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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93779/overview
|
Introduction to Probability and Statistics Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
The shell of a syllabus that hopes to incorporate many antiracist practices, in statistics.
Syllabus
The syllabus is refined via Google Doc within the first few days of the semester, by the students. The refined version then would be used in the next iteration of the course, so the syllabus would evolve over time and always have student input.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.392303
|
Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93779/overview",
"title": "Introduction to Probability and Statistics Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Halsey Boyd"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69202/overview
|
Budget Notes for Newspapers and Magazines
Overview
This lesson provides students with three easy steps on how to write budget notes for newspapers and magazines. Writers are required to create daily or weekly budget notes to detail their work, and editors use the notes to plan and design their publications.
Writing the Budget Note
The Budget Note
Believe it or not, journalists deal with budgets every day, but they are not the type of budgets filed with numbers. Writers use budgets to plan the day's or the week's work. In turn, editors use the writers' budgets to plan and design the pages of newspapers or magazines. The budget note for most publications requires three elements: the story slug, the budget line, and the budget tagline.
The slug: The slug represents the name of the story. It usually consists of one word, a key word that can be found in the story. The slug is followed by the day the story will be ready for publication.
The budget line: This item consists of three to four sentences detailing what the story is about, and why the story is important to your readers. Think about this part of the budget note as a way to sell your editors on the story.
The tag line: The tag line consists of three elements: the author's last name, the story length (in inches or words depending on the publication), and the type of art/graphic planned for the story. Note in the examples below, the tagline information is enclosed in parentheses.
Examples:
MEASLES.22 More than 700 students and staff members from UCLA and Cal State LA have been quarantined in attempts to prevent the spread of measles on their respective campuses. According to Los Angeles County health officials, the highly contagious disease was declared eliminated in 2000. Will talk to health officials to detail how measles made a comeback and how students and others can help prevent their spread. Will interview Valley College officials and report on how they are attempting to prevent or prepare for a possible outbreak on campus (Jackson, 500 words, art/graphic of measles, quarantine sites).
Rover.30 NASA launched the Mars Rover Opportunity on July 7, 2003, and the robot was only expected to explore the surface of Mars for 90 days. It lasted more than 15 years. On Feb. 19, 2019, NASA officials declared the mechanical explorer dead after it waded through a severe dust storm that blocked its solar panels. Officials sent Opportunity 1,000 recovery commands and none of them were performed. According to NASA, Opportunity’s last words were, “ My battery is low and it’s getting dark.” The article will detail Opportunity's findings, how the robot was able to last so long, and talk to Valley College's science department about what Opportunity's discoveries mean (Coan, 450-500 words, photograph of Opportunity and NASA logo).
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.412543
|
06/30/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69202/overview",
"title": "Budget Notes for Newspapers and Magazines",
"author": "William Dauber"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74541/overview
|
SOC 200 Syllabus
Overview
SOC 200 Syllabus - Introduction to Sociology: Theory using OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 2e.
Sociology
Course Description: This Sociology course was designed to introduce student to the sociological study of society. This course will focus on the systematic understanding of social interaction, social organization, social institutions, and social change. Issues of social class, nationality, race, culture, and sexual preference will be discussed throughout the course.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.429084
|
11/10/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74541/overview",
"title": "SOC 200 Syllabus",
"author": "Filiberto Lopez-Barron"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107398/overview
|
NSG 143 Development of Nursing Practice 1
Overview
This course introduces the theory that directs nursing skills and the development of nursing practice. These skills will help you to deliver care in a safe, patient-centered, and evidence-based manner. We will be using the nursing process as a framework for the care and implementation of appropriate nursing interventions. Basic to intermediate nursing skills are developed.
NSG 143 Development of Nursing Practice 1
This course introduces the theory that directs nursing skills and the development of nursing practice. These skills will help you to deliver care in a safe, patient-centered, and evidence-based manner. We will be using the nursing process as a framework for the care and implementation of appropriate nursing interventions. Basic to intermediate nursing skills are developed.
Canvas Commons Link
Use this link to access to access the course in the Canvas Commons.
Common Cartridge Course File
Use the attached IMSCC file to access the course in an LMS other than Canvas.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.448722
|
Lea DeForest
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107398/overview",
"title": "NSG 143 Development of Nursing Practice 1",
"author": "Full Course"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121626/overview
|
What is Copyright Law?
Overview
Learn about copyright law with this overview resource.
Created by Jes Graham for the second assignment of the Creative Commons Course.
Learn about copyright law with this overview resource.
Created by Jes Graham for the second assignment of the Creative Commons Course.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.465850
|
Jes Graham
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121626/overview",
"title": "What is Copyright Law?",
"author": "Unit of Study"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67292/overview
|
Sample Lesson
Overview
This is a simple template for the lesson.
Formulas can be easily typed using the TeX editor.
Description
Material Type: Lesson
Author: Igor V. Baryakhtar
Overview
overview
A general review or summary of a subject.
Formulas can be easily typed using the TeX editor, for example
\(\int_0^\infty e^{-x^2} dx=\frac{\sqrt{\pi}}{2} \)
\(\lim_{x \to \infty} \Big (1+{1 \over {x}}\Big)^x = e\)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Instructor: Igor V. Baryakhtar
Subject:
Course:
Semester:
College:
Level: Community College
Material Type:
Tags:
Date Added:
Language: English
Media Format:
Licence: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.479802
|
05/24/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67292/overview",
"title": "Sample Lesson",
"author": "Igor Baryakhtar"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81296/overview
|
Assignment-Using Personal Dolls for a Sensitive Topic
Overview
An assignment for a Child Development diversity course utilizing persona dolls to discuss sensitive topics.
Child Development Course Assignment: Teaching in a Diverse Society (picture from Amaze.com website)
Instructors: Our college ordered two sets of persona dolls and our students check out the dolls to use for this assignment. Some students want the dolls at their educational site but do not have adequate funds, so some teachers have created their own dolls.
Goal:
This assignment will give each student an opportunity to select a sensitive topic emphasizing diversity in people and share this topic utilizing a persona doll and a children’s book. Your audience for the presentation will be your adult classmates but you are writing and presenting as though children are present.
“Using Anti-Bias Education theory as a framework for identity development, appreciating differences, and understanding bias, prejudice, and stereotypes, storytelling with a personal doll creates the conditions for belonging and equity and enables people of all ages to engage fully in their relationships with each other and the work that they do in classrooms and workplaces." (Amaze website)
Supporting Materials:
"The Anti-Bias Curriculum, developed by a multi-ethnic group of early childhood educators, promotes the following goals:
- To nurture each child’s construction of a knowledgeable, confident self-concept and group identity.
- To promote each child’s comfortable, empathic interaction with people from diverse backgrounds.
- To foster each child’s critical thinking about bias.
- To cultivate each child’s ability to stand up for her/himself and for others in the face of bias” (Derman-Sparks, 2006).
Directions:
Each student completes the Written Proposal on only ONE "ism", and once the proposal is approved by your instructor, the next step is to carry out the presentation with your classmates. The presentation includes reading one book connected to your topic and sharing the ism with a persona doll.
Materials needed:
One Persona Doll: What if you do not have a Persona Doll? Persona dolls are usually quite large, about 2 to 3 feet in height. For this course, it is okay to use a person puppet, a doll (but not a baby doll), or even a sock puppet. There is a set of persona dolls that can be checked out from our college. You are NOT required to make a purchase for this activity.
One Children's Book: Select a book that focuses on your topic, include in your written proposal, and read during your persona doll presentation. There are children's books that you can locate online. Also, local libraries are checking out books and following health precautions during the pandemic. At my local library, I can either call or request a book online. When I arrive at the library, I call them and they bring out the book(s) and set them on a cart, so I can walk up and pick them up outside of the library. if you are needing support in finding a book, please let me know.
Written Proposal:
Please respond to each numbered item separately while retaining the numbers and utilizing spell/grammar check.
- Identify and name the one ism along with giving a 1-2 sentence definition of the selected ism. To select the "ism", think about a sensitive diversity issue that might arise in a children’s classroom, and is often uncomfortable for children and teachers to discuss. Possible sensitive topics for the "ism" include skin color/colorism; gender/genderism; race/racism; body size/sizeism; type of hair/ethnocentrism; language/linguistic discrimination, who the child lives with/ethnocentrism or familial status discrimination, accessibility/using a wheelchair/ableism, etc.
Definition of "ism" from the book, "Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves", page xii: ""Isms": The many forms of institutionalized prejudice and discrimination based on social identities such as ability/disability, culture/ethnicity, economic class, gender, sexual orientation, racial identity, and others. (The resultant isms are ableism, ethnocentrism, classism, sexism, racism, and the like.)" Please note some words end in the letters "ism" but might not be considered an "ism." If you are needing help in identifying and naming the "ism", please contact your instructor before you submit the assignment.
- Select a developmentally and age-appropriate book to read that focuses specifically on your topic. You can check out books free from the college library or your local library. You do not have to purchase a book for this course. Please identify the title and author of the book along with sharing a 75-word summary of the book. In addition, be very specific and identify information in the book that is directly connected to your selected "ism".
- During the presentation, and after reading the book, have a short conversation about your sensitive topic. For example, if it is about hair type, discuss similarities and differences while noting the beauty of all hair or the beauty of a person that does not have hair. Also, a discussion of feelings about the topic would be appropriate too. This means that teachers need to model acceptance of hair and not be overly fixated by talking about how bad their own hair looks on any given day. Imagine if a child with really curly hair, constantly hears a teacher talk about disliking their curls and spending time and money to straighten their hair. While this is a personal choice of an adult, it can send very confusing messages to a child and impact the child's positive sense of self as they develop their identity.
- Select one Anti-Bias/Multi-Cultural Education Goal from the list of four (4) anti-bias goals from our book, The Role of Equity and Diversity in Early Childhood Education, Ch. 6, 6.5: Going One Step Further with an Anti-bias Classroom, section/Curriculum; include the number of the goal and type it exactly as it is stated in our book, putting it in quotes, and give credit to our authors. After you state the goal, share specifically what you hope children and teachers will learn about the sensitive topic that you are presenting.
- State exactly what you might say to children about why the persona doll is attending their group time experience with the overall goal to build empathy, care, and concern for the doll's situation. All the skits need to include a persona doll that is either sad, embarrassed, or ashamed because of comments made by some of the children in the classroom. Persona dolls do not speak; so, the teacher acts out the doll pretending to whisper in the teacher's ear and then the teacher relays the information to the children. This allows for consistency in the classroom and teachers don't have to try and mimic the "voice" created by another teacher. The focus is on the teacher as the facilitator of the dolls' thoughts and the children's interactions/comments with the information being shared.
Do not use statements such as "I will explain why he is sad." This phrase will be replaced with exactly what you will say. For example, you might say, "This is Shawn and he's been feeling sad because children have been making fun of his hair. He heard some children say that his hair feels and looks funny because he has lots and lots of really small, tight curls. He is sad and embarrassed that he asked his dad if he could stay home and not come back to preschool. My heart hurts for Shawn as I want every child to feel respected and hear kind comments about his, her, or their hair. I brought a book about hair that I'm going to read."
The next step is to ask your open-ended questions which you will create as part of this write-up. At the end of your presentation, share a summary of what you know about the "ism", for example, "Now we know that it is not kind or respectful to try to tell someone that he has to be the same as someone else (can include the specific "ism" here). And we know how much that hurts, don't we?" You might wait for the children's response and then thank them for being so helpful and kind to the doll. - Create two open-ended questions that invite the children to respond in caring and kind ways to the persona doll/puppet as they address the specific concern with respectful and caring ideas. These two questions need to directly address why the persona doll is feeling sad, embarrassed, and/or ashamed. One question will focus on what the persona doll can do or say when the children are being unkind. The second question will focus on what the children in the classroom can do or say when other children are being unkind to the persona doll. In the questions, include information specific to your ism.
An open-ended question does not have a right/wrong answer and cannot be answered with a yes or no. For example, what color is your eyes, has a right or wrong answer and is considered a closed-ended question. Do you want more milk can be answered with a yes or no and is closed-ended question.
When you ask an open-ended question, it provides an opportunity for children to use critical thinking skills and respond creatively? Writing the children's responses on a large piece of paper is a wonderful way to refer to the ideas later and to work on a print-rich environment.
- Create a “persona” and name for your persona doll. The persona is information about the puppet that the children can relate to such as name, gender, age (the ages matches the group you will be presenting to), who child lives with-be specific, race/ethnicity, culture, languages spoken, any distinguishing characteristics/abilities such as glasses, favorite food, favorite thing to play with at school, name of a friend at school, etc. Share just a few of the characteristics with the children but not too many as you don't want to overwhelm children with too much information. You do want to include the sensitive topic in the characteristics. For example, Shawn has thick, super curly, dark brown hair! Of course, if we don't have a doll with this hair type, then you need to amend this part. Let me know if you would like support with how to do this.
- How might you engage families with your presentation so they can continue these important conversations?
- Extra Credit: up to 5 points; students facilitate a practice session with your own children or children you know that are not in an educational site. A short video of your presentation with the children is required to earn these extra credit points which means that this extra credit only works for families that are comfortable with their children being in the video. The instructor is the only person that sees the video as it is not open to the other students. You will upload this on the page where you turn in the reflection for the persona doll assignment.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.508818
|
05/31/2021
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81296/overview",
"title": "Assignment-Using Personal Dolls for a Sensitive Topic",
"author": "Pam Guerra-Schmidt"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74001/overview
|
Learning Styles
Overview
In this section we will learn about the three types of learners we may encounter in our classrooms.
How do you learn?
We have different ways to learn, but the common three are Visual Learners, Kinesthetic Learners, and Auditory Learners. It's helpful to know what's the best way you learn so that your aware whether or not the material is being presented in a way you can be grasp it. Learning should not be about memorizing; it should be about growing.
Visual Learners are individuals who absorb information through just watching their teacher or trainer provided a physical example. While a Kinesthetic Learner must participate hands on to understand a concept or idea. Meanwhile Auditory Learners can grasp information through a speech by just listening to the material.
Why is this important? Well during our career as educators we will need to create materials that will prepare students for their journey. Our lesson plans must be tailored to those who will need to learn from them; therefore, we have to know what kind of learners we have in our classrooms.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.529958
|
10/28/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74001/overview",
"title": "Learning Styles",
"author": "Kassandra Cruz"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118319/overview
|
Madison College OER Searching Worksheet
OER Searching Worksheet and Tutorial
Overview
This worksheet provides guidance on searching for Open Educational Resources. Processes for finding OER are segmented into small sections allowing searchers to explore a variety of repositories and organize their research. Support staff can send the final sheet to faculty who will be easily able to evaluate the resources based on demonstrated research processes.
OER Worksheet Tutorial and Worksheet
This worksheet provides guidance on searching for Open Educational Resources. Processes for finding OER are segmented into small sections allowing searchers to explore a variety of repositories and organize their research. Support staff can send the final sheet to faculty who will be easily able to evaluate the resources based on demonstrated research processes.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.547715
|
07/24/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118319/overview",
"title": "OER Searching Worksheet and Tutorial",
"author": "Rachel Becker"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56764/overview
|
Files for Textbook Affordability Challenge Game
Overview
Here's a "game" you can use with faculty, staff, and students to showcase the financial challenges that our students face in achieving their educational goals. You are welcome to customize the files for your own institution. We have "played" the game in Opening Day events, professional development events, and with student leaders. It never stops surprising players of the incredible challenges that we can assist with by eliminating textbook costs.
Game Purpose
The Student Textbook Challenge game was designed and developed to:
- Inform us about who our students are
- Highlight some of the problems our students face
- Educate players about on-campus resources
- Provide ideas for mindful textbook adoption
- Allow for “AH-HA” moments in a fun environment
To get started download the .zip folder containing instructions, student start cards, required materials cards, resources cards, tally sheet, reflections page, and game board. You are welcome to remove the De Anza College map and replace it with your own college’s map as well as remove the De Anza College logo on the Bookstore space and replace it with your college’s logo. You may also modify the text on the cards. One of the features of Creative Commons Attribution licensed content is being legally able to revise the files.
We’d love to receive your feedback on this game, especially about your experiences and suggestions for development of Version 2. Please send feedback to: byarswil@fhda.edu.
© 2015, 2017 De Anza College employees Virginia Marquez, Sandra Blackborow, and Wil Byars.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Please give attribution to the above game authors.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.567436
|
Wil Byars
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56764/overview",
"title": "Files for Textbook Affordability Challenge Game",
"author": "Barbara Illowsky"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105535/overview
|
Term Paper guidelines 140
United States History II: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
This document includes the template platform for United States History II class. Included within is the syllabus, including the assigned OER textbook, my Action Plan for OFAR-informed assignments and the Research Paper Guidelines.
Action Plan
Short-term plan(s) - what will you implement this Spring 2023?
I will work towards the following in my classrooms:
- Include ground rules on the course syllabus that establish a safe learning environment for all students. Include statements that express respect for individual differences.
- Provide an environment in class that promotes opportunities where students can bring their personal experiences into the class discussion allowing for all students to bring their voice and personal experiences into our class.
- Introduce a variety of published material from diverse persons and perspectives into our curriculum.
- Include video clips/videos relevant with diverse speakers
- Be sensitive to students’ comfort zone relative to sharing while encouraging students to step outside their comfort zone while exploring key class topics in order to truly learn.
- Work to remain open to all perspectives regardless of my personal thoughts and experiences.
Long-term plan(s)
- Seek out OFAR-friendly OER resources and cross-cultural research materials that can add to a truly open dialogue between all course stakeholders.
- While staying true to the course CORs, expand my concept of KEY CONCEPTs regarding class topics.
How can you scale up your idea?
- By continuing to explore resources, particularly, OFAR-friendly cross-cultural research-based material to bring into my courses.
In what ways can you expand your reach or bring others in?
Maintain open dialogue with colleagues and friends to make others aware of OFAR key concepts and our collective goals relative to antiracism in the learning environment.
How will you share this with your campus community or beyond?
As a member of the FLEX committee, I am working to encourage inclusion in the Spring 2023 schedule a presentation by one of our OFAR members to the campus. Moreover, to promote OFAR-inspired approaches to teaching and learning History, I will continue to improve my knowledge and participation in OFAR supported webinars and public presentations. I am committed to continuing to seek out OER and other OFAR-friendly course research in my future classes.
Course Description
History 140 American History Post Civil War.
This course is a survey of the leading issues in American life from reconstruction through the present. The course focuses on politics, cultural development, social conflict, economic life, foreign policy, influential ideas, and significant individuals in US History. This course is designed to examine the economic and political actions and events of American History from 1865 through present day and apply it to our shared social history.
Antiracist Assignment- Research Paper
Description
This assignment is designed to allow you, the author, freedom to explore any topic related to
our class studies this semester. This course is a survey of the leading issues in American life from
reconstruction through the present. The course focuses on politics, cultural development, social
conflict, economic life, foreign policy, influential ideas, and significant individuals in US History.
Choosing a topic
Any topic you select should focus on an area of American history from the period included in
our studies. When considering your topic, I strongly encourage you to select one that is
sufficiently broad to ensure that your research allows for 8-10 pages of writing. At the end of
this paper, I have included a few topics for your consideration.
Format
Suggested Topics
➢ The foundations and impact of The Black Codes
➢ The foundations and impact of the Jim Crow Laws
➢ Sharecropping in the south
➢ What is “Freedom” following the American Civil War for Freedmen in the Southern States.
➢ The Age of Industrialization
➢ Immigration into America 1900-1920’s.
➢ The Great Depression- Who did it fail? Who did it help most?
➢ America’s contributions to WWI
➢ 1960’s and The American Indian Movement (AIM)
➢ 1960’s and the Chicano Movement
➢ 1960’s and Civil Rights Movement
➢ 1980’s and the new Conservative Movement
➢ Free Write- Research and document your personal history. Answer the “Who, What, Why, Where, and How” of your family’s settlement and contributions in America.
o This topic assumes that we all come from somewhere else. In some cases, this may not be true.
o You paper must contain evidence of research. This can be accomplished through interviews of your older generation family members as well as genealogical information which would then lead you to a public figure (of their time) perhaps.
▪ Example- through genealogical research, I discovered that I am related to the last Army Corp of Engineer who built the Panama Canal- General George Washington Goethals.
Download Term Paper Guidelines pdf for complete details for assignment.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.642878
|
06/17/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105535/overview",
"title": "United States History II: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Thomas Jones"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115935/overview
|
HIST 350: Introduction to the African Diaspora Syllabus 2020
Overview
This is an upper level college survey course with the purpose to provide an introductory overview of the black experience in Africa and its global Diaspora, using a comparative perspective. The course proceeds chronologically from the ancient Nile River Valley civilizations to the present, and is divided into four units of study: (a) Ancient Africa: From Antiquity to the Medieval Period; (b) The Era of the Transatlantic Slave Trade and Slavery in the Americas; (c) Emancipation and Abolition in the Nineteenth Century; and (d) The Age of Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: Colonialism/Anti-Colonialism; Imperialism/Anti-Imperialism; Pan-Africanism and Independence; Black Power and Civil Rights. Topics to be examined include ancient state building; slavery; resistance movements; the role of women, religion and other cultural formations in the modern African Diaspora; and a comparison of the development of modern, organized political movements and intellectual currents in black communities worldwide with some emphasis on the historical context for contemporary issues such as globalization and reparations.
Attachments
The attachment for this resource is a sample syllabus for an upper-level survey course on the African diaspora.
About This Resource
The sample syllabus included here was submitted by a participant in a one-day virtual workshop entitled, "Teaching the Global African Diaspora" for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This was a draft document that may subsequently have been revised in light of feedback and discussion during the event.
This resource was contributed by Dr. Herbert Brewer, Department of History, Geography, and Museum Studies, Morgan State University.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.662207
|
Alliance for Learning in World History
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115935/overview",
"title": "HIST 350: Introduction to the African Diaspora Syllabus 2020",
"author": "Syllabus"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89583/overview
|
Hangman Game in Java
Overview
The Hangman game in Java. Students will learn how to read inputs from the keyboard, how to print outputs, and how to repeat a task using loops.
Java Programming: Game
Hangman Game in Java
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.680084
|
Game
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89583/overview",
"title": "Hangman Game in Java",
"author": "Case Study"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114947/overview
|
Classroom Management Skills
Positive Behavior Interventions and Support Example
Responding to Disengaged and Disruptive Behavior
Behavior Management
Overview
This module is about how to redirect and manage classroom behaviors. Creating a positive environment for students stimulates positive behaviors.
Introduction
Behavior management is when teachers establish clear expectations, routines, and encourage productive behavior. In return this will create a positive learning environment that helps build healthy student-teacher relationships. It is crucial for teachers to implement behavior management because it allows for productive instruction time, uninterrupted activities, and smooth transitions. Behavior management can be done in several ways, such as preventing behaviors before they happen, redirecting behaviors as they happen, or by reaffirming positive behaviors.
Behavior Management Main Points
Preventing Disruptive and Disengaged Behaviors
Routines/schedules:
Establish routines and schedules so students know what to expect throughout the day. This should be done starting on the very first day of school and continue until the last day of school.
Rules/expectations:
Involve students in creating the rules and expectations for the classroom. This will result in students keeping each other accountable throughout the school year. Reminders should be consistent to what is already established and happen frequently.
Creating healthy/friendly student-teacher relationships:
By creating a healthy bond with your students they will feel safe and welcomed to express how they are feeling and more open about their opinions and emotions. Strong positive relationships will pave the way for respect between both the students and the teacher.
Modeling/encouraging appropriate behavior:
Modeling appropriate behavior can be done when setting rules and expectations, the purpose is to explicitly show students what kind of behavior is tolerated and appropriate in certain settings. Encouraging appropriate behavior can include verbal redirections and encouraging students to behave appropriately. For example, if Jackie and Ana are disrupting the class by playing around and being too loud. I will talk to them and explain that right now is not the appropriate time to be playing around but you can do that during recess at the playground.
Responding to Disruptive and Disengaged Behavior
Giving students a choice
Providing the students with a choice gives them the opportunity to correct their behavior themselves, receive support, and/or a consequence. However, teachers shouldn’t give the students a choice as a threat. Unreasonable consequences can lead to negative behaviors.
Implementing the consequence
When implementing a consequence, it should be respectful, private, and consistent. The point of a consequence is not to embarrass the student but to maintain accountability and safety. Teachers should simply state that inappropriate behavior and give the consequence. An example would be saying, “I see that you are running to be first in line, you know that we are supposed to walk in the classroom, please go back to your desk and try again.”
Using verbal/nonverbal corrections
Both nonverbal and verbal corrections aim to stop a students behavior before it can escalate and help students re-engage with the lesson. Nonverbal corrections are less likely to interrupt a lesson or activity while still redirecting behavior. Verbal corrections should not single out specific students unless it is done privately, such as crouching down next to a student or otherwise. Verbal corrections aim to remind students of expectations and redirect students back to the task at hand.
Responding to Positive Behavior
Positively acknowledge and reaffirm positive behavior
Teachers should give students more attention for positive behaviors than negative behaviors, students are more likely to behave appropriately if they know that they will be commended and it will hopefully lead to intrinsically motivated positive behaviors. Teachers could even set up reward systems, such as classroom money, treasure boxes, whole class rewards, etc… but teachers should not solely rely on these rewards to motivate students.
References:
"Classroom Management Practice Guide-Responding to Disengaged and Disruptive Behaviors" by Australian Education Research Organisation is licensed under CC BY 4.0
"Classroom Management Resources-User Guide" by Australian Education Research Organisation is licensed under CC BY 4.0
"Classroom Management Skill-Circulation" by Australian Education Research Organisation is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Final Conclusion
In conclusion, classroom behaviors should be reinforced and managed with positive rather than negative attitudes. Students will always have their reasons as to why they act out or disconnect from the class. It is our job, as educators, to find their ‘why’ and support the students. Providing the students with options, acknowledging the good, rewarding them, and creating routines, are all ways teachers can show their support. This benefits the student's learning ability and outcomes and sets the foundation for a strong and healthy student-teacher relationship. However, it is necessary and important that we keep the students in check by staying consistent with our routines and expectations.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.707248
|
Jacquline Venegas
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114947/overview",
"title": "Behavior Management",
"author": "Roxy Lopez"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108905/overview
|
E-Magazines Digitool
Overview
E-Magazines were created by the team of digitool to disseminate knowledge about new technologies through our own experience in mobilities.
The e- magazines created by Digitool contains articles and information aimed at tackling digital skills, statics, searches and new ideas in digital world.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.723712
|
09/29/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108905/overview",
"title": "E-Magazines Digitool",
"author": "Ruth MORALES COSANO"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122188/overview
|
MAC 224 Final Exam Questions and Answers
MAC 224 - Advanced CNC Milling
Overview
This course covers advanced methods in setup and operation of CNC machining centers. Emphasis is placed on programming and production of complex parts. Upon completion, students should be able to demonstrate skills in programming, operations, and setup of CNC machining centers.
MAC 224 - Advanced CNC Milling
This course covers advanced methods in setup and operation of CNC machining centers. Emphasis is placed on programming and production of complex parts. Upon completion, students should be able to demonstrate skills in programming, operations, and setup of CNC machining centers.
This course is uploaded as a PDF with the final exam uploaded seperately.
This product was funded by a grant awarded by the U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration. The product was created by the grantee and does not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Labor. The Department of Labor makes no guarantees, warranties, or assurances of any kind, express or implied, with respect to such information, including any information on linked sites and including, but not limited to, accuracy of the information or its completeness, timeliness, usefulness, adequacy, continued availability, or ownership.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.740736
|
11/25/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122188/overview",
"title": "MAC 224 - Advanced CNC Milling",
"author": "Bo Bunn"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83614/overview
|
Denzel Washington's Life Advice Will Leave You Speechless
Growth Mindset
Growth Mindset vs. Fixed Mindset
Identify: Growth or Fixed Mindset
Michelle Obama's Best Advice for Students: How to Succeed in Life
The Power of a Growth Mindset
Growth Mindset Assessment Activity
Overview
For this activity, students will first complete a mindset assessment to learn about their current mindset. Next, students will review the videos and the attached article entitled "Building Growth Mindset" and answer the four questions posed by Bradley Busch in the article.
PSYC 1030- Intro to Psychology
For this activity, students will first complete a mindset assessment to learn about their current mindset. Next, students will review the attached article entitled "Building Growth Mindset" and answer the four questions posed by Bradley Busch in the article.
- Is their present effort worth their expected reward?
- Do you tend to feel threatened being with people who are successful?
- Do you typically spend time questioning or criticizing feedback you receive or taking positive action?
- Identify a setback, how would you treat the situation differently?
Our mindsets exist on a continuum from fixed to growth, and although we’d like to always have a growth mindset, the reality is that we can only be on a journey to a growth mindset. The goal is to recognize fixed mindset elements in ourselves and then reflect on feedback and strategies for how to improve.
The Mindset Assessment is a quick diagnostic tool drawn from research-validated measures for people age 12 and over to use to assess their mindsets. It has been used in many studies to show how mindsets can change, and can be used by you and your students to identify areas in which you can work toward a growth mindset. You will be delivered personalized feedback after you submit the assessment to your email. Please upload your results to the assignment dropbox.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.767211
|
07/16/2021
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83614/overview",
"title": "Growth Mindset Assessment Activity",
"author": "Sherria King"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92908/overview
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Creating a Date in Crystal Reports
Overview
Create a Date Formula
Learners are expected to have a working knowledge of how to create a simple Crystal report.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.784360
|
05/20/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92908/overview",
"title": "Creating a Date in Crystal Reports",
"author": "Charlotte Busbee"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99448/overview
|
Document Analysis Exercise
Overview
This is a document analysis assignment to assess SLO and give students an opportunity to demonstrate critical analysis of historical evidence: Interpret primary and secondary sources and compose an argument (thesis), which uses them for support.
Document Analysis Exercise
Document Analysis Exercise
SLO: Students will demonstrate critical analysis of historical evidence and Interpret primary and secondary sources and compose an argument (thesis), which uses them for support.
Instructions:
- Instructor will lecture on analyzing evidence
- Interactive Class participation analyzing evidence and developing arguments/thesis based on evidence
- Students will be placed into groups of 4
- Groups will read the primary sources and the secondary source, the textbook chapter 5 & 6 on the events leading up to the American Revolution and The American Revolution https://openstax.org/details/books/us-history
- Use the graphic organizer to analyze the primary sources.
- Groups will share out with the class their analysis by creating a 3-5 minute zoom video discussing as a group of four the analysis of the four pieces of evidence and an argument/thesis.
- Each student writes a short paragraph reflection on their experience analyzing the evidence and how this assignment helped. Consider how this assignment could be modified to help students analyze evidence more effectively.
- Group will submit their graphic organizer to the assignment link in Canvas
- Group will submit their video to the Discussion link in Canvas
- Each individual student will submit their reflection to the assignment link in Canvas
Introduction:
The first shots of the American Revolution were fired at Lexington, Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775. Colonial militiamen at Lexington Green confronted British troops on their way to destroy colonial military stores in nearby Concord. Shots rang out and military hostilities began. Since neither the British nor the American colonists wished to appear the aggressor, both sides denied firing the first shot.
Directions:
Below are four brief excerpts from accounts of the event. Your task is not to determine who fired the first shot, but to examine the reports with the critical eye of the historian.
According to the evidence, what can be determined beyond doubt (assume the four excerpts are all the sources you have available to you), what is probable given this evidence, and what cannot be established with certainty? Use the textbook chapters 5 & 6 to determine any evidence. https://openstax.org/details/books/us-history Use the graphic organizer to categorize the evidence.
Definition of Probable: adjective it is probable that the economic situation will deteriorate further: likely, most likely, odds-on, expected, to be expected, anticipated, predictable, foreseeable, ten to one, presumed, potential, credible, quite possible, possible, feasible; informal in the cards, a good/fair/reasonable bet.
Primary Sources
Primary Source 1: Robert Douglas (Colonial Militia) swore to the following deposition on May 3, 1827:
In about fifteen minutes after we entered the tavern, a person came to the door and said the British were within half mile. I then heard an officer (who afterwards learned was Capt. Parker) call his drummer and order him to beat to arms. I paraded with the Lexington company between the meeting-house and the tavern, and then marched to the common near the road that leads to Bedford; there we were ordered to load our guns. Some of the company observed, “There are so few of us, it would be folly to stand here.” Capt. Parker replied, “The first man who offers to run shall be shot down.” The Lexington company began to break off, on the left wing, and soon all dispersed. I think no American was killed or wounded by the first fire of the British unless Capt. Parker might have been. No one of Capt. Parker’s company fired on the British, to my knowledge, that morning, and I think I should have known it, had they fired. I knew but two men of the Lexington company, and I never heard of any person say that the American fired on the British that morning at Lexington.
Primary Source 2: The Official deposition of the commander of the colonial militia, John Parker: Lexington, April 25, 1775
I, John Parker, of lawful age, and commander of the Militia in Lexington, do testify and declare, that on the 19th instant, in the morning, about one of the clock, being informed that there were a number of Regular Officers riding up and down the road, stopping and insulting people as they passed the road, and also was informed that a number of Regular Troops were on their march from Boston, in order to take the Province Stores at Concord, ordered our Militia to meet on the common in said Lexington, to consult what to do, and conclude not to be discovered, nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops (if they should approach) unless they should insult us, and upon their sudden approach, I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse and not to fire. Immediately said Troops made their appearance, and rushed furiously, fired upon, and killed eight of our party, without receiving any provocation therefore from us.
John Parker
Primary Source 3: April 26, 1775, Pitcairn, Maj. John to Lt. Gen. Thomas Gage
I gave directions to the Troops to move forward, but on no account to Fire, or even attempt it without orders; when I arrived at the end of the Village, I observed drawn up upon a Green near 200 of the Revels; when I came within about One Hundred Yards of them, they began to File Off towards some stone Walls on our Right Flank – the Light Infantry observing this, ran after them – I instantly called to the Soldiers not to fire, but to surround and disarm them, and after several repetitions of those positive Orders to the men, not to Fire & c-some of the Revels who had jumped over the Wall, Fired Four or Five Shott at the Soldiers, which wounded a man of the Tenth, and my Horse was Wounded in two places, from some quarter or other, and at the same this, without any order or Regularity, the Light Infantry began a scattered Fire, and continued in that situation for some little time, contrary to the repeated orders both of me and the officers that were present – It will be needless to mention what happened after, as I suppose Col. Smith hath given a particular account of it. I am sir Boston Camp Your most humble Servant, 26th April, 1775 John Pitcairn
Primary Source 4: Personal account by British ensign Jeremy Lister written in 1832:
However to the best of my recollection about 4oClock in the Morning being 19th of April the 5 front [companies] was ordered to Load which we did, about half an hour after we found that precaution had been necessary, for we had then to [fire]…and then was the first Blood drawn in this American Revolution. It was at Lexington when we saw one of their [Companies] drawn up in regular order Major Pitcairn of the Marines second in Command call’d to them to disperce, but their not seeming willing he desired us to mind our space which we did when they gave us a fire they run of[f] to get behind a wall. We had one man wounded of our [Company] om the Leg his Name was Johnson also Major Pitcairns Horse was shot in the Flank we return’d their Salute, and before we proceeded on our March from Lexington I believe we Kill’d and Wounded either 7 or 8 men.
Graphic Organizer to complete as a group
Name Source | Beyond Doubt | Probable | Cannot be established |
Source 1 |
|
|
|
Source 2 | |||
Source 3 | |||
Source 4 | |||
Source 5: Textbook | |||
Thesis Sentence: |
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.820717
|
12/15/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99448/overview",
"title": "Document Analysis Exercise",
"author": "Patricia Tirado"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99050/overview
|
African-American Theatre History
Overview
African-American theatre has a rich long history that is part of the heritage of this art form. This assignment gives students the opportunity to take a deeper dive into one topic personally, and benefit from other student's work in broadening their knowledge of this art form.
Student will choose a topic from the choices provided, conduct research, and prepare & present their findings in a 5-minute presentation. The presentation may be done live in a face-to-face class, live in a synchronous virtual class, or recorded for an asynchronous class.
Presentation Information
African-American theatre has a rich long history that is part of the heritage of this art form. This assignment gives students the opportunity to take a deeper dive into one topic personally, and benefit from other student's work in broadening their knowledge of this art form.
Student will choose a topic from the choices provided, conduct research, and prepare & present their findings in a 5-minute presentation. The presentation may be done live in a face-to-face class, live in a synchronous virtual class, or recorded for an asynchronous class.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.838347
|
11/23/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99050/overview",
"title": "African-American Theatre History",
"author": "Lori DeLappe"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93391/overview
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Micrograph Micrococcus luteus Gram stain 1000x p000026
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Micrococcus cells grown on nutrient agar at 25 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
micrograph
Dozens of dark purple, round cells on a light background.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.855417
|
Diagram/Illustration
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93391/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Micrococcus luteus Gram stain 1000x p000026",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60594/overview
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Using Films on Demand
Overview
An overview of how to use Films on Demand. All videos are close captioned.
Using Films On Demand
Suggested Prerequisite Modules:
- Library Web Page
Recommended Exercises:
- Provide students with a topic or have them come up with their own.
- What is your topic?
- When you search it, how many results do you get?
- Is this too many results or too few?
- What is another way you can search this topic? Different search terms?
- How did you limit the topic using the facets on the left?
- Ask students to provide one bibliographic entry for an item they found on Films on Demand and to summarize the item and discuss why it would be useful in their paper.
Shelton State subscribes to Films on Demand, which provides users with videos on a broad range of topics. Science and history documentaries as well a dramatizations of pieces of literature are all available.
It is easy to get to Films on Demand from the library's main web site.
- From the library's main web site, go to eResources, the second option on the tiled menu or the second option down the left-hand menu.
- Select Films on Demand.
- You will need to use your MyShelton credentials to access this resource.
Films on Demand provides several ways to browse popular content and a search bar for traditional searches. Results can be filtered by a variety of methods, including subject, language, type, and copyright date.
Results are easy to incorporate into your research or share with classmates or colleagues. Each entry has share options as well as suggestions for how to cite them on a works cited page.
Two important points:
- If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire.
- The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.870564
|
12/10/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60594/overview",
"title": "Using Films on Demand",
"author": "Kelly Griffiths"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105654/overview
|
Diatom 100X p000118
Overview
Diatom. Compound light microscope 100X
Image by Fernando Agudelo-Silva.
Micrograph
Elongated oval cell; background with debris
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.887039
|
Life Science
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105654/overview",
"title": "Diatom 100X p000118",
"author": "Environmental Science"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64991/overview
|
The story of Phineas Gage: A Critical Review of Psychological Concepts
Overview
Summary: Survey questions used to review Introduction to Psychology concepts in the area of Research Methods, Brain and Brain Imaging, and Psychopathology.
These activities are designed to help students master the following course outcomes:
MassTransfer Academic Pathways
Discipline: Psychology
General Psychology
Student Learning Outcomes
Note: The American Psychological Association (2013) provides guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major and, in those guidelines, outlines 5 learning goals for the major. Introduction to Psychology is a foundational course within the major and, as such, upon completion of the course students will be able to exhibit basic competencies within each of the five areas.
The story of Phineas Gage: A Critical Review of Psychological Concepts (Research Methods, Brain and Brain Imaging, and Psycopathology)
Summary: Survey questions used to review Introduction to Psychology concepts in the area of Research Methods, Brain and Brain Imaging, and Psychopathology.
These activities are designed to help students master the following course outcomes:
MassTransfer Academic Pathways
Discipline: Psychology
General Psychology
Student Learning Outcomes
Note: The American Psychological Association (2013) provides guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major and, in those guidelines, outlines 5 learning goals for the major. Introduction to Psychology is a foundational course within the major and, as such, upon completion of the course students will be able to exhibit basic competencies within each of the five areas.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.905784
|
Homework/Assignment
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64991/overview",
"title": "The story of Phineas Gage: A Critical Review of Psychological Concepts",
"author": "Assessment"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16328/overview
|
Appendix E: Progressions Within the NGSS
Appendix F: NGSS Practices
Asking Questions - Appendix F: Science and Engineering Practices in the NGSS
Chapter 11: NRC Framework
Developing and Using Models - A Snippet from the NRC Framework
Matrix of NGSS Crosscutting Concepts
Reasoning Triangle
Science Flowchart (Dynamic)
Science Flowchart (Static)
Survey #1 Why Teach Science
Survey 2
Survey 3
Survey 4A
Survey 4B
Survey 5
Survey #6
Survey #7
Tool for generating Anchoring Phenomena
Cool Breeze - Oregon Science Project Hybrid NGSS Module #1 - Phenomena & Equity
Overview
The Oregon Science Project Module #1 is designed for K-12 and nonformal educators who want to learn more about NGSS, with an emphasis on how the shift to sense-making around phenomena is at the heart of the NGSS. It is designed to provide 3-4 hours of work and asks learners to create something new to contribute to the work.
Why Teach Science?
Why Teach Science?
"A Framework for K-12 Science Education (hereafter referred to as the Framework) and the Next Generation Science Standards (hereafter referred to as the NGSS) describe aspirations for students’ learning in science that are based on key insights from research:
- that science learning involves the integration of knowing and doing
- that developing conceptual understanding through engaging in the practices of science is more productive for future learning than simply memorizing lists of facts
- that science learning is best supported when learning experiences are designed to build and revise understanding over time"
- Science Teachers' Learning: Enhancing Opportunities, Creating Supportive Contexts (2015)
Estimated time: 10 minutes Components: small group discussion, survey response to statements about teaching science
Every Participant: Open "Survey #1"
Read and complete Survey (each person will submit their own survey)
Reading to Rank - Ranking the statements:
- Each person shares which statement is the most important to them and why
- All members of the group can question or press for reasoning, but please approach this discussion with the knowledge that another person's rationale may actually make you change your mind.
- As you discuss your rankings, each participants completes their own survey with their own answers and hits submit.
How Science Works
How Science Works
"Before one can discuss the teaching and learning of science, consensus is needed about what science is." - Taking Science to School
Approximate time: 25-30 minutes Components: video, small group discussions, survey response
Group Instructions
Video
One participant shares their screen choosing the option to show their internet browser. Scroll down to the video below so that all participants can watch the video below together. Before your start, be sure to prepare to listen for:
- How these scientists - and science educators - discuss how science works
- Ways that scientists use evidence to craft arguments
- How scientists reason with evidence
One participant opens "Science Flowchart (Dynamic)" and shares their screen so that everyone can see.
- The person sharing their screen slowly mouses over the different parts of the flowchart.
- The group discusses the different parts of the flowchart ensuring that everyone has seen all of the different spheres.
- Once you have done that, stop screen sharing and gather together again.
Each participant opens "Appendix F: NGSS Practices"
- It may be helpful to minimize your screens so you can easily switch between the different resources on your own during your discussion.
- As a group, discuss where each practice could fit on the flowchart and why, or why not.
- Refer back to the video (or even watch it again) to help you think about this overlap.
Each participant opens "Matrix of NGSS Crosscutting Concepts"
- As a group, discuss where each NGSS Crosscutting Concept could fit on the flowchart and why, or why not.
- Refer back to the video (or even watch it again) to help you think about this overlap or lack of overlap.
Each participant opens "Survey #2" on their own device
- In your group, discuss each prompt on the survey using the science flowchart to guide your discussion about how science works.
- Include material from the video (quotes, ideas, stories, claims, etc.) in your responses.
- Each participant completes and submits their own survey.
Individual Instructions (temporary and only for this early draft, please try to work in small regional group with at least two other OSP Learning Facilitators if possible)
Watch the video below at least once and listen for:
- How these scientists - and science educators - discuss how science works
- Ways that scientists use evidence to craft arguments
- How scientists reason with evidence
Open "Survey #2" and respond the prompts about the process of science as explored in this video. In your responses be sure to include:
- Material from the video (quotes, ideas, stories, claims, etc.)
- Language from the Science Flowchart
- Open up "NGSS Practices" to help you compare and contrast professional science and classroom science.
- Open up "Matrix of Crosscutting Concepts" to help you compare and contrast professional science and classroom science.
- Submit your survey
Science as Process
Science as Process
"Experiment has been widely viewed as a fundamental characteristic of science...However, if we look at science as a process of argument, experiment becomes one of the measures that provide scientists with insights and justification for their arguments."
Approximate time: 20-25 minutes Components: reading, ssmall group discussion, survey response
Research from the history and philosphy of science identifies that science can be a process of logical reasoning about evidence, and a process of theory change that both require participation in the culture of scientific practices. In the teaching of science, the Framework and NGSS ask us to shift our focus away from memorization of vocabulary, to thinking of science as a process of application of knowledge and concepts via model-based reasoning.
As you can see from the screen shot of NGSS Appendix A below, this is identified as the first shift on the list of the seven major shifts in science education as envisioned by the Framework & the NGSS.
Each participant open "Appendix A: Conceptual Shifts in the NGSS"
- Each person opens Appendix A on their own device and quickly skims the document to identify two different conceptual shift statements on the list that they would like to explore further. (i.e. shift #2 and shift #5)
- One by one, each participant shares their chosen two shift statements with the group and explains why they are interested in these shifts.
- Each participant then silently reads the text below each of your chosen shifts statements.
Each participant opens "Survey 3" on their own device
- Each participant fills out the survey based upon what they shared with the group.
- As a group, discuss each of the specific group prompts on the survey before each of you complete your survey.
Discussing the results
- Once you submit your individual responses, select the link to see all previous responses.
- Read the collective responses and share surprises or wonderings you have about how your individual and group ranking compares to the collective responses.
- Share ideas about resources you could seek out to find out more.
The Process of Science in the Classroom
The Process of Science in the Classroom
"...in learning science one must come to understand both the body of knowledge and the process by which this knowledge is established, extended, refined, and revised." - Taking Science to School
Approximate time: 30-40 minutes Components: video, reading, small group discussion, survey response
Group Instructions
One participant shares their screen and everyone watches the video below. The group actively listens for the role of phenomena in the Framework and NGSS inspired classroom. After the video ends, stop screen sharing and gather together as a group to engage in discussion.
Each member of the group silently reads the brief statements below.
Each participant opens "Appendix E: Progressions within NGSS"
- Read the first page.
- On your own, find your grade or grade band in document and explore the Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI) covered in the NGSS vision.
- Discuss with your what you think the difference between a phenomena and an NGSS Disciplinary Core Idea. What are some key differences?
- Find an example DCI from your gradeband in the life, physical, or earth/space sciences and think of a scientific phenomena that relates to that core idea. Share your idea with the group.
One participant opens the "Reasoning Triangle" and shares their screen.
- As a group, discuss the three parts of the tool and the role you see them playing the science classroom.
- Each person shares an example of when you have started an activity, exploration, or unit with a question.
- Each person shares an example of when you have started with a phenomenon.
- How do you think this tool changes your approach or thinking about phenomena, questions, and modeling?
- Stop screen sharing
One person in the group open Survey #4A and shares the screen so all participants can see and answer as a group and submit one survey.
- As a group, select if you think the statement is a phenomena or NGSS Disciplinary Core Idea.
- If you think it's a phenomenon, utilize the language of the Reasoning Triangle to justify your ideas.
- Once you submit your group submits your response, select the link to see all previous responses.
- Does your group agree or disagree with the previous responses?
- Find a response that is different than your group's response and discuss what their response tells you about their understanding of the statement. What does it tell you about your understanding of the statement? Your understanding of phenomena or DCI's?
- If you want to revise your thinking, simply go back in and you can edit your response. Please only edit if your thinking has truly changed and you'd like to rethink it!
Repeat for survey 4B and rotate the responsibility to share the screen during your discussion.
Making Thinking Visible through Productive Discourse in the NGSS Classroom
Making Thinking Visible
"Fostering thinking requires making thinking visible. Thinking happens mostly in our heads, invisible to others and even to ourselves. Effective thinkers make their thinking visible, meaning they externalize their thoughts through speaking, writing, drawing, or some other method. They can then direct and improve those thoughts." - Ron Ritchhart and David Perkins
Approximate time:45 minutes Components: Watch two videos (both Part 1 & 2), discussion, survey response
Each participant opens and reads to themselves: "Asking Questions - Appendix F: Science and Engineering Practices in the NGSS"
Each participant opens and reads to themselves: "Developing and Using Models - A Snippet from the NRC Framework"
As a group: decide which two-part video set you will watch (choose elementary or high school).
Watch Part 1 AND Part 2 of either the high school OR elementary video cases below.
Listen and watch for:
- What phenomena the students are trying to figure out
- How it seems that this phenomena was presented to them (i.e. hands-on experience, video, picture, scenario, reading, statement ,etc.)
- The sets of ideas, or models, that the students are using to make sense of the phenomena
- How the classroom culture provides a safe space for students to:
- Engage in productive discourse
- Make their ideas public and visible
- Revise their ideas
- Ask questions
- Develop and use models
ELEMENTARY VIDEOS
HIGH SCHOOL VIDEOS
One person opens "Survey #5" and leads the group in filling out one survey.
Before responding to each prompt, discuss as a group what you would like to contribute. Let the survey questions provide you with prompts for your discussion.
- Respond to the prompts about how the classroom examples engage students in sense-making around scientific phenomena.
- Utilize the Reasoning Triangle as a thinking tool to show the dynamic relationship between exploring a phenomena through asking questions and modeling.
Individual Instructions (temporary and only for this early draft, please try to work in small regional group with at least two other OSP Learning Facilitators if possible)Open Appendix A: Conceptual Shifts in the NGSSread "Asking Questions - Appendix F: Science and Engineering Practices in the NGSS"
Read "Developing and Using Models - A Snippet from the NRC Framework"
Watch Part 1 AND Part 2 of either the high school OR elementary video cases below. Listen and watch for:
- What phenomena the students are trying to figure out
- How it seems that this phenomena was presented to them (i.e. hands-on experience, video, picture, scenario, reading, statement ,etc.)
- The sets of ideas, or models, that the students are using to make sense of the phenomena
- How the classroom culture provides a safe space for students to:
- Engage in productive discourse
- Make their ideas public and visible
- Revise their ideas
- Ask questions
- Develop and use models
Open Survey #5 below.
- Respond to the prompts about how the classroom examples engage students in sense-making around scientific phenomena.
- Utilize the Reasoning Triangle as a thinking tool to show the dynamic relationship between exploring a phenomena through asking questions and modeling
Equity in the Framework & NGSS-Inspired Classroom
Equity in the Framework & NGSS-Inspired Classroom
"..equity is not a singular moment in time, nor is it an individual endeavor. It takes an educational system and groups of individuals in this system. This includes the school administration and community, school partners, community agencies and families as well as curriculum developers and professional development facilitators to work toward, promote, and maintain a focus on equity." - Gallard, Mensah, and Pitts from Supporting the Implementation of Equity
Approximate time: 20-30 minutes Components: reading, survey response
Each participant opens "Chapter 11: NRC Framework" and skims the chapter by scrolling through it online.
Every member of the group picks and chooses different parts of the chapter that they are interested in reading and find relevant for their practice or their context.
As you read:
- Find three things you have learned (keep reading and exploring the text until you find three things new to you)
- Look for two things you found very interesting and would like to discuss with your group.
- Come up with one question you have about equity in the NGSS classroom.
Each participant opens Survey #6.
As a small group each participant shares their responses as the group goes through each prompt.
Once you hit submit, choose to see the previous responses and, as a group, discuss how they were similar or different than your own responses.
One person shares their screen and the group watches the video below.
As Oregon Science Project NGSS Learning Facilitators you are an advocate for science, especially an advocate for science in elementary. It's important that all secondary teachers get a glimpse of what NGSS can look like in the elementary classroom. Science in elementary is a large equity issue in Oregon where we are 50th in the nation for time spent teaching science K-5.
In your group, discuss the implications for NGSS's emphasis on equity and increasing access to engaging and rich science experiences for more of Oregon's students.
Each participant opens Survey #7 and reflects on the prompt in a small group discussion, and then submits their own response.
Once you have submitted all your responses, please choose to see collective responses and find similarities and differences between our shared thinking.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.961083
|
08/17/2017
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16328/overview",
"title": "Cool Breeze - Oregon Science Project Hybrid NGSS Module #1 - Phenomena & Equity",
"author": "Steve West"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89489/overview
|
Global warming: a brief introduction
Overview
A short handout on global warming and its effects
GLOBAL WARMING: A Brief Introduction
A brief introduction to Global warming
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.978441
|
01/23/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89489/overview",
"title": "Global warming: a brief introduction",
"author": "chrysoula gitsoulis"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107589/overview
|
Quest Method Thesis and Topic Sentence Generation
Overview
This PowerPoint presentation can be used as a study guide or during class instruction to help students understand the process and connections between the thesis, introduction, and topic sentences of a traditional essay. If viewing for study, the student should follow along with the display mode.
English Composition Thesis and Topic Sentence Generation
The following presentation is meant to be viewed and followed along with either independently (for students) or during instruction (for instructors). The purpose is to familiarize students with the process and structure of the thesis, introduction, and topic sentences in a low stakes, but highly memorable way.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:18.995615
|
Student Guide
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107589/overview",
"title": "Quest Method Thesis and Topic Sentence Generation",
"author": "Lesson"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74105/overview
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HS+ Washington State History, Art and English (2020)
Overview
This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Washington State History and Art. This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn high school credits in English, Lab Science, and/or electives.
About this Course
This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Washington State History and Art.
Topics include:
- Individual Development And Identity
- People, Places And Environments
- Culture
- Individuals, Groups & Institutions
- Power, Authority And Governance
- Civic Ideals And Practices
- Production, Distribution And Consumption
- Science, Technology And Society
- Global Connections
This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn high school credits in English, Lab Science, and/or electives.
Culturally Responsive Approach
This course was intentionally developed to align with the Washington State Board for Community and Technical College’s vision, mission, values and strategic plan. The Culturally Responsive Scorecard, developed by NYU Steinhardt, was a guiding document in the development of this course. Sincere efforts were made to develop culturally responsive curriculum that is inclusive of all students, with particular emphasis on highlighting the histories, experiences, and strengths of historically underserved populations. Faculty planning to teach this course should review modules thoroughly prior to presenting material to students. The HS+ Instructor Resource Guide provides resources and strategies that may be a useful starting place for faculty to address gaps in knowledge and confidence.
Course Outcomes
- Identify central themes of and explain the relationship between eras in Washington State history.
- Determine how ideas, events, people, and places interact with and shape dominant and marginalized narratives;
- Read, comprehend, and evaluate preliminary, primary, and secondary source materials independently and proficiently;
- Identify institutions and technology as central to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services;
- Explain how social movements led by systematically targeted groups have addressed root causes of problems in public and private sectors;
- Demonstrate speaking, listening, writing, research, and other social studies skills using a variety of instructional methods.
- Create counter-narratives to center students' cultural backgrounds, their communities, and their experiences as sources of expertise in the classroom.
- Evaluate key ideals established in fundamental documents, including tribal treaties and the Washington State Constitution.
- Analyze (access to) related power, privilege, and oppression as central to socioeconomic inequality and injustice.
- Use appropriate tools to demonstrate how power imbalances can be corrected through individual and collective action and to create liberating social change.
- Adapt appropriate social studies skills for critical reasoning, inquiry, and deliberation of complex public problems and social issues.
Throughout the course students demonstrate the following:
- Reading anchor standard 2: Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas.
- Reading anchor standard 3: Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over the course of a text.
- Reading anchor standard 10: Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently.
- Writing Anchor Standard 3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details and well-structured event sequences.
- Writing anchor standard 5: Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach.
- Writing anchor standard 6: Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others.
- Speaking and Listening anchor standard 6: Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and communicative tasks, demonstrating command of formal English when indicated or appropriate.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:19.011657
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U.S. History
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74105/overview",
"title": "HS+ Washington State History, Art and English (2020)",
"author": "History"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73865/overview
|
JULY 11TH IS HARD
Overview
As a 5 year old I lived in a town called Srebrenica in Bosnia and the town was torn by war, 8372 men and boys were killed in the genocide on just July 11th, 1995. The worst Genocide in recent European history with the exception of Holocaust. My childhood memories were not the best, and as an adult and a parent now I want to make sure that it is not forgotten so very often I write about it and hope to share it with my children one day.
POEM
JULY 11TH
BY: Semira Salihovic
July 11th is hard!
It is hard becayse of mother's tears and sister's cries.
It is hard because of every son, husband and brother that still have not been found.
It is hard because of fathers that gave their life for Srebrenica.
it is hard becaue of kids who would love to have their grandfather, father, brother or uncle.
July 11th is hard, hard because of spilled blood.
Hard because of injustice.
Hard because of GENOCIDE!
So tell your children what happened they need to know.
Tell them about the beauty of Bosnia and the fight of our people.
Tell them they should be proud to belong to people that were put through the worst
trials but have not given up!
Tell them about that with pride.
Tell them why July 11th is hard.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.024812
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10/25/2020
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73865/overview",
"title": "JULY 11TH IS HARD",
"author": "Semira Salihovic"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88315/overview
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Future Tense in Hindi (word file)
Making Future Tense in Hindi
Overview
Grammar notes on making Future Tense in Hindi
You will learn how to make future tense in Hindi.
If you have any questions, please feel free to reach out to me at mansi.bajaj@austin.utexas.edu
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.041682
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Mansi Bajaj
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88315/overview",
"title": "Making Future Tense in Hindi",
"author": "Lecture Notes"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96851/overview
|
Know Variables Part 1 Variable Types
Know Variables Part 2 Print variables
Know Variables Part 3 Read Variables
Know Variables Part 4 Test Reading Variables
Know Variables Part 5 String Variable
2- Know Variables in Java
Overview
Our second set of videos explains how variable are defined and used in Java
Variables in Java (Lecture Videos)
In this set of videos we learn about various variable types and how to define and use them.
Java Source File
The source code to learn various types in Java
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.062451
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08/29/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96851/overview",
"title": "2- Know Variables in Java",
"author": "Saeid Samadidana"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102865/overview
|
Your Course Name - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward.
Action Plan
Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be antiracist here.
Course Description
Add your course description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes.
Attach your syllabus here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your syllabus, and save.
Antiracist Assignment / Module
Describe your antiracist assignment or module.
Attach your assignment or module here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your assignment or module, and save.
Paste any relevant links that others would find helpful.
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asdfasdfasdf
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:19.077428
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04/12/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102865/overview",
"title": "Your Course Name - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Connor Van Leeuwen"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112111/overview
|
Collaborative OER Creation in the Cloud
Collaborative OER Creation in the Cloud
Overview
Archived session from the 2023 Arizona Regional OER Conference.
Session Title: Collaborative OER Creation in the Cloud
This resource includes the session abstract, presenters, PPT, and recording.
Session Abstract, PPT, and Recording
Session Abstract
This session will cover the experience of collaboratively creating and remixing Open Educational Resources to develop a textbook for English Composition courses at a community college. Back in 2015, Central New Mexico Community College started an OER initiative, and during its beginning stages, I applied to create materials for my English department. Working with a colleague, I developed a spreadsheet system for collaboratively vetting OER resources and structuring a textbook for two English composition courses. We used material from seven different OERs to create one cohesive text for our English 1110 and English 1120 courses.
This will be a hands-on, skills-based presentation from the angle of a writer. I will discuss and share the clear and simple collaborative creation process that we developed using Google Sheets and Google docs. I will also discuss how we were able to combine the work into one document and acknowledge the licenses of each individual text. Here is the URL for the textbook: https://mytext.cnm.edu/course/introduction-to-college-writing-at-cnm/
Presenters
Jennifer Schaller, OER Librarian, University of New Mexico
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:19.096993
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OERizona Conference
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112111/overview",
"title": "Collaborative OER Creation in the Cloud",
"author": "Megan Crossfield"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83721/overview
|
Argument Essay
Overview
Multiple stages (outline, draft, revise) of an argument essay assignement.
Outline assignment
For this assignment you are not required to write a complete draft of your Argument Essay. Instead, you are to select a topic for your Argument Essay and write a detailed outline of your essay based on the model below.
Argument Essay Prompts
In this assignment choose a specific issue in which two credible parties have documented the following:
- Clearly opposing positions, and
- Clear agendas.
Choose the position, or side that you agree with, and argue that position using:
- Three separate pieces of evidence, or lines of reasoning, to support your position
- Research to support each line of reasoning (example, testimony, and fact/data, or any combination) that supports your position
- Research about the opposing position’s views
- Presentation of the opposing views, along with lines of reasoning to refute them
Final Draft Essay Requirements
This assignment will require a clear thesis statement, or "issue statement" that covers your:
- Statement of position; and
- Forecast (essentially a “preview”) of your lines of reasoning
The assignment also requires:
- A minimum of three credible outside sources formatted on a source page (MLA, Works Cited)
- MLA citation style for the paper
- Minimum of four (4) FULL pages not including the Works Cited page
Writing Tip #1
This Argument Essay is a Classical Argument Essay aimed at both arguing the author’s thesis and refuting the opponent’s thesis. It is NOT a Persuasive Essay, where the purpose is to pursuade without necessarily arguing against an opposing perspective. The difference is that an argument essay tries both to persuade and refute against an opposing view.
With this in mind, you should not choose a generic issue that has no credible opposing view – like "energy conservation" – for a Classical Argument essay. One can try to write a persuasive essay that makes an appeal to a reader to conserve energy. But unless you can find a credible opponent with an active agenda opposing your appeal ("We should NOT conserve energy"), then you cannot write a Classical Argument essay.
Writing Tip #2
It can be helpful to look into current legislation under debate everywhere from your city council, state legislature or even at the federal level. But be careful with large issues. Students often like to take them on, but they can be too unwieldy for a short assignment like this.
Writing Your Argument Essay
STEP 1: To get started writing, first pick at least one prewriting strategy (brainstorming, rewriting, journaling, mapping, questioning, sketching) to develop ideas for your essay. Write down what you do, as you’ll need to submit evidence of your prewrite.
STEP 2: Next, write outline for your essay.
Assignment Instructions
- Review the grading rubric as listed on this page.
- Choose a writing prompt as listed above on this page.
- Create a prewrite in the style of your choice for the prompt.
- Create an outline using the outline below as a potential guide, or other possible outlines presented in the course. Papers submitted that do not meet the requirements will be returned to you ungraded.
- Submit your detailed outline as a single file upload.
Argument Essay Outline
Below is a sample of a possible organization for your outline—look in the text for other ideas. This example starts with the opposing viewpoint first—you may want to do that, or include the rebuttal throughout, or the rebuttal at the end.
- Introduction and thesis statement
- Opponent's first claim
- One sentence summary of opponent's source support (To be most helpful for your paper later on, these one-sentence summaries should include a sentence about the claim as well as information about where you got this information, including the author, title, and source.)
- Opponent's second claim
- One sentence summary of opponent's source support
- Your first claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Your second claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Your third claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Conclusion: Summation of arguments and why should we care? What's at stake?
Requirements
Be sure to:
- Choose a specific issue in which two credible parties have documented clearly opposing positions and clear agendas
- Choose the position you agree with and argue that position using the following:
- Three separate lines of reasoning;
- Each line of reasoning will support your position with research (example, testimony, and fact/data, or any combination) that supports your position; and
- Research about the opposing position’s views
- Present the opposing views and refute them.
- Include a two-part thesis with:
- Statement of position; and
- Forecast of your lines of reasoning
- Develop an enticing title that implies your position.
- Use a sympathetic appeal and/or cited research in the introduction to establish the issue.
- Avoid addressing the assignment directly. (Don’t write “I am going to argue about…” Instead, introduce the issue in a more compelling way that makes the reader care.)
- Your voice should be professional and scholarly.
- Package your source material with appropriate signaling and commentary.
Grading Rubric: Argument Essay Outline
- Introduction and thesis statement
- Opponent's first claim
- One sentence summary of opponent's source support (To be most helpful for your paper later on, these one-sentence summaries should include a sentence about the claim as well as information about where you got this information, including the author, title, and source.)
- Opponent's second claim
- One sentence summary of opponent's source support
- Your first claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Your second claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Your third claim
- One sentence summary of your source support #1
- One sentence summary of your source support #2
- Conclusion: Summation of arguments and why should we care? What's at stake?
Rubric
Grading Rubric: Argument Essay—Outline | ||
| Criteria | Ratings | Point Total: 50 |
| Introduction | Outline includes a clear thesis statement and ideas for the introduction, as well as a conclusion. | __/10 pts |
| Content | Outline identifies one line of remaining and gives examples of types of evidence to support this reasoning | __/10 pts |
| Content | Outline identifies a second line of remaining and gives examples of types of evidence to support this reasoning | __/10 pts |
| Content | Outline identifies a third line of remaining and gives examples of types of evidence to support this reasoning | __/10 pts |
| Rebuttal | Outline highlights possible rebuttals and refutations | __/10 pts |
First Draft
For this assignment, you will work through the drafting stage of your writing process in an argument essay.
Assignment Instructions
- Review the grading rubric as listed on this page.
- Choose a topic based on the following prompt:
- In this assignment choose a specific issue in which two credible parties have documented the following:
- Clearly opposing positions, and
- Clear agendas.
Choose the position, or side that you agree with, and argue that position using:
- Three separate pieces of evidence, or lines of reasoning, to support your position
- Research to support each line of reasoning (example, testimony, and fact/data, or any combination) that supports your position
- Research about the opposing position’s views
- Presentation of the opposing views, along with lines of reasoning to refute them
- In this assignment choose a specific issue in which two credible parties have documented the following:
- Review the Argument Essay Outline you submitted along with feedback you received from that assignment. Make adjustments to the outline in accordance with the feedback. This may include strengthening lines of reasoning, expanding or improving research sources for supporting evidence, creating a more sympathetic introduction to your position, etc.
- Develop a complete draft of your essay using your improved Argument Essay Outline. It should meet the following requirements. Papers submitted that do not meet the requirements will be returned to you ungraded.
- A two-part thesis including statement of position; and forecast of your lines of reasoning
- A minimum of three credible outside sources formatted on a source page (MLA, Works Cited)
- MLA formatting
- Minimum of four (4) full pages, not including the Works Cited page.
- Submit your detailed outline as a single file upload.
Requirements
Be sure to:
- Choose a specific issue in which two credible parties have documented clearly opposing positions and clear agendas
- Choose the position you agree with and argue that position using the following:
- Three separate lines of reasoning;
- Each line of reasoning will support your position with research (example, testimony, and fact/data, or any combination) that supports your position; and
- Research about the opposing position’s views
- Present the opposing views and refute them.
- Include a two-part thesis with:
- Statement of position; and
- Forecast of your lines of reasoning
- Develop an enticing title that implies your position.
- Use a sympathetic appeal and/or cited research in the introduction to establish the issue.
- Avoid addressing the assignment directly. (Don’t write “I am going to argue about…” Instead, introduce the issue in a more compelling way that makes the reader care.)
- Your voice should be professional and scholarly.
- Package your source material with appropriate signaling and commentary.
Rubric
Grading Rubric: Argument Essay—Draft | |||
| Criteria | Rating: Meets Expectation | Approaching Expectation | Point Total: 50 |
| Ideas | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average idea development, with a thesis that articulates a clear stance about a controversial topic. | The writer sufficiently defines the topic, even though development is still basic or general. | __/15 pts |
| Content | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average evidence of supporting the main point with at least three lives of reasoning. Paragraphs are well-developed and clear, demonstrating research about the topic. Research may include examples, testimony, and fact/data that supports your position. | The writer demonstrates sufficient support of the main point, but could use more supporting details. | __/15 pts |
| Organization | The organization is clear and showcases the central theme. The presentation of information is compelling. Opposing viewpoints are addressed in a logical way, and refuted. | The organizational structure is strong enough to move the reader through the text without too much confusion. | __/15 pts |
| Word Choice, Sentence Fluency, Conventions | The writer demonstrates an outstanding word choice selection, flow and cadence, with well-built sentences and strong grasp of standard writing conventions. | The writer demonstrates sufficient selection of words. The text tends to be more mechanical and contains some errors of standard writing conventions. | __/5 pts |
Final Draft
For this assignment, review the feedback posted from your peer review, work your way through the revising and proofreading stages of your writing process, then submit your final version.
Assignment Instructions
- Review the grading rubric as listed on this page.
- Review the feedback posted from your peer review
- Work through the revising and proofreading stages of the writing process.
- Create a final version of your Argument Essay according to the following. Papers submitted that do not meet the requirements will be returned to you ungraded.
- Minimum of 4 typed, double-spaced pages (about 800–950 words), Times New Roman, 12 pt font size (not including the Works Cited page)
- Minimum of 3 credible outside sources formatted on a source page (MLA, Works Cited)
- MLA formatting
- Submit your final version of your Argument Essay as a single file upload.
Rubric
Grading Rubric: Argument Essay—Final Draft | |||
| Criteria | Rating: Meets Expectation | Approaching Expectation | Point Total: 100 |
| Ideas | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average idea development, with a thesis that articulates a clear stance about a controversial topic. | The writer sufficiently defines the topic, even though development is still basic or general. | __/30 pts |
| Content | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average evidence of supporting the main point with at least three lives of reasoning. Paragraphs are well-developed and clear, demonstrating research about the topic. Research may include examples, testimony, and fact/data that supports your position. | The writer demonstrates sufficient support of the main point, but could use more supporting details. | __/30 pts |
| Organization | The organization is clear and showcases the central theme. The presentation of information is compelling. Opposing viewpoints are addressed in a logical way, and refuted. | The organizational structure is strong enough to move the reader through the text without too much confusion. | __/30 pts |
| Word Choice, Sentence Fluency, Conventions | The writer demonstrates an outstanding word choice selection, flow and cadence, with well-built sentences and strong grasp of standard writing conventions. | The writer demonstrates sufficient selection of words. The text tends to be more mechanical and contains some errors of standard writing conventions. | __/10 pts |
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.127706
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07/20/2021
|
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83721/overview",
"title": "Argument Essay",
"author": "Quincy Rhoads"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99916/overview
|
Memphis Women of Music
Overview
In this unit, the coverage will be on some 20th-21st century women singers representative of Memphis, TN. Some women were/are born and raised in Memphis and some of them made their living in the city. By the end of this unit the students shoudl be able to:
- Name some women singers of Memphis that have made an impact in the Memphis community and beyond through entertainment.
- Describe female singers of Memphis and some of their contributions to the entertainment world.
- List famous songs recorded by female singers of Memphis, TN.
- Identify some famous landmarks of Memphis that assisted some singers in making their mark.
Memphis Women of Music
Vera Little
Vera Pearl Little was an American contralto/mezzo soprano. She was born in Memphis, TN 1928 and died in 2012 in Berlin, Germany at age 83 after working for Deutsche Oper Berlin for over forty years. She received her education at Talladega College. Opera singers regularly competed in competitions for scholarships for monetary and scholastic opportunities. She won scholarships in Alabama and Munich. With these opportunities, she was able to further her vocal studies in Paris, Copenhagen and Germany with highly accomplished professors and coaches. She made a name for herself and performed very heavily in Germany and received the award of Kammersangerin. She sang in the opera choruses as well as the lead roles for the fach for mezzo soprano. A fach is a system used in Germany to classify singers. This helps them to get casting in certain roles within opera companies. This process separated them by (vocal) weight, color and the range of their voices.
Ms. Little married a gentleman named Savvas Augustithis, who was a Greek professor, in 1968. No children came from this union. A highlight worthy of much notice is that she was the first woman of color to sing at the Vatican before Pope John XXIII. She performed for major international opera houses, festivals, world premieres and even in her hometown of Memphis, TN, in front of a white only crowd after much negotiation. Discrimination and segregation was more than likely very prevalent and at an all time high at that point in time.
She wrote poems and loved literature and even wrote a memoir. Some of her poetry was even set to music. Vera Little definitely deserves to be placed in the hallmark of Memphis women who have paved the way for future classical and operatic singers from the Bluff City.
Here is an example of Vera Little singing "Voce di donna o d'angelo" from La Gioconda, Amilcare Ponchielli (FYI-it has been translated as The Happy Woman or The Ballad Singer)
Lillian Hardin
Lillian Hardin was born in 1898 in Memphis, TN and died in 1971 in Chicago, IL. She was known as a pianist and composer but was a notable bandleader, arranger and singer. She learned piano as a child. She received training from Fisk University and the New York College of Music. After she and her parents moved to Chicago, Lil, as she had come to be called, was able to obtain work easily because she could read music. Some elements that set some musicians apart were that some could simply “play by ear” and some could read sheet music scores. Many are able to do both.
While in the Chi-town she was able to get jobs as a pianist in King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band where they traveled a lot of the United States.
She met Louis “Satchmo”Armstrong while in Oliver’s band. Armstrong was hired by King Oliver to play in his band. Other players in the band were trying to get the Memphis Belle before Armstrong landed in their band but they married in 1924 and this was the second marriage for both of them. After they were married, she encouraged Satchmo to start his own band, Hot Five and get him classical training. She saw more in her husband than just being in someone else’s band. After their separation in 1931, Lil and Louie finally divorced in 1938. Later in life, Hardin tailored, played as a solo singer/pianist, and had her own bands and was featured on television shows and record label recordings. She traveled to Europe and had a brief romance but never remarried. Lillian Hardin was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2014. There is a park in Chicago named Armstrong Park in her honor. Her memoir was never completed. There are many positions in music that people seldom see or hear about; however, this Memphian was able to do many: lead a band, arrange the music, sing and play the piano. Ms. Hardin deserves her recognition and she set the bar high for future Memphis musicians.
Here is Lillian Hardin playing The Pearls/Heebie Jeebies in 1959 in her 60s
Cybil Shepherd
Cybil Shepherd was born in Memphis, TN in 1950 and is known as an American actress, singer and model. While attending East High School, she won many pageants, which led her to model and thereafter gain notoriety and attention to directors and movie makers. She caught the eye of the right people, which resulted in her winning three Golden Globe Awards. She had roles that deemed her as witty, a smarty pants, rebel or bad girl on screen and off. Not only did Cybill Shepherd act and model; she also sings. Her musical discography ranges from 1974 to 1987, although she preferred acting over modeling and music.
She has been married and divorced twice and has three children. She has been an activist for gay, abortion and civil rights and considers herself a Christian.
Here is a tuneful song she co-wrote called “Talk Memphis to Me,” written in 1997.
DeeDee Bridgewater
Denise Eileen Garrett was born in 1950 in Memphis, TN. Her parents moved from Memphis when she was aged 3. Even though the jazz singer/songwriter left Memphis early, the city and its musical soul left a huge impact on her musically before she left as a child. Her dad, a trumpeter, taught at Manassas High School. In Michigan, where they moved, her father would accompany the underaged singer to local clubs to enhance her vocal gifts. She is a Grammy Award winner as well as a Tony Winner for her acting of which she has performed on Broadway as well as honor doctorates bestowed to her. She toured France with Sophisticated Ladies. She studied music at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. She has sung pop and R&B but her niche is in the jazz genre where she has performed with greats such as: Dizzie Gillespie, Max Roach, Terence Blanchard and many other legends. She is a mother of three, a Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization and a mentor to young music professionals. She was also a host for over twenty years for a jazz show on NPR (National Public Radio) called JazzSet with Dee Dee Bridgewater. It is worthy of note to mention that DeeDee Bridgewater is fluent in French and this gave her the opportunity to create a niche while singing in her adopted second home of France. So if you haven’t taken a foreign language yet, consider it; You never know what the possibilities may bring by being bi-lingual, if you aren’t already. She never had any singing lessons; however, she had a mentor named Gladys De Jesus out of Manhattan that taught her how to breathe and use her voice.
