commons she has the joy of building collaborative partnerships and trainings in open journalism, open education and open culture. She oversees the CC Certificate program, as well as CC consulting services. Prior to CC, Jennryn worked on open policy and open educational resources (OER) at the U.S. Department of State, piloting OER use for public diplomacy and global partnerships. She’s also enjoyed gaining a different perspective of education through international development work. Jennryn has a Masters in ‘Ethics, Peace, and Global Affairs’ from American University’s School for International Service. She was a Boren Fellow (Thailand, 2008-2009), a Critical Language Scholar (Egypt, 2007), and Peace Corps volunteer (Niger, 2004-2006). She currently lives in Maryland with her husband Nick, and kids. Jennryn enjoys yoga, bonfires and feeding her more daring friends cooking experiments. Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.770830	03/28/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114695/overview", "title": "Day 1 Welcome & Keynote", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115545/overview	Fact or Fiction in Han and/or Post Classical China? Overview This assignment uses to the story of Mulan to explore what is fact and what is fiction in Han China. The assignment asks students to consider the Disney version of Mulan and how this portrayal affects the accuracy of a Chinese folk story and specifically the story's Confucian values. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample activity to examine the historical accuracies and inaccuracies in Disney's Mulan. About This Resource The sample assignment was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled “New Approaches to Frontier History” for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This resource was contributed by Erica Murray.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.788866	04/26/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115545/overview", "title": "Fact or Fiction in Han and/or Post Classical China?", "author": "Alliance for Learning in World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103396/overview	BHS 160 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in Behavioral Health and Social Service Overview In this class, we will explore the ethical, legal, and professional issues inherent in behavioral health and social services. Key areas of focus include privacy, consent, and confidentiality; accurate documentation, and professional collaboration BHS 160 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in Behavioral Health and Social Service In this class, we will explore the ethical, legal, and professional issues inherent in behavioral health and social services. Key areas of focus include privacy, consent, and confidentiality; accurate documentation, and professional collaboration Course link: Canvas Commons Course download: Common Cartridge Use this file download to load the course in an LMS other than Canvas.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.808053	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103396/overview", "title": "BHS 160 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in Behavioral Health and Social Service", "author": "Social Work" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92716/overview	History of Asia Resource List Overview History of Asia (History 2205) Resource List. Compiled Summer-Fall 2021 by Dr. Maria Ritzema. The following materials are freely available online and are licensed as indicated in the source material. This resource will be updated as needed. For the most recent version, visit: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1MKxzEAGLta-5zjCBUGey7Pg-fCv5RgoA?usp=sharing History of Asia Resource List Compiled by Dr. Maria Ritzema College of DuPage. Glen Ellyn, IL 60137 Compiled and cross checked Summer -Fall 2021. The following items are freely available online and are licensed as indicated in the source material. This collection “OER History of Asia Resource List” compiled by Dr. Maria Ritzema is licensed CC BY 4.0. Regional Connections Atwill, David G. “Himalyan Asia” in Islamic Shangri-La: Inter-Asian Relations and Lhasa’s Muslim Communities, 1600 to 1960. Oakland: University of California Press, 2018. pp. 65-91. License: CC BY NC ND 4.0 https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv941r61 Bhattacharya, Jayati. “Ties That Bind: India and Southeast Asia Connectivities” Online Supplement to EAA. Education About Asia 25, no. 3 (Winter, 2020). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/ties-that-bind-india-and-southeast-asia-connectivities/ Mishra, Patit Paban. “India’s Historical Impact on Southeast Asia.” Online Supplement to EAA. Education About Asia 26, no. 1 (Spring, 2021) https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/indias-historical-impact-on-southeast-asia Obrusánszky, B. “Nestorian Christians in Frontier History.” Journal of Frontier Studies, no. 3 (September, 2019), 175-93. https://doi.org/10.24411/2500-0225-2019-10024. Rossabi, Morris. “The Silk Roads: An Educational Resources.” Education About Asia 4, no. 1 (Spring, 1999). https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/the-silk-roads-an-educational-resource.pdf South Asia Ball-Phillips, Rachel M. “Digital Archives: Teaching Indian Colonial History Through Photographs.” Education About Asia 20, no. 3 (Winter, 2015). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/digital-archives-teaching-indian-colonial-history-through-photographs-teaching-resource-essay/ Lamont, Thomas. “‘Give Me Blood, and I will Give You Freedom’ Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose, and the Uses of Violence in India’s Independence Movement.” Education About Asia 19, no. 1 (Spring, 2014). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/give-me-blood-and-i-will-give-you-freedom-bhagat-singh-subhas-chandra-bose-and-the-uses-of-violence-in-indias-independence-movement/ Srinivas, Tulasi. “Exploring Indian Culture through Food.” Education About Asia 16, no. 3 (Winter, 2011). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/exploring-indian-culture-through-food/ East Asia Alexander, Jeffrey W. “Honda Sōichirō and the Rise of Japan’s Postwar Motor Vehicle Industry.” Education About Asia 20, no. 2 (Fall, 2015). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/honda-soichiro-and-the-rise-of-japans-postwar-motor-vehicle-industry/ Booth, Anne E. “The Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere: 1942-1945” in Colonial Legacies: Economic and Social Development in East and Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007. pp. 148-163. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wr2vx.13 Brown, Clayton D. “China’s Great Leap Forward.” Education About Asia 17, no. 3 (Winter, 2012). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/chinas-great-leap-forward/ Erie, Matthew S. and Allen Carlson. “Introduction to “Islam in China/China in Islam”” in Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. (Sept 2014) no. 12 pp. 1-13. https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/e-journal/articles/cc_introduction_9-14.pdf Heijdra, Martin J. “Polyglot Translators: Chinese, Dutch, and Japanese in the Introduction of Western Learning in Tokugawa Japan,” in “At the Shores of the Sky” Asian Studies for Albert Hoffstädt. Paul W. Kroll and Jonathan A. Silk, Eds. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2020, pp. 62-75. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004438200_008 https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004438200/BP000007.xml Jung, Byung Wook. “Migrant Labor and Massacres: A Comparison of the 1923 Massacre of Koreans and Chinese during the Great Kanto Earthquake and the 1931 Anti-Chinese Riots and Massacre of Chinese in Colonial Korea” in Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. (Mar. 2017) no. 22 pp. 30-53. https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/e-journal/articles/jung_1.pdf Matray, James I. “The Korean War 101: Causes, Course, and Conclusion of the Conflict.” Education About Asia 17, no. 3 (Winter, 2012). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-korean-war-101-causes-course-and-conclusion-of-the-conflict/ https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/the-korean-war-101-causes-course-and-conclusion-of-the-conflict.pdf Métraux, Daniel A. “Baseball in Japan and the US: History, Culture, and Future Prospects.” Education About Asia 21, no. 2 (Fall, 2016). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/baseball-in-japan-and-the-us-history-culture-and-future-prospects/ Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. “Unthinking Civilisation: An Imbricated History of the Okhotsk Region” in On the Frontiers of History: Rethinking East Asian Borders. Acton: Australian National University Press, 2020. pp. 71-106. http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n6994/pdf/ch04.pdf Rhode, Grant. “Mongol Invasions of Northeast Asia – Korea and Japan.” Online Supplement to EAA. Education About Asia 25, no. 2 (Fall 2020). https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/Case-Study-Mongol-Invasions-of-Northeast-Asia-1.pdf https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/Study-Guide-Mongol-Invasions-of-Northeast-Asia.pdf Perdue, Peter C. “Interlopers, Rogues, or Cosmopolitans? Wu Jianzhang and Early Modern Commercial Networks on the China Coast” in Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review (Dec 2017) no. 25 pp. 63-83. https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/e-journal/articles/perdue_0.pdf Steinberg, John W. “The Russo-Japanese War and World History.” Education About Asia 13, no. 2 (Fall, 2008). https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/the-russo-japanese-war-and-world-history.pdf Thum, Rian. “China in Islam: Turki Views from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries” in Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. (Sept 2014) no. 12 pp. 118-142. https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/e-journal/articles/thum_0.pdf Central Asia Zimonyi, István. 2018. “Changing Perceptions of Türk Identity Among the Medieval Nomads of Central Eurasia”. Studia Orientalia Electronica 6 (June):79-89. https://doi.org/10.23993/store.69834 Southeast Asia Boomgaard, Peter. “In a state of flux: Water as a deadly and a life-giving force in Southeast Asia” in A World of Water: Rain, rivers and seas in Southeast Asian histories. Peter Boomgaard, Ed. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007. pp. 1-26. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/48c5/47ae5d2a9793cf2947a124a33c15d349fa75.pdf Herrera, Dana R. “The Philippines: An Overview of the Colonial Era.” Education About Asia 20, no. 1 (Spring, 2015). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-philippines-an-overview-of-the-colonial-era/ Sutherland, Heather. “Geography as destiny? The role of water in Southeast Asian history” in A World of Water: Rain, rivers and seas in Southeast Asian histories. Peter Boomgaard, Ed. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007. pp. 27-70. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004254015/B9789004254015-s003.xml West Asia Altaweel, Mark and Andrea Squitieri. “ Long-distance trade and economy before and during the age of empires” and “The rise of shared and universal religions” in Revolutionizing a World: From Small States to Universalism in the Pre-Islamic Near East. London: University College London Press, 2018. pp. 160-178, 240-252. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt21c4td4.10 https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt21c4td4.14 Apellániz, Francisco. “‘Men Like the Franks’: Dealing with Diversity in Medieval Norms and Courts” in Breaching the Bronze Wall: Franks at Mamluk and Ottoman Courts and Markets. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2020. pp. 143-205. https://brill.com/view/book/9789004431737/BP000003.xml Baird, Ileana. “Circulating Things, Circulating Stereotypes: Representations of Arabia in Eighteenth-Century Imagination” in All Things Arabia: Arabian Identity and Material Culture. Ileana Baird and Hülya Yağcioğlu, Editors. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2021. pp. 69-87. https://brill.com/view/book/9789004435926/BP000007.xml?rskey=BF4D2n&result=1 De Nicola, Bruno. “Introduction: The Study of Women in the Mongol Empires” and “Women and Politics from the Steppes to World Empire: in Women in Mongol Iran: The Khātūns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017. pp. 1-64. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g09twn.7 Segal, Eran. “Palm Dates, Power, and Politics in Pre-Oil Kuwait” in All Things Arabia: Arabian Identity and Material Culture. Ileana Baird and Hülya Yağcioğlu, Editors. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2021. pp. 54-68. https://brill.com/view/title/58308	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.834577	College of DuPage	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92716/overview", "title": "History of Asia Resource List", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72517/overview	Mass Spectroscopy Overview This course offers basic inputs on Mass Spectroscopy Mass Spectroscopy The course explains the basics of mass spectroscopy, its theory and instrumentation in detail	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.851311	09/13/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72517/overview", "title": "Mass Spectroscopy", "author": "shobana jothi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115645/overview	WOH 2022: Global History Since 1750 Overview This course offers an introduction to the major themes and events in modern global history from 1750 to the present. Unlike courses that focus on the history of a specific country or region of the world, this course will explore the interconnected nature of peoples, ideas, goods, commerce, and events across the entire globe. Through an examination of the Atlantic Revolutions of the eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolutions of the nineteenth century, the rise and fall of global imperialism, two massive world wars and a global cold war, and the increasingly globalized nature of economics, diseases, technology, and political affairs in the modern era, this course will ask us to consider the relationship of individuals and their local affairs to the wider world. Through a wide range of primary sources such as diaries, newspaper articles, letters, political treatises, novels, and films, we will explore how humans across the world experienced and thought about the world and their place within it; secondary sources will help us situate these experiences within their historical context. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample syllabus for a course about world history since 1750. About This Resource The sample syllabi was submitted by a participant in a one-day virtual workshop entitled, "Teaching the Global African Diaspora" for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This is a draft document that may subsequently have been revised in light of feedback and discussion during the event." This resource was contributed by Tamala Malerk, Department of History, University of South Florida.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.870315	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115645/overview", "title": "WOH 2022: Global History Since 1750", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76857/overview	Humanities 122 (Medieval to Modern History) OER Textbook Overview The OER Textbook used for HUM 122 Medieval to Modern History Humanities Course. Examines written texts, visual arts, and musical compositions to analyze and reflect the evolution and confluence of cultures in Europe, Asia, and the Americas from 800 C.E. to 1750 C.E. Humanities 122 (Medieval to Modern History) OER Textbook The OER Textbook used for HUM 122 Medieval to Modern History Humanities Course. Examines written texts, visual arts, and musical compositions to analyze and reflect the evolution and confluence of cultures in Europe, Asia, and the Americas from 800 C.E. to 1750 C.E. The OER Textbook used for HUM 122 Medieval to Modern History Humanities Course. Examines written texts, visual arts, and musical compositions to analyze and reflect the evolution and confluence of cultures in Europe, Asia, and the Americas from 800 C.E. to 1750 C.E.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.888500	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76857/overview", "title": "Humanities 122 (Medieval to Modern History) OER Textbook", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93374/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli Gram stain 100x p000008 Overview This micrograph was taken at 400X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox micrograph White background with hundreds of small, pink, rod-shaped Escherichia coli cells scattered across.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.905594	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93374/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli Gram stain 100x p000008", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101079/overview	Arabic Level 1, Activity 13: "أَيَّام الأُسْبُوع/ Days of the Week" (Face-to-Face/Online) Overview In this activity, students will practice using the days of the week in a sentence. they will talk about Mohammed's weekly routines. Students will be using the words today, tomorrow, and yesterday. Can-Do Statements: I can read and write the weekdays in Arabic. I can use the weekdays in a sentence. I can use Today, Tomorrow, and Yesterday in a sentence. About The Pathways Project Please Note: Many of the activities on the Pathways Project OER Repository were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. — The Pathways Project Looking for the English Version of this activity to adapt for your language? CLICK HERE About the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) Language Activity Repository The activities provided by the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) serve as foundational activities which can be adapted by any language and scaled up or down on the proficiency scale. Many of these activities offer an English Version that is “language-agnostic” to provide language instructors from around the country a platform to remix these instructional materials, infusing them with their target language and culture! The activities within the Pathways Project OER Repository seek to help students solidify their interpersonal speaking and interpretive skills through task-based situations or communicative activities. These activities should be facilitated in the target language for approximately 90% (or more), per the recommendation of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. How to use the WLRC Repository’s Activities: 1. Use the Activity as is: Before you begin: - Most activities are 30 minutes in duration, unless otherwise specified. - Be sure to read through the activity description, and review the list of required materials. You will notice that the activity materials are also highlighted in yellow throughout the activity instructions. If you have any suggestions about grammar, syntax, and content, please kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu. 2. Remix for Your Language Classroom: When you are ready to begin remixing the activity, in order to adapt it for the needs of your language classroom, simply click the blue “Remix This Resource” button at the top of your screen. This will then take you to a screen with a NEW, editable version of this activity. The text provided in purple is a suggestion of what you might say to your students in the target language, and may be altered for different levels and age groups. All activities have “NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do” statements, a warm-up, a main activity, and a wrap-up. Many of the activities include printable cards and other instructional materials such as Google Slideshows. If you would like to make changes to these materials in Spanish, follow the instructions below: - Google Slideshows: - To begin, go to File -> Copy to create an editable version of the slideshow. - Once finished with your changes, please complete the following steps to share: - Click on Share - Who Has Access - Ensure link sharing is on and allow external access. - Materials Saved as PDF: Please email WLRCLAR@gmail.com and we will provide you with an editable copy. Please allow up to two business days for a response. For YouTube videos and other websites, hyperlinks are provided. 3. Adapt for Another Language: - See the linked English Version at the top of the activity (English Version may not be available for all activities) Activity Instructions أَيَّام الأُسْبُوع/ Days of the Week Description: In this activity, students will practice using the days of the week in a sentence. they will talk about Mohammed's weekly routines. Students will be using the words today, tomorrow, and yesterday. Semantic Topics: أيام الاسبوع - السبت - الأحد - الإثنين - الثلاثاء - الأربعاء - الخميس - الجمعة - اليوم - الأمس - الغد, today, tomorrow, yesterday, days of the week, saturday, friday Grammatical Structures: past tense, present tense, and future tense. Products: days of the week in Standard Arabic. Practices: The week begins on Sunday, and the days of the week are taken from the Arabic numbers. Perspectives: How do people view the week differently in Middle Eastern cultures? NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards: - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in Arabic to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written Arabic on a variety of topics. - Standard 4.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the nature of language through comparisons of Arabic and their own languages. Idaho Content Standards for World Languages: - COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - COMP 1.1: Observe formal and informal forms of language. - COMP 1.2: Identify patterns and explain discrepancies in the sounds and the writing system in the target language. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: - I can read and write the weekdays in Arabic. - I can use the weekdays in a sentence. - I can use Today, Tomorrow, and Yesterday in a sentence. Materials Needed: Warm-Up - Greet students in Arabic السلام عليكم and then share your screen with students and pull up the presentation. And don’t forget to press Slideshow. رحب بالطلاب باللغة العربية السلام عليكم ثم شارك شاشتك مع الطلاب واسحب العرض التقديمي. ولا تنس الضغط على العرض. - Move to the next slide with the “Can-Do Statements” and read each Can-Do statement in English. انتقل إلى الشريحة التالية "عبارات Can-Do" واقرأ كل عبارة Can-Do باللغة الإنجليزية. - Next, move to slide #3, which represents the warm-up activity. Review with students the days of the week. بعد ذلك ، انتقل إلى الشريحة 3 التي تمثل نشاط الإحماء. راجع مع الطلاب أيام الأسبوع. - Let students read the days of the week in Arabic so they can get the pronunciation well. دع الطلاب يقرؤون أيام الأسبوع باللغة العربية حتى يتمكنوا من النطق جيدًا. - In the next slide, ask students how to say today, tomorrow, and yesterday in Arabic. في الشريحة التالية ، اسأل الطلاب كيف يقولون اليوم وغدًا وأمس باللغة العربية. - Show them how to use it in sentences. For example, اليوم سأذهب للحلاق، في الغد لدَي اختبار، بالأمس نُمت جيداً وضح لهم كيفية استخدامها في جمل. على سبيل المثال ، سأذهب للحلاق اليوم ، في الغد لدَي اختبار ، بالأمس نُمت جيداً Main Activity - Students will figure out what Mohammed did last week. In slide # 6, there is a schedule that shows images of what Mohammed did last week. سيحدد الطلاب ما فعله محمد الأسبوع الماضي. في الشريحة رقم 6 ، يوجد جدول يعرض صورًا لما فعله محمد الأسبوع الماضي. - On your next click, the sentences will show up. It is now the students' turn to fill in the blank with the right day of the week. Each student will answer in a sentence. عند النقر التالي ، ستظهر الجمل. حان الآن دور الطلاب لملء الفراغ باليوم المناسب من الأسبوع. سيجيب كل طالب في جملة. After a student answers, click on the mouse button to show the right answer. بعد أن يجيب الطالب ، انقر على زر الفأرة لإظهار الإجابة الصحيحة. Wrap-Up - Ask the students this question, “Do you have any plans today/tomorrow?” اطرح هذا السؤال على الطلاب ، "هل لديك أي خطط اليوم / غدًا؟" - Encourage them to use اليوم / في الغد in their answer. شجعهم على استخدام اليوم / في الغد في إجابتهم. End of Activity - Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) - Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: - I can read and write the weekdays in Arabic. - I can use the weekdays in a sentence. - I can use Today, Tomorrow, and Yesterday in a sentence.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:16.936680	World Cultures	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101079/overview", "title": "Arabic Level 1, Activity 13: \"أَيَّام الأُسْبُوع/ Days of the Week\" (Face-to-Face/Online)", "author": "Languages" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88752/overview	Reading Activities for Speed and Comprehension - ESL Level 1 Overview Because ESL Level 1 students may not all be at the same level, some of the readings may be too difficult for some students. However, the emphasis in these activities is to work on reading strategies for all levels of reading, both at the students' level and above it as well. This module can be combined with the others uploaded about grammar, teaching sentence structure, and writing activities to create an entire OER based ESL class for this level. Improving Reading Speed Improving Reading Speed - What Is Reading? - Obviously, the first goal is to understand what you are reading. - However, true reading is impossible without some speed. To read properly, readers must go fast enough to get a movie in their heads. Without this speed, readers will not comprehend the text, even in their native languages! - But I Don’t Know a lot of these Words!! - True! All language learners encounter (find) words they do not understand when they are reading. Many students then look up the words they do not know in the dictionary. When students follow this pattern, they are no longer reading; they are now working on vocabulary. - Though learning more vocabulary is important, learning to read for main idea and stopping the focus on new vocabulary is crucial (important) for learning to read fluently. We will build your vocabulary in separate exercises. - The Plan - Thanks to Sonia Millett for her readings and quizzes (resource linked below). These materials have controlled vocabulary for ESL learners, so students will know most of the vocabulary. - We will be completing one reading/quiz every week of the semester. - For these readings improving speed is the primary goal, so the goal is to score at least 70% on the quizzes. Any student who scores 8, 9, or 10 on the quiz should be going faster. - Students earn a 100% for the quiz for completing it; the accuracy score is NOT the grade. - The goal is more confidence and speed. - How To Speed Up - Read for main idea, rather than word for word. - Try to read in phrases or groups of words, rather than word for word. - Do not worry about vocabulary you do not know. - Do not follow along with a finger or piece of paper. - Do not look back at the readings while you are taking the quiz. Answer only from memory. Remember that the accuracy score does not have a negative impact on your grade. - Instructions - You will have three minutes to read the passage. Set a timer, and stop after three minutes. - No really, stop! - Go take the quiz, from memory. - Let me know how it went. We will be discussing these exercises, your progress, and your concerns. - Web Resource Millett, Sonia. School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Speed Readings for ESL Learners 3000 BNC. English Language Institute, 2017 [webpages]. https://www.victoria.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/1068071/3000-BNC-SRs-for-esl-learners-readings.pdf Skimming and Scanning - Why We Don’t Always Want to Read Carefully - Sometimes we only need to know the main idea of a reading. - Sometimes we do not have enough time to read something carefully to get every detail. - As non-native speakers we often cannot read word for word because it is very labor intensive and time consuming. Also, looking up every word we know does not allow us to read. Reading must be faster like we have been practicing with the speed reading exercises. - How to Skim - Skimming is what you have been practicing with your speed reading. You are reading quickly and not reading everything on the page. - A variation of skimming takes advantage of the structure of English writing. If you read the first and last sentences of every paragraph, you will have a good basic understanding of what the article/essay/etc. is saying. - How to Scan - Scanning is where you do even less reading and are looking for main ideas and repeated words. - Even if you are going to read more carefully, it is a good idea to scan before you begin to read. What words jump out at you? What words are in bold? Are there any lists? - With What Sources Can You Use These Techniques? - Not every type of reading will work well with these techniques. For example fiction (stories that are not true) does NOT work well with these techniques because fiction relies (needs) on details and small facts to help tell the story. If you miss these small clues, you will miss a lot of what the author is trying to convey (tell). - These techniques work really, really well with newspaper articles and textbooks because these formats are very straightforward and direct. - Skimming/Scanning Assignment - Skim/scan the following article. Bliss, Sara. “9 Ways To Find Your Perfect Career Match.” Forbes, 29 Apr. 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarabliss/2019/04/29/9-ways-to-find-your-perfect-career-match/#6cb3522eec75 - Then, answer the following questions without looking back. Your grade is for completion, not accuracy (how many correct). - Why is this article a good one to use for skimming/scanning? - Did you find this article helpful and/or informative? Explain your answer. - What are two of the nine questions the author discusses? - What is something from the article that you remember well? Give details. - What is something you feel like you missed or misunderstood? - Web Source Dafoe, Colleen. “Skimming and Scanning.” YouTube: 23 June 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1wPYHa5nUg Reading Newspapers - Why We Are Using Newspapers - Newspapers are from the real world. - Although newspapers are written at a variety of levels, generally, they are at an easier level than other adult material. We will be reading from a variety of papers this semester. Pay attention to which ones are easier or more difficult for you to understand. - Because newspapers are part of society, the topics and writing style will have cultural references and varying language styles. - The Southwest Tennessee Community College (STCC) library has subscriptions to many newspapers and databases. In addition some newspapers are available on the internet. So, in our case, newspapers are free! - Headlines - Another reason that newspapers are an excellent reading source for ESL students is that the titles of the articles, which are called headlines, tell you the main idea. - Why do headlines tell readers the main idea right away? What is their purpose? - Our First Article (instructors may want to change to a more current one) - The first article we are going to read is “Coronavirus' online school is hard enough. What if you're still learning to speak English?”. It is an article from May 23, 2020 in The USA Today which is known as ”The McDonald’s of Newspapers.” It is a great newspaper for ESL learners because it is the easiest newspaper to read. - The USA Today is also a great resource because anyone can access it online for free. It does not require a subscription. - Copy and paste the article name above into Google, or click on the link provided in the module. https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/education/2020/05/14/coronavirus-online-classes-school-closures-esl-students-learn-english/5178145002/ - After reading the article, take the Quiz located under the Quiz feature in PAWS. - How Newspaper Page Numbers Work - Newspapers have multiple sections: news, sports, society, etc. - Because of these different sections, newspaper page numbers have two parts: the letter representing the section and a number representing the page number inside that section. - The page numbers begin again at 1 for each section. - Quiz over “Coronavirus’ online…..” Answer the following questions about the article from USA Today. Write in complete sentences, and give your honest opinion. These are discussion questions which do not have one correct answer. However, your discussion needs to make it clear that you have read the article and thought about what it says. This article is long, so you will have to read quickly. Do not look up a lot of words. You only need to understand the main idea in order to answer the questions. - This article talks about the struggles (problems) that ESL students have with online learning. What are some of the struggles discussed (talked about) in the article? - Why did the author write this article? What is her purpose in writing it? - Why does the article say that in person school is more important for ESL students than for native English speaking students? - "It's almost like the screen makes the students feel more anonymous and isolated." This quote is in bold near the end of the article. Explain what the teacher means in this quote. - What was your experience like reading this article? Was it too easy, too difficult? How did the faster reading with the attention to the main idea work? Sight Words - What Are Sight Words? - Sight words are the most commonly used words in English. - According to Dr. Edward Fry, an expert on the subject, “25 words make up 33% of written material; 100 words make up 50% of written material; 300 words make up 65% of written material” (Fry 1000 Instant Words List). - We call these words sight words because readers should instantly recognize them without having to sound out the word. We teach them as sight words to children learning how to read as well because they are so common, and many of them do not follow the phonics rules (words like was and two). - Sight Word Assignment - Read the eighth, ninth, and tenth Fry lists. For your homework, list and define 10 words from these lists that are new to you. If you know all of the words already, contact me for an alternative assignment. - Read through all of the lists to make sure you know all of the first 300 words. Keep working on the other lists until you know these words as well. - Web Source “Fry Word Complete List of 1,000 Words\| Printable Sight Word Lists.” K12 Reader: Reading Instruction Resources. https://www.k12reader.com/worksheet/fry-words-complete-list/view/ Reading More Difficult Articles - Newspapers Have Different Reading Levels - Last week we discussed that newspapers are an excellent way for second language learners to improve their reading skills with real world material and that newspapers are not as difficult to read as other materials. - However, not all newspapers are written at the same reading level. - The Commercial Appeal and USA Today use easier vocabulary than other newspapers like the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal - In this unit we are going to read excerpts (parts) of an article from The Guardian, a British publication that is at a higher level than USA Today. - Why Are We Reading More Difficult Articles Now? - In academic settings you will often be assigned reading that is above your level. - For that reason you have to develop reading strategies that concentrate on understanding the main idea, even if the vocabulary is difficult and you miss some of the details. - The purpose of this lesson is not to understand every word; it is to learn how to approach difficult readings. - Steps to Reading a More Difficult Article - Manage the vocabulary. Vocabulary you do not know is perhaps the biggest obstacle (problem) to reading more difficult material. Just as I did here, I will be defining difficult vocabulary in parentheses. If you were reading on your own, scan the passage first, and look up problem words. You do not need to look up every word you do not understand, just the ones that occur more than once or seem important to the passage. - Read a smaller passage. When you are going to read something more difficult, break it into smaller pieces that are not overwhelming (too much to deal with). We will be reading three smaller passages of this article over the next three weeks. - Stop and check comprehension (understanding). After each sentence or two, you need to think about the passage as a whole to that point. Ask yourself, “What is it saying?” - Recognize stylistic devices and idioms. We will discuss metaphors and idioms. What makes fiction and higher level reading is that authors often use phrases that do not have literal meaning. - Do your best with no stress. Be relaxed. If you are still not understanding fully, discuss with someone. In this class we will be discussing these readings together. - What We Are Reading - We are reading excerpts (pieces) of an article that is an interview with Neil Gaiman, a famous British author. - I will include a link to the entire article in case you are interested. - Talking about Libraries - Since we are discussing the community in this module, this article talks about libraries and their importance to communities. - In the United States all cities and most small towns have public libraries that are free for citizens. These libraries are in addition to the academic libraries available on college campuses. What kind of libraries are available in your home country? - What is a library? Most of the time we think of libraries as places full of books. While true, libraries offer much, much more. - Are libraries still important since fewer people read physical books? This question is the basis (main idea) of the article. Let’s go read! - Gaiman Article Excerpt 1 Reading and Response - Before you begin reading, ask yourself the following questions: 1. What is a library? What kinds of experiences have I had at libraries? 2. How do I feel about reading and learning? 3. How has learning changed with the internet and computers? NOTE: I have included in parentheses ( ) definitions of vocabulary you may not know. These insertions are from me and NOT part of the original article. - “Neil Gaiman: Why Our Future Depends on Libraries, Reading, and Daydreaming” from The Guardian A library is a place that is a repository (storage place) of information and gives every citizen equal access (use of) to it. That includes health information. And mental health information. It’s a community space. It’s a place of safety, a haven (safe place) from the world. It’s a place with librarians in it. What the libraries of the future will be like is something we should be imagining now. Literacy (ability to read and write) is more important than ever it was, in this world of text and email, a world of written information. We need to read and write, we need global citizens who can read comfortably, comprehend (understand) what they are reading, understand nuance (small differences or points), and make themselves understood. Libraries really are the gates to the future. So it is unfortunate that, round the world, we observe local authorities seizing (taking) the opportunity to close libraries as an easy way to save money, without realizing that they are stealing from the future to pay for today. They are closing the gates that should be open. According to a recent study by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, England is the “only country where the oldest age group has higher proficiency (ability) in both literacy and numeracy (math skills) than the youngest group, after other factors, such as gender, socio-economic (how many opportunities were available) backgrounds and type of occupations are taken into account”. Or to put it another way, our children and our grandchildren are less literate and less numerate than we are. They are less able to navigate (move around) the world, to understand it to solve problems. They can be more easily lied to and misled (deceived or taken advantage of), will be less able to change the world in which they find themselves, be less employable (able to get a job). All of these things. And as a country, England will fall behind other developed nations because it will lack a skilled workforce (group of people who work). - Student Discussion Response: Tell us what you thought about the article. Do you agree with Neil Gaiman's points about the importance of libraries and literacy? What experiences have you had with libraries either in your home country or in the U.S.? - Gaiman Article Excerpt 2 Reading and Response 1. Before you begin reading, ask yourself the following questions: 1. Do you enjoy stories? From books, movies, or story tellers? Why? 2. Do you enjoy reading? Why or why not? 3. What memories do you have about books and/or stories. NOTE: I have included in parentheses ( ) definitions of vocabulary you may not know. These insertions are from me and NOT part of the original article. Also, ellipses (… or ….) indicate (show) that I have left out material from the original article. 2. “Neil Gaiman: Why Our Future Depends on Libraries, Reading, and Daydreaming” from The Guardian …. I want to talk about what reading does. What it’s good for. …. Fiction (created stories) has two uses. Firstly, it’s a gateway drug (slang reference – a gateway drug is a drug that leads to more dangerous ones. Even though this reference comes from drug culture, it has become common in informal speech to mean something leads to something else) to reading. The drive to know what happens next, to want to turn the page, the need to keep going, even if it’s hard, because someone’s in trouble and you have to know how it’s all going to end … that’s a very real drive. And it forces you to learn new words, to think new thoughts, to keep going. To discover that reading per se (itself) is pleasurable. Once you learn that, you’re on the road to reading everything. And reading is key. There were noises made briefly, a few years ago, about the idea that we were living in a post-literate world, in which the ability to make sense out of written words was somehow redundant (extra), but those days are gone: words are more important than they ever were: we navigate the world with words, and as the world slips onto the web, we need to follow, to communicate and to comprehend what we are reading. People who cannot understand each other cannot exchange ideas, cannot communicate, and translation programs only go so far. The simplest way to make sure that we raise literate (able to read and write) children is to teach them to read, and to show them that reading is a pleasurable (fun) activity. And that means, at its simplest, finding books that they enjoy, giving them access to those books, and letting them read them. ….And the second thing fiction does is to build empathy (understand and share other people’s feelings and situation). When you watch TV or see a film, you are looking at things happening to other people. Prose (not poetry) fiction is something you build up from 26 letters and a handful of punctuation marks, and you, and you alone, using your imagination, create a world and people it and look out through other eyes. You get to feel things, visit places and worlds you would never otherwise know. You learn that everyone else out there is a me, as well. You’re being someone else, and when you return to your own world, you’re going to be slightly changed. Empathy is a tool for building people into groups, for allowing us to function as more than self-obsessed (thinking only of ourselves) individuals. ….I was in China in 2007, at the first party-approved science fiction (stories about space or science that are beyond current science capabilities) and fantasy (stories with characters and/or creatures that are not real like unicorns, dragons, etc.) convention (large meeting of people who share a common interest) in Chinese history. And at one point I took a top official aside and asked him Why? SF (science fiction) had been disapproved of (not thought of as a good thing) for a long time. What had changed? It’s simple, he told me. The Chinese were brilliant (very smart) at making things if other people brought them the plans. But they did not innovate (create something new)and they did not invent (create). They did not imagine. So they sent a delegation (group of government or business people) to the US, to Apple, to Microsoft, to Google, and they asked the people there who were inventing the future about themselves. And they found that all of them had read science fiction when they were boys or girls. Fiction can show you a different world. It can take you somewhere you’ve never been. Once you’ve visited other worlds, like those who ate fairy fruit, you can never be entirely content with the world that you grew up in. Discontent (not satisfied) is a good thing: discontented people can modify (change) and improve their worlds, leave them better, leave them different. - Student Discussion Response: Do you agree with Gaiman's belief in the importance of fiction/stories? Explain your answer. Tell us about a time stories have been important in your life, either written or oral. Do you think stories have the power to increase empathy as Gaiman says? Explain. - Gaiman Article Excerpt 3 Reading and Response 1. Before you begin reading, ask yourself the following questions: 1. How do books and reading relate to the “real” world? 2. Do you feel that we have obligations (things that we must do) to children? 3. Do you think it is important to read to children? Why or why not? NOTE: I have included in parentheses ( ) definitions of vocabulary you may not know. These insertions are from me and NOT part of the original article. Also, ellipses (… or ….) indicate (show) that I have left out material from the original article. 2.“Neil Gaiman: Why Our Future Depends on Libraries, Reading, and Daydreaming” from The Guardian ….I think we have responsibilities to the future. Responsibilities and obligations (things that must be done) to children, to the adults those children will become, to the world they will find themselves inhabiting (living in). All of us – as readers, as writers, as citizens – have obligations. I thought I’d try and spell out some of these obligations here. I believe we have an obligation to read for pleasure, in private and in public places. If we read for pleasure, if others see us reading, then we learn, we exercise our imaginations. We show others that reading is a good thing. We have an obligation to support libraries. To use libraries, to encourage (tell people that something is good) others to use libraries, to protest the closure of libraries. If you do not value libraries then you do not value information or culture or wisdom. You are silencing the voices of the past and you are damaging the future. We have an obligation to read aloud to our children. To read them things they enjoy. To read to them stories we are already tired of. To do the voices, to make it interesting, not to stop reading to them just because they learn to read to themselves. Use reading aloud time as bonding time, as time when no phones are being checked, when the distractions (things that keep us from paying attention to something) of the world are put aside. ….We all – adults and children, writers and readers – have an obligation to daydream(dream while you are awake). We have an obligation to imagine. It is easy to pretend that nobody can change anything, that we are in a world in which society is huge and the individual is less than nothing: an atom in a wall, a grain of rice in a rice field. But the truth is, individuals change their world over and over, individuals make the future, and they do it by imagining that things can be different. ….everything you can see, including the walls, was, at some point, imagined. Someone decided it was easier to sit on a chair than on the ground and imagined the chair. Someone had to imagine a way that I could talk to you in London right now without us all getting rained on. This room and the things in it, and all the other things in this building, this city, exist because, over and over and over, people imagined things. We have an obligation to make things beautiful. Not to leave the world uglier than we found it, not to empty the oceans, not to leave our problems for the next generation. We have an obligation to clean up after ourselves, and not leave our children with a world we’ve shortsightedly messed up, shortchanged, and crippled. We have an obligation to tell our politicians (people who work in the government) what we want, to vote against politicians of whatever party who do not understand the value of reading in creating worthwhile citizens, who do not want to act to preserve (keep) and protect knowledge and encourage literacy. This is not a matter of party politics. This is a matter of common humanity. Albert Einstein was asked once how we could make our children intelligent. His reply was both simple and wise. “If you want your children to be intelligent,” he said, “read them fairy tales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairy tales.” He understood the value of reading, and of imagining. I hope we can give our children a world in which they will read, and be read to, and imagine, and understand. 3. Student Discussion Response: Do you agree with Gaiman's steps that we must take for the future? Explain. Would you add anything to his list? Now that we have read all three excerpts, did you enjoy what we read? Explain. - Web Source Gaiman, Neil. “Neil Gaiman: Why Our Future Depends on Libraries, Reading and Daydreaming.” The Guardian, The Guardian, 22 Feb. 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/oct/15/neil-gaiman-future-libraries-reading-daydreaming Finding and Reading Your Own Newspaper Articles - What Do You Want to Read? - In this unit we are discussing news and current events. Rather than having me decide what we are going to read, each of you is going to choose one news article that interests you. - You may use an online article or an article from a physical paper. To find an article in your academic library, go to the main library page and/or ask for assistance (help) from a librarian, either in person or electronically. - Search or Browse in an Online Newspaper - If you want to look for articles about a specific topic, use the search box at the top of the page. - If you are unsure what you want to read about, click on a specific publication date. You will then see a list of all of the articles in that edition. - Note: News and current events are time sensitive (something published 2 years ago will not reflect the current situation). Therefore, please choose an article from within the last three months. - Student Discussion: What article have you found that you want to read? Why did you choose this article? What made you want to read it? Is the topic something you are familiar with, or is it new information? - Reading Your Article - For some online sources have a play button that enables an online reader. If you have access to this feature, you can either read and listen or listen first and then read. - Make sure you do your pre-reading: What do you expect this article to be about? Do you see any words you need to look up before reading? What do you already know on this topic? - Reading is about getting information. Learning new vocabulary is a secondary part of the process and should not take over the actual reading. So, you are only allowed to look up a maximum of 5 words, AND you must look them up either before or after reading. Do not interrupt (break into) your reading to look up vocabulary. - Discussion Response - What did you learn from reading this article? What is the main idea? What is the author’s purpose in writing it? - Did you enjoy this article? Explain. Was it like you thought it would be, or was it different? Would you recommend this article to someone else? Why or why not? Reading Essays and Using Them as Examples and/or Inspiration - What Is an Essay? - Wikipedia says that an essay is “ a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument…” - They can be formal or informal or in between. - They can follow any number of rhetorical (way it is written) patterns including: narration, description, argumentation, comparison/contrast, or definition. - They are non-fiction, which means that they cover events that actually happened in the way described. - Tips for Reading Essays - Don’t look up every word you do not know. However, you should look up new words that the author uses more than once. - Stop at the end of every paragraph and think, “What did I just read? What is important in this paragraph?” - As you read, think about why the author has written this essay. - At the end ask yourself, “What is the thesis or main idea of this essay? Why did the author write it? What am I supposed to get from reading it? How does what this author says relate to me?” - Essay Choices that Work Well - “Tortillas” by José Antonio Burciaga - “I Want a Wife” by Judy Brady - “My Journey Home” by Sejal Patel Patel, Sejal. “My Journey Home . America, My Home Essay Contest \| PBS.” Www.Pbs.Org, 2004. https://www.pbs.org/weta/myjourneyhome/essays/sejal_p.html - Homework Assignment for “Tortillas” 1. What is the thesis/main idea of "Tortillas"? Think about why Burciaga wrote the essay and what he wants us to get from reading it. 2. Define the following words from the essay. The numbers in parentheses ( ) are the paragraph numbers telling you where the words occur. If you know the meaning, you can use your own words. If you do not, you can look them up in a dictionary. yarmulke (2), absconded (3), concocted (7), maize (3), adobe (4) - Food Definition Paragraph Assignment Inspired by “Tortillas” - Using "Tortillas" as inspiration, write a paragraph where you define a particular food by using description and perhaps a little narration (story). Think about how you can paint a sense (how it tastes, smells, feels, looks, sounds) picture for your readers. In the last sentence, tell us what the food is. - Remember that you MUST use good sentence variety and strong verbs. This paragraph should be at least 9 sentences long which means that at least 4 sentences must begin with something before the subject. Make sure you also vary sentence length because you run the risk of making your sentences sound exactly the same when you begin describing. You do NOT want to say: It smells like....It sounds like.... Use some story elements. Tell us what/who this food reminds you of. What memories does it evoke (bring up)? - Student Discussion Response for “My Journey Home”: What did you think of this essay? Explain. Were you surprised that the author is in high school? Explain. Did you relate to the author? Have you had similar experiences? Explain. Where do you think of as your home? Is your answer the same as the author's or different? - Home Paragraph Inspired by “My Journey Home” Using the essay as your model, write a paragraph describing your home. It can be a structure, a town, a country. Describe what home means to you. As always, make sure you use sentence variety. You are required to begin at least one sentence with a participle phrase.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.092194	Reading Informational Text	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88752/overview", "title": "Reading Activities for Speed and Comprehension - ESL Level 1", "author": "Reading Foundation Skills" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74101/overview	HS+ English Portfolio (2020) Overview This Portfolio and English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focus on developing and demonstrating student skills in writing and communicating with audiences in diverse educational, professional, and personal contexts.This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn high school credits in English and/or electives. About this Course This Portfolio and English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focus on developing and demonstrating student skills in writing and communicating with audiences in diverse educational, professional, and personal contexts. Topics include: - Introductions Through Poetry - Summaries Through Song - Peer Review And Rhetorical Analysis - Exploring Education And Equity - Rhetorical Grammar - Revising, Reviewing And Redoing - Evaluating One’s Self And The Future - Building A Portfolio This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn high school credits in English and/or electives. Culturally Responsive Approach This course was intentionally developed to align with the Washington State Board for Community and Technical College’s vision, mission, values, and strategic plan. The Culturally Responsive Scorecard, developed by NYU Steinhardt, was a guiding document in the development of this course. Sincere efforts were made to develop a culturally responsive curriculum that is inclusive of all students, with particular emphasis on highlighting the histories, experiences, and strengths of historically underserved populations. Faculty planning to teach this course should review modules thoroughly prior to presenting material to students. The HS+ Instructor Resource Guide provides resources and strategies that may be a useful starting place for faculty to address gaps in knowledge and confidence. Course Outcomes - Read, evaluate, and integrate content across diverse media and formats, including visual, audio, quantitative and written texts - Use technological tools to read and compose in multiple formats - Write narrative, descriptive, and argument essays - Practice writing as a process, including drafts, peer review, instructor feedback, and revision - Evaluate the needs of your audience. Make communication choices based on the audience for your work. - Consider audiences within and beyond the classroom. Evaluate the needs of audiences in multiple contexts - Explore and communicate personal, career, and educational goals for multiple audiences. - Gather evidence for writing from multiple sources, assess the credibility of sources, and integrate the information to support ideas in writing College and Career Readiness Standards Throughout the course students demonstrate the following: Reading Reading anchor standard 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Writing - Writing Anchor Standard 3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details and well-structured event sequences. - Writing anchor standard 5: Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. - Writing anchor standard 6: Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others. - Writing anchor standard 8: Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding plagiarism. Speaking and Listening Speaking and Listening anchor standard 6: Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and communicative tasks, demonstrating command of formal English when indicated or appropriate.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.110157	10/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74101/overview", "title": "HS+ English Portfolio (2020)", "author": "SBCTC Admin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90664/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 3: Expansion of the Universe Overview Edwin Hubble examined the spectra of many galaxies, looking for the red (longer wavelengths) or blue (shorter wavelengths) shifts in the spectra, indicating relative motion. To his surprise, not only did all of the galaxies appear to be moving, but all were moving away from us, no matter the direction of the galaxy. In addition, he found most galaxies exhibited a redshift, and the redshift was larger the further it was from our galaxy. Distant Nature: Astronomy Exercises 2016 by Stephen Tuttle under license "Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike". ASTR 1020 - Lab 3: Expansion of the Universe Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: 1. Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. 2. Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. 3. Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. 4. Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. 5. Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. 6. Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.128478	03/04/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90664/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 3: Expansion of the Universe", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99303/overview	Zoot Suit Riots: The Work of Luis Valdez Overview "Part fascinating fact, part dazzling fiction, Zoot Suit is the blistering film adaptation of playwright Luis Valdez' critically acclaimed stage drama based on the 'zoot suit riots' that rocked 1940s Los Angeles." (youtube) Luis Valdez's play, Zoot Suit, was a product of it's time, but it also a product of the original time of the story. This means that it held relevance when Valdez wrote it, and it held relevance in relation to the original zoot suit riots that happened. This brings up the following questions: - Is Zoot Suit relevant today? - What would need to happen for Zoot Suit to be relevant only as a historical representation? Please write a 250 word response to each of these questions (500 words minium). Use the film/play as a reference, as well as supporting materials if appropriate. Proper grammar, spelling, punctuation, formatting are expected. Zoot Suit Riots: The Work of Luis Valdez Luis Valdez's play, Zoot Suit, was a product of it's time, but it also a product of the original time of the story. This means that it held relevance when Valdez wrote it, and it held relevance in relation to the original zoot suit riots that happened.