Here is Ms. Bridgewater singing “Memphis, Yes, I’m Ready”
Ruby Wilson
Ruby Wilson was a blues and gospel singer, born in 1948 from Texas. Her mother loved gospel music and her father loved the blues. Even though she was not born in Memphis, TN, she made Memphis her home, becoming known as the”Queen of Beale Street.” She came to the blues city and began teaching kids and sang in clubs when she could. Wilson was the Goddaughter of B.B. King and sang in his club, B.B. King’s on Beale as a weekly headliner as well as in his other venue, Itta Bena. She also performed as an actress, appearing in movies and commercials. She toured the world, performed at festivals, and worked with some of the most famous artists today. She also lived in Texas, California and Chicago, but Memphis was her final resting place. She made a total of nine albums and has sung for President Clinton, VP Al Gore and royalty: Queen Elizabeth II. She passed away due to a stroke and coma in 2016.
Here is the Queen singing “I’m Coming Home.” https://youtu.be/6Rj-4W6cQS8
Carla Thomas
There are not many folk who wrote an internationally known song at the tender age of 16. Known as the Queen of Memphis Soul, Carla Thomas is a legend in her own right. She is a humble person from humble beginnings. She grew up in the projects and she received her diploma from Hamilton High School and while enrolled there was making recording hits with her father, the legendary singer Rufus Thomas. She learned a lot about music from him. After making records, she still performed, and traveled as a student at Tennessee State University which proved difficult to manage. Imagine trying to do class and homework when you have a hit record on the radio. Thomas eventually had to make the hard choice: school or singing career. Which do you think she picked? She is a walking museum and has sung with many legends including Otis Redding, Isaac Hayes and Valerie June. She loves to give back and talk to the younger generation in workshops and masterclasses about the music field and other culturally relevant topics. She is trendy and fashionable nowadays with her outfits and jewelry. You may see her locally at different venues enjoying and taking in the music around her. She is a walking museum and a joyful person to be around.
Hear her now singing “Gee Whiz,” a song she wrote as a teen and a song which helped to put Satellite Records, aka Stax Records on the map. https://youtu.be/4e4e0jFOqEk
Joyce Cobb
Joyce Cobb, an internationally renowned American singer/songwriter and actress, currently teaches vocal jazz lessons at The University of Memphis, She was born in Oklahoma and like most singers got her first opportunities to sing within the black church. While in high school she had the opportunity to sing requiems and masses and listen to a plethora of the albums of her parents. She ended up taking up social work in Ohio at Wright State University but ended up leaving to follow her singing career. We will not put Cobb in a limited box. The singer has sung R&B, Pop, Soul and other styles of music. After she came to Memphis in the late 70s, she stopped singing country music and was the last to sign with Stax Records before they closed its doors. She later signed with Hi, Waylo and Archer Records. Cobb, along with singers such as Naomi Moody, Toni Green and Carla Thomas always give back to organizations such as Stax Music Academy and the Memphis Black Arts Alliance to reach out to the young people.
She has acted in productions such as Lady Day at the Emerson Bar and Ain’t Misbehavin and has sang on many broadcast shows, documentaries and made her mark in the musical world. Joyce Cobb has a brass note in her honor on the Beale Street Walk of Fame among many noteworthy awards. During a fundraising performance with Jack Cooper (director) and the jazz ensemble at the Rudi E. Scheidt School of Music, Joyce Cobb was a featured soloist and is quoted as stating that her parents said for her early on to “learn all the standards and you will never be out of a job.” That is something that she has always stuck with her and ended up being true. Let’s hear a song by Joyce Cobb entitled, “Moanin.” https://youtu.be/yIgrcRlHXtM
Wendy Moten
Wendy Moten is a Nashville-based singer/actress born in Memphis, TN in 1964. She is notable for singing R&B music. She went to Overton High School and sang at the Mid South Fair, winning a competition that gave her the opportunity to sing at a theme park. She went to The University of Memphis, studying music business. Ms. Moten has made a long standing career as a background vocalist for notable artists such as: Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Bonnie Tyler, Vince Gill, Martina McBride and Julio Iglesias. She toured heavily with some of them. Even though she made a living as a touring musician she had a huge single titled, “Come in out of the Rain.” She was a finalist on The Voice and the oldest person to win the prize as runner up in 2021. Here is Wendy Moten singing “Come in out of the Rain.” https://youtu.be/0qM8mF8Iw1c
K. Michelle
K. Michelle was born as Kimberly Michelle Pate in Memphis, TN in 1982. She took music lessons in guitar and piano during her upbringing. She received her diploma from The Overton High School and later went on to Florida A & M University, an HBCU on a scholarship. She graduated and was planning to study law but decided to pursue her musical ambitions. She had a child before graduating from FAMU. She has received many awards, notably: BET, Soultrain, ASCAP and NAACP. She has acted on BET’s Love and Hip Hop and has made five albums in the genre of R&B music. It is said that her sixth and final album will be a country album. She has a very strident and unique voice and yodeled during her audition to FAMU, which is a unique vocal ability. She participated in campus life by placing in pageants and in Greek life by pledged Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. She graduated with honors as well. Her father works as a professor at Southwest Tennessee Community College.
Here is Ms.Michelle singing “The Rain.” Let’s take a listen: https://youtu.be/e6At--20uk8
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.150521
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01/12/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99916/overview",
"title": "Memphis Women of Music",
"author": "Valetta Brinson"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67087/overview
|
Guttman food trucks
Overview
Guttman food trucks addition to YouTube video
Tom Philipose
Spring II 2020 Distance Learning Training (Guttman Community College)
Create a living OER resource document
Original source:
YouTube video “What It’s Like Working on a NYC Food Truck”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=trs6ECBQ0kI
My alteration/addition:
I’d find out (or ask my students to find out) which trucks regularly station themselves around our Bryant Park (or CUNY SPS) campus building or even their neighborhoods during the pandemic. I/we’d post any special rules, regulations, or partnerships regarding these specific locations. I/we’d also interview those truck workers for their stories which we’d use to enhance our in-class writing projects/practice.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.163825
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05/20/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67087/overview",
"title": "Guttman food trucks",
"author": "Tom Philipose"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93361/overview
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Establishing Themes
Overview
Introduction
Modern World History is the study of how human beings arrived in the present. The goal of Modern World History is understanding the complicated process of how people moved around the world, and created political, social, and economic systems. By understanding these developments, we can explain the important question—how did we get here? Our goal in writing this book was to tackle humankind’s developments over the past six-hundred years to show how those achievements and actions have directly impacted today’s world.
There are many different themes and points to the discussion of Modern World History. These include: colonization, imperialism, industrialization, slavery, indigenous identity, exploration, war, oppression, and technological powers. Each of these powerful themes has helped weave together the complex tapestry of the human experience throughout the 15th to 21st centuries. The biggest goal of this textbook is to provide a true global history text that is approachable for students.. Each of these threads individually are important, but together they create a complex image of our global community.
As with any textbook, there are challenges to writing in a way that is thorough and coherent. We came together to put forward a plan for how to describe and evaluate World History. With the goal in mind of creating a textbook that would give students the “big picture” of World History, we decided that it would be best to present information thematically to show and share ideas with our audience.
Thematic textbooks are coherent, but our team went a step further. We want to also make this book engaging for both students and teachers. We decided that the best approach would be to focus our attention on a few key types of thematic ideas, specifically environmental and social. While these might seem unconventional, it is important to remember how big of a role that society and the environment have in global society. For example, in the Middle Ages there was an environmental catastrophe known as the Little Ice Age, where global temperatures dropped on average about 1-2 degrees Celsius (3-5 degrees Fahrenheit). While this might not sound like a big temperature difference, in the 1300s there were years that 1/3 of Europeans either starved or froze to death. The Little Ice Age impacted not just Europe, but also the rise of the Mongols. The Mongols rose in power in the 13th century, during the warmer part of the Little Ice Age. As the climate became colder in the late 13th to early 14th centuries, crops began to fail and populations became unhappy. These two factors in China were the key reason that the Mongols had such a short period of power. The environment plays a critical role in political and economic history of our world.
What is “Modern?” Our team explored that question when we discussed how and, at what point, to begin and conclude the textbook. We decided that because this text was designed for a course for the State of Tennessee Dual Credit with curriculum focused specifically on materials starting at the end of the 14th century, we needed to give some background for context with the world. The early chapters of this textbook focus specifically on the role of understanding the shifts of the late 12th century with the rise of the Mongols, the importance of Islam, and touching on the rise of economics of Africa with leaders such as Mansa Musa. While these technically happened before the timing of the curriculum of the course, these events and people had direct impacts on lives of the early 15th century. The early periods of our text are going to focus on the importance of these individuals and put this into a broader thematic story that will be later developed.
The textbook is divided into four units. Each of these highlights different aspects in chapters and lessons. These chapters and lessons focus on specific parts of the historical development of the time. As a reader, it is imperative that you focus on the lines connecting ideas from each of these lessons and draw conclusions about how these impact one another. Our goal in writing was to show the importance of events and how they impacted the world overall.
Most of all, our team worked hard to create a truly global picture of the world for the past six hundred years. Perhaps, in its pages, our audiences will discover something of themselves, and connect their pasts to their futures.
Attributions
Title Image
Fluffy nns at Japanese Wikipedia, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.180492
| null |
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93361/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, Introduction",
"author": null
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85011/overview
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1.3 Artificial Selection and Early Hybridization
1_Plant-Domestication
Plant Domestication
Overview
Image credit: “CIMMYT- CESBatan - MEX - 06082019 - 0037.jpg” by Alfonso Cortés/CIMMYT is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Explain the domestication of plants for agriculture.
Explain the transition to the agrarian lifestyle.
Key Terms
artificial selection - occurs when humans select an organism for desired characteristics (phenotype), which can lead to changes on a genetic level (genotype)
cultivation - the growing or tending of crops
domestication - the process of modifying wild plants and animals by selective breeding into forms more suited to cultivation by humans
hybridization - the creation of offspring from two unlike parents, often the product of two different species or two different varieties
The Transition to the Agrarian Lifestyle
Archeologists believe that for much of our history, humans lived a nomadic lifestyle: hunting animals and gathering plants for food. These early humans would follow wild game, collecting fruit, nuts, grains, and other plant-based foods along the way. Their movement was largely driven by seasonal changes in food availability.
Some of the earliest plants that were harvested for long-term storage were grains, such as wheat and barley. These cereals grew wild throughout much of an area in the Middle East known as the Fertile Crescent. Using simple tools, such as flint-bladed sickles, early humans could harvest as much as 2 lbs. of wheat an hour. With just a few weeks of work, a small family could store enough grain to sustain itself through an entire year (Standage, 2005). Dried grains were able to be stored for long periods of time, which provided a consistent source of food through lean seasons. However, stored food needed to be monitored and guarded to prevent loss due to pests and environmental damage.
About 10,000 years ago, some groups of humans began to deliberately cultivate their food by planting seeds with the intent to harvest. This development led to the formation of agricultural villages centered around cultivating and harvesting crops (Figure 9.1.1). Agricultural concepts and practices seem to have independently arisen in several areas across the globe over a span of only about six thousand years, rather than originating in just one area and spreading from there (Diamond, 2002; Diamond, 2005). Agriculture spread from those centers as populations and farmable land use increased. Knowledge of agricultural techniques and use of tools and seeds also spread by trade.
Artificial Selection and Early Hybridization
The process of artificial selection happens when humans select a plant or animal, based on qualities of appearance (phenotype), for extensive cultivation or further breeding, which can lead to changes on a genetic level (genotype). To help us better understand the process of artificial selection, let us consider what researchers believe were likely the steps early humans made in domesticating three common crops: wheat, maize, and the cole crops.
A Brief History of Wheat
Primitive einkhorn wheat (Trititicum monococcum) is similar to modern wheat in that it is edible and relatively easy to harvest when compared to other crops. However, there are some differences between the wild ancestors of our modern wheat and the wheat that we grow today.
For example, wild wheat tends to produce much smaller grains held on smaller heads. These heads of grain are delicate and prone to scatter their seeds in response to the slightest touch. This characteristic, known as “shattering seed heads,” makes it easier for wild grains to spread their seeds in their natural environment. However, this adaptation makes it more difficult for humans to collect grains without dropping a good portion of the harvest.
As early humans selected which heads of grain to harvest, they showed preference for wheat that naturally produced larger grains that did not shatter when collected. These improved forms were probably the result of natural spontaneous hybridization in the field. Scientists believe that einkhorn wheat crossed with a related wild grass (T. searsii), resulting in the improved emmer wheat species (T. turgidum). These natural crosses increased the number of chromosomes, or the ploidy level, in the plant. For example, diploid einkhorn wheat has 7 pairs of chromosomes, while the tetraploid emmer wheat has 17 pairs of chromosomes.
The modified forms may have initially sprouted closer to villages from seed that was accidentally spilled, but humans eventually figured out that these harvested grains could also be planted for an improved and more uniform crop. While these new forms of wheat may not have been the product of deliberate hybridization by plant breeders, the choice to primarily grow improved forms (such as emmer wheat rather than einkhorn wheat) was a form of artificial selection (Figure 9.1.2). Improved strains of wheat quickly spread from the Near East to northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of Asia. As humans cultivated wheat in new environments, they continued to select improved forms that performed better in their region. This tradition continues to this day.
Norman Borlaug (1914 – 2009) is a notable modern wheat breeder who rigorously crossed, trialed, and selected new strains of wheat for characteristics, such as improved yield, stout forms that are less prone to lodging or falling over, as well as the ability to grow in a variety of environments (Figure 9.1.3). His developments contributed to the Green Revolution, which made use of these improved varieties, better crop management practices, and synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yields across the globe (Raven et al., 2005).
A Brief History of Maize
While the first evidence of plant domestication is found in the Fertile Crescent, artificial selection also happened independently in the New World. Before the arrival of European settlers, maize was a staple crop for many people living in North, Central, and South America (Figure 9.1.4), but its origins are still somewhat of a mystery. Researchers believe that maize was developed in Central America sometime around 6000 BCE. Unlike progenitors of wheat and most other cereal crops, there doesn’t appear to be a wild form of maize (Zea mays sbsp. mays). There have been several hypotheses as to the origin of maize. We will explore just one of those hypotheses in this text.
Some researchers believe modern corn is the domesticated form of the wild grass teosinte (Zea mays sbsp. parviglumis). Teosinte is a very large grass that looks like a taller, multi-stemmed version of modern corn (Figure 9.1.5). However, there are many important differences between teosinte and maize, including the fact that teosinte’s kernels are basically inedible (Mann, 2005).
Teosinte produces much smaller, extremely woody grains that are held on narrow, two-rowed ears. Each ear is contained in its own husked chamber, with 5 to 12 chambers contained in one larger husk. These chambers split open and the grains shatter, effectively scattering the seed that will sprout the next season. In contrast, maize produces large, succulent grains that are held tightly on a large cob contained by a husk (Raven et al., 2005). These characteristics make maize ideal for harvesting and human consumption, but they would prevent maize from being able to scatter seed independent of human intervention. That is, maize and corn could not survive in the wild without people to harvest and plant its seeds (Mann, 2005).
With an ancestor so markedly different from the cultivated form, it is difficult to understand how exactly maize was selected from teosinte. Scientists are still trying to figure out exactly how this happened, but it is clear that the selection process for more edible grains, larger ears, and non-shattering seed heads was the result of deliberate actions over many generations (Mann, 2005). This process occurred over generations of deliberate breeding, an impressive feat even to accomplished scientists today. In fact, Dr. Nina Federoff, a geneticist at Pennsylvania State University, began her article “Prehistoric GM Corn” with the bold statement: “Corn (maize) is arguably man’s first, and perhaps his greatest, feat of genetic engineering.”
Most of our modern corn is the product of hybridization between inbred selections. In fact, nearly all corn produced in the United States is hybrid corn. These hybrid selections produce a more uniform crop where individuals have identical growth and development characteristics, which makes mechanized harvesting easier. Hybrid corn is usually very vigorous, and strains can be selected based on their ability to grow well in a variety of climates. Most importantly, hybrid corn produces significantly higher yields than traditional corn and maize (Raven et al., 2005).
These characteristics mean that more corn can be produced per acre with less water, fertilizer, pesticides, and labor. While intensive breeding and hybridization has unquestionably led to higher yields, monoculture stands of hybrid corn are especially vulnerable to pests and diseases (Figure 9.1.6). Genetic diversity is the key to overcoming these health issues. Saving and studying landraces (Figure 9.1.7) and preserving wild relatives (like teosinte), in order to use this material for future breeding efforts, will help protect our ability to produce food for ourselves in the future (Raven et al., 2005).
A Brief History of Cole Crops
The Cole Crops (vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea) provide an excellent example of artificial selection. European kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens, and kohlrabi, vary widely from one another in appearance Figure 9.1.8). However, they are all members of the same species that have been selected by humans over time for their different physical attributes.
- Both kale and collard greens were selected for their large, tender leaves, and these were probably the first domesticated forms of the B. oleracea. Modern varieties of these plants may have green, purple, or red leaves that may be flat or frilly. Scientists believe kale most closely resembles the wild ancestor of this species.
- Broccoli was bred for its flower buds and tender stems. Plants can form large heads or small spears that can be green, purple, or yellow in color.
- Brussels sprouts was selected for its lateral buds, and it is believed to have been bred from cabbage in Brussels, Belgium in the 16th century.
- Cabbage was developed to produce tightly wrapped leaves around a large terminal bud. Cabbages are also available in a variety of shapes (rounded or savoyed leaves) and colors (white, green, red, and purple).
- Cauliflower is believed to have been developed from broccoli by selecting for easily blanched, tender flower buds and shoots. While white cauliflower is the most familiar form, heads can also be chartreuse, orange, or purple in color.
- Kohlrabi was bred to produce an edible stem that is swollen and fleshy. Plants are available in green or purple.
While each of these crops may look quite different from one another, they are all members of the same species and are purely the product of human selection. While it’s unclear exactly when the first Brassica oleracea was domesticated, there is evidence of early versions of broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, and kale being grown by the Greeks as early as 300 BCE. The Romans brought cabbage and kale with them on their conquests of and to their settlements in northern Europe between 40 and 450 CE. Kohlrabi and Brussels sprouts were developed in northern Europe around 1500 BCE. New and improved varieties of these crops continue to be introduced in modern times (Colley et al., 2015).
Attribution and References
Attribution
Image credit: “CIMMYT- CESBatan - MEX - 06082019 - 0037.jpg” by Alfonso Cortés/CIMMYT is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
References
Colley, M., Zystro, J., Buttala, L. A., & Siegel, S. (2015). The seed garden: The art and practice of seed saving. Seed Savers Exchange.
Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature (London), 418(6898), 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019
Diamond, J. (2005). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies. W.W. Norton.
Fedoroff, N.V. (2003). Prehistoric GM Corn. Science, 302(5648), 1158–1159. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1092042
Mann, C. (2005). 1491: New revelations of the Americas before Columbus. 1st ed. Knopf.
Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, and S.E. Eichhorn. (2005). Plants and People. Biology of plants. 7th ed (pp. 475-495). W.H. Freeman and Company, Worth Publishers, New York.
Standage, T. (2005). A history of the world in 6 glasses. Walker & Co.
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.225327
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"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87625/overview
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2.3 Centers of Diversity for Common Crops
2.4 Global Movement of Food Crops
2.5 Considerations for the Future
2_The-Origin-Evolution-and-Diversity-of-Horticulture-Crops
Biodiversity Intl. & CIAT: Agrobiodiversity
CIAT: Where Our Food Comes From
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-british-tea-heist-9866709/
Rabobank: World Fruit Map
TeachEthnobotany: Crop Diversity & Global Food Systems with Dr. Colin Khoury
The Origin, Evolution, and Diversity of Horticulture Crops
Overview
Title Image: "Origins...” by Khoury, C.K. et al. from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is licensed under CC BY 4.0
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Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Demonstrate understanding of origin, evolution, and diversity of plant life.
Match major crops with original regions of domestication.
Match major crops with wild progenitors.
Key Terms
field crops - plants grown commercially in large areas
forage crops - plants grown specifically to be grazed by livestock or conserved as hay
fruit crops - plants grown to produce sweet and fleshy, seed-bearing food
vegetable crops - plants grown with parts that are to be consumed by humans or other animals as food
Introduction
The crops that are most familiar to us today, as gardeners, farmers, and grocery store shoppers, were each domesticated in different areas of the planet. Many crops were primarily spread by human movement, while other crops were independently domesticated in more than one place. The area that a crop is believed to have originated is known as its “center of origin” (also known as its “center of diversity”).
It is important to learn the origins of agriculture across the globe, as well as identify regions of diversity for important crops in order to promote the equitable sharing of resources derived from collected plants; to ensure the conservation of germplasm of wild relatives, ancestors, and landraces of these crops; and to promote agricultural diversity and the wider use of genetically diverse and environmentally resilient crops.
Identifying Centers of Diversity
Excerpt adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Over a century ago, advances in botany, linguistics, phytogeography and genetics made it possible to begin identifying the geographical origins of food crops (de Candolle, 1908). Building on this work, and informed by extensive travels over five continents, the Russian scientist N. I. Vavilov (Figure 9.2.1) proposed a number of independent ‘centers of origin’ of cultivated food plants around the world. These ‘centers of origin’ were places where he saw a diversity of traditional varieties for a wide range of crops, growing alongside their wild relatives. These reported centers of origin included Central America and Mexico; parts of the Andes, Chile and Brazil–Paraguay; the Mediterranean; the Near East; Ethiopia; Central Asia; India; China; and Indo-Malaysia (Figure 9.2.2) (Valivov, 1926, 1951, 1992).
Vavilov's interest in the centers of origin of crops was practical, as these regions were postulated to hold tremendous genetic variation that could be useful to the improvement of agriculture. Such variation was the product of adaptation of plants over relatively long periods of time to diverse environments and cultural practices. In these regions, for example, he hoped to find early-maturing varieties suitable for northern latitudes, and disease-resistant forms providing a solution to the mass starvation caused by cyclical failures of the wheat crop (Pringle, 2011). Since Vavilov, the regions of origin and diversity of different crops have been debated, investigated and refined, benefiting from an expanding body of archaeological, linguistic, genetic and taxonomic information (Harlan, 1951, 1971, 1975; Zhukovsky, 1965, 1968; Sinskaya, 1969; Zeven & Shukovsky, 1975; Zeven & de Wet, 1982; Hawkes, 1983; Price & Bar-Yosef, 2011).
‘Centers of diversity’ came to be preferred over ‘centers of origin’, to account for the understanding that high concentrations of crop varieties and related wild species are not located precisely where crops were initially domesticated in every case (Zeven & de Wet, 1982). Crop radiation from primary centers of diversity has also been more extensively documented, including identification of ‘secondary centers of diversity’ and other designations for more recent diversification patterns of some crops—e.g. Phaseolus bean in Southwestern Europe (Santalla et al., 2002), as well as barley (Tolbert et al., 1979) and oat (Diederichsen, 2008) in North America.
Centers of Diversity for Common Crops
We will explore the centers of diversity for a handful of common vegetable, fruit, field, and forage crops that the readers may be familiar with. Researchers have yet to come to a consensus as to the exact number and location of agricultural centers of origin. As previously noted, eight original Vavilvovian centers of origin included Central America and Mexico; parts of the Andes, Chile and Brazil–Paraguay; the Mediterranean; the Near East; Ethiopia; Central Asia; India; China; and Indo-Malaysia, although centers of diversity for individual crops may not conform to this theory.
This section will detail a selection of common crops native to each continent or otherwise defined regions on the globe. The information presented here is selected from The Seed Garden: The Art and Practice of Seed Saving, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture’s map of Origins and Primary Regions of Diversity of Agricultural Crops (Figure 9.2.3), and the University of Purdue’s website for their History of Horticulture course. This list, while not comprehensive, is intended to introduce students to the native regions of a few familiar crops.
North America
Vegetables
- Sunchoke, Helianthus tuberosus
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Blueberries and cranberries, Vaccinium spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea dentata
- Grapes, Vitis spp.
- Hazelnut, Corylus americana
- Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana
- Raspberries, Rubus spp.
- Strawberry, Fragaria virginiana
- Walnut, Juglans nigra
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Tepary bean, Phaseolus acutifolius
Miscellaneous
- Sunflower, Helianthus annuus
Central America and Mexico
Vegetables
- Peppers, Capsicum spp.
- Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Avocado, Persea americana
- Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
- Papaya, Carica papaya
- Pumpkin, Cucurbita moschata
- Squash, Cucurbita pepo
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Amaranth, Amaranthus cruentus, A. hypochondriacus
- Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
- Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
- Runner bean, Phaseolus coccineus
- Maize, Zea mays
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Bourbon cotton, Gossypium purpurascens
- Upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum
Miscellaneous
- Cocoa, Theobroma cacao
- Vanilla, Vanilla spp.
South America
Vegetables
- Cassava, Manihot utilissima
- Peppers, Capsicum spp.
- Peanut, Arachis hypogaea
- Potato, Solanum tuberosum
- Tomato, Solanum lycopersicum
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Papaya, Carica spp.
- Pineapple, Ananas comosus
- Pumpkin, Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata
- Strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Adzuki bean, Vigna angularis
- Amaranth, Amaranthus caudatus
- Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
- Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
- Quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Egyptian cotton, Gossypium barbadense
Miscellaneous
- Mate, Ilex paraguariensis
Africa
Vegetables
- Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus
- Yam, Dioscorea rotundata
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Melons, Cucumis melo
- Watermelon, Citrullus lanatus
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- African millet, Eleusine coracana
- Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata
- Pearl millet, Pennisetum spicatum
- Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Castor bean, Ricinus communis
- Sesame, Sesamum indicum
Miscellaneous
- Coffee, Coffea arabica
Europe
Vegetables
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Cabbage, Brassica oleracea
- Turnip, Brassica rapa
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Cherries and plums, Prunus spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea sativa
- Currants, Ribes spp.
- Hazelnut, Corylus avellana
- Raspberries, Rubus idaeus
- Walnut, Juglans regia
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Oats, Avena spp.
Forage Crops
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Flax, Linum usitatissium
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Rape, Brassica napus
Middle East and the Mediterranean Region
Vegetables
- Artichoke, Cynara cardunculus
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Beet, Beta vulgaris
- Cabbage, Brassica oleracea
- Celery, Apium graveolens
- Leeks, Allium ampeloprasum
- Lettuce, Lactuca sativa
- Onion, Allium cepa
- Spinach, Spinacia oleracea
- Turnip, Brassica rapa
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Cherries and plums, Prunus spp.
- Date, Phoenix dactylifera
- Fig, Ficus carica
- Grape, Vitis vinifera
- Pears, Pyrus communis
- Quince, Cydonia oblonga
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Barley, Hordeum vulgare
- Chickpea, Cicer arietinum
- Fava bean, Vicia faba
- Lentil, Lens culinaris
- Oats, Avena spp.
- Pea, Pisum sativum
- Rye, Secale cereale
- Sesame, Sesamum spp.
- Wheat, Triticum spp.
Forage Plants
- Alfalfa, Medicago sativa
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
- Vetch, Vicia spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Black mustard, Brassica nigra
- Flax, Linum usitatissimum
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Rape, Brassica napus
Asia (excluding the Middle East)
Vegetables
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Cabbage, Brassica rapa
- Carrot, Daucus carota
- Celery, Apium graveolens
- Cucumber, Cucumis sativus
- Eggplant, Solanum melongena
- Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus
- Yam, Dioscorea alata
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Almond, Amygdalus communis
- Apple, Malus pumila
- Apricots, cherries, peaches, nectarines, and plums, Prunus spp.
- Bananas, Musa spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea mollissima
- Citrus fruits, Citrus spp.
- Kiwi, Actinidia deliciosa
- Mango, Mangifera indica
- Melons, Cucumis melo
- Pear, Pyrus asiatica
- Persimmon, Diospyros kaki
- Raspberries, Rubus crataegifolius
- Walnut, Juglans regia
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum
- Millet, Panicum spp.
- Rice, Oryza sativa
- Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor
- Soybean, Glycine max
Forage Crops
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Coconut, Cocos nucifera
- Cotton, Gossypium herbaceum
- Hemp, Cannabis indica
- Flax, Linum usitatissium
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Oriental cotton, Gossypium nanking
- Sesame, Sesamum indicum
- Tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum
Miscellaneous
- Cinnamon, Cinnamomum spp.
- Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum
- Tea, Camellia sinensis
Australia and the Pacific Region
Vegetables
- Taro, Colocasia esculenta
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Coconut, Cocos nucifera
- Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia
Global Movement of Food Crops
Excerpt adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
The geographical isolation that contributed to the development of variation in cultivated food plants also largely restricted this diversity to its primary regions or nearby areas throughout most of recorded history, although notable long-distance migrations of some crops have been recognized—e.g. sorghum and millets between Africa and South Asia (Fuller et al., 2011) and maize in the Americas (Staller et al., 2006)). The exchange of food crops, diseases, ideas, and populations between the New World and the Old World following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 is referred to as the Columbian Exchange (Nunn & Quian, 2010). According to Charles Mann in his work 1493, “To ecologists, the Columbian Exchange is arguably the most important event since the death of the dinosaurs.”
The ‘age of discovery’ and in particular the Columbian Exchange marked key accelerations in the movement of food plants, as they were introduced to colonizing countries and to new regions with growing colonial establishments and emerging export-oriented production (McKinney, 1999; Diamond, 2004; Romão, 2000). The movement of food crops during the Columbian exchange happened quite quickly for many of these plants. Potatoes, for example, were first seen by European explorers in 1551 and were already being cultivated in the Canary Islands by 1567 (Domingo et al., 2007). Cultivation in new agricultural areas was in many cases remarkably successful, in part owing to escape from crop-specific pests and pathogens (Jennings & Cock, 1977). Complementarity in terms of production season or dietary needs also facilitated some crops' rapid acceptance—e.g. maize in Italy (Nabhan, 1993).
The expansion of human settlement, driven by ever more efficient transportation and increases in global trade, have decoupled the consumption of crops from their production (Fader et al., 2013). Bananas, a crop requiring tropical growing conditions, are now consumed in at least 167 countries, including all temperate regions (FAO, 2015). Ongoing economic and agricultural development, as well as globalization trends, have made a greater variety of major food commodities available to consumers in countries worldwide, but in turn increased homogeneity in the global food system (Khoury et al., 2014; Kearney, 2010); these developments and trends include increasing consumer purchasing power in developing regions, the rise of supermarkets and convenience foods, greater consumption outside the home, urbanization, refrigerated transport, agricultural subsidies, industrial food technologies, and facilitated trade agreements. Given this homogenization in global food supplies, the geographical decoupling of agricultural production and food consumption (Fader et al., 2013; Porkka et al., 2013; D’Ordorico et al., 2014; MacDonald et al., 2015), as well as greater consumption of packaged and processed food products (Kearney, 2010), it is increasingly feasible to imagine not only mistakenly attributing the origin of potatoes to Ireland, tomatoes to Italy (Figure 9.2.4), and chilli peppers to Thailand, but also losing the connection of crops with a geographical origin entirely.
Considerations For the Future
Equitable Sharing of Resources
The search for useful plants is as old as horticulture itself. However, professional plant hunting reached its height in the 1800s, when rapid advances in transportation and the development of the Wardian case (a special terrarium designed for moving plants over long sea voyages) led to an explosion in plant collecting. Plant hunters were usually hired by European and North American government agencies or wealthy aristocrats to collect new species from other countries.
While some plant collectors operated with permission from the host country, others who did not have consent would illegally enter out-of-bound areas and steal plants. One famous example of botanical theft is the story of how tea (Camellia sinensis) seeds, along with other secrets of the tea trade, were smuggled out of China. In 1848, England’s East India Company hired Robert Fortune to sneak into China’s interior in disguise to steal plants and information, which would later be used to establish tea plantations in India—an English colony at that time. The East India Company went on to dominate the tea trade, amassing funds that would otherwise have gone to Chinese tea growers (Rose, 2010).
In 1992, the United Nations Environment Programme’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil set in place the Convention on Biological Diversity. The objectives are
the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including appropriate access to genetic resources and appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and appropriate funding.
Thanks to the Convention on Biological Diversity, plant germplasm is now considered a country’s natural resource. Plant collectors may only work with prior governmental permission under specific collection permits, with specific material transfer agreements that outline how benefits will be shared if germplasm is commercialized (McMahon, 2020).
Germplasm Conservation
The genes of ancestors, wild relatives, and landrace varieties of modern crops are vital for breeding efforts that will allow humans to produce enough food to support rapidly growing populations. The genetic material (or “germplasm”) of these plants can be used to introduce pest and disease resistance, environmental adaptability, and increased productivity.
Many important species, including wild relatives and ancestors of modern crops, are threatened by habitat loss caused by human development. Landrace and heirloom varieties that are the product of millennia of careful plant selection are also at risk of being lost as more farmers give up traditional methods in favor of modern crops or quit farming altogether. There are many organizations dedicated to protecting germplasm by collecting seed to store ex situ in seed banks and botanic gardens and in situ by conserving native habitats of agriculturally important species.
Agricultural Biodiversity
Modern agriculture is based around monoculture plantings where a single crop is grown over large expanses. This practice allows for better uniformity in the planting, cultivation, and harvest of the crop. However, when the same species, variety, and sometimes genetically identical clones, are grown over large areas on an annual basis, they are often more susceptible to pest and disease pressures, meaning that crops will require more inputs or risk loss in yields.
The world relies on just three crops—rice, wheat and maize—for more than 50% of its plant-derived calories, and yield of these crops has plateaued. While there is a need for breeding and improvement programs for these major crops, there are tens of thousands of alternative crops that have been used for human food since the origin of agriculture. These alternative crops, such as quinoa, amaranth, and millet, can complement and even substitute our modern staples.
Despite the environmental and nutritional need for these alternative crops, their cultivation is decreasing rather than increasing. The practice of agricultural biodiversity encourages the thoughtful use of alternative crops that better suit the environment where they are grown, in order to meet the nutritional needs of our growing population. The organization Biodiversity International defines agricultural biodiversity as:
the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fiber, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic) as well as the diversity of the agroecosystems.
The practice of agricultural biodiversity, in conjunction with continued breeding improvements of modern crops, is a more nuanced approach to agriculture that promotes adapting the crop to the environment rather than the other way around. Studying agricultural centers of origin and identifying centers of diversity for various crops will allow for better crop selection in the future.
Dig Deeper
For an interactive resource that aids exploring links between regional food systems and the primary regions of diversity, visit the International Center for Tropical Agriculture website.
To review a map highlighting the trade of fruit across the globe for the year 2016, check out the Rabobank website.
To learn more about “The Great British Tea Heist”, check out this article in the Smithsonian Magazine
For more information about agrobiodiversity, visit the Alliance Biodiversity website.
For an interview where Dr. Khouri shares how collaborative work brings together multidisciplinary expertise to inform conservation strategies for crops and their wild relatives, develop conservation indicators for international agreements, and support evidence-based decision making toward more sustainable food systems, watch the video below or follow this YouTube link.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Excerpts adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Title Image: "Origins and primary regions of diversity of agricultural crops” by Khoury, C.K. et al. from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is licensed under CC BY 4.0
References
Bioversity International (2017). Mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in sustainable food systems: Scientific foundations for an agrobiodiversity index. Rome (Italy): Bioversity International, 180 p. ISBN: 978-92-9255-070-7
Colley, M., Zystro, J., Buttala, L. A., & Siegel, S. (2015). The seed garden: The art and practice of seed saving. Seed Savers Exchange.
de Candolle, A. (1908). Origin of cultivated plants. New York, NY: D Appleton.
Diamond, J. (2004). The wealth of nations. Nature 429, 616–617.
Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature (London), 418(6898), 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019
Diamond, J. (2005). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies. W.W. Norton.
Diederichsen, A. (2008). Assessments of genetic diversity within a world collection of cultivated hexaploid oat (Avena sativa L.) based on qualitative morphological characters. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 55, 419–440.
Domingo Ríos, D., Ghislain, M., Rodríguez, F. & Spooner, D.M. (2007). What is the origin of the European potato? Evidence from the Canary Island landraces. Crop Sci. 47, 1271–1280.
D'Odorico. P., Carr, J.A., Laio, F., Ridolfi, L. & Vandoni, S. (2014). Feeding humanity through global food trade. Earth's Future 2, 458–469.
Fader, M., Gerten, D., Krause, M., Lucht, W. & Cramer, W. (2013) Spatial decoupling of agricultural production and consumption: quantifying dependences of countries on food imports due to domestic land and water constraints. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 014046.
FAO. (2015). FAOSTAT. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. See http://faostat3.fao.org/.
Fuller, D.Q., Boivin, N., Hoogervorst, T., Allaby, R. (2011). Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals. Antiquity 85, 544–558.
Harlan, J.R. (1951). Anatomy of gene centers. Am. Nat. 8, 97–103.
Harlan, J.R. (1971). Agricultural origins: centres and noncentres. Science 174, 468–474.
Harlan, J.R. (1975). Crops and man. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America.
Hawkes, J.G. (1983). The diversity of crop plants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jennings, P.R. & Cock, J.H. (1977). Centres of Origin of crops and their productivity. Econ. Bot. 31, 51–54.
Kearney, J. (2010). Food consumption trends and drivers. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 365, 2793–2807.
Khoury, C.K., Bjorkman, A.D., Dempewolf, H., Ramirez-Villegas, J., Guarino, L., Jarvis, A., Rieseberg, L.H. & Struik, P.C. (2014). Increasing homogeneity in global food supplies and the implications for food security. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 4001–4006.
Janick, J. (2008). Lecture 5: Centers of Origin of Crop Plants. Purdue University. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec05.pdf
MacDonald, G.K., Brauman, K.A., Sun, S., Carlson, K.M., Cassidy, E.S., Gerber, J.S. & West, P.C. (2015). Rethinking agricultural trade relationships in an era of globalization. Bioscience 65, 275–289.
McKinney, S. (1999). Bligh!: The whole story of the mutiny aboard HMS Bounty. Victoria, British Columbia: TouchWood Editions.
Mann, C.C. (2011). 1493: Uncovering the new world Columbus created (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf.
McMahon, M. (2020). Plant science: Growth, development, and utilization of cultivated plants (Sixth edition.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Nabhan, G. (1993). Songbirds, truffles, and wolves: an American naturalist in Italy. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Nunn, N. & Qian, N. (2010). The Columbian Exchange: A history of disease, food, and ideas. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24(2), 163–188. Retrieved 22 February 2022 from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/nunn/files/nunn_qian_jep_2010.pdf
Porkka, M., Kummu, M., Siebert, S. & Varis, O. (2013). From food insufficiency towards trade dependency: a historical analysis of global food availability. PLoS ONE 8, e82714.
Price, T.D. & Bar-Yosef, O. (2011). The origins of agriculture: new data, new ideas. An introduction to supplement 4. Curr. Anthropol. 52, S163–S174.
Pringle, P. (2011). The murder of Nikolai Vavilov: the story of Stalin‘s persecution of one of the great scientists of the twentieth century. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, and S.E. Eichhorn. (2005). Plants and People. Biology of plants. 7th ed (pp. 475-495). W.H. Freeman and Company, Worth Publishers, New York.
Romão, R.L. (2000). Northeast Brazil: a secondary center of diversity for watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Gen. Res. Crop Evol. 47, 207–213.
Rose, S. (2010). The great British tea heist. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 21 February 2022 from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-british-tea-heist-9866709/
Santalla, M., Rodino, P & De Ron, M. (2002). Allozyme evidence supporting southwestern Europe as a secondary centre of genetic diversity for the common bean. Theor. Appl. Genet. 104, 934–944.
Sinskaya, E.N. (1969). Historical geography of cultivated floras (at the dawn of agriculture). Leningrad, USSR: Kolos.
Staller, J., Tykot, R. & Benz, B. (2006). Histories of maize: multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Tolbert, D.M., Qualset, C.O., Jain, S.K., Craddock, J.C. (1979). A diversity analysis of a world collection of barley. Crop Sci. 19, 789–794.
Vavilov, N.I. (1926). Tzentry proiskhozhdeniya kulturnykh rastenii [The centres of origin of cultivated plants]. Works Appl. Bot. Plant Breed. 16, 1–248.
Vavilov, N.I. (1951). The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants (transl. K Start). Cron. Bot. 13, 1–366.
Vavilov NI. (1992). Origin and geography of cultivated plants (transl. D Löve). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Zeven, A.C. & Zhukovsky, P. (1975). Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centres of diversity: excluding most ornamentals, forest trees and lower plants. Wageningen, The Netherlands: CAPD.
Zhukovsky, P.M. (1965). Main gene centres of cultivated plants and their wild relatives within the territory of the U.S.S.R. Euphytica 14, 177–188.
Zhukovsky, P.M. (1968). New centres of origin and new gene centres of cultivated plants including specifically endemic microcentres of species closely allied to cultivated species. Bot. J. (Russian Bot Z.) 53, 430–460.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.377298
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87626/overview
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3.3 What is a -Watershed-
3.4 What is the -Built Environment-
3.5 Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants
3_Horticulture-and-Environmental-Sustainability
Fourth National Climate Change Assessment: Ecosystem Services
Google Earth Timelapse
Homegrown National Park
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment: Living Beyond Our Means
Milleniun Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Well-being
NOAA: Ecosystem Services
Tennessee Valley Wild Ones
The Native Plant Rescue Squad
The Southeastern Grasslands Initiative
UT Extension: TN Smart Yards
Horticulture and Environmental Sustainability
Overview
Title Image: “Trees” by Amanda Spangler, CC BY 4.0
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Describe and assess the influence of plants and their management on environmental sustainability and restoration.
Explain several guiding principles of sustainable site design.
Key Terms
built environment - the man-made or modified structures that provide people with living, working, and recreational spaces
ecosystems - biological communities of interacting organisms and their physical environments
ecosystem services - the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include services such as food, water, timber and fiber (provisioning); services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes and water quality (regulating); services that provide recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits (cultural)
particulate matter - a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air
watersheds - the land areas that drain to one stream, lake or river, which affects the water quality in the water body that it surrounds
Introduction
Humans depend on plants to live. The previous chapters have described how plants support humans by providing food to eat, fiber for our clothes, timber for our shelter, and oxygen for our very breath. However, we depend on plant life to meet many of our other vital needs, termed collectively as “ecosystem services”. How mankind interacts with the natural environment has a direct impact on humanity’s current and future ability to maintain healthy, comfortable lives on the planet.
What are “Ecosystem Services”?
Excerpt from "More About Ecosystem Services" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain
Ecosystem services are commonly defined as benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment – a four-year United Nations assessment of the condition and trends of the world’s ecosystems - categorizes ecosystem services as:
- Provisioning Services or the provision of food, fresh water, fuel, fiber, and other goods
- Regulating Services such as climate, water, and disease regulation, as well as pollination
- Supporting Services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling
- Cultural Services such as educational, aesthetic, and cultural heritage values, as well as recreation and tourism
As population, income, and consumption levels increase, humans put more and more pressure on the natural environment to deliver these benefits. The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, prepared by a group of over 1300 international experts, found that 60 percent of ecosystem services assessed globally are either degraded or being used unsustainably. Seventy percent of the regulating and cultural services evaluated in the assessment are in decline. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scientists predicted that ecosystem degradation could grow significantly worse in the first half of the 21st century, with important consequences to human well-being.
Climate change, pollution, over-exploitation, and land-use change are some of the drivers of ecosystem loss, as well as resource challenges associated with globalization and urbanization. Land use change is an immediate issue in the United States. Today, the Nation is experiencing a loss of open space and a decline in forest health and biodiversity, particularly on private lands. Approximately 57% of all forestland in the United States, or 429 million acres, is privately owned. Non-industrial interests are families, organizations, and communities that own land for the aesthetics and uses that forests provide or for income generated from the sale of forest products and services; they own 85% of our private lands. Recent trends in parcelization and divestiture of private lands in the United States suggest that private landowners are commonly under economic pressures to sell their forest holdings. Rising property values, tax burdens, and global market competition are some of the factors that motivate landowners to sell their lands, often for development uses. The loss of healthy forests directly affects forest landowners, rural communities, and the economy. As private lands are developed, we also lose the life-supporting ecosystem services that forests provide.
What is a “Watershed”?
Excerpt modified from "Benefits of Healthy Watersheds" by the United States Environmental Protection Agency is in the Public Domain
A watershed – the land area that drains to one stream, lake or river – affects the water quality in the water body that it surrounds. Like water bodies (e.g., lakes, rivers, and streams), individual watersheds share similarities but also differ in many ways. Every inch of the United States is part of a watershed; in other words, all land drains into a lake, river, stream or other water body and directly affects its quality. Because we all live on the land, we all live in a watershed, and this makes watershed condition important to everyone.
Watersheds exist at different geographic scales, too. The Mississippi River has a huge watershed that covers all or parts of 33 states. You might live in that watershed, but at the same time you live in a watershed of a smaller, local stream or river that flows eventually into the Mississippi. The EPA’s healthy watersheds activities mainly focus on these smaller watersheds.
What is a Healthy Watershed?
A healthy watershed is one in which natural land cover supports:
- dynamic hydrologic and geomorphologic processes within their natural range of variation, habitat of sufficient size and connectivity to support native aquatic and riparian species
- physical and chemical water quality conditions able to support healthy biological communities
Natural vegetative cover in the landscape, including the riparian zone, helps maintain the natural flow regime and fluctuations in water levels in lakes and wetlands. This, in turn, helps maintain natural geomorphic processes, such as sediment storage and deposition, that form the basis of aquatic habitats. Connectivity of aquatic and riparian habitats in the longitudinal, lateral, vertical, and temporal dimensions helps ensure the flow of chemical and physical materials and movement of living organisms among habitats.
A healthy watershed has the structure and function in place to support healthy aquatic ecosystems. Key components of a healthy watershed include:
- Intact and functioning headwater streams, floodplains, riparian corridors, biotic refugia, instream habitat, and biotic communities
- Natural vegetation in the landscape
- Hydrology, sediment transport, fluvial geomorphology, and disturbance regimes expected for its location
It is important to identify and protect healthy watersheds because, in many ways, healthy watersheds substantially affect the quality of life for people and the environment overall; often by performing ‘free work’ that communities do not have to do, or pay for, themselves. The beneficial roles of watersheds in healthy condition can be surprisingly far-reaching and include ecosystem services, economic benefits, and physical and mental health benefits.
Ecosystem Benefits and Services
Healthy watersheds provide many ecosystem services including nutrient cycling, carbon storage, erosion/sedimentation control, increased biodiversity, soil formation, wildlife movement corridors, water storage, water filtration, flood control, food, timber, and recreation, as well as reduced vulnerability to invasive species, the effects of climate change, and other natural disasters. These goods and services are essential to our social, environmental, and economic well-being.
The wide array of critical ecosystem services provided by healthy watersheds is frequently undervalued when making land use decisions. Due to the complexity of natural systems and economic precedents, it is difficult to assign a dollar amount to a particular ecosystem service. However, there is a large body of research and evidence to support the fact that intact healthy ecosystems avoid costly restoration and ecosystem service replacement, as well as provide long-term economic opportunities and jobs. Some healthy watershed ecosystem services are:
- Improved water quality. Natural landscapes and floodplains filter pollutants from point and nonpoint sources, promote nutrient cycling, and help retain sediment.
- Carbon storage opportunities. Watersheds with intact natural land cover and soil resources are capable of sequestering carbon, thereby offsetting greenhouse gas emissions (Hanson et al., 2010).
- Increased resilience in the face of climate change threats. Intact floodplains and riparian areas enable healthy watersheds to be better adapted to more extreme weather patterns and changes in precipitation associated with climate change.
- Reduced risk for invasive species colonization. Naturally functioning ecosystems are more resilient and can favor indigenous species, helping them out-compete invasive species.
Protecting healthy watersheds can reduce capital costs for water treatment plants and reduce damages to property and infrastructure due to flooding, thereby avoiding future costs. Additionally, protecting healthy watersheds can generate revenue through property value premiums, recreation, and tourism:
- Reduced drinking water treatment and infrastructure costs. Natural landscapes filter pollutants and protect water quality. A review of treatment costs and watershed characteristics for 27 drinking water utilities found that for every 10% increase in forest cover of the source water area, chemical and treatment costs decrease by 20% (Ernst, 2004). In a separate case, New York City found it significantly more cost-effective to protect the watershed’s natural land cover and forests to provide natural filtration, rather than installing a multi-billion-dollar water treatment facility (Barnes et al., 2009).
- Reduced flood mitigation costs. Floodplains and natural landscapes minimize the area and impacts of floods, reduce the burden on public drainage infrastructure, and increase groundwater recharge (Postel & Richter, 2003).
- Increased revenues and job opportunities. Healthy watersheds provide ample opportunities for fishing, boating, swimming, hiking, biking, wildlife viewing, and ecotourism. Over 30 million people in the U.S. fish recreationally and these anglers generate approximately 1 million jobs and over $45 billion in retail sales annually (Southwick Associates, 2008). Overall, the outdoor recreation industry contributes $646 billion annually to the economy, supports 6.1 million jobs, and generates $79.6 billion in federal and state tax revenues (Outdoor Industry Association, 2003).
- Increased property values. Housing near healthy watersheds has higher property values than those in or around degraded ecosystems and impaired waters (Maine DEP, 2005).
What is the “Built Environment”?
Excerpt modified from “Our Built and Natural Environments” by M.G. Kramer, United States Environmental Protection Agency is in the Public Domain
While many people tend to think of themselves as living separately from nature, humans are members of their local ecosystems, often residing in what can be called the “built environment”. According to the EPA, “The built environment touches all aspects of our lives, encompassing the buildings we live in, the distribution systems that provide us with water and electricity, and the roads, bridges, and transportation systems we use to get from place to place. It can generally be described as the man-made or modified structures that provide people with living, working, and recreational spaces.” While the built environment allows humans to live, work, and play in relative comfort, historically, not much thought has been given to the displaced or absent ecosystem services that plants and other members of the natural environment had provided.
Although development provides many social and economic benefits, it also comes at a cost. Development has seriously degraded or destroyed many natural areas and caused significant growth in automobile driving; both of which have impacts on the health of critical environmental resources, as well as on people. These environmental consequences are particularly important because the effects of development are long lasting and not easily reversible. As a result, the cumulative effects of development decisions are important when considering the long-term health of the environment and communities.
The research summarized in this section outlines how significant the impacts have been to the natural environment – to critical habitat for plants and animals, to water resources, to air quality, and maybe most importantly, to the planet itself in the form of global climate change.
Habitat loss, Degradation, and Fragmentation
Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation are some of the most direct impacts of development on previously undeveloped land. Construction of new buildings, roads, and other infrastructure often destroys native vegetation. Landscaping in the remaining open space with new lawns and non-native plants often cannot serve the same ecological functions as the vegetation it replaces.
The impact of a non-native species depends on its ecological context, and many non-native species provide important ecological benefits (Davis et al., 2011; Simberloff, 2011). One fundamental role of plants in an ecosystem is to create food for herbivores that can transfer their stored energy to higher-level predators. However, homeowners and landscapers have often chosen non-native species for their resistance to insects. In fact, most insect species lack the physiological and behavioral adaptations needed to use non-native plants for food. If ornamental plants cannot serve as food for the same number and diversity of herbivores, the energy available for food webs decreases (Tallamy & Shropshire, 2009).
Degradation and Loss of Water Resources
As water resources are polluted and degraded, they can become unfit for drinking, swimming, fishing, and other uses. However, water resources can also be strained if our use exceeds the available supply. About 86 percent of U.S. households rely on public water supplies for their household use. About one-third of the water from public water supplies comes from ground water, and two-thirds comes from surface water, such as lakes and streams (Kenny et al., 2009).
For households that supply their own water, 98 percent rely on ground water (Kenny et al., 2009). Ground water use can exceed the rate at which precipitation soaking into the ground can replenish it, leading to ground water depletion. Dry wells, reduced amounts of water in streams and lakes, lower water quality, and land subsidence can result (U.S. Geological Survey, 2003). Impervious surfaces created by development (Frazer, 2005) and centralized wastewater treatment (Vaccaro & Olsen, 2007) can decrease rates of ground water recharge, exacerbating the effects of increased demand on ground water supplies.
Degradation of Air Quality
Land use, development, and transportation affect air quality in significant ways. For common air pollutants, EPA has established and regularly reviews National Ambient Air Quality Standards to protect public health and the environment. In setting or revising primary health-based standards, the Agency considers the effects of poor air quality on at-risk populations, such as children and the elderly (EPA, 2010). EPA has set standards for six principal pollutants—“criteria pollutants”: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, lead, coarse particulate matter (PM10), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and ozone (EPA, 2012). VOCs and NOX are precursors to the formation of ozone (Sawyer, 2010).
Heat Island Effect
Not only do impervious surfaces create water quality problems, they also affect the temperature of surrounding areas through what is known as the heat island effect. Cities can be as much as 6 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than outlying areas (Frumkin, 2002). The heat island effect is due to two complementary forces: dark pavement and roofs absorb and reflect more of the sun’s heat, while the relative scarcity of trees and other vegetation reduces shade and cooling through evapotranspiration. Increased heat is itself a health hazard, as heat stroke can lead to hospitalization and even death.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Global Climate Change
How much energy our buildings consume and how much people drive both affect greenhouse gas emissions, making the built environment an important contributor to global climate change. A 2011 report by the National Research Council of the National Academies concluded that global climate change is occurring and is largely due to human activities that lead to heat-trapping greenhouse gas emissions (National Research Council of the National Academies, 2011). The scientific academies of over 30 countries (Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, 2012) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reached the same conclusion based on contributions from thousands of scientists and an extensive review process (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007).
Our built environment affects climate change, but it is also affected by climate change. Changes to the water cycle mean that both floods and droughts are more common, putting lives and property at risk, stressing water infrastructure, and changing the amount and quality of water available for human use. Warmer weather increases energy use for cooling and decreases it for heating, changing the levels and periods of peak demand. Floods, extreme heat, and sea-level rise put transportation infrastructure, such as roads and rail lines, at risk and increase the chances of travel and freight delays and disruptions (U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2009).
Land Contamination
Past industrial activity has left a legacy of soil and water pollution at former industrialized sites. Thousands of these potentially contaminated properties, or brownfields, are located in densely populated neighborhoods, often near places where residents gather and children play. Many of these sites are near rivers that once served as valuable transportation corridors. The juxtaposition of toxic chemicals, human activity, and sensitive environmental habitats can lead to a range of problems, including compromised human and environmental health.
Health and Safety
As already discussed, the built environment’s effects on human health extend beyond exposure to air and water pollution or global climate change. How we build our communities affects health and safety in several ways. The built environment affects levels of physical activity, obesity, and chronic disease. It also influences our emotional health and the degree of engagement in our communities. Finally, how we design our streets and towns affects the likelihood of being hurt or killed in a vehicle crash.
Summary
As the U.S. population has grown, we have developed land that serves important ecological functions at a significant cost to the environment. Development has destroyed, degraded, and fragmented habitat. Water quality has declined. Air quality in many areas of the country is still adversely affecting human health. The heat island effect and global climate change illustrate just how complex and far-reaching the impacts of our built environment are. Community design can make it difficult for people to get adequate physical activity, engage with neighbors, and participate in community events. It can also increase the risk of injury or death from a vehicle crash.
Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants
Excerpts used with permission from "Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants" by J. Knight & D.L. Ingram, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. Copyright © University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.
As green industry professionals, we know that landscape plants do a lot for us. Though this is easily stated, it may not be easy to precisely describe or quantify the contributions of landscape plants to ecosystem services. There is no definitive list of ecosystem services nor a single definition for the concept, but for the sake of this publication we will be using the working definition of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, an inter-governmental report involving the work of over 1,360 experts worldwide to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being: “Ecosystem services are all benefits to humankind provided by ecosystems.”
Types of Ecosystem Services
Woody landscape plants provide us with numerous valuable ecosystem services, including improvement of air quality, increased cultural and aesthetic value, biodiversity potential, carbon sequestration, energy conservation and microclimate regulation, improvement of human health, noise attenuation/ reduction, and stormwater management. Green industry professionals must express to their customers the ability of landscape plants to improve green infrastructure.
Air Quality
Back in the 1800s, parks, habitats for trees and other landscape plants, were referred to as the “lungs of cities” by Frederick Law Olmsted, considered the “Father of American Parks.” Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of health conditions, including respiratory infections, heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching. The most common sources of air pollutants include particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world’s worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World’s Worst Polluted Places report. Leaves contribute to the removal of pollutants from the air, and it is important to develop landscapes with leaf growth at multiple layers using shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and dwarf and standard trees.
A few ways that plants reduce air pollution:
- Absorption of gaseous pollutants (e.g. ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide) through their leaves
- Reduction of ozone concentrations at ground level by reducing temperatures via evapotranspiration and shading
- Fuzzy leaves are much more effective in capturing particulate matter than smooth/hairless leaves
- Collection of dust, ash, pollen, and other particulate matter on their leaves, reducing its presence in the air breathed
In 2006 the city of Los Angeles started an initiative to plant one million new trees. A comprehensive study of this initiative estimates that, depending on the rate of tree mortality, these trees will save the citizens of Los Angeles between 53 and 78 million dollars in healthcare costs alone over the next 35 years.
A research series in 2010 by the Virginia-based National Recreation and Park Association published a list of trees associated with improving air quality based on their tolerance for specific air pollutants and their potential for removal of those air pollutants. Plants from that list with a high tolerance of pollutants and the potential for removal of various air pollutants are provided in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the “Links to Learning” section.
Cultural and Aesthetic Value
Adding plants to a landscape increases property values. Good tree cover can raise the total sale price by 6 to 9 percent (Morales, Boyce & Favretti, 1976), and the mere presence of trees may add a 3 to 5 percent premium to the sale price of a property (Anderson & Cordell, 1985). Hedges or landscaped walls raises the sales price 4 percent (Des Rosiers et al., 2002). In 2003 interviews with realtor associations advised that “spending 5% of the value of your home on the installation of a quality, low-maintenance landscape increased resale values by 15%, which translates into a 150% return on the landscape investment” (Taylor, 2003). A low-maintenance landscape is an uncrowded, simple landscape design that is not labor intensive. General characteristics include fewer grassy areas, often offset by hardscaping, mulched beds, and locally adapted, hardy perennial plant material. A recent study in Toronto found that “having 10 more trees in a city block, on average, improves health perception in ways comparable to an increase in personal income of $10,000 or being 7 years younger” (Kardan, 2015).
Biodiversity Potential
Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth. Biodiversity allows ecosystems to adjust to disturbances. Ecosystems that can withstand disturbance are said to be resilient. Genetic diversity prevents and/or limits the impact of diseases and helps species adjust to changes in their environment. Most medical discoveries to cure diseases and lengthen life spans have been made because of research into plant biology, animal biology, and genetics. Healthy, native landscape plants when used intentionally to develop ecosystems will protect the biodiversity of local communities and provide habitat for local wildlife.
This wildlife can include butterflies and songbirds. Native insects attracted to native plants support the dietary requirement of native song birds. Butterflies are attracted to species of flowering plants based on the seasonality of flowering, while songbirds are attracted to trees based on height and other growth characteristics, emphasizing the importance of plant variety when creating ecosystems. A study in 2009 across several pairs of suburban properties in southeast Pennsylvania showed that bird species of regional conservation concern were eight times more abundant and significantly more diverse on properties with native landscaping in the built environment (Burghardt, 2009).
Urbanization can contribute to loss of biodiversity through habitat destruction and the homogenization of ecosystems (Alvey, 2006). Landscaping with a diversity of plant material helps offset the negative impacts of urbanization on biodiversity by providing for habitat for many species that would otherwise be displaced (Dearborn, 2010).
Carbon Sequestration
Increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide contribute to the increase in average global temperature and disruption of climates around the world (Working Group I and Richard Alley 2007). Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have been increasing rapidly since the industrial revolution, primarily from the use of fossil fuels but also from changing land uses. Each person, product, and activity emits carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide, into the atmosphere. The potential impact of those emissions on global warming is called the carbon footprint of that product or activity. We each have a carbon footprint that has a negative impact on the atmosphere. Such human activity can be offset by carbon sequestration by woody plants and soil carbon storage.
Carbon sequestration is the process of capture and long- term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide. In the context of woody landscape plants, carbon sequestration is a function of photosynthesis: the plant builds itself by taking the carbon from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. At maturity, approximately 50 percent of an individual tree or shrub’s dry biomass is carbon, depending upon the density of the wood. When a landscape plant dies and is replaced, burial of the old tree represents the easiest method to ensure long-term storage in soil of most car- bon captured by the tree. Green spaces are planned and large trees are planted in public rights of way, parks, and other open spaces to increase the availability of “carbon sinks,” which are resources that serve to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (McPherson, 2005).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, an international body for assessing science related to climate change, established a 100-year assessment period as a standard for determining the carbon footprint of products and processes. We can express carbon sequestration by a woody plant in terms of the amount of carbon held from the atmosphere each year of the 100-year assessment period. When weighted for a portion of a 100-year assessment period, it has been estimated that a deciduous shade tree (Acer rubrum) in the suburban landscape can reduce the potential global warming impact from carbon dioxide by 670 kg CO2, after accounting for emissions during production and take-down at the end of life. Published impact data on atmospheric carbon weighted annually for their functional life estimated that red maple, flowering deciduous tree (redbud), evergreen tree (blue spruce), evergreen shrub (Taxus), and deciduous shrub (Viburnum) in the lower Midwest reduce CO2 in the atmosphere by an estimated 666, 430, 63, 9, and 11 kg CO2 over their lifetime, respectively (Figure 9.3.3). These estimations do not consider the long-term carbon storage in plant roots, which has not been quantified at this time but could be substantial for some plants.
After woody plants are taken out of the landscape, their utilization has an effect on projected carbon sequestration. Smaller plants and many trees are typically chipped for use as mulch or soil conditioner. The carbon in this mulch will be released into the atmosphere over a one- to three-year period. Chipping is the most common end of life for an urban tree in the eastern U.S., and this end was assumed when calculating the values in the Figure 9.3.3.
Denser and more valuable species may be used as firewood or as lumber in small construction. The utilization of urban trees for wood and paper products is still in its infancy, but the idea is drawing “increasing attention from researchers, community officials, arborists, tree care firms, and wood-using industries including bio-energy producers” (Bratkovich, 2008). A 1994 national inventory of urban tree residues included a survey of tree care firms, municipal/county park and recreation departments, municipal tree care divisions, county tree care divisions, electric utility power line maintenance, landscape maintenance/landscaper/nursery firms, and excavator/land clearance firms. The U.S. nationally produced an estimated 38 million green tons (25 million tons on a dry basis) of urban tree residues. Only 25 percent of this residue was reported as recycled or sold/used for a product, and 70 percent of the residue was given away, landfilled, or left on site. A 2003 report from the USDA Forest Service’s Forest Products Laboratory estimated that in 2002 urban wood residues in the municipal solid waste stream alone totaled 16.2 million tons of chips, logs, stumps, tree tops, and brush; 9.3 million tons recovered for compost and mulch, 1.9 million tons were sent to combustion facilities, 1.7 million tons were considered unusable, and more than 3.5 million tons were used as “good wood” for further processing into products.
Use of urban trees for bio-energy in a residential wood stove or for large scale energy production is ultimately preferable to the use of fossil fuel sources for similar purposes, as the carbon sequestered is “young” and therefore closer to being a neutral impact on climate change when compared to fossil carbon stores, the impact of which can exceed 650 million years. Already cities are taking advantage of the synergy between bio-energy’s benefits, its demands in urban areas, and the availability of urban trees. In downtown St. Paul, Minnesota, less than a mile from the State Capital building, District Energy St. Paul operates a combined heat and power plant serving the commercial, industrial, and residential downtown area. A steam-powered turbine generates 25 megawatts of electricity for the grid, and waste energy—heat energy not converted to electricity by the turbine—created in the process is used to heat the downtown area. The multi-fuel plant is capable of burning coal, natural gas, or biomass in the form of wood chips. It consumes 300,000 tons of wood chips per year, which provide 60 percent of its fuel. Considering the estimated volume of urban tree removals nationwide—17 million tons annually—the magnitude of bio-energy potential from urban tree removals to generate renewable energy should not be overlooked.
Stormwater Management
A plant’s leaves and branches create a crown. The crowns of many plants together make up an urban forest’s canopy. Unless a storm is particularly intense or occurring in a location without significant canopy cover, most of the rain hits a leaf or branch surface and remains there, before evaporating or falling to the ground. Root systems provide channels for water infiltration into urban soils. As water moves through soil layers it is filtered for contaminants, putting less pressure on filtration systems and improving water quality downstream. This brief storage of rainwater by the plant is called rainfall interception, which is primarily dependent on the type and amount of leaves (Figure 9.3.4).
Mature deciduous trees can intercept 500 to 700 gallons of water per year. Mature evergreen trees can intercept more than 4,000 gallons per year (Capiella, Schueler, & Wright, 2005). Canopy cover over impervious surfaces (concrete, asphalt) has a profound effect on runoff, as most runoff is a product of impervious surfaces. Even tree cover over pervious surfaces such as soil and turf reduces total runoff by as much as 40 percent (Sanders, 1986). Though some water eventually reaches the impermeable surfaces of the streets and runs into the stormwater infrastructure, slowing the water increases the capacity of existing infrastructure to handle water. The stormwater infrastructure is limited primarily by its capacity to handle water during peak precipitation events. Trees and green infrastructure have a leveling effect on these peaks, ultimately augmenting the overall capacity of stormwater handling.
The costs of upgrading conventional stormwater management infrastructure are often prohibitive for many municipalities and in some cases result in diminished returns, especially when compared to the cost and capacity for green infrastructure to manage stormwater. When analyzing the benefits provided by individual urban trees, drawing on data from i-Tree, stormwater management often represents the greatest economic return on investment. Expanding stormwater infrastructure in developed areas is expensive for municipalities, often requiring a bond and interest payments. Though these are costs that would be generally be covered by government funds (whether local, regional or federal), eventually the funds would be recovered by individual taxpayers.
Landscape plants used in combination with depressions in the landscape can improve the reduction in stormwater runoff by increasing water infiltration and evapotranspiration. Rain gardens, bioretention basins, or bioswales are increasingly constructed as part of green infrastructure in urban areas. In 2009, the city of Seattle developed the Thornton Creek water quality channel, a 2.5-acre facility of constructed landscape and native species plantings which slows and filters stormwater runoff from the largest watershed in the city (Figure 9.3.5).
The facility is a public, open space that is integrated into adjacent private development, which is also highly functional green infrastructure. The channel removes sediments and associated pollutants from 91 percent of the annual runoff from the 680-acre drainage area before it is released into Thornton Creek.
Summary
Landscape plants provide many critical services to people and our built environments, improving land value, health, comfort and overall quality of life. If planted in 2015, after 20 years of age, a single, healthy red maple placed 25 feet from the southwest corner of a climate-controlled structure would intercept 44,028 gallons of water and save the community $273 in stormwater reduction costs. Over the course of its life, it will actively remove NOx, CO, and particulate matter from the air, valued at $18 in savings to air quality, and reduce contributions of atmospheric carbon by 9,766 pounds through sequestration, decreased energy production needs, and emissions.
Through education efforts, advertising, and promotion, green industry professionals can help consumers understand the value of adding landscape plants to urban environments, thereby increasing the demand for green industry products and services.
Dig Deeper
To see how the built environment has changed in your area, enter your school or city’s address into Google Earth’s Timelapse program.
In this short video, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration provides an easy-to-understand explanation about the economic principles involved when evaluating ecosystem services. According to the economist, just because something is free doesn’t mean it has no economic value. And because ecosystem services are free, the economist has come up with the tools needed to figure out how much these services are worth. Learn more from this Econ 120: Ecosystem Services video by clicking below or visiting the NOAA website.
Specialized relationships between animals and plants are the norm in nature rather than the exception. Plants that evolved in concert with local animals provide for their needs better than plants that evolved elsewhere. In this video from Tennessee Wild Ones, Dr. Tallamy will explain why this is so, why specialized food relationships determine the stability and complexity of the local food webs that support animal diversity, why it is important to restore biodiversity to our residential properties, and what we need to do to make our landscapes living ecosystems once again. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Tennessee Wild Ones YouTube Channel.
The state of Tenenssee, as well as much of the Southeast region, was once covered in grasslands. According to the Southeastern Grasslands Initiative (based at Austin Peay State University), much of the original landscape—so important to indigenous people and the earliest settlers—has been lost. But not entirely lost! Today, even the last remaining 10% of our native Southeastern grasslands are America’s most biodiverse. SGI’s 23-state focal region contains the world’s 36th recognized biodiversity hotspot! Beyond that, our native grasslands remain vitally important for their contributions to water quality, soil health, carbon storage, protection in drought, grazing lands, and wildlife and pollinator habitat. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Southern Grasslands Initiative website.
Tennessee Smart Yards is an Extension-led program that guides Tennesseans on practices they can apply in their outdoor spaces to create healthier, more ecologically-sound landscapes and communities. Nine principles of stewardship serve as the foundation for the program and are explored in online modules and practical workshops taught by UT-TSU Extension and water resource professionals. To learn more, check out the video below and visit the Tennessee Smart Yards website.
Homegrown National Park® is a grassroots call-to-action to regenerate biodiversity and ecosystem function by planting native plants and creating new ecological networks. To learn more, check out the video below or visit the Homegrown National Park® website.
The Native Plant Rescue Squad is a 501(c)(3) organization, educational organization dedicated to the conservation and restoration of the rich diversity of native flora in East Tennessee. They work with builders, developers and land owners, to rescue native plants that would otherwise be destroyed during building and development. They then make the rescued plants available for residential and commercial landscaping, with the goal of increasing the overall ecological health of our region. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Native Plant Rescue Squad website.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Excerpt from "More About Ecosystem Services" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain
Excerpt modified from "Benefits of Healthy Watersheds" by the United States Environmental Protection Agency is in the Public Domain
Excerpt modified from “Our Built and Natural Environments” by M.G. Kramer, United States Environmental Protection Agency is in the Public Domain
Excerpts used with permission from "Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants" by J. Knight & D.L. Ingram, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. Copyright © University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.
Title Image: “Trees” by Amanda Spangler, CC BY 4.0
References
Alvey, A.A. (2006). Promoting and preserving biodiversity in the urban forest. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 5.4: 195-201.
Anderson, L.M., & Cordell, H.K. (1985). Residential property values improved by landscaping with trees. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 9.3: 162-166.
Bratkovich, S. (2008). Urban Tree Utilization and Why It Matters. U.S. Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.us/ucf/sup- porting_docs/DovetailUrban0108ig.pdf
Burghardt, K.T., Tallamy, D.W. & Shriver, W.G. (2009). Impact of native plants on bird and butterfly biodiversity in suburban landscapes. Conservation Biology 23.1: 219-224.
Cappiella, K., Schueler, T. & Wright, T. (2005). Urban Watershed Forestry Manual Part 1: Methods for Increasing Forest Cover in a Watershed.
Davis, M.A., Chew, M.K., Hobbs, R.J., Lugo, A.E., Ewel, J.J., Vermeij, G.J., Brown, J.H., Rosenzweig, M.L., Gardener, M.R., Carroll, S.P., Thompson, K., Pickett, S.T.A., Stromberg, J.C., Del Tredici, P., Suding, K.N., Ehrenfeld, J.G., Grime, J.P., Mascaro, J., & Briggs, J.C. (2011). Don’t judge species on their origins. Nature (London), 474(7350), 153–154. https://doi.org/10.1038/474153a
Dearborn, D.C., & Kark, S. (2010). Motivations for conserving urban biodiversity. Conservation Biology 24.2: 432-440.
Des Rosiers, F., et al. (2002). Landscaping and house values: An empirical investigation. The Journal of Real Estate Research 23.1/2: 139.
Frazer, L. (2005). Paving paradise: the peril of impervious surfaces. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(7), A456–A462. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.113-a456
Frumkin, H. (2002). Urban Sprawl and Public Health. Public Health Reports (1974), 117(3), 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50155-3
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm
Kardan, O., et al. (2015). Neighborhood greenspace and health in a large urban center. Scientific Reports 5.
Kenny, J.F. (2009). Estimated use of water in the United States in 2005. U.S. Geological Survey.
McPherson, G., Simpson, J.R., Peper, P.J., Maco, S.E. & Xiao, Q. (2005). Municipal forest benefits and costs in five US cities. Journal of Forestry 103(8): 411-416.
Morales, D., Boyce, B.N. & Favretti, R.J.. (1976). The contribution of trees to residential property value: Manchester, Connecticut. Valuation 23(2): 27-43.
National Research Council of the National Academies. (2011). America's Climate Choices. The National Academies Press. http://nas-sites.org/americasclimatechoices/sample-page/panel-reports/americas-climate-choices-final-report
Our nation’s air: status and trends through 2008. (2010). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Our nation’s air: status and trends through 2010. (2012). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Sanders, R.A. (1986). Urban vegetation impacts on the hydrology of Dayton, Ohio. Urban Ecology 9.3: 361- 376.
Sawyer, R.F. (2010). Vehicle emissions: progress and challenges. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 20(6), 487–488. https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2010.44
Simberloff, D. (2011). Non-natives: 141 scientists object. Nature (London), 475(7354), 36–36. https://doi.org/10.1038/475036a
Tallamy, D.W., & Shropshire, K.J. (2009). Ranking Lepidopteran use of native versus introduced plants. Conservation Biology, 23(4), 941–947. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01202.x
Taylor, C. (2003). Fertile Ground. Smart Money, March 2003.
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. (2012). Climate Change and Transportation: Summary of Key Information. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circulars/ec164.pdf
U.S. Geological Survey. (2003). Ground-Water Depletion Across the Nation. Retrieved from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-103-03
U.S. Global Change Research Program. (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press. http://nca2009.globalchange.gov/download-report
Vaccaro, J.J. & Olsen, T. D. (2007). Estimates of ground-water recharge to the Yakima River basin aquifer system, Washington, for predevelopment and current land-use and land-cover conditions. U.S. Geological Survey.
Working Group I and Richard Alley. (2007). Climate change 2007: the physical science basis: summary for policymakers. International Panel on Climate Change.
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87626/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87627/overview
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4.3 The Economic Impact of the Green Industry
4.4 Economic Benefits of Landscape Plants
4.5 The Economic Impact of Horticultural Crops in Food Systems
4_The-Economic-Benefits-of-Horticulture
The Economic Benefits of Horticulture
Overview
Title image: "Buying Plants" by tbridge is marked with CC BY-NC 2.0.
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Quantify the economic importance of plants in managed ecosystems and the impact of horticultural crops in food systems.
Give examples of how growing plants benefits people at the home-owner scale.
Explain the economic impact of the larger green industry from an economical and environmental context .
Key Terms
social value - the relative importance that people place on the changes they experience in their lives; some, but not all of this value is captured in market prices
economic value - a measure of the benefit provided by a good or service to an economic agent and is generally measured relative to units of currency
property value - the fair market value of a given area of real estate, though the actual price of the property may be higher or lower
production horticulture - the cultivation of horticultural crops, including nursery plants and fruit and vegetable crops
Introduction
You may be familiar with the phrase “money makes the world go round.” Indeed, modern society relies on the exchange of currency for goods and services, and many decisions are based, at least in part, on financial considerations and economic values. The same is true in horticulture. While it is difficult to assign a dollar value to the many ecosystem benefits we derive from plants, there are ways to quantify various economic impacts of the green industry, landscape plants, and horticultural crops grown for food production.
What is the “Green Industry”?
Excerpt used with permission from “Economic Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States, 2007” by J. Knight & D.L. Ingram, Southern Association of Agricultural Experiment Station Directors. Copyright © SAAESD.
Structure of the Green Industry
The U.S. environmental horticulture industry, also known as the Green Industry, is comprised of wholesale nursery, greenhouse, and turfgrass sod growers; landscape service firms such as architects, designers/builders, contractors, and maintenance firms; retail firms such as garden centers, home centers and mass merchandisers with lawn and garden departments, and marketing intermediaries such as brokers and horticultural distribution centers (re- wholesalers). There is also a substantial allied trade industry that supplies various production inputs to the industry. The structure of the Green industry is illustrated in Figure 9.4.1.
Input Suppliers, often referred to as allied trade firms, are businesses that provide various inputs for ornamental plant production, landscape services, and retail sales. These inputs commonly include agrichemicals, fertilizers, containers, packaging, farm machinery, tools and equipment, propagative materials, and consulting or financial services. The commodities originate from extractive and manufacturing industries such as mining, petroleum, and forestry.
Plant Producers are firms engaged in producing Green Industry products include growers of floriculture crops, nursery crops, and turfgrass sod. Floriculture crops are generally herbaceous plants including bedding plants, potted flowering plants, foliage plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Bedding and garden plants consist of young flowering plants (annuals and perennials) and vegetable plants grown in flats, trays, pots, or hanging baskets, usually inside a controlled greenhouse environment, and sold largely for gardens and landscaping. Potted flowering plants are usually sold in pots for indoor use. The major potted flowering plants are poinsettias, orchids, florist chrysanthemums, and finished florist azaleas. Foliage plants are also sold in pots and hanging baskets for indoor and patio use, including larger specimens for office, hotel, and restaurant interiors. Cut flowers are usually sold in bunches or as bouquets with cut foliage. The most popular cut flowers are roses, carnations, gladioli, and chrysanthemums. Leatherleaf ferns are the leading cut foliage. Combining cut flowers and cut greens in bouquets or other flower arrangements is a value-added retail option.
The main market outlets for floriculture crops are florists, garden centers, mass merchandisers, supermarkets, chain stores, discount stores, home improvement centers, hardware stores, landscape contractors, and re-wholesalers. Other retail outlets are farmers markets, flea markets, and street vendors. Since cut flowers are perishable and live floral crops are sensitive to variations in temperature, they usually require cool transportation and storage conditions to preserve and prolong their quality before final sale. The demand for floral crops, especially cut flowers, is highly seasonal. Sales are normally highest from February through May and in the fall. Sales of cut flowers peak during holidays such as Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day. Poinsettia plants are sold mostly from Thanksgiving to Christmas. Cut flowers and foliage plants, however, are increasingly popular throughout the year as indoor decorations for the home and workplace.
Nursery crops are woody or perennial plants usually grown in containers or in-ground, including ornamental trees and shrubs, fruit and nut trees (for noncommercial use), vines, and ground covers primarily used for landscaping. Trees and shrubs are classified as deciduous or evergreen. Deciduous includes shade, flowering, ornamental, fruit, and nut trees and shrubs, while evergreens include broadleaf and coniferous trees and Christmas trees. The location of nursery production is determined largely by soil, climate, availability of water, accessibility and distance to markets, and cost of land. Each plant species has a hardiness zone that sets the northern geographic latitude for in-ground growth. Trees and shrubs start out as “liners”, undeveloped, but rooted, trees and plants in pots or trays. As seedlings, they are typically protected from intense sunlight or severe weather by shade or temporary cover before transplantation into larger containers or the field for further growth. Sales can occur at any stage depending on the plants’ commercial purpose. Since nursery crops are usually grown in the field or in containers often without covered protection, the choice of crops is based on an area’s natural vegetative species or the crop’s ability to tolerate local climatic conditions. Thus, sales of most nursery crops, except Christmas trees, are more local or regional than floriculture crops, which are less costly to ship to farther markets. Markets for nursery crops include homeowners, developers, public utilities, golf courses, resorts, commercial parks, malls, and government agencies in charge of public parks, and street and highway vegetation. Demand for nursery crops (except Christmas trees) tends to coincide with normal planting seasons in the spring and fall.
Sod farms are specialized nurseries that produce turfgrass varieties that are hardy for their particular region. Once sod leaves the nursery/farm, it usually passes through one or more marketing channels and is eventually used for new residential or commercial developments, for re-landscaping existing developments, for sports turf facilities such as athletic fields and golf courses, or for businesses, schools and roadside uses. Although the customer generally decides the type of sod to purchase, the installer also plays an important role. Both the landscape contractor and sod installer often make the decision from whom to buy and may recommend to the property owner the type of sod to plant.
Wholesale Distributors are an integral part of the Green Industry supply chain. Intermediaries such as brokers and importers facilitate the transactions of domestic and international growers and retailers. Re-wholesalers, often referred to as horticultural distribution centers (HDCs) or landscape distribution centers, are also market facilitators that offer regionally specific mixes of landscape products for immediate pickup or delivery to landscape professionals and have emerged throughout the United States in a variety of forms. There are self-contained HDCs and HDCs that serve as independent profit centers within vertically-integrated grower, landscape contracting, and retail garden center operations. Landscape distribution traces its development back to the produce dealers of the 1940s and 1950s. Following World War II, a sustained building boom fueled an increasing demand for products and services that landscape professionals, retail garden centers, and other horticultural businesses attempted to fulfill. At the same time, rising land values pushed growers farther away from spreading urban and suburban areas. The resulting longer supply lines created difficulties in meeting the expanding needs of the horticulture industry, and spawned development of this new distribution network from the nursery grower to the horticultural customer. The long-distance distribution system infrastructure for plants is still being refined in many parts of the country. An efficient trucking system extends from Florida all along the East coast, featuring regular routes run by independent trucking companies. Some large producers have developed in-house, large-volume delivery systems to service big- box retailers. But cross-country shipments are still difficult because of the long time that plants are held in trucks, lack of back haul opportunities, and the excessive handling that takes place for small orders. Air transportation is being used more frequently, but only for high-value plants such as cut flowers.
Horticultural Service Firms provide landscape design (architectural), installation (construction), and maintenance services. These firms serve a variety of clientele, including residential homeowners, commercial businesses, and municipalities. Some firms in the industry offer a combination of design, installation, and maintenance services (e.g., design-build firms) to appeal to a larger clientele base, however, many businesses gear their services towards specific markets. For instance, some specialize in seeding and fertilizer application in areas along newly constructed highways and installing erosion control devices. Such work is usually contracted from state departments of transportation or from local governments.
Landscape design or architectural establishments are primarily engaged in planning and designing the development of land areas for projects, such as parks and other recreational areas, airports, highways, hospitals, schools, land subdivisions, and commercial, industrial, and residential areas. These companies apply knowledge of land use and location of structures to the site design of landscape projects. Landscape contracting or installation establishments are primarily engaged in installing trees, shrubs, plants, lawns, or gardens, and the construction of walkways, retaining walls, decks, fences, ponds, and other similar “hardscape” structures. Specialized installation services such as irrigation systems, water features, night lighting, and Christmas decorations are becoming more prevalent.
Landscape maintenance establishments provide services such as mowing, trimming, leaf or snow removal, tree removal or trimming, mulching, fertilizing, pest control treatments, and other garden or lawncare services to enhance landscape appearance and health. The prime selling points of these service firms are that they have the knowledge to diagnose problems and the equipment to apply chemicals effectively and safely, and eliminate the need for clients to store toxic chemicals on their premises. Besides offering basic services, many maintenance firms also offer customized programs such as lawn aeration, dethatching, resodding or overseeding, and integrated pest management.
Retailers are another point of contact with end consumers of horticultural products, and include independent garden centers, florists, home centers, mass merchants, and other chain stores. Garden centers are establishments primarily engaged in selling trees, shrubs, other plants, seeds, bulbs, mulches, soil conditioners, fertilizers, pesticides, garden tools, and other garden supplies to the general public. These establishments usually sell products purchased from other vendors, but may sell some plants which they grow themselves. Garden center consumer studies indicate that customer loyalty and repeat business result from a convenient store location, plant quality, customer service, and plant selection.
End Users are the final consumers of Green Industry products and services. While the vast majority of nursery products used by end users are purchased from Green Industry businesses, this is not the case for services. A significant amount of lawn and landscape services are performed by the end users themselves. However, these services are only for internal consumption, that is, end users do not maintain any landscape plants or green space other than their own. The list of end users includes airports, cemeteries, churches, commercial general business areas, golf courses, homeowners, municipalities, private recreation areas, public roadways, schools and universities, and utilities. Commercial areas are comprised of restaurants, banks, credit unions, commercial building operators, shopping centers, apartments and condominiums, mobile home sites, hotels and motels, medical and nursing care centers, retirement communities and community centers. City park districts, arboretums and zoos, city streets, and other urban public areas are maintained by municipalities. Public roadways encompass both state and county roadsides and highways.
The Economic Impact of the Green Industry
Excerpts used with permission from "Economic Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States, 2007" by A.W. Hodges, C.R. Hall & M.A. Palma, Southern Association of Agricultural Experiment Station Directors. Copyright © SAAESD.
The environmental horticulture industry, also known as the “Green Industry,” is comprised of a variety of businesses involved in the production, distribution and services associated with ornamental plants, landscape and garden supplies and equipment. Segments of the industry include wholesale nursery, greenhouse and sod growers, landscape architects, contractors and maintenance firms, marketing intermediaries such as brokers, horticultural distribution centers, and re-wholesalers, retail garden centers, home centers and mass merchandisers with lawn and garden departments, and a variety of other retail establishments selling plants and horticultural goods. In addition to these commercial sectors, many state and local governments have significant urban forestry operations for management of parks, botanic gardens, and right-of-ways that are an integral segment of community infrastructure.
Total economic contributions for the United States Green Industry in 2007, including regional economic multiplier effects, were estimated at $175.26 Billion in output (revenue), employment of 1.95 Million fulltime and part-time jobs, labor earnings of $53.16 Billion, and $107.16 Billion in value added [see Table ES-1 in “Dig Deeper”]. Total value added impacts represented 0.76 percent of U.S. Gross Domestic Product in 2007. For the Production and Manufacturing Group, including Nursery and Greenhouse Production and Lawn and Garden Equipment Manufacturing sectors, total output impacts were $52.57 Billion, employment impacts were 469 thousand jobs, earnings impacts were $13.14 Billion, and value added impacts were $32.13 Billion. For the Horticultural Services Group, Landscape Services and Landscape Architectural Services sectors, total output impacts were $92.83 Billion, employment impacts were 1.12 Million jobs, earnings impacts were $30.15 Billion, and value added impacts were $54.52 Billion. For the Wholesale and Retail Trade Group, total output impacts were $29.86 Billion, employment impacts were 358 thousand jobs, earnings impacts were $9.87 Billion, and value added impacts were $20.51 Billion. The largest individual industry sectors in terms of employment and value added impacts were Landscaping Services (1,075,343 jobs, $50.28 Billion), Nursery and Greenhouse Production (436,462 jobs, $27.14 Billion), and Building Materials and Garden Supplies Stores (190,839 jobs, $9.71 Billion). Other industry sectors with employment impacts exceeding 10,000 jobs were Miscellaneous Store Retailers (59,829 jobs), Landscape Architectural Services (48,085 jobs), Lawn and Garden Equipment Manufacturing (32,230 jobs), General Merchandise Stores (39,433 jobs), Merchant Wholesalers of Durable Goods (19,218 jobs), Merchant Wholesalers of Nondurable Goods (15,732 jobs), Food and Beverage Stores (14,074 jobs), and Non-store Retailers (12,170 jobs), as shown in Figure 9.4.2.
Employment and value added contributions by the Green Industry in 2007 are summarized by state and region and industry group in [see Table ES-2 in “Dig Deeper”]. The largest regions in terms of total employment contributions were the Pacific (358,577 jobs), Southeast (351,489 jobs) and Midwest (335,252 jobs), followed by the Appalachian region (208,391 jobs), Mountain (159,440 jobs), Southcentral (154,270 jobs) and Great Plains (30,038 jobs). The top-ten individual states in terms of employment contributions were California (257,885 jobs), Florida (188,437 jobs), Texas (82,113 jobs), North Carolina (81,770 jobs), Ohio (79,707 jobs), Pennsylvania (75,604 jobs), New Jersey (67,993 jobs), Illinois (67,382 jobs), Georgia (66,042 jobs), and Virginia (58,677 jobs) as shown in Figure 9.4.3. Generally, output and value added contributions in regions and states followed the same ordering as employment. Total value added impacts as a share of Gross State Product ranged from over 1.60 percent to less than 0.04 percent.
Between 2002 and 2007, total horticultural sales increased by 3.5 percent and total output impacts increased by 29.2 percent, or an average annual rate of 5.8 percent over the five year period. The Production and Manufacturing industry group and Horticultural Services group had substantially increased output impacts of 36.8 percent and 44.6 percent, respectively, while the Wholesale and Retail Trade group declined by 9.7 percent during this period. Value Added impacts increased by 22.2 percent, however, labor income impacts declined by 11.2 percent. Direct employment also declined by 2.7 percent but total employment impacts increased by 20.4 percent.
Economic Benefits of Landscape Plants
Excerpts used with permission from “Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants” by J. Knight & D.L. Ingram, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. Copyright © University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.
Cultural and Aesthetic Value
Adding plants to a landscape increases property values. Good tree cover can raise the total sale price by 6 to 9 percent (Morales, Boyce & Favretti, 1976), and the mere presence of trees may add a 3 to 5 percent premium to the sale price of a property (Anderson & Cordell, 1985). Hedges or landscaped walls raises the sales price 4 percent (Des Rosiers et al., 2002). In 2003 interviews with realtor associations advised that “spending 5% of the value of your home on the installation of a quality, low-maintenance landscape increased resale values by 15%, which translates into a 150% return on the landscape investment” (Taylor, 2003). A low-maintenance landscape is an uncrowded, simple landscape design that is not labor intensive. General characteristics include fewer grassy areas, often offset by hardscaping, mulched beds, and locally adapted, hardy perennial plant material. A recent study in Toronto found that “having 10 more trees in a city block, on average, improves health perception in ways comparable to an increase in personal income of $10,000 or being 7 years younger” (Kardan, 2015).
Energy Conservation and Microclimate Regulation
A microclimate is the climate of a small area that is different from the area around it. Microclimates can be very small, as in a protected courtyard near a building. Small areas may be warmer or colder, wetter or drier, or more or less prone to frosts. Landscape plants influence significant factors such as sun exposure and air movement in the formation of microclimates. In addition, trees evaporate substantial amounts of water through their leaves, which can significantly reduce nearby air temperatures.
Shading by plants can greatly increase human comfort in a given area. Effects of shade from a plant in a microclimate varies because the angle of the sun changes throughout the day as well as throughout the season (Figure 9.4.4). Seasonality may also influence the direction and speed of prevailing winds. For example, winds in the lower Midwest come predominately from the southwest during hot summer months and from the northwest during cold winter months.
In addition to providing shade, deciduous trees and shrubs provide a unique tool in microclimate regulation: by losing their leaves in winter—though the remaining trunk and branches block 30 to 40 percent of sunlight—sunlight will penetrate and warm the air and ground beneath (Figure 9.4.5). In the summer months, their leaves provide shade and reduce the temperature of objects and the air below the canopy (Figure 9.4.6). In contrast, evergreens will consistently provide shade (blocking 80–90% of sunlight) and function as windbreaks throughout the year, and small evergreen shrubs placed a few feet from the home provide a gap of insulating air, protecting the home from heat loss due to wind.
Because landscape plants impact the air temperature and flow around them, the placement of landscape plants in relation to climate-controlled buildings can have a profound impact on energy savings. Evergreens used for winter windbreaks reduce infiltration of cold air into buildings by up to 50 percent (Sparling, 2007). A study in 2003 showed that over a summer, suburbs with trees were, on average, 4 to 6 degrees cooler than suburbs without trees and that tree groves were 9 degrees cooler than open terrain, on average. (McPherson, 2011).
Schoolyards, typical built environments, are hot places. They are often covered by the three hottest materials found in the urban environment: asphalt pavement, steel or tar and chip roofs, and mowed turf. They tend to retain heat and act as heat islands. A case study in Waterloo, Ontario, revealed that the surface temperature of schoolyards was reduced by more than 40 degrees and air temperature was reduced by almost 20 degrees when properly placed trees shaded the surfaces and cooled the space through evapotranspiration (Moogk-Soulis, 2011). A single, properly watered tree can evaporate-transpire 40 gallons of water in a day, offsetting the heat equivalent to that produced by one hundred 100-watt lamps burning eight hours a day (Rosenfeld, 1997).
More than making the outdoor environment comfortable, regulating the microclimate around buildings can result in energy savings from climate control within those buildings (Figure 9.4.7). The Los Angeles Million Trees Initiative is expected to save more than $117 million in electricity costs over 35 years (McPherson, 2011). In 2002, it was calculated that 57.8 cents was saved per square meter of tree canopy cover in urban environments per year (Brack, 2002).
Noise Attenuation/Reduction
Screens and hedges provide noise reduction, especially in urban areas where noise is easily reverberated from hard surfaces such as pavements or buildings. Plants are more effective at absorbing high-frequency sounds, which are bothersome to human ears, than they are at absorbing low-frequency sounds (Fare & Clatterbuck, 1998). Plants can also reflect noise and direct the sound waves much like objects in a stream of water will reflect or redirect the flow of water. The nature of sound wave absorption and reflection depends upon the density, size, leaf surface area, and overall architecture of the plant. More dense plants with larger leaves reflect and absorb more noise than plants with less dense foliage.
Combinations of a mounded area covered with low-growing plants, medium-sized plants, and larger plants located close to the source of the noise can provide the most noise abatement. Any one of these elements can reduce noise in the built environment but are most effective when used in combination (Figure 9.4.8).
Continuing the example from the end of Unit 9, Lesson 3, if planted in 2015, after 20 years of age, a single, healthy red maple placed 25 feet from the southwest corner of a climate-controlled structure will save $143 dollars in winter heating costs and reduce summer cooling costs by $210 in the state of Kentucky (Figure 9.4.9).
The Economic Impact of Horticultural Crops in Food Systems
Horticulture is the study of crops that require intense and constant care, from planting through delivery to the consumer. Horticultural crops are more than plants grown for ornamental landscapes. In fact, many specialty food crops are categorized as horticultural crops. Vegetables and fruits must be handled with care to prevent bruising or damage. These crops have high water content and a short shelf life when compared to other agricultural crops like wheat and soybeans. While horticultural crops grow on only a fraction of U.S. agricultural lands, they represent nearly 40 percent of U.S. agricultural crop production. They diversify and enhance human diets and improve our living environment and personal well-being.
Vegetable and Pulse Crops
Excerpt from "Vegetables & Pulses" by the USDA Economic Research Service is in the Public Domain
The U.S. vegetables and pulses sector comprises hundreds of independent markets within the food-marketing system. During 2017 – 19, U.S. farm cash receipts from the sale of vegetables and pulses (including potatoes and mushrooms) averaged $19.4 billion, which was 10 percent of U.S. crop cash receipts. This amount was generated on less than 2 percent of all U.S. harvested acreage. Annual per capita availability—a proxy for consumption—of vegetables and pulses over the same period averaged 404 pounds, which was down 4 percent from a decade earlier.
Fruit and Tree Nut Crops
Excerpt from "Fruit & Tree Nuts" by the USDA Economic Research Service is in the Public Domain
The U.S. fruit and tree nuts industry consists of a wide array of crops and products annually generating, on average, over $25 billion in farm cash receipts. Produced on less than 2 percent of U.S. agricultural cropland, farm cash receipts from this sector account for about 7 percent of the total receipts for all agricultural commodities and around 13 percent for all crops. Foreign markets serve as outlets for less than 20 percent of overall U.S. fruit and tree nuts supplies, while nearly half of the available supplies for domestic consumption come from imports.
Dig Deeper
"A Ten-Year Review of the Southeast U.S. Green Industry, Part I: Labor and Firm Characteristics" by Rihn, A.L., Fulcher, A. & Khachatryan, H, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension.
“Economic Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States in 2018” by Hall, C.R.; Hodges, A.W.; Khachatryan, H & Palma, M.A., Journal of Environmental Horticulture 38(3):73–79. Copyright © 2020 Horticultural Research Institute.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Excerpts used with permission from “Economic Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States, 2007” by A.W. Hodges, C.R. Hall & M.A. Palma, Southern Association of Agricultural Experiment Station Directors. Copyright © SAAESD.
Excerpts used with permission from “Ecosystem Services of Landscape Plants” by J. Knight & D.L. Ingram, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. Copyright © University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.
Title image: "Buying Plants" by tbridge is marked with CC BY-NC 2.0.
References
Anderson, L.M., & Cordell, H.K. (1985). Residential property values improved by landscaping with trees. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 9.3: 162-166.
Brack, C.L. (2002). Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by an urban forest. Environmental Pollution (1987), 116: S195–S200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00251-2
De Rosiers, F., Marius, T., Yan, K., & Paul, V. (2002). Landscaping and House Values: An Empirical Investigation. The Journal of Real Estate Research, 23(1/2), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10835547.2002.12091072
Fare, D.C. & Clatterbuck, W.K. (1998). SP517 Evergreen Trees for Screens and Hedges in the Landscape. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service.
Kardan, O., Gozdyra, P., Misic, B., Moola, F., Palmer, L.J., Paus, T., & Berman, M.G. (2015). Neighborhood greenspace and health in a large urban center. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 11610–11610. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep11610
McPherson, G., Simpson, J.R., Peper, P.J., Maco, S.E. & Xiao, Q. (2005). Municipal forest benefits and costs in five US cities. Journal of Forestry 103(8): 411-416.
Moogk-Soulis, C. (2011). Schoolyard heat islands: A case study in Waterloo, Ontario. Technical Aids Consulting Services. http://www.moogk-soulis. com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ Moogk-Soulis.pdf
Morales, D., Boyce, B.N. & Favretti, R.J. (1976). The contribution of trees to residential property value: Manchester, Connecticut. Valuation 23(2): 27-43.
Rosenfeld, A.H., Romm, J. J., Akbari, H., & Lloyd, A. C. (1997). Painting the town white - and green. MIT’s Technology Review, 100(2), 52.
Sparling, B., Bucknell, D. & Moore, T. (2007). Literature review of documented health and environmental benefits derived from ornamental horticulture products.
Taylor, C. (2003). Fertile Ground. Smart Money, March 2003.
|
oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.548550
| null |
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87627/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People",
"author": null
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87628/overview
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5.3 Psychological Benefits of Plants
5.4 Physiological Benefits of Plants
5.5 Medicinal Benefits of Plants
5_The-Role-of-Plants-in-Human-Well-Being
Hall & Knuth: A Review of the Emotional and Mental Health Benefits of Plants
Hall & Knuth: Available Resources and Usage of Plant Benefits Information
Hall & Knuth: Physiological Health Benefits
Hall & Knuth: Social Benefits
International Center of Ethnobiology
TeachEthnobotany
The Role of Plants in Human Well-Being
Overview
Title image: "Appalachian Trail, Smoky Mountain National Park, TN" by Abhishek Chinchalkar is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
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Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Describe the various ways plants impact human well-being.
Distinguish between the terms psychological and physiological.
List research-based psychological and physiological benefits of plants.
Key Terms
medicinal - substances and other treatments that are used to cure illnesses
physical - relates to the body
physiological - the way that living bodies function
psychological - relates to the mind and feelings
restorative - refers to the ability to restore consciousness, vigor, or health
Introduction
For most of human history, our health, wellbeing, and success have been intertwined with our ability to interpret the environmental cues around us, which are often provided by plants. People who were better able to interpret these signals from plants had an easier time finding food, water, shelter, and refuge from predators. There is a growing body of research that demonstrates the physiological, physical, medicinal, and psychological benefits of green nature to humans. Several such studies are referenced in this lesson.
Some studies explore benefits from active gardening activities, such as tending a vegetable or flower garden or taking a nature hike; while others attempt to quantify benefits from passive experiences, including viewing nature from a window or the presence of a houseplant in a room. The amount of plant life varies between areas, and many of these studies use the term “green space” rather than “plants” or “gardens.” What is “green space”? In their comprehensive series of literature reviews on the benefits of plants and horticulture, Dr. Charles Hall and Dr. Melinda Knuth write, “The term ‘green spaces’ has been used extensively to refer to areas of urban vegetation including public and private parks and gardens, residential landscapes, and urban forests and other municipal landscapes.”
Readers should keep in mind that many of the findings referenced in the first three sections of this lesson are from correlational studies rather than true experiments, and correlation does not necessarily mean causation. Correlational studies are an important first step researchers take to determine whether future controlled studies are worthwhile.
Prominent Theories
When researchers explore the relationship between plants and nature on human health, they develop a theory to explain their findings. Three prominent theories in the fields of environmental psychology, environmental sociology, and socio-horticulture include Dr. Stephen and Dr. Rachel Kaplan’s Attention Restoration Theory, Dr. Roger Ulrich’s Stress Recovery Theory (a Psycho-Evolutionary Theory), and Dr. Edward O. Wilson’s Biophilia Hypothesis. While some people may have learned to love plants, gardening, and nature through taught experiences, each of these three theories proposes that unlearned, evolutionary factors are also important considerations when describing our positive response to nature.
Stress Recovery Theory (Psycho-Evolutionary Theory)
The framework for Stress Recovery Theory was proposed by Dr. Roger Ulrich (formerly of Texas A&M University, currently with the Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden); this framework can be found in his landmark work “Aesthetic and affective response to natural environments” (1983).
Ulrich and co-author Russ Parsons later described the theory in “Influences of passive experiences with plants on well-being and health” (1992):
The long evolutionary development of humankind in natural environments has left its mark on our species in the form of unlearned predispositions to pay attention and respond positively to certain contents (e.g., vegetation, water) and configurations that comprise those environments. People respond especially positively to combinations of contents and forms characteristic of natural settings that were most readily exploited by premodern humans, or were most favorable to ongoing well-being or survival… Ulrich postulates that quick-onset affective or emotional reactions – not cognitive responses – constitute the first level of response to nature, and are central to subsequent thoughts, memory, meaning, and behavior with respect to environment.
Dr. Ulrich has measured physiological and psychophysiological responses to stress, including heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension and brain waves, after exposure to different stimuli. He and other proponents of Stress Recovery Theory have found that exposure to natural environments—even just a view from a window or a poster of a natural scene—can reduce tension and enhance recovery from stress (Ulrich, 1984; Ulrich et al., 1991).
Attention Restoration Theory
Dr. Stephen Kaplan and Dr. Rachel Kaplan of the University of Michigan proposed Attention Restoration Theory in their book The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective as an explanation for why natural environments seem to have a restorative effect on attention.
Any discussion of this theory should include a description of “mental fatigue.” Mental fatigue is caused by spending time in a state of directed attention where focus must be maintained by suppressing distracting stimuli. This is especially common in modern environments where cell phone notifications and advertisements are constantly vying for attention. School environments also require a great deal of directed attention to successfully complete assignments and learn new information. The ability to maintain directed attention decreases over time. The result of prolonged directed attention is mental fatigue (Parsons, 1991). Symptoms of mental fatigue include irritability, increased incidence of mistakes (Kaplan, 2001), stress (Han, 2009), aggression and decreased impulse control (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). As a person becomes more mentally fatigued, they become less able to evaluate a situation rationally and more likely to have an unnecessary outburst (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001).
Natural environments that are rich in “fascinating” stimuli that intrigue the senses can be suitable treatment for mental fatigue. According Attention Restoration Theory, natural environments that spark human fascination provide an opportunity for the mind to recover from mental fatigue (Parsons, 1991). Other treatments for mental fatigue include taking a vacation and, to some extent, sleep (Kaplan, 1993). Attention restoration is facilitated by a landscape that meets certain criteria (Kaplan, 1984). An example of a restorative landscape would be a “mysterious” environment, where participants in the environment feel drawn in to explore around a bend of a curving path or over a hill just out of view.
Since the type of environment is of primary importance in attention restoration theory, much of the research supporting the theory typically involves some type analysis of the qualities of the landscape (like mystery). However, Rachel Kaplan (1984) once asked, “Is presence in the setting sufficient to reap the benefits? Or is some involvement or commitment [activity in the environment] on the part of the individual essential?” Kaplan went on to note three types of involvement in the landscape that could also contribute to Attention Restoration Theory. The first type of involvement is active involvement in the natural environment, which could include gardening or a walk through the neighborhood. The second type of involvement is observing (passive involvement), such as a looking out on a natural scene from a window or watching plants grow and develop. The third level of involvement is on a conceptual nature. Conceptual involvement has to do with knowledge and imagining one’s participation in a natural environment through an activity like planning a garden or reflecting on a prior outdoor experience.
The Biophilia Hypothesis
Dr. Edward O. Wilson (1929 – 2021) studied at the University of Alabama and Harvard University, where he went on to hold a faculty position from 1956 until 1996. He began his career as a biologist focused on the study of ants. In fact, he discovered the first colony of fire ants in the U.S. near the port of Mobile in Alabama.
Wilson’s work as a biologist led him to study social behavior of insects, animals, and humans. He became one of the foremost naturalists of the 20th century, writing several books on science and conservation. In 1984, Wilson wrote Biophilia, in which he proposed that humans have an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life. Wilsons’ Biophilia Hypothesis attempts to explain why humans have a preference for the natural world and makes a strong argument in favor of conservation.
The Biophilia Hypothesis has led to an increase in biophilic design. Biophilic designs incorporate biophilia into the built environment and are becoming more common in architecture, interior design, and other related fields as a complement to green design. While green design strives to decrease the environmental impact of the built environment, biophilic design includes natural elements and features as a way to facilitate human connection with nature.
Psychological Benefits of Plants
Research in environmental psychology, socio-horticulture, and related fields have shown that even in our modern society, humans still experience psychological benefits from spending time with plants. Several studies have shown that access to green nature, a view of green space from a window, the presence of living houseplants, and even images of nature have positive psychological benefits. Humans in modern societies spend most of their time indoors (US Dept. of Labor, 2006). And, with expanding rates of urbanization, more people live in areas that are further removed from natural environments (Van den Berg et al., 2010), and access to green space is an important consideration for human development.
Many of studies have focused on benefits in terms of stress reduction and recovery from mental fatigue. Dr. Rita Berto defined “stress” in her literature review of the role that nature plays in coping with stress (2014):
“Stress” can be defined as the condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy (whether real or not) between the demands of a situation and the biological, psychological or social resources of the individual [1]. The negative effects of stress can be measured in various ways inside and out of the laboratory and these measures fall into three categories: those that rely on (1) neuro-physiological or bodily changes in the individual experiencing stress, (2) performance or behavioral changes and (3) self-report by individuals.
As you will read in the following section, researchers have attempted to measure the benefits of green nature in many different ways, from proximity of trees, gardens, and natural areas to view from a window.
Access to Green Space
Spending time with living, green plants in natural settings, viewing them from a window, or just living near green areas is associated with reducing stress and recovery from mental fatigue (Abraham et al., 2010; Carrus et al., 2015; Watts, 2017; Wolf & Housley, 2014). Access to nature is related to happiness. One study found that after controlling for other variables, access to nature is related to several indicators of happiness (Zelenski & Nisbet, 2014). In fact, more accessibility to parks and natural, forest-like environments is related to increased happiness, better concentration, and less stress, anger, depression, and tension (Van den berg et al., 2003).
Access to green space can also improve memory retention. One experiment tested the working memory of participants who either walked through an arboretum or who walked along a busy urban street. Those who walked through the arboretum had a 20% greater improvement in working memory than those who walked on the urban street (Berman et al., 2012). Another similar study found that those who went on a 50-minute walk in green nature had better working memory and less anxiety than participants who went on a 50-minute walk on a busy street (Berman et al., 2012).
As tree canopy in a community increases, crime tends to decrease. One study found that a 10% increase in tree cover is related to a 12% decrease in crime (Troy et al., 2012).
In the Workplace
A view of nature is also related to satisfaction with work and life. A longitudinal study of employees over a 6-month period found that individuals who had a view of nature in their workspace were more satisfied with their jobs than individuals who did not have a view of nature (Kaplan, 1983). Another survey found that of 615 office workers, individuals with a view of nature were more satisfied with their lives and were more enthusiastic with their jobs than workers who did not have a view of nature (Kaplan, 1983). Workers who have a view of green nature are more productive, have higher workplace satisfaction, and tend to be happier than those who do not (Lottrup et al., 2015).
Interior plants in the workplace (Figure 9.5.4) are associated with increased productivity, decreased stress, improved attention, and higher rates of workplace satisfaction (Gilchrist et al., 2015, Hartig et al., 2014, Raanaas et al., 2011). One study found that the presence of green plants in the workplace increased worker productivity by 15% (Korpela et al., 2017; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2014). Researchers found that as few as three small to medium sized plants can positively impact reaction time and perceived air quality and that as the number of plants in a room increased, so did the mood of the study participants (Lee & Maheswaran, 2011).
In Schools
Living plants in the classroom can improve student performance and influence classroom evaluations. One study found that when plants were placed in a classroom, students advanced through the curriculum 20 to 26% times more quickly (van Duijin et al. 2011). Students who have a view of green space during school have better attentional capacity and lower stress (Kuo, 2015; Becker et al., 2017), or are better able to recover from stress (Li & Sullivan, 2016). A view of green space from the classroom may also be related to academic achievement (Benfield et al., 2015; Browning & Rigolon, 2019). Even the amount of green space on a playground can impact students in the classroom. Students who play in areas with high levels of green nature tend to experience less physiological stress and have improved psychological well-being when compared to children who play in areas with low levels of green space (Kelz et al., 2015)
Students who are diagnosed with attention disorders such as ADD and ADHD may benefit from time spent in nature. One study found that children who have ADHD concentrated better after a walk through the park when compared to children who walked through a downtown neighborhood (Taylor & Kuo, 2009).
At Home
Plants and nature are related to neighborhood satisfaction. One study compared medical records of households in areas with different amounts of green space near their home. When compared to participants living in an area with the greatest amount of green space, those who had only 10% of green space within half a mile of their home had 30% more of a risk of developing anxiety disorders and 25% greater risk of depression (Wolf & Housley, 2014). Additionally, individuals that actively engage in gardening are more satisfied with their neighborhood than those who do not. One survey of apartment dwellers found that permitting gardening activities within or near a neighborhood increased resident satisfaction. In addition to the benefits from gardening, researchers found a strong positive correlation between merely having a view of nature from the home and residential satisfaction (Kaplan, 2001).
Access to nature may also be related to self-control. One study focused on a group of girls who lived in the same housing complex. The girls who had a better view of green space from their windows showed better discipline, concentration, impulsivity, and ability to delay gratification (Taylor et al., 2002). Furthermore, aggression and violence decrease for apartment residents who have access to nearby nature when compared to residents of apartments in a barren environment (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). Adolescents who live in an area where green space is within 1000 meters of their residence exhibit less aggressive behavior than those without close access to nature (Younan et a., 2016).
Horticultural Therapy
In Green Nature Human Nature, Charles Lewis writes that the primary purpose of horticulture therapy is to “promote the wellbeing of individual patients, and plants become byproducts of the healing process.” Horticulture therapy has both physiological and psychological benefits to patients. The American Horticulture Therapy Association describes horticulture therapy as follows:
Horticultural therapy techniques are employed to assist participants to learn new skills or regain those that are lost. Horticultural therapy helps improve memory, cognitive abilities, task initiation, language skills, and socialization. In physical rehabilitation, horticultural therapy can help strengthen muscles and improve coordination, balance, and endurance. In vocational horticultural therapy settings, people learn to work independently, problem solve, and follow directions. Horticultural therapists are professionals with specific education, training, and credentials in the use of horticulture for therapy and rehabilitation.
Participation in horticulture therapy programs has been found to help people cope with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Figure 9.5.5). Veterans with post-traumatic stress who participate in Nature Adventure Rehabilitation report feeling more hope for the future as well as improvements in emotional and social quality of life (Gelkopf et al., 2013). Victims of natural disasters are also at high risk of PTSD. Nature disaster victims who participated in a horticulture therapy program showed fewer symptoms of the disorder than victims who participated in a standard stress-education program (Kotozaki et al., 2015; Sekiguchi et al., 2015).
Researchers have found that horticulture therapy can reduce the effects of dementia by improving cognitive capacity and reducing instances of aggressive behavior (Gigliotti & Jarrott, 2005).
Physiological Benefits of Plants
Spending time with green nature not only benefits our mental wellbeing, but our physical health as well. As with the psychological benefits of plants, several studies have explored the relationship between access to green space and physiological health.
Access to Green Space
People who have access to green space tend to experience less stress and engage in more physical activity (Thompson et al., 2012). Access to green space can improve sleep quality and duration (Astell-Burt et al., 2013; Morita et al., 2011), which is important because insufficient sleep is associated with serious, chronic health issues (Cappuccio et al., 2011; Cappuccio et al., 2008; Chaput et al., 2007; Hislop & Arber, 2003; Hublin et al., 2007). Exposure to plants can also positively impact diabetes by increasing anti-diabetic hormones adiponecitin and didehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (Bhasin et al., 2013; Ohtsuka, 1998).
Access to Trees
The number of trees, amount of tree canopy, and access to trees can impact health (Figure 9.5.6). One study found that people who live in neighborhoods with a high density of street trees tend to report significantly fewer cardio-metabolic health conditions (Kardan et al., 2015). The same study also found that having an average of 11 more trees on a city block, on average, has cardio-metabolic health benefits usually associated with an increase of $20,000 in personal income and moving to a neighborhood that has a $20,000 higher median income or being 1.4 years younger (Kardan et al., 2015).
The city of Portland, Oregon explored the health benefits associated with trees. They found that when trees improve air quality by reducing the amount of NO2, the healthcare benefits from fewer respiratory problems are estimated at $7 million (Rao et al., 2014).
Researchers have attempted to gauge whether the loss of trees would have an impact on human mortality. After controlling for many other factors that could impact mortality, communities where trees have been lost to the emerald ash borer (an invasive insect pest) have experienced a corresponding increase in mortality related to lower-respiratory-tract and cardiovascular illnesses. For the 15 states included in the study, tree loss due to the emerald ash borer was linked with 6,113 lower-respiratory-system related deaths and 15,080 deaths related to cardiovascular health problems (Donovan et al., 2013). The implication of this study is that trees are associated with cardiovascular and lower-respiratory-tract health, and the loss of trees is connected with mortality due to cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses.
Access to Gardening
Participation in hands-on gardening activities is linked to physical health. Gardening is exercise. Digging holes for planting, pushing mulch in a wheelbarrow, raking leaves, pulling a hose or carrying a watering can are just a few examples of physical activities common to gardening.
Edible gardening is related to fruit and vegetable consumption. One study found that while non-gardeners only ate fruits and vegetables on average 3.9 times per day, home gardeners consumed produce 4.6 times per day and community gardeners 4.6 times per day (Litt et al., 2011).
Horticulture Therapy
Horticulture therapy can be used to improve coordination and strengthen muscles. One study followed a group of elderly women who participated in a 15-week gardening program and found that participants had an improvement in dexterity and muscle mass and a decrease in waist circumference when compared to an indoor control group (Park et al., 2016).
Horticulture therapy has also been used to help people manage chronic musculoskeletal pain. Participants were less dependent on pain medication, exhibited better coping skills, and had better mental and physical health (Verra et al., 2012).
In Hospitals
Hospital patients who have a view of green nature from their window tend to recover from surgery more quickly and require less pain medication (Mehaffy & Salingaros, 2015; Park et al., 2013). They also are more likely to have more positive interactions with hospital staff (Ulrich, 1983). Hospital patients who have living plants in their rooms or posters of plants may also experience less stress (Beukeboom et al., 2012)
In Schools
The CDC encourages schools to provide farm-to-school activities that provide hands-on education through school garden programs and field trips to local farms, classroom nutrition education, and alternative fundraising using local produce (Harmon, 2011). School garden programs (Figure 9.5.7) have the potential to strengthen the healthy development of students through improved knowledge about fruits and vegetables, increased preference for fruits and vegetables (Morris & Zidenberg-Cherr, 2002; Parmer et al., 2009; Robinson-Obrien et al., 2009), and increased consumption of fruits and vegetables (McAlleese & Rankin, 2007; Parmer et al., 2009; Robinson-Obrien et al., 2009; Ozer, 2007). Children who play in natural environments tend to develop better balance and coordination, which are predictors of physical activity (Fjørtoft, 2001; Fjørtoft, 2004).
Medicinal Benefits of Plants
In addition to providing food, textile fiber, building material, physical exercise, psychological benefits, plants have been used as a source of medicine for most of human history. Even today, researchers and pharmaceutical companies are searching for plants for medicinal properties, and many people grow herbs in their gardens for basic remedies.
How Long Have People Been Using Medicinal Plants?
Excerpt from "Medicinal Botany" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain
Our earliest human ancestors found plants to heal wounds, cure diseases, and ease troubled minds. People on all continents have long used hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, for treatment of various ailments dating back to prehistory. Knowledge about the healing properties or poisonous effects of plants, mineral salts, and herbs accumulated from these earliest times to provide health and predates all other medical treatment.
Evidence exists that plants were used for medicinal purposes some 60,000 years ago. A burial site of a Neanderthal man was uncovered in 1960. Eight species of plants had been buried with him, some of which are still used for medicinal purposes today.
By 3500 BC, Ancient Egyptians began to associate less magic with the treatment of disease, and by 2700 BC the Chinese had started to use herbs in a more scientific sense. Egyptians recorded their knowledge of illnesses and cures on temple walls and in the Ebers papyrus (1550 BC), which contains over 700 medicinal formulas.
Hippocrates, 460 – 380 BC, known as the “Father of Medicine,” classified herbs into their essential qualities of hot and cold, moist and dry, and developed a system of diagnosis and prognosis using herbs. The number of effective medicinal plants he discussed was between 300 and 400 species.
Aristotle, the philosopher, also compiled a list of medicinal plants. His best student, Theophrastus discussed herbs as medicines, the kinds and parts of plants used, collection methods, and effects on humans and animals. He started the science of botany with detailed descriptions of medicinal plants growing in the botanical gardens in Athens.
The most significant contribution to the medicinal plant descriptions was made by Dioscorides. While serving as a Roman army physician, he wrote De Materia Medica in about AD 60. This five-volume work is a compilation concerning approximately 500 plants and describes the preparation of about 1000 simple drugs. Written in Greek, it contains good descriptions of plants giving their origins and medical virtues and remained the standard text for 1,500 years.
The earliest Ayurvedic texts on medicine from India date from about 2,500 BC. In Ayurvedic theory, illness is seen in terms of imbalance, with herbs and dietary controls used to restore equilibrium. Abdullah Ben Ahmad Al Bitar (1021 – 1080 AD) an Arabic botanist and pharmaceutical scientist, wrote the Explanation of Dioscorides Book on Herbs. Later, his book, The Glossary of Drugs and Food Vocabulary, contained the names of 1,400 drugs. The drugs were listed by name in alphabetical order in Arabic, Greek, Persian, or Spanish.
Galen, a physician considered the “medical pope” of the Middle Ages, wrote extensively about the body’s four “humors”—the four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. Drugs developed by Galen were made from herbs that he collected from all over the world.
The studies of botany and medicine became very closely linked during the Middle Ages. Virtually all reading and writing were carried out in monasteries. Monks laboriously copied and compiled the manuscripts. Following the format of Greek botanical compilations, the monks prepared herbals that described identification and preparation of plants with reported medicinal characteristics. At this time though, healing was as much a matter of prayer as medicine. Early herbalists frequently combined religious incantations with herbal remedies believing that with “God’s help” the patient would be cured.
With time, practitioners began to focus on healing skills and medicines. By the 1530s, Paracelsus (born Philippus Theophrasts Bombastus von Hohenheim, near Zurich in 1493), was changing Europe’s attitudes toward health care. Many physicians and apothecaries were dishonest and took advantage from those they should be helping. Paracelsus was a physician and alchemist who believed that medicine should be simple and straight forward. He was greatly inspired by the Doctrine of Signatures, which maintained that the outward appearance of a plant gave an indication of the problems it would cure. The Doctrine of Signatures is evident in many common names of plants today. For example, lungwort (Pulmonaria spp.) was once used to treat respiratory illnesses because its leaves somewhat resemble human lungs.
In 1775, Dr. William Withering was treating a patient with severe dropsy caused by heart failure. He was unable to bring about any improvement with traditional medicines. The patient’s family administered an herbal brew based on an old family recipe and the patient started to recover. Dr. Withering experimented with the herbs contained in the recipe and identified foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) as the most significant. In 1785, he published his Account of the Foxglove and Some of Its Medical Uses. He detailed 200 cases where foxglove had successfully been used to treat dropsy and heart failure along with his research on the parts of the plant and harvest dates that produced the strongest effect. Withering also realized that therapeutic dose of foxglove is very close to the toxic level where side effects develop. After further analysis, the cardiac glycosides digoxin and digitoxin were eventually extracted. These are still used in treating heart conditions today.
In 1803, morphine became one of the first drugs to be isolated from a plant. It was identified by Frederich Serturner in Germany. He was able to extract white crystal from crude opium poppy. Scientists soon used similar techniques to produce aconitine from monkshood, emetine from ipecacuanha, atropine from deadly nightshade, and quinine from Peruvian bark.
In 1852, scientists were able to synthesize salicin, an active ingredient in willow bark, for the first time. By 1899, the drug company Bayer, modified salicin into a milder form of aectylsalicylic acid and lauched asprin into our modern world.
The synthetic age was born and in the following 100 years, plant extracts have filled pharmacy shelves. Although many medicines have been produced from plant extracts, chemists sometimes find that the synthetic versions do not carry the same therapeutic effects or may have negative side effects not found when using the whole plant source.
A full 40 percent of the drugs behind the pharmacist’s counter in the Western world are derived from plants that people have used for centuries, including the top 20 best-selling prescription drugs in the United States today. For example, quinine extracted from the bark of the South American cinchona tree (Cinchona calisaya) relieves malaria, and licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) has been an ingredient in cough drops for more than 3,500 years. The species native to the United States, Glycyrrhiza lepidota, has a broad range from western Ontario to Washington, south to Texas, Mexico and Missouri. Eastward, there are scattered populations. The leaves and roots have been used for treating sores on the backs of horses, toothaches, and fever in children, sore throats and cough.
Medicinal interest in mints dates from at least the first century A.D., when it was recorded by the Roman naturalist Pliny. In Elizabethan times more than 40 ailments were reported to be remedied by mints. The foremost use of mints today in both home remedies and in pharmaceutical preparations is to relieve the stomach and intestinal gas that is often caused by certain foods.
Modern Ethnobotany
Most United States residents have easy access to pharmacies that are fully stocked with neatly labelled bottles of uniform pills and syrups; therefore, it can be difficult to appreciate the role plants and other natural materials continue to play in modern medicine.
Ethnobotanists like Dr. Cassandra Quave of Emory University are modern-day plant hunters who work hard to identify, test, and introduce new plant-based medicines. In her book The Plant Hunter, Dr. Quave writes “Of the estimated 374,000 species of plants on earth, records exist for the medicinal use of at least 33,443[...] That means that around 9% of all plants on earth have been – and in many cases, continue to be – used as a major form of medicine for people.” Yet of the estimated 9% of plants with medicinal value, fewer than 5% have been studied in a lab.
That’s where ethnobotanists come in. They begin by interviewing people who have traditional knowledge of medicinal plants that grow in their region or reading historic accounts of plants that have healing properties. These scientists work with indigenous community members to identify and collect the correct species of plants. According to Dr. Quave,
As of January 2021, the global population is 7.8 billion people, and roughly 80 percent of them, or 6.2 billion, live in economically underdeveloped countries. Medicinal plants constitute the primary pharmacopoeia, or primary form of medicine, for 70-95 percent of people living in most developing countries. In other words, at least 4 billion people are dependent on plants for medicine, and the key ingredients in their medicine chests are getting more and more difficult to find.
Once the plants have been identified and collected, a portion of the samples are preserved in an herbarium. An herbarium is a library of preserved plant specimens that have been dried, pressed, and labelled with information about where they were collected. Herbarium specimens are an important reference for research, education, and identification.
The remainder of the samples are transported to a lab, where they are processed as ground and dried material or as liquid extracts. These samples are tested to determine their chemical and molecular composition. Samples are tested for their efficacy in combating various bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases. Doctors and pharmaceutical companies learn the results of these studies when they are published and presented at conferences. A new medicine can be introduced after further testing and product development.
Even once a new medicine has been identified and introduced, the search is far from over. Over time and with increased exposure, the organisms responsible for diseases can adapt and become resistant to tried-and-true treatments. Identifying medicinal plants is becoming more difficult, both due to loss of information and habitat destruction. Traditionally, older members of the community would pass these traditions to the younger members; however, this knowledge is at risk of being lost forever as young members of these communities move away in search of better opportunities and as older members grow in age. Even if these traditions are recorded, the native ranges of medicinal plants around the world are threatened by human development. The race is on for ethnobotanists to preserve both the records of plants used and the genetic information of the plants themselves. Investments in research and nature conservation are the keys to ensure our health now and in the future.
Dig Deeper
For more information about the role plants play on human wellbeing, check out Dr. Charles Hall and Dr. Melinda Knuth's comprehensive series of literature reviews on the benefits of plants and horticulture that were published in the Journal of Environmental Horticulture:
- 1: A Review of the Emotional and Mental Health Benefits of Plants
- 2: Physiological Health Benefits
- 3: Social Benefits
- 4: Available Resources and Usage of Plant Benefits Information
To learn more about the importance of nature to children’s development, check out the Children and Nature Network website.
To learn more about modern plant hunters and the search for new plant-based medicines, check out Dr. Cassandra Quave’s TeachEthnobotany YouTube Channel
To learn more about the field of ethnobiology, visit the International Center of Ethnobiology website.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Excerpt from "Medicinal Botany" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain
Title image: "Appalachian Trail, Smoky Mountain National Park, TN" by Abhishek Chinchalkar is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
References
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87629/overview
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6.3 Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
6.4 Plants and Symbolism
6.5 The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
6_The-Social-Spiritual-and-Cultural-Importance-of-Plants
In Defense of Plants
Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World
Smithsonian: National Museum of the American Indian
UNESCO: Día de los Muertos
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants
Overview
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
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Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Describe the social, spiritual, and cultural importance of plants to historical and contemporary communities of people.
Give specifics of how different cultures incorporate plants into their lives.
Key Terms
cultural keystone species – the culturally significant species that shape in a major way the cultural identity of a people, as reflected in the fundamental roles these species have in diet, materials, medicine, and/or spiritual practice
Introduction
Humans depend on plants for food, medicine, and ecosystem services, as well as our mental and physical health. Throughout human history, there are many examples of human cultures that have also assigned special social, spiritual, and symbolic value to plants. As a result, people plant and cultivate species that have special meaning to their lives and communities work to preserve the ecosystems where these culturally important plants are found.
Ann. Garibaldi and Dr. Nancy. Turner termed plants “cultural keystone species” and described them in their article “Cultural Keystone Species: Implications for Conservation and Restoration”:
The species that play these special cultural roles vary widely from one region to another and from one culture to another. In general, however, the species most closely associated with indigenous and local peoples, wherever they reside, are the ones they depend upon most extensively to meet their needs for food, clothing, shelter, fuel, medicine, and other necessities of life. These are the species that become embedded in a people's cultural traditions and narratives, their ceremonies, dances, songs, and discourse. These are also the species for which a people will have developed the most detailed names and associated vocabulary, and the ones on which they focus in their immediate activities and conversations.
This lesson will highlight a selection of stories, ceremonies, and individual species that demonstrate the social, spiritual, and cultural importance that plants have historically played in human societies.
Spiritual Importance of Plants
There are countless examples of plants being used in religious and other spiritual ceremonies. For example, aromatic plants are often used to create fragrant incense and oils that are important for religious ceremonies (Dafni et al., 2020). Many religions include descriptions of plants in their writings and oral traditions. One common motif across various religions and cultures is the creation story, where the creation of life on earth is described; naturally, plants feature prominently in many such stories. The following is a selection of creation tales from across the globe.
North America: The Cherokee Story of Earth Making
The Cherokee believed that water covered everything in the beginning. Living creatures lived above a rainbow in the heavens. Conditions were crowded, and the creatures wanted to move below to where the water was. A water beetle dove into the water and came up from the depths with some mud. The mud spread over the water, but it was too soft to live on. Next, a buzzard flew over the mud, and the flapping of its wings dried the earth and created valleys and mountains (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984). A great spirit made plants and animals. But before making humans, the spirit directed the plants and animals to stay awake for 7 days. Of the animals, only the owl and mountain lion were able to stay awake. Of the plants, only cedar, pine, laurel, and holly stayed awake the entire seven days. These plants were rewarded by being made evergreen, which meant they could keep their foliage through the winter (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984).
The Cherokee also have a creation story involving Star Woman. They believe that Star Woman lived with her family in the heavens, when she fell through a hole below a tree in her father’s garden. As she was falling through the air toward the water below, a turtle came up to make a space for her to land. Similar to the previous story, water spider (or muskrat) brought some mud up from below the water and spread it over the turtle’s shell, but the mud was too soft to live on. A buzzard flew over the mud to dry it, and this land became the earth. When Star Woman landed, her body produced corn, beans, squash, and other plants, and her tears became rivers. Star Woman brought the spark of consciousness to the earth and became the mother of all humans (Ywahoo, & Du Bois, 1987). Similar accounts of Star Woman or Sky Woman appear in many creation stories of indigenous North American people (Kimmerer, 2020).
Central America: The Mayan Creation Story
The Popol Vuh, or “Book of the Community,” of the K’iche’ Maya is the story of Maya creation. In this story, divine beings wanted to create human beings with hearts and minds who could “keep the days” (Smithsonian, n.d.). The deities attempted to create humans to praise them from mud, but the mud people were destroyed because they were not beautiful. Next, beings were created from the pith of reeds, but they were destroyed because they lacked compassion and gratitude. Beings were then made from the sun’s energy, but they were destroyed because of their intelligence—because they believed they were equal to the gods. Last, humans were made from baskets of yellow and white corn. The corn was ground and mixed with water and shaped into people (Kimmerer, 2020); the people of the corn were true and enduring humans (Figure 9.6.1) (Smithsonian, n.d.).
Africa: The Wakaranga Story of How the Moon Fathered the Earth
The Wakaranga people are from the area known as Zimbabwe today. Their creation story begins with God creating a man that he called “Moon”. Moon lived at the bottom of the sea, but he wished to live on the earth. When Moon came to the earth, he found it was empty, without and plants or animals. When Moon wept, God sent him Morningstar as a wife. Morningstar gave birth to all the plants, which spread out and covered the earth. The first part of the story ends with Moon and Morningstar living a life of plenty in their green paradise (Beier, 1966).
The Middle East: The Biblical Account of the Garden of Eden
The Bible of the Christian religion and the Tanakh of Judaism begin with a description of the earth as “formless and empty” with the Spirit of God hovering over the water. Over six days, the creator separated light and darkness, as well as water, sky, and land; then God created vegetation, the sun, the moon, and the stars, as well as living creatures and human beings. The Quran of Islam has a similar description of creation by Allah over six days, including the creation of water, the heavens and the earth, life from the water, the sun and the moon, and human beings.
The Tanakh, the Bible, and the Quran each include similar accounts of the first man, Adam, and first woman, Eve, who lived in a garden paradise. According to the Biblical account, their only instruction was to not eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil or they would die. After temptation from a serpent, Adam and Eve tasted the forbidden fruit and were cast out of the garden (Figure 9.6.2). God told Adam, “cursed is the ground for thy sake; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life” (Genesis 3:17, King James Version).
Asia: The Chinese Legend of P'an Ku
P’an Ku (also written Pangu) is the first human in the Chinese Daoist legend of creation (Figure 9.6.3). Heaven and Earth had been comingled like an egg. According to the story, this egg-like mass split apart, and Heaven, Earth, and P’an Ku grew in size over the following 18,000 years (Kramer, 1961). P’an Ku created the world: his tears became the Yangste River, his breath made the wind, and his eyes were the sun and the moon. When P’an Ku died, his body broke into five pieces and formed China’s five sacred mountains: the Ti, Sung, Heng, Heng, and Hua mountains. P’an Ku’s hair became the earth’s vegetation (Franz, 1995).
Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
Ceremonies are markers for important milestones including birth, graduation, marriage, and death. Throughout human history, plants have been an important element in each these ceremonies. This section will explore how a variety of cultures have incorporated plants into commemorative ceremonies for their departed loved ones, a tradition that continues across much of the world today.
Shanidar Neanderthal
Laying flowers and plants in memory of a deceased loved one has been a common practice for much of human history, as well as for human’s close relatives the Neanderthals. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) were widespread across Europe and Western Asia for a long time, starting about 400,000 years ago (Gibbons, 2015), before they were replaced by or assimilated by modern humans (Homo sapiens). In fact, studies show that many groups of humans share about 2% of their DNA with Neanderthals. These genes are associated with hair and skin color, height, sleeping patterns, and other traits (Dannemann & Kelso, 2017).
In 1950s, researchers began to excavate and study the remains of several Neanderthals found in the Shanidar cave in Iraq (Figure 9.6.4). The remains are believed to be 60,000 years old. Three of the skeletons (two male adults and one infant) were believed to have been buried by their community, while four seem to have died in a partial cave collapse (Lee, 2007).
Botanists who specialize in the study of pollen examined the soil that was collected from around the buried human remains and found samples that contained pollen from flowering species of plants including yarrow (Achillea spp.), hollyhock (Althaea rosea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and grape hyacinth (Muscari spp.) (Figure 9.6.5), as well as from the evergreen Ephedra. The locations where the pollen was found suggest the possibility that these flowers were arranged, possibly as a wreath, around the body, and perhaps the deceased was laid on a cushion of the evergreen branches of Ephedra (Lee, 2007). If this were true, this may be the earliest evidence of flowers used in a burial.
Neolithic China
Since 6,000 BCE, ornate burials in Neolithic China have incorporated the red mineral cinnabar (mercury sulfide) as a part of the burial ceremony. The brilliant red cinnabar was spread on the body and below the coffin during the burials of high-status deceased. Excavations of burials dated to somewhere between 2,200 BCE and 1,800 BCE suggest that plants were also a part of traditional burials for some regions.
Researchers analyzing remains at the Shengedaliang site found that leaves of plants from the borage family (Boraginaceae) were spread in layers along with cinnabar (Wu et al., 2016). Scientists did not identify the exact species of the leaves used in the burial, but they were able to identify the family as Boraginaceae. Plants in this family are valued for their medicinal and ornamental characteristics, and species include common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis), cucumber herb (Trigonotis peduncularis), and several other blue flowering herbs such as Eritrichium rupestre, Lithospermum zollingeri, and Microula sikkimensis (Wu et al., 2016). They proposed the following explanation for why leaves were featured in these ancient burials:
Leaves symbolize life in many modern human societies. Leaves of species are used to symbolize various aspects of human life, e.g. love, joy, loyalty, fertility and sympathy from birth to death at religious and social occasions such as funerals or weddings (Heilmeye, 2001). The presence of “special” leaves fossil also may indicate the strong sense of life in the otherwise desert environment that made people to treat leaves differently as a sign of energy and life and may also be an additional indicator of social inequality. Thus, the association with leaves fossil from a member of the Boraginaceae family may indicate a type of “plant worship.” (Wu et al., 2016)
Tutankhamen's Tomb
Many readers will already know that wealthy ancient Egyptians had lavishly decorated tombs. Of all such ornate burials, one of the most well-known examples is that of the pharaoh Tutankhamen, or “King Tut”, who ruled from 1336 to 1327 BCE. Botanical imagery was used throughout Tutankhamen’s tomb, including motifs of lotus flowers (Nymphaea lotus), papyrus reeds (Cyperus papyrus), and mandrake fruit (Mandragora officinarum). The mummified body of Tutankhamen was decorated with a wreath of olive leaves (Olea europaea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and lotus petals. The inner coffin included a floral collar arranged in nine rows, featuring date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), pomegranate leaves (Punica granatum), and ashwagandha berries (Withania somnifera). Another wreath of cornflowers, water lily petals (Nymphaea caerulea), olive leaves and wild celery was wrapped around the second coffin.
Mexico and Central America
While not a burial as with the other examples, el Día de los Muertos or Day of the Dead has been celebrated in Mexico and other Latin American countries for 3,000 years. The ceremony began during the time of the Aztecs, when the goddess Mictecacihuatl was believed to allow spirits to return to commune with living family members. This ceremony was also practiced by the Maya and Toltec (Anderson, 2016). With the arrival of the Spanish and the spread of Catholicism in the 16th century, the ritual was blended with All Saints Day. This ceremony coincides with the end of the maize harvest at the beginning of November (UNESCO, 2008).
Marigold (Tagetes spp.), Tillandsia spp., arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), and cockscomb (Celosia spp.) are some of the species placed at the graves or used for flower altars that families build for their deceased loved ones Toltec (Anderson, 2016). While each of these plants has brilliant-colored flowers or foliage, marigold (also called cempasuchil in Central America) is especially fragrant. Families believe that the bright colors and strong fragrance of these blooms will lead their loved ones home, which is why altars are often heavily decorated with marigold flowers and petals (UNESCO, 2008).
Plants and Symbolism
Human cultures throughout history have assigned symbolic meaning to many species of plants. This symbolism may be derived from the uses of the plants or from observation of characteristics of the species. This section will highlight some of the symbolic meanings given to a small selection of plants from a few regions of the world.
North America
- Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana): renewal of life, blessing and thanksgiving, love and happiness, good luck (Native, n.d.c)
- Sweet grass (Heirochloe odorata): healing, peace, and spirituality (Native, n.d.d)
- Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.): relaxation, healing, and peace (Native, n.d.f)
- White pine (Pinus strobus): longevity, wisdom, harmony with nature, peace (Native, n.d.b)
- Western red cedar (Thuja plicata): generosity and providence (Native, n.d.a) sacred, a gift from the creator (Garibaldi & Turner, 2004)
Middle East and Mediterranean Region
- Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus): life and fertility, tenderness, fidelity, and reliability (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009d)
- Lily (Lilium candidum): youth, innocence, power, love, glory (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009b)
- Myrtle (Myrtus communis): immortality, eternity, regrowth and vitality, authority, beauty, youth, and victory (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Blue water lily (Nymphea caerulea): eternal life, revival, reanimation (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009a)
- Basil (Ocimum basilicum): love, mourning (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Rose (Rosa spp.): spring, love, beauty, charm, transitory state (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009c)
- Rosmary (Rosmarinus officinalis): faithful remembrance, love and fidelity (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Greek sage (Salvia fruticose): purity, justice (Dafni et al., 2020)
East Asia
- Japanese maple (Acer palmatum): changed feelings (Seaton, 1995)
- Chrysanthemum or kiku (Chrysanthemum spp.): longevity, endurance, resilience, integrity (Saddhono et a., 2014), cheerfulness under adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera): purity, truth, perfection, immortality (Seaton, 1995)
- Peony (Paeonia spp.): brightness, prosperity (Seaton, 1995)
- Bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.): power, nobility, purity, honesty, solemnity, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), modesty (Seaton, 1995)
- Japanese Black Pine (Pinus thunbergiana): longevity, luck, diligence, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), friendship in adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Plum or ume (Prunus mume): new hope, longevity (Saddhono et a., 2014), perseverance, virtue, sweetness
- Cherry blossoms (Prunus serrulata): coolness, serenity, happiness, the ephemeral nature of life (Saddhono et a., 2014), loyalty, patriotism, a life lived joyfully (Seaton, 1995), celebrated with annual hanami (hana means “flower” and mi is “to look) flower viewing parties
- Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda, W. sinensis): luck (Saddhono et a., 2014), youth (Seaton, 1995)
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
Plants have played a crucial role in the social and spiritual aspects of cultures throughout human history. These traditional ceremonies and beliefs have linked people to the larger environments and ecosystems they inhabit. People conserve and protect what they care about, and culturally, this care is often reflected in ceremonies and traditions. Ecologist, author, and member of the Potawatomi Nation Dr. Robin Wall Kimmerer proposes an explanation for this in her book Braiding Sweetgrass:
Many Indigenous traditions still recognize the place of ceremony and often focus their celebrations on other species and events in the cycle of the seasons. In a colonist society the ceremonies that endure are not about land; they’re about family and culture, values that are transportable from the old country. Ceremonies for the land no doubt existed there, but it seems they did not survive emigration in any substantial way. I think there is wisdom in regenerating them here, as a means to form bonds with this land (Kimmerer, 2020).
The phenomena of “plant blindness” could undermine humanity’s connection with plant life. The term plant blindness was coined by researchers Dr. James H. Wandersee and Dr. Elisabeth E. Schussler (1999) to describe “(a) the inability to see or notice the plants in one’s own environment; (b) the inability to recognize the importance of plants in the biosphere and in human affairs; (c) the inability to appreciate the aesthetic and unique biological features of the life forms belonging to the Plant Kingdom; and (d) the misguided, anthropocentric ranking of plants as inferior to animals and thus, as unworthy of human consideration.” Learning more about the plants in our home landscapes, taking the time to explore the natural world, visiting a local public garden, and learning about the processes of plant sciences in courses such as this one are all good first steps to develop a deeper appreciation for plant life.
Dig Deeper
To learn more about traditional beliefs about the natural world, check out Family of Earth and Sky: Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World.
Learn more about the plants and animals on your next nature walk. Join the Discover Life in America in their citizen science efforts to document biodiversity in East Tennessee and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Discover Life in America website.
Robin Wall Kimmerer is a mother, scientist, decorated professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation. She is the author of Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teaching of Plants and Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. She lives in Syracuse, New York, where she is a SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor of Environmental Biology, and the founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment. In this video from The Commons at the University of Kansas, Robin takes us on a guided nature tour of Clark Reservation State Park in Jamesville, NY as Spring welcomes back migrating creatures and sends a message to wake up those who have taken a Winter rest.
Exploring your local public garden is a great way to learn more about the incredible diversity of plants that grow in your area and across the world. To find your closest botanical garden, check out the American Public Gardens Association map
You don’t need to visit a national park of botanic garden to learn more about plants. In this video from In Defense of Plants, host Matt introduces many plants commonly found in suburban environments. To learn more about In Defense of Plants, visit the In Defense of Plants website.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
References
Beier. (1966). The origin of life and death: African creation myths. Heinemann.
“Creation story of the Maya”. (n.d.). Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian. Retrieved 17 March 2022 from https://maya.nmai.si.edu/the-maya/creation-story-maya
Dannemann, M. & Kelso, J. (2017). The Contribution of Neanderthals to Phenotypic Variation in Modern Humans. American Journal of Human Genetics, 101(4), 578–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.010
Erdoes, R. & Ortiz, A. (1984). American Indian myths and legends (1st ed.). Pantheon Books.
Franz, M.L. von. (1995). Creation myths (Rev. ed.). Shambhala.
Garibaldi, & Turner, N. (2004). Cultural keystone species: implications for ecological conservation and restoration. Ecology and Society, 9(3), 1–. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00669-090301
Gibbons, J. (2015). Why did Neanderthals go extinct? Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from https://www.si.edu/stories/why-did-neanderthals-go-extinct
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JULY: Lotus. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(9), 2461–2464. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp166
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JUNE: Lilies. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(7), 1893–1895. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp088
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: OCTOBER: Roses. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(13), 3611–3613. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp215
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: SEPTEMBER: Cornflower. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(12), 3297–3299. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp247
Kimmerer, R.W. (2020). Braiding sweetgrass: indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge, and the teachings of plants. Milkweed Editions.
King James Bible. (1994). Zondervan. (Original work published 1769).
Kramer, S.N. (1961). Mythologies of the ancient world. (1st ed.]). Doubleday.
Lee, D. (2007). Nature’s palette: the science of plant color. University of Chicago Press.
Native American cedar mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cedar.htm
Native American pine tree mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/pine-tree.htm
Native American strawberry mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-strawberry.htm
Native American sweetgrass mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-sweetgrass.htm
Native American tobacco mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-tobacco.htm
Saddhono, K., Widodo, S.T., Al0Makmun, M.T. & Tozu, Masakatsu. (2014). The study of philosophical meaning of batik and kimono motifs to foster collaborative creative industry. Asian Social Science, 10(9): 52-61.
Seaton, B. (1995). The language of flowers: a history. University Press of Virginia.
UNESCO. (2008). Indigenous festivity dedicated to the dead. Retrieved 21 March 2022 from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indigenous-festivity-dedicated-to-the-dead-00054
Ywahoo, D. & Du Bois, B. (1987). Voices of our ancestors: Cherokee teachings from the wisdom fire (1st ed.). Shambhala.
Wandersee, J.H. & Schussler, E. E. (1999). Preventing Plant Blindness. The American Biology Teacher, 61(2), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/4450624
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87630/overview
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7_Career-Opportunities-in-the-Green-Industry
Exercise 9a Watershed and Erosion
Exercise 9b How Do Plants Impact Humans
Seed Your Future
Tennessee Governors School for the Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources
What's Your "Plant Power"?
Career Opportunities in the Green Industry
Overview
Title image: "Pruning Victoria cruziana" by Amanda Spangler, CC BY 4.0
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Communicate a variety of career choices available in the green industry.
Explain why jobs in the green industry are important.
List jobs examples in several categories within the green industry.
Key Terms
green industry - comprised of wholesale nursery, greenhouse, and turfgrass sod growers; landscape service firms; retail firms, and marketing intermediaries
horticulture - the study of crops that require intense and constant care, from planting through delivery to the consumer
Introduction
Used with permission from "Why We Need Horticulturists" by Seed Your Future. Copyright © Seed Your Future.
Horticulture is the art, technology, business, education and science of plants. It is the food we eat, the landscapes we live and play in, the environments we thrive in. It is the business of managing and using what we grow, while maintaining the health of our soil, air, and water, and the well-being of our children, our communities, and our world. In short - it's all about plants!
Why We Need Horticulturists
Used with permission from "Why We Need Horticulturists" by Seed Your Future. Copyright © Seed Your Future.
To Fill Our Tables with Food That Is Safe and Nutritious
Growers plant our seeds and tend our plants, and plant propagators generate new plants from seeds, cuttings, and bulbs. Viticulturists tend our vines and grow our grapes, and enologists ensure the wine from the grapes is the best it can be. Plant inspectors and diagnosticians are on the lookout for plant diseases, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) specialists control damage by insects and other animals. Food scientists study food taste, quality, and preservation.
To Preserve Native Habitats and Lessen the Impact of Climate Change
Researchers study our impact on natural environments. Biologists and botanists explore our connections with the plants all around us, and arborists cultivate and care for the trees that clean our air. Natural lands managers protect and maintain our meadows, woodlands, and wetlands, and urban planners and foresters bring natural beauty, recreation, and clean water and air to our cities and towns.
To Imagine a Landscape...
Landscape architects, designers and contractors draw, map, and creatively plan outdoor spaces for homes, towns, and businesses. Interiorscape specialists create landscape magic indoors. Landscape estimators figure out how much a project will cost, and irrigation specialists nourish a landscape with water. Gardeners and garden center workers grow, tend, and sell all the plants that are needed.
...and Bring That Landscape to Life
Plant propagators create new plants, and greenhouse growers and nursery workers grow them to a usable size. Floriculturists tend to flowering plants, and technicians help with every necessary detail along the way.
To Tend the Landscapes That Welcome Us Home and Invite Us Outdoors to Play
Landscape maintenance specialists keep our landscapes healthy and lovely. Groundskeepers prune and mulch and water below, while arborists trim and tend the trees above. Lawn care specialists cut and nourish our yards, while sports turf managers keep the fields in play. Irrigation specialists water our landscapes in sustainable ways.
To Soothe and Delight with Bouquets of Flowers and Gatherings of Greens
Floriculturists dream up new varieties of flowers, and greenhouse growers bring them to life—along with old favorites. Florists arrange and display their floral designs in grand ways on once-in-a-lifetime days, or to just say hello with the ring of a doorbell and a simple bouquet. Horticultural Therapists nurture the well-being of our loved ones.
To Wonder, to Experiment, to Know Your World
Horticultural researchers and technicians study every aspect of plant life, and geneticists to solve the puzzle of a plant's heredity and DNA. Plant pathologists uncover the cause and treatment of plant diseases, and entomologists study insects—both pests and friends—who live in our gardens. Olericulturists grow and process our vegetables, and food scientists ensure that our harvests are tasty and safe. Educators teach all ages, from beginners to experts, about gardening and nutrition.
To Make the Future Come to Life
We need YOU.
Dig Deeper
To identify your “Plant Power”, visit the "We Are Bloom!" website.
Tennessee high school students can earn college credit in agriculture by participating in Tennessee's Governors School for the Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. To learn more about the program and how you can get involved, visit the TGSAS website.
For a comprehensive list of horticultural careers, complete with training / education needed, where to study, salary expectations, professional organizations and associations, and videos and testimonies, visit the careers page on the Seed Your Future website.
Unit 9 Lab Exercises
Exercise 9a: Watershed and Erosion
Students observe and analyze how different factors influence erosion and water flow in various environments. The activity focuses on understanding the impact of watersheds on soil erosion.
Exercise 9b: How Do Plants Impact Humans?
Students research and report the various ways plants influence human life, including their roles in food production, medicine, and the environment. This exercise highlights the importance of plants in sustaining human health and well-being.
Attribution
Used with permission from "Why We Need Horticulturists" by Seed Your Future. Copyright © Seed Your Future.
Title image: "Pruning Victoria cruziana" by Amanda Spangler, CC BY 4.0
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102995/overview
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ENG 102 Lab Course
Overview
This set of resources is curated to complement ENG 102 as a writing workshop over a 15-week semester. Resouces are grouped around three weekly discussions that reflect content of the 102 course; all readings, viewings and exercises are meant to emphasize writing and editing skill building that is needed for academic, creative and professional writing.
Introduction to ENG 102-Lab
ENG 102 Lab is a 1-credit workshop course that supports the work of ENG 102.
Created and curated by Ann Kendall 2021 - 2023.
Daydreaming & Procrastination
Daydreaming & Procrastination
Burnell, Carol, et al. “Procrastination.” Openoregon.pressbooks.pub, openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/chapter/procrastination/. Accessed 19 Apr. 2023.
Lieberman, Charlotte. “Why You Procrastinate (It Has Nothing to Do with Self-Control).” The New York Times, 25 Mar. 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/03/25/smarter-living/why-you-procrastinate-it-has-nothing-to-do-with-self-control.html.
Suttie, Jill. “Focus Is Important to Productivity. But It’s Daydreaming That Makes Us Happy.” Washington Post, 2021, www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/2021/08/02/daydream-mind-wander-happiness/.
Drafting
Ortega, A. J. “On the Importance of Prep Work: How Automotive Painting Can Teach You to Polish Your Paper.” Pressbooks.pub, 1 Aug. 2016, pressbooks.pub/openenglishatslcc/chapter/on-the-importance-of-prep-work-how-automotive-painting-can-teach-you-to-polish-your-paper/.
Editing, Revising, Proofing
Editing, Revising, Proofing
Guinness, Harry. “How to Edit Your Own Writing.” The New York Times, 7 Apr. 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/smarter-living/how-to-edit-your-own-writing.html.
Jeffrey, Robin. “A Strategy for Analyzing and Revising a First Draft.” Openoregon.pressbooks.pub, 2015, openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/chapter/a-strategy-for-analyzing-and-revising-a-first-draft/. Accessed 23 Nov. 2021.
Lieu, Dr Sandi Van, and Dr Karen Palmer. “Revision Strategies.” Pressbooks.pub, 6 Aug. 2020, pressbooks.pub/roughwritersguide/chapter/revision-strategies/.
Taylor, David. “How to Proofread Tutorial: 10 Proofreading Techniques They Didn’t Teach You in School - YouTube.” Www.youtube.com, 2018, youtu.be/pYb7p0DiVMI.
Libraries & Research
“Ten Reasons Libraries Are Still Better than the Internet.” American Libraries Magazine, 19 Dec. 2017, americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2017/12/19/ten-reasons-libraries-still-better-than-internet/?gclid=CjwKCAiA5sieBhBnEiwAR9oh2hAVMqKL3V0QBdVdkn-MLRoq2UY5nBwjgRziDw7xMS5Stb9vE5GnBhoC_tQQAvD_BwE.