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.146446	Lori DeLappe	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99303/overview", "title": "Zoot Suit Riots: The Work of Luis Valdez", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76372/overview	UNC System - Introduction to Statistics Video Overview Introduction to Statistics course collection video from the UNC System OER project. This one-minute video is meant for students. It focuses on what students may think they know about the topic, what students could learn from taking the course, and a brief introduction to open educational resources. UNC System - Introduction to Statistics Video [UNC System OER video: Introduction to Statistics]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.164173	01/15/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76372/overview", "title": "UNC System - Introduction to Statistics Video", "author": "Anna Craft" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103951/overview	Exercise on Chaplin's _The Immigrant_ Overview A no-frills essay assignment featuring Chaplin's The Immigrant. Beginning with Illustration in Charlie Chaplin’s The Immigrant We’ve already begun to concentrate on some of the various ways that silent-era, slapstick comedies managed to get their audiences to laugh. One of the more unexpected sources of humor that we’ve discovered lies in the way these films portrayed people and situations that would ordinarily cause a great deal of anxiety for audiences in the 1910s and 20s. In Buster Keaton’s Cops, for example, we saw how a series of encounters with angry police officers – the kind of encounters that still causes people to feel nervous – could make audiences laugh. As Keaton and other pioneers of film comedy discovered, the climax of a comic routine seems all the funnier if some anxiety is built up along the way and then abruptly dispelled with a punch-line at the end of a gag. Now we’re looking at one of Charlie Chaplin’s most popular short films. As you watch our (25 minute) imbedded stream of The Immigrant, make some quick notes about the way in which Chaplin portrays some of the things that would generate anxiety for immigrants who have just arrived in this country. Imagine these immigrants sitting in a movie theater in 1917, watching Chaplin encounter some of the very challenges that they themselves were facing in their own lives. Make a list of the people and situations in the film that might cause immigrants to feel threatened, humiliated, or frustrated. We’ll discuss your lists on our board and look at the way in which Chaplin manages to dispel the anxiety of immigrants in his audience by infusing flashes of humor into the scenes you’re listing for us. For our first, formal writing assignment, we are using the Illustration/Example strategy to address the immigrant experience as depicted in Chaplin’s film. Our focus should be on form: placement of the thesis, paragraphing, topic sentences, transitions, etc. We are looking for neat, clean, simple organization and prose free of mechanical errors. Your essay will be submitted at four stages in the writing process as four separate documents in the TurnitIn “assignments” feature: thesis, outline, rough draft with Works Cited page, and final draft. I will provide feedback via the “comments” field at each stage. You’ll begin by consulting the list of examples you made to develop a controlling idea and thesis about the film’s use of humor as social commentary. Then you’ll develop an outline by identifying categories for paragraphs that group like examples together, and that you can describe in strong topic sentences. Your rough draft will be MLA formatted. It will have a Works Cited page with ONE source on it (Chaplin’s The Immigrant). Your final draft will be at least 800 words in length and free of typographical and grammatical errors. Let’s get moving!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.218782	05/16/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103951/overview", "title": "Exercise on Chaplin's _The Immigrant_", "author": "Jenny Netto" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88956/overview	Cultural Anthropology-The Art of Being Human-D2L Course Resources Overview Resources in this file includes a D2L adapted version of Michael Wesch's The Art of Being Human textbook, Quizzes, and 10 Challenges. The textbook was transferred into Rise 360 before being loaded into HTML shells. The structure of the course was built for a 7 week semester but could be easily adapted to a 15 week semester. Intro to Cultural Anthropology Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: 1. Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. 2. Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. 3. Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. 4. Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. 5. Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. 6. Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.238566	12/27/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88956/overview", "title": "Cultural Anthropology-The Art of Being Human-D2L Course Resources", "author": "michael mccamish" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66274/overview	The Legislative Process Overview The Legislative Process Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Analyze the Texas legislative process (aka How a Bill Becomes a Law) Introduction This section discusses the Texas legislative process. How do Legislators Make Decisions? The people we elect to be lawmakers determines the rules we have to live by. So, it is good for us to understand what influences the decisions of lawmakers. Unfortunately, we can't know for sure. We would like to believe that whatever they promised on the campaign trail will be what they deliver on in office. That is often not the case. We know that public opinion polls sometimes reflect how lawmakers will decide to vote on issues. We also know that interest groups play a role in how decisions are made. One of the biggest factors is probably political ideology. Is the politician a conservative or a liberal? Or, partisanship might be a factor. Is the politician a Republican or a Democrat? At the end of the day, it is for us to determine whether we believe that politicians are doing the right thing regardless of the influences on their decisions. Setting the Stage and Making the Rules The legislature meets every odd-numbered year to write new laws and to find solutions to the problems facing the state. This meeting time, which begins on the second Tuesday in January and lasts 140 days, is called the regular session. The governor can direct the legislature to meet at other times also. These meetings, called special sessions, can last no more than 30 days and deal only with issues chosen by the governor. On the first day of each regular session, the 150 members of the House of Representatives choose one of their members to be the Speaker of the House. The speaker is the presiding officer of the House. The Speaker maintains order, recognizes members to speak during debate, and rules on procedural matters. The Speaker also appoints the chairs and vice chairs of the committees that study legislation and decides which other representatives will serve on those committees, subject to seniority rules. There are 31 committees, each of which deals with a different subject area, and five committees that deal with procedural or administrative matters for the house. Most members serve on two or three different committees. In the Senate, the presiding officer is the Lieutenant Governor, who is not actually a member of the Senate. The Lieutenant Governor is the second-highest-ranking officer of the executive branch of government and, like the Governor, is chosen for a four-year term by popular vote in a statewide election. The first thing that the Speaker of the House and the Lieutenant Governor ask their respective chambers to do is to decide on the rules that the legislators will follow during the session. Some legislative procedures are provided for in the state constitution, but additional rules can be adopted by a house of the legislature if approved by a majority vote of its members. Once rules have been adopted, the legislature begins to consider bills. Introducing a Bill A representative or senator gets an idea for a bill by listening to the people he or she represents and then working to solve their problem. A bill may also grow out of the recommendations of an interim committee study conducted when the legislature is not in session. The idea is researched to determine what state law needs to be changed or created to best solve that problem. A bill is then drafted by the legislator, often with the help of an interest group and with legal assistance from the Texas Legislative Council, a legislative agency that provides bill drafting services, research assistance, computer support, and other services for legislators. Once a bill has been written, it is introduced by a member of the House or Senate in the member’s own chamber. Sometimes, similar bills about a particular issue are introduced in both chambers at the same time by a representative and senator working together. However, any bill increasing taxes or raising money for use by the state must start in the House of Representatives. Representatives and senators can introduce bills on any subject during the first 60 calendar days of a regular session. After 60 days, the introduction of any bill other than a local bill or a bill related to an emergency declared by the governor requires the consent of at least four-fifths of the members present and voting in the house or four-fifths of the membership in the senate. After a bill has been introduced, a short description of the bill, called a caption, is read aloud while the chamber is in session so that all of the members are aware of the bill and its subject. This is called the first reading, and it is the point in the process where the presiding officer assigns the bill to a committee. This assignment is announced on the chamber floor during the first reading of the bill. The Committee Process The chair of each committee decides when the committee will meet and which bills will be considered. The House rules permit a House committee or subcommittee to meet: (1) in a public hearing where testimony is heard and where official action may be taken on bills, resolutions, or other matters; (2) in a formal meeting where the members may discuss and take official action without hearing public testimony; or (3) in a work session for discussion of matters before the committee without taking formal action. In the Senate, testimony may be heard and official action may be taken at any meeting of a Senate committee or subcommittee. Public testimony is almost always solicited on bills, allowing citizens the opportunity to present arguments on different sides of an issue. A House committee or subcommittee holding a public hearing during a legislative session must post notice of the hearing at least five calendar days before the hearing during a regular session and at least 24 hours in advance during a special session. For a formal meeting or a work session, written notice must be posted and sent to each member of the committee two hours in advance of the meeting or an announcement must be filed with the journal clerk and read while the House is in session. A Senate committee or subcommittee must post notice of a meeting at least 24 hours before the meeting. After considering a bill, a committee may choose to take no action or may issue a report on the bill. The committee report, expressing the committee’s recommendations regarding action on a bill, includes a record of the committee’s vote on the report, the text of the bill as reported by the committee, a detailed bill analysis, and a fiscal note or other impact statement, as necessary. The report is then printed, and a copy is distributed to every member of the house or senate. In the House, a copy of the committee report is sent to either the Committee on Calendars or the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars for placement on a calendar for consideration by the full house. In the Senate, local and noncontroversial bills are scheduled for senate consideration by the Senate Administration Committee. All other bills in the Senate are placed on the regular order of business for consideration by the full Senate in the order in which the bills were reported from the Senate committee. At the beginning of each legislative session, a “blocker bill” is placed on the regular order of business. This bill will never be brought to the floor for action. Consequently, unless the sponsor of the bill has talked to the president of the Senate, indicating intent to suspend the rules and bring a bill to the floor, the bill will not be considered. Thus, the president of the Senate maintains a so-called “intent calendar,” which determines the order of business in the Senate. In 2021, the Senate Rules required a vote of 18 members to suspend the rules so that a bill on the intent calendar could be considered on the floor. Floor Action Floor Debate When a bill comes up for consideration by the full House or Senate, it receives its second reading. The bill is read, again by caption only, and then debated by the full membership of the chamber. Any member may offer an amendment, but it must be approved by a majority of the members present and voting to be adopted. The members then vote on whether to pass the bill. The bill is then considered by the full body again on the third reading and final passage. A bill may be amended again on the third reading, but amendments at this stage require a two-thirds majority for adoption. Although the Texas Constitution requires a bill to be read on three separate days in each chamber before it can become law, this constitutional requirement may be suspended by a four-fifths vote of the chamber in which the bill is pending. The Senate routinely suspends this provision in order to give a bill a third reading immediately after its adopted on second reading. The House rarely suspends this provision. However, since the readings are required on three separate legislative days, the House can recess at the end of one calendar day, reconvene the next calendar day, pass a bill on second reading, then adjourn. During the same calendar day, the House can convene a new legislative day, pass the bill on third reading, and the constitutional requirement is met even though the bill was read twice on the same calendar day. This is especially important at the end of the regular legislative session. Voting on the Floor In either chamber, a bill may be passed on a voice vote or a record vote. In the House, record votes are tallied by an electronic vote board controlled by buttons on each member’s desk. In the Senate, record votes are taken by calling the roll of the members. If a bill receives a majority vote on third reading, it is considered passed. When a bill is passed in the house where it originated, the bill is engrossed, and a new copy of the bill which incorporates all corrections and amendments is prepared and sent to the opposite chamber for consideration. In the second house, the bill follows basically the same steps it followed in the first house. When the bill is passed in the opposite house, it is returned to the originating chamber with any amendments that have been adopted simply attached to the bill. Action on the Other Chamber's Amendments and Conference Committees The Texas Constitution requires a bill to pass both chambers in identical form. Consequently, if a bill is returned to the originating chamber with amendments, the originating chamber can either agree to the amendments or request a conference committee to work out differences between the House and Senate version. If the amendments are agreed to, the bill is put in final form, signed by the presiding officers, and sent to the governor. Conference committees are composed of five members from each house appointed by the presiding officers. Once the conference committee reaches agreement, a conference committee report is prepared and must be approved by at least three of the five conferees from each house. Conference committee reports are voted on in each house and must be approved or rejected without amendment. If approved by both chambers, the bill is signed by the presiding officers and sent to the governor. Governor’s Action Upon receiving a bill, the governor has 10 days in which to sign the bill, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. If the governor vetoes the bill and the legislature is still in session, the bill is returned to the house in which it originated with an explanation of the governor’s objections. A two-thirds majority in each house is required to override the veto. If the governor neither vetoes nor signs the bill within 10 days, the bill becomes a law. If a bill is sent to the governor within 10 days of final adjournment, the governor has until 20 days after final adjournment to sign the bill, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. At this point, the governor’s veto is absolute since the legislature has adjourned, and only the governor can call the legislature back for a special session. Enactment (When Laws Go Into Effect) Any bill passed by the Legislature takes effect 90 days after its passage unless two-thirds of each house votes to give the bill either immediate effect or earlier effect. The Legislature may provide for an effective date that is after the 90th day. Under current legislative practice, most bills are given an effective date of September 1 in odd-numbered years (September 1 is the start of the state’s fiscal year). Basic Steps in the Texas Legislative Process (Diagram) Constitutional Amendments Proposed amendments to the Texas Constitution are in the form of joint resolutions instead of bills and require a vote of two-thirds of the entire membership in each house for adoption. Joint resolutions are not sent to the governor for approval, but are filed directly with the secretary of state. A joint resolution proposing an amendment to the Texas Constitution does not become effective until it is approved by a simple majority of Texas voters in a general election. Link to Learning Want to Get Involved? Check out the Citizen Handbook the Secretary of the Senate, which includes information on the legislative process in Texas, advocacy etiquette, and guidelines. The Texas Legislative Council has provided a detailed description of the legislative process in Texas. You may research past and current legislation at the Texas Legislature Online. Licensing and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT How a Bill Becomes a Law. Authored by: Texas House of Representatives. Located at: https://house.texas.gov/about-us/bill/ License: Public Domain: No Known	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.273643	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66274/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Texas Legislature, The Legislative Process", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66275/overview	Compensation, Privileges, and Immunities Overview Compensation, Privileges, and Immunities Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the basic compensation, privileges, and immunities of Texas legislators Introduction This section describes the basic compensation, privileges, and immunities of Texas legislators Compensation Salary State legislators in Texas make $600 per month or $7,200 per year, plus a per diem set by the Ethics Commission in Rule 50.1. The per diem in the 2021-2022 biennium was $221 for every day the Legislature is in session (regular or special). This adds up to a total of $38,140 in a year with a regular session ($7200 salary plus $30,940 per diem), and a two-year term paying a total of $45,340 ($14,400 salary plus $30,940 per diem). Retirement Options Legislators receive a pension after eight years of service, starting at age 60. A legislator’s pension is based not on a legislator’s salary of $600 a month, but on the current salary of a Texas state district court judge—a base salary of $140,000 per year. Legislative Immunities The Texas Constitution grants two types of immunities to Texas state legislators. One protects speech and debate. The other prevents or limits arrest during the legislative session. Speech and Debate Immunities The Texas Constitution (Article III, Section 21) grants Texas state legislators a fundamental protection of free speech and debate. This immunity protects legislators from punitive executive or judicial action. The intent is to allow lawmakers to work independently and unimpeded by the threat of intervention from the other branches of government in the discharge of their legislative duties. Arrest Immunities Texas state legislators are also protected from arrest traveling to and from and during legislative sessions. Exceptions include treason, felony, or breach of the peace. Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.293024	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66275/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Texas Legislature, Compensation, Privileges, and Immunities", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124429/overview	Infection Prevention Micro-credential - Course Files Micro-credential Resources and Guidance Documents Infection Prevention Micro-credential Overview This resource contains the full course content for the Infection Prevention Micro-credential for healthcare and nursing students. This foundational level micro-credential takes 2-3 hours to complete and includes content formats such as powerpoint lectures, videos, articles, links, and images, assessments, as well as some interactive content. All content was created in collaboration with healthcare employers and SMEs in the healthcare field. Within this resource you will find: all course files, IMSCC file for embedding into Blackboard LMS, and resources and guidance documents for implementation. Infection Prevention Micro-credential Course Description Infection prevention in healthcare is fundamental to ensuring patient safety and well-being. This course provides a comprehensive overview of the principles, practices, and strategies used to prevent the spread of infections in healthcare settings. Topics include understanding the diverse types of infections and occupational hazards encountered in healthcare settings and how they are spread. Examining infection control practices and interventions to prevent infectious agent transmission will be covered. Minimizing the risk of exposure to infectious agents for healthcare workers and patients will be discussed. Skills: Infection prevention and control \|Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) \| Infection Transmission Prevention \| Bloodborne Pathogen Standard About: The micro-credential is intended to be taken online independently. It should take between 2-3 hours to complete. It is a foundational level micro-credential, and has been developed with healthcare industry professionals from large healthcare employers in the state of CT. Course Files (ZIP Folder): This folder contains all course files, including PowerPoint presentations, images, and external documents. It also includes a course roadmap, which outlines the intended sequence for building the course from scratch. The embedded links document provides all resource links used within the micro-credential. SCORM File: This Common Cartridge file is designed to directly embed the entire course and its content into a compatible Learning Management System (LMS). It was used in Blackboard Ultra and is formatted to SCORM 1.2. Resources and Guidance Documents (ZIP Folder): This folder contains instructional resources and guidance for instructors on how to effectively use the provided materials. Grant Disclaimer This content was created as part of the CT SHIP grant, lead by CT State Community College - Norwalk. The total cost of CT Statewide Healthcare Industry Pathway project (CT SHIP) was $6.9M. $3.4M (49%) was funded through a U.S. Department of Labor – Employment and Training Administration grant and another $3.5M (51%) was committed through non-federal state and local resources. The Workforce product was funded by the grant awarded by the U.S Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration. The product was created by the grantee and does not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S Department of Labor. The U.S Department of Labor makes no guarantees, warranties, or assurances of any kind, express or implied, with respect to such information, including any information on any linked sites and include, but not limited to, the accuracy of the information or its completeness, timeliness, usefulness, adequacy, continued availability, or ownership.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.315930	02/06/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124429/overview", "title": "Infection Prevention Micro-credential", "author": "Renee Dunbar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120306/overview	Healthy Lifestyle Overview This lesson includes various activities and tasks directed at A2 English learners. Students will use their background knowledge about "Healthy Lifestyles" and expand their understanding through a range of proposed tasks. This lesson will help them develop critical thinking about maintaining a healthy lifestyle while improving their language skills in writing, speaking, listening, and reading. Introduction A healthy lifestyle is important for everyone, no matter their age or background. It involves making simple, everyday choices that benefit both the body and the mind. For English learners, understanding these basic concepts is essential not only for their personal well-being but also to help them navigate conversations about health in English-speaking environments. In this lesson, students will explore the key aspects of a healthy lifestyle, including proper nutrition, regular exercise, staying hydrated, getting enough sleep, and managing stress. Through a variety of interactive activities, students will not only improve their English language skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—but also learn how to make healthier choices in their daily lives. By the end of the lesson, students will feel more confident discussing their own routines and will be able to offer simple suggestions for staying healthy. Image taken from: Pixlr. (n.d.). AI Image Generator. Retrieved from https://pixlr.com/es/image-generator/ STEAM Device Goals ICT Goals \| Technological competence \| Competence Descriptor: Effectively integrates a variety of digital tools and resources into educational activities, adapting them to the subject matter, the students' needs, and the educational context, to promote a dynamic and interactive learning experience. Objective: Students will develop technological competence by utilizing digital tools and resources to explore different aspects of healthy living, such as balanced diets and physical activities, and by interacting with multimedia materials for listening and reading practice. \| \| Communicative Competence \| Competence Descriptor: Fosters collaborative learning by utilizing digital platforms and communication tools that encourage teamwork and interaction, allowing students to share ideas, discuss content, and build on each other's contributions within a supportive learning community. Objective: Students will develop communicative competence by engaging in pair or group discussions, using digital platforms and communication tools to share their daily routines and suggest healthy lifestyle improvements. \| \| Research Competence \| Competence Descriptor: Uses ICT effectively to investigate, collect, and evaluate relevant information, applying research findings to classroom activities while fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills within real-world contexts. Objective: Students will use digital tools to gather information about healthy foods and exercise routines. They will analyze this information to make simple recommendations for living a healthier life, developing both their research and analytical skills in the process. \| English Goals (A2 Level) \| Oral Production A2 \| \| \| Oral Interaction A2 \| \| PowerPoint Game - “Think Healthy” Instructions: We will start today’s class with a fun and interactive PowerPoint game! The game is called “Think Healthy”, and it’s all about making the right choices when it comes to healthy food. Open the game using the link provided: How to play: - You will be presented with multiple-choice questions (a, b, c) about healthy food. - For each question, choose the option that you think is the healthiest or most appropriate. - Discuss your answer with your partner before confirming it! Objective: - By the end of the game, you should have a better understanding of which foods are healthier choices and why Task 1 Watch the video: Healthy Eating Habits Video Before starting, watch the video and take notes on key ideas related to healthy eating. This will help guide your discussion with your partner. - Pair: Discuss the following questions with your partner: - What are some foods you try to avoid eating, and why? - What are some healthy habits you recommend to others? - Is there a food you want to start including in your diet? Why? - What is something new you decided to try eating recently? - What is your favorite healthy snack, and when do you like eating it? - Collaborative Brainstorm (Padlet) Instructions: In this activity, you will work together to create a list of 5 healthy eating habits. Use the link below to access our class Padlet board: Steps: - Discuss with your group the healthy eating habits you believe are most important. - Add your list to the Padlet board, making sure to explain why each habit is important. For example: - Habit: Drink water regularly. - Importance: Staying hydrated helps your body function properly and supports overall health 3. Share with the Class Share your healthy eating habits with the rest of the class. Explain how these habits can help improve overall health. Task 2 Remember... Instructions: Work in pairs to clasify the following verbs into two categories: gerunds and infinitives. For each verb, create a food-related phrase that follows it. Verbs: - Enjoy - Try - Want - Decide - Avoid - Plan - Love - Recommend - Hope Example: - Gerunds: I enjoy eating bananas in the mornings. - Infinitives: Today I want to eat apples. Sorting Exercise Gerunds: - Enjoy: __________________________________________ - Try: __________________________________________ - Avoid: _________________________________________ - Love: _________________________________________ - Recommend: ____________________________________ Infinitives: - Want: __________________________________________ - Decide: ________________________________________ - Plan: __________________________________________ - Hope: __________________________________________ Follow-up Activity: Once you’ve completed the sorting, share your phrases with another pair and discuss why you chose those specific foods. Task 3 Now it’s time to put your knowledge to the test! Please perform the following activity based on what we discussed in class about healthy lifestyles and habits. Instructions: - Click on the link below to access the quiz: Healthy Habits Quiz - Complete the quiz by answering all the questions related to healthy habits. - Take your time to think about each question and choose the best answer based on our discussions. After the Quiz: - Be prepared to discuss your answers and any questions you may have with the class. Enjoy the activity! Assessment Now it’s time to check how much you’ve learned about healthy lifestyles! Instructions: Please complete the assessment by following the link below. The assessment is designed to test your understanding of the key concepts discussed in class, including vocabulary, gerunds and infinitives, and healthy eating habits. Assessment Link: Complete the Assessment Here Important: - Make sure to answer all questions to the best of your ability. - Take your time and review your answers before submitting the form. Good luck! You can do it!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.343530	Game	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120306/overview", "title": "Healthy Lifestyle", "author": "Nutrition" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101528/overview	Introduction to Logic OER Overview An introductory text in logic intended for the first two years of college covering basics, informal fallacies, inductive reasoning, categorical and propositional logic. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? The most useful thing so far has been this remixing option. My plan is to create an OER for Introduction to Logic with an accompanying homework platform (that's where most of the work will be). My Audience: I'm aiming at college students in their first two years, but particularly their first semester, since I want accessing and 'paying' for their text as easy as possible for their sake and mine. My Team: Who I think I really only need some tech support/advice early in the process. Existing Resources: For the text, I plan on cutting, pasting, and revising the following two sources. I don't think they are in the Commons area, so I'm not sure how to add them there. New Resources: I primarly just need to create a whole lotta logic problems for homework. Supports Needed: I don't think so. Our Timeline: I have not firmly established a timeline, but I hope it doesn't take more than two years. Chapter One: Introduction to Basic Concepts - Statements, Premises, and Conclusions - Truth value & Statements vs. non-statements - 10x3 problems - "Hurry up and finish your dinner!" This does or does not have truth value and therefore is or is not a sentence. - 10x3 problems - Premise Indicators - 5x3 problems - An argument where they have to identify the premise indicator word and the premise. - 5x3 problems - Conclusion Indicators - 5x3 problems - An argument where they have to identify the conclusion indicator and the conclusion - 5x3 problems - Standard Form - 5x3 problems - Have to rewrite arguments in standard form. - 5x3 problems - Truth value & Statements vs. non-statements - Arguments vs. non-arguments - Factual Claims - 5x3 problems - Students identify factual vs. non-factual claims - 5x3 problems - Inferential Claims - 5x3 problems - Students identify inferential vs. non-inferential claims - 5x3 problems - Simple non-inferential passages - 10x3 problems - Students identify piece of advice, loosely associated sentences, reports, and warnings - 10x3 problems - Explanations, Expository Passages, and Illustrations - 10x3 problems - Students identify explanations, expository passages, illustrations, and arguments - 10x3 problems - Arguments vs non-arguments - 10x3 problems - Students identify arguments from all types of non-arguments - 10x3 problems - Factual Claims - Deductive vs. Inductive arguments - Probablity vs. Necessity - 5x3 problems - Students figure out if the argument uses necessary or probablisitic reasoning and is therefore deductive or inductive - 5x3 problems - Indicator words - 10x3 problems - Students identify indicator words used in arguments (some are indicators are correct and some aren't) - 10x3 problems - Deductive Argument Forms - Probablity vs. Necessity - Evalutaing Arguments - The Counterexample Method Chapter Two: Informal Fallacies - Fallacies of Relevance - Fallacies of Weak Induction - Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Transference Chapter Three: Analogical and Causal Reasoning - Analogical Reasoning - Causal Reasoning Chapter Four: Categorical Arguments - Parts & Properties of Categorical Statements - The Modern Square of Opposition & The Three Operations - The Traditional Square of Opposition - Properties of Categorical Syllogisms - Evaluating Categorical Syllogisms Chapter Five: Propositional Logic - Truth Functions - Truth Tables for Propositions & Arguments - Indirect Truth Tables Chapter Six: Natural Deduction - First Four Rules of Implication - Second Four Rules of Implication - First Five Rules of Replacement - Second Five Rules of Replacement Reflection I'll have more control and flexibility with the text. Most importantly, it will save my students money, and it will ease some of the beginning-of-the-semester for students and me.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.368707	03/02/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101528/overview", "title": "Introduction to Logic OER", "author": "Nik Byle" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95207/overview	NEW ENZYMES ENZYME BIOCHEMISTRY FOR DENTAL STUDENTS Overview This is a power point presentation on Enzyme Biochemistry for Dental Students and Paramedical Students. Enzymes Chapter on Enzyme Biochemistry for Medical ,Dental ,Paramedical Students. The Chapter on Enzyme Biochemistry is uploaded for dental students ,Medical students and Paramedical students specifically. Enzyme Biochemistry for Dental Students This chapter covers essential aspects of enzyme Biochemistry for Dental Students.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.387165	07/14/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95207/overview", "title": "ENZYME BIOCHEMISTRY FOR DENTAL STUDENTS", "author": "Dr.Pradeep Dave" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124455/overview	Education Standards Archaeology in a Box Paired Worksheet - PDF Archaeology in a Box Lesson Plan - 3rd Grade Overview Sample Elemtary School Lesson Plan Grade 3 Background Information Duration 20 minutes Behavioral objective Students will learn to identify each 3D printed manipulative and explain its historical function in a 20-25 minute period in small groups. Assessment Teacher will collect the paper that each student had to fill out about their artifact. Materials and/or equipment - 3D printed objects in paper boxes - Guided worksheet - Smartboard to view website as a class - Pencils Anticipatory set Teaching procedures/sequence - Anticipatory set - Introduce the lesson topic for the day. - We will be using different 3D printed manipulatives for students to explore objects that have been found in PA and make educated guesses about what the object is, what it was used for, and how old it is. - If necessary, share a slide or orally discuss vocabulary for the lesson. Development Teaching procedures/sequence - Development - In small groups, students will move to different locations around the classroom and look at the artifact that is already in a box at that location. - Students will have 4 minutes to look at the artifact and write their ideas about the artifact down on a worksheet. - Students will switch to one more location and see a different artifact. They will have another 4 minutes to repeat the same steps. - Following exploration at 2 locations, we will come back together as a class. Each group will have the chance to share their predictions about the artifact before going over the real information on the Archaeology in a Box website. - If time allows after looking at the website, students will fill out on the worksheet if their predictions were correct. If there is not enough time, we also may finish this at another time. Closure: Teaching procedures/sequence - Closure - Teacher will collect worksheets to assess information that was learned by each student.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.414621	Cayden Tester	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124455/overview", "title": "Archaeology in a Box Lesson Plan - 3rd Grade", "author": "Thomas McClain" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79919/overview	Chapter 2 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapters 3 and 4 OpenStax College Algebra Lecture Guides Overview These lecture guides will aid students as they progress through the first semester of College Algebra. They highlight key concepts, allow for note-taking and problem examples to be recorded, and serve to improve student engagement with the material during instruction. Chapter 1 These lecture guides are designed to be given to students as a study aid, reference, and note-taking tool during the course. Students reference key points through each section with space for notes and problem examples.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.435605	05/06/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79919/overview", "title": "OpenStax College Algebra Lecture Guides", "author": "Christina Trunnell" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82034/overview	Bones and Markings Brain Only (no brain dissection included) Cells, Cell Variation, Cell Division Lab 10-Major Muscles of the Body Lab 11-Muscle Fatigue and Physiology v2 Lab 12-Microanatomy of the Nervous System Lab 13- The Brain Lab 14-The Spinal Cord & Selected Spinal Nerves v2 with KLB drawings Lab 15-Reflexes & The Neurological Exam Lab 16-Tactile Sensation Lab 1-The Language of Anatomy Lab 2-The Microscope Lab 3-Investigating Cells and Cell Variations Lab 5-Body Tissues in Humans Lab 6-The Skeletal System--Microscopic & Gross Anatomy of Bones Lab 7-The Skeletal System--Bones and Bone Markings Lab 9-Microanatomy of the Muscular System Materials & Prep List for Julie’s OER A&P 1 Labs Microscopy Muscle Labeling on Models Muscle Labeling on Models #2 Muscles Microanatomy Name That Tissue Jeopardy Style (not included in the lab manual) Practice for Bones and Markings in Lab Models Practice for Brain Model Labeling Practice for C5 Cross Section Model and Longitudinal Spinal Cord Model (3) Practice for Cell Models Labeling Practice for Microscopy Calculations Practice for Muscle Model Labeling Reflexes Skeletal System Micro & Gross Anatomy, Bones & Markings, Joints Spinal Cord and Reflexes Tips for Determining Left vs Right for Bones Tissues Anatomy & Physiology 1 Lab Manual Overview Laboratory manual for undergraduate Anatomy & Physiology 1 Anatomy & Physiology 1 Lab Manual 1st Edition Hello fellow instructors, At the end of the manual, there are "practice documents" developed with RVCC models and course content in mind. Due to formatting requirements of the print on demand service I'm using (Lulu.com), many of the pictures in these practice pages (and some in the lab exercises) are not editable. The individual lab exercises and practice documents are included below. If you have any questions, please feel free to email me jrobinson@ccsnh.edu. This lab manual was written for Anatomy & Physiology 1, a 200-level A&P course, at River Valley Community College. The course uses the OpenStax A&P textbook. The manual is intended to complement any text but does derive much of its content from the OpenStax A&P textbook. Updated 7/2/21: changed pictures in lab 12 and fixed some grammar errors. Updated 1/28/23: This is the link for the errata document--https://docs.google.com/document/d/18_0ZXX89kLznE56BMxIGP4lV3FsXAxGFoIeNgdFKOhY/edit?usp=sharing Updated 2/8/23: the compiled Word document for all labs has the errata fixed in it. You will still need to make corrections if using the individual labs. Individual Labs These documents are the individual labs that were compiled into the full lab manual. Attributions for each lab are included at the end of each lab; the compiled manual includes all attributions at the end. Please note that I am working on adding labs for joints and cell transport. Practice Documents These files contain the practice documents (in their original form) that are included in the manual compilation. The practice documents are specific to required content and materials available for students at my college. I'll add more as I create them. Lab Assignments In our lab sessions, we usually have students do lab assignments in addition to the lab activities. These may be pre-lab work, in-lab assignments, or homework. At Home Lab Kit During the pandemic, we were able to use a hybrid lab structure. Half of our students attended in person lab each week; the other half did at home or online labs. This resource shows you the material provided to students and used in our at home labs. The cost of each kit is $30.00/student. Equipment & Materials List This document contains the materials and equipment used in each lab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.487555	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82034/overview", "title": "Anatomy & Physiology 1 Lab Manual", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56364/overview	The Integumentary System Introduction Figure 5.1 Your skin is a vital part of your life and appearance (a–d). Some people choose to embellish it with tattoos (a), makeup (b), and even piercings (c). (credit a: Steve Teo; credit b: “spaceodissey”/flickr; credit c: Mark/flickr; credit d: Lisa Schaffer) CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying the chapter, you will be able to: - Describe the integumentary system and the role it plays in homeostasis - Describe the layers of the skin and the functions of each layer - Describe the accessory structures of the skin and the functions of each - Describe the changes that occur in the integumentary system during the aging process - Discuss several common diseases, disorders, and injuries that affect the integumentary system - Explain treatments for some common diseases, disorders, and injuries of the integumentary system What do you think when you look at your skin in the mirror? Do you think about covering it with makeup, adding a tattoo, or maybe a body piercing? Or do you think about the fact that the skin belongs to one of the body’s most essential and dynamic systems: the integumentary system? The integumentary system refers to the skin and its accessory structures, and it is responsible for much more than simply lending to your outward appearance. In the adult human body, the skin makes up about 16 percent of body weight and covers an area of 1.5 to 2 m2. In fact, the skin and accessory structures are the largest organ system in the human body. As such, the skin protects your inner organs and it is in need of daily care and protection to maintain its health. This chapter will introduce the structure and functions of the integumentary system, as well as some of the diseases, disorders, and injuries that can affect this system. Layers of the Skin - Identify the components of the integumentary system - Describe the layers of the skin and the functions of each layer - Identify and describe the hypodermis and deep fascia - Describe the role of keratinocytes and their life cycle - Describe the role of melanocytes in skin pigmentation Although you may not typically think of the skin as an organ, it is in fact made of tissues that work together as a single structure to perform unique and critical functions. The skin and its accessory structures make up the integumentary system, which provides the body with overall protection. The skin is made of multiple layers of cells and tissues, which are held to underlying structures by connective tissue (Figure 5.2). The deeper layer of skin is well vascularized (has numerous blood vessels). It also has numerous sensory, and autonomic and sympathetic nerve fibers ensuring communication to and from the brain. Figure 5.2 Layers of Skin The skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis, made of closely packed epithelial cells, and the dermis, made of dense, irregular connective tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other structures. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, which is composed mainly of loose connective and fatty tissues. INTERACTIVE LINK The skin consists of two main layers and a closely associated layer. View this animation to learn more about layers of the skin. What are the basic functions of each of these layers? The Epidermis The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. It does not have any blood vessels within it (i.e., it is avascular). Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as “thin skin.” From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum. Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin. “Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a fifth layer, called the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the stratum granulosum (Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3 Thin Skin versus Thick Skin These slides show cross-sections of the epidermis and dermis of (a) thin and (b) thick skin. Note the significant difference in the thickness of the epithelial layer of the thick skin. From top, LM × 40, LM × 40. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012) The cells in all of the layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes. A keratinocyte is a cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin. Keratin is an intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness and water-resistant properties. The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away, being replaced by cells from the deeper layers (Figure 5.4). Figure 5.4 Epidermis The epidermis is epithelium composed of multiple layers of cells. The basal layer consists of cuboidal cells, whereas the outer layers are squamous, keratinized cells, so the whole epithelium is often described as being keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012) INTERACTIVE LINK View the University of Michigan WebScope to explore the tissue sample in greater detail. If you zoom on the cells at the outermost layer of this section of skin, what do you notice about the cells? Stratum Basale The stratum basale (also called the stratum germinativum) is the deepest epidermal layer and attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the dermis. The cells in the stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen fibers, referred to as the basement membrane. A finger-like projection, or fold, known as the dermal papilla (plural = dermal papillae) is found in the superficial portion of the dermis. Dermal papillae increase the strength of the connection between the epidermis and dermis; the greater the folding, the stronger the connections made (Figure 5.5). Figure 5.5 Layers of the Epidermis The epidermis of thick skin has five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum. The stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells. A basal cell is a cuboidal-shaped stem cell that is a precursor of the keratinocytes of the epidermis. All of the keratinocytes are produced from this single layer of cells, which are constantly going through mitosis to produce new cells. As new cells are formed, the existing cells are pushed superficially away from the stratum basale. Two other cell types are found dispersed among the basal cells in the stratum basale. The first is a Merkel cell, which functions as a receptor and is responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that the brain perceives as touch. These cells are especially abundant on the surfaces of the hands and feet. The second is a melanocyte, a cell that produces the pigment melanin. Melanin gives hair and skin its color, and also helps protect the living cells of the epidermis from ultraviolet (UV) radiation damage. In a growing fetus, fingerprints form where the cells of the stratum basale meet the papillae of the underlying dermal layer (papillary layer), resulting in the formation of the ridges on your fingers that you recognize as fingerprints. Fingerprints are unique to each individual and are used for forensic analyses because the patterns do not change with the growth and aging processes. Stratum Spinosum As the name suggests, the stratum spinosum is spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell processes that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome. The desmosomes interlock with each other and strengthen the bond between the cells. It is interesting to note that the “spiny” nature of this layer is an artifact of the staining process. Unstained epidermis samples do not exhibit this characteristic appearance. The stratum spinosum is composed of eight to 10 layers of keratinocytes, formed as a result of cell division in the stratum basale (Figure 5.6). Interspersed among the keratinocytes of this layer is a type of dendritic cell called the Langerhans cell, which functions as a macrophage by engulfing bacteria, foreign particles, and damaged cells that occur in this layer. Figure 5.6 Cells of the Epidermis The cells in the different layers of the epidermis originate from basal cells located in the stratum basale, yet the cells of each layer are distinctively different. EM × 2700. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012) INTERACTIVE LINK View the University of Michigan WebScope to explore the tissue sample in greater detail. If you zoom on the cells at the outermost layer of this section of skin, what do you notice about the cells? The keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and release a water-repelling glycolipid that helps prevent water loss from the body, making the skin relatively waterproof. As new keratinocytes are produced atop the stratum basale, the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum are pushed into the stratum granulosum. Stratum Granulosum The stratum granulosum has a grainy appearance due to further changes to the keratinocytes as they are pushed from the stratum spinosum. The cells (three to five layers deep) become flatter, their cell membranes thicken, and they generate large amounts of the proteins keratin, which is fibrous, and keratohyalin, which accumulates as lamellar granules within the cells (see Figure 5.5). These two proteins make up the bulk of the keratinocyte mass in the stratum granulosum and give the layer its grainy appearance. The nuclei and other cell organelles disintegrate as the cells die, leaving behind the keratin, keratohyalin, and cell membranes that will form the stratum lucidum, the stratum corneum, and the accessory structures of hair and nails. Stratum Lucidum The stratum lucidum is a smooth, seemingly translucent layer of the epidermis located just above the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. This thin layer of cells is found only in the thick skin of the palms, soles, and digits. The keratinocytes that compose the stratum lucidum are dead and flattened (see Figure 5.5). These cells are densely packed with eleiden, a clear protein rich in lipids, derived from keratohyalin, which gives these cells their transparent (i.e., lucid) appearance and provides a barrier to water. Stratum Corneum The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to the outside environment (see Figure 5.5). The increased keratinization (also called cornification) of the cells in this layer gives it its name. There are usually 15 to 30 layers of cells in the stratum corneum. This dry, dead layer helps prevent the penetration of microbes and the dehydration of underlying tissues, and provides a mechanical protection against abrasion for the more delicate, underlying layers. Cells in this layer are shed periodically and are replaced by cells pushed up from the stratum granulosum (or stratum lucidum in the case of the palms and soles of feet). The entire layer is replaced during a period of about 4 weeks. Cosmetic procedures, such as microdermabrasion, help remove some of the dry, upper layer and aim to keep the skin looking “fresh” and healthy. Dermis The dermis might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system (derma- = “skin”), as distinct from the epidermis (epi- = “upon” or “over”) and hypodermis (hypo- = “below”). It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts (Figure 5.7). Figure 5.7 Layers of the Dermis This stained slide shows the two components of the dermis—the papillary layer and the reticular layer. Both are made of connective tissue with fibers of collagen extending from one to the other, making the border between the two somewhat indistinct. The dermal papillae extending into the epidermis belong to the papillary layer, whereas the dense collagen fiber bundles below belong to the reticular layer. LM × 10. (credit: modification of work by “kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons) Papillary Layer The papillary layer is made of loose, areolar connective tissue, which means the collagen and elastin fibers of this layer form a loose mesh. This superficial layer of the dermis projects into the stratum basale of the epidermis to form finger-like dermal papillae (see Figure 5.7). Within the papillary layer are fibroblasts, a small number of fat cells (adipocytes), and an abundance of small blood vessels. In addition, the papillary layer contains phagocytes, defensive cells that help fight bacteria or other infections that have breached the skin. This layer also contains lymphatic capillaries, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called the Meissner corpuscles. Reticular Layer Underlying the papillary layer is the much thicker reticular layer, composed of dense, irregular connective tissue. This layer is well vascularized and has a rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply. The reticular layer appears reticulated (net-like) due to a tight meshwork of fibers. Elastin fibers provide some elasticity to the skin, enabling movement. Collagen fibers provide structure and tensile strength, with strands of collagen extending into both the papillary layer and the hypodermis. In addition, collagen binds water to keep the skin hydrated. Collagen injections and Retin-A creams help restore skin turgor by either introducing collagen externally or stimulating blood flow and repair of the dermis, respectively. Hypodermis The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia) is a layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the skin, although the border between the hypodermis and dermis can be difficult to distinguish. The hypodermis consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and provides insulation and cushioning for the integument. EVERYDAY CONNECTION Lipid Storage The hypodermis is home to most of the fat that concerns people when they are trying to keep their weight under control. Adipose tissue present in the hypodermis consists of fat-storing cells called adipocytes. This stored fat can serve as an energy reserve, insulate the body to prevent heat loss, and act as a cushion to protect underlying structures from trauma. Where the fat is deposited and accumulates within the hypodermis depends on hormones (testosterone, estrogen, insulin, glucagon, leptin, and others), as well as genetic factors. Fat distribution changes as our bodies mature and age. Men tend to accumulate fat in different areas (neck, arms, lower back, and abdomen) than do women (breasts, hips, thighs, and buttocks). The body mass index (BMI) is often used as a measure of fat, although this measure is, in fact, derived from a mathematical formula that compares body weight (mass) to height. Therefore, its accuracy as a health indicator can be called into question in individuals who are extremely physically fit. In many animals, there is a pattern of storing excess calories as fat to be used in times when food is not readily available. In much of the developed world, insufficient exercise coupled with the ready availability and consumption of high-calorie foods have resulted in unwanted accumulations of adipose tissue in many people. Although periodic accumulation of excess fat may have provided an evolutionary advantage to our ancestors, who experienced unpredictable bouts of famine, it is now becoming chronic and considered a major health threat. Recent studies indicate that a distressing percentage of our population is overweight and/or clinically obese. Not only is this a problem for the individuals affected, but it also has a severe impact on our healthcare system. Changes in lifestyle, specifically in diet and exercise, are the best ways to control body fat accumulation, especially when it reaches levels that increase the risk of heart disease and diabetes. Pigmentation The color of skin is influenced by a number of pigments, including melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Recall that melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes, which are found scattered throughout the stratum basale of the epidermis. The melanin is transferred into the keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle called a melanosome (Figure 5.8). Figure 5.8 Skin Pigmentation The relative coloration of the skin depends of the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale and taken up by keratinocytes. Melanin occurs in two primary forms. Eumelanin exists as black and brown, whereas pheomelanin provides a red color. Dark-skinned individuals produce more melanin than those with pale skin. Exposure to the UV rays of the sun or a tanning salon causes melanin to be manufactured and built up in keratinocytes, as sun exposure stimulates keratinocytes to secrete chemicals that stimulate melanocytes. The accumulation of melanin in keratinocytes results in the darkening of the skin, or a tan. This increased melanin accumulation protects the DNA of epidermal cells from UV ray damage and the breakdown of folic acid, a nutrient necessary for our health and well-being. In contrast, too much melanin can interfere with the production of vitamin D, an important nutrient involved in calcium absorption. Thus, the amount of melanin present in our skin is dependent on a balance between available sunlight and folic acid destruction, and protection from UV radiation and vitamin D production. It requires about 10 days after initial sun exposure for melanin synthesis to peak, which is why pale-skinned individuals tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis initially. Dark-skinned individuals can also get sunburns, but are more protected than are pale-skinned individuals. Melanosomes are temporary structures that are eventually destroyed by fusion with lysosomes; this fact, along with melanin-filled keratinocytes in the stratum corneum sloughing off, makes tanning impermanent. Too much sun exposure can eventually lead to wrinkling due to the destruction of the cellular structure of the skin, and in severe cases, can cause sufficient DNA damage to result in skin cancer. When there is an irregular accumulation of melanocytes in the skin, freckles appear. Moles are larger masses of melanocytes, and although most are benign, they should be monitored for changes that might indicate the presence of cancer (Figure 5.9). Figure 5.9 Moles Moles range from benign accumulations of melanocytes to melanomas. These structures populate the landscape of our skin. (credit: the National Cancer Institute) DISORDERS OF THE... Integumentary System The first thing a clinician sees is the skin, and so the examination of the skin should be part of any thorough physical examination. Most skin disorders are relatively benign, but a few, including melanomas, can be fatal if untreated. A couple of the more noticeable disorders, albinism and vitiligo, affect the appearance of the skin and its accessory organs. Although neither is fatal, it would be hard to claim that they are benign, at least to the individuals so afflicted. Albinism is a genetic disorder that affects (completely or partially) the coloring of skin, hair, and eyes. The defect is primarily due to the inability of melanocytes to produce melanin. Individuals with albinism tend to appear white or very pale due to the lack of melanin in their skin and hair. Recall that melanin helps protect the skin from the harmful effects of UV radiation. Individuals with albinism tend to need more protection from UV radiation, as they are more prone to sunburns and skin cancer. They also tend to be more sensitive to light and have vision problems due to the lack of pigmentation on the retinal wall. Treatment of this disorder usually involves addressing the symptoms, such as limiting UV light exposure to the skin and eyes. In vitiligo, the melanocytes in certain areas lose their ability to produce melanin, possibly due to an autoimmune reaction. This leads to a loss of color in patches (Figure 5.10). Neither albinism nor vitiligo directly affects the lifespan of an individual. Figure 5.10 Vitiligo Individuals with vitiligo experience depigmentation that results in lighter colored patches of skin. The condition is especially noticeable on darker skin. (credit: Klaus D. Peter) Other changes in the appearance of skin coloration can be indicative of diseases associated with other body systems. Liver disease or liver cancer can cause the accumulation of bile and the yellow pigment bilirubin, leading to the skin appearing yellow or jaundiced (jaune is the French word for “yellow”). Tumors of the pituitary gland can result in the secretion of large amounts