Mechanics & Grammar
Learn English with Rebecca. “Parallelism: The Secret to Great Writing.” Www.youtube.com, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8pIidfrSG4.
Palmer, Dr Karen. “Sentence Variety.” Pressbooks.pub, 6 Aug. 2020, pressbooks.pub/roughwritersguide/chapter/sentence-variety/.
Memory Techniques, Reading & Study Strategies
Brooks, Emma. “MY FAVORITE PLACES to READ.” Www.youtube.com, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6ztG3vrtS0.
Burnell, Carol, et al. “Create an Optimal Setting for Reading.” Openoregon.pressbooks.pub, openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/chapter/create-an-optimal-setting-for-reading/.
Shier, Mary. “Memory Techniques.” Opentextbc.ca, 11 Sept. 2020, opentextbc.ca/studentsuccess/chapter/memory-techniques/.
Storytelling & College Writing
Storytelling & College Writing
Christiansen, Ron. “You Will Never Believe What Happened!”—Stories We Tell.” Pressbooks.pub, 1 Aug. 2016, pressbooks.pub/openenglishatslcc/chapter/you-will-never-believe-what-happened-stories-we-tell/.
Olivas, Bernice. “College Writing and Storytelling.” Pressbooks.pub, 1 Aug. 2016, pressbooks.pub/openenglishatslcc/chapter/college-writing-and-storytelling/.
Writing Advice
Momaday, N. Scott. “Opinion | the Sacred Spell of Words.” The New York Times, 15 May 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/05/15/opinion/power-in-words.html.
Stanford, Marlena, and Justin Jory. “So You Wanna Be an Engineer, a Welder, a Teacher? Academic Disciplines and Professional Literacies.” Pressbooks.pub, 1 Aug. 2016, pressbooks.pub/openenglishatslcc/chapter/so-you-wanna-be-an-engineer-a-welder-a-teacher-academic-disciplines-and-professional-literacies/.
Writing Exercises
Additional writing exercises over the course of the semester included walk-n-talk activities related to research and drafting, library scavenger hunts and ASC visits all of which were discussed in online forums. Please contact Ann Kendall for more details on these activities.
From the Towson University Writing Center
From the Roughwriter's Guide
From Khan Academy
Paralellism in Writing
Proofreading Techniques
Weekly Discussions
Weekly discussions
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Teaching/Learning Strategy
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93862/overview
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Forensic Science Ransom Note Handwriting Analysis Activity
Overview
Apply handwriting analysis techniques to a ransom note using suspect handwriting samples to use as testimony evidence in a court case. The findings will be used to convince a jury in a trial of a person’s guilt.
Forensic Science Ransom Note Handwriting Analysis Activity
LESSON DESCRIPTION
Ransom Note Analysis
Author of the Lesson: Amy Jewett
Lesson Summary/Overview: Apply handwriting analysis techniques to a ransom note using suspect handwriting samples to use as testimony evidence in a court case. The findings will be used to convince a jury in a trial of a person’s guilt.
LESSON GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Alignment and Objectives
Content Standards:
HS-ETS1-2 Design a solution to a complex real-world problem by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable problems that can be solved through engineering.
W.11-12.1: Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive
topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
Content Objectives:
Appy handwriting techniques learned to a ransom letter to find the guilty subject.
ELP Standards:
ELP.9-12.4
An ELL can construct grade-appropriate oral and written claims and support them with reasoning and evidence.
Language (ELP) Objectives: Argumentative essay to convince a jury using handwriting evidence to prove guilt.
Supporting Academic Language
Language Functions: Argumentation
Language Modalities: Writing
Vocabulary: Document analysis, document expert, exemplar, forgery, questions document
Syntax or Sentence Structure(s): CER Sentence starters
Discourse:
LESSON PREPARATION
Considerations
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills: Students should be able to identify and apply the 12 characteristics of handwriting to handwriting samples. Students will already be familiar with the vocabulary and will be able to use it in proper context with analyzing handwriting samples.
Instructional Materials
Resources, Materials, and Technology required or recommended for the lesson:
- suspect’s handwriting exemplars- it is recommended that you get this before teaching the unit (having students write the 4th amendment after an exam is an idea)
- 1 ransom note per student (to start assignment have students write a ransom note in disguised handwriting)
- Student handout materials (written instructions, handouts, and rubric)
- Students will work with a partner
Learning Supports
Socio-emotional supports: Chunking of material to provide breaks for students to have an achievable goal each day.
Cultural & Linguistic Responsiveness: Ask questions that relate to students
- Have you ever tried to forge your parent’s signatures to get out of PE?
- How hard do you really think it is to forge a signature?
Accessibility:
Instructional Supports
Differentiation: Students may submit written lab report or a video testimony
L1 Supports: Translation
L2 Development (by level): Sentence starters, definitions
LESSON PROCEDURES
Anticipatory Set/Motivation/Hook
Scenario: A ransom note was left for (insert teacher’s name) abducted cat. The police got a lead implicating six members of a group who were taken to the police station for questioning. The police asked each person to write down the 4th amendment. The police actually wanted a hand-writing sample from each suspect. It was important not to tell them that a handwriting sample was being collected because then the suspects might not write normally or spontaneously. When the police obtained all six handwriting samples and the ransom note, they called in a renowned handwriting expert (YOU!) to analyze the ransom notes and the six suspect notes.
Time: 5:00 minutes
Teacher Does/Students Do: Explain to students that you are being hired to solve this crime, you don’t want to end up with a hung jury. Make sure that you are convincing in your evidence of who is guilty.
Guided Instruction (Teacher-to-Student Joint Responsibility)
Time: 30 minutes
Teacher Does/Students Do:
Have students study the ransom note first. Go through the first couple of handwriting characteristics together, reminding where to find examples of each. The first handwriting characteristic is line quality, ask them is the letter flow or are they shaky?
Group Application (Student-to-Student Joint Responsibility)
Time: 60 minutes
Teacher Does/Students Do:
Students will analyze all the suspect handwriting samples and compare them to the ransom letter. They will need to analyze a minimum of 6 examples, the rest can be eliminated using a brief statement. This is time-consuming and it is important that students know they need to split up the work and to have good verbal communication with each other to find the guilty subject.
Individual Learning (Independent Practice and Application)
Time: 45 minutes
Teacher Does/Students Do:
Using each partner's findings, each student will need to write an argumentative science essay convincing a jury of who wrote the ransom letter using direct evidence from the team’s analysis.
ASSESSMENTS
Formative Assessment
data collected from handwriting analysis
Plans for Summative Assessments
Written Lab Report or Video Testimony
EXTENSIONS
Ideas for Key Assignments, Extensions, and Adaptations for Online Learning Environments:
Read about famous forgeries: https://www.history.com/news/historys-most-famous-literary-hoaxes
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Amethyst Jewett
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15483/overview
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The Westward Spirit
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the evolution of American views about westward migration in the mid-nineteenth century
- Analyze the ways in which the federal government facilitated Americans’ westward migration in the mid-nineteenth century
While a small number of settlers had pushed westward before the mid-nineteenth century, the land west of the Mississippi was largely unexplored. Most Americans, if they thought of it at all, viewed this territory as an arid wasteland suitable only for Indians whom the federal government had displaced from eastern lands in previous generations. The reflections of early explorers who conducted scientific treks throughout the West tended to confirm this belief. Major Stephen Harriman Long, who commanded an expedition through Missouri and into the Yellowstone region in 1819–1820, frequently described the Great Plains as a arid and useless region, suitable as nothing more than a “great American desert.” But, beginning in the 1840s, a combination of economic opportunity and ideological encouragement changed the way Americans thought of the West. The federal government offered a number of incentives, making it viable for Americans to take on the challenge of seizing these rough lands from others and subsequently taming them. Still, most Americans who went west needed some financial security at the outset of their journey; even with government aid, the truly poor could not make the trip. The cost of moving an entire family westward, combined with the risks as well as the questionable chances of success, made the move prohibitive for most. While the economic Panic of 1837 led many to question the promise of urban America, and thus turn their focus to the promise of commercial farming in the West, the Panic also resulted in many lacking the financial resources to make such a commitment. For most, the dream to “Go west, young man” remained unfulfilled.
While much of the basis for westward expansion was economic, there was also a more philosophical reason, which was bound up in the American belief that the country—and the “heathens” who populated it—was destined to come under the civilizing rule of Euro-American settlers and their superior technology, most notably railroads and the telegraph. While the extent to which that belief was a heartfelt motivation held by most Americans, or simply a rationalization of the conquests that followed, remains debatable, the clashes—both physical and cultural—that followed this western migration left scars on the country that are still felt today.
MANIFEST DESTINY
The concept of Manifest Destiny found its roots in the long-standing traditions of territorial expansion upon which the nation itself was founded. This phrase, which implies divine encouragement for territorial expansion, was coined by magazine editor John O’Sullivan in 1845, when he wrote in the United States Magazine and Democratic Review that “it was our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our multiplying millions.” Although the context of O’Sullivan’s original article was to encourage expansion into the newly acquired Texas territory, the spirit it invoked would subsequently be used to encourage westward settlement throughout the rest of the nineteenth century. Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on the notion to encourage westward settlement for their own financial benefit. Soon thereafter, the federal government encouraged this inclination as a means to further develop the West during the Civil War, especially at its outset, when concerns over the possible expansion of slavery deeper into western territories was a legitimate fear.
The idea was simple: Americans were destined—and indeed divinely ordained—to expand democratic institutions throughout the continent. As they spread their culture, thoughts, and customs, they would, in the process, “improve” the lives of the native inhabitants who might otherwise resist Protestant institutions and, more importantly, economic development of the land. O’Sullivan may have coined the phrase, but the concept had preceded him: Throughout the 1800s, politicians and writers had stated the belief that the United States was destined to rule the continent. O’Sullivan’s words, which resonated in the popular press, matched the economic and political goals of a federal government increasingly committed to expansion.
Manifest Destiny justified in Americans’ minds their right and duty to govern any other groups they encountered during their expansion, as well as absolved them of any questionable tactics they employed in the process. While the commonly held view of the day was of a relatively empty frontier, waiting for the arrival of the settlers who could properly exploit the vast resources for economic gain, the reality was quite different. Hispanic communities in the Southwest, diverse Indian tribes throughout the western states, as well as other settlers from Asia and Western Europe already lived in many parts of the country. American expansion would necessitate a far more complex and involved exchange than simply filling empty space.
Still, in part as a result of the spark lit by O’Sullivan and others, waves of Americans and recently arrived immigrants began to move west in wagon trains. They travelled along several identifiable trails: first the Oregon Trail, then later the Santa Fe and California Trails, among others. The Oregon Trail is the most famous of these western routes. Two thousand miles long and barely passable on foot in the early nineteenth century, by the 1840s, wagon trains were a common sight. Between 1845 and 1870, considered to be the height of migration along the trail, over 400,000 settlers followed this path west from Missouri (Figure).
Who Will Set Limits to Our Onward March?
America is destined for better deeds. It is our unparalleled glory that we have no reminiscences of battle fields, but in defense [sic] of humanity, of the oppressed of all nations, of the rights of conscience, the rights of personal enfranchisement. Our annals describe no scenes of horrid carnage, where men were led on by hundreds of thousands to slay one another, dupes and victims to emperors, kings, nobles, demons in the human form called heroes. We have had patriots to defend our homes, our liberties, but no aspirants to crowns or thrones; nor have the American people ever suffered themselves to be led on by wicked ambition to depopulate the land, to spread desolation far and wide, that a human being might be placed on a seat of supremacy. . . .
The expansive future is our arena, and for our history. We are entering on its untrodden space, with the truths of God in our minds, beneficent objects in our hearts, and with a clear conscience unsullied by the past. We are the nation of human progress, and who will, what can, set limits to our onward march? Providence is with us, and no earthly power can.
—John O’Sullivan, 1839
Think about how this quotation resonated with different groups of Americans at the time. When looked at through today’s lens, the actions of the westward-moving settlers were fraught with brutality and racism. At the time, however, many settlers felt they were at the pinnacle of democracy, and that with no aristocracy or ancient history, America was a new world where anyone could succeed. Even then, consider how the phrase “anyone” was restricted by race, gender, and nationality.
Visit Across the Plains in ‘64 to follow one family making their way westward from Iowa to Oregon. Click on a few of the entries and see how the author describes their journey, from the expected to the surprising.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE
To assist the settlers in their move westward and transform the migration from a trickle into a steady flow, Congress passed two significant pieces of legislation in 1862: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Act. Born largely out of President Abraham Lincoln’s growing concern that a potential Union defeat in the early stages of the Civil War might result in the expansion of slavery westward, Lincoln hoped that such laws would encourage the expansion of a “free soil” mentality across the West.
The Homestead Act allowed any head of household, or individual over the age of twenty-one—including unmarried women—to receive a parcel of 160 acres for only a nominal filing fee. All that recipients were required to do in exchange was to “improve the land” within a period of five years of taking possession. The standards for improvement were minimal: Owners could clear a few acres, build small houses or barns, or maintain livestock. Under this act, the government transferred over 270 million acres of public domain land to private citizens.
The Pacific Railway Act was pivotal in helping settlers move west more quickly, as well as move their farm products, and later cattle and mining deposits, back east. The first of many railway initiatives, this act commissioned the Union Pacific Railroad to build new track west from Omaha, Nebraska, while the Central Pacific Railroad moved east from Sacramento, California. The law provided each company with ownership of all public lands within two hundred feet on either side of the track laid, as well as additional land grants and payment through load bonds, prorated on the difficulty of the terrain it crossed. Because of these provisions, both companies made a significant profit, whether they were crossing hundreds of miles of open plains, or working their way through the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. As a result, the nation’s first transcontinental railroad was completed when the two companies connected their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah, in the spring of 1869. Other tracks, including lines radiating from this original one, subsequently created a network that linked all corners of the nation (Figure).
In addition to legislation designed to facilitate western settlement, the U.S. government assumed an active role on the ground, building numerous forts throughout the West to protect and assist settlers during their migration. Forts such as Fort Laramie in Wyoming (built in 1834) and Fort Apache in Arizona (1870) served as protection from nearby Indians as well as maintained peace between potential warring tribes. Others located throughout Colorado and Wyoming became important trading posts for miners and fur trappers. Those built in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas served primarily to provide relief for farmers during times of drought or related hardships. Forts constructed along the California coastline provided protection in the wake of the Mexican-American War as well as during the American Civil War. These locations subsequently serviced the U.S. Navy and provided important support for growing Pacific trade routes. Whether as army posts constructed for the protection of white settlers and to maintain peace among Indian tribes, or as trading posts to further facilitate the development of the region, such forts proved to be vital contributions to westward migration.
WHO WERE THE SETTLERS?
In the nineteenth century, as today, it took money to relocate and start a new life. Due to the initial cost of relocation, land, and supplies, as well as months of preparing the soil, planting, and subsequent harvesting before any produce was ready for market, the original wave of western settlers along the Oregon Trail in the 1840s and 1850s consisted of moderately prosperous, white, native-born farming families of the East. But the passage of the Homestead Act and completion of the first transcontinental railroad meant that, by 1870, the possibility of western migration was opened to Americans of more modest means. What started as a trickle became a steady flow of migration that would last until the end of the century.
Nearly 400,000 settlers had made the trek westward by the height of the movement in 1870. The vast majority were men, although families also migrated, despite incredible hardships for women with young children. More recent immigrants also migrated west, with the largest numbers coming from Northern Europe and Canada. Germans, Scandinavians, and Irish were among the most common. These ethnic groups tended to settle close together, creating strong rural communities that mirrored the way of life they had left behind. According to U.S. Census Bureau records, the number of Scandinavians living in the United States during the second half of the nineteenth century exploded, from barely 18,000 in 1850 to over 1.1 million in 1900. During that same time period, the German-born population in the United States grew from 584,000 to nearly 2.7 million and the Irish-born population grew from 961,000 to 1.6 million. As they moved westward, several thousand immigrants established homesteads in the Midwest, primarily in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where, as of 1900, over one-third of the population was foreign-born, and in North Dakota, whose immigrant population stood at 45 percent at the turn of the century. Compared to European immigrants, those from China were much less numerous, but still significant. More than 200,000 Chinese arrived in California between 1876 and 1890, albeit for entirely different reasons related to the Gold Rush.
In addition to a significant European migration westward, several thousand African Americans migrated west following the Civil War, as much to escape the racism and violence of the Old South as to find new economic opportunities. They were known as exodusters, referencing the biblical flight from Egypt, because they fled the racism of the South, with most of them headed to Kansas from Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. Over twenty-five thousand exodusters arrived in Kansas in 1879–1880 alone. By 1890, over 500,000 blacks lived west of the Mississippi River. Although the majority of black migrants became farmers, approximately twelve thousand worked as cowboys during the Texas cattle drives. Some also became “Buffalo Soldiers” in the wars against Indians. “Buffalo Soldiers” were African Americans allegedly so-named by various Indian tribes who equated their black, curly hair with that of the buffalo. Many had served in the Union army in the Civil War and were now organized into six, all-black cavalry and infantry units whose primary duties were to protect settlers from Indian attacks during the westward migration, as well as to assist in building the infrastructure required to support western settlement (Figure).
The Oxford African American Studies Center features photographs and stories about black homesteaders. From exodusters to all-black settlements, the essay describes the largely hidden role that African Americans played in western expansion.
While white easterners, immigrants, and African Americans were moving west, several hundred thousand Hispanics had already settled in the American Southwest prior to the U.S. government seizing the land during its war with Mexico (1846–1848). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war in 1848, granted American citizenship to those who chose to stay in the United States, as the land switched from Mexican to U.S. ownership. Under the conditions of the treaty, Mexicans retained the right to their language, religion, and culture, as well as the property they held. As for citizenship, they could choose one of three options: 1) declare their intent to live in the United States but retain Mexican citizenship; 2) become U.S. citizens with all rights under the constitution; or 3) leave for Mexico. Despite such guarantees, within one generation, these new Hispanic American citizens found their culture under attack, and legal protection of their property all but non-existent.
Section Summary
While a few bold settlers had moved westward before the middle of the nineteenth century, they were the exception, not the rule. The “great American desert,” as it was called, was considered a vast and empty place, unfit for civilized people. In the 1840s, however, this idea started to change, as potential settlers began to learn more from promoters and land developers of the economic opportunities that awaited them in the West, and Americans extolled the belief that it was their Manifest Destiny—their divine right—to explore and settle the western territories in the name of the United States.
Most settlers in this first wave were white Americans of means. Whether they sought riches in gold, cattle, or farming, or believed it their duty to spread Protestant ideals to native inhabitants, they headed west in wagon trains along paths such as the Oregon Trail. European immigrants, particularly those from Northern Europe, also made the trip, settling in close-knit ethnic enclaves out of comfort, necessity, and familiarity. African Americans escaping the racism of the South also went west. In all, the newly settled areas were neither a fast track to riches nor a simple expansion into an empty land, but rather a clash of cultures, races, and traditions that defined the emerging new America.
Review Questions
Which of the following does not represent a group that participated significantly in westward migration after 1870?
- African American “exodusters” escaping racism and seeking economic opportunities
- former Southern slaveholders seeking land and new financial opportunities
- recent immigrants from Northern Europe and Canada
- recent Chinese immigrants seeking gold in California
Hint:
B
Which of the following represents an action that the U.S. government took to help Americans fulfill the goal of western expansion?
- the passage of the Homestead Act
- the official creation of the philosophy of Manifest Destiny
- the development of stricter immigration policies
- the introduction of new irrigation techniques
Hint:
A
Why and how did the U.S. government promote western migration in the midst of fighting the Civil War?
Hint:
During the first two years of the Civil War—when it appeared that the Confederacy was a formidable opponent—President Lincoln grew concerned that a Union defeat could result in the westward expansion of slavery. Thus, he hoped to facilitate the westward movement of white settlers who promoted the concept of free soil, which would populate the region with allies who opposed slavery. To encourage this process, Congress passed the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Act in 1862. The government also constructed and maintained forts that assisted in the process of westward expansion.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.868845
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07/10/2017
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86248/overview
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Education Standards
K-6th scope and sequence
Internet Safety & Media Balance- grade 1
Overview
This Digital Citizenship unit was created by the Snohomish School District. This strand in the unit focuses on: Internet Safety & Media Balance.
Internet Safety, Citizenship, & Media Balance-Grade 1
Overview
This Digital Citizenship unit was created by the Snohomish School District. This strand in the unit focuses on: Internet Safety & Media Balance.
Grade
First Grade
Duration
Two lessons, 20-30 minutes each
Standards and Learning Objectives
Washington State Ed Tech Standards:
- 2.a. Students practice responsible use of technology through teacher-guided online activities and interactions to understand how the digital space impacts their life.
- 2.b. With guidance from an educator, students understand how to be careful when using devices and how to be safe online, follow safety rules when using the internet and collaborate with others.
- 2.d. With guidance from an educator, students demonstrate an understanding that technology is all around them and the importance of keeping their information private.
Washington State SEL Standards:
- BENCHMARK 4A - Demonstrates awareness of other people’s emotions, perspectives, cultures, languages, histories, identities, and abilities.
- BENCHMARK 4B - Demonstrates an awareness and respect for similarities and differences among community, cultural and social groups.
- BENCHMARK 4C - Demonstrates an understanding of the variation within and across cultures.
- BENCHMARK 5A - Demonstrates a range of communication and social skills to interact effectively with others.
- BENCHMARK 5B - Demonstrates the ability to identify and take steps to resolve interpersonal conflicts in constructive ways.
- BENCHMARK 5C - Demonstrates the ability to engage in respectful and healthy relationships with individuals of diverse perspectives, cultures, language, history, identity, and ability.
Washington State Computer Science Standards
- 1A-01: Select and operate appropriate software to perform a variety of tasks, and recognize that users have different needs and preferences for the technology they use.
1A-03: Describe basic hardware and software problems using accurate terminology.
Lesson One: Media Balance (20-30 minutes)
Materials
- FauxPaw video link below
- Music prepped for freeze dance
- Drawing supplies, blocks, or yarn centers
Formative Assessment
Student responses during discussion times will serve as formative assessment and guide the remainder of the lesson, including the possible need for more clarification or continued practice to gain understanding of concepts.
Procedure:
Media Balance Video (10 minutes) Show the following narrated eBook for the students.
- Faux Paw Goes to the Games: Balancing Real Life with Screen Time, a narrated eBook, iKeepSafe, October 2019 (Length: 8:32 minutes)
Discussion Questions (5-10 minutes) Lead a discussion using these questions as a guide & allowing for student comments and participation. You may want to create a place to write student answers.
- How do you think Faux Paw felt after being on the computer for so long?
- How could you tell?
- Have you ever felt this way after being on a screen for too long?
- What things do you like to do that are not on a screen?
Freeze Dance Activity (5-10 minutes)
- Tell students that you are going to do something active and talk about how they feel. Prepare classroom appropriate music to play
- Go over basic rules of Freeze Dance, which can be anything that works for your space. (Consider making a rule that students need to remain in their own foot space.)
- Play music, stopping it at random intervals for students to freeze.
- If you like, you can have students who make a mistake and don’t freeze, sit down, or, you can just laugh and keep on playing.
- Discuss how their bodies feel after playing an active game like Freeze Dance.
Finish-Up Centers (optional 5-10 minutes)
- If you have time and want some center time for the students, consider the following options, or any others you have that don’t involve screen time:
- Stamps and drawing center
- Building with blocks center
- Yarn and finger-weaving center
Lesson Two: Online Safety & Citizenship (15-20 minutes)
Additional Resources
Internet Traffic Light, by Common Sense Media | CC BY NC ND
Materials
- Tell an Adult video link below
- Internet Traffic Light video link below
- Traffic Light Slides
Formative Assessment
Student responses during discussion times will serve as formative assessment and guide the remainder of the lesson, including the possible need for more clarification or continued practice to gain understanding of concepts.
Procedure:
Internet Traffic Light Video and Discussion Questions (5-10 minutes)
- Tell an Adult, Planet Nutshell, Utah Education Network, June 2014, (Length 2:02)
- Internet Traffic Light, Common Sense Media, August 2019 (Length: 1:08)
Discussion Prompting Slides
- Use the following slides to lead a discussion about Green, Yellow, and Red sites. Have the students brainstorm some sites that could fit into the green category. For the other two, you can ask if they have ever experienced anything that felt like a yellow or red site, and have them share what they did to stay safe.
Traffic Light Game
- Play a version of Red Light/Green Light using some of the examples from the traffic light sheets to call out for them to decide if they should stop, proceed slowly, or go.
- Option #1: Play like Musical Chairs. For example: Shift two chairs to the right for green, one chair to the right for yellow, stay where you are for red.
- Option #2: Have kids form teams and give each team print-out copies of the stoplights. When examples are given, have a team captain hold up the appropriate light.
- Some examples: “You click on a site and it has all appropriate words you can read. You click on a site with funny animal videos. You click on a site and a box pops up asking you to type in your email address. You click on a site and someone you don’t know sends you a message. You click on a site and see something that makes you feel uncomfortable.”
Optional Exit Ticket
- On a sticky note or a piece of paper, have students write down, or draw a picture of, at least one site they like to visit that they think is a green site.
Images by Jenny Banker
Attribution and License
License
Except where otherwise noted, this work by Snohomish School District is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked.
This resource was made possible by funding from the Washington State Legislature and administered through the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction.
This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.
Image by Prashant Sharma from Pixabay
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.924630
|
shaelynn charvet bates
|
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86248/overview",
"title": "Internet Safety & Media Balance- grade 1",
"author": "Lesson Plan"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124906/overview
|
Guided Inquiry - Molecules & Light (Student Handout)
How Light Interacts With Matter Worksheet
IR Spectra Website
Key - How Light Interacts With Matter Worksheet
Key - IR & Molecule Quiz
Key - Molecules & Light Guided Inquiry
Key - Pattern Identification IR Activity Computer
Key - Pattern Identification IR Activity (no computer)
Lesson Plan Outline - Light & IR Spectroscopy Day 1
Lesson Plan Outline - Light & IR Spectroscopy Day 2
Printable Cards for Pattern Identification IR
Quiz - IR & Molecules
Slideshow - How Light Interacts with Matter: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Student Q's Rotations Half Sheets
Task Cards - EMR Activity
Worksheet - Pattern Identification IR Activity Computer
Worksheet - Pattern Identification IR Activity (no computer)
Light & IR Spectroscopy Lesson Plans
Overview
Welcome. Our goal is to design high school chemistry lesson plans that integrate fundamental organic chemisty concepts. These lessons aim to bridge the gap between introductory chemistry and organic chemistry, giving students a head start in understanding molecular structures, reactions, and more, in a way that is engaging and accessible. By connecting these core ideas with hands-on experiments, real-world applucations, and interactive learning tools, students will be better equipped to understand the relevance of organic chemistry in everyday life and future scientific studies.
For additional organic chemistry lesson plans, view the following:
Overview
Welcome
Our goal is to design high school chemistry lesson plans that integrate fundamental organic chemisty concepts. These lessons aim to bridge the gap between introductory chemistry and organic chemistry, giving students a head start in understanding molecular structures, reactions, and more, in a way that is engaging and accessible. By connecting these core ideas with hands-on experiments, real-world applucations, and interactive learning tools, students will be better equipped to understand the relevance of organic chemistry in everyday life and future scientific studies.
For additional organic chemistry lesson plans, view the following:
Feedback
We value your feedback and would like to know how to make our lesson plans more engaging, accessible, and clear. Please take the following survey for this lesson plan, Light & IR Spectroscopy, by using the following link:
Day 1 - Light & IR Spectroscopy Lesson Plan
Light & IR Spectroscopy - Day 1
Lesson Plan Outline - Light Interacts with Matter
Brief Lesson Description:
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Standard (from Utah SEEd Standards): Standard CHEM 4.2
| |
Specific Learning Outcomes for This Lesson:
Estimated Time Requirements:
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Day 2 - Light & IR Spectroscopy Lesson Plan
Light & IR Spectroscopy - Day 2
Lesson Plan Outline - Infrared Light & Matter
Brief Lesson Description:
| |
Standard (from Utah SEEd Standards): Standard CHEM 4.2
| |
Specific Learning Outcomes for This Lesson:
Estimated Time Requirements:
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.961432
|
Lesson
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124906/overview",
"title": "Light & IR Spectroscopy Lesson Plans",
"author": "Assessment"
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|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123188/overview
|
Application and Reflection - Module Three
Overview
This resource is part of the OERizona Advanced Course. This section explores the tools that support the creation of new OER. In this section, the user reflects before authoring a new OER.
Completing Module 3 - Google Form
Thank you for your thoughtful collaboration and thorough evaluations as part of the OERizona Advanced Course Module Three.
To support your reflection and application of this Module, please complete the Module Three Application and Reflection Google Form.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:19.974275
|
12/18/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123188/overview",
"title": "OERizona Advanced OER Skills, Author a Starter OER, Application and Reflection - Module Three",
"author": null
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123181/overview
|
Time to Practice Remixing OER
Overview
This resource is part of the OERizona Advanced Course. This section supports the user in using the REmix tool to share their own syllabi.
OER Remixing Practice
In this section, you will remix a provided template and submit a syllabus that you have openly licensed. You can copy and paste the syllabus into the Remix, share it using a hyperlink, or you can attach it using a Word or other file.
The goal is to both practice using the Remix tool and to increase the syllabi that are available for Arizona faculty to use and learn from.
To get started, you will open the Template - OER Syllabi Sharing resource and then click "Remix". Be sure to rename your resource and click Save as you work.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:19.986831
|
12/18/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123181/overview",
"title": "OERizona Advanced OER Skills, Revise and Remix OER, Time to Practice Remixing OER",
"author": null
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123179/overview
|
OER Remixing Tools on OER Commons
Overview
This section walks faculty through considerations and tools for the process of OER Remixing.
Using Tools and Rubrics to Remix OER
When faculty are remixing OER to customize it for their courses, it is key that faculty have a plan for why, why, and how they want to iterate a resource. Below are several importants questions to consider when remixing OER:
- What aspects of this OER need to be updated for relevance/accuracy?
- What aspects of this OER need to be updated for accessibility?
- What aspects of this OER need to be updated to increase authentic student engagement?
- What is my timeline for these OER iterations?
- Who can partner with me to make these OER iterations?
- AI is a tool that can both support and hinder the remixing of OER.
To support faculty in remixing OER, OER Commons has developed a tool called Open Author, which includes several key features for creating OER.
- Open Author is built to specifically build sections and hierarchical structures that support accessibility.
- Formatting styles are purposefully limited to increase accessibility.
- An accesibility checker is built into the Open Author tool to check for top accessibility practices such as Alt Text and use of headings.
- Video on using the Remix tool (___ minute watch)
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.000687
|
12/18/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123179/overview",
"title": "OERizona Advanced OER Skills, Revise and Remix OER, OER Remixing Tools on OER Commons",
"author": null
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102120/overview
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التراث اليمني
Overview
يهدف الموقع إلى التعرف على التراث اليمني
وتعريفة وأنواعه وأماكن وجودة كما يهدف لتعريف طلبة كلية التربية لأهمية المحافظة على التراث اليمني .
الصفحة الرئيسية
يهدف الموقع إلى التعرف على التراث اليمني
وتعريفة وأنواعه وأماكن وجودة كما يهدف لتعريف طلبة كلية التربية لأهمية المحافظة على التراث اليمني .
الموضوعات
1- تعريف التراث اليمني
2- أنواع التراث اليمني
3- أماكن وجود التراث اليمني
4- المصنوعات التراثية القديمة
من نحن
نحن طلبة الدفعة العاشرة جامعة إب كلية التربية
قسم تكنولوجيا التعليم والمعلومات شعبة الحاسوب
المستوى الثالث 2022 /2023م.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.017266
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03/25/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102120/overview",
"title": "التراث اليمني",
"author": "ETAB ALI"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22879/overview
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Introduction to Sociology
Introduction to Sociology
We all belong to many groups; you’re a member of your sociology class, and you're a member of your family; you may belong to a political party, sports team, or the crowd watching a sporting event; you’re a citizen of your country, and you're a part of a generation. You may have a somewhat different role in each group and feel differently in each.
Groups vary in their sizes and formalities, as well as in the levels of attachment between group members, among other things. Within a large group, smaller groups may exist, and each group may behave differently.
At a rock concert, for example, some may enjoy singing along, others prefer to sit and observe, while still others may join in a mosh pit or try crowd surfing. Why do we feel and act differently in different types of social situations? Why might people of a single group exhibit different behaviors in the same situation? Why might people acting similarly not feel connected to others exhibiting the same behavior? These are some of the many questions sociologists ask as they study people and societies.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.030979
|
Rachel Dilley
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22879/overview",
"title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, An Introduction to Sociology, Introduction to Sociology",
"author": "Module"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11762/overview
|
Introduction to Culture
What are the rules when you pass an acquaintance at school, work, in the grocery store, or in the mall? Generally, we do not consider all of the intricacies of the rules of behavior. We may simply say, "Hello!" and ask, "How was your weekend?" or some other trivial question meant to be a friendly greeting. Rarely do we physically embrace or even touch the individual. In fact, doing so may be viewed with scorn or distaste, since as people in the United States we have fairly rigid rules about personal space. However, we all adhere to various rules and standards that are created and maintained in culture. These rules and expectations have meaning, and there are ways in which you may violate this negotiation. Consider what would happen if you stopped and informed everyone who said, "Hi, how are you?" exactly how you were doing that day, and in detail. You would more than likely violate rules of culture and specifically greeting. Perhaps in a different culture the question would be more literal, and it may require a response. Or if you are having coffee with a good friend, perhaps that question warrants a more detailed response. These examples are all aspects of culture, which is shared beliefs, values, and practices, that participants must learn. Sociologically, we examine in what situation and context certain behavior is expected, and in which situations perhaps it is not. These rules are created and enforced by people who interact and share culture.
In everyday conversation, people rarely distinguish between the terms culture andsociety, but the terms have slightly different meanings, and the distinction is important to a sociologist. Asociety describes a group of people who share a community and a culture. By “community,” sociologists refer to a definable region—as small as a neighborhood (Brooklyn, or “the east side of town”), as large as a country (Ethiopia, the United States, or Nepal), or somewhere in between (in the United States, this might include someone who identifies with Southern or Midwestern society). To clarify, a culture represents thebeliefs and practices of a group, while society represents thepeople who share those beliefs and practices. Neither society nor culture could exist without the other. In this chapter, we examine the relationship between culture and society in greater detail and pay special attention to the elements and forces that shape culture, including diversity and cultural changes. A final discussion touches on the different theoretical perspectives from which sociologists research culture.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.044732
|
Module
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11762/overview",
"title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Culture, Introduction to Culture",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/52847/overview
|
Energy pathways in Ecosystems
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the basic types of ecosystems on Earth
- Differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance of each
Life in an ecosystem is often about competition for limited resources, a characteristic of the theory of natural selection. Competition in communities (all living things within specific habitats) is observed both within species and among different species. The resources for which organisms compete include organic material from living or previously living organisms, sunlight, and mineral nutrients, which provide the energy for living processes and the matter to make up organisms’ physical structures. Other critical factors influencing community dynamics are the components of its physical and geographic environment: a habitat’s latitude, amount of rainfall, topography (elevation), and available species. These are all important environmental variables that determine which organisms can exist within a particular area.
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and their interactions with their abiotic (non-living) environment. Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores of many oceans, or large, such as the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil (Figure).
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general environment: freshwater, ocean water, and terrestrial. Within these broad categories are individual ecosystem types based on the organisms present and the type of environmental habitat.
Ocean ecosystems are the most common, comprising 75 percent of the Earth's surface and consisting of three basic types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean surfaces (the low depth areas of the deep oceans). The shallow ocean ecosystems include extremely biodiverse coral reef ecosystems, and the deep ocean surface is known for its large numbers of plankton and krill (small crustaceans) that support it. These two environments are especially important to aerobic respirators worldwide as the phytoplankton perform 40 percent of all photosynthesis on Earth. Although not as diverse as the other two, deep ocean ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine organisms. Such ecosystems exist even at the bottom of the ocean where light is unable to penetrate through the water.
Freshwater ecosystems are the rarest, occurring on only 1.8 percent of the Earth's surface. Lakes, rivers, streams, and springs comprise these systems; they are quite diverse, and they support a variety of fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, phytoplankton, fungi, and bacteria.
Terrestrial ecosystems, also known for their diversity, are grouped into large categories called biomes, such as tropical rain forests, savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and tundra. Grouping these ecosystems into just a few biome categories obscures the great diversity of the individual ecosystems within them. For example, there is great variation in desert vegetation: the saguaro cacti and other plant life in the Sonoran Desert, in the United States, are relatively abundant compared to the desolate rocky desert of Boa Vista, an island off the coast of Western Africa (Figure).
Ecosystems are complex with many interacting parts. They are routinely exposed to various disturbances, or changes in the environment that effect their compositions: yearly variations in rainfall and temperature and the slower processes of plant growth, which may take several years. Many of these disturbances are a result of natural processes. For example, when lightning causes a forest fire and destroys part of a forest ecosystem, the ground is eventually populated by grasses, then by bushes and shrubs, and later by mature trees, restoring the forest to its former state. The impact of environmental disturbances caused by human activities is as important as the changes wrought by natural processes. Human agricultural practices, air pollution, acid rain, global deforestation, overfishing, eutrophication, oil spills, and illegal dumping on land and into the ocean are all issues of concern to conservationists.
Equilibrium is the steady state of an ecosystem where all organisms are in balance with their environment and with each other. In ecology, two parameters are used to measure changes in ecosystems: resistance and resilience. The ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite of disturbances is called resistance. The speed at which an ecosystem recovers equilibrium after being disturbed, called its resilience. Ecosystem resistance and resilience are especially important when considering human impact. The nature of an ecosystem may change to such a degree that it can lose its resilience entirely. This process can lead to the complete destruction or irreversible altering of the ecosystem.
Food Chains and Food Webs
The term “food chain” is sometimes used metaphorically to describe human social situations. In this sense, food chains are thought of as a competition for survival, such as “who eats whom?” Someone eats and someone is eaten. Therefore, it is not surprising that in our competitive “dog-eat-dog” society, individuals who are considered successful are seen as being at the top of the food chain, consuming all others for their benefit, whereas the less successful are seen as being at the bottom.
The scientific understanding of a food chain is more precise than in its everyday usage. In ecology, a food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass: primary producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers are used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics. There is a single path through the chain. Each organism in a food chain occupies what is called a trophic level. Depending on their role as producers or consumers, species or groups of species can be assigned to various trophic levels.
In many ecosystems, the bottom of the food chain consists of photosynthetic organisms (plants and/or phytoplankton), which are called primary producers. The organisms that consume the primary producers are herbivores: the primary consumers. Secondary consumers are usually carnivores that eat the primary consumers. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores. Higher-level consumers feed on the next lower tropic levels, and so on, up to the organisms at the top of the food chain: the apex consumers. In the Lake Ontario food chain shown in Figure, the Chinook salmon is the apex consumer at the top of this food chain.
One major factor that limits the length of food chains is energy. Energy is lost as heat between each trophic level due to the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, after a limited number of trophic energy transfers, the amount of energy remaining in the food chain may not be great enough to support viable populations at yet a higher trophic level.
The loss of energy between trophic levels is illustrated by the pioneering studies of Howard T. Odum in the Silver Springs, Florida, ecosystem in the 1940s (Figure). The primary producers generated 20,819 kcal/m2/yr (kilocalories per square meter per year), the primary consumers generated 3368 kcal/m2/yr, the secondary consumers generated 383 kcal/m2/yr, and the tertiary consumers only generated 21 kcal/m2/yr. Thus, there is little energy remaining for another level of consumers in this ecosystem.
There is a one problem when using food chains to accurately describe most ecosystems. Even when all organisms are grouped into appropriate trophic levels, some of these organisms can feed on species from more than one trophic level; likewise, some of these organisms can be eaten by species from multiple trophic levels. In other words, the linear model of ecosystems, the food chain, is not completely descriptive of ecosystem structure. A holistic model—which accounts for all the interactions between different species and their complex interconnected relationships with each other and with the environment—is a more accurate and descriptive model for ecosystems. A food web is a graphic representation of a holistic, non-linear web of primary producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics (Figure).
A comparison of the two types of structural ecosystem models shows strength in both. Food chains are more flexible for analytical modeling, are easier to follow, and are easier to experiment with, whereas food web models more accurately represent ecosystem structure and dynamics, and data can be directly used as input for simulation modeling.
Link to Learning
Head to this online interactive simulator to investigate food web function. In the Interactive Labs box, under Food Web, click Step 1. Read the instructions first, and then click Step 2 for additional instructions. When you are ready to create a simulation, in the upper-right corner of the Interactive Labs box, click OPEN SIMULATOR.
Two general types of food webs are often shown interacting within a single ecosystem. A grazing food web (such as the Lake Ontario food web in Figure) has plants or other photosynthetic organisms at its base, followed by herbivores and various carnivores. A detrital food web consists of a base of organisms that feed on decaying organic matter (dead organisms), called decomposers or detritivores. These organisms are usually bacteria or fungi that recycle organic material back into the biotic part of the ecosystem as they themselves are consumed by other organisms. As all ecosystems require a method to recycle material from dead organisms, most grazing food webs have an associated detrital food web. For example, in a meadow ecosystem, plants may support a grazing food web of different organisms, primary and other levels of consumers, while at the same time supporting a detrital food web of bacteria, fungi, and detrivorous invertebrates feeding off dead plants and animals.
Evolution Conenction
Three-spined SticklebackIt is well established by the theory of natural selection that changes in the environment play a major role in the evolution of species within an ecosystem. However, little is known about how the evolution of species within an ecosystem can alter the ecosystem environment. In 2009, Dr. Luke Harmon, from the University of Idaho in Moscow, published a paper that for the first time showed that the evolution of organisms into subspecies can have direct effects on their ecosystem environment.Nature (Vol. 458, April 1, 2009)
The three-spines stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) is a freshwater fish that evolved from a saltwater fish to live in freshwater lakes about 10,000 years ago, which is considered a recent development in evolutionary time (Figure). Over the last 10,000 years, these freshwater fish then became isolated from each other in different lakes. Depending on which lake population was studied, findings showed that these sticklebacks then either remained as one species or evolved into two species. The divergence of species was made possible by their use of different areas of the pond for feeding called micro niches.
Dr. Harmon and his team created artificial pond microcosms in 250-gallon tanks and added muck from freshwater ponds as a source of zooplankton and other invertebrates to sustain the fish. In different experimental tanks they introduced one species of stickleback from either a single-species or double-species lake.
Over time, the team observed that some of the tanks bloomed with algae while others did not. This puzzled the scientists, and they decided to measure the water's dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which consists of mostly large molecules of decaying organic matter that give pond-water its slightly brownish color. It turned out that the water from the tanks with two-species fish contained larger particles of DOC (and hence darker water) than water with single-species fish. This increase in DOC blocked the sunlight and prevented algal blooming. Conversely, the water from the single-species tank contained smaller DOC particles, allowing more sunlight penetration to fuel the algal blooms.
This change in the environment, which is due to the different feeding habits of the stickleback species in each lake type, probably has a great impact on the survival of other species in these ecosystems, especially other photosynthetic organisms. Thus, the study shows that, at least in these ecosystems, the environment and the evolution of populations have reciprocal effects that may now be factored into simulation models.
Section Summary
Ecosystems exist on land, at sea, in the air, and underground. Different ways of modeling ecosystems are necessary to understand how environmental disturbances will affect ecosystem structure and dynamics. Conceptual models are useful to show the general relationships between organisms and the flow of materials or energy between them. Analytical models are used to describe linear food chains, and simulation models work best with holistic food webs.
Identifying components of a local ecosystem
This activity takes the student outside to a local area, such as a college campus, to identify the trophic levels of living organisms, and will reinforce the concept of an energy pyramid. This activity takes about 90 minutes to complete.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems: Local examples
After reading and learning about trophic levels in ecosystems, let’s identify the parts of an ecosystem at a local level. The college campus, although a built environment, provides an opportunity to help us identify and check our understanding of trophic levels and the pathways of nutrients and energy as they are transferred from one trophic level to the next.
Take a slow walk through campus (or use google earth to locate the campus and do this activity virtually). Record, via written notes, photos or video, the primary producers on campus. Identify the three most abundant primary producers. Don’t worry if you don’t know the names of the species. You can use descriptions or photos.
How many different species can you find?
a. 3 – 5
b. 5 – 10
c. 10 – 20
d. too many to count
What do all of these species have in common? Be descriptive here.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
While you are on your walk, take a photo of the campus (take a “mental photo” if you prefer). Approximately what percentage of the photo is filled with primary producers? ____________________
How many primary consumers can you find? Note that you may not see them directly. Can you find evidence of any species? Look for nests, scat, or claw marks. Look overhead- in the sky, in the tree branches. Look in the grasses, on the leaves of trees, etc. List what you find:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How many secondary consumers can you find? ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
By now, you have noticed a trend: the further up the food chain, the fewer the species in each trophic level. Use what you learned in the text, to explain this trend.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Can you find any decomposers on campus? Where are these organisms? _______________________________________________
On a separate sheet of paper, sketch a cartoon of campus, including representative organisms at each trophic level.
Add labeled arrows to show the pathway of energy through this ecosystem. Add labeled arrows to show the pathway of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen.
Lastly, answer the following question and be ready to discuss in class:
Do you feel like you are a part of an ecosystem? Why or why not? Are there aspects of your culture that remind you that you are part of an ecosystem? Are there aspects of your culture that influence your choice to be a primary or secondary consumer?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.073194
|
Module
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/52847/overview",
"title": "Biology, Ecology, Ecosystems, Energy pathways in Ecosystems",
"author": "Life Science"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15195/overview
|
Who Governs? Elitism, Pluralism, and Tradeoffs
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the pluralism-elitism debate
- Explain the tradeoffs perspective on government
The United States allows its citizens to participate in government in many ways. The United States also has many different levels and branches of government that any citizen or group might approach. Many people take this as evidence that U.S. citizens, especially as represented by competing groups, are able to influence government actions. Some political theorists, however, argue that this is not the case. They claim that only a handful of economic and political elites have any influence over government.
ELITISM VS. PLURALISM
Many Americans fear that a set of elite citizens is really in charge of government in the United States and that others have no influence. This belief is called the elite theory of government. In contrast to that perspective is the pluralist theory of government, which says that political power rests with competing interest groups who share influence in government. Pluralist theorists assume that citizens who want to get involved in the system do so because of the great number of access points to government. That is, the U.S. system, with several levels and branches, has many places where people and groups can engage the government.
The foremost supporter of elite theory was C. Wright Mills. In his book, The Power Elite, Mills argued that government was controlled by a combination of business, military, and political elites.C. Wright Mills. 1956. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press. Most are highly educated, often graduating from prestigious universities (Figure). According to elite theory, the wealthy use their power to control the nation’s economy in such a way that those below them cannot advance economically. Their wealth allows the elite to secure for themselves important positions in politics. They then use this power to make decisions and allocate resources in ways that benefit them. Politicians do the bidding of the wealthy instead of attending to the needs of ordinary people, and order is maintained by force. Indeed, those who favor government by the elite believe the elite are better fit to govern and that average citizens are content to allow them to do so.Jack L. Walker. 1966. “A Critique of the Elitist Theory of Democracy,” The American Political Science Review 60, No. 2: 295.
In apparent support of the elite perspective, one-third of U.S. presidents have attended Ivy League schools, a much higher percentage than the rest of the U.S. population.The Ivy League is technically an athletic conference in the Northeast comprised of sports teams from eight institutions of higher education—Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, and Yale University—however, the term is also used to connote academic excellence or social elitism. All five of the most recent U.S. presidents attended Ivy League schools such as Harvard, Yale, or Columbia. Among members of the House of Representatives, 93 percent have a bachelor’s degree, as do 99 percent of members of the Senate.Jennifer E. Manning, “Membership of the 113th Congress: A Profile,” Congressional Research Service, p. 5 (Table 5), November 24, 2014. Fewer than 40 percent of U.S. adults have even an associate’s degree.Kyla Calvert Mason. 22 April 2014. “Percentage of Americans with College Degrees Rises, Paying for Degrees Tops Financial Challenges,” http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/percentage-americans-college-degrees-rises-paying-degrees-tops-financial-challenges/. The majority of the men and women in Congress also engaged in either state or local politics, were business people, or practiced law before being elected to Congress.Manning, p. 3 (Table 2). Approximately 80 percent of both the Senate and the House of Representatives are male, and fewer than 20 percent of members of Congress are people of color (Figure). The nation’s laws are made primarily by well-educated white male professionals and businessmen.
The makeup of Congress is important because race, sex, profession, education, and socioeconomic class have an important effect on people’s political interests. For example, changes in the way taxes are levied and spent do not affect all citizens equally. A flat tax, which generally requires that everyone pay the same percentage rate, hurts the poor more than it does the rich. If the income tax rate was flat at 10 percent, all Americans would have to pay 10 percent of their income to the federal government. Someone who made $40,000 a year would have to pay $4,000 and be left with only $36,000 to live on. Someone who made $1,000,000 would have to pay $100,000, a greater sum, but he or she would still be left with $900,000. People who were not wealthy would probably pay more than they could comfortably afford, while the wealthy, who could afford to pay more and still live well, would not see a real impact on their daily lives. Similarly, the allocation of revenue affects the rich and the poor differently. Giving more money to public education does not benefit the wealthy as much as it does the poor, because the wealthy are more likely than the poor to send their children to private schools or to at least have the option of doing so. However, better funded public schools have the potential to greatly improve the upward mobility of members of other socioeconomic classes who have no other option than to send their children to public schools.
Currently, more than half of the members of Congress are millionaires; their median net worth is just over $1 million, and some have much more.Alan Rappeport, “Making it Rain: Members of Congress Are Mostly Millionaires,” New York Times, 12 January 2016. As of 2003, more than 40 percent of Congress sent their children to private schools. Overall, only 10 percent of the American population does so.Grace Chen. “How Many Politicians Send Their Kids to Public Schools?” http://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/how-many-politicians-send-their-kids-to-public-schools (February 18, 2016). Therefore, a Congress dominated by millionaires who send their children to private schools is more likely to believe that flat taxes are fair and that increased funding for public education is not a necessity. Their experience, however, does not reflect the experience of average Americans.
Pluralist theory rejects this approach, arguing that although there are elite members of society they do not control government. Instead, pluralists argue, political power is distributed throughout society. Rather than resting in the hands of individuals, a variety of organized groups hold power, with some groups having more influence on certain issues than others. Thousands of interest groups exist in the United States.“The Non-Governmental Order: Will NGOs Democratise, or Merely Disrupt, Global Governance?” The Economist, 9 December 1999. Approximately 70–90 percent of Americans report belonging to at least one group.Ronald J. Hrebenar. 1997. Interest Group Politics in America, 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 14; Clive S. Thomas. 2004. Research Guide to U.S. and International Interest Groups. Westport, CT: Praeger, 106.
According to pluralist theory, people with shared interests will form groups in order to make their desires known to politicians. These groups include such entities as environmental advocates, unions, and organizations that represent the interests of various businesses. Because most people lack the inclination, time, or expertise necessary to decide political issues, these groups will speak for them. As groups compete with one another and find themselves in conflict regarding important issues, government policy begins to take shape. In this way, government policy is shaped from the bottom up and not from the top down, as we see in elitist theory. Robert Dahl, author of Who Governs?, was one of the first to advance the pluralist theory, and argued that politicians seeking an “electoral payoff” are attentive to the concerns of politically active citizens and, through them, become acquainted with the needs of ordinary people. They will attempt to give people what they want in exchange for their votes.Dahl, Who Governs? 91–93.
The Center for Responsive Politics is a non-partisan research group that provides data on who gives to whom in elections. Visit OpenSecrets.org: Center for Responsive Politics to track campaign contributions, congressional bills and committees, and interest groups and lobbyists.
THE TRADEOFFS PERSPECTIVE
Although elitists and pluralists present political influence as a tug-of-war with people at opposite ends of a rope trying to gain control of government, in reality government action and public policy are influenced by an ongoing series of tradeoffs or compromises. For instance, an action that will meet the needs of large numbers of people may not be favored by the elite members of society. Giving the elite what they want may interfere with plans to help the poor. As pluralists argue, public policy is created as a result of competition among groups. In the end, the interests of both the elite and the people likely influence government action, and compromises will often attempt to please them both.
Since the framing of the U.S. Constitution, tradeoffs have been made between those who favor the supremacy of the central government and those who believe that state governments should be more powerful. Should state governments be able to respond to the desires of citizen groups by legalizing the use of marijuana? Should the national government be able to close businesses that sell marijuana even in states where it is legal? Should those who control the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the National Security Agency (NSA) be allowed to eavesdrop on phone conversations of Americans and read their email? Should groups like the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which protect all citizens’ rights to freedom of speech, be able to prevent this?
Many of the tradeoffs made by government are about freedom of speech. The First Amendment of the Constitution gives Americans the right to express their opinions on matters of concern to them; the federal government cannot interfere with this right. Because of the Fourteenth Amendment, state governments must protect this right also. At the same time, neither the federal government nor state governments can allow someone’s right to free expression to interfere with someone else’s ability to exercise his or her own rights. For example, in the United States, it is legal for women to have abortions. Many people oppose this right, primarily for religious reasons, and often protest outside facilities that provide abortions. In 2007, the state of Massachusetts enacted a law that required protestors to stand thirty-five feet away from clinic entrances. The intention was to prevent women seeking abortions from being harassed or threatened with violence. Groups favoring the protection of women’s reproductive rights supported the law. Groups opposed to abortion argued that the buffer zone prevented them from speaking to women to try to persuade them not to have the procedure done. In 2014, in the case of McCullen v. Coakley, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the law that created a buffer zone between protestors and clinic entrances.McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U.S. __ (2014); Melissa Jeltsen, “The Reality of Abortion Clinics without Buffer Zones,” The Huffington Post, 13 July 2014. The federal government does not always side with those who oppose abortion, however. Several states have attempted to pass laws requiring women to notify their husbands, and often obtain their consent, before having an abortion. All such laws have been found unconstitutional by the courts.
Tradeoffs also occur as a result of conflict between groups representing the competing interests of citizens. Many Americans believe that the U.S. must become less dependent on foreign sources of energy. Many also would like people to have access to inexpensive sources of energy. Such people are likely to support fracking: the process of hydraulic fracturing that gives drilling companies access to natural gas trapped between layers of shale underground. Fracking produces abundant, inexpensive natural gas, a great benefit to people who live in parts of the country where it is expensive to heat homes during the winter. Fracking also creates jobs. At the same time, many scholars argue that fracking can result in the contamination of drinking water, air pollution, and increased risk of earthquakes. One study has even linked fracking to cancer. Thus, those who want to provide jobs and inexpensive natural gas are in conflict with those who wish to protect the natural environment and human health (Figure). Both sides are well intentioned, but they disagree over what is best for people.Gail Bambrick. 11 December 2012. “Fracking: Pro and Con,” https://now.tufts.edu/articles/fracking-pro-and-con.
Tradeoffs are especially common in the United States Congress. Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives usually vote according to the concerns of people who live in their districts. Not only does this often pit the interests of people in different parts of the country against one another, but it also frequently favors the interests of certain groups of people over the interests of others within the same state. For example, allowing oil companies to drill off the state’s coast may please those who need the jobs that will be created, but it will anger those who wish to preserve coastal lands as a refuge for wildlife and, in the event of an accident, may harm the interests of people who depend on fishing and tourism for their living. At times, House members and senators in Congress may ignore the voters in their home states and the groups that represent them in order to follow the dictates of the leaders of the political party to which they belong. For example, a member of Congress from a state with a large elderly population may be inclined to vote in favor of legislation to increase benefits for retired people; however, his or her political party leaders, who disapprove of government spending on social programs, may ask for a vote against it. The opposite can occur as well, especially in the case of a legislator soon facing re-election. With two-year terms of office, we are more likely to see House members buck their party in favor of their constituents.
Finally, the government may attempt to resolve conflicting concerns within the nation as a whole through tradeoffs. After repeated incidents of mass shootings at schools, theaters, churches, and shopping malls, many are concerned with protecting themselves and their families from firearm violence. Some groups would like to ban the sale of automatic weapons completely. Some do not want to ban gun ownership; they merely want greater restrictions to be put in place on who can buy guns or how long people must wait between the time they enter the store to make a purchase and the time when they are actually given possession of the weapon. Others represent the interests of those who oppose any restrictions on the number or type of weapons Americans may own. So far, state governments have attempted to balance the interests of both groups by placing restrictions on such things as who can sell guns, where gun sales may take place, or requirements for background checks, but they have not attempted to ban gun sales altogether. For example, although federal law does not require private gun dealers (people who sell guns but do not derive most of their income from doing so) to conduct background checks before selling firearms to people at gun shows, some states have passed laws requiring this.“Gun Show Background Checks State Laws,” http://www.governing.com/gov-data/safety-justice/gun-show-firearms-bankground-checks-state-laws-map.html (February 18, 2016).
Summary
Many question whether politicians are actually interested in the needs of average citizens and debate how much influence ordinary people have over what government does. Those who support the elite theory of government argue that a small, wealthy, powerful elite controls government and makes policy to benefit its members and perpetuate their power. Others favor the pluralist theory, which maintains that groups representing the people’s interests do attract the attention of politicians and can influence government policy. In reality, government policy usually is the result of a series of tradeoffs as groups and elites fight with one another for influence and politicians attempt to balance the demands of competing interests, including the interests of the constituents who elected them to office.
The elite theory of government maintains that ________.
- special interest groups make government policy
- politicians who have held office for a long time are favored by voters
- poor people and people of color should not be allowed to vote
- wealthy, politically powerful people control government, and government has no interest in meeting the needs of ordinary people
Hint:
D
According to the pluralist theory of government, ________.
- government does what the majority of voters want it to do
- government policy is formed as a result of the competition between groups with different goals and interests
- ordinary people acting on their own have a significant influence on government
- wealthy people decide what government policy will be, and politicians have no interest in pleasing anyone else
Which of the following is a good example of a tradeoff?
- The government pleases environmental activists by preserving public lands but also pleases ranchers by allowing them to rent public lands for grazing purposes.
- The government pleases environmental activists by reintroducing wolves to Yellowstone National Park but angers ranchers by placing their cattle in danger.
- The government pleases oil companies by allowing them to drill on lands set aside for conservation but allows environmental activist groups to protest the drilling operations.
- Groups that represent a variety of conflicting interests are all allowed to protest outside Congress and the White House.
Hint:
A
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.099088
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07/10/2017
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15195/overview",
"title": "American Government, Students and the System, American Government and Civic Engagement, Who Governs? Elitism, Pluralism, and Tradeoffs",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview
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Age of Bismarck and Competing Alliances
Overview
Nineteenth-Century European Diplomacy - An Overview
The title image for this lesson, an 1884 drawing of the 1884 Berlin Conference that Otto von Bismarck hosted to devise a system for the European colonization of Africa illustrates, among other aspects of late nineteenth-century European diplomacy, the struggle to maintain international order, fears about radical economic, political, and social change, and the leading role of Otto von Bismarck in these efforts. His location at the center of this painting reflects his central position in these efforts.
Learning Objectives
Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century.
Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including
the major European powers and their goals
the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers
Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives
Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives.
Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.)
Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.)
From the early 1860s until 1890 Otto von Bismarck was one of the dominant figures in European diplomacy, and, by extension, international relations. During the 1860s he forged the creation of the German empire, then successfully maneuvered the new German nation through a slew of foreign and domestic challenges, influencing the course of European diplomacy during the 1870s and 1880s, roughly the first half of a period in European history known as the Belle Epoque. During this period, 1871 – 1890, Bismarck was the German Chancellor and the German Minister of Foreign Affairs. In these roles he prevented France, among other German rivals, from forming any alliances antithetical to German imperial interests as he, among others, defined them. One of the key traits in his efforts was his flexibility, which allowed him to accept and work with various diplomatic, political, and social changes then occurring in Europe. In 1890 he lost his position as German chancellor, partly as a result of his disagreements with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had ascended to the throne two years earlier. Wilhelm II’s more aggressive and assertive military and foreign policies, unchecked by Bismarck, or another foreign minister with his views, exacerbated the fears of France and Britain toward Germany, contributing to the formation of the Entente Cordiale between them in 1904, which was one of the bases of the alliance against Germany in the First World War.
European Diplomacy from the French Revolution to the Age of Bismarck
The Congress of Vienna established many of the diplomatic norms of the 19th century and created an informal system of diplomatic conflict resolution aimed at maintaining a balance of power among nations, which contributed to the relative peace of the century.
Learning Objectives
Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.)
Concert of Europe: a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power (It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856.)
Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.)
Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force
Development of Modern Diplomacy
In Europe, early modern diplomacy’s origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, where the first embassies were established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role especially under Francesco Sforza, who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador’s credentials to the head of state. From Italy, the practice spread across Europe. The elements of modern diplomacy arrived in Eastern Europe and Russia by the early 18th century.
The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France.
After the fall of Napoleon, the 1815 Congress of Vienna established an international system of diplomatic rank with ambassadors at the top, as they were considered personal representatives of their sovereign. Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but they persisted for over a century until after World War II, when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between, figures such as the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy.
Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe
The objective of the Congress of Vienna was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna, was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power. It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856.
At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord played a major role at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 – 1815, where he negotiated a favorable settlement for France while undoing Napoleon’s conquests.
Talleyrand polarizes scholarly opinion. Some regard him as one of the most versatile, skilled, and influential diplomats in European history, and some believe that he was a traitor, betraying in turn the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Restoration. Talleyrand worked at the highest levels of successive French governments, most commonly as foreign minister or in some other diplomatic capacity. His career spanned the regimes of Louis XVI, the years of the French Revolution, Napoleon, Louis XVIII, and Louis-Philippe. Those he served often distrusted Talleyrand but, like Napoleon, found him extremely useful. The name “Talleyrand” has become a byword for crafty, cynical diplomacy.
The Concert of Europe had no written rules or permanent institutions, but at times of crisis any of the member countries could propose a conference. Diplomatic meetings of the Great Powers during this period included: Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), Verona (1822), London (1832), and Berlin (1878).
The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) resolved the issues of Allied occupation of France and restored that country to equal status with Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of historical importance, mainly as marking the highest point reached during the 19th century in the attempt to govern Europe by an international committee of the powers. The detailed study of its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable obstacles to any truly effective international diplomatic system prior to the creation of the League of Nations after the First World War.
The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers diverged with the growing political and economic rivalries among them. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise, the Congress system, says historian Roy Bridge, “failed” by 1823. In 1818, the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them, and they rejected the plan of Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna’s frontiers along national lines.
The Congress of Vienna was frequently criticized by nineteenth-century and by more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses and imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part of what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability might be achieved.
Despite having failed to achieve its reactionary goals past the early 1820s, it served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Prior to the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace.
The European Continent After Vienna
Post-Napoleonic Europe was characterized by a general lack of major conflict between the great powers, with Great Britain as the major hegemonic power bringing relative balance to European politics. The nineteenth century was marked by relative stability, with no wars involving all the major powers occurred between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the First World War. Otto von Bismarck contributed as much as any other single European leader to this stability through his role as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. In this role he pursued policies and initiatives to protect the new German empire from alliances that could threaten it. His policies and initiatives also buttressed the diplomatic and military stability in Europe during the late nineteenth century. Bismarck’s efforts to keep other European powers from perceiving the German empire as an existential threat to them. When Kaiser Wilhelm II forced Bismarck to resign as Chancellor and began pursuing a much more assertive and aggressive posture for the German Empire, without regard to the insecurities of other European states, Europe entered a new period of instability culminating in the outbreak of World War I.
This quiet period was shattered by World War I (1914 – 18), which was unexpected in its timing, duration, casualties, and long-term impact. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the European powers came together at the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of Europe to preserve peace and balance of power; this meeting was termed the Concert of Europe.
Of the four major powers represented at the Vienna Congress (the Austrian, British, Prussian, and Russian empires), all but the Austrian empire rose to become major world powers. The British and Russian empires, in particular, expanded significantly after the Napoleonic Wars and became the world’s leading powers. The Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and heavily populated India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world’s land and one-quarter of the world’s population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization, industrialization, and economic integration on a massive scale.
Along with the British and Russian empires, the French empire regained its position as a great power during the nineteenth century. Added to the list of great powers during the latter half of the nineteenth century were the newly unified Italian and German empires, the United States, and Japan.
Pax Britannica
Pax Britannica (Latin for “British Peace,” modeled after Pax Romana) was the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain’s “imperial century,” around 10 million square miles of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleonic France left the British without any serious international rival, other than perhaps Russia in central Asia. When Russia tried expanding its influence in the Balkans, the British and French defeated it in the Crimean War (1854 – 56), thereby protecting the Ottoman Empire and their interests in the areas south of that region.
Learning Objectives
Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century.
Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including.
the major European powers and their goals
the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers
Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives
Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives.
Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich
Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.)
Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force
The British Navy controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain’s dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled access to many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. British merchants, shippers, and bankers had such an overwhelming advantage over everyone else that, in addition to its official colonies, it essentially had an informal empire.
The global superiority of British military and commerce was aided by a divided and relatively weak continental Europe and the presence of the Royal Navy on all of the world’s oceans and seas. Even outside its formal empire, Britain controlled trade with countries such as China, Siam, and Argentina. Following the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire’s economic strength continued to develop through naval dominance and diplomatic efforts to maintain a balance of power in continental Europe.
In this era, the Royal Navy provided services around the world that benefited other nations, such as the suppression of piracy and blocking the slave trade. The Slave Trade Act 1807 banned the trade across the British Empire, after which the Royal Navy established the West Africa Squadron and the government negotiated international treaties under which they could enforce the ban. The Royal Navy fought the First Opium War (1839 – 1842) and Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) against Imperial China. The Royal Navy was superior to any other two navies in the world, combined. Between 1815 and the passage of the German naval laws of 1890 and 1898, only France was a potential naval threat.
However, British sea power, imperial holdings, and economic base were insufficient to maintain unchallenged British hegemony during the second half of the nineteenth century. The industrialization and growth of the German, the Japanese, and the U.S. empires marked the relative decline of British supremacy by the early twentieth century. Sea power did not project on land. Land wars fought between the major powers include the Crimean War, the Franco-Austrian War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War, as well as numerous conflicts between lesser powers.
Pax Britannica was weakened by the breakdown of the continental order established by the Congress of Vienna. Relations between the Great Powers of Europe were strained to breaking by issues, such as the decline of the Ottoman Empire that led to the Crimean War, and later the emergence of new nation states of Italy and Germany after the Franco-Prussian War. Both wars involved Europe’s largest states and armies.
Otto von Bismarck: Balance of Power Diplomacy
Otto von Bismarck was a conservative Prussian statesman and diplomat who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. He skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobsbawm, it was Bismarck who “remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers.”
Learning Objectives
Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century.
Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including
the major European powers and their goals
the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers
Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives
Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives.
Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.)
Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich
In 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890 (except for a short break in 1873). He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. In 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of pragmatic realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the “Iron Chancellor.” German unification and its rapid economic growth were the foundations of his foreign policy. Bismarck disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when demanded by both elite and mass opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of conferences, negotiations, and alliances, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain Germany’s position and used the balance of power to keep Europe at peace in the 1870s and 1880s.
Belle Époque
Belle Époque (French for “Beautiful Era”) was a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I in around 1914. Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was a period characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, and innovations in technology, science, and culture. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished. Many masterpieces of literature, music, theater, and visual art gained recognition. The Belle Époque was named, in retrospect, when it began to be considered a “Golden Age” in contrast to the horrors of World War I.
Learning Objectives
Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century.
Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including
the major European powers and their goals
the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers
Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives
Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich
Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.)
The Belle Époque coincided with similar periods of optimism in other European and American nations. The Belle Époque overlapped in the United Kingdom with the late Victorian era and the Edwardian era. In Germany, the Belle Époque coincided with the Wilhelminism; in Russia with the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II. In the newly rich United States emerging from the Panic of 1873, the comparable epoch was dubbed the Gilded Age. In Brazil it started with the end of the Paraguayan War, and in Mexico the period was known as the Porfiriato.
The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterized by unusual political stability in western and central Europe. Although tensions between the French and German governments persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, diplomatic conferences mediated disputes that threatened the general European peace, including the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. For many Europeans in the Belle Époque period, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this.
European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties increased in many countries, and some historians claim that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa.
Factors in the Road to World War I
The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. These causes included militarism, jingoism, imperialism, nationalism, and the emergence of opposing alliances. Such conflicts and hosMilitarism, alliances, imperialism, ethnic nationalis. From the 1870s and 1880s, the major powers of Europe had been preparing for a large-scale war by increasing the sizes of their armies and navies. This led to increased political tensions that exacerbated the worsening relations among the European powers. This complex of factors, developments, and events paved the way for the First World War, the first general war in Europe since the Napoleonic Wars.
Learning Objectives
Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including
the major European powers and their goals
the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers
Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives
Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives.
Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.)
jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests
militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state”
imperialism: practice of claiming territory and then spreading the parent country’s beliefs and culture into the territory
nationalism: a belief, creed, or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one’s country of origin
Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force
Rise of Militarism Prior to World War I
During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined,as part of Pax Britannica. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers.
Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. However, recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—lasting only a matter of months. So, all the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war, and no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate as actually happened in 1914 – 18.
As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “… the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.
One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. Kaiser Wilhelm II was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage.
Militarism and jingoism contributed to an atmosphere in Europe open to the possibility of a general European war among the major European powers. The development of rivalries, along with Kaiser Wilhelm II’s ambitions, provided the fuel for the fire that would be the First World War. Nationalism in the Balkans provided the catalyst.
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons
Title Image - 1884 Berlin Conference meeting drawing Attribution: Adalbert von Rößler (†1922), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kongokonferenz.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Boundless World History
"The Century of Peace"
Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-century-of-peace/
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
CC licensed content, Specific attribution
- Belle u00c9poque. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_Epoque. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Pax Britannica. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- History of Europe. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- 19th century. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- International relations of the Great Powers (1814u20131919). Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Otto von Bismarck. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Pu00e9rigord. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Diplomacy. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Concert of Europe. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Congress of Vienna. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Talleyrand-perigord.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Human zoo. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- World's fair. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- Talleyrand-perigord.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.145104
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Alison Vick
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Age of Bismarck and Competing Alliances",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88110/overview
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Environmental Challenges and Environmentalism
Overview
Environmental Concerns and Disasters: 1970s-2000s
During the latter half of the twentieth century people around the world became concerned with a growing number of environmental problems, including air, water, and land pollution, population growth, excessive consumerism, and shortages of a growing number of natural resources, particularly water and arable land. These problems have grown out of the mass production, pollution, and consumerism that came with the Industrial Revolution. Recognition of these problems around the world, along with efforts to solve them, reflect the positive and benevolent character of globalization.
One of the major concerns in the world today revolves around stopping climate change caused by continued reliance on fossil fuels. Climate change visibly epitomizes the impact of pollution in ways people cannot miss, although certainly many with shortsighted economic interests try to deny. Efforts by various groups, individuals, and governments to combat climate change have been frustrated by vested economic interests based on the old and inefficient fossil fuel-based economy. These vested interests either have denied climate change, discounted the effects of climate change, or claimed that they already were doing all they could to stop climate change. Both those who work to stop climate change and those who oppose such efforts are part of globalization, which blurs conventional political and economic borders. As an example, climate activists across the globe emphasize the necessity of countries, companies, and other groups acting in concert; contrarily, their opponents, including Republicans and Democrats in the United States tied to the coal industry, such as U.S. Senator from West Virginia Joe Manchin, claim that making changes in response to climate change will put the U.S. at a disadvantage when compared to nations that do not. These opponents include Republicans and Democrats in the United States who are tied to the coal industry, such as U.S. Senator Joe Manchin from West Virginia; Manchin opposes efforts to stop climate change because many of those who vote for him refuse to abandon coal mining and because he has made over four million from coal mining, and will continue to make more.
Learning Objectives
Identify and explain the environmental challenges that humanity faces today.
Identify, explain, and evaluate responses to these environmental challenges.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
fossil fuel divestment: the removal of investment assets, including fossil fuels, in an attempt to reduce climate change by tackling its ultimate causes
greenhouse gas: a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range, which is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect that warms the planet’s surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of evidence show that the climate system is warming. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s have unprecedented for over tens of thousands of years.
Efforts to arrest the effects of climate change for which people have been and are responsible, have been carried out at the individual, group, corporate, provincial, national, and international levels.
Eco-Movements of the 1970s-2000s
UNFCCC
One of the first international agreements to reduce the effects of climate change induced by humanity was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was signed by 154 countries in June 1992. The UNFCCC commits state parties to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it. The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system. As stated in the Convention, this requires that GHG concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion. While the UNFCCC is a start, global emissions continue to rise.
The current state of global warming politics is frustration over a perceived lack of progress within the UNFCCC, which has been unable to curb global GHG emissions. Todd Stern—the U.S. climate change envoy—expressed the challenges with the UNFCCC process as follows, “Climate change is not a conventional environmental issue… It implicates virtually every aspect of a state’s economy, so it makes countries nervous about growth and development. This is an economic issue every bit as it is an environmental one.” Stern went on to explain that the UNFCCC as a multilateral body can be an inefficient system for enacting international policy. Because the framework includes over 190 countries and negotiations are governed by consensus, small groups of countries can often block progress. As a result, some have argued that perhaps the consensus-driven model could be replaced with a majority vote model. However, that would likely drive disagreement at the country level by countries who do not wish to ratify any global agreement that might be governed via majority vote.
Kyoto Protocol
The next step in international efforts to stop climate change induced by humans was the Kyoto Protocol—an international treaty that extended the 1992 UNFCCC. The international community adopted this agreement in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol. The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiate responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of GHGs in the atmosphere. This is justified on the basis that the developed world’s emissions have contributed most to the accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere on a per-capita basis (i.e., emissions per head of population), while developing countries contribute relatively little, as well as that the emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol. The Doha Amendment includes 37 countries that have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not adhere to the amendment and second-round targets. Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol). As of July 2016, 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptance of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, seven have ratified. Many countries willing to sign, even commit, have not followed through with their promises.
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement, the next in the succession of international agreements to deal with human-induced climate change, is an agreement within the UNFCCC dealing with GHG emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance. It is to be implemented starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on December 12, 2015. It was opened for signature on April 22, 2016, (Earth Day) at a ceremony in New York. As of December 2016, 194 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty, 136 of which have ratified it. After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016, enough countries had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world’s GHGs for it to enter into force. The agreement went into effect on November 4, 2016.
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2. It outlines a goal of “enhancing the implementation” of the UNFCCC via the following means:
Holding increases in global average temperatures to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels while pursuing efforts to limit these increases to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels
Increasing adaptability to the adverse impacts of climate change while fostering climate resilience and low GHG emissions in a manner that does not endanger food production
Encouraging finance flows that are consistent with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient development.
The Paris Agreement is the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement and has been described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.
Green Movements around the World: 1970s-2000s
International concerns over climate change, resource depletion, and wildlife extinction spurred a rise in eco-friendly, green politics between the 1980s and 2010s. The goals of these organizations ranged from raising awareness and policy change to conservation and the search for clean energy.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the impact of modern green politics
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Chico Mendes: Brazilian environmentalist, rainforest protectionist, and humanitarian who was assassinated in 1988
Chipko Movement: environmental movement in India to protect forests that was uniquely led by women
Conservation: practice of protecting natural resources through careful management
EPA: in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
Greenpeace: first international environmental agency
Preservation: practice of protecting natural resources and ecosystems by leaving them entirely alone
Rachel Carson: American author who wrote the book, Silent Spring
United Tasmania Group: Australian political group that was the first in the world to be openly focused on environmentalism
Eco-Movements of the 1960s and 70s
To an extent, humans have always understood the importance of protecting ecosystems. A balanced and harmonious ecosystem resulted in the overall health and prosperity of humans. Therefore, eco-movements to protect the environment have existed for millennia in one form or another. As the world population grew, and problems over human pollution escalated, so too did the interest in developing large and vocal eco-movements.