of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which results in a darkening of the skin. Similarly, Addison’s disease can stimulate the release of excess amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which can give the skin a deep bronze color. A sudden drop in oxygenation can affect skin color, causing the skin to initially turn ashen (white). With a prolonged reduction in oxygen levels, dark red deoxyhemoglobin becomes dominant in the blood, making the skin appear blue, a condition referred to as cyanosis (kyanos is the Greek word for “blue”). This happens when the oxygen supply is restricted, as when someone is experiencing difficulty in breathing because of asthma or a heart attack. However, in these cases the effect on skin color has nothing do with the skin’s pigmentation. INTERACTIVE LINK This ABC video follows the story of a pair of fraternal African-American twins, one of whom is albino. Watch this videoto learn about the challenges these children and their family face. Which ethnicities do you think are exempt from the possibility of albinism? Accessory Structures of the Skin - Identify the accessory structures of the skin - Describe the structure and function of hair and nails - Describe the structure and function of sweat glands and sebaceous glands Accessory structures of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. These structures embryologically originate from the epidermis and can extend down through the dermis into the hypodermis. Hair Hair is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration of the dermis called the hair follicle. The hair shaft is the part of the hair not anchored to the follicle, and much of this is exposed at the skin’s surface. The rest of the hair, which is anchored in the follicle, lies below the surface of the skin and is referred to as the hair root. The hair root ends deep in the dermis at the hair bulb, and includes a layer of mitotically active basal cells called the hair matrix. The hair bulb surrounds the hair papilla, which is made of connective tissue and contains blood capillaries and nerve endings from the dermis (Figure 5.11). Figure 5.11 Hair Hair follicles originate in the epidermis and have many different parts. Just as the basal layer of the epidermis forms the layers of epidermis that get pushed to the surface as the dead skin on the surface sheds, the basal cells of the hair bulb divide and push cells outward in the hair root and shaft as the hair grows. The medulla forms the central core of the hair, which is surrounded by the cortex, a layer of compressed, keratinized cells that is covered by an outer layer of very hard, keratinized cells known as the cuticle. These layers are depicted in a longitudinal cross-section of the hair follicle (Figure 5.12), although not all hair has a medullary layer. Hair texture (straight, curly) is determined by the shape and structure of the cortex, and to the extent that it is present, the medulla. The shape and structure of these layers are, in turn, determined by the shape of the hair follicle. Hair growth begins with the production of keratinocytes by the basal cells of the hair bulb. As new cells are deposited at the hair bulb, the hair shaft is pushed through the follicle toward the surface. Keratinization is completed as the cells are pushed to the skin surface to form the shaft of hair that is externally visible. The external hair is completely dead and composed entirely of keratin. For this reason, our hair does not have sensation. Furthermore, you can cut your hair or shave without damaging the hair structure because the cut is superficial. Most chemical hair removers also act superficially; however, electrolysis and yanking both attempt to destroy the hair bulb so hair cannot grow. Figure 5.12 Hair Follicle The slide shows a cross-section of a hair follicle. Basal cells of the hair matrix in the center differentiate into cells of the inner root sheath. Basal cells at the base of the hair root form the outer root sheath. LM × 4. (credit: modification of work by “kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons) The wall of the hair follicle is made of three concentric layers of cells. The cells of the internal root sheath surround the root of the growing hair and extend just up to the hair shaft. They are derived from the basal cells of the hair matrix. The external root sheath, which is an extension of the epidermis, encloses the hair root. It is made of basal cells at the base of the hair root and tends to be more keratinous in the upper regions. The glassy membrane is a thick, clear connective tissue sheath covering the hair root, connecting it to the tissue of the dermis. INTERACTIVE LINK The hair follicle is made of multiple layers of cells that form from basal cells in the hair matrix and the hair root. Cells of the hair matrix divide and differentiate to form the layers of the hair. Watch this video to learn more about hair follicles. Hair serves a variety of functions, including protection, sensory input, thermoregulation, and communication. For example, hair on the head protects the skull from the sun. The hair in the nose and ears, and around the eyes (eyelashes) defends the body by trapping and excluding dust particles that may contain allergens and microbes. Hair of the eyebrows prevents sweat and other particles from dripping into and bothering the eyes. Hair also has a sensory function due to sensory innervation by a hair root plexus surrounding the base of each hair follicle. Hair is extremely sensitive to air movement or other disturbances in the environment, much more so than the skin surface. This feature is also useful for the detection of the presence of insects or other potentially damaging substances on the skin surface. Each hair root is connected to a smooth muscle called the arrector pilithat contracts in response to nerve signals from the sympathetic nervous system, making the external hair shaft “stand up.” The primary purpose for this is to trap a layer of air to add insulation. This is visible in humans as goose bumps and even more obvious in animals, such as when a frightened cat raises its fur. Of course, this is much more obvious in organisms with a heavier coat than most humans, such as dogs and cats. Hair Growth Hair grows and is eventually shed and replaced by new hair. This occurs in three phases. The first is the anagen phase, during which cells divide rapidly at the root of the hair, pushing the hair shaft up and out. The length of this phase is measured in years, typically from 2 to 7 years. The catagen phase lasts only 2 to 3 weeks, and marks a transition from the hair follicle’s active growth. Finally, during the telogen phase, the hair follicle is at rest and no new growth occurs. At the end of this phase, which lasts about 2 to 4 months, another anagen phase begins. The basal cells in the hair matrix then produce a new hair follicle, which pushes the old hair out as the growth cycle repeats itself. Hair typically grows at the rate of 0.3 mm per day during the anagen phase. On average, 50 hairs are lost and replaced per day. Hair loss occurs if there is more hair shed than what is replaced and can happen due to hormonal or dietary changes. Hair loss can also result from the aging process, or the influence of hormones. Hair Color Similar to the skin, hair gets its color from the pigment melanin, produced by melanocytes in the hair papilla. Different hair color results from differences in the type of melanin, which is genetically determined. As a person ages, the melanin production decreases, and hair tends to lose its color and becomes gray and/or white. Nails The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes. The nail body is formed on the nail bed, and protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress (Figure 5.13). In addition, the nail body forms a back-support for picking up small objects with the fingers. The nail body is composed of densely packed dead keratinocytes. The epidermis in this part of the body has evolved a specialized structure upon which nails can form. The nail body forms at the nail root, which has a matrix of proliferating cells from the stratum basale that enables the nail to grow continuously. The lateral nail fold overlaps the nail on the sides, helping to anchor the nail body. The nail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body forms the nail cuticle, also called the eponychium. The nail bed is rich in blood vessels, making it appear pink, except at the base, where a thick layer of epithelium over the nail matrix forms a crescent-shaped region called the lunula (the “little moon”). The area beneath the free edge of the nail, furthest from the cuticle, is called the hyponychium. It consists of a thickened layer of stratum corneum. Figure 5.13 Nails The nail is an accessory structure of the integumentary system. INTERACTIVE LINK Nails are accessory structures of the integumentary system. Visit this link to learn more about the origin and growth of fingernails. Sweat Glands When the body becomes warm, sudoriferous glands produce sweat to cool the body. Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis and are classified as merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by exocytosis through a duct without affecting the cells of the gland. There are two types of sweat glands, each secreting slightly different products. An eccrine sweat gland is type of gland that produces a hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation. These glands are found all over the skin’s surface, but are especially abundant on the palms of the hand, the soles of the feet, and the forehead (Figure 5.14). They are coiled glands lying deep in the dermis, with the duct rising up to a pore on the skin surface, where the sweat is released. This type of sweat, released by exocytosis, is hypotonic and composed mostly of water, with some salt, antibodies, traces of metabolic waste, and dermicidin, an antimicrobial peptide. Eccrine glands are a primary component of thermoregulation in humans and thus help to maintain homeostasis. Figure 5.14 Eccrine Gland Eccrine glands are coiled glands in the dermis that release sweat that is mostly water. An apocrine sweat gland is usually associated with hair follicles in densely hairy areas, such as armpits and genital regions. Apocrine sweat glands are larger than eccrine sweat glands and lie deeper in the dermis, sometimes even reaching the hypodermis, with the duct normally emptying into the hair follicle. In addition to water and salts, apocrine sweat includes organic compounds that make the sweat thicker and subject to bacterial decomposition and subsequent smell. The release of this sweat is under both nervous and hormonal control, and plays a role in the poorly understood human pheromone response. Most commercial antiperspirants use an aluminum-based compound as their primary active ingredient to stop sweat. When the antiperspirant enters the sweat gland duct, the aluminum-based compounds precipitate due to a change in pH and form a physical block in the duct, which prevents sweat from coming out of the pore. INTERACTIVE LINK Sweating regulates body temperature. The composition of the sweat determines whether body odor is a byproduct of sweating. Visit this link to learn more about sweating and body odor. Sebaceous Glands A sebaceous gland is a type of oil gland that is found all over the body and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. Most sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles. They generate and excrete sebum, a mixture of lipids, onto the skin surface, thereby naturally lubricating the dry and dead layer of keratinized cells of the stratum corneum, keeping it pliable. The fatty acids of sebum also have antibacterial properties, and prevent water loss from the skin in low-humidity environments. The secretion of sebum is stimulated by hormones, many of which do not become active until puberty. Thus, sebaceous glands are relatively inactive during childhood. Functions of the Integumentary System - Describe the different functions of the skin and the structures that enable them - Explain how the skin helps maintain body temperature The skin and accessory structures perform a variety of essential functions, such as protecting the body from invasion by microorganisms, chemicals, and other environmental factors; preventing dehydration; acting as a sensory organ; modulating body temperature and electrolyte balance; and synthesizing vitamin D. The underlying hypodermis has important roles in storing fats, forming a “cushion” over underlying structures, and providing insulation from cold temperatures. Protection The skin protects the rest of the body from the basic elements of nature such as wind, water, and UV sunlight. It acts as a protective barrier against water loss, due to the presence of layers of keratin and glycolipids in the stratum corneum. It also is the first line of defense against abrasive activity due to contact with grit, microbes, or harmful chemicals. Sweat excreted from sweat glands deters microbes from over-colonizing the skin surface by generating dermicidin, which has antibiotic properties. EVERYDAY CONNECTION Tattoos and Piercings The word “armor” evokes several images. You might think of a Roman centurion or a medieval knight in a suit of armor. The skin, in its own way, functions as a form of armor—body armor. It provides a barrier between your vital, life-sustaining organs and the influence of outside elements that could potentially damage them. For any form of armor, a breach in the protective barrier poses a danger. The skin can be breached when a child skins a knee or an adult has blood drawn—one is accidental and the other medically necessary. However, you also breach this barrier when you choose to “accessorize” your skin with a tattoo or body piercing. Because the needles involved in producing body art and piercings must penetrate the skin, there are dangers associated with the practice. These include allergic reactions; skin infections; blood-borne diseases, such as tetanus, hepatitis C, and hepatitis D; and the growth of scar tissue. Despite the risk, the practice of piercing the skin for decorative purposes has become increasingly popular. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, 24 percent of people from ages 18 to 50 have a tattoo. INTERACTIVE LINK Tattooing has a long history, dating back thousands of years ago. The dyes used in tattooing typically derive from metals. A person with tattoos should be cautious when having a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan because an MRI machine uses powerful magnets to create images of the soft tissues of the body, which could react with the metals contained in the tattoo dyes. Watch this video to learn more about tattooing. Sensory Function The fact that you can feel an ant crawling on your skin, allowing you to flick it off before it bites, is because the skin, and especially the hairs projecting from hair follicles in the skin, can sense changes in the environment. The hair root plexus surrounding the base of the hair follicle senses a disturbance, and then transmits the information to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which can then respond by activating the skeletal muscles of your eyes to see the ant and the skeletal muscles of the body to act against the ant. The skin acts as a sense organ because the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis contain specialized sensory nerve structures that detect touch, surface temperature, and pain. These receptors are more concentrated on the tips of the fingers, which are most sensitive to touch, especially the Meissner corpuscle (tactile corpuscle) (Figure 5.15), which responds to light touch, and the Pacinian corpuscle (lamellated corpuscle), which responds to vibration. Merkel cells, seen scattered in the stratum basale, are also touch receptors. In addition to these specialized receptors, there are sensory nerves connected to each hair follicle, pain and temperature receptors scattered throughout the skin, and motor nerves innervate the arrector pili muscles and glands. This rich innervation helps us sense our environment and react accordingly. Figure 5.15 Light Micrograph of a Meissner Corpuscle In this micrograph of a skin cross-section, you can see a Meissner corpuscle (arrow), a type of touch receptor located in a dermal papilla adjacent to the basement membrane and stratum basale of the overlying epidermis. LM × 100. (credit: “Wbensmith”/Wikimedia Commons) Thermoregulation The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature through its tight association with the sympathetic nervous system, the division of the nervous system involved in our fight-or-flight responses. The sympathetic nervous system is continuously monitoring body temperature and initiating appropriate motor responses. Recall that sweat glands, accessory structures to the skin, secrete water, salt, and other substances to cool the body when it becomes warm. Even when the body does not appear to be noticeably sweating, approximately 500 mL of sweat (insensible perspiration) are secreted a day. If the body becomes excessively warm due to high temperatures, vigorous activity (Figure 5.16ac), or a combination of the two, sweat glands will be stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to produce large amounts of sweat, as much as 0.7 to 1.5 L per hour for an active person. When the sweat evaporates from the skin surface, the body is cooled as body heat is dissipated. In addition to sweating, arterioles in the dermis dilate so that excess heat carried by the blood can dissipate through the skin and into the surrounding environment (Figure 5.16b). This accounts for the skin redness that many people experience when exercising. Figure 5.16 Thermoregulation During strenuous physical activities, such as skiing (a) or running (c), the dermal blood vessels dilate and sweat secretion increases (b). These mechanisms prevent the body from overheating. In contrast, the dermal blood vessels constrict to minimize heat loss in response to low temperatures (b). (credit a: “Trysil”/flickr; credit c: Ralph Daily) When body temperatures drop, the arterioles constrict to minimize heat loss, particularly in the ends of the digits and tip of the nose. This reduced circulation can result in the skin taking on a whitish hue. Although the temperature of the skin drops as a result, passive heat loss is prevented, and internal organs and structures remain warm. If the temperature of the skin drops too much (such as environmental temperatures below freezing), the conservation of body core heat can result in the skin actually freezing, a condition called frostbite. AGING AND THE... Integumentary System All systems in the body accumulate subtle and some not-so-subtle changes as a person ages. Among these changes are reductions in cell division, metabolic activity, blood circulation, hormonal levels, and muscle strength (Figure 5.17). In the skin, these changes are reflected in decreased mitosis in the stratum basale, leading to a thinner epidermis. The dermis, which is responsible for the elasticity and resilience of the skin, exhibits a reduced ability to regenerate, which leads to slower wound healing. The hypodermis, with its fat stores, loses structure due to the reduction and redistribution of fat, which in turn contributes to the thinning and sagging of skin. Figure 5.17 Aging Generally, skin, especially on the face and hands, starts to display the first noticeable signs of aging, as it loses its elasticity over time. (credit: Janet Ramsden) The accessory structures also have lowered activity, generating thinner hair and nails, and reduced amounts of sebum and sweat. A reduced sweating ability can cause some elderly to be intolerant to extreme heat. Other cells in the skin, such as melanocytes and dendritic cells, also become less active, leading to a paler skin tone and lowered immunity. Wrinkling of the skin occurs due to breakdown of its structure, which results from decreased collagen and elastin production in the dermis, weakening of muscles lying under the skin, and the inability of the skin to retain adequate moisture. Many anti-aging products can be found in stores today. In general, these products try to rehydrate the skin and thereby fill out the wrinkles, and some stimulate skin growth using hormones and growth factors. Additionally, invasive techniques include collagen injections to plump the tissue and injections of BOTOX® (the name brand of the botulinum neurotoxin) that paralyze the muscles that crease the skin and cause wrinkling. Vitamin D Synthesis The epidermal layer of human skin synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to UV radiation. In the presence of sunlight, a form of vitamin D3 called cholecalciferol is synthesized from a derivative of the steroid cholesterol in the skin. The liver converts cholecalciferol to calcidiol, which is then converted to calcitriol (the active chemical form of the vitamin) in the kidneys. Vitamin D is essential for normal absorption of calcium and phosphorous, which are required for healthy bones. The absence of sun exposure can lead to a lack of vitamin D in the body, leading to a condition called rickets, a painful condition in children where the bones are misshapen due to a lack of calcium, causing bowleggedness. Elderly individuals who suffer from vitamin D deficiency can develop a condition called osteomalacia, a softening of the bones. In present day society, vitamin D is added as a supplement to many foods, including milk and orange juice, compensating for the need for sun exposure. In addition to its essential role in bone health, vitamin D is essential for general immunity against bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Recent studies are also finding a link between insufficient vitamin D and cancer. Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System - Describe several different diseases and disorders of the skin - Describe the effect of injury to the skin and the process of healing The integumentary system is susceptible to a variety of diseases, disorders, and injuries. These range from annoying but relatively benign bacterial or fungal infections that are categorized as disorders, to skin cancer and severe burns, which can be fatal. In this section, you will learn several of the most common skin conditions. Diseases One of the most talked about diseases is skin cancer. Cancer is a broad term that describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably. Most cancers are identified by the organ or tissue in which the cancer originates. One common form of cancer is skin cancer. The Skin Cancer Foundation reports that one in five Americans will experience some type of skin cancer in their lifetime. The degradation of the ozone layer in the atmosphere and the resulting increase in exposure to UV radiation has contributed to its rise. Overexposure to UV radiation damages DNA, which can lead to the formation of cancerous lesions. Although melanin offers some protection against DNA damage from the sun, often it is not enough. The fact that cancers can also occur on areas of the body that are normally not exposed to UV radiation suggests that there are additional factors that can lead to cancerous lesions. In general, cancers result from an accumulation of DNA mutations. These mutations can result in cell populations that do not die when they should and uncontrolled cell proliferation that leads to tumors. Although many tumors are benign (harmless), some produce cells that can mobilize and establish tumors in other organs of the body; this process is referred to as metastasis. Cancers are characterized by their ability to metastasize. Basal Cell Carcinoma Basal cell carcinoma is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis. It is the most common of all cancers that occur in the United States and is frequently found on the head, neck, arms, and back, which are areas that are most susceptible to long-term sun exposure. Although UV rays are the main culprit, exposure to other agents, such as radiation and arsenic, can also lead to this type of cancer. Wounds on the skin due to open sores, tattoos, burns, etc. may be predisposing factors as well. Basal cell carcinomas start in the stratum basale and usually spread along this boundary. At some point, they begin to grow toward the surface and become an uneven patch, bump, growth, or scar on the skin surface (Figure 5.18). Like most cancers, basal cell carcinomas respond best to treatment when caught early. Treatment options include surgery, freezing (cryosurgery), and topical ointments (Mayo Clinic 2012). Figure 5.18 Basal Cell Carcinoma Basal cell carcinoma can take several different forms. Similar to other forms of skin cancer, it is readily cured if caught early and treated. (credit: John Hendrix, MD) Squamous Cell Carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and presents as lesions commonly found on the scalp, ears, and hands (Figure 5.19). It is the second most common skin cancer. The American Cancer Society reports that two of 10 skin cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, and it is more aggressive than basal cell carcinoma. If not removed, these carcinomas can metastasize. Surgery and radiation are used to cure squamous cell carcinoma. Figure 5.19 Squamous Cell Carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma presents here as a lesion on an individual’s nose. (credit: the National Cancer Institute) Melanoma A melanoma is a cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the epidermis. Typically, a melanoma develops from a mole. It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is highly metastatic and can be difficult to detect before it has spread to other organs. Melanomas usually appear as asymmetrical brown and black patches with uneven borders and a raised surface (Figure 5.20). Treatment typically involves surgical excision and immunotherapy. Figure 5.20 Melanoma Melanomas typically present as large brown or black patches with uneven borders and a raised surface. (credit: the National Cancer Institute) Doctors often give their patients the following ABCDE mnemonic to help with the diagnosis of early-stage melanoma. If you observe a mole on your body displaying these signs, consult a doctor. - Asymmetry – the two sides are not symmetrical - Borders – the edges are irregular in shape - Color – the color is varied shades of brown or black - Diameter – it is larger than 6 mm (0.24 in) - Evolving – its shape has changed Some specialists cite the following additional signs for the most serious form, nodular melanoma: - Elevated – it is raised on the skin surface - Firm – it feels hard to the touch - Growing – it is getting larger Skin Disorders Two common skin disorders are eczema and acne. Eczema is an inflammatory condition and occurs in individuals of all ages. Acne involves the clogging of pores, which can lead to infection and inflammation, and is often seen in adolescents. Other disorders, not discussed here, include seborrheic dermatitis (on the scalp), psoriasis, cold sores, impetigo, scabies, hives, and warts. Eczema Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy patches of skin that resemble rashes (Figure 5.21). It may be accompanied by swelling of the skin, flaking, and in severe cases, bleeding. Many who suffer from eczema have antibodies against dust mites in their blood, but the link between eczema and allergy to dust mites has not been proven. Symptoms are usually managed with moisturizers, corticosteroid creams, and immunosuppressants. Figure 5.21 Eczema Eczema is a common skin disorder that presents as a red, flaky rash. (credit: “Jambula”/Wikimedia Commons) Acne Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands (face and back). It is most common along with the onset of puberty due to associated hormonal changes, but can also occur in infants and continue into adulthood. Hormones, such as androgens, stimulate the release of sebum. An overproduction and accumulation of sebum along with keratin can block hair follicles. This plug is initially white. The sebum, when oxidized by exposure to air, turns black. Acne results from infection by acne-causing bacteria (Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus), which can lead to redness and potential scarring due to the natural wound healing process (Figure 5.22). Figure 5.22 Acne Acne is a result of over-productive sebaceous glands, which leads to formation of blackheads and inflammation of the skin. CAREER CONNECTION Dermatologist Have you ever had a skin rash that did not respond to over-the-counter creams, or a mole that you were concerned about? Dermatologists help patients with these types of problems and more, on a daily basis. Dermatologists are medical doctors who specialize in diagnosing and treating skin disorders. Like all medical doctors, dermatologists earn a medical degree and then complete several years of residency training. In addition, dermatologists may then participate in a dermatology fellowship or complete additional, specialized training in a dermatology practice. If practicing in the United States, dermatologists must pass the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE), become licensed in their state of practice, and be certified by the American Board of Dermatology. Most dermatologists work in a medical office or private-practice setting. They diagnose skin conditions and rashes, prescribe oral and topical medications to treat skin conditions, and may perform simple procedures, such as mole or wart removal. In addition, they may refer patients to an oncologist if skin cancer that has metastasized is suspected. Recently, cosmetic procedures have also become a prominent part of dermatology. Botox injections, laser treatments, and collagen and dermal filler injections are popular among patients, hoping to reduce the appearance of skin aging. Dermatology is a competitive specialty in medicine. Limited openings in dermatology residency programs mean that many medical students compete for a few select spots. Dermatology is an appealing specialty to many prospective doctors, because unlike emergency room physicians or surgeons, dermatologists generally do not have to work excessive hours or be “on-call” weekends and holidays. Moreover, the popularity of cosmetic dermatology has made it a growing field with many lucrative opportunities. It is not unusual for dermatology clinics to market themselves exclusively as cosmetic dermatology centers, and for dermatologists to specialize exclusively in these procedures. Consider visiting a dermatologist to talk about why he or she entered the field and what the field of dermatology is like. Visit this site for additional information. Injuries Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to injury. Injuries include burns and wounds, as well as scars and calluses. They can be caused by sharp objects, heat, or excessive pressure or friction to the skin. Skin injuries set off a healing process that occurs in several overlapping stages. The first step to repairing damaged skin is the formation of a blood clot that helps stop the flow of blood and scabs over with time. Many different types of cells are involved in wound repair, especially if the surface area that needs repair is extensive. Before the basal stem cells of the stratum basale can recreate the epidermis, fibroblasts mobilize and divide rapidly to repair the damaged tissue by collagen deposition, forming granulation tissue. Blood capillaries follow the fibroblasts and help increase blood circulation and oxygen supply to the area. Immune cells, such as macrophages, roam the area and engulf any foreign matter to reduce the chance of infection. Burns A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The damage results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid. Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and renal and circulatory failure follow, which can be fatal. Burn patients are treated with intravenous fluids to offset dehydration, as well as intravenous nutrients that enable the body to repair tissues and replace lost proteins. Another serious threat to the lives of burn patients is infection. Burned skin is extremely susceptible to bacteria and other pathogens, due to the loss of protection by intact layers of skin. Burns are sometimes measured in terms of the size of the total surface area affected. This is referred to as the “rule of nines,” which associates specific anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor of nine (Figure 5.23). Burns are also classified by the degree of their severity. A first-degree burn is a superficial burn that affects only the epidermis. Although the skin may be painful and swollen, these burns typically heal on their own within a few days. Mild sunburn fits into the category of a first-degree burn. A second-degree burn goes deeper and affects both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. These burns result in swelling and a painful blistering of the skin. It is important to keep the burn site clean and sterile to prevent infection. If this is done, the burn will heal within several weeks. A third-degree burn fully extends into the epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and affecting the nerve endings and sensory function. These are serious burns that may appear white, red, or black; they require medical attention and will heal slowly without it. A fourth-degree burn is even more severe, affecting the underlying muscle and bone. Oddly, third and fourth-degree burns are usually not as painful because the nerve endings themselves are damaged. Full-thickness burns cannot be repaired by the body, because the local tissues used for repair are damaged and require excision (debridement), or amputation in severe cases, followed by grafting of the skin from an unaffected part of the body, or from skin grown in tissue culture for grafting purposes. Figure 5.23 Calculating the Size of a Burn The size of a burn will guide decisions made about the need for specialized treatment. Specific parts of the body are associated with a percentage of body area. INTERACTIVE LINK Skin grafts are required when the damage from trauma or infection cannot be closed with sutures or staples. Watch this video to learn more about skin grafting procedures. Scars and Keloids Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the surface (the epidermis), lead to scar formation. A scar is collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that differs from normal skin. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave pattern generated by collagen fibers and does not result in regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin. Instead, the tissue is fibrous in nature and does not allow for the regeneration of accessory structures, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands. Sometimes, there is an overproduction of scar tissue, because the process of collagen formation does not stop when the wound is healed; this results in the formation of a raised or hypertrophic scar called a keloid. In contrast, scars that result from acne and chickenpox have a sunken appearance and are called atrophic scars. Scarring of skin after wound healing is a natural process and does not need to be treated further. Application of mineral oil and lotions may reduce the formation of scar tissue. However, modern cosmetic procedures, such as dermabrasion, laser treatments, and filler injections have been invented as remedies for severe scarring. All of these procedures try to reorganize the structure of the epidermis and underlying collagen tissue to make it look more natural. Bedsores and Stretch Marks Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is called a bedsore. Bedsores, also called decubitis ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to necrosis (tissue death). Bedsores are most common in elderly patients who have debilitating conditions that cause them to be immobile. Most hospitals and long-term care facilities have the practice of turning the patients every few hours to prevent the incidence of bedsores. If left untreated by removal of necrotized tissue, bedsores can be fatal if they become infected. The skin can also be affected by pressure associated with rapid growth. A stretch mark results when the dermis is stretched beyond its limits of elasticity, as the skin stretches to accommodate the excess pressure. Stretch marks usually accompany rapid weight gain during puberty and pregnancy. They initially have a reddish hue, but lighten over time. Other than for cosmetic reasons, treatment of stretch marks is not required. They occur most commonly over the hips and abdomen. Calluses When you wear shoes that do not fit well and are a constant source of abrasion on your toes, you tend to form a callus at the point of contact. This occurs because the basal stem cells in the stratum basale are triggered to divide more often to increase the thickness of the skin at the point of abrasion to protect the rest of the body from further damage. This is an example of a minor or local injury, and the skin manages to react and treat the problem independent of the rest of the body. Calluses can also form on your fingers if they are subject to constant mechanical stress, such as long periods of writing, playing string instruments, or video games. A corn is a specialized form of callus. Corns form from abrasions on the skin that result from an elliptical-type motion. Key Terms - acne - skin condition due to infected sebaceous glands - albinism - genetic disorder that affects the skin, in which there is no melanin production - anagen - active phase of the hair growth cycle - apocrine sweat gland - type of sweat gland that is associated with hair follicles in the armpits and genital regions - arrector pili - smooth muscle that is activated in response to external stimuli that pull on hair follicles and make the hair “stand up” - basal cell - type of stem cell found in the stratum basale and in the hair matrix that continually undergoes cell division, producing the keratinocytes of the epidermis - basal cell carcinoma - cancer that originates from basal cells in the epidermis of the skin - bedsore - sore on the skin that develops when regions of the body start necrotizing due to constant pressure and lack of blood supply; also called decubitis ulcers - callus - thickened area of skin that arises due to constant abrasion - catagen - transitional phase marking the end of the anagen phase of the hair growth cycle - corn - type of callus that is named for its shape and the elliptical motion of the abrasive force - cortex - in hair, the second or middle layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix, as seen in a cross-section of the hair bulb - cuticle - in hair, the outermost layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix, as seen in a cross-section of the hair bulb - dermal papilla - (plural = dermal papillae) extension of the papillary layer of the dermis that increases surface contact between the epidermis and dermis - dermis - layer of skin between the epidermis and hypodermis, composed mainly of connective tissue and containing blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other structures - desmosome - structure that forms an impermeable junction between cells - eccrine sweat gland - type of sweat gland that is common throughout the skin surface; it produces a hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation - eczema - skin condition due to an allergic reaction, which resembles a rash - elastin fibers - fibers made of the protein elastin that increase the elasticity of the dermis - eleiden - clear protein-bound lipid found in the stratum lucidum that is derived from keratohyalin and helps to prevent water loss - epidermis - outermost tissue layer of the skin - eponychium - nail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body, also called the cuticle - external root sheath - outer layer of the hair follicle that is an extension of the epidermis, which encloses the hair root - first-degree burn - superficial burn that injures only the epidermis - fourth-degree burn - burn in which full thickness of the skin and underlying muscle and bone is damaged - glassy membrane - layer of connective tissue that surrounds the base of the hair follicle, connecting it to the dermis - hair - keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis - hair bulb - structure at the base of the hair root that surrounds the dermal papilla - hair follicle - cavity or sac from which hair originates - hair matrix - layer of basal cells from which a strand of hair grows - hair papilla - mass of connective tissue, blood capillaries, and nerve endings at the base of the hair follicle - hair root - part of hair that is below the epidermis anchored to the follicle - hair shaft - part of hair that is above the epidermis but is not anchored to the follicle - hypodermis - connective tissue connecting the integument to the underlying bone and muscle - hyponychium - thickened layer of stratum corneum that lies below the free edge of the nail - integumentary system - skin and its accessory structures - internal root sheath - innermost layer of keratinocytes in the hair follicle that surround the hair root up to the hair shaft - keloid - type of scar that has layers raised above the skin surface - keratin - type of structural protein that gives skin, hair, and nails its hard, water-resistant properties - keratinocyte - cell that produces keratin and is the most predominant type of cell found in the epidermis - keratohyalin - granulated protein found in the stratum granulosum - Langerhans cell - specialized dendritic cell found in the stratum spinosum that functions as a macrophage - lunula - basal part of the nail body that consists of a crescent-shaped layer of thick epithelium - medulla - in hair, the innermost layer of keratinocytes originating from the hair matrix - Meissner corpuscle - (also, tactile corpuscle) receptor in the skin that responds to light touch - melanin - pigment that determines the color of hair and skin - melanocyte - cell found in the stratum basale of the epidermis that produces the pigment melanin - melanoma - type of skin cancer that originates from the melanocytes of the skin - melanosome - intercellular vesicle that transfers melanin from melanocytes into keratinocytes of the epidermis - Merkel cell - receptor cell in the stratum basale of the epidermis that responds to the sense of touch - metastasis - spread of cancer cells from a source to other parts of the body - nail bed - layer of epidermis upon which the nail body forms - nail body - main keratinous plate that forms the nail - nail cuticle - fold of epithelium that extends over the nail bed, also called the eponychium - nail fold - fold of epithelium at that extend over the sides of the nail body, holding it in place - nail root - part of the nail that is lodged deep in the epidermis from which the nail grows - Pacinian corpuscle - (also, lamellated corpuscle) receptor in the skin that responds to vibration - papillary layer - superficial layer of the dermis, made of loose, areolar connective tissue - reticular layer - deeper layer of the dermis; it has a reticulated appearance due to the presence of abundant collagen and elastin fibers - rickets - disease in children caused by vitamin D deficiency, which leads to the weakening of bones - scar - collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that is different from normal skin - sebaceous gland - type of oil gland found in the dermis all over the body and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair by secreting sebum - sebum - oily substance that is composed of a mixture of lipids that lubricates the skin and hair - second-degree burn - partial-thickness burn that injures the epidermis and a portion of the dermis - squamous cell carcinoma - type of skin cancer that originates from the stratum spinosum of the epidermis - stratum basale - deepest layer of the epidermis, made of epidermal stem cells - stratum corneum - most superficial layer of the epidermis - stratum granulosum - layer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum spinosum - stratum lucidum - layer of the epidermis between the stratum granulosum and stratum corneum, found only in thick skin covering the palms, soles of the feet, and digits - stratum spinosum - layer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum basale, characterized by the presence of desmosomes - stretch mark - mark formed on the skin due to a sudden growth spurt and expansion of the dermis beyond its elastic limits - sudoriferous gland - sweat gland - telogen - resting phase of the hair growth cycle initiated with catagen and terminated by the beginning of a new anagen phase of hair growth - third-degree burn - burn that penetrates and destroys the full thickness of the skin (epidermis and dermis) - vitamin D - compound that aids absorption of calcium and phosphates in the intestine to improve bone health - vitiligo - skin condition in which melanocytes in certain areas lose the ability to produce melanin, possibly due an autoimmune reaction that leads to loss of color in patches Chapter Review 5.1 Layers of the Skin The skin is composed of two major layers: a superficial epidermis and a deeper dermis. The epidermis consists of several layers beginning with the innermost (deepest) stratum basale (germinatum), followed by the stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (when present), and ending with the outermost layer, the stratum corneum. The topmost layer, the stratum corneum, consists of dead cells that shed periodically and is progressively replaced by cells formed from the basal layer. The stratum basale also contains melanocytes, cells that produce melanin, the pigment primarily responsible for giving skin its color. Melanin is transferred to keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum to protect cells from UV rays. The dermis connects the epidermis to the hypodermis, and provides strength and elasticity due to the presence of collagen and elastin fibers. It has only two layers: the papillary layer with papillae that extend into the epidermis and the lower, reticular layer composed of loose connective tissue. The hypodermis, deep to the dermis of skin, is the connective tissue that connects the dermis to underlying structures; it also harbors adipose tissue for fat storage and protection. 5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin Accessory structures of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. Hair is made of dead keratinized cells, and gets its color from melanin pigments. Nails, also made of dead keratinized cells, protect the extremities of our fingers and toes from mechanical damage. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands produce sweat and sebum, respectively. Each of these fluids has a role to play in maintaining homeostasis. Sweat cools the body surface when it gets overheated and helps excrete small amounts of metabolic waste. Sebum acts as a natural moisturizer and keeps the dead, flaky, outer keratin layer healthy. 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System The skin plays important roles in protection, sensing stimuli, thermoregulation, and vitamin D synthesis. It is the first layer of defense to prevent dehydration, infection, and injury to the rest of the body. Sweat glands in the skin allow the skin surface to cool when the body gets overheated. Thermoregulation is also accomplished by the dilation or constriction of heat-carrying blood vessels in the skin. Immune cells present among the skin layers patrol the areas to keep them free of foreign materials. Fat stores in the hypodermis aid in both thermoregulation and protection. Finally, the skin plays a role in the synthesis of vitamin D, which is necessary for our well-being but not easily available in natural foods. 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System Skin cancer is a result of damage to the DNA of skin cells, often due to excessive exposure to UV radiation. Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are highly curable, and arise from cells in the stratum basale and stratum spinosum, respectively. Melanoma is the most dangerous form of skin cancer, affecting melanocytes, which can spread/metastasize to other organs. Burns are an injury to the skin that occur as a result of exposure to extreme heat, radiation, or chemicals. First-degree and second-degree burns usually heal quickly, but third-degree burns can be fatal because they penetrate the full thickness of the skin. Scars occur when there is repair of skin damage. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, which forms a basket-weave pattern that looks different from normal skin. Bedsores and stretch marks are the result of excessive pressure on the skin and underlying tissue. Bedsores are characterized by necrosis of tissue due to immobility, whereas stretch marks result from rapid growth. Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as a rash, and acne results from clogged sebaceous glands. Eczema and acne are usually long-term skin conditions that may be treated successfully in mild cases. Calluses and corns are the result of abrasive pressure on the skin. Interactive Link Questions The skin consists of two layers and a closely associated layer. View this animation to learn more about layers of the skin. What are the basic functions of each of these layers? 2.Figure 5.4 If you zoom on the cells at the outermost layer of this section of skin, what do you notice about the cells? 3.Figure 5.6 If you zoom on the cells of the stratum spinosum, what is distinctive about them? 4.This ABC video follows the story of a pair of fraternal African-American twins, one of whom is albino. Watch this videoto learn about the challenges these children and their family face. Which ethnicities do you think are exempt from the possibility of albinism? Review Questions The papillary layer of the dermis is most closely associated with which layer of the epidermis? - stratum spinosum - stratum corneum - stratum granulosum - stratum basale Langerhans cells are commonly found in the ________. - stratum spinosum - stratum corneum - stratum granulosum - stratum basale The papillary and reticular layers of the dermis are composed mainly of ________. - melanocytes - keratinocytes - connective tissue - adipose tissue Collagen lends ________ to the skin. - elasticity - structure - color - UV protection Which of the following is not a function of the hypodermis? - protects underlying organs - helps maintain body temperature - source of blood vessels in the epidermis - a site to long-term energy storage In response to stimuli from the sympathetic nervous system, the arrector pili ________. - are glands on the skin surface - can lead to excessive sweating - are responsible for goose bumps - secrete sebum The hair matrix contains ________. - the hair follicle - the hair shaft - the glassy membrane - a layer of basal cells Eccrine sweat glands ________. - are present on hair - are present in the skin throughout the body and produce watery sweat - produce sebum - act as a moisturizer Sebaceous glands ________. - are a type of sweat gland - are associated with hair follicles - may function in response to touch - release a watery solution of salt and metabolic waste Similar to the hair, nails grow continuously throughout our lives. Which of the following is furthest from the nail growth center? - nail bed - hyponychium - nail root - eponychium In humans, exposure of the skin to sunlight is required for ________. - vitamin D synthesis - arteriole constriction - folate production - thermoregulation One of the functions of the integumentary system is protection. Which of the following does not directly contribute to that function? - stratum lucidum - desmosomes - folic acid synthesis - Merkel cells An individual using a sharp knife notices a small amount of blood where he just cut himself. Which of the following layers of skin did he have to cut into in order to bleed? - stratum corneum - stratum basale - papillary dermis - stratum granulosum As you are walking down the beach, you see a dead, dry, shriveled-up fish. Which layer of your epidermis keeps you from drying out? - stratum corneum - stratum basale - stratum spinosum - stratum granulosum If you cut yourself and bacteria enter the wound, which of the following cells would help get rid of the bacteria? - Merkel cells - keratinocytes - Langerhans cells - melanocytes In general, skin cancers ________. - are easily treatable and not a major health concern - occur due to poor hygiene - can be reduced by limiting exposure to the sun - affect only the epidermis Bedsores ________. - can be treated with topical moisturizers - can result from deep massages - are preventable by eliminating pressure points - are caused by dry skin An individual has spent too much time sun bathing. Not only is his skin painful to touch, but small blisters have appeared in the affected area. This indicates that he has damaged which layers of his skin? - epidermis only - hypodermis only - epidermis and hypodermis - epidermis and dermis After a skin injury, the body initiates a wound-healing response. The first step of this response is the formation of a blood clot to stop bleeding. Which of the following would be the next response? - increased production of melanin by melanocytes - increased production of connective tissue - an increase in Pacinian corpuscles around the wound - an increased activity in the stratum lucidum Squamous cell carcinomas are the second most common of the skin cancers and are capable of metastasizing if not treated. This cancer affects which cells? - basal cells of the stratum basale - melanocytes of the stratum basale - keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum - Langerhans cells of the stratum lucidum Critical Thinking Questions What determines the color of skin, and what is the process that darkens skin when it is exposed to UV light? 26.Cells of the epidermis derive from stem cells of the stratum basale. Describe how the cells change as they become integrated into the different layers of the epidermis. 27.Explain the differences between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands. 28.Describe the structure and composition of nails. 29.Why do people sweat excessively when exercising outside on a hot day? 30.Explain your skin’s response to a drop in body core temperature. 31.Why do teenagers often experience acne? 32.Why do scars look different from surrounding skin?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.567062	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56364/overview", "title": "Anatomy and Physiology, Support and Movement", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56365/overview	Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System Introduction Figure 6.1 Child Looking at Bones Bone is a living tissue. Unlike the bones of a fossil made inert by a process of mineralization, a child’s bones will continue to grow and develop while contributing to the support and function of other body systems. (credit: James Emery) CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to: - List and describe the functions of bones - Describe the classes of bones - Discuss the process of bone formation and development - Explain how bone repairs itself after a fracture - Discuss the effect of exercise, nutrition, and hormones on bone tissue - Describe how an imbalance of calcium can affect bone tissue Bones make good fossils. While the soft tissue of a once living organism will decay and fall away over time, bone tissue will, under the right conditions, undergo a process of mineralization, effectively turning the bone to stone. A well-preserved fossil skeleton can give us a good sense of the size and shape of an organism, just as your skeleton helps to define your size and shape. Unlike a fossil skeleton, however, your skeleton is a structure of living tissue that grows, repairs, and renews itself. The bones within it are dynamic and complex organs that serve a number of important functions, including some necessary to maintain homeostasis. The Functions of the Skeletal System - Define bone, cartilage, and the skeletal system - List and describe the functions of the skeletal system Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the human body: - supports the body - facilitates movement - protects internal organs - produces blood cells - stores and releases minerals and fat Support, Movement, and Protection The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are the gross functions—those visible by observation. Simply by looking at a person, you can see how the bones support, facilitate movement, and protect the human body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilage of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones also facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles. While some bones only serve as a support for the muscles, others also transmit the forces produced when your muscles contract. From a mechanical point of view, bones act as levers and joints serve as fulcrums (Figure 6.2). Unless a muscle spans a joint and contracts, a bone is not going to move. For information on the interaction of the skeletal and muscular systems, that is, the musculoskeletal system, seek additional content. Figure 6.2 Bones Support Movement Bones act as levers when muscles span a joint and contract. (credit: Benjamin J. DeLong) Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain (Figure 6.3). Figure 6.3 Bones Protect Brain The cranium completely surrounds and protects the brain from non-traumatic injury. CAREER CONNECTION Orthopedist An orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries related to the musculoskeletal system. Some orthopedic problems can be treated with medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery (Figure 6.4). Figure 6.4 Arm Brace An orthopedist will sometimes prescribe the use of a brace that reinforces the underlying bone structure it is being used to support. (credit: Juhan Sonin) While the origin of the word “orthopedics” (ortho- = “straight”; paed- = “child”), literally means “straightening of the child,” orthopedists can have patients who range from pediatric to geriatric. In recent years, orthopedists have even performed prenatal surgery to correct spina bifida, a congenital defect in which the neural canal in the spine of the fetus fails to close completely during embryologic development. Orthopedists commonly treat bone and joint injuries but they also treat other bone conditions including curvature of the spine. Lateral curvatures (scoliosis) can be severe enough to slip under the shoulder blade (scapula) forcing it up as a hump. Spinal curvatures can also be excessive dorsoventrally (kyphosis) causing a hunch back and thoracic compression. These curvatures often appear in preteens as the result of poor posture, abnormal growth, or indeterminate causes. Mostly, they are readily treated by orthopedists. As people age, accumulated spinal column injuries and diseases like osteoporosis can also lead to curvatures of the spine, hence the stooping you sometimes see in the elderly. Some orthopedists sub-specialize in sports medicine, which addresses both simple injuries, such as a sprained ankle, and complex injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff in the shoulder. Treatment can range from exercise to surgery. Mineral Storage, Energy Storage, and Hematopoiesis On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone matrix acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Calcium ions, for example, are essential for muscle contractions and controlling the flow of other ions involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. Bone also serves as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The softer connective tissue that fills the interior of most bone is referred to as bone marrow (Figure 6.5). There are two types of bone marrow: yellow marrow and red marrow. Yellow marrow contains adipose tissue; the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of the tissue can serve as a source of energy. Red marrow is where hematopoiesis—the production of blood cells—takes place. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red marrow. Figure 6.5 Head of Femur Showing Red and Yellow Marrow The head of the femur contains both yellow and red marrow. Yellow marrow stores fat. Red marrow is responsible for hematopoiesis. (credit: modification of work by “stevenfruitsmaak”/Wikimedia Commons) Bone Classification - Classify bones according to their shapes - Describe the function of each category of bones The 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories based on their shapes (Figure 6.6). Their shapes and their functions are related such that each categorical shape of bone has a distinct function. Figure 6.6 Classifications of Bones Bones are classified according to their shape. Long Bones A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract. Short Bones A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion. Flat Bones The term “flat bone” is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs. Irregular Bones An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones. Sesamoid Bones A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid bones vary in number and placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The patellae (singular = patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every person. Table 6.1 reviews bone classifications with their associated features, functions, and examples. Bone Classifications \| Bone classification \| Features \| Function(s) \| Examples \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Long \| Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is wide \| Leverage \| Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, phalanges \| \| Short \| Cube-like shape, approximately equal in length, width, and thickness \| Provide stability, support, while allowing for some motion \| Carpals, tarsals \| \| Flat \| Thin and curved \| Points of attachment for muscles; protectors of internal organs \| Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones \| \| Irregular \| Complex shape \| Protect internal organs \| Vertebrae, facial bones \| \| Sesamoid \| Small and round; embedded in tendons \| Protect tendons from compressive forces \| Patellae \| Table 6.1 Bone Structure - Identify the anatomical features of a bone - Define and list examples of bone markings - Describe the histology of bone tissue - Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone - Identify the structures that compose compact and spongy bone - Describe how bones are nourished and innervated Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first and then move on to its histology. Gross Anatomy of Bone The structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone (Figure 6.7). A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone. Figure 6.7 Anatomy of a Long Bone A typical long bone shows the gross anatomical characteristics of bone. The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with spongy bone. Red marrow fills the spaces in the spongy bone. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow area that contains the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent) cartilage in a growing bone. When the bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the cartilage is replaced by osseous tissue and the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line. The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur. The outer surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum(peri- = “around” or “surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments also attach to bones at the periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure 6.8). In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber. Figure 6.8 Periosteum and Endosteum The periosteum forms the outer surface of bone, and the endosteum lines the medullary cavity. Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 6.9). The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy bone work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact inner layer. Figure 6.9 Anatomy of a Flat Bone This cross-section of a flat bone shows the spongy bone (diploë) lined on either side by a layer of compact bone. Bone Markings The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the function and location in the body. Table 6.2 describes the bone markings, which are illustrated in (Figure 6.10). There are three general classes of bone markings: (1) articulations, (2) projections, and (3) holes. As the name implies, an articulation is where two bone surfaces come together (articulus = “joint”). These surfaces tend to conform to one another, such as one being rounded and the other cupped, to facilitate the function of the articulation. A projection is an area of a bone that projects above the surface of the bone. These are the attachment points for tendons and ligaments. In general, their size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the attachment to the bone. A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels and nerves to enter the bone. As with the other markings, their size and shape reflect the size of the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these points. Bone Markings \| Marking \| Description \| Example \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Articulations \| Where two bones meet \| Knee joint \| \| Head \| Prominent rounded surface \| Head of femur \| \| Facet \| Flat surface \| Vertebrae \| \| Condyle \| Rounded surface \| Occipital condyles \| \| Projections \| Raised markings \| Spinous process of the vertebrae \| \| Protuberance \| Protruding \| Chin \| \| Process \| Prominence feature \| Transverse process of vertebra \| \| Spine \| Sharp process \| Ischial spine \| \| Tubercle \| Small, rounded process \| Tubercle of humerus \| \| Tuberosity \| Rough surface \| Deltoid tuberosity \| \| Line \| Slight, elongated ridge \| Temporal lines of the parietal bones \| \| Crest \| Ridge \| Iliac crest \| \| Holes \| Holes and depressions \| Foramen (holes through which blood vessels can pass through) \| \| Fossa \| Elongated basin \| Mandibular fossa \| \| Fovea \| Small pit \| Fovea capitis on the head of the femur \| \| Sulcus \| Groove \| Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones \| \| Canal \| Passage in bone \| Auditory canal \| \| Fissure \| Slit through bone \| Auricular fissure \| \| Foramen \| Hole through bone \| Foramen magnum in the occipital bone \| \| Meatus \| Opening into canal \| External auditory meatus \| \| Sinus \| Air-filled space in bone \| Nasal sinus \| Table 6.2 Figure 6.10 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves. Bone Cells and Tissue Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of collagen fibers that provide a surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere. These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite, which incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers give them flexibility so that they are not brittle. Although bone cells compose a small amount of the bone volume, they are crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Figure 6.11). Figure 6.11 Bone Cells Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, their structure and function changes, and they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from monocytes and macrophages and differ in appearance from other bone cells. The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing portions of bone, including the periosteum and endosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and calcium salts. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast become trapped within it; as a result, it changes in structure and becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a space called a lacuna and is surrounded by bone tissue. Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix. If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when old ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone cells—the osteogenic cell. These osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity and they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts. The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cell responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, is the osteoclast. They are found on bone surfaces, are multinucleated, and originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells, not from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old bone while osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant but subtle reshaping of bone. Table 6.3reviews the bone cells, their functions, and locations. Bone Cells \| Cell type \| Function \| Location \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Osteogenic cells \| Develop into osteoblasts \| Deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow \| \| Osteoblasts \| Bone formation \| Growing portions of bone, including periosteum and endosteum \| \| Osteocytes \| Maintain mineral concentration of matrix \| Entrapped in matrix \| \| Osteoclasts \| Bone resorption \| Bone surfaces and at sites of old, injured, or unneeded bone \| Table 6.3 Compact and Spongy Bone The differences between compact and spongy bone are best explored via their histology. Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and concentration vary based on the bone’s overall function. Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive forces, while spongy (cancellous) bone has open spaces and supports shifts in weight distribution. Compact Bone Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue (Figure 6.12). It can be found under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of long bones, where it provides support and protection. Figure 6.12 Diagram of Compact Bone (a) This cross-sectional view of compact bone shows the basic structural unit, the osteon. (b) In this micrograph of the osteon, you can clearly see the concentric lamellae and central canals. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012) The microscopic structural unit of compact bone is called an osteon, or Haversian system. Each osteon is composed of concentric rings of calcified matrix called lamellae (singular = lamella). Running down the center of each osteon is the central canal, or Haversian canal, which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at right angles through a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. The osteocytes are located inside spaces called lacunae (singular = lacuna), found at the borders of adjacent lamellae. As described earlier, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the central canal. This system allows nutrients to be transported to the osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular = trabecula) (Figure 6.13). The trabeculae may appear to be a random network, but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to provide strength to the bone. The spaces of the trabeculated network provide balance to the dense and heavy compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move them more easily. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis occurs. Figure 6.13 Diagram of Spongy Bone Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae that contain the osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones. AGING AND THE... Skeletal System: Paget’s Disease Paget’s disease usually occurs in adults over age 40. It is a disorder of the bone remodeling process that begins with overactive osteoclasts. This means more bone is resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts try to compensate but the new bone they lay down is weak and brittle and therefore prone to fracture. While some people with Paget’s disease have no symptoms, others experience pain, bone fractures, and bone deformities (Figure 6.14). Bones of the pelvis, skull, spine, and legs are the most commonly affected. When occurring in the skull, Paget’s disease can cause headaches and hearing loss. Figure 6.14 Paget's Disease Normal leg bones are relatively straight, but those affected by Paget’s disease are porous and curved. What causes the osteoclasts to become overactive? The answer is still unknown, but hereditary factors seem to play a role. Some scientists believe Paget’s disease is due to an as-yet-unidentified virus. Paget’s disease is diagnosed via imaging studies and lab tests. X-rays may show bone deformities or areas of bone resorption. Bone scans are also useful. In these studies, a dye containing a radioactive ion is injected into the body. Areas of bone resorption have an affinity for the ion, so they will light up on the scan if the ions are absorbed. In addition, blood levels of an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase are typically elevated in people with Paget’s disease. Bisphosphonates, drugs that decrease the activity of osteoclasts, are often used in the treatment of Paget’s disease. However, in a small percentage of cases, bisphosphonates themselves have been linked to an increased risk of fractures because the old bone that is left after bisphosphonates are administered becomes worn out and brittle. Still, most doctors feel that the benefits of bisphosphonates more than outweigh the risk; the medical professional has to weigh the benefits and risks on a case-by-case basis. Bisphosphonate treatment can reduce the overall risk of deformities or fractures, which in turn reduces the risk of surgical repair and its associated risks and complications. Blood and Nerve Supply The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass through the compact bone. The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina), small openings in the diaphysis (Figure 6.15). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and blood that circulates in the marrow cavities. As the blood passes through the marrow cavities, it is collected by veins, which then pass out of the bone through the foramina. In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the bone where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The nerves sense pain, and it appears the nerves also play roles in regulating blood supplies and in bone growth, hence their concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone. Figure 6.15 Diagram of Blood and Nerve Supply to Bone Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramen. INTERACTIVE LINK Watch this video to see the microscopic features of a bone. Bone Formation and Development - Explain the function of cartilage - List the steps of intramembranous ossification - List the steps of endochondral ossification - Explain the growth activity at the epiphyseal plate - Compare and contrast the processes of modeling and remodeling In the early stages of embryonic development, the embryo’s skeleton consists of fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage. By the sixth or seventh week of embryonic life, the actual process of bone development, ossification (osteogenesis), begins. There are two osteogenic pathways—intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification—but bone is the same regardless of the pathway that produces it. Cartilage Templates Bone is a replacement tissue; that is, it uses a model tissue on which to lay down its mineral matrix. For skeletal development, the most common template is cartilage. During fetal development, a framework is laid down that determines where bones will form. This framework is a flexible, semi-solid matrix produced by chondroblasts and consists of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, collagen fibers, and water. As the matrix surrounds and isolates chondroblasts, they are called chondrocytes. Unlike most connective tissues, cartilage is avascular, meaning that it has no blood vessels supplying nutrients and removing metabolic wastes. All of these functions are carried on by diffusion through the matrix. This is why damaged cartilage does not repair itself as readily as most tissues do. Throughout fetal development and into childhood growth and development, bone forms on the cartilaginous matrix. By the time a fetus is born, most of the cartilage has been replaced with bone. Some additional cartilage will be replaced throughout childhood, and some cartilage remains in the adult skeleton. Intramembranous Ossification During intramembranous ossification, compact and spongy bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification. The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and begin to differentiate into specialized cells (Figure 6.16a). Some of these cells will differentiate into capillaries, while others will become osteogenic cells and then osteoblasts. Although they will ultimately be spread out by the formation of bone tissue, early osteoblasts appear in a cluster called an ossification center. The osteoblasts secrete osteoid, uncalcified matrix, which calcifies (hardens) within a few days as mineral salts are deposited on it, thereby entrapping the osteoblasts within. Once entrapped, the osteoblasts become osteocytes (Figure 6.16b). As osteoblasts transform into osteocytes, osteogenic cells in the surrounding connective tissue differentiate into new osteoblasts. Osteoid (unmineralized bone matrix) secreted around the capillaries results in a trabecular matrix, while osteoblasts on the surface of the spongy bone become the periosteum (Figure 6.16c). The periosteum then creates a protective layer of compact bone superficial to the trabecular bone. The trabecular bone crowds nearby blood vessels, which eventually condense into red marrow (Figure 6.16d). Figure 6.16 Intramembranous Ossification Intramembranous ossification follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into red marrow. Intramembranous ossification begins in utero during fetal development and continues on into adolescence. At birth, the skull and clavicles are not fully ossified nor are the sutures of the skull closed. This allows the skull and shoulders to deform during passage through the birth canal. The last bones to ossify via intramembranous ossification are the flat bones of the face, which reach their adult size at the end of the adolescent growth spurt. Endochondral Ossification In endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. Cartilage does not become bone. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to be completely replaced by new bone. Endochondral ossification takes much longer than intramembranous ossification. Bones at the base of the skull and long bones form via endochondral ossification. In a long bone, for example, at about 6 to 8 weeks after conception, some of the mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes (cartilage cells) that form the cartilaginous skeletal precursor of the bones (Figure 6.17a). Soon after, the perichondrium, a membrane that covers the cartilage, appears Figure 6.17b). Figure 6.17 Endochondral Ossification Endochondral ossification follows five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. (b) The cartilage model of the future bony skeleton and the perichondrium form. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage. Perichondrium transforms into periosteum. Periosteal collar develops. Primary ossification center develops. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop. (f) Cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage. As more matrix is produced, the chondrocytes in the center of the cartilaginous model grow in size. As the matrix calcifies, nutrients can no longer reach the chondrocytes. This results in their death and the disintegration of the surrounding cartilage. Blood vessels invade the resulting spaces, not only enlarging the cavities but also carrying osteogenic cells with them, many of which will become osteoblasts. These enlarging spaces eventually combine to become the medullary cavity. As the cartilage grows, capillaries penetrate it. This penetration initiates the transformation of the perichondrium into the bone-producing periosteum. Here, the osteoblasts form a periosteal collar of compact bone around the cartilage of the diaphysis. By the second or third month of fetal life, bone cell development and ossification ramps up and creates the primary ossification center, a region deep in the periosteal collar where ossification begins (Figure 6.17c). While these deep changes are occurring, chondrocytes and cartilage continue to grow at the ends of the bone (the future epiphyses), which increases the bone’s length at the same time bone is replacing cartilage in the diaphyses. By the time the fetal skeleton is fully formed, cartilage only remains at the joint surface as articular cartilage and between the diaphysis and epiphysis as the epiphyseal plate, the latter of which is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bones. After birth, this same sequence of events (matrix mineralization, death of chondrocytes, invasion of blood vessels from the periosteum, and seeding with osteogenic cells that become osteoblasts) occurs in the epiphyseal regions, and each of these centers of activity is referred to as a secondary ossification center (Figure 6.17e). How Bones Grow in Length The epiphyseal plate is the area of growth in a long bone. It is a layer of hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones. On the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate, cartilage is formed. On the diaphyseal side, cartilage is ossified, and the diaphysis grows in length. The epiphyseal plate is composed of four zones of cells and activity (Figure 6.18). The reserve zoneis the region closest to the epiphyseal end of the plate and contains small chondrocytes within the matrix. These chondrocytes do not participate in bone growth but secure the epiphyseal plate to the osseous tissue of the epiphysis. Figure 6.18 Longitudinal Bone Growth The epiphyseal plate is responsible for longitudinal bone growth. The proliferative zone is the next layer toward the diaphysis and contains stacks of slightly larger chondrocytes. It makes new chondrocytes (via mitosis) to replace those that die at the diaphyseal end of the plate. Chondrocytes in the next layer, the zone of maturation and hypertrophy, are older and larger than those in the proliferative zone. The more mature cells are situated closer to the diaphyseal end of the plate. The longitudinal growth of bone is a result of cellular division in the proliferative zone and the maturation of cells in the zone of maturation and hypertrophy. Most of the chondrocytes in the zone of calcified matrix, the zone closest to the diaphysis, are dead because the matrix around them has calcified. Capillaries and osteoblasts from the diaphysis penetrate this zone, and the osteoblasts secrete bone tissue on the remaining calcified cartilage. Thus, the zone of calcified matrix connects the epiphyseal plate to the diaphysis. A bone grows in length when osseous tissue is added to the diaphysis. Bones continue to grow in length until early adulthood. The rate of growth is controlled by hormones, which will be discussed later. When the chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate cease their proliferation and bone replaces the cartilage, longitudinal growth stops. All that remains of the epiphyseal plate is the epiphyseal line (Figure 6.19). Figure 6.19 Progression from Epiphyseal Plate to Epiphyseal Line As a bone matures, the epiphyseal plate progresses to an epiphyseal line. (a) Epiphyseal plates are visible in a growing bone. (b) Epiphyseal lines are the remnants of epiphyseal plates in a mature bone. How Bones Grow in Diameter While bones are increasing in length, they are also increasing in diameter; growth in diameter can continue even after longitudinal growth ceases. This is called appositional growth. Osteoclasts resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity, while osteoblasts, via intramembranous ossification, produce new bone tissue beneath the periosteum. The erosion of old bone along the medullary cavity and the deposition of new bone beneath the periosteum not only increase the diameter of the diaphysis but also increase the diameter of the medullary cavity. This process is called modeling. Bone Remodeling The process in which matrix is resorbed on one surface of a bone and deposited on another is known as bone modeling. Modeling primarily takes place during a bone’s growth. However, in adult life, bone undergoes remodeling, in which resorption of old or damaged bone takes place on the same surface where osteoblasts lay new bone to replace that which is resorbed. Injury, exercise, and other activities lead to remodeling. Those influences are discussed later in the chapter, but even without injury or exercise, about 5 to 10 percent of the skeleton is remodeled annually just by destroying old bone and renewing it with fresh bone. DISEASES OF THE... Skeletal System Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disease in which bones do not form properly and therefore are fragile and break easily. It is also called brittle bone disease. The disease is present from birth and affects a person throughout life. The genetic mutation that causes OI affects the body’s production of collagen, one of the critical components of bone matrix. The severity of the disease can range from mild to severe. Those with the most severe forms of the disease sustain many more fractures than those with a mild form. Frequent and multiple fractures typically lead to bone deformities and short stature. Bowing of the long bones and curvature of the spine are also common in people afflicted with OI. Curvature of the spine makes breathing difficult because the lungs are compressed. Because collagen is such an important structural protein in many parts of the body, people with OI may also experience fragile skin, weak muscles, loose joints, easy bruising, frequent nosebleeds, brittle teeth, blue sclera, and hearing loss. There is no known cure for OI. Treatment focuses on helping the person retain as much independence as possible while minimizing fractures and maximizing mobility. Toward that end, safe exercises, like swimming, in which the body is less likely to experience collisions or compressive forces, are recommended. Braces to support legs, ankles, knees, and wrists are used as needed. Canes, walkers, or wheelchairs can also help compensate for weaknesses. When bones do break, casts, splints, or wraps are used. In some cases, metal rods may be surgically implanted into the long bones of the arms and legs. Research is currently being conducted on using bisphosphonates to treat OI. Smoking and being overweight are especially risky in people with OI, since smoking is known to weaken bones, and extra body weight puts additional stress on the bones. INTERACTIVE LINK Watch this video to see how a bone grows. Fractures: Bone Repair - Differentiate among the different types of fractures - Describe the steps involved in bone repair A fracture is a broken bone. It will heal whether or not a physician resets it in its anatomical position. If the bone is not reset correctly, the healing process will keep the bone in its deformed position. When a broken bone is manipulated and set into its natural position without surgery, the procedure is called a closed reduction. Open reduction requires surgery to expose the fracture and reset the bone. While some fractures can be minor, others are quite severe and result in grave complications. For example, a fractured diaphysis of the femur has the potential to release fat globules into the bloodstream. These can become lodged in the capillary beds of the lungs, leading to respiratory distress and if not treated quickly, death. Types of Fractures Fractures are classified by their complexity, location, and other features (Figure 6.20). Table 6.4 outlines common types of fractures. Some fractures may be described using more than one term because it may have the features of more than one type (e.g., an open transverse fracture). Figure 6.20 Types of Fractures Compare healthy bone with different types of fractures: (a) closed fracture, (b) open fracture, (c) transverse fracture, (d) spiral fracture, (e) comminuted fracture, (f) impacted fracture, (g) greenstick fracture, and (h) oblique fracture. Types of Fractures \| Type of fracture \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Transverse \| Occurs straight across the long axis of the bone \| \| Oblique \| Occurs at an angle that is not 90 degrees \| \| Spiral \| Bone segments are pulled apart as a result of a twisting motion \| \| Comminuted \| Several breaks result in many small pieces between two large segments \| \| Impacted \| One fragment is driven into the other, usually as a result of compression \| \| Greenstick \| A partial fracture in which only one side of the bone is broken \| \| Open (or compound) \| A fracture in which at least one end of the broken bone tears through the skin; carries a high risk of infection \| \| Closed (or simple) \| A fracture in which the skin remains intact \| Table 6.4 Bone Repair When a bone breaks, blood flows from any vessel torn by the fracture. These vessels could be in the periosteum, osteons, and/or medullary cavity. The blood begins to clot, and about six to eight hours after the fracture, the clotting blood has formed a fracture hematoma (Figure 6.21a). The disruption of blood flow to the bone results in the death of bone cells around the fracture. Figure 6.21 Stages in Fracture Repair The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) A fracture hematoma forms. (b) Internal and external calli form. (c) Cartilage of the calli is replaced by trabecular bone. (d) Remodeling occurs. Within about 48 hours after the fracture, chondrocytes from the endosteum have created an internal callus (plural = calli) by secreting a fibrocartilaginous matrix between the two ends of the broken bone, while the periosteal chondrocytes and osteoblasts create an external callus of hyaline cartilage and bone, respectively, around the outside of the break (Figure 6.21b). This stabilizes the fracture. Over the next several weeks, osteoclasts resorb the dead bone; osteogenic cells become active, divide, and differentiate into osteoblasts. The cartilage in the calli is replaced by trabecular bone via endochondral ossification (Figure 6.21c). Eventually, the internal and external calli unite, compact bone replaces spongy bone at the outer margins of the fracture, and healing is complete. A slight swelling may remain on the outer surface of the bone, but quite often, that region undergoes remodeling (Figure 6.21d), and no external evidence of the fracture remains. INTERACTIVE LINK Visit this website to review different types of fractures and then take a short self-assessment quiz. Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue - Describe the effect exercise has on bone tissue - List the nutrients that affect bone health - Discuss the role those nutrients play in bone health - Describe the effects of hormones on bone tissue All of the organ systems of your body are interdependent, and the skeletal system is no exception. The food you take in via your digestive system and the hormones secreted by your endocrine system affect your bones. Even using your muscles to engage in exercise has an impact on your bones. Exercise and Bone Tissue During long space missions, astronauts can lose approximately 1 to 2 percent of their bone mass per month. This loss of bone mass is thought to be caused by the lack of mechanical stress on astronauts’ bones due to the low gravitational forces in space. Lack of mechanical stress causes bones to lose mineral salts and collagen fibers, and thus strength. Similarly, mechanical stress stimulates the deposition of mineral salts and collagen fibers. The internal and external structure of a bone will change as stress increases or decreases so that the bone is an ideal size and weight for the amount of activity it endures. That is why people who exercise regularly have thicker bones than people who are more sedentary. It is also why a broken bone in a cast atrophies while its contralateral mate maintains its concentration of mineral salts and collagen fibers. The bones undergo remodeling as a result of forces (or lack of forces) placed on them. Numerous, controlled studies have demonstrated that people who exercise regularly have greater bone density than those who are more sedentary. Any type of exercise will stimulate the deposition of more bone tissue, but resistance training has a greater effect than cardiovascular activities. Resistance training is especially important to slow down the eventual bone loss due to aging and for preventing osteoporosis. Nutrition and Bone Tissue The vitamins and minerals contained in all of the food we consume are important for all of our organ systems. However, there are certain nutrients that affect bone health. Calcium and Vitamin D You already know that calcium is a critical component of bone, especially in the form of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Since the body cannot make calcium, it must be obtained from the diet. However, calcium cannot be absorbed from the small intestine without vitamin D. Therefore, intake of vitamin D is also critical to bone health. In addition to vitamin D’s role in calcium absorption, it also plays a role, though not as clearly understood, in bone remodeling. Milk and other dairy foods are not the only sources of calcium. This important nutrient is also found in green leafy vegetables, broccoli, and intact salmon and canned sardines with their soft bones. Nuts, beans, seeds, and shellfish provide calcium in smaller quantities. Except for fatty fish like salmon and tuna, or fortified milk or cereal, vitamin D is not found naturally in many foods. The action of sunlight on the skin triggers the body to produce its own vitamin D (Figure 6.22), but many people, especially those of darker complexion and those living in northern latitudes where the sun’s rays are not as strong, are deficient in vitamin D. In cases of deficiency, a doctor can prescribe a vitamin D supplement. Figure 6.22 Synthesis of Vitamin D Sunlight is one source of vitamin D. Other Nutrients Vitamin K also supports bone mineralization and may have a synergistic role with vitamin D in the regulation of bone growth. Green leafy vegetables are a good source of vitamin K. The minerals magnesium and fluoride may also play a role in supporting bone health. While magnesium is only found in trace amounts in the human body, more than 60 percent of it is in the skeleton, suggesting it plays a role in the structure of bone. Fluoride can displace the hydroxyl group in bone’s hydroxyapatite crystals and form fluorapatite. Similar to its effect on dental enamel, fluorapatite helps stabilize and strengthen bone mineral. Fluoride can also enter spaces within hydroxyapatite crystals, thus increasing their density. Omega-3 fatty acids have long been known to reduce inflammation in various parts of the body. Inflammation can interfere with the function of osteoblasts, so consuming omega-3 fatty acids, in the diet or in supplements, may also help enhance production of new osseous tissue. Table 6.5 summarizes the role of nutrients in bone health. Nutrients and Bone Health \| Nutrient \| Role in bone health \| \|---\|---\| \| Calcium \| Needed to make calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate, which form the hydroxyapatite crystals that give bone its hardness \| \| Vitamin D \| Needed for calcium absorption \| \| Vitamin K \| Supports bone mineralization; may have synergistic effect with vitamin D \| \| Magnesium \| Structural component of bone \| \| Fluoride \| Structural component of bone \| \| Omega-3 fatty acids \| Reduces inflammation that may interfere with osteoblast function \| Table 6.5 Hormones and Bone Tissue The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones, many of which interact with the skeletal system. These hormones are involved in controlling bone growth, maintaining bone once it is formed, and remodeling it. Hormones That Influence Osteoblasts and/or Maintain the Matrix Several hormones are necessary for controlling bone growth and maintaining the bone matrix. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), which, as its name implies, controls bone growth in several ways. It triggers chondrocyte proliferation in epiphyseal plates, resulting in the increasing length of long bones. GH also increases calcium retention, which enhances mineralization, and stimulates osteoblastic activity, which improves bone density. GH is not alone in stimulating bone growth and maintaining osseous tissue. Thyroxine, a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland promotes osteoblastic activity and the synthesis of bone matrix. During puberty, the sex hormones (estrogen in girls, testosterone in boys) also come into play. They too promote osteoblastic activity and production of bone matrix, and in addition, are responsible for the growth spurt that often occurs during adolescence. They also promote the conversion of the epiphyseal plate to the epiphyseal line (i.e., cartilage to its bony remnant), thus bringing an end to the longitudinal growth of bones. Additionally, calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, is produced by the kidneys and stimulates the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the digestive tract. AGING AND THE... Skeletal System Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass that occurs when the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, a common occurrence as the body ages. Notice how this is different from Paget’s disease. In Paget’s disease, new bone is formed in an attempt to keep up with the resorption by the overactive osteoclasts, but that new bone is produced haphazardly. In fact, when a physician is evaluating a patient with thinning bone, he or she will test for osteoporosis and Paget’s disease (as well as other diseases). Osteoporosis does not have the elevated blood levels of alkaline phosphatase found in Paget’s disease. Figure 6.23 Graph Showing Relationship Between Age and Bone Mass Bone density peaks at about 30 years of age. Women lose bone mass more rapidly than men. While osteoporosis can involve any bone, it most commonly affects the proximal ends of the femur, vertebrae, and wrist. As a result of the loss of bone density, the osseous tissue may not provide adequate support for everyday functions, and something as simple as a sneeze can cause a vertebral fracture. When an elderly person falls and breaks a hip (really, the femur), it is very likely the femur that broke first, which resulted in the fall. Histologically, osteoporosis is characterized by a reduction in the thickness of compact bone and the number and size of trabeculae in cancellous bone. Figure 6.23 shows that women lose bone mass more quickly than men starting at about 50 years of age. This occurs because 50 is the approximate age at which women go through menopause. Not only do their menstrual periods lessen and eventually cease, but their ovaries reduce in size and then cease the production of estrogen, a hormone that promotes osteoblastic activity and production of bone matrix. Thus, osteoporosis is more common in women than in men, but men can develop it, too. Anyone with a family history of osteoporosis has a greater risk of developing the disease, so the best treatment is prevention, which should start with a childhood diet that includes adequate intake of calcium and vitamin D and a lifestyle that includes weight-bearing exercise. These actions, as discussed above, are important in building bone mass. Promoting proper nutrition and weight-bearing exercise early in life can maximize bone mass before the age of 30, thus reducing the risk of osteoporosis. For many elderly people, a hip fracture can be life threatening. The fracture itself may not be serious, but the immobility that comes during the healing process can lead to the formation of blood clots that can lodge in the capillaries of the lungs, resulting in respiratory failure; pneumonia due to the lack of poor air exchange that accompanies immobility; pressure sores (bed sores) that allow pathogens to enter the body and cause infections; and urinary tract infections from catheterization. Current treatments for managing osteoporosis include bisphosphonates (the same medications often used in Paget’s disease), calcitonin, and estrogen (for women only). Minimizing the risk of falls, for example, by removing tripping hazards, is also an important step in managing the potential outcomes from the disease. Hormones That Influence Osteoclasts Bone modeling and remodeling require osteoclasts to resorb unneeded, damaged, or old bone, and osteoblasts to lay down new bone. Two hormones that affect the osteoclasts are parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin. PTH stimulates osteoclast proliferation and activity. As a result, calcium is released from the bones into the circulation, thus increasing the calcium ion concentration in the blood. PTH also promotes the reabsorption of calcium by the kidney tubules, which can affect calcium homeostasis (see below). The small intestine is also affected by PTH, albeit indirectly. Because another function of PTH is to stimulate the synthesis of vitamin D, and because vitamin D promotes intestinal absorption of calcium, PTH indirectly increases calcium uptake by the small intestine. Calcitonin, a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, has some effects that counteract those of PTH. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake by the bones, thus reducing the concentration of calcium ions in the blood. As evidenced by their opposing functions in maintaining calcium homeostasis, PTH and calcitonin are generally notsecreted at the same time. Table 6.6 summarizes the hormones that influence the skeletal system. Hormones That Affect the Skeletal System \| Hormone \| Role \| \|---\|---\| \| Growth hormone \| Increases length of long bones, enhances mineralization, and improves bone density \| \| Thyroxine \| Stimulates bone growth and promotes synthesis of bone matrix \| \| Sex hormones \| Promote osteoblastic activity and production of bone matrix; responsible for adolescent growth spurt; promote conversion of epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line \| \| Calcitriol \| Stimulates absorption of calcium and phosphate from digestive tract \| \| Parathyroid hormone \| Stimulates osteoclast proliferation and resorption of bone by osteoclasts; promotes reabsorption of calcium by kidney tubules; indirectly increases calcium absorption by small intestine \| \| Calcitonin \| Inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake by bones \| Table 6.6 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems - Describe the effect of too much or too little calcium on the body - Explain the process of calcium homeostasis Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone, it is also the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium ions are needed not only for bone mineralization but for tooth health, regulation of the heart rate and strength of contraction, blood coagulation, contraction of smooth and skeletal muscle cells, and regulation of nerve impulse conduction. The normal level of calcium in the blood is about 10 mg/dL. When the body cannot maintain this level, a person will experience hypo- or hypercalcemia. Hypocalcemia, a condition characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium, can have an adverse effect on a number of different body systems including circulation, muscles, nerves, and bone. Without adequate calcium, blood has difficulty coagulating, the heart may skip beats or stop beating altogether, muscles may have difficulty contracting, nerves may have difficulty functioning, and bones may become brittle. The causes of hypocalcemia can range from hormonal imbalances to an improper diet. Treatments vary according to the cause, but prognoses are generally good. Conversely, in hypercalcemia, a condition characterized by abnormally high levels of calcium, the nervous system is underactive, which results in lethargy, sluggish reflexes, constipation and loss of appetite, confusion, and in severe cases, coma. Obviously, calcium homeostasis is critical. The skeletal, endocrine, and digestive systems play a role in this, but the kidneys do, too. These body systems work together to maintain a normal calcium level in the blood (Figure 6.24). Figure 6.24 Pathways in Calcium Homeostasis The body regulates calcium homeostasis with two pathways; one is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels drop below normal and one is the pathway that is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels are elevated. Calcium is a chemical element that cannot be produced by any biological processes. The only way it can enter the body is through the diet. The bones act as a storage site for calcium: The body deposits calcium in the bones when blood levels get too high, and it releases calcium when blood levels drop too low. This process is regulated by PTH, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Cells of the parathyroid gland have plasma membrane receptors for calcium. When calcium is not binding to these receptors, the cells release PTH, which stimulates osteoclast proliferation and resorption of bone by osteoclasts. This demineralization process releases calcium into the blood. PTH promotes reabsorption of calcium from the urine by the kidneys, so that the calcium returns to the blood. Finally, PTH stimulates the synthesis of vitamin D, which in turn, stimulates calcium absorption from any digested food in the small intestine. When all these processes return blood calcium levels to normal, there is enough calcium to bind with the receptors on the surface of the cells of the parathyroid glands, and this cycle of events is turned off (Figure 6.24). When blood levels of calcium get too high, the thyroid gland is stimulated to release calcitonin (Figure 6.24), which inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake by the bones, but also decreases reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys. All of these actions lower blood levels of calcium. When blood calcium levels return to normal, the thyroid gland stops secreting calcitonin. Key Terms - articular cartilage - thin layer of cartilage covering an epiphysis; reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber - articulation - where two bone surfaces meet - bone - hard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the skeleton - canaliculi - (singular = canaliculus) channels within the bone matrix that house one of an osteocyte’s many cytoplasmic extensions that it uses to communicate and receive nutrients - cartilage - semi-rigid connective tissue found on the skeleton in areas where flexibility and smooth surfaces support movement - central canal - longitudinal channel in the center of each osteon; contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels; also known as the Haversian canal - closed reduction - manual manipulation of a broken bone to set it into its natural position without surgery - compact bone - dense osseous tissue that can withstand compressive forces - diaphysis - tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of a long bone - diploë - layer of spongy bone, that is sandwiched between two the layers of compact bone found in flat bones - endochondral ossification - process in which bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage - endosteum - delicate membranous lining of a bone’s medullary cavity - epiphyseal line - completely ossified remnant of the epiphyseal plate - epiphyseal plate - (also, growth plate) sheet of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of an immature bone; replaced by bone tissue as the organ grows in length - epiphysis - wide section at each end of a long bone; filled with spongy bone and red marrow - external callus - collar of hyaline cartilage and bone that forms around the outside of a fracture - flat bone - thin and curved bone; serves as a point of attachment for muscles and protects internal organs - fracture - broken bone - fracture hematoma - blood clot that forms at the site of a broken bone - hematopoiesis - production of blood cells, which occurs in the red marrow of the bones - hole - opening or depression in a bone - hypercalcemia - condition characterized by abnormally high levels of calcium - hypocalcemia - condition characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium - internal callus - fibrocartilaginous matrix, in the endosteal region, between the two ends of a broken bone - intramembranous ossification - process by which bone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue - irregular bone - bone of complex shape; protects internal organs from compressive forces - lacunae - (singular = lacuna) spaces in a bone that house an osteocyte - long bone - cylinder-shaped bone that is longer than it is wide; functions as a lever - medullary cavity - hollow region of the diaphysis; filled with yellow marrow - modeling - process, during bone growth, by which bone is resorbed on one surface of a bone and deposited on another - nutrient foramen - small opening in the middle of the external surface of the diaphysis, through which an artery enters the bone to provide nourishment - open reduction - surgical exposure of a bone to reset a fracture - orthopedist - doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating musculoskeletal disorders and injuries - osseous tissue - bone tissue; a hard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the skeleton - ossification - (also, osteogenesis) bone formation - ossification center - cluster of osteoblasts found in the early stages of intramembranous ossification - osteoblast - cell responsible for forming new bone - osteoclast - cell responsible for resorbing bone - osteocyte - primary cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix - osteogenic cell - undifferentiated cell with high mitotic activity; the only bone cells that divide; they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts - osteoid - uncalcified bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts - osteon - (also, Haversian system) basic structural unit of compact bone; made of concentric layers of calcified matrix - osteoporosis - disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass; occurs when the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, a common occurrence as the body ages - perforating canal - (also, Volkmann’s canal) channel that branches off from the central canal and houses vessels and nerves that extend to the periosteum and endosteum - perichondrium - membrane that covers cartilage - periosteum - fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of bone and continuous with ligaments - primary ossification center - region, deep in the periosteal collar, where bone development starts during endochondral ossification - projection - bone markings where part of the surface sticks out above the rest of the surface, where tendons and ligaments attach - proliferative zone - region of the epiphyseal plate that makes new chondrocytes to replace those that die at the diaphyseal end of the plate and contributes to longitudinal growth of the epiphyseal plate - red marrow - connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where hematopoiesis takes place - remodeling - process by which osteoclasts resorb old or damaged bone at the same time as and on the same surface where osteoblasts form new bone to replace that which is resorbed - reserve zone - region of the epiphyseal plate that anchors the plate to the osseous tissue of the epiphysis - secondary ossification center - region of bone development in the epiphyses - sesamoid bone - small, round bone embedded in a tendon; protects the tendon from compressive forces - short bone - cube-shaped bone that is approximately equal in length, width, and thickness; provides limited motion - skeletal system - organ system composed of bones and cartilage that provides for movement, support, and protection - spongy bone - (also, cancellous bone) trabeculated osseous tissue that supports shifts in weight distribution - trabeculae - (singular = trabecula) spikes or sections of the lattice-like matrix in spongy bone - yellow marrow - connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where fat is stored - zone of calcified matrix - region of the epiphyseal plate closest to the diaphyseal end; functions to connect the epiphyseal plate to the diaphysis - zone of maturation and hypertrophy - region of the epiphyseal plate where chondrocytes from the proliferative zone grow and mature and contribute to the longitudinal growth of the epiphyseal plate Chapter Review 6.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System The major functions of the bones are body support, facilitation of movement, protection of internal organs, storage of minerals and fat, and hematopoiesis. Together, the muscular system and skeletal system are known as the musculoskeletal system. 6.2 Bone Classification Bones can be classified according to their shapes. Long bones, such as the femur, are longer than they are wide. Short bones, such as the carpals, are approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. Flat bones are thin, but are often curved, such as the ribs. Irregular bones such as those of the face have no characteristic shape. Sesamoid bones, such as the patellae, are small and round, and are located in tendons. 6.3 Bone Structure A hollow medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow runs the length of the diaphysis of a long bone. The walls of the diaphysis are compact bone. The epiphyses, which are wider sections at each end of a long bone, are filled with spongy bone and red marrow. The epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage, is replaced by osseous tissue as the organ grows in length. The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum. The outer surface of bone, except in regions covered with articular cartilage, is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Flat bones consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone. Bone markings depend on the function and location of bones. Articulations are places where two bones meet. Projections stick out from the surface of the bone and provide attachment points for tendons and ligaments. Holes are openings or depressions in the bones. Bone matrix consists of collagen fibers and organic ground substance, primarily hydroxyapatite formed from calcium salts. Osteogenic cells develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are cells that make new bone. They become osteocytes, the cells of mature bone, when they get trapped in the matrix. Osteoclasts engage in bone resorption. Compact bone is dense and composed of osteons, while spongy bone is less dense and made up of trabeculae. Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramina to nourish and innervate bones. 6.4 Bone Formation and Development All bone formation is a replacement process. Embryos develop a cartilaginous skeleton and various membranes. During development, these are replaced by bone during the ossification process. In intramembranous ossification, bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal connective tissue. In endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. Activity in the epiphyseal plate enables bones to grow in length. Modeling allows bones to grow in diameter. Remodeling occurs as bone is resorbed and replaced by new bone. Osteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic disease in which collagen production is altered, resulting in fragile, brittle bones. 6.5 Fractures: Bone Repair Fractured bones may be repaired by closed reduction or open reduction. Fractures are classified by their complexity, location, and other features. Common types of fractures are transverse, oblique, spiral, comminuted, impacted, greenstick, open (or compound), and closed (or simple). Healing of fractures begins with the formation of a hematoma, followed by internal and external calli. Osteoclasts resorb dead bone, while osteoblasts create new bone that replaces the cartilage in the calli. The calli eventually unite, remodeling occurs, and healing is complete. 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue Mechanical stress stimulates the deposition of mineral salts and collagen fibers within bones. Calcium, the predominant mineral in bone, cannot be absorbed from the small intestine if vitamin D is lacking. Vitamin K supports bone mineralization and may have a synergistic role with vitamin D. Magnesium and fluoride, as structural elements, play a supporting role in bone health. Omega-3 fatty acids reduce inflammation and may promote production of new osseous tissue. Growth hormone increases the length of long bones, enhances mineralization, and improves bone density. Thyroxine stimulates bone growth and promotes the synthesis of bone matrix. The sex hormones (estrogen in women; testosterone in men) promote osteoblastic activity and the production of bone matrix, are responsible for the adolescent growth spurt, and promote closure of the epiphyseal plates. Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by decreased bone mass that is common in aging adults. Calcitriol stimulates the digestive tract to absorb calcium and phosphate. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates osteoclast proliferation and resorption of bone by osteoclasts. Vitamin D plays a synergistic role with PTH in stimulating the osteoclasts. Additional functions of PTH include promoting reabsorption of calcium by kidney tubules and indirectly increasing calcium absorption from the small intestine. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake by bones. 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems Calcium homeostasis, i.e., maintaining a blood calcium level of about 10 mg/dL, is critical for normal body functions. Hypocalcemia can result in problems with blood coagulation, muscle contraction, nerve functioning, and bone strength. Hypercalcemia can result in lethargy, sluggish reflexes, constipation and loss of appetite, confusion, and coma. Calcium homeostasis is controlled by PTH, vitamin D, and calcitonin and the interactions of the skeletal, endocrine, digestive, and urinary systems. Review Questions Which function of the skeletal system would be especially important if you were in a car accident? - storage of minerals - protection of internal organs - facilitation of movement - fat storage Bone tissue can be described as ________. - dead calcified tissue - cartilage - the skeletal system - dense, hard connective tissue Without red marrow, bones would not be able to ________. - store phosphate - store calcium - make blood cells - move like levers Yellow marrow has been identified as ________. - an area of fat storage - a point of attachment for muscles - the hard portion of bone - the cause of kyphosis Which of the following can be found in areas of movement? - hematopoiesis - cartilage - yellow marrow - red marrow The skeletal system is made of ________. - muscles and tendons - bones and cartilage - vitreous humor - minerals and fat Most of the bones of the arms and hands are long bones; however, the bones in the wrist are categorized as ________. - flat bones - short bones - sesamoid bones - irregular bones Sesamoid bones are found embedded in ________. - joints - muscles - ligaments - tendons Bones that surround the spinal cord are classified as ________ bones. - irregular - sesamoid - flat - short Which category of bone is among the most numerous in the skeleton? - long bone - sesamoid bone - short bone - flat bone Long bones enable body movement by acting as a ________. - counterweight - resistive force - lever - fulcrum Which of the following occurs in the spongy bone of the epiphysis? - bone growth - bone remodeling - hematopoiesis - shock absorption The diaphysis contains ________. - the metaphysis - fat stores - spongy bone - compact bone The fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of the bone is the ________. - periosteum - epiphysis - endosteum - diaphysis Which of the following are incapable of undergoing mitosis? - osteoblasts and osteoclasts - osteocytes and osteoclasts - osteoblasts and osteocytes - osteogenic cells and osteoclasts Which cells do not originate from osteogenic cells? - osteoblasts - osteoclasts - osteocytes - osteoprogenitor cells Which of the following are found in compact bone and cancellous bone? - Haversian systems - Haversian canals - lamellae - lacunae Which of the following are only found in cancellous bone? - canaliculi - Volkmann’s canals - trabeculae - calcium salts The area of a bone where the nutrient foramen passes forms what kind of bone marking? - a hole - a facet - a canal - a fissure Why is cartilage slow to heal? - because it eventually develops into bone - because it is semi-solid and flexible - because it does not have a blood supply - because endochondral ossification replaces all cartilage with bone Why are osteocytes spread out in bone tissue? - They develop from mesenchymal cells. - They are surrounded by osteoid. - They travel through the capillaries. - Formation of osteoid spreads out the osteoblasts that formed the ossification centers. In endochondral ossification, what happens to the chondrocytes? - They develop into osteocytes. - They die in the calcified matrix that surrounds them and form the medullary cavity. - They grow and form the periosteum. - They group together to form the primary ossification center. Which of the following bones is (are) formed by intramembranous ossification? - the metatarsals - the femur - the ribs - the flat bones of the cranium Bones grow in length due to activity in the ________. - epiphyseal plate - perichondrium - periosteum - medullary cavity Bones grow in diameter due to bone formation ________. - in the medullary cavity - beneath the periosteum - in the epiphyseal plate - within the metaphysis Which of the following represents the correct sequence of zones in the epiphyseal plate? - proliferation, reserved, maturation, calcification - maturation, proliferation, reserved, calcification - calcification, maturation, proliferation, reserved - calcification, reserved, proliferation, maturation A fracture can be both ________. - open and closed - open and transverse - transverse and greenstick - greenstick and comminuted How can a fractured diaphysis release fat globules into the bloodstream? - The bone pierces fat stores in the skin. - The yellow marrow in the diaphysis is exposed and damaged. - The injury triggers the body to release fat from healthy bones. - The red marrow in the fractured bone releases fat to heal the fracture. In a compound fracture, ________. - the break occurs at an angle to the bone - the broken bone does not tear the skin - one fragment of broken bone is compressed into the other - broken bone pierces the skin The internal and external calli are replaced by ________. - hyaline cartilage - trabecular bone - osteogenic cells - osteoclasts The first type of bone to form during fracture repair is ________ bone. - compact - lamellar - spongy - dense Wolff’s law, which describes the effect of mechanical forces in bone modeling/remodeling, would predict that ________ - a right-handed pitcher will have thicker bones in his right arm compared to his left. - a right-handed cyclist will have thicker bones in her right leg compared to her left. - a broken bone will heal thicker than it was before the fracture. - a bed-ridden patient will have thicker bones than an athlete. Calcium cannot be absorbed from the small intestine if ________ is lacking. - vitamin D - vitamin K - calcitonin - fluoride Which one of the following foods is best for bone health? - carrots - liver - leafy green vegetables - oranges Which of the following hormones are responsible for the adolescent growth spurt? - estrogen and testosterone - calcitonin and calcitriol - growth hormone and parathyroid hormone - thyroxine and progesterone With respect to their direct effects on osseous tissue, which pair of hormones has actions that oppose each other? - estrogen and testosterone - calcitonin and calcitriol - estrogen and progesterone - calcitonin and parathyroid hormone When calcium levels are too high or too low, which body system is primarily affected? - skeletal system - endocrine system - digestive system - nervous system All of the following play a role in calcium homeostasis except - thyroxine - calcitonin - parathyroid hormone - vitamin D Which of the following is most likely to be released when blood calcium levels are elevated? - thyroxine - calcitonin - parathyroid hormone - vitamin D Critical Thinking Questions The skeletal system is composed of bone and cartilage and has many functions. Choose three of these functions and discuss what features of the skeletal system allow it to accomplish these functions. 41.What are the structural and functional differences between a tarsal and a metatarsal? 42.What are the structural and functional differences between the femur and the patella? 43.If the articular cartilage at the end of one of your long bones were to degenerate, what symptoms do you think you would experience? Why? 44.In what ways is the structural makeup of compact and spongy bone well suited to their respective functions? 45.In what ways do intramembranous and endochondral ossification differ? 46.Considering how a long bone develops, what are the similarities and differences between a primary and a secondary ossification center? 47.What is the difference between closed reduction and open reduction? In what type of fracture would closed reduction most likely occur? In what type of fracture would open reduction most likely occur? 48.In terms of origin and composition, what are the differences between an internal callus and an external callus? 49.If you were a dietician who had a young female patient with a family history of osteoporosis, what foods would you suggest she include in her diet? Why? 50.During the early years of space exploration our astronauts, who had been floating in space, would return to earth showing significant bone loss dependent on how long they were in space. Discuss how this might happen and what could be done to alleviate this condition. 51.An individual with very low levels of vitamin D presents themselves to you complaining of seemingly fragile bones. Explain how these might be connected. 52.Describe the effects caused when the parathyroid gland fails to respond to calcium bound to its receptors.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:17.674062	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56365/overview", "title": "Anatomy and Physiology, Support and Movement", "author": null }

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