Eco-Movements and Green Politics in the United States
Some scholars cite Henry David Thoreau and the transcendentalists with beginning the American eco-movement in the 1830s. Their romanticized, pastoral writings were commercially successful and presented the natural world as a place of beauty worthy of protection and admiration. Further attention was given to the importance of conservatism in the early 1900s under President Theodore Roosevelt, when the United States launched widescale conservation and preservation efforts to save much of the American wilderness and wildlife.
Eco-movements began to take off fully in the 1960s and 70s. In 1962, American author Rachel Carson published her famous book, Silent Spring, about the devastating effects of DDT on bird populations. Her work was enormously influential in the restriction of pesticide use.
Eight years after the publication of Silent Spring, President Richard Nixon created the EPA. The organization is responsible for maintaining and improving environmental protection through monitoring of industries and field research. The same year, the world celebrated the first Earth Day. A year later, the international environmental agency, Greenpeace, was established. Its goals include raising awareness about manmade disasters such as oil spills, and depletion of natural and wildlife resources.
Since the 1970s, dozens of environmental organizations and businesses have emerged in the United States. These entities generally focus on one of the four goals: wildlife and/or habitat conservation, developing “cleaner” or renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and combatting climate change. Among the most prominent United States-based environmental agencies are the National Resources Defense Council, Audubon Society, and Sierra Club.
Eco-Movements around the World
Oceania
Historically, Oceania is one of the most vocal advocates for environmentalism. As early as the 1920s, New Zealand began protecting its ecosystems and wildlife. In 1952, Australia launched the first environmentally focused political party, United Tasmania Group. Since then, Australia has emerged as an advocate for eco-movements and environmental protection. In part, Australia is a strong advocate for environmental protection and climate change reduction because of its geography. Located far south of the equator, Australia is strongly affected by the thinning of the ozone layer due to greenhouse gases. As a result of the depleted ozone, UV rays are strong, and Australians are at increased risk for skin cancer. In the 2000s, the increasing temperatures in Australia are suspected to have increased the number and voracity of wildfires.
Many of the islands of the South Pacific are also strong environmental advocates. Polynesian islands such as Vanuatu are advocates for reducing climate change. These small island nations are among the most susceptible to rising sea levels, caused by the melting of polar ice.
India
Perhaps no other country has experienced such a dramatic, and impactful environmental movement as India. In the late 1960s, deforestation of India’s northeast forests began. In response to the commercial logging, villagers banded together. Known as the Chipko Movement, these villagers would meet the logging companies on site. Uniquely, the movement was comprised largely of women. As women were typically responsible for household farming and cooking, they were the most affected by the soil erosion and the decreased quality of farmable land. Using peaceful resistance methods, they would discourage loggers from their operations. In 1973, a group of women banded together at a logging site and formed human chains around the base of the trees. The moment gave rise to the concept of tree-huggers and launched widescale conservation efforts at the national level.
South Africa
Many African nations have launched conservation efforts. Across the continent, hundreds of national parks have been established to protect native flora and fauna. Among the leading nations for conservation in Africa are Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa.
South Africa’s connection to the environmental movement is unique. In addition to supporting wildlife and habitat conservation, environmental activists in South Africa also were strongly tied to anti-apartheid movements. They frequently campaigned for the protection of both the environment and the peoples of South Africa. Since the dissolution of apartheid, the South African environmental movement has focused on conservation and the development and use of clean, renewable energy.
Challenges to Environmental Movements
Opponents of environmentalism often claim that the movements are hypocritical. Their argument is that while environmentalists claim to protect animals and plants, and on occasion, also human beings, they often do so to the detriment of the developing world. Conservation and preservation stand in the way of developing industry and businesses for many poorer regions of the world, the argument claims. In short, the environmentalist movement often is nicknamed the “white savior” syndrome. Anti-environmentalists argue that white activists who live in relative comfort in the developed world travel to poor, developing regions of the world to demand the people protect the environment. These actions keep the developing world poor, and the developed world wealthy. In short, environmentalism is often criticized as a luxury movement led by people who are typically white, western, and wealthy. For this reason, environmental action is often most effectively undertaken at the local level.
Latin America
As with any part of the world, Latin America is home to leading environmentalists striving to protect ecosystems. Yet, Latin America also remains one of the most challenging regions to effectively enact environmental policies. It is also severely impacted by deforestation, wildlife and habitat loss, loss of arable land, and water pollution. Since the 1990s, deforestation of Brazil’s Amazon rainforest has received international attention. Recognized as the world’s most biodiverse region, numerous efforts have been launched to conserve this remarkable region of the world.
Yet the poverty rate in Latin America remains high, with a high percentage of the population relying on farming for their livelihood. As such, governments, organizations, and individuals have turned to cutting down large tracts of the rainforest to provide farmland. Slash and burn practices remain prevalent, destroying the habitat. While numerous environmentalists have attempted to implement policy changes at the local, state, and national levels, they have frequently been met with violence. None is so famous as Chico Mendes, a renowned rainforest protectionist who was assassinated in 1988. Well-over 1,000 environmental activists have been murdered across Latin America since the 2000s. To date, the protection of the environment remains a battle between environmentalists and business, as well as wealth and poverty.
Attributions
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.183851
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Neil Greenwood
|
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"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 17: Post-Cold War International Structure, Environmental Challenges and Environmentalism",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87962/overview
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Hero of the Turkish Army: Mustafa Kemal and the Dardanelles Campaign
Overview
The Dardanelles Campaign: 1915-1916
On present-day Turkey’s northwest coast is a narrow strip of water, the Dardanelles strait. It connects the Aegean Sea, through the Bosporus, to the Sea of Marmara, and ultimately, the Black Sea. It has been a coveted shipping and transportation route for centuries, the Dardanelles also marks the divide between Europe and Asia. In World War I, the strait was coveted by opposing armies to transport troops between fronts, and to strategic locations. The British and French also assumed that if they could secure the Dardanelles, they would drastically weaken the already weak, Ottoman Empire, thus knocking one of the Central Powers out of the war. They would relieve the pressure Russia faced from the Ottomans and claim Constantinople.
Learning Objectives
- Analyze the British failure of the Gallipoli Campaign
- Evaluate the success of Mustafa Kemal as a leader of the Turkish army
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Dardanelles: narrow strait that connects the Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and Black Sea
Gallipoli: peninsula on Turkey’s northwest coast
Mustafa Kemal "Ataturk": commander of the Ottoman Army at the Battle of Gallipoli
Preparations
In 1915, the Allies began planning an attack on Turkey’s northwest coast at the strategic peninsula, Gallipoli. The Allies launched a bombing campaign over the Dardanelles in early 1915. It failed to destroy the Ottoman defenses which had been heavily fortified in advance of the Allies’ attack. Minefields and artillery defenses remained along the peninsula. As such, it was clear to the Allies that an amphibious landing was the solution. They would deploy British, French, and raw troops from Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) to secure the Gallipoli peninsula. Behind the plan was the British Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill.
The Landings at Gallipoli
At 2:00 AM on April 25, 1915, Ottoman scouts spotting a fleet advancing toward them. An hour later, the fog rolled in, obscuring the army. But it set the Ottomans on the alert. Among the earliest to receive the news was a young commander named Mustafa Kemal. As a young officer, he had served in the earlier, Balkans Wars. Now, he led the 19th Division, and the 5th Army Reserve. Militarily shrewd, he calculated that the Allies would try to divide the Ottoman forces. To combat their attack, Kemal staged a simple plan—hold the defensive heights above the beaches. They would not surrender one inch of territory to the Allies. At dawn, he is said to have told his troops, “I am not ordering you to attack, I am ordering you to die. In the time that it takes us to die; other commanders and forces can come and take our place.” From the dawn of April 15 forward, the Ottoman troops were fiercely loyal to their staunch and pragmatic leader. When the attacks came, they would be ready and carry Kemal’s order to the letter.
ANZAC Cove
The Allies had planned two landings. The British and French forces would land at Helles Cape on the southern tip of the peninsula. The ANZACs, Australian and New Zealand troops, would land further west. Fatefully, the British and French landing would prove less deadly.
Just after dawn, the ANZACs, many of who were raw troops with no combat experience, landed at the fortified beach of Gallipoli at a cove now aptly named, ANZAC Cove. Above the beach, the terrain was rugged and steep, and heavily fortified by the Ottomans. Strips of minefields also waited for the ANZACs. Upon their landing, the ANZACs were greeted with immense artillery and machine gun fire. The ANZACs initially gained ground, only to be repelled by Kemal’s forces later in the day. Counterattacking, the Australians were driven from the heights. By the end of the first day, over 2,000 of the 16,000 ANZAC troops were dead or wounded.
For the next eight months, the ANZAC troops “dug in” in a stalemated battle at Gallipoli. They faced harsh weather and rough terrain, and epidemics of dysentery, typhoid, and rheumatic fever. The ANZACs never gained ground after the first day, and the campaign turned into a bloody stalemate. Combat often involved hand-to-hand fighting in the rocky, rough terrain. At other times, it was a battle waged by sending men “over the top” of their trenches and fortifications to charge headlong into the Ottoman machine gun nests. Further south, the British and French faced similar challenges. At the end of the year, the Allied casualties reached 500,000, not including those who perished from disease. The Gallipoli Campaign was not only a defeat, it was an Allied disaster.
Significance
In January 1916 did the Allied troops admit defeat and evacuate their positions at Gallipoli. The campaign, which had lasted a year, was over. But the cost was enormous: it remains the bloodiest campaign in the histories of Australia and New Zealand. April 25 is celebrated as ANZAC Day in both countries. It also demonstrated to the world the ability and resilience of the Australian and New Zealand soldiers, who were largely untried soldiers before Gallipoli.
For Mustafa Kemal and Turkey, the significance of Gallipoli was far greater. It marked their triumph over the Allied forces. The victory catapulted Kemal into the national spotlight where he was known as the “Rock of Gallipoli.” Almost overnight, he was promoted to Brigadier General of the Ottoman Army. For the remainder of the war, he served as a main military commander for the Ottomans in multiple campaigns. Following the defeat, and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Kemal served in the Turkish wars of independence, and then turned to politics. He became a strong statesman, and in the 1920s, the founded of the Republic of Turkey. With this achievement, he was given a new title: Atatürk—father of the Turks.
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
Willmott, H.P. World War I. D.K. Publishing, New York: 2012. 76-83.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.209047
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Neil Greenwood
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87956/overview
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Mexican Revolution
Overview
Introduction
The Mexican Revolution was a significant turning point for the country in the early 20th century. The end of the Porfiriato brought a true social revolution to Mexico. By focusing on the lower classes this meant there was a significant change for the indigenous populations throughout. The Mexican Revolution had many different phases, the first phrase was the election of 1910, the second was the Constitution, the third was the 1920s, and the fourth was the 1930s. By the end of the second phase, Mexico was very different than it was in the 19th century. The period following independence was full of political, social, and cultural problems for the country.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the impact of the Porfirio Diaz regime on the origin of the Mexican Revolution.
- Analyze the different stages of the Mexican Revolution.
- Analyze what the different groups goals and wants of the Mexican Revoution.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Plan de la Noria: a revolutionary call to arms with the intent of ousting Mexican President Benito Juarez
Porfiriato: the period during which Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori and his allies ruled Mexico, from 1876 to 1911
The Porfiriato
The Mexican Revolution was instigated by Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori—a Mexican soldier and politician, as well as a veteran of the Reform War and the French intervention in Mexico. As president, he served seven terms in office for a total of 35 years (1876 to 1911). The period during which he and his allies ruled the country became known as the Porfiriato. Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori strengthened his regime to create the internal order necessary to foster economic development; however, it was his authoritarian grasp on the presidency sparked the Mexican Revolution.
The Campaign of “No Re-election”
In 1870, Diaz ran against President Juarez and Vice President Lerdo de Tejada for president. Juarez won in July and was confirmed by Congress in October, but Diaz claimed the election was fraudulent. Diaz launched the Plan de la Noria, a revolutionary call to arms with the intent of ousting Mexican President Benito Juarez on November 8, 1871. The plan was supported by a number of local rebellions throughout the country; however, it ultimately failed. Juarez died while in office in 1872, and when Vice President Lerdo succeeded him to the presidency, he offered amnesty to the rebels, which Diaz accepted. Subsequently, Diaz took up residency in Veracruz and served as the region’s representative in the legislature.
Over time, opposition to Lerdo’s presidency grew as anticlerical sentiment and labor unrest increased. Under these circumstances, Diaz saw an opportunity to plot a more successful rebellion. As a result, he left Mexico in 1875 for New Orleans and Brownsville, Texas, with his political ally Manuel Gonzalez. A year later, he issued the Plan of Tuxtepec as a call to arms against Lerdo, who was running for another presidential term.
Lerdo was re-elected in July 1876, but continued rebellion and political unrest before and after the election forced him out of office. In November, Diaz occupied Mexico City, and Lerdo was exiled to New York. General Juan Mendez was named provisional president, but Diaz was elected to the office in the beginning of 1877. One of Diaz’s first actions was to amend the 1857 liberal constitution to prevent re-election to the presidency.
Diaz initially served only one term in office, in light of his past resistance to Lerdo’s re-election policy. In order to side-step the convention, he handpicked his successor, Manuel Gonzalez, with the intention of maintaining his power in everything but name. During the four-year period of Gonzalez’s rule, corruption and official incompetence abounded, so when Diaz ran for office again in 1884, he was greeted with open arms by the public. At that point, very few people remembered the “no re-election” promise that had characterized his previous campaign, though some underground political papers reversed his previous slogan, “Sufragio Efective, No Reeleccion”, to “Sufragio Efectivo No, Reeleccion”. During his second term, Diaz amended the constitution twice, initially allowing for two terms in office, then removing all restrictions on re-election.
Political Career
As a popular military hero and astute politician, Diaz determined that his main goal as president was to create the internal order necessary to foster economic development throughout the country. His eventual establishment of peace, termed the Pax Porfiriana, became one of his crowning achievements. To achieve this goal, Diaz created a systematic and methodical regime with a staunch military mindset. He dissolved all local and federal-level authorities that had once existed in order to ensure that all leadership stemmed from his office. Legislative authorities that remained within Mexico were stacked almost entirely with his closest and most loyal allies. Diaz also suppressed the media and controlled the Mexican court system.
Diaz developed many pragmatic and personalist approaches to the political conflicts that occurred during his first term in office. Although known for standing with radical liberals, he made sure not to come across as a liberal ideologue while in office and maintained control of his political allies via generous systems of patronage. He was skilled at catering to interest groups and playing them off of one another to create the illusion of democracy, as well as quell rebellions before unrest began. He maintained the structure of elections so that a facade of liberal democracy remained during his rule, but his administration became famous for their suppression of civil society and public revolts. He also paid the US $300,000 in settlement claims to secure recognition of his regime and met with Ulysses S. Grant in 1878 while the latter visited Mexico.
Collapse
On February 17, 1908, Diaz gave an interview with an American journalist, James Creelman of Pearson’s Magazine, in which he stated that Mexico was ready for democracy and elections. Diaz also stated that he would retire and allow other candidates to compete for the presidency. Immediately, opposition groups began the search for suitable candidates. As candidates began to campaign, Diaz decided he was not going to retire, but instead run against a candidate he deemed appropriate. He chose Francisco Madero, an aristocratic but democratically leaning reformer. Madero was a landowner and ideologically similar to Diaz, but hoped for other Mexican elites to rule alongside the president.
Ultimately, Diaz had Madero jailed during the election. Despite this, Madero gained substantial popular support. However, when the results were announced, Diaz was proclaimed re-elected almost unanimously in a massive display of electoral fraud, arousing widespread anger throughout the country. Madero called for revolt against Diaz. Diaz was forced from office and fled the country for Spain on May 31, 1911. And the Mexican Revolution began.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1917
The Mexican Revolution took place over the course of a decade and radically transformed Mexican culture and government. It was a major armed struggle from 1910 through 1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Its outbreak is attributed to Porfirio Diaz’s failure to resolve the problem of presidential succession. In the short term, events were precipitated by the results of the 1910 presidential election in which Diaz committed massive electoral fraud and declared himself the winner against his then-jailed opponent, Francisco Madero. Armed conflict ousted Diaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, in which Madero won the presidency.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the role of the Porfirio Diaz on the Mexican Revolution.
- Analyze the impact of the United States on the Mexican Revolution.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Plan de Ayala: a document drafted by revolutionary Emiliano Zapata during November 1911, denouncing President Madero for his perceived betrayal of revolutionary ideals and setting out a vision of future land reform
Treaty of Ciudad Juarez: a peace treaty signed between then-President of Mexico Porfirio Diaz and revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21, 1911, ending the fighting between their respective forces and ending the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution
The Madero Presidency, 1911 – 1913
Despite Madero’s lack of political experience, his election as president in October 1911 raised high expectations for positive change. However, these expectations were tempered by the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, signed on May 21, 1911, between Diaz and Madero, which put an end to fighting between the two factions but also stipulated that certain essential elements of the Diaz regime, such as the federal army, stay in place. Madero called for the rebels who had brought him to power to return to civilian life. In their place, Madero increasingly relied upon the federal army to deal with armed rebellions that broke out in Mexico from 1911 to 1912.
The press, newly unencumbered by Madero’s less authoritarian regime, embraced their newfound freedoms by making the president himself the object of criticism. Organized labor exercised their newfound freedoms under the Madero regime by staging strikes, which foreign entrepreneurs found threatening to their business concerns. A rise in anti-American sentiment accompanied these developments. The anarcho-syndicalist Casa del Obrero Mundial was founded in September 1912 and served primarily as a center of agitation and propaganda rather than exclusively as a labor union. A number of political parties also proliferated across the country, including the National Catholic Party, which was particularly strong in a number of regions.
Madero, unlike Diaz, failed to reward those who had brought him to power, though many revolutionary leaders expected personal rewards or major reforms in return for their service. Emiliano Zapata, in particular, long worked for land reform in Mexico and expected Madero to make some major changes. However, during a personal meeting with the guerrilla leader, Madero told Zapata that the agrarian question needed careful study, giving rise to the belief that Madero—a member of a rich northern landholding family—was unlikely to implement comprehensive agrarian reform. In response, Zapata drafted the Plan de Ayala in November 1911, declaring himself in rebellion against Madero. Zapata renewed guerrilla warfare in the state of Morelos, and Madero was forced to send the federal army to deal, unsuccessfully, with his forces.
Likewise, the northern revolutionary general Pascual Orozco felt slighted after being put in charge of large forces of rurales in Chihuahua, instead of being chosen as governor of the same region. After being passed over and witnessing Madero’s refusal to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours, pay, and conditions, Orozco assembled his own army to rebel against the president, aggravating U.S. businessmen and other foreign investors in the northern region. For many, these upheavals signaled Madero’s inability to maintain the order that had underpinned Diaz’s 35-year long regime. Madero dispatched General Victoriano Huerta of the federal army to put down Orozco’s revolt in April 1912. Ultimately, Huerta was successful in ending the rebellion, leading many conservative forces to tout him as a powerful counter-force to Madero’s regime.
A number of other rebellions occurred during a period known as the Ten Tragic Days. During this time, U.S. Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson brokered the Pact of the Embassy, formalizing an alliance between Huerta and Felix Diaz—a nephew of the former president and rebel leader. The treaty ensured that Huerta would become provisional president of Mexico following the resignations of Madero and his vice president. However, rather than being sent into exile, the two were murdered during transport to prison, which though shocking did not prevent recognition of Huerta’s regime by most world governments. Following the assumption of Huerta of the presidency, former revolutionaries had no formally organized opposition to the established government.
The Huerta Dictatorship, 1913 – 1914
Although Huerta’s regime attempted to legitimize his hold on power and demonstrate its legality by pursuing reformist policies in the first several months of his presidency, after October 1913 he dropped all attempts to rule within a legal framework and murdered political opponents while battling revolutionary forces that had united against his regime. For these reasons, Huerta’s presidency is usually characterized as a dictatorship. Huerta’s regime was supported initially by foreign and domestic business interests, landed elites, the Roman Catholic Church, and the German and British governments. And Mexico was militarized to a greater extent than ever before. However, within a month of the coup that brought Huerta to power, several rebellions broke out across the country. The Northern revolutionaries fought under the name of the Constitutionalist Army and Zapata continued his rebellion in Morelos under the Plan de Ayala, despite Huerta’s interest in land reform as an issue. Huerta offered peace to Zapata, but he rejected it.
Incoming U.S. President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta’s government despite the urging of Ambassador Wilson, who played a key role in the regime change. In the summer of 1913, President Wilson recalled Ambassador Wilson and sent John Lind—his own personal representative—to continue U.S.-Mexican diplomatic relations. Lind was a progressive who sympathized with the Mexican revolutionaries and urged other European powers to join America in non-recognition of the Huerta regime. He also urged Huerta to call elections and not step up as a candidate, using economic and military threats to back up his pleadings.
Mexican conservatives were also seeking an elected civilian alternative to Huerta’s regime and brought together a number of candidates in a National Unifying Junta. The fragmentation of the conservative political landscape reinforced Huerta’s belief that he would not be removed from power, whereas the proliferation of political parties and presidential candidates proved to the country’s conservative elite that there was a growing disillusionment with Huerta and his regime.
On October 26, 1913, Huerta dispensed with the Mexican legislature, surrounding the building with his army and arresting congressmen he perceived hostile to his regime. Congressional elections went ahead, but the fervor of opposition candidates decreased. The October 1913 elections ended any pretension of constitutional rule within Mexico, and civilian political activities were banned. Additionally, many prominent Catholics were arrested, and Catholic periodicals were suppressed. Huerta’s position continued to deteriorate, and his army suffered several defeats during this time. Finally, in mid-July 1914, he stepped down and fled the country. He died six months after going into exile, after having been arrested by US authorities and held at Fort Bliss, Texas. Huerta’s resignation also marked the dissolution of the federal army and the beginning of an era of civil war among the revolutionary factions that united to oppose Huerta’s regime.
War of the Winners, 1914 – 1915
The revolutionary factions that remained in Mexico gathered at the Convention of Aguascalientes in October 1914. During this time, there was a brief break in revolutionary violence. However, rather than facilitate a reconciliation among the different factions, Venustiano Carranza and Pancho Villa engaged in a power struggle, leading to a definitive break between the two revolutionaries. Carranza expected to be named First Chief of the revolutionary forces, but his supporters were overpowered during the convention by Zapata and Villa’s supporters, who called on Carranza to resign executive power. Carranza agreed to do so only if Villa and Zapata also resigned and went into exile. He also stipulated that there be a pre-constitutionalist government to carry out the necessary political and social reforms the country needed before a fully constitutional government was reestablished. As a result of these conditions, the convention declared Carranza in rebellion and civil war resumed.
Northern general Villa formed an alliance with the southern leader Zapata. The resultant combined forces were called the Army of the Convention. In December 1914, their forces moved on Mexico City and captured it, Carranza’s forces having fled shortly beforehand. In practice, however, the Army of the Convention did not survive as an alliance beyond this initial victory against the Constitutionalists. Shortly thereafter, Zapata returned to his southern stronghold and Villa resumed fighting against Carranza’s forces in the north. In the meantime, the United States sided with Carranza, who was based in American-occupied Veracruz. The United States timed its exit from Veracruz to benefit Carranza, sending his forces munitions and formally recognizing his government in 1915.
Villa’s forces met with those of Carranza’s allies at the Battle of Celaya in April 6 – 15, 1915, which ended in a decisive Constitutionalist victory due to their superior military tactics. As a result, Carranza emerged as Mexico’s political leader with support from the army.
Constitutionalism Under Carranza, 1915 – 1920
As revolutionary violence subsided in 1916, the leaders of Mexico met to draw up a new constitution. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 that resulted was strongly national. Article 27 provided the government with the right to expropriate natural resources from foreign interests, enabling land reform. There were also provisions to protect organized labor and articles extending state power over the Roman Catholic Church within Mexico. Carranza also pushed for women’s rights and equality during his presidency, which helped to transform women’s legal status within the country.
Carranza, though able to enact many reforms, was still vulnerable to revolutionary unrest. Zapata remained active in Morelos, which due to its proximity to Mexico City remained a vulnerability for the Carranza government. The Constitutionalist Army, renamed the Mexican National Army, was dispatched to fight Zapata’s Liberating Army of the South, and government agents assassinated Zapata in 1919. Carranza also sent generals to track down Villa in the north, but they were only able to capture some of his men.
Due to the legacy of Diaz’s “no re-election” policy, it was politically untenable for Carranza to seek re-election after his first term, so instead, when his term in office was nearly finished, he endorsed political unknown Ignacio Bonillas. However, some existing northern revolutionary leaders found the prospect of a civilian Carranza puppet candidate untenable and hatched a revolt against Carranza called the Plan of Agua Prieta. As a result, Carranza attempted to flee Mexico, but died on his way to the Gulf Coast.
The 1920s
The National Revolutionary Party held power consistently from 1929 to 2000 by settling disputes among different political interest groups within the framework of a single party machine.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the impact of the Mexican Revolution on the 1920s.
- Analyze the long term goals of the Mexican Revolution and how they affected individuals.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Democratic Current: a movement within the PRI founded in 1986 that criticized the federal government for reducing spending on social programs to increase payments on foreign debt (PRI members who participated in the Democratic Current were expelled from the party and formed the National Democratic Front (FDN).)
Mexican Modernist School: the artistic movement within Mexico that was especially prolific in the 1930s, glorifying the Mexican Revolution and redefining the Mexican people vis-à-vis their indigenous and colonial past; large-scale murals were its preferred medium
National Revolutionary Party: the Mexican political party founded in 1929 that held executive power within the country for an uninterrupted 71 years (It underwent two name changes during its time in power: once in 1938, to Partido de la Revolucion Mexican (PRM), and again in 1946, to Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).)
Plan de Ayala: a document drafted by revolutionary Emiliano Zapata during November 1911, denouncing President Madero for his perceived betrayal of revolutionary ideals and setting out a vision of future land reform
surrealist: a cultural and artistic movement that mixed dream and reality into one composition
History
Although the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution ended in 1920, Mexico continued to experience political unrest in the years that followed. In 1928, president-elect Alvaro Obregon was assassinated, giving rise to a political crisis. The following year, this led to the founding of the National Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, Partdio Nacional Revolucionario, or PNR) by sitting president Plutarco Elias Calles. Calles’s intention in founding the PNR was to end the violent power struggles taking place between factions of the Mexican Revolution, as well as guarantee the peaceful transmission of power across presidential administrations. In the first years of the PNR’s existence, it was the only political machine in existence. In fact, from 1929 until 1982, the PNR won every presidential election by well over 70 percent of the vote.
In 1938, Lazaro Cardenas, the president of Mexico at the time, changed the name of the PNR to Partdio de la Revolucion Mexicana, or PRM. The PRM’s revised aim was to establish a socialist democracy of workers. In practice, however, this was never achieved, and the PRM was split functionally into many mass organizations that represented different interest groups. Settling disputes within the framework of a single political party helped to prevent legislative gridlock and militarized rebellions, which were common during the Mexican Revolution. For these reasons, its supporters maintained that the party itself was crucial to the modernization and stability of Mexico as a whole. In fact, the first four decades of PRM rule were dubbed the “Mexican Miracle” due to the economic growth that occurred as a result of import substitution, low inflation, and the implementation of successful national development plans. Between 1940 and 1970, Mexican GDP increased sixfold and peso-dollar parity was maintained. Party detractors, however, pointed to the lack of transparency and democratic processes, which ultimately made the lower levels of administration subordinate to the whims of the party machine.
Corruption and Opposing Political Parties
As in previous regimes, the PRM retained its hold over the electorate due to massive electoral fraud. Toward the end of every president’s term, consultations with party leaders would take place and the PRM’s next candidate would be selected. In other words, the incumbent president would pick his successor. To support the party’s dominance in the executive branch of government, the PRM sought dominance at other levels as well. It held an overwhelming majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate and every state governorship.
As a result, the PRM became a symbol over time of corruption, including voter suppression and violence. In 1986, Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, the former Governor of Michoacan and son of the former president Lazaro Cardenas, formed the Democratic Current, which criticized the federal government for reducing spending on social programs to increase payments on foreign debt. Members of the Democratic Current were expelled from the party, and in 1987, they formed the National Democratic Front—or Frente Democratico Nacional (FDN). In 1989, the left wing of the PRM, now called Partido Revolucionario Institucional, or PRI, went on to form its own party called the Party of the Democratic Revolution. The conservative National Action Party, likewise, grew after 1976 when it obtained support from the business sector, in light of recurring economic crises. The growth of both these opposition parties resulted in the PRI losing the presidency in 2000.
Art and Culture in 20th-Century Mexico
The Mexican Modernist School used large-scale murals to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes.
Mexican Muralism and Revolutionary Art
The Mexican Revolution had a dramatic effect on Mexican art. The government allied itself with intellectuals and artists in Mexico City and commissioned murals for public buildings to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes. The production of art in conjunction with government propaganda is known as the Mexican Modernist School, or the Mexican Muralist Movement. Many such works glorified the Mexican Revolution or redefined the Mexican people vis-à-vis their indigenous and colonial past. The first of these commissioned works was done by Fernando Leal, Fermin Revueltas, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera at San Ildefonso, a prestigious Jesuit boarding school. The muralist movement reached its height in the 1930s with four main artists: Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Jose Clemente Orozco, and Fernando Leal. It is now the most studied aspect of Mexico’s art history. These four artists were trained in classical European techniques and many of their early works were imitations of then-fashionable European paintings styles.
Many Mexican government buildings featured murals glorifying Mexico’s pre-Hispanic past and incorporating it into the definition of Mexican identity. Many of these muralists also revived the fresco technique in their mural work, although some like Siqueiros moved to industrial techniques and materials such as the application of pyroxilin, a commercial enamel used for airplanes and automobiles.
Diego Rivera
Rivera painted his first significant mural, Creation, in the Bolivar Auditorium of the National Preparatory School in Mexico City in January 1922 while guarding himself with a pistol against right-wing students. In the autumn of 1922, Rivera participated in the founding of the Revolutionary Union of Technical Workers, Painters and Sculptors, and later that year he joined the Mexican Communist Party. His murals were greatly influenced by his leftist political leanings, dealing with Mexican society and reflecting the country’s 1910 Revolution. He developed his own native style based on large, simplified figures and bold colors. A strong Aztec influence was present in his works, and much of his art emulated the Mayan steles of the classical era.
Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo de Rivera was a Mexican painter known for her self-portraits. While she painted canvases instead of murals, she is still considered part of the Mexican Modernist School due to the emphasis of Mexican folk culture and use of color in her works. She was married to muralist Diego Rivera and like Rivera was an active communist. Kahlo was influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as demonstrated by her use of bright colors, dramatic symbolism, and primitive style. She often included monkeys in her works; while this is usually a symbol of lust in Mexican mythology, Kahlo’s portrayal was tender and protective. Christian and Jewish themes were often depicted in Kahlo’s work. She combined elements of classic religious Mexican traditions with surrealist components in her paintings.
Primary Source: Francisco Madero: The Plan of San Luis Potosi, November 20, 1910
The Mexican presidential election of 1910 was stolen when Porfirio Diaz - the longtime dictator, had his opponent Madero arrested and imprisoned. Madero took refuge infled to San Antonio, and issued the Plan of San Luis Potosi calling for the nullification of the elections and upon Mexicans to take up arms against the government. The date of its issue marks the beginning of the Mexican Revolution.
Francisco Madero: The Plan of San Luis Potosi, November 20, 1910
Peoples, in their constant efforts for the triumph of the ideal of liberty and justice, are forced, at precise historical moments, to make their greatest sacrifices.Our beloved country has reached one of those moments. A force of tyranny which we Mexicans were not accustomed to suffer after we won our independence oppresses us in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because its basis is not law, but force; because its object is not the aggrandizement and prosperity of the country, but to enrich a small group who, abusing their influence, have converted the public charges into fountains of exclusively personal benefit, unscrupulously exploiting the manner of lucrative concessions and contracts.The legislative and judicial powers are completely subordinated to the executive; the division of powers, the sovereignty of the States, the liberty of the common councils, and the rights of the citizens exist only in writing in our great charter; but, as a fact, it may almost be said that martial law constantly exists in Mexico; the administration of justice, instead of imparting protection to the weak, merely serves to legalize the plunderings committed by the strong; the judges instead of being the representatives of justice, are the agents of the executive, whose interests they faithfully serve; the chambers of the union have no other will than that of the dictator; the governors of the States are designated by him and they in their turn designate and impose in like manner the municipal authorities.From this it results that the whole administrative, judicial, and legislative machinery obeys a single will, the caprice of General Porfirio Diaz, who during his long administration has shown that the principal motive that guides him is to maintain himself in power and at any cost.For many years profound discontent has been felt throughout the Republic, due to such a system of government, but General Diaz with great cunning and perseverance, has succeeded in annihilating all independent elements, so that it was not possible to organize any sort of movement to take from him the power of which he made such bad use. The evil constantly became worse, and the decided eagerness of General Diaz to impose a successor upon the nations in the person of Mr. Ramon Corral carried that evil to its limit and caused many of us Mexicans, although lacking recognized political standing, since it had been impossible to acquire it during the 36 years of dictatorship, to throw ourselves into the struggle to recover the sovereignty of the people and their rights on purely democratic grounds....In Mexico, as a democratic Republic, the public power can have no other origin nor other basis than the will of the people, and the latter can not be subordinated to formulas to be executed in a fraudulent manner. . . ,For this reason the Mexican people have protested against the illegality of the last election and, desiring to use successively all the recourses offered by the laws of the Republic, in due form asked for the nullification of the election by the Chamber of Deputies, notwithstanding they recognized no legal origin in said body and knew beforehand that, as its members were not the representatives of the people, they would carry out the will of General Diaz, to whom exclusively they owe their investiture.In such a state of affairs the people, who are the only sovereign, also protested energetically against the election in imposing manifestations in different parts of the Republic; and if the latter were not general throughout the national territory, It was due to the terrible pressure exercised by the Government, which always quenches in blood any democratic manifestation, as happened in Puebla, Vera Cruz, Tlaxcala, and in other places.But this violent and illegal system can no longer subsist.I have very well realized that if the people have designated me as their candidate. for the Presidency it is not because they have had an opportunity to discover in me the qualities of a statesman or of a ruler, but the virility of the patriot determined to sacrifice himself, if need be, to obtain liberty and to help the people free themselves from the odious tyranny that oppresses them.From the moment I threw myself into the democratic struggle I very well knew that General Diaz would not bow to the will of the nation, and the noble Mexican people, in following me to the polls, also knew perfectly the outrage that awaited them; but in spite of it, the people gave the cause of liberty a numerous contingent of martyrs when they were necessary and with wonderful stoicism went to the polls and received every sort of molestation.But such conduct was indispensable to show to the whole world that the Mexican people are fit for democracy, that they are thirsty for liberty, and that their present rulers do not measure up to their aspirations.Besides, the attitude of the people before and during the election, as well as afterwards, shows clearly that they reject with energy the Government of General Diaz and that, if those electoral rights had been respected, I would have been elected for President of the Republic.Therefore, and in echo of the national will, I declare the late election illegal and, the Republic being accordingly without rulers, provisionally assume the Presidency of the Republic until the people designate their rulers pursuant to the law. In order to attain this end, it is necessary to eject from power the audacious usurpers whose only title of legality involves a scandalous and immoral fraud.With all honesty I declare that it would be a weakness on my part and treason to the people, who have placed their confidence in me, not to put myself at the front of my fellow citizens, who anxiously call me from all parts of the country, to compel General Diaz by force of arms, to respect the national will.
From United States Congress, Senate Subcommittee on Foreign Relations, Revolutions in Mexico, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 730-736, passim.
Attributions
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Pancho Villa and his followers: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Pancho_and_his_followers.jpg
Boundless World History
https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/mexico/
Primary Source:
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1910potosi.asp
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.249380
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Neil Greenwood
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87956/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 11: Reactions, Mexican Revolution",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview
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Political Challenges
Overview
Political Changes
Liberalism and Nationalism continued to impact European culture and society in the late 19th century. As a result of the French Revolution and the subsequent revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, most European states enjoyed a Liberal form of government (Liberalism - written constitution, elected representative government, equal rights for all citizens under the law, and personal, individual freedoms such as freedom of religion and speech). Across Western and Central Europe, the right to vote was extended to include all adult males (universal male suffrage). New political parties arose in these areas to woo these voters and win seats in the elected legislatures. Elected political leaders claimed to be advancing the national interests of the voters. Rising national rivalries set the stage for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
Learning Objectives
- Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
- Identify the political changes in Europe in the late 19th century.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Eugenics: a set of beliefs and practices that seeks to “improve the quality of the human race,” historically by excluding people and groups identified as inferior and promoting those designated to be superior
Victorian Era: in British history, the era between 1820 and 1914, which corresponds to the period of Queen Victoria’s reign (1837 – 1901)
Progressive Era: a period in United States History between approximately 1890 – 1918 when reformers aimed to address social, economic, and political problems impacting American society
Trusts: the term “trusts” in a historical sense refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States in the 19th century and early 20th century. A monopoly is a business with little or no competition in the sale of certain goods or services
Anarchists: followers of a political philosophy that rejects authority and social classes; seeks the destruction of government, which it considers harmful
Europe in the Late 19th Century
Many Europeans in the late 19th century were brimming with hope and optimism regarding the supposed bright and wonderful future of the human race. However, from the perspective of the early 21st century, historians can see that Europe was heading for a catastrophic Great War (1914 – 1918) that would cast a long shadow and result in continual wars and conflicts around the world for the next century. The causes of this Great War are many, and no one nation started this war, even though many Europeans came to blame Germany. The outbreak of this war came at the end of a long process that began with rapid economic growth worldwide. This economic expansion, however, resulted in destructive social and ethnic tensions that threatened to tear European states apart. To counter these dividing forces, the peoples of Europe embraced nationalism as a means to maintain social order and unity. This same nationalism that promoted internal unity within each nation, also stirred up intense rivalries between different nations. To advance their national interests against rival nations, national leaders embraced militarism—the idea that nations could maintain national security and advance their national interests through their military and with quick, decisive wars. The Great European powers also sought to achieve national security through imperialism—the conquest and annexation of overseas territory, primarily in Africa and Asia. By the early 20th century, the European powers had formed competing military alliances against one another due to their national and imperialist rivalries. After Europe had become divided into rival military alliances— the Triple Entente (United Kingdom, France, Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary), a series of international crises in the beginning of the 20th century led to the outbreak of war in 1914.
Social Tensions
In this period leading to this conflict, the different social classes across Europe looked upon each other with increasing suspicion and distrust due to their different economic experiences. In Europe the elite aristocracy still enjoyed great wealth and high status due to their large, landed estates. In rural areas especially, the local peasants continued to show these aristocrats customary deference and respect. The aristocracy, however, was quite alarmed by the ever-increasing wealth and influence of the middle class, who were steadily improving their socio-economic status, because Liberalism and the Market Revolution had enabled the middle class to challenge the aristocracy for the leadership of European society. To maintain their social and political influence, aristocrats often pursued a military career due to the traditional association of the aristocracy with medieval knighthood. The officer corps of European countries, and Germany in particular, was dominated by aristocrats. Some aristocrats boosted their incomes by marrying wealthy heiresses from middle class families. For example, the mother of the aristocratic, British statesman, Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965), was Jennie Jerome, the daughter of a wealthy American, Leonard Jerome, who was the so-called "King of Wall Street."
The middle class was especially confident, even arrogant, in this era, viewing both the aristocracy and the working class with disdain and contempt for their alleged laziness and immorality. The middle class included not only the owners of businesses, but also the rising number of professionals, such as accountants and engineers that were employed by large companies. Members of the middle class tended to attribute their financial success to their own hard work and abilities, as well as personal piety. Members of this class, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, at least publicly, closely followed the moral teachings of Christianity. Young men and women, for example, were expected to remain chaste until marriage, and any divorce was scandalous. Middle class men also were proud that their wives didn't need to work outside the home, unlike working class women, and could devote their time to raising and educating their children. But everyone was expected to be productive with their time, which may be owing to the “The Protestant Work-ethic,” with which came the idea that “idle hands are the Devil’s workshop.”
In this period, not all members of the middle class embraced the Christian faith, but instead some found inspiration in ideas that emerged from the Enlightenment. The French philosopher, Auguste Compte (1798 – 1857) had put forth the philosophical notion of Positivism. According to Compte, scientists could not only employ the scientific method to research the natural world but also to examine social problems, such as poverty and crime. Compte was confident that humanity could end all of societies' ills through the advancement of science and reason. Another influential thinker was the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) with his philosophy of Utilitarianism. According to Bentham, society was morally obligated to promote material happiness to the most people in society. Bentham's ideas inspired prison reform in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. Bentham maintained that prisoners should not simply be punished in prison, but reformed, so that they could return to society and contribute their talents for the common good. Another influential thinker in this period was the English social scientist Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903). Spencer took inspiration from the scientific research of the English scientist, Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882). In his monumental work, The Origin of Species (1859), Darwin maintained that complex species of living beings evolve over time from more simple species through the process of natural selection. Spencer maintained that advanced human societies, likewise, evolve over time from primitive societies. According to Spencer's Social Darwinism, the most talented and "fit" members of society have pushed forward social evolution. Some followers of Spencer's ideas even embraced eugenics and maintained that the poor and criminal members of society were "unfit" and should be prevented from having children because they were holding back social evolution.
Middle class women often played a critical role in these reform efforts. Educated middle class women couldn't enter politics or work outside the home as a professional, but these women could perform charitable work for churches and reform organizations. In Great Britain in the Victorian Era, women were supposedly more compassionate and nurturing than men due to their role as mothers, so they were best suited to help the poor and suffering in society. In England, for example, Florence Nightingale (1820 – 1910), inspired by her Christian faith, worked tirelessly to improve public hospitals for the poor and to train women to become nurses. In the United States, Florence Kelley (1859 –1932), inspired by her commitment to Socialism, organized the Consumers League, which lobbied the state and federal governments to end child labor and establish an 8-hour day and minimum wage.
The Rise of the Working Class
The size of the working class continued to swell during this period, as millions of people left rural areas to find work in cities and towns for wages in mines, factories, and other businesses. Working class families faced many challenges. Many of these workers came directly from rural villages, where they worked closely and informally as agricultural laborers with friends and family. In their new jobs in the cities, however, workers labored for long hours (often 10 to 12 hours a day) under the constant supervision of an overseer in a very regimented environment. Workers also lived in fear that they could see their wages reduced or their jobs eliminated because of an economic downturn or even getting ill for a short period. They often resented that their affluent, middle-class employers paid them too little for their labor and treated them inhumanely.
In this period, workers sought to increase their wages and improve their working conditions by joining labor unions. Unions negotiated with employers on behalf of union members for higher wages and set hours. Unions pressured employers to agree to their demands by going on strike and organizing boycotts against employers, which sometimes led to violence. In 1894, for example, in the United States, the American Railway Union organized a massive strike of railroad workers in the Chicago area to protest wage cuts by the Pullman Company, which manufactured railway cars. When the railroad companies hired new workers ("scabs") to replace the striking workers, violence erupted between the strikers and the "scabs."
The Politics of the Working Class
The working class also hoped to improve their standard of living though political action. By the late nineteenth century, workers in western and central Europe could vote due to Liberal reform and universal male suffrage. Across Europe, labor unions organized new political parties to represent the interests of the working class. In Germany labor unions founded the Social Democratic Party in 1875, which quickly became the largest political party in Germany. In 1893 union workers in the United Kingdom established the Labour Party, which replaced the Liberal (Whig) Party as the main opposition to the Conservative (Tory) Party after World War I. In France (1880), Italy (1882), and Belgium (1885) the working-class political party was simply known as the Workers Party. In Russia, workers in 1898 organized the Social Democratic Labor Party, even though they could not vote, and Russia didn't even have a Liberal constitution. All these parties embraced Socialism as their ideology. According to this system of thought, the Capitalist Bourgeoisie (middle class) oppressed and exploited the working class to amass their private fortunes. Socialists envisioned a day when the "means of production" (i.e., land, tools, machinery) would be publicly owned rather than the private property of these capitalists. In the United States, the Populist Party arose in 1890 to challenge the political domination of the two main political parties—the Democratic and Republican Parties. The Populists claimed to represent the interests of the majority of Americans who were small, landowning farmers, tenant farmers, and labor union members. The Populists were not Socialists, but they wanted the government to rein in "Big Business" and the "Trusts" through government regulation of large corporations, such as railroads, and higher taxes on wealthy Americans. After 1896 when the Democratic Party merged with the Populist Party, a Socialist Party did arise in 1901 in the United States and even won elections at the state and local level in the first two decades of the 20th century.
In the late 19th century Socialists were deeply divided regarding the best tactics to achieve their objectives. In England, the Fabian Socialists maintained that a Socialist society would eventually evolve peacefully in England over time through the democratic process. In Germany, the philosopher and statesman Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) maintained that the working class could improve its social and economic standing over time through government reform, even if that government was the government of the Prussian, Hohenzollern monarchy. The German Social Democratic Party, inspired by the ideas of Lasalle, worked with Chancellor Bismarck in the German Reichstag (Parliament) in 1884 to create accident insurance for German workers. This new law required German employers for the first time to be responsible for the healthcare costs of their employees who were injured on the job. Likewise, in 1897 in the United Kingdom, the Socialist Labour Party urged Parliament to create "workman's compensation" law, which required employers to pay for the medical treatment of injured employees.
Not all Socialists, however, embraced the peaceful, democratic tactics of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party. Karl Marx, the author of the Communist Manifesto in 1848, maintained that Socialism would only succeed through social revolution by the working class (the Proletariat). In the late 19th century, radical Anarchists asserted that only violent revolution would overthrow bourgeois capitalists. Anarchists targeted prominent statesmen and government officials for assassination. Anarchists hoped that such violent acts would lead to further repression by capitalist governments, which would ultimately lead to a widespread proletariat revolution. Anarchists in this era successfully assassinated Czar Alexander II of Russia in 1881, the Empress Elizabeth of Austria in 1898, the President Sadi Carnot of France in 1894, and President William McKinley of the United States in 1901. In 1886 a bomb killed policemen during a labor union rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois; the following year leading anarchists in the area suspected of this crime were executed by hanging. Fear of anarchist violence and the threat of social revolution prompted leading "Progressives" in the US in the Progressive Era, such as President Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1908), to push for legislation to rein in "Big Business" as the "Trust Buster" and improve the lot of the working class, in order to siphon off popular support for such a revolution.
Ethnic Tensions
As class tensions surged in this period, European states were also in turmoil due to internal cultural and ethnic rivalries and conflict.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland was predominantly Roman Catholic except for Northern Ireland, whereas the rest of the United Kingdom was Protestant; Ireland was also much more rural with less industry than other regions of the country. In Ireland the Fenians—Irish Nationalists—desired an independent Irish Republic.
In France the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France spoke their own distinct language and were staunchly Roman Catholic; they were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of Paris, the French capital, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France also were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission later in 1906 exonerated Dreyfus, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation. In France one divisive issue involved public education. Conservative Roman Catholics supported Roman Catholic parochial schools, whereas more Liberal French citizens supported secular public schools.
In Spain, ethnic conflict erupted into civil war. In Catalonia around the city of Barcelona especially, the region was more industrialized than the rest of Spain. In 1873, the king of Spain Amadeo I (r. 1870 – 1873) abdicated the throne in the face of popular unrest, and Spain briefly became a republic. This radical republic had strong support among the working class in Catalonia. However, the Basques in rural, northern Spain were staunch Roman Catholics, who spoke their own language. Along with some Catalans, they supported Don Carlos (1848 – 1909), a Conservative member of the former Bourbon Dynasty in Spain, as the true king of Spain in the Carlist War (1872 – 1876). In the face of this civil war, the Spanish army, dominated by Conservative, aristocratic officers from Castile in central Spain, overthrew the short-lived republic in 1874, restored order, and installed Alfonso XII as king, who was the son of the former Spanish queen Isabella II.
In Germany the mutual antagonism between Protestants and Roman Catholics became known as the Kulturkampf ("Cultural Struggle"), which fortunately for Germany did not lead to armed conflict. Southern Germany was predominantly Roman Catholic and less industrialized, and consequently less wealthy, than Protestant northern Germany. In Germany, as in France, a very divisive issue was public education. Protestant leaders in northern Germany desired to shut down Roman Catholic parochial schools and force children in these schools to attend secular public schools. Instead of armed resistance, Roman Catholics in Germany in 1870 organized their own political party, the German Centre (Zentrum) Party, to represent their interests in the Reichstag, the German parliament. This party and the German Social Democratic Party were the two largest political parties in Germany in this period.
Ethnic tensions were much more intense in eastern Europe. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ethnic Germans and Hungarians with property could vote after 1867, but Slavic ethnic groups such as Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Poles, Slovenes, and Ruthenians were all denied the right to vote, along with ethnic Romanians, Italians, and Bosnians. The Russian Empire was also a multi-ethnic empire. However, the peoples of Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine all spoke closely related Slavic languages and shared a common Orthodox faith. The Russian Empire also included large number of Poles, who were Slavs, like the Russians, but Roman Catholic. The Poles were very nationalistic and maintained a memory of their nation's independence prior to the partition of Poland in the late 18th century. The Poles revolted against Russian rule in 1830 and 1863 without success and after a great loss of life. In the late 19th century Poles organized illegal, secret organizations to seek Polish independence from Russia, such as the Polish Socialist Party in 1892 and the National Democratic Party in 1897. Russia also possessed a large Jewish population, whose ancestors had lived in the former Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom. Russia's Jews faced much persecution and repression. Jewish villages in Russia were subject to violent pogroms, which were massacres of Jews by angry mobs. In 1881 the pogroms in the Russian Empire targeting Jews were especially vicious when many orthodox Christians blamed the Jews for the assassination of Czar Alexander II. The persecution of Jews in Russia along with widespread antisemitism across Europe inspired a Jewish movement, Zionism, which sought to create an independent Jewish homeland in Palestine, where ancient Israel once existed. A Jew from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Theodore Herzl (1860 -1904) helped organize the First Zionist Congress in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland. This international Jewish movement would lead eventually to the creation of the modern nation of Israel in 1948.
Competing Military Alliances
In the face of internal ethnic turmoil and class tensions and strife, fervent nationalism provided European states with a way to find unity and strength. In the late 19th century, European powers each sought to advance their own national interests through building up their armed forces and forming military alliances with other nations against common enemies. In this period Otto Von Bismarck, the German Chancellor played a decisive role in the diplomatic efforts to build such alliances, so much so, that historians have referred to this era as the "Age of Bismarck". Following the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Bismarck knew that France would seek national revenge against Germany for this humiliating defeat and seek to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck therefore set out to form military alliances with other European powers to keep France in check and to maintain peace in Europe. Austria-Hungary with its many ethnic groups maintained a strong alliance with Germany aimed against Russia, who claimed to be the champion of all Slavic peoples, some of whom were subject peoples of Austria-Hungary. For all European nations, nationalism and the formation of military alliances was a force for internal unity as political, social, social, and cultural tensions threatened to tear these nations apart.
Marxism Reaction to Capitalism
In the late 18th century, Adam Smith wrote Captialism, an Enlightenment approach to markets and understanding how to provide the best economy for the future. This approach talked about supply and demand for products as the basis for prices. Smith also discussed the ideas of having the market as independent from control of governments. The goal that Smith had was a change for the better towards a more open economy. The idea of capitalism was revolutionary for the late 18th century, where many businesses started to gravitate towards these ideas and policies. The market transformation would have dramatic effects on the origins of the Industrial Revolution, where businesses incorporated many of the Enlightenment ideas into their systems.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the differences between Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, and Anarchy.
- Analyze the impact of these philosophy on the world in the late 19th century.
Capitalism in the 19th century
The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to Europe in the 19th century. Many of these changes had direct impact on the quality of life for individuals. The rise of industrialization saw massive products manufactured quickly and had a direct impact on the price of goods. This would mean more products made, caused a drop in the price of those products. This would further the problems for individuals, because employers would pay smaller amounts to those workers, making their lives harder. Compounding the issue of working conditions was the movement of people to cities looking for work. The more supply of labor meant that the demand was steady to lessening. This would cause workers lives to be harder because they saw their wages dropping.
It is important to remember that there was another perspective that has to be understood in this time, that of the factory owner. The factory owner was interested in making money at this time and not hurting individuals. Business owners were constrained by their money that they earned at the market for goods and their inability to generate high revenue. Workers wages were directly tied to the revenue of the materials that they sold. This meant that as the goods were not able to generate higher profits, the factory owner was not able to pay the worker higher wages. This was a constraint of the market.
The system of early Industrial Revolution capitalism was very difficult because of the many constrains on the individuals and the businesses. It is important to note that this is neither right or wrong, but simply the outcomes of market interactions. Yet, these problems of the work place were compounded by other factors, such as individuals moving from the country to the city in search of jobs. This meant that the pool of labor was increasing in supply, but not in demand, meaning that wages for workers went down. People of the time saw these challenges and began to wrote and discussed how these problems affected individuals.
Karl Marx
In the 19th century there was a German philosopher/sociologist that began writing about the problems of capitalism on the worker. Marx was born in Germany and acquired an education as a lawyer. Marx was a writer and journalist in his early adulthood, working on many works that would explore ideas of justice in his eyes. Marx would explore Hegel’s ideas about relationships and utopian philosophy. In 1844, Marx met and began working with Friedrich Engles, another writer and philosopher/sociologist. Engles had written a work about the working class in England. These two leaders were a part of liberal movements of the time that were interested in challenging the system that was in place. These two philosophers began exploring the problems that the working class saw, specifically the problems of markets and labor relationships with businesses. The question they started to raise was how did capitalism work with the individual?
Marx began to think about the relationship of work, business, the individual, and how society should work together. The problem of the worker and how workers had limited rights in the system bothered Marx. In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Das Kapital, or Capital as it is known in English, that explored the ideas that the owner of the means of production is able to control the system. In the work, Marx began to critique capitalism, noting that the lower classes had limited rights in this system. To change this, Marx advocated for unions of workers to band together to stand up to owners. Think about it in a different way, that the individual person can easily be replaced if they say something is wrong, but if everyone stands up that they can challenge this system. This idea was modeled after the guild system that had been in place in Europe since the Middle Ages. The idea was if workers would come together, they could tell factory owners that they were unhappy with this work and push against the repression. That workers together could get better wages. That there was a natural class tension between what Marx called the bourgeoisie (factory owners) and the proletariat (the worker).. These two classes were in constant battle for money and power. Eventually Marx would take these theories further, that the only way to have a true revolution was to remove capitalism by removing private property, that individuals could not own things, and instead a system of sharing as a community would emerge as the next phase of economics. Other writers would take Marx and Engel’s ideas further that would be known as Marxist thought.
Marx and Engles worked with other groups that were interested in exploring these ideas and how they could cause a social revolution. While many at the time viewed Marx and Engels as against capitalism, they were noting how many problems there were with capitalism. These ideas would become the basis of new social and cultural movements such as socialism and communism.
To understand the impact of Marxist thought in the 19th century, it is important to understand the different forms of Marxism: socialism, communism, and anarchy. These different forms are very important because social movements in the 19th century around the world would use these as a way to try to challenge the 19th century world.
Capitalism
To understand the differences between Marxist thought, it is important to start with capitalism and understand their relationships between relationship between the worker, businesses, and governments. In pure Adam Smith capitalism, government and businesses were not to work together. This idea is known as Lassie Faire, where government and businesses were to have a hands off approach. This meant things like minimum wage was not something that a government was to worry about. That businesses were free to pay workers what they thought was fair. If the worker did not like this, they could find work somewhere else. That the worker had all the freedom that they could in the system. That any system of workers coming together to advocate for changes, this would be seen as antagonistic to capitalism.
Socialism
This is the first step towards a Marxist revolutionary overthrow. In classical socialism, the government and businesses are to work together to get the best outcomes for society. For example, providing high quality education by the government would benefit both governments and businesses. The business would have higher skilled laborers, and the government could earn more taxes by providing this service. Or businesses could give to schools and fund road projects. This would mean that businesses offered a solution that both governments and the business would benefit from. The worker, on the other hand, was to be able to join together and collectively ask for changes to both the business and government. This was to ensure that worker’s rights were listened too and give guidance to the government or business policies. The work between businesses and governments was very important for socialism.
Communism
This was an ideology that took the ideas of socialism and expanded the role of the relationship between businesses, governments, and workers. The idea was that local government by local institutions was the most important to communism. The goal was that all businesses and government was controlled by local unions. The idea was that workers knowing their needs at a local level could come together and provide bigger guidance for governments and businesses. In communism, the power of this society was in the hands of local workers and unions. The control of businesses and governments with unions meant that these institutions bowed to the will of the people.
Anarchy
In recent years, anarchy has become a very important topic of political conversation in movies and televisions shows. Many view anarchy as the absence of government, which is not necessarily the case in the 19th century. The idea of anarchy in the 19th century was that any government bigger than a local government was too big and was not sustainable to the individual. That a big government took advantage of individuals. An example an anarchist would give of a government that was too big would be the state of Georgia, where in the southern part of the state there would be no need for salt in the winter time for roads because it rarely freezes. The individuals in southern Georgia are being robed by the state when they pay taxes to purchase salt. An anarchist would say that the state of Georgia is too big because it is not able to respond to the needs of the individual. In an anarchist state, that government would be incredibly local, because governments would be responsible at the local level. The goal of anarchy was that individuals had the most power through unions.
Consequences of the Reactions to Capitalism
The reactions to capitalism had direct consequences in the late 19th century. These ideas began to spread and many began to advocate for changes in the social and political organizations of the Industrial Revolution. There was a rise in unions in the late 19th century, many saw that this was a reaction to capitalism. The rise of unions advocated for many changes, such as having weekends off, breaks in the day, regulations on hours of work per day, and end of child labor. Unions played a large role in the relationships of labor in the late 19th century.
In the 21st century, it is difficult to understand the importance of socialism, communism, and anarchy because of the rise of socialist and anarchist states in the 20th century. Yet, the most radical of these philosophies was not socialism or communism, but instead anarchy. Anarchist in the late 19th century were active in destruction of property and assassinations.
Nationalism and Militarism
In the decades prior to the outbreak of World War I in1914, nationalism reached a fevered pitch, as European nations all aspired to protect and advance their national interests. To achieve this goal, the “Great Powers” of Europe embraced militarism and vastly increased their military might.
Learning Objectives
- Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I.
- Examine the origins of nationalism and militarism in Europe.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
constitutive theory of statehood: a 19th century theory that defines a state as a person in international law if, and only if, it is recognized as sovereign by other states
declarative theory of statehood: a theory that defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government; and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states; determines that an entity’s statehood is independent of its recognition by other states
conscription: the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often military service
jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests
militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state”.
Introduction to Nation-States
The concept of a nation-state is notoriously difficult to define. Anthony Smith, one of the most influential scholars of nation-states and nationalism, argued that a state is a nation-state only if and when a single ethnic and cultural population inhabits the boundaries of a state, and the boundaries of that state are coextensive with the boundaries of that ethnic and cultural population. This is a very narrow definition that presumes the existence of the “one nation, one state” model. Consequently, less than 10% of states in the world meet its criteria.
The most obvious deviation from this largely ideal model is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are excluded from the majority nation by ethnic and cultural nationalists. The most illustrative historical examples of groups that have been specifically singled out as outsiders by nationalists are the Roma and Jews in Europe.
In legal terms, many nation-states today accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, which generally implies that members of minorities are citizens of a given nation-state and enjoy the same rights and liberties as members of the majority nation. However, nationalists and, consequently, symbolic narratives of the origins and history of nation-states often continue to exclude minorities from the nation-state and the nation.
According to a wider working definition, a nation-state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state, if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory of statehood. A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, while a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term “nation-state” implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a nation-state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city-state, empire, and confederation, as well as other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation-state.
Characteristics of Nation-States
Nation-states have their own characteristics that today may be taken-for-granted factors shaping a modern state, but that all developed in contrast to pre-national states. Their territory is considered semi-sacred and nontransferable. Nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social, and cultural life. Nation-states typically have a more centralized and uniform public administration than their imperial predecessors because they are smaller and less diverse. After the 19th-century triumph of the nation-state in Europe, regional identity was usually subordinate to national identity. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinate to central (national) government. This process has been partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy in formerly centralized states (e.g., France).
The most obvious impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language, and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education is usually linked with the popularization of nationalist narratives. Even today, primary and secondary schools around the world often teach a mythologized version of national history.
Nationalism
Romantic nationalism was an integral part of actual nationalist political movements, which emerged in earnest in the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic wars. Those movements would ultimately succeed in seeing their goals realized almost without exception, although that process took over a century in some cases (like that of Poland and Ireland). Central to nationalist movements was the concept that the state should correspond to the identity of a “people,” although who or what defines the identity of “the people” proved a vexing issue on many occasions.
The discussion of nationalism starts with the French Revolution, because more than any other event, it provided the model for all subsequent nationalisms. The French revolutionaries declared from the outset that they represented the whole "nation," not just a certain part of it. They erased the legal privileges of some (the nobles), made religion subservient to a secular government, and, when threatened by the conservative powers of Europe, called the whole "nation" to arms. The revolutionary armies sang a national anthem. the Marseillaise, whose lyrics are as warlike as the American equivalent. Central to French national identity in the revolutionary period was fighting for la patrie—the fatherland—in place of the old allegiance to king and church.
The irony of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, however, was that the countries invaded by the French eventually adopted their own nationalist beliefs. The invaded countries turned the democratic French principle of self-determination into a sacred right to defend their own national identities, shaped by their own particular histories, against the universalist pretensions of the French. This was reflected in the Spanish revolt that began in 1808, the revival of Austria and Prussia and their struggles of "liberation" against Napoleon, Russia's leadership of the anti-Napoleonic coalition that followed, and fierce British pride in their defiance to French military pretensions.
As the Napoleonic wars drew to a close for the first time in 1814, the great powers of Europe convened a gathering of monarchs and diplomats known as the Congress of Vienna to deal with the aftermath. That meeting lasted months, thanks in part to Napoleon’s inconvenient return from Elba and last stand at Waterloo, but in 1815 it concluded, having rewarded the victorious kingdoms with territorial gains and restored conservative monarchs to the thrones of states like Spain and France. Nothing could have mattered less to the diplomatic representatives present at the Congress of Vienna than the “national identity” of the people who lived in the territories that were carved up and distributed like pieces of cake to the victors. The Congress of Vienna thus redrew the map of Europe without taking into consideration the ethnic identity of the different regions of Europe. For example, the inhabitants of northeastern Italy were now subjects of the Austrian king, the entirety of Poland was divided between Russia and Prussia, and Great Britain remained secure not only in its growing global empire, but in its possession of the entirety of Ireland.
Thus, many of Europe's peoples found themselves without states of their own or in states squeezed between the dominant powers of the time. Among the notable examples are the Italians and the Poles. Italy had suffered from the domination of one great power or another since the Renaissance; after 1815 it was the Austrians who were in control of much of northern Italy. Poland had been partitioned among the Austrians, the Prussians, and the Russians in the eighteenth century, simply vanishing from the map in the process. Germany, of course, was not united; instead, it emerged from the Congress of Vienna as a confederation of dozens of independent states. Prussia and Austria vied with each other for dominance of this German confederation, but both were fundamentally conservative powers uninterested in “German” unification until later in the century.
The language of nationalism and the idea of national identity had come into its own by the late Napoleonic period. For example, German nationalism was powerful and popular after the Napoleonic wars; in 1817, just two years after the end of the Congress of Vienna, German nationalists gathered in Wartburg—where Martin Luther had first translated the Bible into German—waving the black, red, and gold tricolor flag that would (over a century later) become the official flag of the German nation. Two years later, a nationalist poet murdered a conservative one, and the Austrian Empire passed laws that severely limited freedom of speech, specifically to contain and restrict the spread of nationalism. Despite this effort, and the Austrian secret police, German nationalism continued to spread, culminating in a large and self-consciously nationalistic movement seeking German unity.
The 1830s were a pivotal decade in the spread of nationalism. The Italian nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831, calling for a “springtime of peoples” in which the people of each “nation” of Europe would topple conservative monarchs and assert their sovereignty and independence. That movement would quickly spread beyond Italy, and "young" became the rallying word and idea of nationalism. In addition to Young Italy, there was a Young Germany and a Young Ireland, among others, accompanied by the idea that all people should and would eventually inhabit nations, and that this new "youthful" manner of politics would lead to peace and prosperity for everyone. The idea was that with the old, outdated borders abandoned, everyone would live where they were supposed to: in nations governed by their own people. Nationalists argued that war itself could be rendered obsolete. After all, if each “people” lived in “their” nation, what would be the purpose of territorial conflict? To the nationalists at the time, the emergence of nations was synonymous with a more perfect future for all.
Central to the very concept of nationalism in this early, optimistic phase was the identity of “the people,” a term with powerful political resonance in just about every European language: das Volk, le peuple, il popolo, etc. In every case, "the people" was thought to be something more important than just "those people who happen to live here." Instead, the people were those tied to the soil, with roots reaching back centuries, and who deserve their own government. This was a profoundly romantic idea because it spoke to an essentially emotional sense of national identity: a sense of camaraderie and solidarity with individuals with whom a given person might not actually share much in common.
When scrutinized, the “real” identity of a given “people” became more difficult to discern. The growing concept spurred many questions. For example, were the Germans people who speak German, or who lived in Central Europe, or who were Lutheran, or Catholic, or who think that their ancestors were from the same area in which they themselves were born? If united in a German nation, who would lead it - were the Prussians or the Austrians more authentically German? What of those “Germans” who lived in places like Bohemia (i.e. the Czech lands) and Poland, with their own growing senses of national identity? The nationalist movements of the first half of the nineteenth century did not need to concern themselves much with these conundrums because their goals of liberation and unification were not yet achievable. When national revolutions of various kinds did occur, however, these questions proved difficult to answer.
Nationalism and the Background to World War I
The nature of nationalism had changed significantly over the course of the nineteenth century as well. Not only had conservative elites appropriated nationalism to shore up their own power (as in Italy and Germany), but nationalistic patriotism came to be identified with rivalry and resentment among many citizens of various political persuasions. To be a good Englishman was to resent and fear the growth of Germany. Many Germans came to despise the Russians, in part thanks to the growth of anti-Slavic racism. The lesser powers of Europe, like Italy, resented their own status and wanted to somehow seize enough power to join the ranks of the great powers. Nationalism by 1914 was nothing like the optimistic, utopian movements of the nineteenth century; it was hostile, fearful, and aggressive.
Likewise, public opinion mattered in a way it had never mattered earlier for the simple fact that every one of the great powers had at least a limited electorate and parliaments with at least some real power to make law. Even Russia, after a semi-successful revolution in 1905, saw the creation of an elected parliament, the Duma, and an open press. The fact that all of the powers had representative governments mattered, because public opinion helped fan the flames of conflict. Newspapers in this era tended to deliberately inflame jingoistic passions rather than encourage rational calculation. A very recognizably modern kind of connection was made in the press between patriotic loyalty and a willingness to fight, kill, and die for one’s country. Since all of the great powers were now significantly (or somewhat, in the case of Russia) democratic, the opinions of the average citizen mattered in a way they never had before. Journalism whipped up those opinions and passions by stoking hatred, fear, and resentment, which led to a more widespread willingness to go to war. Thanks to the nationalistic rivalry described above, the great powers sought to shore up their security and power through alliances.
The single most significant background factor to the war was the rivalry that existed between Europe’s “great powers” by the beginning of the twentieth century. The term “great power” meant something specific in this period of history: the great powers were those able to command large armies, to maintain significant economies and industrial bases, and to conquer and hold global empires. Their respective leaders, and many of their regular citizens, were fundamentally suspicious of one another, and the biggest worry of their political leadership was that one country would come to dominate the others. Long gone was the notion of the balance of power as a guarantor of peace. Now, the balance of power was a fragile thing, with each of the great powers seeking to supplant its rivals in the name of security and prosperity. As a result, there was an ongoing, elaborate diplomatic dance as each power tried to shore up alliances, seize territory around the globe, and outpace the others.
While no great power deliberately sought out war, all were willing to risk war in 1914. That was at least in part because no politician had an accurate idea of what a new war would actually be like. The only wars that had occurred in Europe between the great powers since the Napoleonic period were the Crimean War of the 1850s and the wars that resulted in the formation of Italy and Germany in the 1850s, 1860s, and early 1870s. While the Crimean War was quite bloody, it was limited to the Crimean region itself and it did not involve all of the great powers. Likewise, the wars of national unification were relatively short and did not involve a great deal of bloodshed (relative to other wars). Violence in the colonies was almost always directed at the native peoples in those colonies, and there the balance of power was squarely on the side of Europeans. Thus, even European soldiers overseas had no experience of facing foes armed with comparable weapons. In other words, it had been over forty years since the great powers had any experience of a war on European soil, and as they learned all too soon, much had changed with the nature of warfare in the meantime.
In the summer of 1914, each of the great powers reached the conclusion that war was inevitable, and that trying to stay out of the immanent conflict would lead to national decline. Germany was surrounded by potential enemies in France and Russia. France had cultivated a desire for revenge against Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War. Russia feared German power and resented Austria for threatening the interests of Slavs in the Balkans. Great Britain alone had no vested interest in war, but it was unable to stay out of the conflict once it began.
In turn, the thing that inflamed jingoism and resentment among the great powers had been imperialism. The British were determined to maintain their enormous empire at any cost, and the Germans now posed a threat to the empire since Germany had lavished attention on a naval arms race since the 1880s. There was constant bickering on the world stage between the great powers over their colonies, especially since those colonies butted up against each other in Africa and Asia.
Alliances were firmly in place by 1914, each of which obligated military action if any one power should be attacked. Each great power needed the support of its allies and was thus willing to intercede even if its own interests were not directly threatened. That willingness to go to war for the sake of alliance meant that even a relatively minor event might spark the outbreak of total war. And that is precisely what happened.
In 1914, two major sets of alliances set the stage for the war. German politicians, fearing the possibility of a two-front war against France and Russia simultaneously, concluded an alliance with the Austrian Empire in 1879, only a little over a decade after the Prusso-Austrian War. In turn, France and Russia created a strong alliance in 1892 in large part to contain the ambitions of Germany, whose territory lay between them. Great Britain was generally more friendly to France than Germany but had not entered into a formal alliance with any other power. It was, however, the traditional ally and protector of Belgium, which British politicians considered a kind of toehold on the continent. Finally, Russia grew increasingly close to the new nation of Serbia, populated as it was by a Slavic people who were part of the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity. The relationships between Great Britain and Russia with Belgium and Serbia, respectively, would not have mattered but for the alliance obligations that tied the great powers together.
Those alliances were now poised to mobilize armies of an unprecedented size. All of the great powers now fielded forces of a million men or more due to a reliance or development of militarism. Coordinating that many troops required detailed advanced planning and a permanent staff of high-ranking officers, normally referred to as the "general staff" of a given army. In the past, political leaders had often either led troops themselves or at least had significant influence in planning and tactics. By the early twentieth century, however, war plans and tactics were entirely in the hands of the general staffs, meaning political leaders would be obliged to choose from a limited set of "pre-packaged" options given to them by their generals.
When WWI started, the leaders of the great powers were taken by surprise when they received ultimatums from their own generals—from the Kaiser in Germany to the Tsar in Russia. Militarism—the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability—had led to a power shift in battle plans. And according to the general staffs, it was all or nothing: either commit all forces to a swift and decisive victory or suffer certain defeat. There could be no small incremental build ups or tentative skirmishes; this was about a total commitment to a massive war. An old adage has it that “generals fight the last war,” which means they base their tactics on what worked in previous conflicts, and in the “last war,” which was the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia had won through swift, decisive action and immediate overwhelming force.
Militarism and Jingoism
The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised all the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles.
During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, as a result of assuming a militaristic society. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers. Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions.
Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves numbered 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. Recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—a matter of months. All the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war; however, no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate, like that actually happened in 1914 – 18.
As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.
Despite the expansion of standing armies and military stockpiles in this period, the Great Powers still publicly called for the reduction of armed forces. One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage instead of seeking actual disarmament.
This increase in militarism coincided with the rise of jingoism, a term for nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Jingoism also refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests, as opposed to peaceful relations. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging one’s own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism. The term originated in reference to the United Kingdom’s pugnacious attitude toward Russia in the 1870s; and it appeared in the American press by 1893.
Probably the first uses of the term jingoism appeared in the U.S. press in connection with the proposed annexation of Hawaii in 1893. A coup led by foreign residents, mostly Americans, and assisted by the United States minister in Hawaii, overthrew the Hawaiian constitutional monarchy and declared a Republic. Republican president Benjamin Harrison and Republicans in the Senate were frequently accused of jingoism in the Democratic press for supporting annexation of Hawaii.
The term was also used in connection with the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt. In an October 1895 New York Times article, Roosevelt stated, “There is much talk about ‘jingoism’. If by ‘jingoism’ they mean a policy in pursuance of which Americans will with resolution and common sense insist upon our rights being respected by foreign powers, then we are ‘jingoes’.”
Anglo-German Naval Race
British concerns with the emergence of Germany as a rival naval power was a factor in the British decision to enter World War I. Historians have debated the role of the German naval build-up as the principal cause of deteriorating Anglo-German relations. In any case, Germany never came close to catching up with Britain. Supported by Wilhelm II’s enthusiasm for an expanded German navy, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz championed four Fleet Acts from 1898 to 1912, and from 1902 to 1910, while the Royal Navy embarked on its own massive expansion to keep ahead of the Germans. This competition came to focus on the revolutionary new ships based on the Dreadnought, launched in 1906, which gave Britain a battleship that far outclassed any other in Europe. The overwhelming British response proved to Germany that its efforts were unlikely to equal those of the Royal Navy. In 1900, the British had a 3.7:1 tonnage advantage over Germany; in 1910 the ratio was 2.3:1 and in 1914, 2.1:1. The German Navy had thus narrowed the gap by nearly half. Meanwhile, in early to mid-1914, Germany adopted a policy of building submarines instead of new dreadnoughts and destroyers, effectively abandoning the race. They kept this new policy secret, however, to delay other powers following suit. The Germans thus abandoned the naval race before the war broke out. The extent to which the naval race was one of the chief factors in Britain’s decision to join the Triple Entente remains a key controversy. Historians such as Christopher Clark believe it was not significant, with Margaret Moran taking the opposite view.
Attributions
Title Image
Jules Després, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Section 3 adapted from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/nation-states-and-sovereignty/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-coming-of-war/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.332882
|
Neil Greenwood
|
{
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Political Challenges",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview
|
Zionism and Theodore Herzl
Overview
Zionism and the Jewish Question
The rise of nationalism in Europe in the 19th century inspired the scattered and often persecuted Jewish communities across Europe to hope for an independent Jewish state in their ancient homeland.
Learning Objectives
- Examine the history of the Jewish Diaspora.
- Analyze the political, ethnic, and religious history of the Jews and Palestine during the 19th century that shaped the creation of Israel after the Second World War.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Talmud: a collection of commentaries on the Torah that was compiled by rabbis (Jewish scholars/teachers) between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE
Sephardic Jews: the Jewish diaspora population that developed in Andalusia in Spain and adopted Arabic customs and language
pogrom: a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews; a term that originally entered the English language to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire
Ashkenazi Jews: a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced as a distinct community in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium (The traditional diaspora language is Yiddish.)
Theodor Herzl: an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer; one of the fathers of modern political Zionism; formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state (Israel).
Exceptionalist Ideology: the perception or belief that a particular entity (i.e. a society, institution, movement, people) is "exceptional" (unusual or extraordinary); implies that this entity is superior in some way
The Jewish Diaspora
The diaspora or dispersal of Jews out of ancient Judea (Modern Israel and the Palestinian Territories) began as early as 586 BCE when the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem, the capital of the Judean kingdom, and forcibly removed thousands of the city’s inhabitants to Babylon—present-day southern Iraq. Eventually Jews migrated across much of Europe and western Asia.
During the Hellenistic period (323 – 31 BCE), many Jews emigrated from Judea and settled in Greek cities in various Hellenistic kingdoms, such as Alexandria in Egypt. In the 3rd century BCE, the Jewish Holy Scriptures —also known as the Christian Old Testament—was made available in a Greek translation meant for Greek-speaking Jews; this translation of the scriptures became known as the Septuagint. Jewish historians such as Josephus (first century CE), and philosophers, such as Philo of Alexandria (first century CE), composed works in ancient Greek.
When the entire basin of the Mediterranean Sea became incorporated into the expanding Roman Empire by 31 BCE, Jews were migrating throughout the extent of the Roman Empire. The revolt of Judea against Roman rule in 66 CE, as well as the subsequent destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman armies, accelerated the migration of Jews from Judea to other regions both within and outside the Roman Empire. A second rebellion against Rome—the Bar Kokhba Revolt (c. 132 – 136 CE) —further intensified the emigration of the Jewish population out of Judea after Roman armies brutally crushed this uprising. Despite these revolts, the Jewish population generally prospered under Roman rule. Archaeologists have uncovered the ruins of Jewish synagogues or places of worship in the cities of the Roman Empire. Their numbers grew with the conversion of some non-Jews to the Jewish faith.
During the Middle Ages, most Jews lived areas ruled by both Christian and Muslim states that had formally been part of or near to the Roman Empire. In these centuries, Jewish community life centered around the synagogue, where Jews gathered to pray and hear their holy scriptures under the leadership of a rabbi (teacher/scholar). Rabbis were not only experts in the study of the Torah—which became the first five books of the Old Testament—but also in the Talmud, which is a collection of commentaries and teachings on the Torah, as compiled by rabbis in Judea and southern modern-day Iraq between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE.
In some regions just outside the former Roman Empire, non-Jewish peoples converted to the Jewish faith in large numbers. Arabs in Yemen in the southern Arabian Peninsula converted to Judaism, which was the state religion of the Himyarite kingdom in the 5th and early sixth century CE until the neighboring Christian kingdom of Aksum—modern Ethiopia—dethroned the last Jewish king in that land. In the 8th century CE, the ruling elite of the Khazars, a Turkish people then inhabiting modern Ukraine, converted to Judaism.
Jews living in Muslim lands in the Middle Ages were generally free to practice their faith if they paid the poll tax—Jizyah—to their Muslim rulers. After the conquest of Spain by the Muslim Arabs and Moors in the 8th century CE, the Jewish population in Muslim Spain (Andalusia) thrived and became known as Sephardic Jews, who adopted the Arabic language and some Arabic customs. In the 12th century, the eminent Jewish rabbi and physician, Maimonides—a native of Andalusia—composed multiple philosophical and scientific works in Arabic, which drew inspiration from the works of earlier Greek and Arabic scholars.
Jews inhabiting Christian lands in the Middle Ages often didn’t enjoy the same level of toleration as experienced in Muslim controlled territories. Jews were segregated from the Christian population and often inhabited a special quarter of Medieval towns known as the ghetto. In 1215 at the influential Fourth Lateran Council in Rome, Pope Innocent III and a council of Church leaders decreed that Jews be required to wear special clothing to distinguish them from the Christian population. This same council also ruled that Jews were not to be allowed to hold any public office. The Jewish population in Christian lands were also frequently subject to massacres by angry mobs, which became known as pogroms. For example, in 1096, after Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to free Jerusalem from the Muslim Turks, Christian mobs massacred thousands of Jews living in Medieval cities along the Rhine River in modern Germany. Many Christians at that time understood the Pope’s call for the Crusade as a command to destroy the enemies of Christianity, including both Muslims and Jews. Across Medieval Europe beginning in the 13th century, the so-called “blood libel” stirred up such pogroms. The “blood libel” was a popular belief among Christians across Europe; part of this belief was the allegation that Jews kidnapped Christian children so that they could kill the children and drink their blood in secret religious rituals. Some Christian states even expelled Jews entirely from their lands. In 1290, Edward I of England evicted all Jews from his kingdom. Jews only returned to England nearly four hundred later in 1657, after the Commonwealth of Oliver Cromwell invited Jews to return. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain expelled all Jews and Muslims from Spain who refused to convert to Christianity; this was done after their conquest of the Emirate of Granada—the last Muslim state in Spain. Many Sephardic Jews from Spain consequently emigrated to the Muslim Ottoman Empire in North Africa and western Asia, as well as to the Netherlands in northern Europe.
The Netherlands and Poland were Christian regions where Jews in the Middle Ages and Early Modern era enjoyed a relative high degree of toleration. In 1264, Prince Boreslaw of Poland invited Jews from the neighboring Holy Roman Empire—modern Germany—to settle in Poland by granting Jews full freedom to worship, as well as by forbidding false accusations of the “blood libel” against Jews. The Mongols in 1240 had recently invaded and devasted Poland, and the migration of Jews helped to repopulate the region. The Jewish population flourished in the centuries that followed and stretched across the vast Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom, which by 1500 extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and included not only the area of modern Poland but also the Baltic counties of Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, as well as Ukraine and Belarus. The Jews of this region who had migrated from Germany and France to the Polish kingdom became known as Ashkenazi Jews and spoke their own distinct language which incorporated both the German and Hebrew languages: Yiddish.
The prosperity experienced by Ashkenazi Jews ended with the collapse of the Polish Lithuanian Kingdom in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1648, the Cossacks, nomadic herdsmen from Ukraine, revolted against the Polish Kingdom and massacred the populations of many Jewish communities. The Cossacks were allied with the emerging Russian Empire due to their common Orthodox Christian faith; whereas, the Polish rulers were Roman Catholic. In the late 18th century, the dominant states of Eastern and Central Europe, Hapsburg Austria, Prussia, and Russia, partitioned the weakened Polish kingdom among themselves. Russia acquired the largest chunk of Polish territory. Consequently, much of the Jewish population of the region fell under Russian rule. As subjects of the Russian Empire, Jews faced persecution. The Russian state in 1791 mandated for the Jews a “Pale of Settlement,” which was a narrow stretch of territory extending from the Ukraine to the Baltic Sea. They forbid Jews from settling or living permanently outside of this area.
Liberalism, Nationalism, and the Jews
Jewish communities across Europe generally welcomed the rise of Liberal constitutions in some European countries that resulted from the revolutions that occurred across the continent in the first half of the 19th century. These constitutions guaranteed representative government, equal rights under the law and freedom of religion. Some Jews even entered politics in this era. For example, Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) was the son of a Jewish silk merchant in the German kingdom of Prussia in what is today Poland. During the 1848 Revolution, he strongly supported the unsuccessful efforts to unite Germany under a Liberal constitution. In 1863 he helped organize the General German Workers Union in Prussia, which was committed to securing the right to vote for all adult males—also known as universal male suffrage. Lassalle even personally contacted the Prussian chancellor Otto Von Bismarck to urge him to support the expansion of the right to vote for all German workers. In 1867, the constitution of the North German Confederation advanced by Bismarck did in fact include universal male suffrage. This constitution later became the basis for the German constitution with the unification of Germany in 1871. After Lassalle’s death in 1864, the General German Workers Union, which he founded, became the German Social Democratic Party in 1875, the oldest political party in Germany today.
By the late 19th century, large numbers of Jews were emigrating from the Russian Empire, whose autocratic Conservative government continued to treat Jews as second-class citizens. These Jews settled in areas of the globe where Liberal governments were in place, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and in some South American republics, such as Argentina. In general Jews prospered in these regions. For example, in the United States, President Woodrow Wilson in 1916 nominated Louis Brandeis to become the first Jewish Supreme Court Justice.
Across Europe, even in the most Liberal countries, the population often viewed Jews with suspicion due to their distinct religion and culture. For example, the people of France were often staunchly Roman Catholic, such as the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France. They were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of the French capital Paris, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission exonerated Dreyfus later in 1906, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation.
Besides a rise in Liberalism, the 19th century also experienced a rise in nationalism. Many Jews due to this rising nationalism in the 19th century opted to assimilate and to adopt the culture and religion of the nation where they resided. For example, in 1816 the family of Benjamin Disraeli converted to Christianity from Judaism and joined the Anglican Church of England when Benjamin was just a boy. Benjamin Disraeli would later serve as one the most influential prime ministers of Great Britain in the 19th century.
Zionism: A Jewish Homeland
Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel—roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan, or the Holy Land.
After almost two millennia of the Jewish people residing in various countries without a national state, the Zionist movement was founded in the late 19th century by secular Jews, largely as a response by Ashkenazi Jews to rising antisemitism in Europe, which was exemplified by the Dreyfus affair in France and the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. The political movement was formally established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist, Theodore Herzyl, in 1897, following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to what was by then Ottoman Palestine.
Herzl considered antisemitism an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and that only a separation could allow Jews to escape eternal persecution. “Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth’s surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!” he proclaimed.
Herzl proposed two possible destinations to colonize, Argentina and Palestine. He preferred Argentina for its vast and sparsely populated territory and temperate climate, but he conceded that Palestine would have greater attraction because of the historic ties of Jews with that area. He also agreed to evaluate Joseph Chamberlain’s proposal for possible Jewish settlement in Great Britain’s East African colonies.
Although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the historic territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe, where these alternative movements were rooted, Zionism became the dominant view about a Jewish national state.
Creating an alliance with Great Britain and securing support for Jewish emigration to Palestine, Zionists also recruited European Jews to immigrate there, especially those who lived in areas of the Russian Empire where antisemitism was prevalent. The alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine, but the Zionists persisted. During World War II antisemitism in Europe reached a horrible climax with the Holocaust, a mass genocide, when the German Nazi regime slaughtered an estimated six million Jews living in Europe. After these horrors during the war, the Zionist movement received worldwide support and was eventually successful in encouraging the victorious WWII Allies to establish Israel as the homeland for the Jewish people on May 14, 1948. The proportion of the world’s Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged.
Until 1948, the primary goals of Zionism were the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel, in-gathering of the exiles, and liberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and persecution they experienced during their diaspora. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to address threats to its continued existence and security.
Major aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in the Israeli Declaration of Independence:
“The Land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.
After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.
Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.”
Advocates of Zionism view it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people who were forced to live as minorities in a variety of nations that did not include their ancestral homeland. Critics of Zionism view it as a racist and exceptionalist ideology that led advocates to violence against Palestinians, followed by the exodus of Palestinians and the subsequent denial of their human rights.
Attributions
Adapted from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/israel-and-palestine/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
Title Image
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theodor_Herzl.jpg
Carl Pietzner, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.376991
|
Neil Greenwood
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Zionism and Theodore Herzl",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87980/overview
|
Interwar Africa
Overview
Africa in the Interwar Years
Africa in the interwar years (1920 – 1930s) reached a new height of European exploitation. Although Germany had lost its colonies of Togoland, Kamerun, Southwest Africa, and German East Africa, their former colonies were quickly divided and overtaken by the British and French. For their part, Africans would not govern themselves for several more decades, except for the Egyptians. The rest of the continent, particularly north and west Africa, continued to experience worker and resource exploitation by predominately British and French colonizers.
Learning Objectives
- Analyze the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 and why it was successful.
- Evaluate European practices in Africa during the 1920s – 30s.
- Evaluate Pan-Africanism and its goals.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Egyptian Revolution of 1919: nationalist movement which led to Egypt’s independence
Marcus Garvey: Jamaican-born, African nationalist and leader of Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism: movement that promotes unity between all peoples of African descent
Egypt's Road to Independence
Since the 1800s, Egypt’s status had been complex and contested. At one point, it had been part of the Ottoman Empire, before breaking away. In the late 1800s, the British occupied the country and operated it as a protectorate of the British Empire. During World War I, the British had effectively occupied all of Egypt and declared martial law to use Egypt as a launchpad in their war against the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the course of the war, the British put significant demands on the Egyptians. They drafted half a million men into their army, requisitioned buildings, and supplies, and treated the Egyptians as second-class citizens. Although the war saw the demise of the Egyptians' former occupiers, the Ottomans, it saw the rise of Great Britain. Nationalism in Egypt spiraled upward against the British. Egyptians felt overwhelmingly betrayed by the British and denied rewards offered for their service in the war. In 1919, revolution broke out.
The Revolution and Independence
The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was the only successful independence movement in Africa in the interwar era. Across the social classes and religions, Egyptians united in the name of overthrowing the British occupiers. Muslims and Christians stood side by side in the call for independence. Men and women alike protested the occupation of Egypt. At the head of the movement was the newly founded political party, Wafd. Comprised of academics and intellectuals, it was led by Sa’ad Zaghlul. Strikes, riots, and demonstrations broke out across the country. And the British felt forced to act. On March 8, 1919, they arrested Zaghlul and deported him to their island of Malta. Once there, he was kept as an exiled political prisoner.
This maneuver by the British sparked outrage and increased desire for Egyptian independence. Violence spread through Egypt, culminating in over 800 deaths in the last two weeks of March.
In 1922, the British agreed to Egypt’s Declaration of Independence. The former sultan, Fu’ad, became the new Egyptian king, an Egyptian parliament was established, a new constitution created, and Sa’ad Zaghlul returned from exile to become Egypt’s first prime minister. But despite the achievements made by the Egyptians, the British did not relinquish total control. They refused to leave the Suez Canal area. Similarly, they maintained a military presence to protect their interests in other parts of Egypt and maintained that they would militarily defend Egypt in the event it was attacked by foreign powers. In many ways, the British remained a powerful influence in Egypt until after World War II.
Exploitation of West and South Africa
West Africa
West Africa was prime colonization for Europeans because of its temperate climate, arable farmland, access to Atlantic seaports and rivers, as well as the fact that there were fewer diseases than in Central Africa. In the late 1800s, the British, French, and Germans had secured colonies in West Africa. With Germany’s loss of its colonies in 1918, the British and French immediately claimed the territory. The Africans, who were typically Muslim, were treated as second-class farmers and forced to scrape a living from poor farm plots. Famine and drought plagued the countryside. The sale of cash crops was typically reserved for white farmers, thus most of the money poured into European pockets. Historian Kevin Shillington summarizes the situation best: “During the 1920s and 1930s, African farmers were paid less for what they produced, but had to pay more for what they bought.”
Far more profitable than farming in West Africa was mining. European-owned companies poured into Guinea and Nigeria during the 1920s. Companies hired African, particularly Nigerian, miners to undertake the most dangerous jobs; in return, they provided the lowest possible wages.
South Africa
In the interwar years, the white governments of South Africa passed multiple laws that established strong segregation. Wealthy white farmers and white owners of mining companies had pressured the government to enact segregation. These laws were the early steps in establishing what, after World War II, would become apartheid.
In mining, the skilled labor positions were reserved for whites; whereas, black South Africans were forced to work as unskilled laborers. This created a situation where the best pay was reserved for white workers. Likewise, the best land in the country was reserved for white farmers.
Although black South Africans did resist the new government measures, they had little political influence. As a result, they founded their first political party: the African National Congress. Decades later, the party would become the political party of Nelson Mandela.
Pan-Africanism
In the 1920s, Africans experienced a surge of Pan-Africanism. This movement called for all peoples of African descent to unite to achieve economic and political independence. In the interwar years, the idea swept people in the Caribbean, Americas, and Africa. Four Pan-Africa conferences were held in Europe, most attended by internationally renowned writer W.E.B. Dubois.
Most famous of the interwar Pan-Africanists was a man who had never visited Africa, and yet, promoted the idea of “Africa for the Africans.” This man was a Jamaican-born intellectual and politician Marcus Garvey. He advocated for the expulsion of all Europeans from Africa, and a restoration of African political and economic power. Although his ideas resonated strongly, it would also be after World War II before Pan-Africanism saw any significant gains.
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
Shillington, Kevin. A History of Africa. 3rd Ed. Palgrave MacMillan, New York: 2012. 361-378.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.406302
|
Neil Greenwood
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87980/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 13: Post WWI, Interwar Africa",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88100/overview
|
China and Globalization
Overview
China and Globalization
Beginning in 1979 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, China adopted market reforms and opened the country to trade and investment with Western Europe and the United States. In the decades that followed, China experienced rapid economic growth and emerged as the second largest economy in the world in the early 21st century.
Learning Objectives
- Identify the economic reforms instituted by Deng Xiaoping.
- Assess the impact of these reforms on the Chinese society and economy.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
one-child policy: a population planning policy of China introduced in 1979 and formally phased out starting in 2015 that allows each Chinese family to produce only one child (Provincial governments-imposed fines for the violations of the policy and local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.)
One Country, Two Systems: a constitutional principle formulated by Deng Xiaoping, the Paramount Leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), for the reunification of China during the early 1980s (He suggested that there would be only one China, but distinct Chinese regions such as Hong Kong and Macau could retain their own capitalist economic and political systems, while the rest of China uses the socialist system.)
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: the official ideology of the Communist Party of China (CPC), claimed to be based upon scientific socialism; an ideology that supports the creation of a socialist market economy dominated by the public sector based on the claim by the CPC that China is in the primary stage of socialism (The People’s Republic of China (PRC) government maintains that it has not abandoned Marxism but has developed many of the terms and concepts of Marxist theory to accommodate its new economic system. The CPC argues that socialism is compatible with these economic policies.)
special economic zones: designated geographical areas in China, originally created in the 1980s, where the government establishes more free market-oriented economic policies and flexible governmental measures; special economic rules that allow certain areas to operate under an economic system that is more attractive to foreign and domestic firms than the economic policies in the rest of mainland China
Tiananmen Square protest: student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989; more broadly, a term that refers to the popular national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period, sometimes referred to as the ’89 Democracy Movement (The protests were forcibly suppressed after the government declared martial law. In what became widely known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, troops with assault rifles and tanks killed at least several hundred demonstrators trying to block the military’s advance towards Tiananmen Square. The number of civilian deaths has been estimated between the hundreds and the thousands.)
Deng Xiaoping and the Economic Reform
The rise of Deng Xiaoping to power after Mao’s death resulted in far-reaching market economy reforms and China opening to global trade, while maintaining its roots in socialism. Deng Xiaoping was a Chinese revolutionary and statesman; he was leader of the People’s Republic of China from 1978 until his retirement in 1989. While he never held office as the head of state, head of government, or general secretary (the leader of the Communist Party), he nonetheless was responsible for economic reforms and an opening to the global economy.
Born into a peasant background, Deng studied and worked in France in the 1920s, where he became fascinated with Marxism-Leninism. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1923. After the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949, Deng worked in Tibet and the southwest region to consolidate Communist control. As the party’s Secretary General in the 1950s, he presided over anti-rightist campaigns and became instrumental in China’s economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward of 1957 – 1960. His economic policies, however, were at odds with Mao’s political ideologies and he was purged twice during the Cultural Revolution. Following Mao’s death in 1976, Deng outmaneuvered Mao’s chosen successor, Hua Guofeng. Inheriting a country beset with social conflict, disenchantment with the Party, and institutional disorder resulting from the policies of the Mao era, Deng became the paramount figure of the “second generation” of Party leadership. Some called him “the architect” of a new brand of thinking that combined socialist ideology with pragmatic market economy. His slogan was “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.”
China's Opening Up
Deng made it clear that the new Chinese regime’s priorities were economic and technological development. Beginning in 1979, economic reforms boosted the market model, while the leaders maintained old Communist-style rhetoric. The commune system was gradually dismantled, and the peasants began to have more freedom to manage the land they cultivated, as well as sell their products on the market. At the same time, China’s economy opened to foreign trade.
On January 1, 1979, the United States recognized the People’s Republic of China, and business contacts between China and the West began to grow. The same year, Deng undertook an official visit to the United States, meeting President Jimmy Carter in Washington, along with several congressmen. The Chinese insisted that ex-President Richard Nixon be invited to the formal White House reception, indicative of both their assertiveness and desire to continue with Nixon initiatives.
China’s outreach extended beyond the United States to Japan and to Western European countries such as Germany. Sino-Japanese relations improved significantly. Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing power that set a good economic example for China. Moreover, China invited European businesses to invest in their country.
Deng’s closest collaborators were Zhao Ziyang and Hu Yaobang. Zhao Ziyang in 1980 relieved Hua Guofeng as premier, and Hu Yaobang in 1981 took the post of party chairman. Their goal was to achieve “four modernizations”, which focused on the economy, agriculture, scientific and technological development, and national defense. The last position of power retained by Hua Guofeng, chairman of the Central Military Commission, was taken by Deng in 1981.
Special Economic Zones
The basic state policy focused on the formulation and implementation of overall reforms and opening to the outside world. During the 1980s, the Chinese government established special economic zones(SEZs) and open coastal cities and areas, as well as designed open inland and coastal economic and technology development zones. SEZs were originally created in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, and Shantou in Guangdong Province and Xiamen in Fujian Province. In 1984, China opened 14 coastal cities to overseas investment.
Since 1980, China has established these SEZs—areas where the government of China establishes more free market-oriented economic policies and flexible governmental measures. This allowed SEZs to operate under an economic system that is more attractive to foreign and domestic firms than the economic policies in the rest of mainland China. Most notably, the central government in Beijing is not required to authorize foreign and domestic trade in SEZs, and special incentives are offered to attract foreign investors. Since 1988, mainland China’s opening to the outside world has been extended to its border areas along the Yangtze River and inland. The state also decided to turn Hainan Island into mainland China’s biggest special economic zone (approved in 1988) and enlarge the other four SEZs. Shortly after, the State Council expanded the open coastal areas and opened economic zones in seven geographical areas.
The five existing SEZs and other areas operating under a preferential economic system continues in China today. Primarily geared to exporting processed goods, the five SEZs are foreign trade-oriented areas which integrate science, innovation, and industry with trade. Foreign firms benefit from preferential policies, such as lower tax rates, reduced regulations, and special managerial systems.
Capitalist Economy vs. Socialist System
China’s rapid economic growth under the socialist political system resulted in complex social developments. The 1982 population census revealed the extraordinary growth of the population, which already exceeded one billion people. Deng continued the plans initiated by Hua Guofeng to restrict birth to only one child under the threat of administrative penalty. This “one-child policy” was very controversial outside of China and challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one’s own family. At the same time, increasing economic freedom emboldened a greater freedom of opinion and critics began to arise, including famous dissident Wei Jingsheng, who coined the term “fifth modernization” in reference to democracy as a missing element in the renewal plans of Deng Xiaoping.
In the late 1980s, dissatisfaction with the authoritarian regime and growing inequalities caused the biggest crisis to Deng’s leadership: the Tiananmen Square protests. Student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989 inspired this popular national movement. The protests reflected anxieties about the country’s future in the popular consciousness and among the political elite. The economic reforms benefited some groups but seriously disaffected others, and the one-party political system faced a challenge of legitimacy. Common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, and freedom of speech, although they were loosely organized, and their goals varied. At the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square.
As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership. By May, a student-led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, Deng Xiaoping and other party elders believed the protests to be a political threat and resolved to use force. Party authorities declared martial law on May 20 and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. In what became widely known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, troops with assault rifles and tanks killed at least several hundred demonstrators trying to block the military’s advance towards Tiananmen Square. The number of civilian deaths has been estimated between the hundreds and thousands.
The Chinese government was widely condemned internationally for the use of force at Tiananmen Square. Western countries imposed economic sanctions and arms embargoes. In the aftermath of the crackdown, the government conducted widespread arrests of protesters and their supporters, suppressed other protests around China, expelled foreign journalists, and strictly controlled coverage of the events in the domestic press. The police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged. More broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century.
Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in 1989 and retired from the political scene in 1992. China, however, was still in the era of Deng Xiaoping. He continued to be widely regarded as the “paramount leader” of the country, and he was believed to have backroom control. Deng was recognized officially as “the chief architect of China’s economic reforms and China’s socialist modernization.” To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply Comrade Xiaoping, with no title attached.
The Growth of the Chinese Economy
By the early 21st century China’s socialist market economy was the world’s second largest economy after the United States based on its Gross Domestic Product (GDP)—the monetary value of all finished goods and services made within a country. Until 2015, China was the world’s fastest-growing major economy, with growth rates averaging 10% over 30 years. Due to historical and political facts of China’s developing economy, China’s public sector (government) accounts for a bigger share of the national economy than the expanding private sector.
China is a global hub for manufacturing and is the largest manufacturing economy in the world, as well as the largest exporter of goods in the world. It is also the world’s fastest growing consumer market and second largest importer of goods in the world. It is a net importer of services products and the largest trading nation in the world, playing the most important role in international trade. However, Western media have criticized China for unfair trade practices, including artificial currency devaluation, intellectual property theft, protectionism, and local favoritism, due to one-party control by the Communist Party of China and its socialist market economy.
China’s unequal transportation system—combined with important differences in the availability of natural and human resources and in industrial infrastructure—has produced significant variations in and disparities between the regional economies of China. Economic development has generally been more rapid in coastal provinces than in the interior. The three wealthiest regions are along the southeast coast. It is the rapid development of these areas that is expected to have the most significant effect on the Asian regional economy as a whole. Chinese government policy is designed to remove the obstacles to accelerated growth in these wealthier regions.
One of the hallmarks of China’s socialist economy was its promise of employment to all who were able and willing to work, along with job-security and virtually lifelong tenure. Reformers have targeted the labor market as unproductive because industries were frequently overstaffed to fulfill socialist goals and job-security reduced workers’ incentive to work. This socialist policy was pejoratively called the iron rice bowl.
Some of the major challenges facing China include battling corruption and other economic crimes, as well as sustaining adequate job growth for tens of millions of workers laid off from state-owned enterprises, migrants, and new entrants to the work force. Although the economic growth has resulted in the creation of a strong middle class, hundreds of millions remain excluded from its benefits and inequalities persist; an estimated 50 to 100 million rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. The large-scale underemployment in both urban and rural areas remain a source of concern for the government, as potential causes of popular resistance, as do changing price policies.
The prices of certain key commodities, especially of industrial raw materials and major industrial products, are determined by the state and large subsidies were built into the price structure. By the early 1990s, however, these subsidies began to be eliminated, in large part due to China’s admission into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which came with requirements for further economic liberalization and deregulation. On a per capita income basis (income per person), China ranked 72nd in the world in 2015, according to the IMF.
In accordance with the One Country, Two Systems policy, the economies of the former British colony of Hong Kong and Portuguese colony of Macau are separate from the rest of China and each other. The United Kingdom and Portugal handed over these two regions to China in 1997 and 1999 by mutual agreement. Both Hong Kong and Macau are free to conduct and engage in economic negotiations with foreign countries, as well as participate as full members in various international economic organizations, often under the names “Hong Kong, China” and “Macau, China.” Both regions retain their own capitalist economic and political systems.
The Cult of Mao Zedong
After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, retreat from his cult wasn’t immediate. His immediate successor Hua Guofeng tried to continue China’s policy under the guidance of Mao by promoting the “Two Whatevers” policy: “We will resolutely uphold whatever policy decisions Chairman Mao made, and unswervingly follow whatever instructions Chairman Mao gave”. However, after Hua was ousted from power by Deng Xiaoping in the early 1980s, Mao’s deeds were officially divided into good and bad in the ratio 7:3. Although the thought of Mao Zedong is still enshrined in the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China as an ideological basis, China now follows the path of transformation, designated by Deng Xiaoping. However, it seems that Mao Zedong has not disappeared completely.
In recent years Mao Zedong has gained a deity like status in some spheres. Mao Zedong himself remains a symbol affiliated with the New China, as a founder of the People’s Republic of China, and the Chinese version of both Lenin and Stalin in one person. He is still commonly referred to with great respect as Chairman Mao (Mao Zhuxi). As such, the Communist Party of China could not afford to condemn Mao’s deeds, as the Great Leap Forward or the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution, because it would mean the rejection of huge part of the Party’s heritage. Since the 1980s the manifestations of sentimental attitude towards Mao are found among the poorer strata of society, as a symbolic opposition to the cult of money, individualism, and westernization, which are the results of Deng’s reforms.
The Maoists fought against religion as a feudal superstition, that should be removed from the social life of the new Chinese nation. Temples and monasteries were demolished, countless religious artifacts were destroyed, nuns and monks were sent to re-education or forced to go back to secular life. But in the last thirty years in an officially atheist China, a great come back of the belief in supernatural beings, the power of religious rituals, sacrifices for the spirits may be observed. Since the 1980s the authorities have helped to rebuild temples that serve as tourist attractions but also as a religious cult site, attracting a growing number of pilgrims. The revived interest in Buddhism, Taoism, syncretic sects, and Christianity has been noticeable. Most of those religions or spiritual movements are acceptable, except those which might potentially jeopardize the authorities such as Falun Gong.
The cult of Mao is similar to a semi-religious cult. In ancient China, the Chinese emperor was a divine figure, the “Son of Heaven”. Although there is nothing like a state temple of Mao Zedong, his image appears in a semi-religious context. With his portrait visually dominating the Tiananmen gate, Mao Zedong had dominated the symbolic center of the People’s Republic of China during his life. After death, in the heart of China, in the central part of Tiananmen Square, the Chairman Mao Memorial Hall was erected. This most imposing building is 57 thousand square meters in size. Even though Mao signed the pledge to be cremated, the Politburo decided to permanently preserve his body. The mausoleum was constructed after his death, by engaging hundreds of thousands voluntary workers. It was built “with the unique national style”. The construction not only engaged people from all over China, but also materials from many provinces. Among the stones used to build the hall there were some brought from Mt. Everest, from Tangshan (which was struck by a massive earthquake few months earlier), and water and sand from the Taiwan Strait. Mao’s body, covered with the flag of the Communist Party of China, was placed in the crystal coffin, surrounded with national symbols. Nowadays the Memorial Hall is open for public, and the admission is free. People still tend to line up to enter and pay tribute to the Chairman, bowing in the traditional Chinese manner and offering white flowers.
Throughout the whole country, the Chinese visit places connected with the Communist Party of China, the first generation of revolutionary leaders and, most of all, Chairman Mao. These tourists are often made of organized groups, such those from schools and companies. The destinations are promoted among young generations to arouse patriotism. China’s National Tourism Administration named year 2005 the “Year of Red Tourism” and issued a list of “30 choice red tourism routes” and “100 classic red tourism sites”.
On the trail of “red tourism” is the Shaoshan village (Hunan) where Mao was born; his family’s home has been preserved and transformed into a kind of sanctuary. The number of visitors to this village has increased from 3 million in 2005 to 6.5 million in 2010. The site is rarely visited by individual tourists, and if they come to Shaoshan by the public transport, they usually join the groups led by the local guides, which prevents them from missing any of the important sites at Shaoshan.
The aim of the visits to this site is to touch the greatness, and to perceive the very beginning of a great man. In Shaoshan village in the main hall of the Mao family ancestral temple on the central altar, there are tablets with names of the deceased family members, but the place is dominated by the bust of Mao Zedong. Tourists or pilgrims visiting the place show deep respect by bowing three times. The temple has also a souvenir shop, where all kinds of books, medallions, figurines of different size, post stamps, clocks, plaques, badges, shirts, pictures of Mao and revolutionary music, movies, documentaries are sold. After buying a souvenir, these may be “sacrificed” on the altar next to Chairman’s bust. Also, cigarettes and alcohol are being offered to the deceased. In the same temple, just behind the main altar, a small shop sells amulets in a form that resembles amulets found in Buddhist or Taoist temples – it is believed that they increase possessors’ luck and wealth. Tourists also visit the forest of steles and several stones, on which works of Chairman’s calligraphy are inscribed. On the route there is also a small temple dedicated to the Bodhisattva Guanyin, Goddess of Mercy, in which Mao’s mother used to pray. Although the temple was destroyed by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution, it was later rebuilt. Another obligatory site of the pilgrimage is the tomb of Mao Zedong’s parents. Here visitors pay respect, offer flowers, and pour a glass of alcohol. Finally, the highest point of the trip is to the family home of Mao, which was quite a rich peasant family homestead. The furniture placed in it is said to come from Mao’s era. Particularly noteworthy, are signs describing rooms, as “the place where Mao Zedong, as a little boy, used to help his mother with the housework” or “The table at which the family gathered for talks. Mao Zedong exhorted them to dedicate themselves to the liberation of the Chinese people.”
Shaoshan as a tourist destination reached a peak of popularity during the Cultural Revolution, but even now the number of visitors is impressive. Entrance to all the sites is free in order to popularize “red tourism”. The media inform about official visits of the CPC leaders. This popularity creates many opportunities for the villagers to earn money. In order to protect their interests, they have already copyrighted the name “Shaoshan village”. Shaoshan, like other places associated with Mao Zedong, became a kind of popular Mao-land. Thus, tourists may find plenty of souvenirs and take a photo with a model of Mao. While visiting, they may have some rest in one of the restaurants and have lunch containing Mao’s favorite dishes, typical of Hunan province. Eleven years after Mao’s death, one of his distant relatives, Tang Ruiren founded the Mao Jia (Home of Mao) Restaurant, serving Great Helmsman’s favorite dishes. Twenty years later, Mao Jia Restaurants operate not only in Shaoshan – in 2006 there were around 150 franchise restaurants in 20 provinces, and they had received tens of millions of Chinese and foreign guests, including party and state leaders. These restaurants serve dishes such as huobei y, bitter-tasting fish baked with chili pepper, which Mao described as helping people think only of the revolution, or hongshao rou, red braised pork belly with sweet caramelized flavour, as Mao believed that only fatty pork provided enough nutrition to his brain to win the battle. The restaurants specializing in Hunan cuisine, not only those of Tan Ruiren branch, are widespread throughout China, and it is common for them to place Mao’s images or his quotations as major elements of decoration. Sometimes even a sort of small altar with symbolic offerings may be found.
There has been official discussion about a national observance of the “founding father’s” birth, but even without official holiday status, the birth and death anniversaries of the Chairman have been celebrated annually by nostalgic Chinese, even if the anniversaries are not acknowledged by the authorities. In Shaoshan, villagers used to have birthday noodles for breakfast on Mao’s birthday every year. And the queue to visit Chairman Mao Memorial Hall extends longer than usual on these anniversaries, as people come to Beijing to pay respects. Furthermore, because of the expected anniversary traffic, the main square and the statue had been renovated.
Mao's Place in Modern Chinese Nationalism
Mao Zedong remains a revered figure as a symbol of Chinese nationalism even though the Chinese government in practice has moved away from Mao’s Marxist-Leninist ideology. When in 1978 Deng Xiaoping began the process of modernization, China stood at the beginning of profound transformations of the economic and social system, and some limited political changes. These reforms, along with the influx of Western ideas, as well as the passing of the first generation of Communist leaders and the tragic legacy of the Cultural Revolution, led to the erosion of this Maoist ideology, which, nonetheless, has been left in the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, as the core of the national ideology. Nevertheless, its real influence in social life is less significant. As a result, the legitimization of the Communist Party’s authority was endangered.
Chinese nationalism never existed in one form. It adopted various forms, depending on who the “engineers of the nation” were. To maintain its legitimacy in a modern era, the Party had to seek an alternative to Maoism and its peculiar interpretation of Marxist-Leninism. Consequently, the Party has focused on nationalism. In recent decades nationalism has been deliberately used by the CPC to conduct its internal and external policies. Currently, China appears to be structured around a powerful, top-down nationalism influenced by the Communist Party of China and developed by the entire state apparatus, particularly through the education system and strictly controlled mass-media. Media are channels for promoting nationalism, despite their multiplicity, and remain subject to the control of the Propaganda Department (responsible also for patriotic education), as well as self-censorship of journalists themselves. Nationalism is strongly supported by symbolism, traditions, national and state holidays, and national heroes. This type of nationalism can be regarded as continuity of the early Communist Party’s nationalism; though from the beginning of the PRC, it has changed. In the first period it was a highly chauvinistic class nationalism, which was not only against the external enemy but also many Chinese considered unworthy of being a part of the new Chinese nation. The right to belong to the nation was a result of identification with the communist revolution, and consequently, love for China was equal to love for the Party and Mao Zedong. That was a useful tool for political and class struggle. This nationalism recreated the proud Chinese nation, so called “New China”, reborn after “the century of humiliation” (from the Opium Wars until 1949). Under the strong leadership, this nation was able to compete against the world powers. Nationalism was an instrument used by the Communist Party of China since its very beginning, but in the modernization period, it began to occupy a prominent place in the ideological framework of the country. The CPC is being depicted as the sole force capable of protecting Chinese honor and defending Chinese interests in the international arena. The Party, underscoring its contribution to the contemporary development of China, refers to the figure of Mao Zedong as the creator of the new state. Due to the popular sentiment for the old, idealized times, it was possible to strengthen the position of Mao Zedong not only as a national hero, but also as a kind of a deity in the nationalist ‘religion’.
Chinese nationalism is not limited to the nationalism of Communist Party. There is also a popular nationalism with slightly different characteristics. It is built on the strong sense of national humiliation and degradation. It is not so much about the “century of humiliation” that has passed, but about the contemporary humiliation experienced from the Japanese and Western politicians and organizations. According to these nationalists, the West refuses to recognize that China has changed and gained international importance and cannot be continuously depreciated. There are some books focused on such an angry nationalism, like “China Can Say No. Political and Emotional Choices in the post-Cold-War era”. In these intellectual visions, the hostile elements intend to split China and undermine national economic strength, using smokescreens of human rights or freedom for Tibet. Some of those sentiments are shared by young angry nationalists, who express themselves on the Internet. This approach may be seen as an extension of the “century of humiliation”, but its radicalism does not always suit the Party. Popular nationalism is rich in a genuine sense of national pride, which can be defined as commonly understood patriotism, clearly visible especially among the Chinese during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008. This nationalism interacts with the policy of the CPC. It includes a growing global network of angry young Chinese nationalists, not only in the PRC, but also among the Chinese diaspora outside the country.
Their actions can be observed when Mao Zedong’s image is tarnished. In addition to the official protection of Mao’s image, they undertake spontaneous actions on the Internet. Any attack on the Chairman is considered by the young nationalists as an attack on the whole of China. In January 2008 the Citroen advertisement campaign in Spain used a distorted portrait of Mao with face contorted in a grimace and eyes squinted. The advertisement provoked unrest in the Chinese Internet forums and was declared to be not only offensive to the Chairman, but also to the entire Chinese nation. Therefore, Citroen was forced to withdraw controversial posters and to issue an apology and acknowledgment of respect for the representatives and symbols of China.
In recent years there appeared a shift in an official image of Mao Zedong. He has been shown as a human being, much closer to the common people than ever before. A new movie titled “Mao Zedong in Anyang” was produced. It reveals a history of a romance between Mao and his first wife, Yang Kaihui. The memoires of Mao’s bodyguard, Li Yinqiao, were printed entitled “Mao Zedong: Man, Not God”. The publishing house advertises it as the “inside story of China’s dynamic leader and world statesman is told – the life and thought of Mao, the husband, father, comrade-in-arms, the peasant’s son”. Despite the title, Mao is presented as a superhuman, having a noble personality, and extremely courageous, risking his life for the revolution and for other comrades, but also as a sensitive altruist, with a sense of humor. Even while losing his temper, he was worth adoration, as that was a result of lack of sleep and his devotion and sacrifice for the Communist ideas. One of the stories in the book was about Mao seeing a child delirious with a fever. That provoked tears in Mao’s eyes, because as he explains “I can’t bear to see poor people cry. When I see their tears, I can’t hold back my own”. That is why he gave away the last bottle of penicillin for the ill child, despite his personal doctor’s objection. What is the mother’s reaction?” She dropped to her knees, saying sobbingly to Mao, ‘You’re a Buddha, a life-saving Buddha!’” It seems that the Chinese Communist leaders may have abandoned or revised the Mao Zedong thought during the last three decades, but they did not and will not dare to fully renounce Mao and his ideology. There might be changes in the way of officially showing the Chairman Mao, but it will not be possible to take him down from his pedestal. Even though the knowledge of Mao’s mistakes and faults is increasing in the Chinese society, the popular sentiment places him closer to supernatural power than a man in the street.
Attributions
Title Image
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deng_Xiaoping.jpg
Deng Xiaoping - Unknown or not provided, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Adapted from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/communist-china/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/east-asia-in-the-21st-century/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
https://www.politicsandreligionjournal.com/index.php/prj/article/view/89
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.456725
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Neil Greenwood
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88100/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 16: Globalization, China and Globalization",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87923/overview
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Brazil
Overview
Brazil
Brazil's independence movement was a direct result of the outcomes of the Napoleonic invasions. Brazil was unique in the fact that they had established a Empire following independence.
Learning Objectives
Analyze the difference between the Spanish and Portuguese independence movements.
Evaluate the impact of the Napoleonic Wars on the Independence Movements of Brazil.
Analyze the difference between the Brazilian Independence and other Latin American states.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
- Constitutionalist Revolution: a Portuguese political revolution that erupted in 1820. It began with a military insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal, that quickly and peacefully spread to the rest of the country; resulted in the return in 1821 of the Portuguese Court to Portugal from Brazil; initiated a constitutional period in which the 1822 Constitution was ratified and implemented
- United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves: a monarchy formed by the elevation of the Portuguese colony of Brazil to the status of a kingdom and by the simultaneous union of that Kingdom of Brazil with the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of the Algarves, constituting a single state consisting of three kingdoms; formed in 1815 after the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal and continued to exist for about one year after the return of the Court to Europe (It was de facto dissolved in 1822 when Brazil proclaimed its independence.)
- Brazilian war of independence: a war waged between the newly independent Empire of Brazil and United Kingdom of Portugal; lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, when the last Portuguese garrison of Montevideo surrendered to Commander Sinian Kersey
- First Brazilian Republic: the period of Brazilian history from 1889 to 1930. (It ended with a military coup, also known as the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, that installed Getúlio Vargas as a dictator.)
- Pedro I: nicknamed “the Liberator”; the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil; reigned briefly over Portugal
- bicameral parliament: a legislature in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses; often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods that vary from country to country
- Pedro II: the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years (Inheriting an empire on the verge of disintegration, he turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena. The nation grew distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability, zealously guarded freedom of speech, respect for civil rights, vibrant economic growth, and especially its government: a functional, representative parliamentary monarchy.)
- Peninsular War: a military conflict between Napoleon’s empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars
- Spanish Constitution of 1812: Spain’s first national sovereign assembly established on March 19, 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes; established the principles of universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, and freedom of the press, and supported land reform and free enterprise; Spain’s first Constitution
- juntas: a Spanish and Portuguese term for a civil deliberative or administrative council (In English, it predominantly refers to the government of an authoritarian state run by high-ranking officers of a military. The term literally means “union” and often refers to the army, navy, and air force commanders taking over the power of the president, prime minister, king, or other non-military leader.)
Brazilian Independence: Pedro II
From 1807 to 1811, Napoleonic French forces invaded Portugal three times. During the invasion of Portugal (1807), the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil, establishing Rio de Janeiro as the de facto capital of Portugal. From Brazil, the Portuguese king João VI ruled his trans-Atlantic empire for 13 years.
The capital’s move to Rio de Janeiro accentuated the economic, institutional, and social crises in mainland Portugal, which was administered by English commercial and military interests under William Beresford’s rule in the absence of the monarch. The influence of liberal ideals was strengthened by the aftermath of the war, the continuing impact of the American and French revolutions, discontent under absolutist government, and the general indifference shown by the Portuguese regency for the plight of its people.
This also had the side effect of creating within Brazil many of the institutions required to exist as an independent state; most importantly, it freed the country to trade with other nations at will. After Napoleon’s army was finally defeated in 1815, King João VI of Portugal raised the de jure status of Brazil to an equal, integral part of a United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, rather than a mere colony; this was done in order to maintain the capital in Brazil. It enjoyed this status for the next seven years.
Following the defeat of the French forces, Portugal experienced a prolonged period of political turmoil in which many sought greater self-rule for the Portuguese people. Eventually this unrest put an end to the king’s long stay in Brazil and prompted his return to Portugal.
Even though the Portuguese participated in the defeat of the French, the country found itself virtually a British protectorate. The officers of the Portuguese Army resented British control of the Portuguese armed forces. After Napoleon’s definite defeat in 1815, a clandestine Supreme Regenerative Council of Portugal and the Algarve was formed in Lisbon by army officers and freemasons, headed by General Gomes Freire de Andrade—Grand Master of the Grande Oriente Lusitano and former general under Napoleon until his defeat in 1814. This was done with the objective of ending British control of the country and promoting “salvation and independence.”
In 1820 the Constitutionalist Revolution erupted in Portugal. The movement initiated by the liberal constitutionalists resulted in the meeting of the Cortes (or Constituent Assembly) that would create the kingdom’s first constitution. The Cortes demanded the return of King João VI, who had been living in Brazil since 1808. The revolution began with a military insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal, that quickly and peacefully spread to the rest of the country. In 1821, the Revolution resulted in the return of the Portuguese Court to Portugal from Brazil and initiated a constitutional period in which the 1822 Constitution was ratified and implemented. The revolutionaries also sought to restore Portuguese exclusivity in the trade with Brazil, reverting Brazil to the status of a colony; it was officially reduced to a “Principality of Brazil,” instead of the Kingdom of Brazil, which it had been for the past five years. The movement’s liberal ideas had an important influence on Portuguese society and political organization in the 19th century.
Early Brazilian Independence
Brazilian Independence
King João returned to Portugal in April 1821, leaving behind his son and heir, Prince Dom Pedro, to rule Brazil as his regent. The Portuguese government immediately moved to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had been granted since 1808. The threat of losing their limited control over local affairs ignited widespread opposition among Brazilians. José Bonifácio de Andrada, along with other Brazilian leaders, convinced Pedro to declare Brazil’s independence from Portugal on September 7, 1822. On October 12, the prince was acclaimed Pedro I—first Emperor of the newly created Empire of Brazil, which was a constitutional monarchy. The declaration of independence was opposed throughout Brazil by armed military units loyal to Portugal. The ensuing Brazilian war of independence was fought across the country, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions. The war lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, when the last Portuguese garrison of Montevideo surrendered to Commander Sinian Kersey. It was fought on land and sea and involved both regular forces and civilian militia. Independence was recognized by Portugal in August 1825.
Early Years
Unlike most of the neighboring Hispanic American republics, Brazil had political stability, vibrant economic growth, constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech, and respect for civil rights of its subjects—albeit with legal restrictions on women and slaves who were regarded as property and not citizens. The empire’s bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to a long ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government.
Pedro I also faced other obstacles. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina (later Uruguay). In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, Pedro I became the king of Portugal; he immediately abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his eldest daughter. Two years later, she was usurped by Pedro I’s younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on April 7, 1831, and immediately departed for Europe to restore his daughter to the Portuguese throne.
Pedro II
Pedro I’s successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a weak regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a ruling monarch led to regional civil wars between local factions. Having inherited an empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II, once he was declared of age, managed to bring peace and stability to the country, which eventually became an emerging international power.
Under Pedro II’s rule Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the Paraguayan War). The Empire also prevailed in several other international disputes and outbreaks of domestic strife. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, although Brazil remained mostly Catholic. Slavery, which was initially widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature, and theater developed during this time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, each concept was adapted to create a culture that was uniquely Brazilian.
End of the Empire
Even though the last four decades of Pedro II’s reign were marked by continuous internal peace and economic prosperity, he had no desire to see the monarchy survive beyond his lifetime and made no effort to maintain support for the institution. The next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empire’s political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy.
Although there was no desire for a change in the form of government among most Brazilians, after a 58-year reign, on November 15, 1889, the emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d’état led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic headed by a dictator, forming the First Brazilian Republic. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the monarchy’s future prospects, despite its overwhelming popular support. He allowed no prevention of his ouster and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy. He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money.
The reign of Pedro II thus came to an unusual end—he was overthrown while highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity, and some of his accomplishments were soon brought to naught as Brazil slipped into a long period of weak governments, dictatorships, and constitutional and economic crises. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic.
Attributions
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Independence or Death: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Independencia_brasil_001.jpg
Boundless World History
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.486464
|
Neil Greenwood
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87923/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 9: Revolution, Brazil",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91197/overview
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Buying-Process Stages
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: Buying-Process Stages
What you’ll learn to do: describe the stages of the buying process
Take a moment to think about the last time you bought something. What factors played a role in your decision to buy? What process did you go through on the way to deciding?
Were you on autopilot, or was it a thoughtful, deliberate decision? What alternatives did you consider? How did you know where to go to make that purchase? And would you buy that same thing again?
Many decisions about what to buy are so routine that we hardly think about them. Other decisions may take days, weeks, or even months to finally get made. Believe it or not, there is a fairly common process that consumers follow when they make decisions about what to buy. Learning about that process is an important first step in unlocking the mystery of consumer behavior—and how to influence it.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Describe theories of consumer decision-making
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: The “Black Box” of Consumer Behavior
- Reading: Buying-Process Stages
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: Buying Process Stages. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: The “Black Box” of Consumer Behavior
The relationship between the customer (also called the buyer) and the provider (the seller) forms through a phenomenon called a market exchange. During the exchange process, each party assesses the relative trade-offs they must make to satisfy their respective needs and wants. On the part of the seller, the trade-offs are guided by company polices and objectives. For example, company policy may dictate that it can proceed with an exchange only when the profit margin is 10 percent or greater. The buyer—the other party in the exchange—also has policies and objectives that guide his or her decisions in an exchange. For individual buyers, these are usually unwritten personal policies and objectives that people make at each stage of a purchasing decision based on the information and options available to them. Even more likely, individuals often are not fully conscious of what prompts them to behave in a particular manner.
Essential Questions About Buyer Behavior
Buyers are essential partners in the exchange process. Without them, exchanges would stop. Buyers are the focus of successful marketing; their needs and wants are the reason for marketing. Without an understanding of buyer behavior, it isn’t possible to tailor an offering to the demands of potential buyers. When potential buyers are not satisfied, exchange does not proceed, and the goals of the marketer are not met. As long as buyers have free choice and competitive offerings from which to choose, they are ultimately in control of the marketplace.
A market can be defined as a group of potential buyers with needs and wants and the purchasing power to satisfy them. During the exchange process, the potential buyers “vote” (usually with their dollars) for the market offering they feel best meets their needs. When marketers understand how buyers arrive at a decision, they can create offerings that will attract buyers. Two key questions a marketer needs to answer related to buyer behavior are:
- How do potential buyers go about making purchase decisions?
- What factors influence their decision process and in what way?
The answers to these two questions form the basis for the design of a market offering.
When we use the term “buyer,” we are referring to an individual, group, or organization that engages in market exchange. In fact, there are differences in the characteristics of these three entities and how they behave in an exchange. Therefore, individuals and groups are traditionally placed in the consumer category, while organization is the second category. This module will first discuss consumer purchasing decisions, followed by business-to-business purchasing decisions.
Opening the “Black Box” of Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior refers to buyers who are purchasing products for personal, family, or group use. Over time, marketers have turned to the work of behavioral scientists, philosophers, economists, social psychologists, and others to help them understand consumer behavior. As a result, there are many different theories and models used to explain why consumers act as they do. Are consumers fundamentally active or passive? Rational or emotional? How do they make buying decisions?
The Economic Man Theory
One early theory of consumer decision making based on principles of economics is known as the “economic man.” According to the “economic man” model, consumers are rational and narrowly self-interested. This theory assumes people act selfishly as consumers, always trying to maximize the benefits they derive from the exchange process. (This theory asserts that the seller/producer is also an economic man, who always strives to maximize his profits from an exchange.) The economic man model suggests consumers actively use information about all the available options before making a decision to purchase.
Although this model may help explain some consumer decisions, most would agree it is too simplistic to explain every consumer choice. In fact, people often make decisions based on irrational factors as well. For example, some consumers may be heavily influenced by word-of-mouth information from friends or peers. They might choose something because of herd mentality rather than because it provides the greatest objective value. Similarly, many people are averse to change, and so they make suboptimal consumer choices because a familiar choice seems easier or safer.
The Stimulus-Response Model
Another model of consumer behavior, called the stimulus-response or “black box” model, focuses on the consumer as a thinker and problem solver who responds to a range of external and internal factors when deciding whether or not to buy. These factors are shown in Figure 1, below:
Figure 1. Black Box Model
As illustrated in the figure above, the external stimuli that consumers respond to include the marketing mix and other environmental factors in the market. The marketing mix (the four Ps) represents a set of stimuli that are planned and created by the company. The environmental stimuli are supplied by the economic, political, and cultural circumstances of a society. Together these factors represent external circumstances that help shape consumer choices.
The internal factors affecting consumer decisions are described as the “black box.” This “box” contains a variety of factors that exist inside the person’s mind. These include characteristics of the consumer, such as their beliefs, values, motivation, lifestyle, and so forth. The decision-making process is also part of the black box, as consumers come to recognize they have a problem they need to solve and consider how a purchasing decision may solve the problem. As a consumer responds to external stimuli, their “black box” process choices based on internal factors and determine the consumer’s response–whether to purchase or not to purchase.
Like the economic man model, this model also assumes that regardless of what happens inside the black box (the consumer’s mind), the consumer’ response is a result of a conscious, rational decision process. Many marketers are skeptical of this assumption and think that consumers are often tempted to make irrational or emotional buying decisions. In fact, marketers understand that consumers’ irrationality and emotion are often what make them susceptible to marketing stimuli in the first place.
For this reason, consumer purchasing behavior is considered by many to be a mystery or “black box.” When people themselves don’t fully understand what drives their choices, the exchange process can be unpredictable and difficult for marketers to understand.
Buyer Behavior As Problem Solving
A common way for marketers to think about consumer behavior today is as a set of activities a person goes through in order to solve problems. This problem-solving process is triggered when a consumer identifies some unmet need. For instance, a family consumes all of the milk in the house, or a birthday party is coming up and a gift is needed, or a soccer team is planning an end-of-season picnic. Each buying scenario presents a problem the buyer must solve. These problems can involve two types of needs: physical (such as a need for milk, a birthday gift, or picnic food) or psychological (for example, the need to feel secure, the need to be loved, or the need to have fun).
This problem-solving process also involves needs and wants. A need is a basic deficiency for an essential item. You need food, water, air, security, and so forth. A want places specific, personal criteria on how a need must be fulfilled. To illustrate, when we are hungry, food is a need. When we have a specific food item in mind, that item is a want. That difference is illustrated by the familiar scenario of standing in front of a full refrigerator and complaining that there is nothing to eat.
Most of marketing is in the want-fulfilling business, not the need-fulfilling business. Swatch and Timex do not want you to buy just any watch. They want you to want their brands of watches. Likewise, H&M wants you to desire their brand of clothing when you shop for clothes. On the other hand, the American Cancer Association markets to you in the hope that you will feel the need to get a checkup, and it doesn’t care which doctor you go to. But in the end, marketing is mostly about creating and satisfying wants.
This model of consumer behavior acknowledges that both rational and irrational factors may shape a buyer’s purchasing decisions. It also recognizes that internal and external factors play a role in the decision process. In fact, the problem-solving model helps us map a consistent process individuals go through as they make buying decisions. When marketers understand this process and the factors that influence it, they can take action to influence buyer perceptions and behavior at various stages of the process.
The next reading will discuss the stages of the decision-making process in greater detail.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Homo economicus. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_economicus. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Black Box. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/black-box-container-cardboard-box-310220/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Consumer Behaviour. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_behaviour#Black_box_model. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Reading: Buying-Process Stages
The Consumer Decision Process
Figure 1 outlines the process a consumer goes through in making a purchase decision. Once the process is started, a potential buyer can withdraw at any stage before making the actual purchase. This process represents the steps people undergo when they make a conscious effort to learn about the options and select a product–the first time they purchase a product, for instance, or when buying high-priced, long-lasting items they don’t purchase frequently. This is called complex decision making.
Figure 1. The Consumer Decision-Making Process
For many products, the purchasing behavior is routine: you notice a need and you satisfy that need according to your habit of repurchasing the same brand or the cheapest brand or the most convenient alternative, depending on your personal assessment of trade-offs and value. In these situations, you have learned from your past experiences what will best satisfy your need, so you can bypass the second and third stages of the process. This is called simple decision making. However, if something changes appreciably (price, product, availability, services), then you may re-enter the full decision process and consider alternative brands.
The following section discusses each step of the consumer decision-making process.
Need Recognition
The first step of the consumer decision process is recognizing that there is a problem–or unmet need–and that this need warrants some action. Whether we act to resolve a particular problem depends upon two factors: (1) the magnitude of the difference between what we have and what we need, and (2) the importance of the problem. A man may desire a new Lexus and own a five-year-old Ford Focus. The discrepancy may be fairly large but relatively unimportant compared to the other problems he faces. Conversely, a woman may own a two-year-old car that is running well, but for various reasons she considers it extremely important to purchase another car this year. Consumers do not move on to the next step until they have confirmed that their specific needs are important enough to act on.
Part of need recognition is defining the problem in a way that allows the consumer to take the next step toward finding a solution. In many cases, problem recognition and problem definition occur simultaneously: a consumer runs out of toothpaste, for instance. In other cases, these are separate tasks. Consider a scenario in which you injure your knee. You may know that your knee hurts, and you can’t walk very well, but you need to further define the problem before you can take action: Do you need a good night’s sleep? A brace? Pain medication? Physical therapy? Surgery? All of these things? As a consumer, you will be able to begin solving your problem once it is adequately defined.
Marketers get involved in the need recognition state at three points:
- Knowing what problems consumers are facing, so they can develop a marketing mix to address these problems
- Activating problem recognition, in order to trigger the start of the purchasing process
- Shaping how consumers define the need or problem, in order to influence their wants as they look for a solution
Marketing interactions through ads, Web sites, salespeople, and any number of other activities create opportunities for marketers to communicate with consumers and become engaged in need recognition. Listening to customers through social media or the customer support team provides insight into the ways consumers perceive the problems they face. A public service announcement espousing the dangers of cigarette smoking helps trigger a sense of needing to do something about cancer prevention. Advertising weekend and evening shopping hours triggers awareness of the problem of limited weekday shopping opportunities for busy working parents. Once a young man recognizes that he needs a new coat, marketing tries to influence his choices: Should it be a trendy, bargain-priced jacket from Old Navy or the pricey North Face coat he can wear snowboarding (assuming he can scrape together money for a lift pass after buying the coat). In each of these scenarios, marketing plays an active role in facilitating need recognition.
Information Search
After recognizing a need, the prospective consumer may seek information to help identify and evaluate alternative products, services, experiences, and outlets that will meet that need. Information may come from any number of sources: family and friends, search engines, Yelp reviews, personal observation, Consumer Reports, salespeople, product samples, and so forth. Which sources are most important depends on the individual and the type of purchase he or she is considering.
The promotion element of the marketing mix should provide information to assist consumers in the decision process. When marketers understand which information sources their target consumers turn to during the search process, they can develop a promotion strategy and tactics that put their offerings and message into the search path. For instance, teen boys rely heavily on peer networks to know what’s interesting, cool, and desirable. A social media strategy is essential for virtually any product—video games, fashion, gadgets, sports gear, music, and on—targeting these consumers.
In some cases, consumers already have the information they need based on past purchasing and consumption experience–for better or for worse. Good experiences reinforce customer loyalty, while bad experiences destroy opportunities for repeat purchases. For instance, a consumer who needs new tires may look for sales in the local newspaper or ask friends for a recommendation. If she has bought tires before and had a good experience, she may go to the same dealer and buy the same brand.
The information-search process can also identify new needs. As a tire shopper looks for information, she may decide that the tires are not the real problem, but instead she needs a new car. At this point, her newly perceived need may trigger a new information search.
Information search involves both mental and physical activities that consumers must perform in order to make decisions and solve their problems through the marketplace. As anyone who has purchased a car, computer, or pet knows, it takes time, energy, and money to achieve a satisfactory outcome. Often it means foregoing more desirable activities. Eventually most consumers learn that the benefits of information search can outweigh the costs, particularly for bigger-ticket purchases. A thorough information search may save money, improve the quality of selection, or reduce risks.
Identification and Evaluation of Alternatives
As a consumer finds and processes information about the problem she is trying to solve, she identifies the alternative products, services, and outlets that are viable options. The next step is to evaluate these alternatives and make a choice, assuming a choice is possible that meets the consumer’s financial and psychological requirements. Evaluation criteria vary from consumer to consumer and from purchase to purchase, just as the needs and information sources vary. One consumer may consider price most important while another puts more weight on quality or convenience.
The information search helps inform consumers about the criteria they might consider as they are evaluating options and making a final selection. For any given purchasing decision, each consumer develops a set of criteria–often only a mental list–along with the relative importance of each quality in their final selection. This evaluation process may be very systematic and comprehensive for some people and purchases. There are also people who find the selection process difficult or frustrating, and so they cope with their discomfort by keeping the number of alternatives to a minimum, or by making an impulse purchase at the last moment. Note that the selection and evaluation phases of consumer problem solving are closely related and often happen simultaneously.
Consider a situation in which you are buying a new vacuum cleaner. During your information search process, you identified five leading models in online reviews, as well as a set of evaluation criteria that are most important to you: 1) price, 2) suction power, 3) warranty, 4) weight, 5) noise level, and 6) ease of using attachments. After visiting Sears and Home Depot to check out all the options in person, you’re torn between two models you short-listed. Finally you make the agonizing choice, and the salesperson heads to the warehouse to get one for you. He returns with bad news: The vacuum cleaner is out of stock, but a new shipment is expected in three days. Strangely relieved, you take that as a sign to go for the other model, which happens to be in stock. Although convenience wasn’t on your original list of selection criteria, you need the vacuum cleaner before the party you’re having the next day. You pick the number-two choice and never look back.
From the marketer’s perspective, understanding your target consumer’s evaluation criteria is critical. You need to demonstrate these qualities in order to be short-listed in the selection set. Often these qualities make the difference in your offering being selected over competitors’. In the end, selection remains something of an unpredictable black box because people think differently, and the circumstances for any given purchasing situation are unique to the person, the product, and the problem being solved.
The Purchase Decision
After much searching and evaluating (or perhaps very little), consumers at some point have to decide whether they are going to buy. Anything marketers can do to simplify purchasing will be attractive to buyers. For example, in advertising, marketers might suggest the best size of product for a particular use or the right wine to drink with a particular food. Sometimes several decision situations can be combined and marketed as one package. For example, travel agents often package travel tours, and stores that sell appliances try to sell them with add-on warranties.
To do a better job of marketing at this stage of the buying process, a seller needs to have answers to questions about consumers’ shopping behavior. Those answers will increase the likelihood of closing the sale and maximizing value at the moment of purchase. Useful questions to ask include the following:
- How much effort is the consumer willing to spend in shopping for the product?
- What factors influence when the consumer will actually make the purchase?
- Are there any conditions that would prohibit or delay the purchase?
Marketers should look for opportunities to influence things in their favor at the point of purchase. Product pricing, labeling, and packaging can be hugely influential at this stage of the process. Product sampling, coupons, and rebates may also give an extra incentive to buy. Personal selling, product display, convenience, and ease of finding the product may also lead the consumer to make one choice over another. Actually determining how a consumer goes through the decision-making process is a difficult research task, in part because it can vary so much from consumer to consumer. The key for marketers is to be aware of the influencing factors and how to shape them to your advantage.
Postpurchase Behavior
All the behavior determinants and the steps of the buying process up to this point take place before or during the time a purchase is made. However, a consumer’s feelings and evaluations after the sale are also significant to a marketer, because they can influence repeat sales and what the customer tells others about the product or brand.
Marketing is all about keeping the customer happy at every stage of the decision-making process, including postpurchase. It is normal for consumers to experience some postpurchase anxiety after any significant or nonroutine purchase. This anxiety reflects a phenomenon called cognitive dissonance. According to this theory, people strive for consistency among their cognitions (knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and values). When there are inconsistencies, dissonance arises, which people try to eliminate.
In some cases, the consumer makes the decision to buy a particular brand already aware of dissonant elements or things that are inconsistent with their internal criteria. A common example is price: a consumer falls in love with every aspect of a product, but it costs more money than he intended to spend. His cognitive dissonance is whether to spend the extra money for a product he loves or else stick with a second-best product that fits the budget. In other cases, dissonance is aroused by information received after the purchase. For instance, a disturbing report about sweatshop labor comes out days after you purchase a pair of athletic shoes from the company involved.
Marketers may take specific steps to reduce postpurchase dissonance. One obvious way is to help ensure delivery of a quality solution that will satisfy customers. Another step is to develop advertising and new-customer communications that stress the many positive attributes or confirm the popularity of the product. Providing personal reinforcement has proven effective with big-ticket items such as automobiles and major appliances. Salespeople in these areas may send cards or even make personal calls in order to reassure customers about their purchase.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Adam with the Eureka Optima 431a. Authored by: Adam Walker Cleaveland. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/walkercleaveland/2204542748/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.517981
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03/22/2022
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91197/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Buying-Process Stages",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91184/overview
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Social Responsibility Marketing Impact
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: Social Responsibility Marketing Impact
What you’ll learn to do: explain how demonstrating corporate social responsibility can impact marketing
We have reviewed many ethical challenges and potential traps for marketers. How can a marketer win? Actually, in lots of ways. Increasingly, marketers are doing more than just trying to avoid doing harm; as you’ll see, they’re taking on important issues and are making a difference, actively doing good.
Earlier in this module we discussed what corporate social responsibility is and how social responsibility programs impact many different stakeholders in a business. In this section we focus on the role of corporate social responsibility in marketing. We will look at the marketing mix—product, price, promotion, and distribution—and see how companies are changing their marketing strategies to visibly contribute to their communities.
Finally, we’ll talk about the results that companies achieve when social responsibility is part of the marketing strategy.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Define social responsibility
- Identify examples of social responsibility that create value for customers
- Explain the impact of social responsibility on marketing results
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Social Responsibility in the Marketing Strategy
- Reading: Social Responsibility Initiatives
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: Social Responsibility Marketing Impact. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: Social Responsibility in the Marketing Strategy
You’ll recall that we defined corporate social responsibility as the ethical behavior of a company toward society. It means acting responsibly toward the stakeholders—not just the shareholders—who have a legitimate interest in the business. Let’s focus on how marketers use corporate social responsibility to achieve marketing objectives.
First, let’s return for a moment to the marketing planning process. Where does social responsibility fit in? It generally comes into the planning process in one of two ways:
- Social responsibility may be a corporate-level strategy with specific objectives.
- Social responsibility may be part of the marketing mix based on the situation analysis
Let’s look at both of these approaches.
Corporate Strategy at Coca-Cola
Coca-Cola’s mission is:
- To refresh the world . . .
- To inspire moments of optimism and happiness . . .
- To create value and make a difference.
In support of the vision, the company has created what it calls a “roadmap” that defines the focus areas for company strategies and tactics. These include:
- People: Be a great place to work where people are inspired to be the best they can be.
- Portfolio: Bring to the world a portfolio of quality beverage brands that anticipate and satisfy people’s desires and needs.
- Partners: Nurture a winning network of customers and suppliers, together we create mutual, enduring value.
- Planet: Be a responsible citizen that makes a difference by helping build and support sustainable communities.
- Profit: Maximize long-term return to shareowners while being mindful of our overall responsibilities.
- Productivity: Be a highly effective, lean, and fast-moving organization.1
Which of the roadmap areas focus on social responsibility? “Planet” is clearly a social responsibility focus, as it acknowledges a responsibility to improve the world beyond the sale of Coca-Cola’s products. “People” also suggests a note of social responsibility; Coca-Cola strives to be a place where employees are not only doing a good job for the company but are inspired to be their best as people.
Marketing Strategies to Address Childhood Obesity
Coca-Cola doesn’t specifically call out customer health in its roadmap, but that concern has become a significant component of its marketing strategy, and the company has developed a specific set of marketing programs to address childhood obesity. Childhood obesity is a challenging issue for the company. If you were to conduct a SWOT analysis of Coca-Cola, you could imagine that this issue would appear under “external threats” and have a negative impact on its market. In most K–12 schools in the United States, the sale of soft drinks has been steadily eliminated. Rather than wait to find out how this trend might play out, marketing decided to take a proactive role. In 2013, Coca-Cola announced its four global well-being commitments to help fight obesity, each of which has a direct impact on the marketing mix:
- Offer low- or no-calorie beverage options in every market. (Product)
- Provide transparent nutrition information, featuring calories on the front of all of our packages. (Product)
- Help get people moving by supporting physical activity programs in every country where we do business. (Promotion)
- Market responsibly, including no advertising to children under 12 anywhere in the world. (Promotion)2
Coca-Cola has added a number of water and juice brands to its product portfolio in order to achieve these social responsibility objectives, and has devoted a substantial budget to develop physical activity programs in its markets. The tone of the company’s advertising has shifted to focus on an older audience.
Increasingly companies around the world are including some social responsibility objectives in their corporate-level plans. The majority of U.S. companies in the S&P 500 and Fortune 500 provide reporting to investors on their sustainability goals and performance.3 In South Africa, companies are required to provide such reporting in order to be listed on the Johannesburg stock exchange.
With this emphasis and accountability, social responsibility is no longer regarded as a “special project,” but is becoming an integral part of the corporate and marketing planning process that is central to business performance and success.
- https://web.archive.org/web/20190927211338/https://www.coca-colacompany.com/our-company/mission-vision-values
- https://web.archive.org/web/20180128220119/https://www.coca-colacompany.com/annual-review/2013/highlights.html
- http://www.ga-institute.com/nc/issue-master-system/news-details/article/number-of-companies-in-sp-500R-and-fortune-500-R-reporting-on-sustainability-more-than-doubles-1.html
Reading: Social Responsibility Initiatives
The Business Case for Social Responsibility
Regardless of broader benefits, there is a strong business case for social responsibility. Public companies’ stock prices benefit from strong social responsibility initiatives. In 2013, more than $6.57 trillion were invested based on socially responsible investment strategies.2
For marketers, the desire for socially responsible products and companies is driven by consumers. Nearly 30 percent of consumers plan to increase the amount of goods and/or services they buy from socially responsible companies in the coming year. Twenty-five percent avoided buying products from an enterprise because they thought it wasn’t socially responsible.2
Social Responsibility Programs
In defining social responsibility programs and goals, companies are acknowledging a commitment to creating a better world. How do they determine where to focus these efforts and what are they trying to achieve? Generally, companies are expanding on unique market strengths that benefit society and trying to reduce the negative impact of their products on society. As with any other business strategy, an approach that is customized to the company and its market is more likely to have greater impact. For example, Coca-Cola’s emphasis on preventing childhood obesity acknowledges and addresses a risk that the company brings to its market. If Exxon Mobile launched a childhood obesity initiative, it wouldn’t have the same impact. The company’s oil and gas offerings don’t have a direct impact on childhood obesity, and thus it would raise questions about the energy company’s commitment to addressing issues much closer to home—i.e., the serious impact that Exxon Mobile products have on the environment.
Many companies are implementing a host of social responsibility strategies through sustainable product initiatives.
Creating Sustainable Products
A sustainable product is constantly environmental-friendly during its entire life. That is, from the moment the raw materials are extracted to the moment the final product is disposed of, there must be no permanent damage to the environment.3
A sustainable product focus may include:
- Use of organic raw materials
- Sustainably harvesting of raw materials
- Emphasizing human rights and labor conditions in sourcing decisions
- Use of renewable energy in the production process
- Ensuring that use of the product creates a positive impact on the community
- Creating product recycling and reuse options
- Improving the impact of the product’s use on human and environmental health
The intent of a sustainable product strategy is that the company is identifying the impact of its products on society at every phase of the product lifecycle, and minimizing the negative impacts. Sustainable product initiatives are so broad in scope that they often encompass all of the social responsibility initiatives. This broad scope also requires companies to be focused and realistic about what they can achieve, setting appropriate objectives that demonstrate progress and identify where more work is needed.
As the world’s largest retailer, Wal-Mart faces unique challenges in product sustainability. It must not only focus on its stores, but on the products provided and transported by a broad network of suppliers. To address this, Wal-Mart has partnered with The Sustainability Consortium to create a sustainability index that can be used to set standards and measure progress across its value chain. The goals of the index are to:
- Improve the sustainability of the products customers love
- Integrate sustainability into the business of buying and selling merchandise
- Reduce cost, improve product quality and create a more resilient supply chain
- Strengthen customers’ trust in retailers and the brands we carry
The company cites progress in its work to date.
One great example of how we are delivering impact is through the progress we’ve made on our goal to eliminate 20 million metric tons (MMT) of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the supply chain. Through our partnership with the Environmental Defense Fund and by leveraging the Index as a tool to gain buy-in and create accountability, we’ve:
- Eliminated 7.575 MMT of GHG by the end of 2013
- Implemented projects that are estimated to eliminate 18MMT of GHG emissions by the end of 20154
Clearly, Walmart has significant work ahead, but independent evaluations have been positive. Joel Makower of Green Biz reports that Walmart’s sustainability initiatives are having a real impact, both on its operations and those of the companies in its supply chain. He also notes that some of that progress is offset by the company’s rapid growth.5
- http://www.ussif.org/sribasics
- http://www.forbes.com/sites/annefield/2013/04/05/consumers-like-social-responsibility-but-they-arent-sure-what-a-social-enterprise-is/
- Frank-Martin B. and Peattie, K. (2009). Sustainability Marketing: A Global Perspective. Wiley, United Kingdom.
- https://corporate.walmart.com/
- http://www.greenbiz.com/article/walmart-sustainability-10-assessment
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Social Responsibility Initiatives. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.552254
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03/22/2022
|
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91184/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Ethics and Social Responsibility, Social Responsibility Marketing Impact",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91182/overview
|
B2B and B2C Marketer Ethical Dilemmas
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: B2B and B2C Marketer Ethical Dilemmas
What you’ll learn to do: explain how ethical dilemmas in business-to-business marketing differ from those in consumer marketing
In June 2013, Los Angeles United School District (LAUSD), the second largest school district in the U.S., announced that it had signed a $30 million contract with Apple to provide students with iPads that were preloaded with educational software from Pearson PLC. It was an ambitious education technology initiative that promised to give students new learning tools and technology literacy.
By the end of 2015 the superintendent would resign, the program would be canceled, Pearson’s philanthropic foundation would be closed, the companies would pay a $6.4 million settlement to the school district to prevent litigation, and the FBI would be involved in a criminal probe of the program. It would be hard to imagine a worse result for any of the parties involved.
Circumventing the Public Bid Process
California law requires that such large projects go to public bid, which this project did, but well before the bid process, the email record between LAUSD Superintendent John Deasy and then CEO of Pearson Marjorie Scardino suggested that deals were made to purchase Pearson curriculum and Apple hardware. In fact, Superintendent Deasy made the initial introduction between Scardino and Apple CEO. In an email to Scardino, Deasy writes:
I wanted to let you know I have [sic] an excellent meeting with Tim at Apple last Friday. The meeting went very well and he was fully committed to being a partner. He said he and his team will take 5 days to present a price plan and scope of partnership. He was very excited about being a partner with Pearson. I think it would be good for you to loop back with him at this point. I will reach out to you again in a week.1
Deputy Superintendent Jaime Aquino was tasked to work with Pearson on the project in advance of the bid process. His email messages indicate that he was attempting to influence the bid process in Pearson’s favor. His email messages to Pearson executives include the following statements:
I am not sure if legally we can enter into an agreement when we have not reviewed the final product for each grade and if the materials have not been approved by the state.
I believe we would have to make sure that your bid is the lowest one.2
Violating the Restriction on Nonprofit Philanthropy
Pearson’s non-profit philanthropy foundation was also involved in securing the deal, which violated certain federal restrictions. A Pearson Foundation vice president, Sherry King, was deeply involved in discussions with top officials at the Los Angeles Unified School District about selling the district the new Common Core digital curriculum in 2012 and 2013, well in advance of the formal bid process. The Pearson Foundation was providing education leadership grants to LAUSD as early as 2007.3
The Pearson Foundation came under fire for another tactic. The New York Times reported:
In recent years, the Pearson Foundation has paid to send state education commissioners to meet with their international counterparts in London, Helsinki, Singapore and, just last week, Rio de Janeiro.
The commissioners stay in expensive hotels, like the Mandarin Oriental in Singapore. They spend several days meeting with educators in these places. They also meet with top executives from the commercial side of Pearson, which is one of the biggest education companies in the world, selling standardized tests, packaged curriculums and Prentice Hall textbooks.4
The New York Times reported that Gavin Payne of California participated in an expense-paid trip to Singapore.
The Pearson Foundation was also fighting battles over its tactics in New York state, where the New York state attorney general won a $7.7 million judgment against the foundation. His written statement read:
The fact is that Pearson is a for-profit corporation, and they are prohibited by law from using charitable funds to promote and develop for-profit products. I’m pleased that this settlement will direct millions of dollars back to where they belong.
The Pearson Foundation board announced that it was closing the foundation in December 2013, after the New York judgment.
Poor Execution from All Players
Almost immediately after the district announced the deal, Apple unveiled new, updated iPads—in other words, from the get-go, students in the district would be receiving out-of-date devices. The cost the district was paying per iPad was actually higher than the regular consumer price. Many schools did not have the Wi-Fi infrastructure needed to support devices for all students. The district hadn’t created policies or plans for loss or theft. Students bypassed security protocols so they could install music and video apps. The iPads were supposed to come preloaded with Common Core–aligned curriculum, designed by the education behemoth Pearson. But the curriculum was incomplete. A report5 on the district’s iPad program revealed that only one teacher actually used the Pearson materials.6
The Fallout
In October 2014, John Deasy resigned his role as superintendent.
In December 2015, with the help of a grand-jury subpoena, the FBI seized twenty boxes of documentation related to the procurement process. No charges have been made since the seizure.
Immediately after the subpoena and FBI seizure, Deasy’s successor canceled the contract with Apple (and therefore Pearson).
In September 2015, the vendors (Apple, Pearson, and hardware-provider Lenovo)collectively agreed to pay LAUSD a $6.4 million settlement. Pearson has agreed to pay the full $6.4 million.
When businesses engage in selling to other businesses or to government entities, the laws, policies, norms, and ethics change. Some challenges involved in marketing to consumers are minimized, or go away altogether, but other ones arise. In this module we will explore the unique ethical challenges and opportunities in business-to-business marketing.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Explain how B2B marketing creates unique ethical risks and challenges
- Describe the risks associated with customer gifts and bribes
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Ethics in B2B Marketing
- Reading: Gifts and Bribes
- http://www.latimes.com/local/education/la-me-ipads-deasy-20140825-story.html
- http://www.latimes.com/local/education/la-me-ipads-deasy-20140825-story.html
- http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/Pearson-Foundation-Provides-Fellowship-8216
- http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/19/education/19winerip.html
- http://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-ipad-eval-20140918-story.html
- https://modelviewculture.com/pieces/ed-tech-year-in-review
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: B2B and B2C Marketer Ethical Dilemmas. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: Ethics in B2B Marketing
You will recall that business-to-business (B2B) marketing differs from business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing in key ways. B2B marketers sell to other businesses or institutions, which then consume the product as part of their business operations or use the product in the assembly of the final product they sell to consumers. B2C marketers focus their efforts on consumers—the individuals who consume finished products.
Also, the marketing processes used by B2B marketers are different. One important difference is the tactic of more “personal” selling, in which a sales force builds personal relationships with individuals in decision-making roles in order to facilitate sales within the organizations they’re targeting. Also, because B2B sales tend to be higher-priced, larger-ticket items, marketing tactics often include extensive adjustments in factors such as the selling price, product features, terms of delivery, and so forth.
In the context of ethics, there are some important challenges that are unique to B2B marketing, too. These are discussed below.
The Challenge of Monitoring Ethics in B2B Marketing
Imagine that Banana Republic, the retail clothing store, wants to launch a new promotion with a significant price discount. Banana Republic sells to consumers, which makes it a B2C company. Before the promotion is announced, the corporate marketing team will analyze the pricing discount. The Web site design for the promotion will be thoroughly reviewed. If this is a new promotion, the legal team will evaluate and approve the official language. The display materials that are sent to stores go through the same review. The marketing team will craft communications for the sales associates in stores around the country, explaining the promotion and scripting how it should be presented to shoppers. It is possible that the marketing team at Gap Inc., Banana Republic’s parent company, will also review the promotion—or they may have provided a “promotion template” that’s been reviewed and approved. For a B2C company selling to a large consumer audience, pricing is fairly uniform for all buyers, and the marketing and legal teams typically review the pricing strategies and communications.
In a B2B sales environment this process is very different. Imagine that a sales representative from Microsoft comes to your college campus to meet with technology leaders about a new software package for student communications. She might meet with the college’s chief information officer over lunch and discuss the college’s current products, as well as the new software package she is hoping to sell. When the discussion turns to price, the sales rep will try to present the right price to close the sale. She will be thinking about what the college has already purchased, what else she hopes to sell to the college, and how she might “bundle” this product to drive the largest total sale. She will also care about the timing of the sale. Does she want the college to buy the product this year or this quarter in order to maximize her commission? That will make a difference in whether she presents more aggressive pricing now or tries to create a larger deal that may take longer to close. The individual sales rep has significant discretion in crafting the right deal. Often the company’s sales leadership will not have visibility into the details of this deal until she is well into the sales process, and the legal team will not review it until it is in a formal contract that the company is preparing to sign.
B2B sales processes generally have fewer controls than B2C processes for a number of reasons:
- Personal sales are relationship based, requiring the seller to tailor the process according to the buyer’s personality and approach
- B2B sales are often large and complex, which necessitates personalizing the marketing mix to the individual buyer
- Pricing is negotiated between the buyer and seller, rather than being set and uniform across all customers
- Communication about the product and pricing takes place mainly through informal or formal verbal presentations and discussions
The B2B sales process is difficult to monitor and control. It is also very high stakes. There are approximately 320 million potential consumers in the United States. There are just over 5.7 million firms doing business in the United States.1 B2B firms market to a much smaller number of customers and are often selling products with a higher total cost.
Structural Challenges in Personal Selling
The challenges of creating appropriate controls in the B2B sales process places special pressure on the individual sales representatives to make good judgment calls in a very flexible environment. In addition, personal selling almost always uses an incentive structure, which puts immense pressure on the sales rep to close large deals.
Often a B2B company will spend approximately 20 percent of its total revenue on sales costs, with a significant portion of that paid out in commissions. In other words, if a company buys a software package that costs $1 million, as much as $200,000 will be paid in sales commissions. This is generally distributed through the sales management chain, such that an individual sales rep is paid a commission on his sales, and a sales manager is paid a commission on the sales from all of the sales reps that she manages.
Let’s look at an example of a commission plan and consider how it might impact ethical judgment calls during the sales process.
| Amount Sold | Sales Quota | Commission Percent | Commission Paid |
|---|---|---|---|
| $500,000 | $1 million | 0% | $0 |
| $1 million | $1 million | 10% | $100,000 |
| $1.5 million | $1 million | 15% | $225,000 |
Each salesperson has an annual sales quota that he is expected to meet—in this case, $1 million in annual sales. On top of a base salary, sales representatives are paid a commission on their sales. Often, either no commission is paid (as in this example) or a very low commission is paid until the sales quota is met. Once the sales quota is met, the sales rep earns a percentage of all sales. In this example, if the rep sells a $1 million deal, then he will meet his quota and be paid a $100,000 sales commission. There is also an accelerator: If the sales rep sells more, he will earn a higher-percent commission. B2B sales representatives have a personal financial stake in closing deals.
Besides the financial incentive they face, sales reps are also motivated to meet (and exceed) sales quotas because they don’t want to get fired (which is a pretty common, legitimate worry).
Let’s revisit the scenario above where a software sales rep is on your college’s campus. Will she act differently if she is approaching the end of the year and has only closed $800,000 in sales? In that case she would not have met her sales quota for the year, and both her compensation and her job would be at risk. She might be tempted to oversell the features and benefits of the product this one time in order to close a sale before the end of the year. She would also be more likely to advocate for steep pricing discounts that might bring the price of the software right to the $200,000 she needs to meet quota.
What if she has exceeded her quota but needs a few big sales once the new year starts? In that case, our sales rep might be tempted to slow down a sales deal in order to push the sale into next year. While that doesn’t present an ethical dilemma for the customer, it does create an issue for the company. If an employee is purposely reducing the company’s sales this year in order to profit, does that constitute ethical behavior?
Companies understand and expect that the sales compensation structure will influence behavior, but they try to make adjustments that lead to smaller ethical issues (slowing down a sales process, e.g.,) rather than larger ethical issues (promising value that the product cannot deliver, e.g.). B2B marketers must carefully consider the sales-compensation and incentives structure and identify where it creates unnecessary ethical risks or puts sales reps in an ethical bind.
Diverse Policy Requirements
Finally, while all marketers are required to be aware of state and federal laws that impact their work, B2B marketers must also understand the procurement policies of the organizations to which they sell. The policies and guidelines can vary significantly. Company policies will generally define:
- The total purchase authority of a single individual or department
- The threshold at which a purchase decision must go out for competitive bid
- The circumstances under which the company’s status as a customer can be disclosed
- A dollar threshold for gifts from vendors
It is the responsibility of the employees within the company to follow the policies, so why does this matter to the marketer? Let’s return to the example of a software rep selling a product to your college or university. The chief information officer is responsible for understanding and following the college’s policies. Still, the software company and its sales rep are in a position to conduct sales and marketing efforts that either respect and support the college’s policies or push against them. Even when issues arise from the vendor’s ignorance about the college’s policies, such lapses can create a tone in which the vendor is seen to be undercutting the college’s requirements instead of understanding and supporting ethical behavior.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Ethics in B2B Marketing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Sale at Banana Republic. Authored by: Global X. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/globalx/4752036171/. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: Gifts and Bribes
Gift giving in business is commonplace and contentious at the same time. Business gifts are usually seen as an advertising, sales-promotion, and marketing-communication medium.1 Such gifting is usually practiced for the following reasons:
- In appreciation for past client relationships, placing a new order, referrals to other clients, etc.
- In the hopes of creating a positive first impression that might help to establish an initial business relationship
- As a quid pro quo—returning a favor or expecting a favor in return for something2
Making good decisions about when business gifts are appropriate is extremely complex in the United States. In global marketing it becomes one of the most challenging ethical issues, since the cultural norms in other countries can be at odds with standard ethical practices in the United States. For this reason, gifts and bribes warrant a deeper discussion, especially with regard to B2B marketing.
In considering appropriate business gifts it is helpful to think about the content of the gift, the context of the gift, and the culture in which it will be received. Let’s examine one of Microsoft’s promotions that included a gift.
Case Study: Microsoft’s “Gift” to Bloggers
When Microsoft introduced its Vista operating system, the launch included a noteworthy promotion. During the 2006 Christmas season, Microsoft sent out ninety Acer Ferrari laptops, loaded with Windows Vista Operating system, to approximately ninety influential bloggers.
Different bloggers received different machines, but the lowest model was worth around two thousand dollars. Michael Arrington, editor of TechCrunch, shared the message that accompanied his gift:
This would be a review machine, so I’d love to hear your opinion on the machine and OS. Full disclosure, while I hope you will blog about your experience with the PC, you don’t have to. Also, you are welcome to send the machine back to us after you are done playing with it, or you can give it away to your community, or you can hold on to it for as long as you’d like. Just let me know what you plan to do with it when the time comes. And if you run into any problems let me know. A few of the drivers aren’t quite final, but are very close.3
Clearly, Microsoft was hoping to encourage reviews of Vista and wanted to make sure that the bloggers experienced Vista on a high-end machine that would optimize performance. Did they also hope to influence the bloggers’ opinions of the company along the way?
Sending the gift to bloggers was a risky marketing tactic even without the ethical question. Culturally, bloggers are a highly influential group of people with strong opinions, which they share openly to a wide audience. Many of the recipients reacted to the gift by sharing the news of the promotion and their opinions about it. A broad range of ethical issues emerged from the surrounding discussions in the blogosphere. Below are several excerpts.
The Gifts Diminish Trust in the Reviewers
Now that I know these guys (any gals?) have access to a tailored laptop, preloaded, etc., I know their wisdom is no longer that of The Crowd—I suspect it is going to be tainted (even if not the case), so I have already discounted them. And, since I don’t know who has and has not had the gift, I will distrust them all on this subject!4
The Laptops Provide a Review Experience That Will Not Match Users’ Experiences
If you’ve ever tried to add a new Microsoft OS to an existing computer, you know you can’t do that without totally f****** up your computer. The only way to switch to a new Microsoft OS is to start with a new computer. And, of course, to wait a year or two while they get the kinks out. Microsoft wouldn’t chance having dozens of bloggers writing about how VISTA screwed up their computers, so they installed the system on brand-new computers. They gave the computers as gifts instead of lending them to the bloggers for review, which is the norm when dealing with traditional journalists.
The Bloggers Should Disclose the Gift in Their Reviews
Microsoft’s approach raises some problematic issues . . . How many bloggers have received a notebook but have not declared it on their blog? Quite a few, I suggest, which highlights the fundamental problem with blogging, which is that bloggers are not trained journalists and not necessarily in tune with the ethical problems that gifts entail . . .
Finally, sending bribes to bloggers is not a good look for Microsoft, and this is exactly how this initiative will be perceived. Even as they try to defend themselves, Microsoft’s PR gurus show that they do not understand the blogosphere.5
Another blogger shared the disclosure concern while supporting the promotion:
That is a GREAT idea. After all, how can anyone have a decent conversation about Windows Vista without having put a bunch of time on one of the machines? Now, regarding blogger ethics. Did you disclose? If you did, you have ethics. If you didn’t, you don’t. It’s that black-and-white with me.6
While there was not a clear consensus on the ethics of this promotion, the debate drowned out whatever little positive opinion Windows Vista had generated in the blogs. The Microsoft case stands as a good example of a business gift program gone wrong. The company not only wasted the money spent on the gifts (none of the bloggers reported to have returned the laptops) but suffered weeks of bad press—and soured the commercial launch of the product.
Three Dimensions of Evaluating Gifts
The Microsoft example provides a three-dimensional framework by which to evaluate whether a gift crosses the line into bribery. (Remember that a bribe is something given to induce someone to alter their behavior—in this case, to write a favorable product review.) The framework helps establish guidelines for keeping business gifting aboveboard.
Content
The chief problem with Microsoft’s gift was the content. Content refers to the nature of the gift itself (a shiny, new, top-of-the-line laptop) and the price ($2,000 or more). The company claimed that such a high-end machine was necessary to showcase the full capability of the Windows Vista operating system. And, they asserted, since the bloggers were given the option of returning the laptops (or giving them away), the issue of bribery didn’t come into play and the onus of acting ethically fell to the recipients.
Nonetheless, Microsoft’s actions represented a departure from standard industry practice of sending preview disks of software to opinion-makers. While it might be acceptable to give out $2,000 gifts in other industries (like sending out expensive fashion clothing to movies stars), and one can dicker about whether $2,000 is or isn’t too extravagant, the point is that Microsoft broke with the conventions of its own industry.
The key lesson is that what is being given defines the nature of gifting, and extreme care must be taken to determine whether that gift is appropriate. While the market price of a gift item can be used as a benchmark, the type of gift is as important as its price. If Microsoft had given out $2,000 worth of software, it wouldn’t have been so controversial. Another point, which Microsoft surely knew, is that items sent around Christmastime are more apt to be perceived as gifts.
Context
The other objection to the Microsoft gifts was the company’s motives for giving them. People argued that Microsoft sent the expensive laptops to bloggers as a quid pro quo. Though the accompanying email said “you don’t have to write about Vista,” that was mainly a legal disclaimer meant to protect Microsoft against formal bribery charges (U.S. corruption law prohibits corporate gifts designed to induce action by the recipient). The company may have kept itself out of legal hot water, but it remained vulnerable to the charge that it tried to exert psychological pressure on the bloggers to write about their “pleasurable” experiences with Vista.
The other argument was that laptops were given to the bloggers so that they would lack the proper testing environment of mainstream tech journalists. The bloggers were set up to write good things about Vista by seeing it function in a brand-new machine, tuned and tested for this purpose by Microsoft engineers. The experience of actual users—who might be influenced by these bloggers’ opinions—would be different, since they would have to install the software on older machines with no help from Microsoft. Critics argued that the company’s promotion was intended to create a false opinion of the market.
While most businesses define what is a bribe and what isn’t in terms of the content of the gift, in most countries the matter is decided on the basis of context. So, regardless of the size, type, and value of the gift, if it can be established that the gift was given with the intent to induce an action, it will be regarded as a bribe. The lesson here is that it isn’t enough for businesses to set clear value/type limits on corporate gifts; it’s also necessary to scrutinize the motives behind the gift giving, think carefully about how the gift will be received, and stop short of anything that induces the recipient to crosses the line of ethical behavior.
Culture
Other critics held that Microsoft’s blunder was not caused by the content or context of the gifts but that the company fundamentally misunderstood the culture of blogging. This view came primarily from marketing practitioners, who pointed out that giving the laptops to elite bloggers violated the egalitarian and sponsorship-free nature of social media. It’s a culture whose members loathe any kind of commercial taint to their independence and are highly sensitive to charges of “selling out.”
Thus, culture is clearly the third very important aspect of gift giving. It’s crucial to establish clear boundaries and protocols so that gifts are truly received as gifts—not as attempts to influence. To do that means factoring in the recipient’s mindset and culture, since what may be perceived as a gift in one group may seem like a bribe in another. The “cultural” dimension is easily understood in personal gift giving (a toy truck might be an excellent present for your six-year-old nephew, but it wouldn’t be appropriate for your boss or grandparent). Yet, somehow the idea of discretionary gift giving hasn’t gained much ground in business. However, understanding the cultural preferences of the receiver is obviously an important issue in international business—and was a key failure.
- Cooper,M. J., Madden, C. S., Hunt, J. B.,& Cornell, J. E. (1991). Specialty advertising as a tool for building goodwill: Experimental evidence and research implications. Journal of Promotions Management, 1, Pg 41–54
- Arunthanes, W., Tansuhaj, P. & Lemak, D.J. (1994), Cross-Cultural Business Gift Giving, International Marketing Review, Vol 11, Issue 4, Pg 44
- http://www.prweek.com/article/1259420/microsoft-vista-blogger-campaign-causes-controversy
- http://www.broadstuff.com/archives/97-Why-giving-Ferraris-to-Bloggers-is-a-bad-idea.html
- http://www.cnet.com/news/microsoft-doesnt-know-when-to-stop/
- http://scobleizer.com/2006/12/27/i-think-the-microsoft-vista-giveaway-is-an-awesome-idea
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Sunday Posts Blog. Authored by: Supriyo Chaudhuri. Located at: http://sundayposts.blogspot.com/2008/10/when-does-business-gift-become-bribe.html#.VoARN5OAOkq. Project: When Does Business Gift Become A Bribe: A Marketing Policy Perspective. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Acer Ferrari One. Authored by: Masaru Kamikura. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/kamikura/3976320866/. License: CC BY: Attribution
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.598646
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03/22/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91182/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Ethics and Social Responsibility, B2B and B2C Marketer Ethical Dilemmas",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91198/overview
|
Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions
What you’ll learn to do: explain the different buying processes for low-involvement and high-involvement decisions
In our discussion of the consumer decision process, we noted that not all purchasing decisions go through all six stages of the process. Some consumer decisions are quick and easy, requiring little if any focused attention. Others can be long, involved, and tough.
The next section will explore each of these situations in more detail, as we discuss how the buying process differs between low-involvement products and high-involvement products.
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions
How Involved Are You?
You’re at the grocery store, looking at the dog food selection. How long does it take you to choose a product, buy it, and get out the door?
Change of scene.
You’re on a car sales lot, looking at the selection of vehicles for sale. How long does it take you to choose a product, buy it, and drive off the lot?
For most people these scenarios are worlds apart in terms of the time, effort, emotional, and psychological work it takes to make a purchasing decision.
When a purchasing decision involves a low-cost item that is frequently bought—such as bread or toothpaste—the buying process is typically quick and routinized. Buying a new car is quite different. The extent to which a decision is considered complex or simple depends on the following:
- Whether the decision is novel or routine
- The extent of the customers’ involvement with the decision
High-involvement decisions are those that are important to the buyer. These decisions are closely tied to the consumer’s ego and self-image. They also involve some risk to the consumer. This may include financial risk (highly priced items), social risk (products that are important to the peer group), or psychological risk (the wrong decision may cause the consumer some concern and anxiety). In making these decisions, consumers generally feel it is worth the time and energy needed to do research and consider solution alternatives carefully. The full, six-stage, complex process of consumer decision making is more likely to happen with high-involvement product purchases. In these cases, a buyer gathers extensive information from multiple sources, evaluates many alternatives, and invests substantial effort in making the best decision.
Low-involvement decisions are more straightforward, require little risk, are repetitive, and often lead to a habit. In effect, these purchases are not very important to the consumer. Financial, social, and psychological risks are not nearly as great. In these cases, it may not be worth the consumer’s time and effort to search for exhaustive information about different brands or to consider a wide range of alternatives. A low-involvement purchase usually involves an abridged decision-making process. In these situations, the buyer typically does little if any information gathering, and any evaluation of alternatives is relatively simple and straightforward. Consumers are diligent enough to get a product they want, but they generally spend no more time or effort than is needed.
There are general patterns about what constitutes a high-involvement decision (buying cars, homes, engagement rings, pets, computers, etc.) versus a low-involvement decision (buying bread, chewing gum, toothpaste, dishwasher detergent, trash bags, etc.). However, the real determinant is the individual consumer and how involved they choose to be in solving the problem or need they have identified.
Marketing Considerations About Consumer Involvement
Let’s imagine another couple of scenarios.
Situation 1: You have just moved in with roommates for the first time. Excitement about your new independence temporarily dims when you scour the kitchen and find just three forks, four spoons, and zero table knives. On your way to Walmart, you stop off at Goodwill, and you are delighted to pay less than $4 for an unmatched service for eight.
Situation 2: You are a soon-to-be bride. You have spent days looking through magazines, browsing online, and visiting shops to find the perfect silverware to match the dishes on your wedding registry. It gives you pause, though, when you learn that your dream flatware costs $98 per place setting. Still, you rationalize that you only get married once—or at least that’s your plan.
In each of these situations, the consumer is making a purchasing decision about the same product: silverware. But the level of involvement in each situation is very different. The new roommate wants to spend as little time and money as possible to get a product that will get the job done. The soon-to-be-bride is pinning her future happiness on selecting the right pattern. Who is more involved?
Now suppose you are a marketer trying to promote the flatware designs your company makes. Which of these consumers will pay any attention to the full-page ads you have placed in seven popular women’s magazines? Which of these consumers will click on the paid search listing Google placed in their search results for new silverware patterns? Which one is most likely to come to a store to see the beautiful sheen of your new product line and feel its perfectly balanced weight with her fingertips?
As a marketer you should recognize high-involvement versus low-involvement consumers of your products and strategize accordingly. It is entirely possible for your target segments to include a mix of both. When you recognize the differences in how they make decisions, you can create a marketing mix designed to impact each type of consumer. For the customer who wants little involvement, your marketing mix can simplify their buying process. For the consumer who is highly involved, you can provide the information and validation they seek.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution
- 2/365+1 Cuttles. Authored by: Dave Crosby. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/wikidave/6620457275/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Dog Food Selection. Authored by: Christopher. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/colorblindpicaso/2676714959/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.620301
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03/22/2022
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91198/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Low-Involvement vs. High-Involvement Decisions",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91195/overview
|
Why it Matters
Overview
Teacher resources for Unit 7 can be found on the next page.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Why It Matters: Consumer Behavior
Resources for Unit 7: Consumer Behavior
Slide Deck - Module 7: Consumer Behavior
Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Customer Profile
Pacing
The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together:
- Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units.
- Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se.
- Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything.
- Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week.
- Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week.
We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments.
- Unit 4: Marketing Strategy
- Unit 10: Product Marketing
- Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Learning Outcomes
- Describe the stages of the buying process
- Explain the different buying processes for low-involvement and high-involvement products
- Describe the major factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions
- Explain the B2B buying process and key factors influencing B2B purchasing decisions
Why learn about consumer behavior?
Please welcome a new arrival
At 1:26 a.m. this morning, in Houston’s Memorial Hermann Hospital, a consumer was born. His name is Finnegan Henry James. By the time he goes home three days later, some of America’s biggest marketers will be pursuing him with samples, coupons, and assorted freebies. Proctor & Gamble hopes its Pampers brand will win the battle for Finn’s bottom, but retailer Target has a lower-priced contender. To welcome Finn’s family, Johnson & Johnson has already sent his mother a sample of its gentle baby wash. Bristol-Myers Squibb Company is sending a free, bulky box of Enfamil baby formula.
Like no generation before, Finn enters a consumer culture surrounded by logos, labels, and messages almost from the moment of birth. As an infant, he may wear Sesame Street diapers and a miniature NBA jersey. Right away, this little boy will begin influencing his parents’ purchasing decisions–that’s what spitting out spoonfuls of baby food is all about. By the time he is twenty months old, he will start to recognize some of the thousands of brands flashed in front of him each day. Around age four, Finn will begin making decisions about how to spend his own money. At age seven, if he is anything like the typical kid, he will see some forty thousand commercials a year.1 By the time he is twelve, he will have his own entry in the massive data banks of marketers.
Many forces are at work influencing Finn’s consumer choices from a very early age. Some of these forces are social: his parents, cousins, and play group. Some of these forces are cultural: Finn is a Texan and an American. As Finn grows and matures, his age, gender, education, economic status, life stage, and personality all play a role in his decisions as a consumer. Multiply Finn by millions of babies born in the U.S. every year, and you have new, increasingly marketing-savvy generations flooding the market.
This is Finn’s story. And if you’re living in the U.S. today, your story probably sounds a lot like his.
You Are the Target and the Hunter
Setting aside the ethics of marketing to children, the fact remains that you are a consumer living in a highly commercialized, modern society. Marketing artifacts are so woven into the fabric of our lives that many people hardly recognize them. Every year, companies and marketing organizations spend billions of dollars focused on one central goal: to influence consumers’ purchasing decisions.
As a consumer, hopefully your growing understanding of marketing is helping you see the world around you a little differently, with more and better information about the forces that are trying to influence you.
With your increasing skills as a marketer, you recognize how important it is to understand your customers if you are going to reach them effectively. Part of that is understanding the factors that influence their purchasing decisions. Once you’re educated about those influencing factors, they’ll be tools you can use to create effective marketing.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Why It Matters: Consumer Behavior. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Marketing. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution
- He Has Got THE Hair. Authored by: Heather Williams. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/photosavvy/2401643021/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.646217
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03/22/2022
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91195/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Why it Matters",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91204/overview
|
The Positioning Process
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: The Positioning Process
What you’ll learn to do: explain the process of selecting a positioning and differentiation strategy
Positioning and differentiation are powerful tools to help you establish the market position you want for your product or service. In this section you’ll learn how various positioning approaches work for different target segments and how to choose an effective positioning and differentiation strategy.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Explain the concept of competitive advantage and how it relates to positioning strategy
- Differentiate between product features and benefits
- Explain positioning (perceptual) maps
- Identify common positioning strategies
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: The Positioning Process
- Video: Starbucks Delivers Community and Connection
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: The Positioning Process. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: The Positioning Process
Getting to the Right Position
Arriving at the best positioning and differentiation strategy involves a process. The goal of the process is to design an identity that both confirms the value of the product, service, or brand in the customer’s mind and explains why and how the offering is better than the competition. To reach that goal, marketers typically follow a positioning process comprised of the following five steps:
Steps of the Positioning Process
- Confirm your understanding of market dynamics
- Identify your competitive advantages
- Choose competitive advantages that define your market “niche”
- Define your positioning strategy
- Communicate and deliver on the positioning strategy
Step 1: Confirm Your Understanding of Market Dynamics
At the start of the positioning process, you need a firm understanding of your target market and answers to the following questions:
- Which product, service, or market category (also called the “frame of reference”) do you plan to use with this positioning?
- Which target segment is your focus for the positioning you are developing?
- What factors do these buyers evaluate when they make a purchasing decision?
- How do these buyers view your competitors in the category?
If you don’t have answers to these questions, you should consider conducting formal or informal marketing research to reach a better understanding of your target market and the market dynamics around it. Some marketers may have the time and resources to conduct extensive research, while others may need to rely on their own experience and anecdotal conversations with target customers. Either way, you’ll remember that the customer is at the center of the marketing mix, so knowing whom you’re targeting is the only place to start.
Step 2: Identify Your Competitive Advantages
A competitive advantage is some trait, quality, or capability that allows you to outperform the competition. It gives your product, service, or brand an advantage over others in purchasing decisions. Competitive advantage may come from any or all of the following:
- Price: Something in your production process or supply chain may make it possible for you to provide comparable value at a lower cost than competitors.
- Features: You may provide tangible or intangible features that your competitors do not: for example, more colors, better taste, a more elegant design, quicker delivery, personalized service, etc.
- Benefits: You may provide unique benefits to customers that your competitors cannot match. Benefits are intangible strengths or outcomes your customer gets when they use your offering. For example, time savings, convenience, increased control, enjoyment, relaxation, more choices, feeling better about oneself, being more attractive, etc.
Create a list of the things that make you different from competitors in positive ways. Then identify which of these factors are also competitive advantages: the influential factors that help you perform better in the marketplace and cause customers to choose your product, service, or brand over other options.
As a rule, it is relatively easy for competitors to undercut your pricing or match your features, so it is difficult to maintain a consistent competitive advantage in either of these areas. Market-leading products, services, and brands are most likely to differentiate based on benefits—the intangible strengths and outcomes that are harder for competitors to match.
For example, many car companies achieve strong ratings in safety tests, but driving a Volvo provides an extra, intangible benefit for the driver of feeling safer because of Volvo’s longstanding record and reputation for safety. A variety of theme parks in Southern California offer exciting rides and family fun, but only Disneyland’s Magic Kingdom makes people feel like they’re in the happiest place on earth.
You don’t necessarily need a long list of competitive advantages, but your list should be substantive: it should include the things that truly create distance between your offering and competitors. Dig deep to identify the intangible benefits your customers experience–or intangible benefits they could experience—from your offering that make it different and better than the alternatives.
Step 3: Choose Competitive Advantages That Define Your Niche
Your list of competitive advantages represents a set of possible positioning strategies you could pursue for your product, service, or brand. The next step is to examine how these factors fit into customer perceptions of your broader competitive set. Your goal is to pick a positioning approach that gives you a unique and valued position in the market that competitors are not addressing.
A perceptual map is a great tool for this step. Perceptual maps create a picture of how different competitors are positioned in the market, based on the key criteria that strongly influence customer decisions. An examples of a perceptual maps is included below. Note the low and high price and how the automobile brands are either classified as low or high quality based on customer perceptions.
Marketers use these sorts of perceptual maps to identify gaps in the market; these, in turn, represent opportunities to fill a niche in the market that isn’t being addressed. You can create a perceptual map similar to these by identifying the key criteria customers use when deciding what to buy and setting these as the horizontal and vertical axes. Then you can overlay competitors in the perceptual space where they seem to fit. You can even create multiple maps of the same market with different criteria on the horizontal and vertical axes to get a different view of how competitors are positioned. Perceptual maps are most robust when they are based on actual marketing research data, but marketers can also create directional maps based on their experience and anecdotal understanding of market dynamics.
With your maps in hand, look for areas where there are fewer competitors: these are the spaces where you are most likely to be successful creating your own niche. Consider where your competitive advantages would help you fit well into these gaps; this will direct you to the strongest positioning opportunities for your product, service, or brand.
Give this approach a try: Suppose you are exploring whether to introduce your homemade, artisan-style ice cream to a wider audience, which will mean competing with national brands carried in local and regional grocery stores. Looking at the following perceptual map, where are the gaps in which you could create a niche for your product? Who would be your closest competitors?
Your competitive advantage around a homemade, artisan-style product puts you on the upper half of the map. You would have to choose between more classic versus interesting and innovative ice cream choices. Based on your strengths and preferences, you can choose where to claim your positioning niche: Perhaps you stake your future on the classical side by introducing the most marvelous, pure, premium vanilla and chocolate ice creams your customers have ever tasted. Alternatively, you might choose to introduce an ice cream line that capitalizes on interesting flavor combinations using local and seasonal ingredients, which would position you squarely in the innovative quadrant. Either approach could be a winning combination in a unique market niche.
If you choose not to create a perceptual map, an alternate approach is to list competitors and their competitive advantages. Then, add your own own offering and competitive advantages to the list. Based on the alternatives available to customers, think about where there are gaps between what customers want and value most and what they can get from the choices available today. Identify where your competitive advantages can help you fit into these gaps, since they will be the most promising positioning approaches for you.
Remember to think creatively as you are defining your competitive advantages and choosing those that will define your positioning and market niche. You have a greater likelihood of success if you are also the first in the market to claim your positioning. You won’t have to displace anyone else, and you can generate excitement by fulfilling a previously unmet need.
Step 4: Define Your Positioning Strategy
With your competitive advantages identified and information about how key competitors are positioned, you’re ready to evaluate and select your positioning strategy. This is the decision you make about how, exactly, you plan to position your offering relative to the rest of the field. How will you be different and better?
There are several common positioning strategies you should consider, shown in the following table:
| Differentiator | Positioning Strategy | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Category Benefit | Position yourself as “owning” an important benefit and delivering it better than anyone else | Volvo = Safety
Hallmark = Caring shared Hawaii = Aloha spirit |
| Best fit for the Customer | Position yourself as an ideal fit for the customer’s personality, style, and approach | Red Bull = Extreme
Guess Jeans = Sexy chic Virgin Atlantic = Ultra cool fun |
| Business Approach | Position yourself with a distinctive approach to doing business | Jimmy John’s = Unbelievably fast
TurboTax = Easy DIY |
| Anti-Competition | Position yourself as a preferred alternative to the competition | Apple = Think different
Seven-Up = The Uncola |
| Price | Position yourself according to pricing: lowest cost, best value for the money, luxury or premium offering, etc. | Wal-Mart = Lowest prices
RyanAir = Cheap flights Old Navy = Affordable fashion |
| Quality | Position yourself according to a quality standard: high quality, best-in-class, or else reliably good quality at a reasonable price | Hearts on Fire = Perfect cut
Ritz Carlton = Ultimate luxury |
Strong positioning is simple: it focuses on a single, powerful concept that is important to the customer. It uses your most promising competitive advantage to carve out the niche you will fill in better than anyone else. Your positioning strategy puts this competitive advantage into the context of your competitive set: it explains what distinguishes you from the competition. Perhaps you deliver an emotional benefit that your target audience doesn’t get anywhere else (escape? balance?) Perhaps you are hands down the best choice for a geeky, gear-head audience (bikers, coders). Perhaps you provide great customer service in a category where customer service is unheard of (cable TV, contractors).
Your positioning will become the “special sauce” that sets you apart. Concoct it well.
Step 5: Communicate and Deliver Your Positioning Strategy
The next sections of this module will delve deeper into this step, but don’t underestimate its importance. Communicating your positioning strategy begins with creating a positioning statement and sharing it internally across the organization to make sure that everyone understands how and where your offering will fit in the market. Your positioning builds on a competitive advantage, and it is essential for you to deliver on the expectations your positioning sets in customers’ minds. You should design your positioning strategy to endure over time, while recognizing that it can and should be adjusted from time to time to reflect changes in the competitive set, your target segment, market trends, and so forth.
If your positioning is based on being an ideal “lifestyle” fit for your target audience, for example, you need to demonstrate how your offering is attuned to the needs and experiences of this audience. This includes evolving as your target segment evolves. If your positioning is based on “owning” an important benefit like security or reliability or delight, then you should explore all the ways you can deliver that benefit better than any competitor who might try to imitate you.
The marketing mix provides the set of coordinated tools you use to execute on your positioning strategy. You might think of your positioning strategy as the tune you want your target segment to hear. The marketing mix is how you orchestrate and harmonize that tune, making it a memorable, preferred choice for your target customers.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Consumer Perception of Automotive Brands. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Consumer Perception of Automotive Brands. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Multi-Dimensional Perceptual Map. Authored by: Ste.kaleta. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multi-Dimensional_Perceptual_Map.gif. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Musical Crane. Authored by: Sodanie Chea. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/sodaniechea/7106905103/. License: CC BY: Attribution
Video: Starbucks Delivers Community and Connection
What business is Starbucks really in?
“We wanted to build a third place between home and work,” says Starbucks’ CEO Howard Schultz, as he sits in one of his cafés, “at a time in America when people are hungry for human connection.”
Watch the following video to learn how, from the beginning, Starbucks has positioned itself to be much more than just a seller of gourmet coffee. It has built its entire brand experience around a core positioning that offers “a sense of community” as much as coffee.
You can view the transcript for “Starbucks the Brand” (opens in new window).
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Starbucks Delivers Community and Connection. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Starbucks the Brand. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/tnHuGN3umTA. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.682650
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03/22/2022
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91204/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Positioning, The Positioning Process",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91226/overview
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Learning Hacks
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Learning Hacks: The Myth of Multitasking
The Hack
Multitasking is actually not possible for humans; what we think of as multitasking is really just switching our attention between tasks
Remove distractions before you study as distractions result in decreased learning
The Story
You just finished dinner and you finally sit down with your digital textbook to study when you get a text from a friend. You check your phone and it turns out you actually have 3 unread texts! After answering the first friend, you go back and read your other messages, replying as you come to them. You and your friends send a few texts back and forth, and one sends a hilarious gif. You laugh out loud and have to share it with another friend, so you open up your social media to share it.
When you open your social media you see a few unread notifications so you check out your notifications and then scroll your feed for a little bit to see if there is anything new going on. You suddenly realize you forgot to share the gif, so you find your friend and send them the gif. You look up from your phone for a second and you see your digital textbook, still waiting for you to study, and you realize you spent the last 20 minutes distracted from studying. You put your phone away and decide to start studying.
Multitasking is frequently defined as doing two things at the same time, but it is actually impossible for your brain to focus on two things at the same time. If you think you are a really good multitasker, you might be a great task switcher, but you cannot attend to two different stimuli at the same time. Task switching is simply repeatedly switching what you pay attention to (like two different tasks), but you are only paying attention to one thing at a time.
For example, I can talk on the phone while I drive, but this isn’t multitasking because I can only focus on either driving or talking, not both at the same time. This is actually kind of dangerous because task switching impedes task performance. This means I am slightly worse at talking on the phone and slightly worse at driving while I am task switching between the two. In this case, task switching could affect my driving which could have deadly consequences.
The Research
Kaitlyn May and Anastasia Elder conducted a literature review study in 2018 that examined 38 articles from 2003 to 2017 that researched the effect of task switching on learning. They found that trying to do too many things at the same time resulted in less effective learning, lower exam scores, and decreased study efficiency.
The Source
May, K. E., & Elder, A. D. (2018). Efficient, helpful, or distracting? A literature review of media multitasking in relation to academic performance. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 13.
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Learning Hacks: The Myth of Multitasking. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Image of woman burned out by multitasking. Authored by: Gerd Altmann. Located at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/woman-burnout-multitasking-face-1733891/. License: Other. License Terms: Pixabay License
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:20.705276
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03/22/2022
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91226/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Learning Hacks",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91215/overview
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Packaging
Overview
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Outcome: Packaging
What you’ll learn to do: discuss the role of packaging in the brand-building process
Imagine yourself standing in the aisle of a grocery store, scanning the shelves and trying to decide which product brand to buy. What catches your eye? What makes you pick something and take a closer look? What influences your decision to drop it into your basket . . . or return it to the shelf?
This critical moment for brands and the purchasing process is often won or lost because of packaging. According to Marty Neumeier in his book The Brand Gap, “A retail package is the last and best chance to make a sale.”1
In this section, we’ll explore how packaging can play a powerful role in shaping consumer perceptions of brands and influencing buying decisions.
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Packaging
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Outcome: Packaging. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading: Packaging
Creating the Perfect Package
Product packaging is an underappreciated hero in the marketing world. Packaging is supremely functional: it protects the product. It contains the product. It displays the product. It promotes the product. Its design and labeling communicate about the product. And the package itself can even increase the product’s utility, making it better suited to however the customer wants to use it.
If packaging does all these things, why is it undervalued? As a marketing tool, packaging often feels low-tech and old-school in the information age. It’s just not as sexy as Web sites, events, or social media—and yet, it remains a staple of the purchasing environment.
With the increased emphasis on self-service marketing at supermarkets, drugstores, and even department stores, the role of packaging is significant. For example, in a typical supermarket a shopper passes about six hundred items per minute—or one item every tenth of a second. Thus, the only way to get some consumers to notice a product is by in-store displays, shelf hangers, tear-off coupon blocks, other point-of-purchase devices, or, last but not least, effective packages.1
Packaging provides an opportunity for a product to jump out and differentiate itself on the crowded, viciously competitive shelves of supermarkets, drugstores, department stores, and other retailers. Every single customer who buys a product inevitably interacts with the packaging, which is what makes it such a potentially powerful touch point.
The Roles Packaging Can Play
Marketers invest a great deal on motivational research, color testing, psychological manipulation, and so on in order to learn how the majority of consumers will react to a new package. Based on the results of this research, past experience, and the current and anticipated decisions of competitors, marketers determine what primary role the package will play relative to the product. They determine which of the following needs to be included:
- Quality
Example: One Dutch packaging company developed a cardboard package design for fresh produce sold in the Netherlands and exported to other countries. The decorative elements were based on world-famous, collectible Delft blue porcelain, to convey high quality and desirability.2
- Safety
Example: Product protection and child-proofing are standard features in the packaging of Tylenol, Benadryl, Children’s Motrin, and other over-the-counter drugs. - Instruction
Example: Dosage information for drugs and “how to use this product” information for a variety of appliances, devices, and other products helps ensure that consumers use products responsibly and as intended. - Legal compliance
Example: The U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) maintains strict regulations about the types of information food companies must disclose on their product labels: ingredients, calorie counts, nutritional information, serving size and servings per container, and so forth. - Distinction
Example: Packaging can be distinctive as a familiar, favored brand: the Coca-Cola or Heinz Ketchup bottles, the Campbell’s Soup can, the Kleenex tissue box. Alternatively, designers may use color, shape, materials, labeling and other packaging features to convey something is new, different or improved. - Affordability
Example: In packaged goods, packaging simplicity and plainness—for generic and store-brand products—often suggests greater affordability in the minds of consumers. - Convenience
Example: Resealable packages have been a welcome, convenient packaging innovation for a variety of products, from baby wipes to sliced bologna to snack foods. - Aesthetic beauty
Example: Perfume manufacturers devote extensive time and attention to making beautiful, distinctive designs for perfume bottles and packaging. One estimate suggests that for each $100 bottle of perfume, the manufacturer’s expense for the bottle and packaging is $10. Meanwhile, their expense for the bottle’s contents is only about $2.3
- Improved utility
Example: Packaging single-serving yogurt or applesauce in tubes rather than traditional packages makes them usable in more settings and circumstances because they are less messy and no longer require spoons or a table-top to be able to eat them effectively. - Sustainability
Example: Environmentally-friendly packaging can create brand preference from consumers who are conscious about their carbon footprints. Using fewer chemical-based inks and dyes, less wasteful packaging design, and preference for recycled and recyclable materials all set products apart as “green” and eco-friendly.
Matching the Package to the Product . . . and the Consumer
Clearly delineating the role of the product should lead to the actual design of the package: its color, size, texture, location of trademark, name, product information, and promotional materials. Market leaders in the dry food area, such as cake mixes, have established a tradition of recipes on the package. However, there are many package-related questions. Do the colors complement one another? Are you taking advantage of consumer confusion by using a package design similar to that of the market leader? Can the product be made for an acceptable cost? Can it be transported, stored, and shelved properly? Is there space for special promotional deals? Finally, various versions of the product will be tested in the market. How recognizable is the package? Is it distinctive? Aesthetically pleasing? Acceptable by dealers?
Packaging designers can be extremely creative when it comes to incorporating multiple requirements into the container design. The key is to understand what factors most influence customer decisions about what to buy. For a given purchase situation, any of the factors above–or a combination of them–might help a consumer settle on which product to buy.
In some product categories, the promoting the package has become almost as important—if not more important—than promoting product performance. This is true for products as diverse as powdered and soft drinks, margarine, perfumes, and pet foods. In the case of Pringles, the stacked potato chip made by Procter & Gamble, a package had to be designed that would protect a very delicate product. Hence the Pringles can. When it introduced Pringles to the market, Procter & Gamble took a risk that retailers and consumers would be open to something new.
Packaging and Brand Loyalty
Packaging is one dimension of a brand that can contribute to customer loyalty. Familiar or aesthetically pleasing packaging can simplify the buying process in customers’ minds. The package is a clear extension of the brand, and brands with strongly loyal fans (or “tribes,” as they are sometimes called) may create significant brand equity associated with the package.
GAP’s 2010 Logo
An interesting example of this phenomenon is actually a brand misstep on the part of clothing manufacturer Gap. In “8 of the Biggest Marketing Faux Pas of All Time,” Amanda Sibley describes what happened when Gap introduced a new logo in October 2010. The company was trying to make its image more contemporary and hip. How long did the logo last?
A whopping two days.
Gap quickly put the old logo back into place after unbelievable backlash from the public. Gap, known for everyday basics, tried to redo their image to appeal to a more hip crowd. Unfortunately, they didn’t understand who their target market is—people who want the basics and aren’t interested in trendy styles. Their loyal customers felt that Gap was changing their image for the worse and lost a connection with the brand. Gap was also unsuccessful at attracting the younger, trendy generation with the redesign (albeit only a two-day redesign), resulting in a failure on two fronts with this new logo.
It wasn’t so awful for Gap to pursue a logo redesign, the lesson is simply to stay in touch with your buyer personas so you can ensure your new design reflects them. Marketers focus a lot on metrics—for good reasons—but never underestimate your audience’s feelings toward your brand. They’re harder to quantify, sure, but boy will people speak out when their sensibilities are offended.4
- William O. Bearden and Michael G. Etzel, "Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Choice,"Journal of Consumer Research, September 1982, pp. 183–194.
- “Communicating Quality through Packaging.” DS Smith, June 30, 2014. http://www.dssmith.com/packaging/about/media/news-press-releases/2014/6/communicating-quality-through-packaging/.
- Thau, Barbara. “Behind the Spritz: What Really Goes Into a Bottle of $100 Perfume.” AOL.com. AOL, July 22, 2012. https://www.aol.com/2012/05/22/celebrity-perfume-cost-breakdown/.
- Amanda Sibley, "8 of the Biggest Marketing Faux Pas of All Time," HubSpot, July 17, 2012, http://blog.hubspot.com/blog/tabid/6307/bid/33396/8-of-the-Biggest-Marketing-Faux-Pas-of-All-Time.aspx
Licenses and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Chapter 7: Introducing and Managing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Little Pringle. Authored by: Christopher Michel. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cmichel67/39944369/. License: CC BY: Attribution
All rights reserved content
- Image: Royal Fruitmasters Holland Box. Located at: http://www.dssmith.com/packaging/about/media/news-press-releases/2014/6/communicating-quality-through-packaging/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use
- Image: Versace Bright Crystal Perfume. Provided by: Versace. Located at: https://www.tripleclicks.com/detail.php?item=404322. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use
Public domain content
- Gap Logos. Provided by: Gap Inc. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.736678
|
03/22/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91215/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Packaging",
"author": "Anna McCollum"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93394/overview
|
Micrograph Staphylococcus aureus Gram stain 1000x p000029
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Staphylococcus aureus cells grown on nutrient agar at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
Micrograph
Dozens of dark purple, round cells on a light background.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.754688
|
Diagram/Illustration
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93394/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Staphylococcus aureus Gram stain 1000x p000029",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54517/overview
|
Mini-lecture: Drawing Lewis structures using Connect the Dots
Mini-lecture: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Mini-lecture: How to assign formal charge
Mini-lecture: How to draw Lewis structures for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone
Mini-lecture: how to identify valence electrons
Mini-Lecture: Lewis structures with multiple bonds (oxygen and nitrogen)
Ted Ed: How Atoms Bond
Lewis Structures
Overview
This multi-part module introduces covalent bonding and Lewis structures as a model of covalent bonding.
Starting with valence electrons, a method of connecting unpaired electrons and/or redistributing valence electrons to satisfy the octet rule is introduced.
Numerous examples are presented including CO, ozone, and polyatomic ions
Identifying valence electrons and introduction to bonding
Before we can start drawing Lewis structures, we need to identify how many valence electrons (the ones typically involved in covalent bonding) each element has.
The mini-lecture includes two tools to identify valence electrons. The Ted Ed video provides an introduction to bonding.
How to Draw a Lewis Structure
This set of mini-lectures shows an alternative method to drawing Lewis structures rather than the traditional: add up all valence electrons, attach all atoms with a single bond and subtract 2 electrons per bond, etc.
This mini-lecture shows a method for drawing Lewis structures that is different from the typical approach of summing all the valence electrons and distributing out 2 at a time as bonds and lone pairs.
Additional mini-lectures are attached, which show more examples including exceptions to the octet rule, polyatomic ions and atypical bonding examples (ie: carbon monoxide).
How to Assign Formal Charge
In the video, we eschew the typical format of the Formal Charge equation and simplify into:
FC = # valence electrons - # lines - # dots
lines = covalent bond in the Lewis structure
dots = lone pair (individual) electrons
Students get confused based on the various ways this formula is written, so we simplify to a visual model.
Now that we have a basic method for drawing Lewis structures, how to we pick the most accurate one if we can draw multiple structures that follow our rules?
Assigning Formal Charge helps us to identify the most reasonable Lewis structure.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.780038
|
05/20/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54517/overview",
"title": "Lewis Structures",
"author": "Amy Petros"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54348/overview
|
How Small is an Atom? Ted Ed
Using Moles and Avogadro's number as a conversion factor
Moles as a conversion factor: How do we get from grams to number of atoms?
Overview
This module has two parts:
1- Introduction to the concept of a "mole" and Avogadro's number.
2- Application of the Mole (Avogadro's number) as a conversion factor relating mass in grams to number of atoms or molecules (formula unit for ionic compounds)
Introduction to the MOLE (chemist's dozen)
How do we count atoms? Since atoms are so small, we can't! We'd literally die first before we could count them all. Check out the Ted Ed video, How Small is an Atom? for a taste of the relative size of these tiny particles.
So, how about using mass in grams instead? We can easily weigh things, and since every pure element or compound has its own mass based on the number of protons and neutrons, we can convert from grams to atoms or molecules.
We use the MOLE, which is 6.022 x 1023 of anything. The Ted Ed video on What's a Mole? Is a great place to start.
Using Avogadro's number as a conversion factor
Now that you understand what moles represent and why it's useful to scale to that unit, let's explore the application of this new conversion factor.
In the video, we demonstrate converting atoms to moles to grams and grams to moles to atoms. If you need a refresher on Dimensional Analysis and Unit Conversions, skip over to the module on Unit Conversions. All our same rules apply.
Video also includes molar mass of compounds.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.800074
|
05/15/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54348/overview",
"title": "Moles as a conversion factor: How do we get from grams to number of atoms?",
"author": "Amy Petros"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/35130/overview
|
The Argumentative Essay (and its components)
Overview
The fundamentals of the argumentative essay (the gateway essay to all college level writing!).
Argumentative Essay - What is it and what’s in it?
An argumentative essay is a type of writing that prompts the student to investigate a topic, as well as find, collect, and evaluate evidence (quotes from sources), and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner (create a thesis statement). It is crucial to remember that when you create a thesis statement:
Your thesis statement should be one to two sentences.
Your thesis statement should clearly present the main idea of your essay and make some kind of assertion (even if that assertion is about bringing two sides together).
Your thesis should not make an “announcement” about what your essay will cover. Instead, it should just present your assertion.
For example, a thesis that makes an announcement would look like: “In this paper, I will persuade you to vote for candidates who support education reform.”
Thesis Statement Placement - Where does this go?
While there is no such thing as a “required” place for your thesis statement, most academic essays will present the thesis statement early on, usually near the end of the introduction. There is a reason for this. Audience members are more likely to understand and absorb each point as readers if you have told them, in advance, what they should be getting out of your essay.
*Your thesis statement is the most important sentence in your essay. It’s your chance to make sure your audience really understands your point. Be sure your assertion and your writing style are clear.
How Does This Essay Look?
First, you'll begin with an introduction. Here, you'll create a topic sentence that alludes to what you’ll be talking about, then, you’ll introduce background information about the topic, and you'll do so in a way that captures your reader. Next, you’ll introduce your claim (your thesis statement).
EX Introduction: Weight in society has always played a role, but in more recent years, the stigma behind this has escalated to a whole new realm in regard to body shaming. The media, in its entirety, has managed to manipulate the public into perceiving beauty to be a certain way. Although beauty is subjective, the term in the media, has a razor thin line for its qualifications, and because of this, people are subjected to jumping to drastic extremes of dieting in order to meet its standard.
Body Paragraphs
You’ll follow your introduction with body paragraphs. These paragraphs are where you'll introduce your points (the claims you've made in your thesis), followed by specific evidence (quotes) that support them.
Conclusion
Within your conclusion, you'll summarize your thesis and comment on the significance of your topic, tying everything together.
Attributions:
Adapted from: Argument and Critical Thinking - Excelsior Online Writing Lab
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.820286
|
11/24/2018
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/35130/overview",
"title": "The Argumentative Essay (and its components)",
"author": "Becca Pincolini"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91890/overview
|
Reading and Creating a Visual Image
Overview
Students will learn how to read a visual image (a photo and a poster). Next, they will use the skills that they have learned to create a visual image that addresses audience, purpose, and medium.
Reading and Creating a Visual Image
Students will learn how to read a visual image (a photo and a poster). Next, they will use the skills that they have learned to create a visual image that addresses audience, purpose, and medium.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.836890
|
04/18/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91890/overview",
"title": "Reading and Creating a Visual Image",
"author": "James Massa"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88419/overview
|
Rubric (15 pts)-Voicethread Comment Assignment
Overview
15 point Rubric for Voicethread commenting assignment with sections on Submission, Content, and Collegiality
Rubric for Voicethread commenting assignment.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.853499
|
12/02/2021
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88419/overview",
"title": "Rubric (15 pts)-Voicethread Comment Assignment",
"author": "Amy Betti"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65378/overview
|
Lang101 Workbook. Linguistics Exercises & Activities for Starters
Overview
Lang101 Workbook offers 460 commented exercises and activities, designed for absolute beginners to the study of language or for anyone curious about (why) language matters. It features empirical observation of 20 typologically distinct languages, including English and other languages you’re familiar with. As a companion tool to our textbook The Language of Language, Part 1 of the workbook contains 360 exercises and activities corresponding to the textbook's 12 chapters (30 per chapter), and 100 synthesising cross-chapter exercises. Part 2 contains commented answers to all exercises.
Topics include the nature of scientific investigation; the structure of words, sounds and sentences; typical vs. disordered uses of language; child language, language learning and language play, as well as politeness, persuasion and humour.
Linguistics workbook designed for multilingual users of English
If you’re curious about (why) language matters, about what linguists do and how they think, and if you’re tired of introductory linguistics books that in fact introduce you to the linguistics of English, try Lang101 Workbook and its companion textbook The Language of Language, for a change.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.872856
|
Homework/Assignment
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65378/overview",
"title": "Lang101 Workbook. Linguistics Exercises & Activities for Starters",
"author": "Full Course"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122924/overview
|
Learning Object "Making a formal phone call"
Overview
Learning Object "Making a formal phone call"
Learning Object "Making a formal phone call"
Learning Object "Making a formal phone call"
TEFL, TESL
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.888802
|
12/11/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122924/overview",
"title": "Learning Object \"Making a formal phone call\"",
"author": "Lizeth Rojas"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65744/overview
|
The AD/AS Model, Fiscal Policy and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Overview
This assignment connects openstax Principles of Macroeconomics content to the COVID-19 pandemic, subsequent economic slowdown, and fiscal policy actions.
Name ___________________
In this assignment, you will be making connections between macroeconomic topics we have been studying and the ongoing health and economic crisis. You may consult outside sources in order to develop your thoughts, but you must make very sure to use your own words when composing your answers. Here are some helpful sources that I suggest:
openstax Principles of Macroeconomics 2e: Chapter 11
openstax Principles of Macroeconomics 2e: Chapter 17
U.S. Department of the Treasury: The CARES Act
NPR: What's Inside The Senate's $2 Trillion Coronavirus Aid Package
Motley Fool Podcast: 8 Highlights of the CARES Act You Should Know
Planet Money: Three Ideas to Fight the Recession
The AD/AS Model: the COVID-19 pandemic and economic lockdown
- Use the AD/AS model to illustrate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent economic lockdown. Be sure to explain:
- what curve(s) shift,
- in which direction,
- and why specifically (i.e., what AD and/or AS factors are affected by these events)
- discuss what will be the effect on Real GDP, unemployment and inflation given the shift(s) you described
- Finally, include an AD/AS graph to illustrate your answers above.
Fiscal Policy and the CARES Act
Here are some helpful sources, but feel free to consult others in order to answer the questions that follow:
- What kind of fiscal policy package is the CARES Act (discretionary/automatic, contractionary/expansionary)? Justify your answer.
- Break down the CARES Act into its components and discuss which side(s) of the AD/AS model each component is designed to stimulate. Justify your answers.
- Discuss at least three potential problems associated with this Act.
- Based on what you have learned, what do you expect will be the effects of this Act?
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.907379
|
04/29/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65744/overview",
"title": "The AD/AS Model, Fiscal Policy and the COVID-19 Pandemic",
"author": "Lorena Rodriguez"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117436/overview
|
The Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Childhood Apraxia of Speech
Overview
The PICO question related to this clinical scenario will be: In a child with a diagnosis of autism, what is the prevalence of a diagnosis of childhood apraxia of speech, and what speech therapy intervention will increase the production of spontaneous speech?
The PICO question related to this clinical scenario will be: In a child with a diagnosis of autism, what is the prevalence of a diagnosis of childhood apraxia of speech, and what speech therapy intervention will increase the production of spontaneous speech?
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.923663
|
06/27/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117436/overview",
"title": "The Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Childhood Apraxia of Speech",
"author": "Alison August"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56705/overview
|
3.1 Biological Macromolecules
3.1 Biological macromolecules
This short video is an animated lecture for Chapter 3 on Biological Macromolecules (Openstax Biology 2e).
This short video lecture is part one of Biological macromolecules, such as lipid, protein and carbohydrate structures. The topics correspond to Chapter 3 of Openstax Biology 2e.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.936720
|
08/06/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56705/overview",
"title": "3.1 Biological Macromolecules",
"author": "Urbi Ghosh"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92917/overview
|
Math for Nurses- Decimals
Overview
Simple guide for using decimals in nursing calculations.
Decimals
See attatched file
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.953019
|
05/21/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92917/overview",
"title": "Math for Nurses- Decimals",
"author": "Brian Forbes"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99639/overview
|
How to Read: Intellectual Standards and Literary Terms
Overview
Clear directions on how to analytically read.
How to Read
When we read, we analyze categories of meaning. We can do this using the Intellectual Standards identified below. Evaluating our reading using each standard as a category is done by referring to literary terms that apply to our reading. Using a mixture of the terms of the standards and the literary terms identified below is how I expect you to analyze the works we will be looking at in this class. For example, you might say, "The accuracy of the story is questionable, mostly due to the angry tone and exaggerated word choices made by the author. The dark and bleak imagery of the coal mines would have been sufficient for convincing me of the inhospitable environment of the workers. As it is, the portrayal lacks a balance of fairness and is not to be trusted as it is too one-sided and lacks depth and breadth."
Read the following article and describe it using the intellectual standards and literary terms above.
“University of Florida College of Medicine pushes ‘destructive’ woke agenda on students, report says,” Fox News, November 22, 2022. https://www.foxnews.com/politics/university-florida-college-medicine-destructive-woke-agenda-students-report.
Micki Archuleta, Modesto Junior College
Katherine Muto-Nelson, Arizona State University
Erin Dark-Herold, Modesto Junior College
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.967833
|
Homework/Assignment
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99639/overview",
"title": "How to Read: Intellectual Standards and Literary Terms",
"author": "Activity/Lab"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117722/overview
|
Radical Financial Incentive Transformation
Overview
Cryptoeconomics, an emerging field that integrates economics, cryptography, computer science, and game theory, offers a powerful solution to these issues. By leveraging blockchain technology and smart contracts, cryptoeconomic models can realign financial incentives in a way that promotes more equitable and efficient economic outcomes.
Impact on Society and Humanity
Radical financial incentive transformation involves the use of powerful financial incentives to drive significant changes in behavior and outcomes within an organization or on a global scale. Here are some key aspects of this concept:
- Tying Incentives Directly to Transformation Outcomes: Effective radical financial incentive transformation programs tie incentives directly to specific outcomes that are within the control of participants. This could involve setting clear, measurable goals for individual initiatives and rewarding employees based on their direct contributions to achieving those goals.
- Encouraging Outperformance: Transformation requires incentives that encourage transformational performance, not just good performance. Payouts should be generous and focused on exceeding expectations. One structure that can support this is an S-curve payout model, where payouts increase more steeply for outcomes that significantly exceed targets.
- Democratizing Incentives: Transformation incentive plans should not be limited to senior executives. To drive greater participation and involvement, incentives should be extended to employees at all levels of the organization. Clarity and transparency around the metrics used to determine individual rewards are critical.
- Improving Terms of Lending: At a global level, radical financial transformation involves improving the terms of lending by multilateral development banks (MDBs) to developing countries. This includes longer-term lending, lower interest rates, more lending in local currencies, and the inclusion of all vulnerable countries in lending programs.
- Scaling Up Affordable Long-Term Financing: Massive scaling up of affordable long-term financing for development is needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This can be achieved through increasing MDB capital bases, better leveraging of existing capital, and re-channeling Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) through MDBs.
Impact on Society and Humanity
The rise of programmable economies represents a significant shift in how economic systems operate, with profound implications for society:
- Increased Efficiency: By automating many economic processes, programmable economies reduce the time and cost associated with traditional economic activities. This efficiency frees up resources that can be used for innovation and development.
- Greater Equity: The accessibility and inclusiveness of programmable economies help to level the playing field, providing opportunities for those who have been historically marginalized by traditional financial systems.
- Dynamic Innovation: The ability to rapidly implement and test economic models through programmable contracts fosters a culture of continuous innovation. New business models and economic frameworks can be developed and iterated upon much faster than ever before.
- Global Collaboration: Programmable economies facilitate cross-border transactions and collaborations, breaking down geographical barriers and fostering a more interconnected global economy.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:20.985462
|
Joe Maristela
|
{
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117722/overview",
"title": "Radical Financial Incentive Transformation",
"author": "Reading"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100169/overview
|
Writing a Review of Literature
Overview
This resource describes the steps involved in writing a review of literature at the postsecondary level.
Learning outcomes
What is a review of literature (RoL)?
What function does it play in the research process?
How does one set about writing a RoL?
What is the structure of a RoL?
Library support
Why write a literature review?
A literature review:
-reviews the existing research on a topic,
-identifies the gaps in the existing literature on the topic, and
-situates your research in relation to the previous research in the area.
What is a literature review?
A literature review is a synthesis of the existing knowledge on a topic.
Drawing from multiple sources, demonstrate your familiarity with the information, evaluate it, identify areas where research is lacking, and present it concisely for the reader.
What is the appropriate scope and depth?
How do you know when you have enough peer-reviewed journal articles in your review of literature? How many articles is too many? How many articles is not enough?
Whether you are in a master's or doctoral program will affect the breadth and depth of your search for literature.
As you read your articles, at a certain point you will start to read the same ideas repeated in peer-reviewed journal articles, that is known as saturation. When you reach saturation on a topic, that means that you have explored the literature on the topic and you may have reached the end of the topic.
Work closely with your subject librarian to find many peer-reviewed journal articles and start annotating them.
Annotating your articles
When annotating articles, look for:
What was the goal of the study?
What was the methodology?
Who were the participants?
How were they recruited?
How did they collect data?
What were the results?
What do these results have to do with this field?
Does this study fit into a theme in the research? How does it fit?
Steps in writing a literature review
Find & read peer-reviewed journal articles on your topic.
Paraphrase & organize this information into a table, matrix, grid, mental map, or whatever works for you.
Use the organizer to identify the themes which are the basis for your literature review.
Write your first draft of the literature review based on the table.
Elements of a literature review standalone paper
Introduction
Explain the context of the research
Explain the significance of the problem – Why is this an issue?
Review of Literature
Show how the articles are interconnected. What patterns do you notice across the articles? Use patterns to form your themes.
Critically evaluate the articles. When you look at the articles, what is the same? What is different? What is missing? Think about methodology, validity, and reliability. You should critique the research.
From this, develop headings organized by theme.
Conclusion
Summary of major themes found.
Identify the gap in the literature. What has not been studied? Where can a contribution be made?). Identify the connection between the gap in the literature and the inquiry question.
Lead into the thesis with your research question (s).
References
Important elements of the review of literature
When drafting your review of lit, make sure you have:
The context of the study
The purpose of the research (Purpose statement)
Three – Five solid themes from the research
Identification of the gap in the research
Your research question(s)
Review of steps
Topic – key words
Find your articles (consultation w librarian!).
Make a list of the articles collected. Run this by your supervisor for approval!
Type up the corresponding references/citations (software!).
Write 8-10 sentences summarizing each article, what they did, their results, what method was used, and how the article supports your research.
If you like, use grids, matrices, or tables to notice your themes and summarize the articles.
Everything MUST be cited; there are no personal opinions here.
End by identifying the gap in the literature. This will be the focus of your paper. You may need to tweak your research question at this point.
Draft/revise some research questions.
Paraphrasing while writing your review of literature
Paraphrasing is ESSENTIAL when writing literature reviews.
Why?
The writer needs to explain other people’s ideas in their own words and give credit to the original writer in an in-text citation!
Paraphrasing and summarizing
Rather than being about words, paraphrasing is about ideas.
Instead of focusing on replacing specific words in a quotation, think deeply about the ideas that the original author is explaining. THINK BIG PICTURE.
Once you understand those ideas, you can zoom out and explain the most important idea(s) in your own way and give credit to the author in an in-text citation.
Example of a paraphrased passage
Lorimer-Leonard’s (2013) work shows that validation of prior knowledge can have a profound impact on a newcomer’s success. Learners use cognitive and metacognitive strategies to plan for learning, choose strategies, reflect on learning, and assess their learning (Anderson, 2008), and to regulate their learning (Griffiths, 2008).
Steps for effective paraphrases and summaries
Check your work against the original.
Have you copied the vocabulary or the sentence structure? Restart!
Have you changed the meaning of the original or given any wrong information? Revise!
Add an in-text citation at the end of every sentence in which you discuss other people's ideas.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:39:21.016475
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01/24/2023
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100169/overview",
"title": "Writing a Review of Literature",
"author": "Tessa Troughton"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79516/overview
|
St. Philip's College HUMA 1315 Fine Arts Appreciation Syllabus
Overview
This syllabus is for the St. Philip's College Humanities 1315 Fine Arts Appreciation OER course. The course covers formal and contexual understanding of two dimensional art, sculpture, architecture, music, theatre and opera, cinema, and dance.
St. Philip's College HUMA 1315 Fine Arts Appreciation Syllabus
Fine Arts AppreciationHUMA-1315
- Full Term Spring 2021
- Section 002.11344
- 3-3-0 Credits
- 01/19/2021 to 05/15/2021
- Modified 12/28/2020
Meeting Times
WELCOME TO HUMANITIES 1315 AlamoOPEN No-Cost Textbook and Online Class
Spring Semester 2021
Instructor: Associate Professor Jack L. Nawrocik M.A., M.A.H.G.S. (jnawrocik@alamo.edu)
Course Dates: January 19th to May 12th
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION:
This is a Distant Learning Course that is taught through the Internet by using a Learning Management System called Instructure Canvas.
“Asynchronous,” “e-Learning,” and “Distance Learning” are terms that refer to fully online classes. Asynchronous, e-Learning, and Distance Learning classes require students to be well disciplined. In Asynchronous, e-Learning, and Distance Learning classes, students WILL NOT meet the instructor during a scheduled class time. The communication with the instructor is managed via instructor and student email. Students are responsible for routinely logging into CANVAS to complete assignments by deadlines set by the instructor. Communication between the student and instructor is NOT in real time. The timeframe for an instructor’s response will be outlined in the course syllabus. If you need to meet with your instructor, you will have the option to schedule an appointment/conference. Considering our current COVID 19 environment, your instructor may schedule your appointment/conference via an online meeting platform called Zoom (video communication). For technology support contact IT at spc-helpdesk@alamo.edu or via phone at (210) 286-2777 and after 5pm contact Support Central at (210) 485-0555.
Contact Information
Associate Professor: Jack L. Nawrocik, M.A., M.A.H.G.S.
Office Number: SLC 219A
Office Hours: By appointment. (Please reach out to your instructor via e-mail to schedule an online, or face to face office meeting.)
Office Phone Number: 210-486-2612 (Warning: The quickest way to contact your instructor is through e-mail, since returning phone calls could take about 7 to 10 days)
E-mail: JNAWROCIK@ALAMO.EDU (The best way to contact your instructor is by e-mail. Make sure that all of your correspondences are sent to this e-mail address.)
Method of Correspondence:
All class correspondence, questions and announcements will be communicated by your instructor through the Instructure Canvas Communication Tools called: Announcements and Conversations. Please read or view the following instructions about how to use the Instructure Canvas' e-mail system called Conversations: (GuideLinks to an external site. or VideoLinks to an external site.)
This is very important, because all class correspondences and information will only be communicated by your instructor through Announcements and the Instructure Canvas' e-mail system called Conversations. The Instructor is not responsible for any information that is not sent or communicated through Canvas.
Materials
Required Text: Textbook Purchase Not Required
This course uses only free OER (Online Educational Resources) and does not require the purchase of any additional materials and/or textbooks for the course. All instructional materials are free to make learning accessible and affordable to all students. Instructional materials for this course are housed within the course LMS. Resources freely available online as well as resources available through the St. Philip's College library have been curated to ensure and provide each student with the necessary resources and educational opportunities to achieve academic success and to fulfill all of the THECB learning outcomes assigned for this course.
This course does not have an assigned textbook. The instructor will use open-source educational resources that will be available to all enrolled students via Canvas. See Appendix A: Course OER Resources by Module at the end of the syllabus for further details.
Description
Understanding purposes and processes in the visual and musical arts including evaluation of selected works. This course fulfills the Creative Arts foundational component area of the core and addresses the following required objectives: Critical Thinking, Communication, Teamwork, and Social Responsibility.
Prerequisite(s)
INRW 0420
Objectives
Objectives:
1 To demonstrate awareness of the range of works in selected areas of the visual or performing arts.
2 To demonstrate an understanding of the works being studied as expressions of individual or broader human values within a historical, cultural or social context.
3 To articulate an informed critical response to the works being studied.
4 To engage in creative process or interpretive performance and experience the physical and intellectual demands required of the visual or performing artist.
5 To demonstrate knowledge of the importance of visual or performing arts in defining or exploring a culture.
Outcomes
1 Employ formal elements and principles to critically analyze various works of the visual and performing arts.
2 Articulate the creative process of artistic works as expressions of human experience and cultural values.
3 Demonstrate an understanding of the aesthetic principles that guide the creation of, and response to, the arts.
4 Describe the relationship of the arts to everyday life.
Evaluation
Course Assessments:
Students are required to complete the orientation, a total of seven humanities quizzes, weekly discussion postings, and a final exam project for the course grade.
Part 1: The Structure of the Humanities Quizzes 1-7 :
- The Seven Humanities Quizzes can be found on the course Home Page or the Course Navigation Tool Bar under "Modules".
- Each Humanities quiz has multiple-choice and/or multiple choice/true and false statement questions based on information from the module lectures, and the other learning activities listed under the corresponding Learning Module. Quiz questions are worth two points each.
- Quizzes are NOT TIMED, so students can save work and return at a later time to complete the quiz.
- Students have TWO ATTEMPTS to complete and submit the quiz (BY CLICKING ON THE SUBMIT ANSWERS BUTTON ON THE SCREEN)
- Each quiz attempt is graded "separately" and the highest of both quiz attempts becomes the official grade.
- Since each quiz attempt is graded separately, students cannot receive credit for questions marked correctly on the first attempt and not on the second.
- Your course grade is made up of the complete total of your Humanities Quizzes 1-7 and are worth 140 points of the total 1000 points that can be earned in the course.
- Warning : There are NO make up quizzes for this course under any circumstances.
WARNING: Once a quiz is completed and submitted (BY CLICKING ON THE SUBMIT ANSWERS BUTTON), it is officially part of your course grade. Students cannot re-take submitted quizzes (AFTER THE SECOND ATTEMPT!) under any circumstances.
Part 2: The Instructions for Taking the Humanities Quizzes:
While taking a quiz students are allowed to do the following:
- Use the information in the module and their study materials to aid in answering the quiz questions.
- Students can save their work and return at a later time to complete the quiz.
- WARNING: Once a student clicks on the "Submit Answers Button", after the second attempt, the quiz is officially graded and part of your course grade.
- Students cannot re-take submitted quizzes (AFTER THE SECOND ATTEMPT!) under any circumstances.
While taking the quiz, students must do the following:
- Students must select their answers and click on the submit answers button to officially complete their quiz.
- Warning: Only click the "Submit Answers Button" after the second attempt when you finally completed the whole quiz.
- Make sure you complete and submit all Humanities Quizzes 1 through 7 on time.
- WARNING: There are NO make up quizzes for this course under any circumstances.
- All Humanities Quizzes 1 through 7 must be completed and submitted by the student by 11:59 P.M. on their due date. (See Course Schedule)
Part 3: How to prepare for the Quiz:
Students prepare for each quiz by working on their tasks listed in the corresponding Learning Module.
Part 4: Student Responsibilities for the Quiz:
Students are responsible for following all instructions listed above in relation to each quiz. (Failure to do so could result in a failing grade on the Quiz.)
Although faculty are commonly the first point of contact, their responsibility is not to troubleshoot student technical issues. If students have technical problem with a quiz they should contact Support Central at 210-485-0555 Select option 2. For out of town students please call 866-493-3947
The Instructor is NOT responsible for any content on any LINKS used in the course. If a link is broken or does not function a students might have to do their own searches online to acquire the answers for the quizzes.
Part 5: Student Responsibilities for the completion of weekly Discussion postings:
- Each week there will be a discussion posting. Some of these postings will be part of our required QEP (Quality Enhancement Plan) projects.
- All Students are responsible for the completion of a Quality Enhancement Plan or QEP Artifact Assessment Exercises assigned throughout the semester. The SPC Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences may decided to require an additional case study that would be presented to and adopted by ALL of the disciplines within the department. Any student enrolled in a course within the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences will be required to complete the same QEP case study. All QEP instructions and guidelines are explained in the corresponding Learning Modules.
- Weekly discussion postings will require each student to submit an original post that addresses the discussion question or instructions. Additionally, each student is required to respond to at least 1 other student in the class. Initial postings and responses are due by Sunday of each week by 11:59 P.M.
- Weekly discussion postings:
- Week 1 The Orientation Module will have a syllabus quiz worth 5 points, an introduction posting worth 25 points, and a Fine Arts discussion worth 40 points.
- Weeks with a Formal Analysis Discussion will account for 40 points each.
- Weeks with a Contextual Analysis Discussion will count for 50 points each.
- All weekly discussions must be completed and submitted by the student by 11:59 P.M. on their due date (See Course Schedule)
- WARNING: There are NO make up discussions for this course under any circumstances.
Part 6: Student Responsibilities for the completion of the Midterm Check-in:
- The Mid-Term check-in will be in quiz form and worth 10 points of your final grade.
- The questions will be short answer, not multiple choice.
- The quiz is not timed, so you can save your work and return to it.
- Warning: Unlike the other 7 quizzes, you only have 1 attempt at the Midterm.
- WARNING: There are NO make up midterms for this course under any circumstances.
Part 7: Student Responsibilities for the completion of the Art Immersion Final Exam Project:
- All Students are responsible for the completion of a comprehensive Final Exam
- All Final Exam instructions and guidelines are explained in the corresponding Learning Module entitled Week 16 Final Project.
- The Final Exam is worth 150 total points and consist of an art immersion project.
- WARNING: There are NO make up final projects for this course under any circumstances.
- There are 3 Art Immersion Experiences required in the course. They are worth 50 points each for a total of 150 points on the final. The directions are as follows:
SLOs
1 Employ formal elements and principles to critically analyze various works of the visual and performing arts.
2 Articulate the creative process of artistic works as expressions of human experience and cultural values.
3 Demonstrate an understanding of the aesthetic principles that guide the creation of, and response to, the arts.
4 Describe the relationship of the arts to everyday life.
ART IMMERSION EXPERIENCE INSTRUCTIONS: Over the course of the semester, you need to experience 3 of the following events/activities and document your account via the Final Exam Project Quiz. Your accounts need not be formal. Choose events from the appropriate categories below (or perhaps you will have an idea for something not listed below – the list is not exhaustive—if you have an idea, just ask! You may also choose to experience “fine art” or “popular art” as both genres are equally acceptable. You may choose as your options, the longer videos in the modules, for instance, a full length movie, musical or opera, or a documentary on an artist. You may also choose your own immersions. You must choose your 3 immersions in different genres. For instance, you may pick a two dimensional artist like Renoir, a cinematic performance and a symphony. You may not pick 3 paintings. The idea is to diversify a bit. If you are in doubt, just ask the professor. This assignment should be an opportunity to challenge yourself to experience something new; something that you might not ordinarily consider. Make sure you include observations from your experience as they relate to the course material. Approach this assignment with a sense of fun and adventure and have a good time! I look forward to hearing about your experience. Important: We are in a pandemic, please complete all of these virtually, not in person (unless you are viewing outdoor sculpture or architecture of course).
Immersion 1 Choices-Select one of the following:
Visit an artist’s studio for at least an hour
Take a virtual art museum tour
Visit an art gallery or museum
Research an artist previously unknown to you
Visit a statue, sculpture, or light display
Visit a famous local building or landmark (can be locally famous)
Attend a craft workshop or exhibition
Attend an arts festival or fair
Immersion 2 Choices-Select one of the following:
Read a biography or watch a documentary about an artist’s life
Visit (or watch on video) a live musical rehearsal
Watch a symphony or concerto on YouTube/other online platform
Attend a live concert or watch a recorded one (any genre is fine)
Watch a dance performance or recital
Evaluate artistic components of a videogameImmersion 3 Choices-Select one of the following:
Attend a dance program
Attend a martial arts exhibition
Attend a play or musical
Watch a movie you have never seen before
Watch musicians, singers, dancers, or actors during a rehearsal
Watch a recorded theatre performanceThrough quiz questions, you will be guided through the following information.
1) State the name or title of the piece or exhibit, the person or persons who created (if known).
2) Relate your experience to the formal analysis you learned in the modules throughout the course. Give specific examples (at least 3) of what you saw or heard and connect those examples to your prior leaning in this course.
3) Relate your experience to the contextual analysis you learned in the modules throughout the course. Give specific examples (at least 3) of what you saw or heard and connect those examples to your prior leaning in this course.
4) Include your insights, perspectives, or just new facts you gained from this activity. Use sufficient descriptive details to help us see the event through your eyes. How did this experience impact you? This should be more than a couple of sentences.
- The Final Exam Assessment is due by 11:59 P.M. on Wednesday, May 12, 2021.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Grading Criteria:
Student's are individually graded as follows:
A= 900-1000 points
B= 800-899 points
C= 700-799 points
D= 600-699 points
F= 599 and below
(There are no I or IP grades offered in this course)
Points are Determined by the Number of Quiz/Exam Questions Answered Correctly:
Orientation Quiz: Worth 5 Points
Introduction Discussion Worth 25 Points
Fine Arts Discussion Worth 40 Points
14 Weekly Discussions Worth 630 Points
7 Quizzes: Worth 140 Points
Midterm Check-in Worth 10 Points
Final Exam Project: Worth 150 Points
Total Course Grade: Worth 1000 Total Points
Course Policies
Student Responsibilities:
All enrolled students must adhere to the following expectations:
1. Email accounts
- All class correspondence, questions and announcements will be communicated by your instructor through the Instructure Canvas Communication Tools called: Announcements and Conversations.
- Students should check course Announcements and Conversations on a regular bases .
- Also, all class correspondence, questions, or assignments must be communicated or sent through ACES e-mail and/or Instructure Canvas Conversations.
2. Internet access, Browsers, and Plug-ins:
- Students must have access to the Internet. This access may be through the campus computer labs, library, or from home via an Internet provider.
- Computers and Browsers: Although Canvas runs on any computer (Mac or PC) and any browser, Canvas runs best on Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome. If you do not have either of these browsers on your personal computer, simply download one of them now by clicking below:
- Firefox
- Chrome
- Safari
- Required Plug-ins - To use all the features of Canvas, it is required that you download all the plug-ins necessary for your computer. Below is the list of plug-ins. Click the corresponding hyperlink to go to its website to download.
- Adobe Flash: The majority of the web videos will be in flash. To download the latest version: http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/
- Adobe Reader: Adobe Reader is required to read PDF files. To download the latest version: http://get.adobe.com/reader/
- Java: Java is a free program that makes it possible for many communication features to work effectively. For example, Chat applets work on the Java platform. Without Java, Chat applications will not work in Canvas. To download the latest version of Java: http://www.java.com/en/download/index.jsp
3. Participation:
- Students will work on all weekly assignments listed on the course task/tool bar under Learning Modules
- Students will read the assigned portions of textbook.
- Students will do research and answer questions by using the Internet.
- It is the responsibility of the student to submit work as scheduled.
- A "0" will be recorded for late or missing work.
4. Academic honesty:
- Students will do all their own work on exams and projects.
- DO NOT copy answers from text, fellow students or web sites.
- Use your own words to explain your points.
- I expect that all work assigned to you will be completed by you.
- St. Philip's policy re. plagiarism, collusion, and cheating will be enforced.
5. Preparation for class:
- Because this class is taught via the Internet and in a Flex session, students should expect to spend at least six hours per week on the web, i.e. composing and replying to email messages, working on Internet activities, and preparing written assignments.
6. Withdrawing from the Course:
- Since this is a Distance Learning Course, each student is responsible for determining if they need to withdraw from the course
- The last day to withdraw (drop) is Thursday, April 15, 2021. (Remember that neglecting this responsibility will result in failing the course.)
Schedule
Course Schedule
Course Schedule Spring 2021- 16 Week Semester
Dates | Topic | Tasks | Due Dates |
Week 1 | Course Orientation Formal/Contextual Analysis | Complete Orientation and Syllabus Module Complete Orientation and Acknowledgement Form Quiz Read Student Course Resources Module Complete Introduction Discussion | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, January 24, 2021 |
Week 2
| Understanding Two-Dimensional Art | Learning Module Quiz 1 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, January 31, 2021 |
| Week 3 | Two-Dimensional Art in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, February 7, 2021 |
Week 4 | Understanding Sculpture | Learning Module Quiz 2 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, February 14, 2021 |
| Week 5 | Sculpture in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, February 21, 2021 |
| Week 6 | Understanding Architecture | Learning Module Quiz 3 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, February 28, 2021 |
| Week 7 | Architecture in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, March 7, 2021 |
| Week 8 | Understanding Music | Learning Module Quiz 4 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting Midterm | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, March 21, 2021 |
| Week 9 | Music in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, March 28, 2021 |
| Week 10 | Understanding Theatre and Opera | Learning Module Quiz 5 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, April 4, 2021 |
| Week 11 | Theatre and Opera in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, April 11, 2021 |
| Week 12 | Understanding Cinema | Learning Module Quiz 6 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, April 18, 2021 |
| Week 13 | Cinema in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, April 25, 2021 |
| Week 14 | Understanding Dance | Learning Module Quiz 7 Formal Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, May 2, 2021 |
| Week 15 | Dance in Context | Learning Module Contextual Analysis Discussion Posting | Due by 11:59 PM Sunday, May 9, 2021 |
| Week 16 | Final Project | Final Module Final Project | Final due by 11:59 PM May 12, 2021 |
Additional Items
Orientation Quiz Instructions:
1. After reading the complete course orientation syllabus, students must take and submit an "Orientation Quiz and Acknowledgement Form".
2. To take the Orientation Acknowledgement Quiz:
- First, CLICK on the "Orientation and Acknowledgment Quiz" link located on the Course Home Page and/or this Learning Module
- Second, answer and submit the "Orientation and Acknowledgment Quiz" questions to officially complete the online course orientation.
- Student's must answer all of the quiz questions correctly to complete the Orientation and start the course.
- Student's can retake the quiz as many time as necessary to complete the Orientation.
3. Once you complete and submit the "Orientation and Acknowledgment Quiz" you can officially start the course. Students that fail to complete and submit the "Orientation and Acknowledgment Quiz" will be withdrawn from the course.
4. The last day to complete the "Orientation and Acknowledgement Quiz" is: 11:59 P.M. on Sunday, January 24, 2021.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Warning: Syllabus subject to change under the Instructor's discretion.
Please be advised that some Humanistic content in this course deals with cultural themes and practices that express derogatory language, nudity in art, sexuality, and government practices of war, genocide, and violence. If you find learning about, studying, reading, or viewing any such Humanistic content extremely objectionable, please respectfully consider withdrawing from the course.
Institutional Policies
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES:
“Students must comply with all posted COVID-19 health and safety measures when on campus, as described in the Alamo Colleges District Procedure C.2.1.9. Your college may provide additional guidance.”
A. Attendance:
SmartStart. Student absences will be recorded from the first day the class meets, and students who do not attend the first scheduled class meeting or contact the instructor will be dropped. Students should verify the drop is completed.
For fully online courses, an attendance verification activity is assigned and must be completed by the 3rd class day.
Regular and punctual attendance in all classes and laboratories, day and evening, is required. Students who are absent for any reason should always consult with their instructors. Course syllabi must provide specific information regarding attendance, including, for courses involving the internet, online activity that constitutes “attendance.” Also, both tardiness and early departure from class may be considered forms of absenteeism. In all cases, students will be held responsible for completion of course requirements covered in their absence.
Additionally, it is the student’s responsibility to drop a course for nonattendance. Course instructors may drop a student for excessive absences or for online classes non-participation as defined by assigned work not being turned in during the course of a week. Absences are considered excessive when more than 12.5 percent of the total contact hours of instruction in a semester, including lecture and lab, are missed. For example, in a three-credit-hour lecture class, students may be dropped after more than six contact hours of absences. In a four-credit-hour lecture/lab class, students may be dropped after more than eight contact hours of absences. Absences are counted regardless of whether they occur consecutively.
In special programs with additional accreditation or certification standards, additional attendance requirements may be enforced but faculty must clearly explain these policies in their syllabi. Students who stop attending class for any reason should contact the instructor as soon as possible. To officially withdraw from the class, a withdrawal request must be submitted in ACES via the “student course withdrawal” link. Contact your instructor, advisor, or the Admissions and Records office if guidance is needed.
Failure to officially withdraw may result in a failing grade for the course. It is the student’s responsibility to withdraw officially from a class by submitting a “student course withdrawal” request in ACES.
B. Early Alert and Intervention
Your instructor cares about your success in this course. During the semester, you may receive notice through your ACES email account regarding your progress and ultimate success in this course. Upon receipt of the email, please contact your instructor to discuss specific tasks or actions to improve success in this course. Discussions with your instructors and Certified Advisor allow you to identify and implement actions that will help to successfully complete course requirements at the Alamo Colleges District.
3-Peat Rule
Texas legislation has a financial impact on the students who repeat courses excessively. Texas residents attempting the same course for a third time, from Fall 2002 forward, will be charged an additional $125 per credit hour for that course. This provision is described in the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board Rules (Chapter 13, Subchapter B, §13.25).
150 Hour Rule
Texas Education Code §54.014 specifies that undergraduate students may be subject to a higher tuition rate for attempting excessive hours at any public institution of higher education while classified as a resident student for tuition purposes.
Students will be charged at the non-resident rate if, prior to the start of the current semester or session, the student has attempted 30 or more hours over the minimum number of semester credit hours required for completion of the degree program (typically 120 hours) in which the student is enrolled.
C. Student Responsibility for Success (Alamo Colleges District Policy F.6.2):
As members of the Alamo Colleges District learning community, students, faculty, staff and administrators all share the responsibility to create an atmosphere where knowledge, integrity, truth, and academic honesty are valued and expected. A clear acknowledgment of the mutual obligations of all members of the academic community emphasizes this implicit partnership in fostering the conditions necessary for student success.
In this relationship, the Alamo Colleges District provides institutional policies, procedures, and opportunities to facilitate student learning that encourage interaction, involvement and responsible participation. Inherent in the academic climate is the expectation that students will assume responsibility for contributing to their own development and learning. Academic success is directly tied to the effort students put into their studies, the degree to which they interact with faculty and peers, and the extent to which students integrate into the campus life.
1. Engagement
- Create connections and build relationships with faculty, staff and students (visit during office hours, join clubs and organizations, participate in student activities, etc.);
- Stay informed of policies, procedures, deadlines and events for academic and co-curricular activities;
- Complete all requirements for admission, registration, and payment by deadlines;
- Apply for financial assistance, if needed, complying with all federal, state and local regulations and procedures;
- Meet all federal, state and local health care regulations.
2. Communication
- Seek guidance from faculty, advisors or counselors for questions and concerns in regards to degree plans, major selection, academic status, grades, and issues impacting college success;
- Develop a peer support system to identify student contacts for questions, group assignments, etc. regarding academic and co-curricular activities;
- Communicate with College personnel promptly regarding academic or co-curricular concerns and assistance requests;
- Carefully consider the information provided by College personnel and make decisions using that information;
- Check the Alamo Colleges District’s Web Services regularly for emails, holds, student records, financial aid status and announcements;
- Submit disability documentation if seeking services and request academic accommodations in advance of each semester.
3. Academic Success
- Complete courses with passing grades and maintain good academic standing (2.0 GPA) status;
- Read and follow all syllabi;
- Purchase textbooks and required supplies in a timely manner;
- Attend classes regularly and on time, with as few absences, late arrivals, and early exits as possible;
- Arrive to class with all needed materials and completed assignments for that class period;
- Be attentive in class and actively participate as appropriate;
- Devote sufficient time for studying;
- Ensure integrity in all aspects of academic and career development;
- Accurately represent one’s own work and that of others used in creating academic assignments. Use information ethically and exercise appropriate caution to avoid plagiarism on all assignments;
- Notify faculty in advance or as soon as possible about absences and provide documentation as appropriate;
- Consult faculty members in advance when unable to complete projects, assignments, or take examinations as scheduled.
4. Self-Responsibility and Responsibility to Others
- Maintain accurate and complete degree/certificate major selection and contact information including name, address, phone number and emergency contact;
- Balance personal obligations and educational pursuits. Work with a counselor / advisor to design a realistic schedule that dedicates adequate effort to be successful in college studies;
- Know and follow the regulations and guidelines outlined in the Student Code of Conduct and Student Handbook;
- Maintain respectful and appropriate behavior within and outside the classroom;
- Ask for help when needed. Use all available resources and facilities provided by the College to enhance the learning experience;
- Attend scheduled advising sessions, tutorials, and other appointments. Cancel or reschedule only with good reasons as early as possible;
- Arrive prepared for tutorial sessions, bringing all needed materials (books, syllabi, rough drafts, calculators, assignment sheets, etc.).
D. Textbook Availability
A student of this institution is not under any obligation to purchase a textbook from a university-affiliated bookstore. The same textbook may also be available from an independent retailer, including an online retailer.
E. Licensed Concealed Campus Carry
No open carry of firearms is allowed on all property owned, controlled, or leased by the College District, including vehicles operated by the Alamo Colleges District. Concealed carry of a handgun by persons licensed to carry may not be restricted except in locations signed as prohibited areas.
- Special testing locations requiring a complete surrender of personal effects during testing will be signed as prohibited areas.
- Persons may be required to place their purse, backpack or briefcase away from their person, but within their view during tests at the direction of their instructor or test administrator.
- License holders carrying on campus intending to access prohibited areas must leave their weapons locked in their vehicles. College lockers are not authorized for storage of handguns by license holders.
Disciplinary Sanctions
Open carry, intentional display, unlicensed carry, and carry in spite of signed prohibition are subject to employee and student discipline, as well as possible prosecution. Unintentional display of a weapon by a license holder must be avoided. Police will exercise their enforcement discretion.
If you see a person openly carrying or deliberately displaying a firearm:
- Call the Alamo Colleges District Police 210-485-0911
- Do not confront the person or ask if the person has a permit
F. Title IX policy
Information and policy regarding Title IX, Civil Rights Discrimination, Harassment, and Retaliation can be found in Board Policy H.1.2.
COLLEGE REQUIREMENTS:
While other exams are given at the discretion of the instructor, a final assessment is given at the end of each semester for each course. The Final Exam Schedule changes with each term and differs from normal class meeting dates and times. See the Final Exam Schedule in the Catalog/Schedule of Classes in the left hand navigation bar.
A student who must be absent from a final evaluation should petition that instructor for permission to postpone the evaluation. A student absent without permission from a final evaluation is graded "0" on the exam.
Incomplete Grades. The conditional grade of “I” may be issued to a student having a passing average on all completed coursework but for a justified reason, such as illness or death in the family or by providential hindrance, has been prevented from taking the final examination or completing other required coursework. The “I” becomes an “F” in one hundred twenty (120) calendar days from the end of the term unless the student completes the balance of the coursework with a performance grade of “D” or higher. Re-enrollment in the course will not resolve the “I.” The student and faculty must fill out an Incomplete Contract, clearly defining the work remaining to be finished.
Student Grade Changes and Appeals
You have a maximum of one year from the end of the term in which the final grade was issued to
request a review of the grade or petition for a grade change. Judging the quality of academic
performance rests with the instructor assigned to the course. If you believe that the grade is
incorrect, you should schedule a conference with the instructor or, if the instructor is not
available, the department chair. If you still are not satisfied with the grade, you can file an
Academic Grievance within five days of the instructor’s decision. See Academic Grievance
Procedure in the “District, State and Federal Regulations” section of the e‐catalog.
Religious Holy Days
A “religious holy day” is a holy day observed by a religion whose places of worship are exempt
from property taxation under Section 11.20, Tax Code. A student shall be excused from attending
classes or other required activities, including examinations, for the observance of a religious holy
day, including travel for that purpose. Students must notify the faculty member in writing
within the first twelve days of the semester which day(s) will be observed. A student whose
absence is excused under this provision may not be penalized for that absence and shall be
allowed to take an examination or complete an assignment within a reasonable time as
established by the faculty member. The faculty member may respond appropriately if the student
fails to satisfactorily complete the assignment or examination by the deadline.
College Priorities
How can I create My Mission Statement?
A Personal Mission Statement is critical to your success as a student at St. Philip's College. The development of your mission statement will assist you in identifying your skills, abilities, and interests and how they relate to your values and principles toward the career you wish to pursue.
Once your Mission Statement is completed, access your ACES portal and schedule an appointment with your advisor.
Expectations in Remote Learning Courses
Remote Courses refer to Face-to-Face courses that are delivered via the internet. A Remote Course requires attendance meetings on the day and time of the scheduled class session. Virtual attendance and participation require reliable internet access and computer equipment. Instructors may require the use of certain programs and equipment for class sessions or testing. Commonly required are microphones and web cams, either built into the computer or added on.
Canvas course assignments and other learning technologies may not be fully functional on smart phones or tablets; therefore, access to a laptop or computer may be required by your instructor. The attendance expectation and requirement for each course are established by the instructor and published in the course syllabus. Students are expected to read, understand, and follow the course syllabus requirements.
College Policies
St. Philip’s College Mission Statement
St. Philip's College, founded in 1898, is a comprehensive public community college whose mission is to empower our diverse student population through personal educational growth, ethical decision-making, career readiness, and community leadership. As a Historically Black College and Hispanic Serving Institution, St. Philip's College is a vital facet of the community, responding to the needs of a population rich in ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic diversity. St. Philip's College creates an environment fostering excellence in academic and technical achievement while expanding its commitment to opportunity and access.
The college fulfills its mission by offering:
1) General courses in arts and sciences leading to an associate degree.
2) Transfer education for students desiring to attend senior institutions.
3) Developmental courses that improve the basic skills of students whose academic foundations require strengthening.
4) Applied Science and technical programs leading to an associate degree or certificate designed to prepare students for employment and/or to update crucial skills.
5) Workforce and Career development training programs for business, industry and government.
6) Continuing education programs for occupational and educational enrichment or certification.
7) Counseling and guidance designed to assist students in achieving their educational and professional goals.
8) Educational support services including library services, tutoring, open use computer labs and writing center.
9) Services and appropriate accommodations for special populations, to include adult literacy and distance education.
10) Quality social, cultural, and intellectual enrichment experiences for the community.
11) Opportunities for participation in community service and economic development projects.
Quality Enhancement Plan: Ethical Decision Making
St. Philip's College is committed to quality education, as such the focus of the 2016 Quality Enhancement Plan is ethical decision-making which is the ability to connect values and choices to actions and consequences. The goal of the QEP is to engage students in specific measurable academic activities to enhance their ethical decision–making skill.
QEP Student Learning Outcomes:
- Values: Students gain skills to assess their own values.
- Ethical Issues: Students identify and are knowledgeable of ethical issues.
- Perspectives: Students analyze various ethical perspectives.
Ethical Decision-Making Process
- Stop and think to determine the facts.
- Identify options.
- Consider consequences for yourself and others.
- Make an ethical choice and take appropriate action.
Smoking-Free Environment (Alamo Colleges District Policy C.2.13)
All of the colleges of the Alamo Colleges District are tobacco free. Smoking is prohibited in all classrooms, laboratories, offices, conference rooms, hallways, and all other rooms in all buildings of the College District, and on all property which is owned, leased, rented, or otherwise under the control of the College District. Smoke-Free Environment includes the prohibited use of tobacco products and vapor or e-cigarettes.
Contact Phone Information
Alamo Colleges District DPS Emergency Phone Numbers:
- Emergency Phone (210) 485-0911
- General Phone (210) 485-0099
- Weather Phone (210) 485-0189 (For information on college closures)
Disability Services
In accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, it is the responsibility of the student to self-identify with the campus Disability Support Services office. Only those students with appropriate documentation will receive a letter of accommodation from the Disability Support Services office.
Instructors are required to follow only those accommodation and/or services outlined in the letter of accommodation. Faculty can only provide accommodations to students after receiving the letter of accommodation from the SPC Disability Support Services office. Letters of accommodation from other colleges and universities cannot be accepted by SPC faculty.
For further information, please contact the Disability Services office at (210) 486-2199 or SWC (210) 486-7175 or visit the office located:
- MLK Campus – Safe SPaCe, Sutton Learning Center (SLC), Ste. 102
- SWC –LIFEspace Office, Industrial Technology Center (ITSC) A-135
Mandatory Student Training for Online Classes:
If you are new to online classes, you are REQUIRED to take the St. Philip’s College Orientation to Online Learning course, OLRN 0001. The free, self-paced, online course will familiarize you with Canvas and will provide helpful tips on being a successful online learner. Register for the OLRN course the same way as any other course. Reference the Center for Distance Learning or call 210-486-2239 for more information.
Prompt Response to Student Communication
Instructors endeavor to respond to student contact promptly. This will usually be within two business days. Extenuating circumstances, such as the instructor falling ill, may delay this ideal response time. Students are advised to provide appropriate subject lines in emails and leave clear voice messages with return number and call-back instructions. A college-assigned student email account is considered the official electronic channel for communication between the District, colleges, and students (Alamo Colleges District Policy F.7.1).
Commitment to Timely Grading
Instructors are committed to providing prompt feedback to submitted work. It is expected that instructors will provide this feedback within one week of the student's submission. This timeframe may be delayed where extenuating circumstances prevent an instructor from meeting this commitment, or class submissions or assignment design are such that a delayed response is favorable.
Religious Holy Days
Students who will be observing religious holy days during the timeframe for this course, should be aware of their rights and obligations. It is the student's responsibility to notify their instructor of their religious holy day commitments, and the instructor's responsibility to provide opportunities for work to be completed. Students need to contact the instructor as soon as possible to make arrangements. Students should consult the student handbook for specific rights and obligations.
Academic Calendar and Important Dates
It is the student's responsibility to make themselves aware of pertinent dates. Please review academic calendar. Select the relevant semester timeframe for a list of all pertinent dates. When reviewing the semester’s academic calendar, please note the "Census Date" (drop date without academic penalty) and "Last Date to Withdraw" (incurs a "W" on transcript).
Course Withdrawal
It is the student's responsibility to initiate the drop and to discuss this with their instructor and advisor. The dates provided in the academic calendar are the absolute cut-off timeframes, regardless if a student attempts to process a withdrawal outside of the academic calendar dates. To initiate a course withdrawal, go to the Registration area in ACES and click the Student Withdrawal Request. Discuss the drop with your advisor to ensure its completion.
Attendance
Student absences will be recorded from the first day the class meets, and students who do not attend the first scheduled class meeting or contact the instructor will be dropped (Alamo Colleges District Policy F.6.1.1). For fully online courses, an attendance verification activity is assigned and must be completed by the 3rd class day. Students should verify the drop is completed with their advisor.
Regular and punctual attendance in all classes and laboratories, day and evening, is required. Students who are absent for any reason should always consult with their instructors. Course syllabi must provide specific information regarding attendance, including, for courses involving the internet, online activity that constitutes “attendance.” Also, both tardiness and early departure from class may be considered forms of absenteeism. In all cases, students will be held responsible for completion of course requirements covered in their absence.
Additionally, it is the student’s responsibility to drop a course for nonattendance. Course instructors may drop a student for excessive absences or, for online classes, non-participation as defined by assigned work not being turned in during the course of a week. Absences are considered excessive when more than 12.5 percent of the total contact hours of instruction in a semester, including lecture and lab, are missed. For example, in a three-credit-hour lecture class, students may be dropped after more than six contact hours of absences. In a four-credit-hour lecture/lab class, students may be dropped after more than eight contact hours of absences. Absences are counted regardless of whether they occur consecutively.
In special programs with additional accreditation or certification standards, additional attendance requirements may be enforced but faculty must clearly explain these policies in their syllabi. Students who stop attending class for any reason should contact the instructor as soon as possible. To officially withdraw from the class, a withdrawal request must be submitted in ACES via the “student course withdrawal” link. Contact your instructor, advisor, or the Admissions and Records office if guidance is needed.
Failure to officially withdraw may result in a failing grade for the course. It is the student’s responsibility to withdraw officially from a class by submitting a “student course withdrawal”
Final Exams
While other exams are given at the discretion of the instructor, a final assessment is given at the end of each semester for each course. The Final Exam Schedule changes with each term and differs from normal class meeting dates and times. The Final Exam Schedule can be found in the college catalog. A student who must be absent from a final evaluation should petition that instructor for permission to postpone the evaluation. A student absent without permission from a final evaluation is graded "0" on the exam.
Incomplete Grades
The conditional grade of “I” may be issued to a student having a passing average (grade of “D” or better) on all completed coursework but for a justified reason, such as illness or death in the family or by providential hindrance, has been prevented from taking the final examination or completing other required coursework. The “I” becomes an “F” in one hundred twenty (120) calendar days from the end of the term unless the student completes the balance of the coursework with a performance grade of “D” or higher. Re-enrollment in the course will not resolve the “I.” The student and faculty must fill out an Incomplete Grade form, clearly defining the work remaining to be finished. For more information, please see Academic Standards.
Appendix A: OER Resources by Module
Orientation Module
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “How to do Visual (Formal) Analysis in Art History.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 18 September 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sM2MOyonDsY&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Art Historical Analysis (Painting) A Basic Introduction Using Goya’s Third of May, 1808.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 25 July 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QM-DfhrNv8&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Jackson Pollock, One: Number 31,1950.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 4 September 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JleSka1klc&feature=youtu.be
PBS Digital Studios. “The Case for Jackson Pollock.” YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 14 December 2017.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1U19VOF4qfs&feature=youtu.be
Understanding Two-Dimensional Art Module
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Line.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 18 August 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDePyEFT1gQ&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Shape.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 16 September 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJzGkZwkHt4&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Form.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 14 October 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DIPs3T2dQk&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Texture.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 20 November 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoOb3JSDAUo&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Value.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 5 January 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAwYHNo31ZQ&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Color.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 16 January 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWW_UbrkBEw&feature=youtu.be
KQED Arts. “Elements of Art: Space.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 2 February 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U11B_0FCn6o&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “How One-Point Linear Perspective Works.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 10 May 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOksHhQ8TLM&feature=youtu.be
Getty Museum. “Drawings.” YouTube, uploaded by Getty Museum, 31 January 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-F4qnA1PFzE&feature=youtu.be
Getty Museum. “Looking at Paintings.” YouTube, uploaded by Getty Museum, 9 February 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jm8Sva2hnvY&feature=youtu.be
Mbele, Roberto. “The Evolution of Art (and How it Shaped the Modern World).” YouTube, uploaded by LaVolpe, 14 July 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bkWHrWw5yTg&feature=youtu.be
Getty Museum. “Introducing Formal Analysis: Landscape.” YouTube, uploaded by Getty Museum, 30 April 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AIbTrG-SlDE&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Seurat, A Sunday on La Grande Jatte.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 2 April 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNB9Vm6MoDQ&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Seurat Biography.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 25 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOdmp7_BUhY&feature=youtu.be
Two-Dimensional Art in Context Module
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Stone Age Art History.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdlQxISNpwY&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Mesopotamia Art History Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1GF_8l97xU&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Egyptian Art History.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibp_i7bekQU&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Greek Art History.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtKgfS1QwLk&feature=youtu.be
Khan Academy. “Ancient China: Early Civilizations World History.” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, 30 April 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9SGpnheXek&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Roman Art History.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RM2D7iJHWXQ&feature=youtu.be
AP Art History. “Islamic Art and Architecture.” YouTube, uploaded by AP Art History, 11 November 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5Okql_uTbA&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Medieval Art History Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 12 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4zQnNLRW3w&feature=youtu.be
Brown, Michelle. “What is a Butt Tuba and Why is it in Medieval Art?” YouTube, uploaded by TED-Ed, 16 April 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgBj48s1SA8&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “How to Recognize Italian Renaissance Art.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 1 February 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6YiL9MNyGKE&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Mannerism Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6TvfyL9vHc&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “How to Recognize Baroque Art.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 10 May 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFHPAbHaoqk&feature=youtu.be
Goeke, April. “Common Characteristics of Rococo Art and Architecture” YouTube, uploaded by April Goeke, 20 October 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLsejn0h-9o&feature=youtu.be
Goeke, April. “Common Characteristics and Trends of Neoclassical Art” YouTube, uploaded by April Goeke, 26 February 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQDIMqdEp40&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Romanticism Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agK-qvtb6Mc&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Realism Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cump0Nxteb4&feature=youtu.be
PBS Digital Studios. “The Case for Impressionism.” YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 17 October 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tw51Eh9vcw&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Art Nouveau Overview.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4luPnObQYo&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Fauvism Overview.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wp0Y8Cgbg1o&feature=youtu.be
Goodbye-Art Academy. “Cubism Overview from Phil Hansen.” YouTube, uploaded by Philinthecircle, 16 March 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSZMlfm1Ln0&feature=youtu.be
PBS Digital Studios. “The Case for Surrealism.” YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 16 March 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtPBOwE0Qn0&feature=youtu.be
Rosenthal, Sarah. “What is Abstract Expressionism?” YouTube, uploaded by TED-Ed, 28 April 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oG9jQBj1eqE&feature=youtu.be
Art Gallery NSW. “A Guide to Pop Art.” YouTube, uploaded by Art Gallery NSW, 9 December 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsY4ihZCJL8&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Caravaggio: Narcissus at the Source.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 1 October 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JrTsNuUQXzU&feature=youtu.be
Trevis, Letizia. “Caravaggio: His Life and Style in Three Paintings.” YouTube, uploaded by The National Gallery, 3 March 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KcdgFxmnb4&feature=youtu.be
“Caravaggio: Great Artists (Series 2).” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2003, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59672.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Gentileschi, Judith and Holofernes.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 6 May 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHFuLS9NW6s&feature=youtu.be
Lamb, Marc. “Artemisia Undaunted.” YouTube, uploaded by Marc Lamb, 9 April 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xHVeyUbG1b8&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Johannes Vermeer, Girl With a Pearl Earring.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 10 March 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-jLsoA1i_o&feature=youtu.be
“Vermeer, Beyond Time.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2017, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=166834.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Velazquez, Los Borrachos or the Triumph of Bacchus.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 18 December 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNoeLF6I52s&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Velazquez, Las Meninas.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 21 July 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiTtGENiVOA&feature=youtu.be
“Diego Velazquez-Spanish with English Subtitles.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2000, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=29746.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Goya, Saturn Devouring His Son.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 18 December 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Lawz8TcPig&feature=youtu.be
“Goya: Crazy Like a Genius.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2002, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35751
PBS Digital Studios. “Better Know the Great Wave.” YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 19 May 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1ufFlXIWjA&feature=youtu.be
Feltens, Frank. “Beyond the Great Wave, Hokusai at 90.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 18 December 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnAdZnJ5b1A&feature=youtu.be
Salter, Rebecca. “Japanese Woodblock Printing.” YouTube, uploaded by Royal Academy of Arts, 19 July 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CeMAuIErLgs&feature=youtu.be
“Hokusai: Old Man Crazy to Paint.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2017, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=154331.
“Hokusai: The Suspended Threat.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1999, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=36414.
Heck, Nate. “Who was Vincent Van Gogh?” YouTube, uploaded by Artrageous with Nate, PBS Digital Studios, 6 September 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vBLvusSwHRk&feature=youtu.be
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Under Cover: The Science of Van Gogh’s Bedrooms.” YouTube, uploaded by The Art Institute of Chicago, 12 February 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SsUzaIDsHo&feature=youtu.be
St. Clair, Natalia. “The Unexpected Math Behind Van Gogh’s ‘Starry Night’” YouTube, uploaded by TED-Ed, 30 October 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMerSm2ToFY&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Think You Know Van Gogh? ‘The Potato Eaters.’” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 5 January 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_HinBYpuaiA&feature=youtu.be
“Van Gogh [1853-1890]—Palettes III: Great Artists, Great Art.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1992, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=120515.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Matisse, The Red Studio.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 8 April 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nz_zwsgjRbw&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 21 February 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XyLNPumMMTs&feature=youtu.be
“Matisse and Picasso.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2002, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35750.
“Matisse [1869-1954]—Palettes III: Great Artists, Great Art.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1993, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=120509.
“Picasso and His Time.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1994, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=4096.
Heck, Nate. “Salvador Dali at the MOMA: ‘The Persistence of Memory’” YouTube, uploaded by Artrageous with Nate, PBS Digital Studios, 18 September 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h7RIP2spwpg&feature=youtu.be
Sooke, Alastair. “Salvador Dali: A Master of the Modern Era.” YouTube, uploaded by Mikos Arts, 16 March 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkGfWZfRzWM&feature=youtu.be
“Dali's Greatest Secret.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2018, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=168562.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Frida Kahlo, Frida and Diego Rivera.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 29 September 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2HWkDrorRg&feature=youtu.be
Hershon, Eila and Guerra, Roberto. “Frida Kahlo Biography.” YouTube, uploaded by Max TV Maximum Entertainment, 2 March 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urzl0kf7Cww&feature=youtu.be
“Diego Rivera: I Paint What I See .” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=60612.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art. “Jacob Lawrence: Artist Interviews.” YouTube, uploaded by LACMA, 28 April 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdXz_D8t_qs&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Jacob Lawrence, The Migration Series (long version).” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 11 April 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4lgvB5cV5E&feature=youtu.be
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Jacob Lawrence, Ambulance Call.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 27 September 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5XgjkmucJc&feature=youtu.be
“Creative Violation: The Rebel Art of the Street Stencil.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2007, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=39848.
“Street Art.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2011, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=94111.
Understanding Sculpture Module
Art History 101. “2-1 Sculpture Intro.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zn8bobvkq24
Art History 101. “2-2 Dimensionality.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkeunBcAjj4
Art History 101. “2-3 Methods of Execution.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7OX55MjM8M
Art History 101. “2-4 Composition.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://youtu.be/rHPRnqO2 -4 CompositionWAtI
Art History 101. “2-5 Other Factors.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://youtu.be/tc7lPDU_hYI
Art History 101. “2-6 Sense Stimuli.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://youtu.be/eN1drV5vZ2o
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Describing What You See: Sculpture (Henry Moore, Reclining Figure).” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 4 April 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mbvaz0EPK_g
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Gian Lorenzo Bernini, David.” in Smarthistory, 12 July 2015. https://smarthistory.org/bernini-david-2/
Sculpture in Context Module
“How Do We Look? Episode 2.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2018, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=166854. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
“Leaders: The Sculpture Diaries.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2007, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=55279. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
“Women: The Sculpture Diaries.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2007, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=55278. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
“Landscapes: The Sculpture Diaries.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2007, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=55280. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
“Isamu Noguchi: The Sculpture of Spaces.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1995, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=32843. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, Equestrian Monument of Gattamelata.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 22 March 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dWHPHELCKU
Laetitiana. “Donatello, Life and Works.” YouTube, uploaded by Laetitiana, 10 June 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGjdKAHAC-M
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, Feast of Herod.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 26 May 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9_ouZpBknM
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, Mary Magdalene.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 23 May 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UZuG3XpAd0
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, Madonna of the Clouds.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 2 April 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3N1IqBoKSo
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, Saint Mark.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 14 November 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8GQfq3U96M
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Donatello, David.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 20 November 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kUUJJV_MNA
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “A Soldier Saint in Renaissance Florence: Donatello’s St. George.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 5 June 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAQsYoYZfxs
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Bernini, Apollo and Daphne.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 3 December 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdnPdZMZ9PU
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Bernini, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 21 August 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKcJvjP9zgY
BBC. “The Power of Art Bernini.” YouTube, uploaded by Andrea Gherpelli, 11 June 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJsD8mmWjM8
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Rodin, The Gates of Hell.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 3 March 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfv9T1lSO2U
“Rodin In His Time.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2016, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=160976. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
“Rodin: Divino Inferno.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2016, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=160975. Accessed 17 Mar. 2021.
Earth.Sky. “An American in Rome, Edmonia Lewis.” YouTube, uploaded by Cora Marshall 17 February 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXdPsei1oc0
Laing, Matthew. “Edmonia Lewis and the Death of Cleopatra.” YouTube, uploaded by Academy Travel, 14 July 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QfgdKOXg5DY
Osei, Paulene. “Black History Month: Augusta Savage.” YouTube, uploaded by New Manchester HS, 11 February 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2hezyUWyNw
African American Art. “Augusta Savage: African American Sculptor.” YouTube, uploaded by AfricanAmericanArt, 41 January 2009 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=koMXHaPlLEs
Stamburg, Susan. “Sculptor Augusta Savage Said Her Legacy Was the Work of Her Students.” Morning Edition, from NPR, 15 July 2019 https://www.npr.org/2019/07/15/740459875/sculptor-augusta-savage-said-her-legacy-was-the-work-of-her-students
Smithsonian American Art Museum. “Augusta Savage.” SAAM, https://americanart.si.edu/artist/augusta-savage-4269
Saar, Alison. “Alison Saar: Topsy Turvy.” YouTube, uploaded by LA Louver, 4 May 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CGqk5sy-Lm8
Saar, Alison. “Contemporary Perspectives from Alison Saar.” YouTube, uploaded by Boston University, 1 November 2010 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5sLwN64m9k
Understanding Architecture Module
Hanson, Dr. “Basic Structures of Architecture.” YouTube, uploaded by DrHanson5339, 27 July 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKMAyLT6AIY
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “The Classical Structures.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 17 May 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrRJkzXl4a4
Art History 101. “Building Materials.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpDan3oTuRA&list=PLslORdWrrAlBczRKowpuZ8WPtVRyRK_j-
Art History 101. “Architectural Design Considerations Part 1.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CxrbyGsxJc&list=PLslORdWrrAlBczRKowpuZ8WPtVRyRK_j-
Art History 101. “Architectural Design Considerations Part 2.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WihlLtpMzY&list=PLslORdWrrAlBczRKowpuZ8WPtVRyRK_j-
Art History 101. “Architectural Vision and Symbolism.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-aytZBvvjc&list=PLslORdWrrAlBczRKowpuZ8WPtVRyRK_j-
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 1 June 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XfpusWEd2jE
Hohensee, Naraelle and Zucker, Steven. “Breuer, The Whitney Museum of American Art (Now the Met Breuer.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 11 June 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4SBqFgVbm0
Architecture in Context Module
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 19 November 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ8F_yPwqzA
Green, Hank. “Fillipo Brunelleschi: Great Minds.” YouTube, uploaded by SciShow, 23 February 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1aJlNqM1HY
“Modern Marvels: Gothic Cathedrals.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1996, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=42835. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Chartres Cathedral.” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 6 May 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jk3VsinLgvc
“Chinese Buddhist Temples.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35320. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Hindu Temples.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35319. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Islamic Mosques.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35321. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Jewish Synagogues.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35322. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Slovak Churches.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35324. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“German Lutheran Churches.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2005, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=35323. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
deGolian, George. “The Olmsted Legacy: America’s Urban Parks.” YouTube, uploaded by George de Golian, 5 March 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G82zhQwGDWA
“Frederick Law Olmsted: Designing America.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2014, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=151056. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
Steves, Rick. “Barcelona, Spain: Architectural Modernisme Showcase.” YouTube, uploaded by Rick Steves Europe, 3 August 2009 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiabIQ-KlZU
Steves, Rick. “Barcelona, Spain: Park Guell.” YouTube, uploaded by Rick Steves Europe, 30 November 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fxab19LjBig
Harris, Beth and Zucker, Steven. “Gaudi, Sagrada Familia” YouTube, uploaded by Smarthistory, 29 January 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMqERP-J2tQ
“10 Homes That Changed America.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2016, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=129835. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Frank Lloyd Wright: Truth Against the World.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=41001. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Frank Lloyd Wright: The Fellowship.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=41002. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Birth of an Icon: Frank Gehry's Disney Hall.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2003, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=32839. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Frank Gehry Uncensored.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=8931. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
“Renzo Piano: Piece by Piece.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=10496. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.
Understanding Music Module
Wolf, Scott. “Basics of Music-Pitch.” YouTube, uploaded by Scott Wolf, 6 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkCg20OhWDg
Grunewald, Edgar. “Dynamic Terms.” YouTube, uploaded by RIAM Teaching and Learning Network, 7 September 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQkloIQlZ0I
Wright, Christopher. “What is Tone Color? (Timbre).” YouTube, uploaded by Understanding Music, 28 January 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5tGEDgkZlC8
Diamond-Manlusoc, Liz and Bechtl, Ryan. “Families of Instruments.” YouTube, uploaded by Luis Francisco Martinez, 2 March 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDRiRzip9ks
Wright, Christopher. “Beat and Rhythm Explained.” YouTube, uploaded by Understanding Music, 4 February 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DjoipqbkC8
Nypaver, Alisha. “Melody vs. Harmony.” YouTube, uploaded by Alisha Nypaver, 18 January 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRzjNPSlXH0
Nypaver, Alisha and Shalfi, Ephraim. “Musical Texture (Definition of Monophonic, Homophonic, Polyphonic, and Heterophonic Textures.” YouTube, uploaded by Alisha Nypaver, 17 February 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=teh22szdnRQ
Diamond-Manlusoc, Liz. “Classical Music Forms: Symphonic, Sonata, Theme and Variation & Rondo Forms.” YouTube, uploaded by Bookish, 15 December 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fengf7GDZ1M
Inside the Score. “How to Listen to Classical Music: General Ideas.” YouTube, uploaded by Inside the Score, 25 January 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iJrI-PXYA_M
Inside the Score. “How to Listen to Classical Music: Expression and Emotion.” YouTube, uploaded by Inside the Score, 1 February 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ogVYKwgFJc&list=RDCMUC4ihNhN8iN9QPg2XTxiiPJw
Inside the Score. “How to Listen to Classical Music: Motifs and Seeds.” YouTube, uploaded by Inside the Score, 1 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5SkqX8vo2s&list=RDCMUC4ihNhN8iN9QPg2XTxiiPJw
Inside the Score. “How to Listen to Classical Music: Sonata Form.” YouTube, uploaded by Inside the Score, 15 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzHS7QL-B-c&list=RDCMUC4ihNhN8iN9QPg2XTxiiPJw
Inside the Score. “A Complete Introduction to Musical Form.” YouTube, uploaded by Inside the Score, 29 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_5K8f5CZpg
Jump, Brian. “The Origin of Jazz.” YouTube, uploaded by Brian Jump, 11 June 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRkX2YAytP4
Kobray, Dennis. “Scott Joplin-Living History.” YouTube, uploaded by Dennis Kobray, 10 April 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDNCr3aBufg
Carter, Bryan. “Jazz Fundamentals: What is Swing?” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 24 February 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=31JgwfP15kw
Carter, Bryan. “Jazz Fundamentals: What is Improvisation?” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 22 February 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fHDoJdtWwE
Carter, Bryan. “Exploring New Orleans Jazz.” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 12 October 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SS9EnD_-_Y
Carter, Bryan. “Jazz Fundamentals: What are The Blues?” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 25 February 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aBg_gQxAShM
Thurman, Camille. “Exploring The Blues.” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 24 September 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNZIPUIwNs8
Carter, Bryan. “Jazz Fundamentals: What is Free Jazz?” YouTube, uploaded by Jazz at Lincoln Center’s Jazz Academy, 26 February 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hXf7wtX4vWk
Barenboim, Daniel. “5 Minutes on Mozart- Piano Concerto No. 23.” YouTube, uploaded by Daniel Barenboim, 9 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6alPgSF6_U&list=PLErHuBsy75wyFZ_8QI16YkZ9lzGQLcVQE
Grimaud, Helene. “Helene Grimaud - Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 23: II. Adagio.” YouTube, uploaded by Deutsche Gramaphon, 6 October 2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j8e0fBlvEMQ
Schwarz Gerard, "Masterpieces Old and New: Ludwig Van Beethoven's Symphony No.5in ," in Khan Academy, accessed September 15, 2020 https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/music/music-masterpieces-old-new
Schwarz, Gerard. “Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 5. Analysis Part 1” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy Partners, 19 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rGXAfc643A
Schwarz, Gerard. “Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 5. Analysis Part 2” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy Partners, 28 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iFCIgn3Q9XE
Schwarz, Gerard. “Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 5. Analysis Movs. 3 & 4.” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy Partners, 28 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNB-OVWlRbk
Barenboim, Daniel. “Beethoven Symphony No. 5 (Proms 2012).” YouTube, uploaded by Mandetriens, 16 August 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jv2WJMVPQi8
Music in Context Module
Hogan, Daniel. “Haydn: His Best Works.” YouTube, uploaded by Earthatic, 31 May 2009 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5bUQRPRHTI8
“In Search of Haydn: Part One.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2012, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59686. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“In Search of Haydn: Part Two.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2012, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59687. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
Royal Opera House. “An Introduction to the Marriage of Figaro.” YouTube, uploaded by Royal Opera House, 2 October 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h00YBvXt4Vs
“In Search of Mozart: Part One.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2006, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59689. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“In Search of Mozart: Part Two.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2006, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59690. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
Schwarz, Gerard. “Beethoven’s 5th Symphony Analysis.” YouTube, uploaded by All Star Orchestra, 11 June 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4hZY5h84Wc
“In Search of Beethoven: Part One.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2009, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59683. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“In Search of Beethoven: Part Two.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2009, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59684. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
Jones, Rupert. “Prom Palace: La Traviata- Brindisi- Verdi.” YouTube, uploaded by Rupert Jones, 17 January 2008 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rsciRaJVtE
“Giuseppe Verdi.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=30002. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“Royal Opera House: Rigoletto.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2001, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=138744. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“Ballet's Greatest Hits: Presented by Youth America Grand Prix.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2013, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=60783. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“Discovering Masterpieces of Classical Music: Tchaikovsky (Documentary).” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2008, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59082. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“Discovering Masterpieces of Classical Music: Tchaikovsky (Concert).” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1994, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=59083. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
Schwarz, Gerard. “Dmitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 5 Analysis Part 1.” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy Partners, 28 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RccrJX9AN54
Palmer, Tony. “Testimony: Une Biographie de D. Chostakovich.” YouTube, uploaded by Classic-Intro Net, 20 October 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nMy01x4PJA
“The Gift: Ken Burns’ Jazz, Part 2.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2000, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=43714. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
“Thelonious Monk: Playful Keys.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1998, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=12115. Accessed 25 Mar. 2021.
Marsalis, Wynton. “Wynton Marsalis- Music is Life.” YouTube, uploaded by IFTV, 27 February 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUaLc1zabVo
Marsalis, Wynton. “Wynton Marsalis- Jazz in Marciac 2009.” YouTube, uploaded by Pavel Levin, 11 July 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBJ-MmTA-eU
Marsalis, Ellis. “Ellis Marsalis- Full Set Live from the Jazz & Heritage Center.” YouTube, uploaded by wwozneworleans, 15 December 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4_mBlsr-1w0
Understanding Theatre and Opera Module
Rugnetta, Mike. “What is Theater?” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 9 February 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNWrOuwzax8
Rugnetta, Mike. “Thespis, Athens, and the Origins of Greek Drama.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 16 February 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VeTeK9kvxyo
Rugnetta, Mike. “Tragedy Lessons from Aristotle.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 23 February 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGlQkaoIfBI
Rugnetta, Mike. “Greek Comedy, Satyrs, and Aristophanes.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 2 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLKUXI0enbg
SDCOE Teacher. “Theater Genres.” YouTube, uploaded by SDCOETeacher, 3 September 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ne63958WAKY
Art History 101. “5-2 Genres.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJ9yzhfhiMo
Art History 101. “5-3 Script and Plot.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-odZ4FB_oso
Art History 101. “5-4 Plot Elements.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o2QQPkxGEa0
Burt, Keith. “Plot Structure.” YouTube, uploaded by Burts Drama, 23 March 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJ7kekDLBD4
Art History 101. “5-5 Theater Types.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eRcLA4yDkeU
Art History 101. “5-6 Visual Elements Part 2.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AyH62EVqvA
Art History 101. “5-7 Other Elements.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1283nBDqGOk
Art History 101. “5-8 Sense Stimuli.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 31 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BAoTFJUYmzE
The Atlanta Opera, "Opera 101." in The Atlanta Opera, accessed September 15, 2020 https://www.atlantaopera.org/opera101/
Lorey, Jesscia. “Classical Music 101: What is Opera?” YouTube, uploaded by Classical WGUC, 20 November 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fl4GaldTu_Q
“Opera Easy: Don Giovanni.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2004, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=47340. Accessed 30 Mar. 2021.
Victoria State Opera. “Mozart. Don Giovanni. Finale atto II Louis Otey.” YouTube, uploaded by RaganellaBianca1, 21 February 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjiG2VD9wqc
Greenburg, Bradley. “Antigone by Sophocles: Characters.” YouTube, uploaded by Course Hero, 21 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfsARJi1jRk&list=PLz_ZtyOWL9BRBNBDypNJACWeeVCNA7Icl
Greenburg, Bradley. “Antigone by Sophocles: Plot Summary.” YouTube, uploaded by Course Hero, 21 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoiQLX1Aa1c
Greenburg, Bradley. “Antigone by Sophocles: Symbols.” YouTube, uploaded by Course Hero, 21 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=no0cYdBdKsU
Greenburg, Bradley. “Antigone by Sophocles: Themes.” YouTube, uploaded by Course Hero, 21 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hg7gj1MpplI
Greenburg, Bradley. “Antigone by Sophocles: Motifs.” YouTube, uploaded by Course Hero, 21 June 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ppJca76A4dw
Sophocles. “Antigone 1 of 11.” YouTube, uploaded by Cee Gg, 15 February 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bSnnufOx80&list=PLjAYlUiAhOZ5xJhxtxojqCKFnZs5-lzCh
Theatre and Opera in Context Module
Johnson, Matt. “Sophocles and the Greek Theater” YouTube, uploaded by Matt Johnosn, 25 August 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqlvpLL_rXU
Sophocles. “Oedipus Rex.” Directed by Nicholas Walker, Apollo Arts, YouTube, uploaded by Theatre Classics, 21 November 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bTQ-qK-m6mo
Rugnetta, Mike. “Japan, Kabuki, and Bunraku.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 27 July 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oc3dWwbctw4
“Kabuki: Onoe Baiko VII as the Salt Gatherer.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1972, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=124260. Accessed 7 Apr. 2021.
Izumo, Takeda II, Shoraku, Miyoshi, and Senryu, Namiki. “Authentic Kabuki with Commentary, Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees.” YouTube, uploaded by X Programmer 29 June 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=senRJ0KJ7rE
Rugnetta, Mike. “Straight Outta Stratford-Upon-Avon- Shakespeare’s Early Days.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 18 May 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FS2ndY5WJXA
Rugnetta, Mike. “Comedies, Romances, and Shakespeare’s Heroines.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 1 June 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjAqfh9aY9Y
“As You Like It: Live from Shakespeare's Globe.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2009, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=41374. Accessed 7 Apr. 2021.
Marchant, Kat. “Dr. Kat and Aphra Behn.” YouTube, uploaded by Reading the Past, 2 August 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EsGvB5Vuokc
Hawley, Judith. “The Rover.” YouTube, uploaded by English at Royal Holloway, 11 April 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QvTYTeCNPM
Behn, Aphra. “The Rover: Shakespeare in the Dark’s 2018 Winter Show.” YouTube, uploaded by Shakespere in the Dark, 11 March 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0vPIrAh8ug
Behn, Aphra. “The Rover (ReFrame).” YouTube, uploaded by The Rover ReFrame, 18 April 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uI3OlLCmuqQ
Reveles, Nicolas. “Opera 101: Opera Basics.” YouTube, uploaded by Nicolas Reveles, 10 June 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEKIuBiN3Eg
Royal Opera House. “An Introduction to Opera Voice Types (The Royal Opera).” YouTube, uploaded by Royal Opera House, 4 January 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLfvkwTnJVM
Opera North. “Tosca: In a Nutshell.” Opera North, 22 August 2018 https://www.operanorth.co.uk/news/tosca-in-a-nutshell/
Puccini, Giacomo. “Tosca: 2018 Finnish National Opera.” YouTube, uploaded by Asdf Ghjkl, 5 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ciPRoKKkD0k
Beckett, Ionesco, and the Theater of the Absurd: Crash Course Theater #45.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&contentID=eJ7w2I83ba4&channel=Crash Course&chnID=62. Accessed 7 Apr. 2021.
Philosophy Tube. “Waiting for Godot Explained with Philosophy.” YouTube, uploaded by Philosophy Tube, 25 November 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsxkEs6G-9s
Beckett, Samuel. “Waiting for Godot.” YouTube, uploaded by Shereen Handy, 19 July 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izX5dIzI2RE
Miranda, Lin Manuel. “Great Performances: In the Heights- Chasing a Broadway Dream.” YouTube, uploaded by xNYCMarc, 31 May 2009 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUgcOVFhfXM
Larson, Jonathan. “RENT: Broadway Production.” YouTube, uploaded by Broadway in HD, 16 November 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhG3JTchKDA
Understanding Cinema Module
Benzie, Craig. “Movies are Magic: Crash Course Film History #1.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 13 April 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vsnB4iBb78o
Benzie, Craig. “The First Movie Camera: Crash Course Film History #2.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 20 April 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKSmcmueTbA
Benzie, Craig. “The Lumiere Brothers: Crash Course Film History #3.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 27 April 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFkSjdaqbyE
Benzie, Craig. “Georges Melies-Master of Illusion: Crash Course Film History #4.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 4 May 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8is28gAOTc
Benzie, Craig. “The Language of Film: Crash Course Film History #5.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 11 May 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7ZHd1xU2w8
Benzie, Craig. “The Birth of the Feature Film: Crash Course Film History #6.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 18 May 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaBmjhmKWTs
Benzie, Craig. “German Expressionism: Crash Course Film History #7.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 25 May 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6XDyth0qxc
Benzie, Craig. “Soviet Montage: Crash Course Film History #8.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 1 June 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RtBAa4YCgo
Benzie, Craig. “Experimental and Documentary Films: Crash Course Film History #16.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 3 August 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCY-4NxXCU8
Gladstone, Lily. “Designing the World of Film: Crash Course Film Production #9.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 26 October 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3BcS8Uwl9U
Gladstone, Lily. “The Director: Crash Course Film Production #7.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 12 October 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lIpcJVbbSA
Gladstone, Lily. “The Cinematographer: Crash Course Film Production #8.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 19 October 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR_l1vTfaNk
Gladstone, Lily. “The Editor: Crash Course Film Production #12.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 16 November 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esa0NeQI8oc
Kadon, Claudia. “Cross Cutting/Parallel Editing Example.” YouTube, uploaded by Claudia Kadon, 30 October 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7c0B5lzBa0A
Tindell, John. “Shot Types.” YouTube, uploaded by John Tindell, 7 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5CwiBJYUXk
Tindell, John. “Rhythm in Film Editing.” YouTube, uploaded by John Tindell, 13 February 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOVroZM6NCo
Aranda, Michael. “Citizen Kane: Crash Course Film Criticism #1.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 11 January 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qk0-m_LARCY
Unknown, Charlie. “1941 Citizen Kane: What Makes a Masterpiece?” YouTube, uploaded by One Hundred Years of Cinema, 30 December 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n_i5MXJWmLU
Al-Safar, Basil and Rashad. “The Jigsaw: One of the Best Short Horror Films of 2017” YouTube, uploaded by Sensa Productions, 6 March 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs5zQBBOXrA
Cinema in Context Module
Unknown, Charlie. “1922: How Robert Flaherty Invented the Modern Documentary.” YouTube, uploaded by One Hundred Years of Cinema, 4 July 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oEajMPZy_0Q
Flaherty, Robert. “Nanook of the North (1922) Original Silent Version.” YouTube, uploaded by chrisb, 19 August 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IAcRjBq93Y
Mennel, Barbara. “Metropolis: A Futuristic Social Commentary.” YouTube, uploaded by Showcase, 9 January 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4UXKtRNC5M
Lang, Fritz. “Metropolis (1927) Complete Restored Version.” YouTube, uploaded by Classic Films, 21 November 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sx-vMdGqL3A
“We Are Legend - Dracula Never Dies.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2018, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=203363. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Herzog, Werner. “Nosferatu, The Vampyre.” YouTube, uploaded by YouTube Movies, 11 September 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOTLurSgkYU
“Film Noir.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1995, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=160402. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021
Dickinson, Thorold. “Gaslight-Full Movie.” YouTube, uploaded by The Smoking Hat, 31 August 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYmtzaHwCKo
“The Western.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1995, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=160399. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Thompson, J. Lee. “The White Buffalo.” YouTube, uploaded by YouTube Movies, 1 November 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6AMDnf2qKQ
“Romantic Comedy.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1995, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=160400. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Shelton, Ron. “Bull Durham.” YouTube, uploaded by YouTube Movies, 1 April 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ULaCRf93XQ
Understanding Dance Module
Art History 101. “3-2 Dance Forms.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hm4xcLc_uNo&list=PLslORdWrrAlAD-PlLiwffS5gVfY9TfTZS
Croucher, Kylie. “Elements of Dance-Introduction.” YouTube, uploaded by Kylie Croucher, 19 March 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WgVKfTkwU1U
KQED Arts. “Elements of Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by KQED Art School, 22 February 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGuD9Geeb2k
Art History 101. “3-3 Choreography Part 1.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ohAf4icz4
Art History 101. “3-3 Choreography Part 2.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://youtu.be/BSuLs6Kjy5E
Art History 101. “3-3 Choreography Part 3.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 21 January 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yaC22SrSjFY
Art History 101. “Ballet’s History.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 25 August 2020. https://youtu.be/jIAXYUaZhE0
Macdonald, Alexandra. “How to Pirouette.” YouTube, uploaded by CBC Arts, 23 December 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AI5VPQK7_I
Art History 101. “History of Jazz Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Art History 101, 25 August 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBXy5fiPuv4
Piccoli, Liz. “How to do the Chasse-Jazz Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Howcast, 26 July 2012 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HjOd-2g508k
Princiotti, Anthony. “Understanding Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring- Part 1: Dance of the Adolescents.” YouTube, uploaded by Anthony Priniciotti, 17 November 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tXUxdF6jo8Y
Levy, Benjamin. “Episode 10: The Rite of Spring by Igor Stravinsky.” YouTube, uploaded by Classics Explained, 8 August 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6UKrmPoJv-k
Stravinsky, Igor. “Rite of Spring: Joffrey Ballet 1987.” YouTube, uploaded by Uncle Waldemar, 20 May 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jo4sf2wT0wU
Hackford, Taylor. “White Nights: Opening Scene.” YouTube, uploaded by FunnyDancerAnn, 16 April 2009 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mF3_UZHaVjY
Petit, Roland. “Le Jeune Homme et la Mort.” YouTube, uploaded by Lilia, 22 December 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlwUs63VsEU
Dance in Context Module
“The World of American Indian Dance.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2003, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=43336. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Barrett, Brian. “Comanche Spring (Part 4 of 6)- Buckskin, Hoop, Southern Straight, and Grass Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Brian Barrett, 25 April 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRXyoYdf-xc
Barrett, Brian. “Comanche Spring (Part 5 of 6)- Northern Traditional Dance, Fancy Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Brian Barrett, 25 April 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smSGUDRVPPo
Lost Worlds. “Cherokee Warrior Dance (Northern Traditional Dance).” YouTube, uploaded by Lost Worlds TV, 27 January 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_jPwLaUB_g
“American Tap.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2018, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=203061. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
“Hank Smith: Alive & Kicking.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1996, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=118136. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Chacon, Julia and Hill, Krisofer. “Flamenco 101.” YouTube, uploaded by TEDx Talks, 15 March 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCpjPWWQB3s
“Flamenco at 5:15.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 1983, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=52007. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
“Flamenco Vivo: Alive & Kicking.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2008, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=118133. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
“History & Concept Of Hip Hop Dance: The Street Culture That Became a Global Expression.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2009, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=60401. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
“When Hip Hop Becomes Art: Revitalizing Contemporary Dance.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2013, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=114453. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
Beyonce. “Formation-Official Video.” YouTube, uploaded by Beyonce, 9 December 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDZJPJV__bQ
Beyonce. “Beyonce Live at Super Bowl 2016 Formation-Full Performance.” YouTube, uploaded by Beyonce Paris, 11 August 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hZFz3bHUAg
Steffanina, Matt. “Formation-Beyonce Dance @ Matt Steffanina Choreography.” YouTube, uploaded by Matt Steffanina, 13 February 2016https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdC8M-RVego
Cantor, Steven. “Sergei Polunin and Director Steven Cantor Discuss Their New Documentary ‘Dancer’.” YouTube, uploaded by Build Series, 13 February 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbIioFdE7Ak
Polunin, Sergei. “Sergei Polunin Take Me to Church by Hozier Directed by David LaChapelle’.” YouTube, uploaded by Escuela Terpsicore, 3 November 2015 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozs_f4ZT9sw
Polunin, Sergei. “Sergei Polunin- 34 Variations’.” YouTube, uploaded by Fiordillilia, 5 April 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxjaMwj9LhE
Bronfman, Hannah. “Hannah Learns About the History of Vogue.” YouTube, uploaded by Popsugar, 30 January 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bejQg8iudiM
Madonna. “Vogue from Truth or Dare.” YouTube, uploaded by Metehan Karaz, 23 March 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZ8v2FHMjic
Navaza, Barbara. “Is Madonna’s Song Vogue Cultural Appropriation?” YouTube, uploaded by Barbara Navaza, 20 October 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_ZQxF--lj8
“Check Your Body at the Door: The Elusive, Artful World of Club Dancing.” Films On Demand, Films Media Group, 2011, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=95143&xtid=75362. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.144137
|
04/22/2021
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79516/overview",
"title": "St. Philip's College HUMA 1315 Fine Arts Appreciation Syllabus",
"author": "Kelli Wilder"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107797/overview
| ERROR: type should be string, got "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOoXAWSu5-M\nUntitled\nLetter Shape Classification\nOverview\nGeneral Applied Computer Science -- shopperMarket\nIntro. demand statistics for crash-course outline\nhttps://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107799/overview\nfor additional references to OCR\nIntroductory Announcement:\nIn this lesson, we explore the code in the example HTML JavaScript at URL http://www.dialtosee.com. The website does continue to strive towards the Optical Character Recognition (OCR) written in vanilla js. When you have time, please advise the file include::\"FCS_n2.js\" which may contain errors from being hand written. The contents of \"FCS_n2.js\" detect a single closed shape looped many times to include all shapes (closed) within a monochrome image of various dimension [depending-on camera] (particularly in smartphone) with the purpose of searching a 24bit color file for a certain word. In the example of being at a supermarket and using the mobil-device to take a picture to search for less confusion as advertisement tend to overwhelm.\non youTube videos keyword:\"dial2c\" M,R.'s animations display a fast-but-general understanding of this alien page.\nReccomend: \"youTube video on M,R.'s channel\" title=\"dial2see\" at store by Peg Anke.\nNote: www.dial2c.com website also compresses 16,777,216colors to monochrome in two steps. First compressing the photo into 27 (-or- less) colors via function \"E_26(IMDT_Dot)\", with \"IMDT_Dot\" being the argument passed to the function \"E_26\" and returning the native ImageData object.\nfunction fastObjects($) is a fairly difficult read and may be discussed in another lesson; However, is the main interest to edit what indexed objects are recognized A-Z (not numbers). As https://www.twoExponents4096.com suggests, we can turn a character ideograph into a decimal. Full 24bit or monochrome, the load time of Dialtosee.com's results are quick.\nExploring the code behind the <HTML>: = visit the web page on a dedicated machine and in Microsoft® Windows© (left-click)= \"Save Page As..\" [web-page complete] /downloads or selected personal folder. \"LetterBuild\" will not run without manual edit to the HTML <script src=\"..files\"/> from this downloaded system of files. I suggest continuing the name of \"LetterBuild\" which may be downloaded freely, as freeWare and holds harmless anyone viewing and gaining from any information in. -- Legally, student's attempting good and the bettering of humanity shall be protected.\nThe basics of HTML without CSS, SEO, MetaData<tags> may be available on the web and I recommend https://www.w3schools.com also teaching JavaScript to expected understandings. When you need help here with code Syntax and native methods and objects, operators, block and function form... w3schools in HTML5.\n1. Explore the code.\nHTML -- located at the bottom most reach of the page is quite overwhelming and needs an edit. Key <tags> are: 4ea - canvas objects especially \"scaleStill\" with [onclick=\"moonme(event)\"] this accesses programatically the input[id=\"wrhouse\"][type=\"file\"] opening the function \"gather()\" opening the access to get a photograph using the users camera. the image is duplicated and scaled (irregularly- fitting the device width) and the monochrome compression is rendered, touch-keyboard debugged, and monochrome (closed shapes) visibly rendered.\nJavaScript -- Using the read then call style, the most commonly used functions begin in the script <tag>. I do wish you well in processing the data in a non-User-friendly way.\n2. Try this trusted site and communicate how we may develop a standard in tesseract deep-learning to understand this Artificial Intelligence. Mainly in optical characters rendered in every orientation with the first goal being: To index the entire 4096 character map to include all non-censored shapes, closed-or-not. Secondly, emoji's classifications may be sorted by search strings, eventually at all finite search strings and combinations. Likewise, Photographs may be scanned by facial recognition learning and machine-training to include the polygraph.\nAfter: EXPLORING THIS HUB: you may be enriched with the ability to functionally use the technology at hand to properly investigate and explore information practically and scientificlly.\nTernary\n24bit Compression to 26 color + 1 bin\nbbbb Tri Color monochrome 00000 000 _ #000000 0 00001 001 A #800000 0 00010 002 B #FF0000 0 00011 010 C #008000 0 00100 011 D #808000 0 00101 012 E #FF8000 1 00110 020 F #00FF00 1 00111 021 G #80FF00 1 01000 022 H #FFFF00 1 01001 100 I #0000FF 0 01010 101 J #8000FF 0 01011 102 K #FF0080 0 01100 110 L #008080 0 01101 111 M #808080 2 01110 112 N #FF8080 1 01111 120 O #00FF80 1 10000 121 P #80FF80 1 10001 122 Q #FFFF80 1 10010 200 R #0000FF 0 10011 201 S #8000FF 0 10100 202 T #FF00FF 0 10101 210 U #0080FF 0 10110 211 V #8080FF 1 10111 212 W #FF80FF 1 11000 220 X #00FFFF 1 11001 221 Y #80FFFF 1 11010 222 Z #FFFFFF 1 11011 11100 11101 11110 11111\nEdge Detection\nword wrap ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- //snippit -- DO NOT RUN alone function closedChr(aGch, all, etfn) { var Walk = aGch; var width = Walk[Walk.length - 2]; var height = Walk[Walk.length - 1]; if(all === true) { var bwRen = []; var capture = []; var tooBig = (width - Math.round(width * 0.6) > 24)? Math.round(width * 0.6):width - 4; } var m = 0; var e = [], a = []; var n = 0, p = 0; var c = 0, i = 0, a = 0, j = 0; var d = 0, u = 0, m = 0, b = 0; var x1 = 0, x2 = 0; var y1 = 0, y2 = 0; var x7 = 0, y7 = 0; for(d = 1; d < height - 2; d += _CRH_ - 1) { for(u = 1; u < width - 2; u++) { p = u + (d * width); if((Walk[p] === etfn[1]) && (Walk[p - 1] === etfn[1])) { if((Walk[p + 1] === etfn[2]) || (Walk[p + 1] === etfn[3])) { x1 = width; y1 = height; x2 = y2 = 0; Walk[p] = etfn[0]; e = []; e.push(Walk[(p - 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - 1]); e.push(Walk[p]); e.push(Walk[p + 1]); e.push(Walk[(p - 1) + width]); e.push(Walk[p + width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) + width]); if(e[3] === etfn[1]){if(e[0] === etfn[1]){a = 1;}else{a = 4;}} if(e[1] === etfn[1]){if(e[2] === etfn[1]){a = 3;}else{a = 2;}} m = 0; while((a < 9) && (a > 0)) { if(all) { if(++m % _CRH_ === 0) { m = 0; Pane[p] = NaN; } } if(a === 1){p--; p -= width;} if(a === 2){p -= width;} if(a === 3){p++; p -= width;} if(a === 4){p--;} if(a === 5){p++;} if(a === 6){p--; p += width;} if(a === 7){p += width;} if(a === 8){p++; p += width;} e = []; e.push(Walk[(p - 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - 1]); e.push(Walk[p]); e.push(Walk[p + 1]); e.push(Walk[(p - 1) + width]); e.push(Walk[p + width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) + width]); a = directional(e, a, etfn); if(a > 0) { c = p % width; i = Math.floor(p / width); if(c < x1){x1 = c;} if(c > x2){x2 = c;} if(i < y1){y1 = i;} if(i > y2){y2 = i;} } } Walk[u + (d * width)] = etfn[1]; if(a === 9) { x7 = x2 - ++x1; y7 = y2 - ++y1; if((x7 > 0) && (y7 > _CRH_ - 1)) { if(!all) { return scaleSquare(_CRH_, Walk, [x1, y1, x2, y2, x7, y7, width], all, etfn[1]); }else if(all) { if(x7 < tooBig) { for(m = _CRH_; m < _CMH_; m++) { if(m <= y7) { ea = []; ea = Attn(scaleSquare(m, Walk, [x1, y1, x2, y2, x7, y7, width], true, true));//Walk[u + (d * width)])); capture.push(ea); capture.push(iA(ea)); if(m === _CRH_) { if(ea[ea.length - 1] === _CRH_) { bwRen.push([x1, y1, x7, y7]); LIST.push(ea);//ch LIST.push(iA(ea));//ch }//else LIST error } } }//m Llib.push(capture); capture = []; } } } } } } } } if(all === false) { return [0]; }else if(all) { // Llib = Tll2Sm(L2ib); // L2ib = []; return bwRen; } return [0]; } -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------" |
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.175346
|
Module
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107797/overview",
"title": "Letter Shape Classification",
"author": "Lesson"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104102/overview
|
Research Skills: What is Pre-Reading?
Overview
This exercise introduces learners to the practice of pre-reading. While designed for FYE, it can be used in any course with a research component.
Introductory Exercise (Research Skills, Day 5)
Overview: What's Pre-Reading?
Context
Pre-Reading is an important skill to practice, and we do it for three reasons:
- to think about the topic of the reading before we read it carefully so we can know what the writer is going to say about the topic
- to identify what we already know about the topic of the reading so we can engage on a deeper level with what the writer is going to say about the topic
- to understand and remember more of what we read
In all of your classes, and ENGL 100 in particular, begin to practice pre-reading. It will make learning more enjoyable and beneficial! Moreover, pre-reading will help you efficiently conduct research (it helps you save time and choose the best sources).
Directions
Prior to a thorough reading, spend 10-15 minutes completing the following steps. Use a dedicated notebook for class to capture your thoughts:
- Make note of the:
- Title
- Author
- Pictures, graphs, other visuals
- Italicized words
- Key concepts (from subheadings)
Write in your notebook:
- A brief, 2-3 sentence pre-reading summary (predict what the chapter will be about)
- Specific questions for directed reading (using chapter subheadings)
- All new vocabulary
2. After reading:
- Research key terms collected in Step 1
- Watch a few YouTube videos on the subject
Write in your notebook:
- A brief, 2-3 sentence response to the reading
- If possible, write brief answers to the questions you asked in Step1
- Record new vocabulary you think will broaden your previous and new knowledge of the topic
Pre-Read: My Substantive Sources
Context
For this writing assignment, we'll focus on searching for substantive sources only (that is, we'll avoid "popular or commercial" sources and scholarly or academic" sources).
Directions
Before we begin this task, review “Overview: What’s Pre-Reading” (page 1). It will greatly help us determine what we should pay attention to as we pre-read each of our three substantive sources.
- Open a Word document.
- Write the author and title of your first substantive source at the top of the page. Be sure the title is formatted properly. [Note: put title in quotation marks and capitalize all the words in the title, except prepositions and conjunctions.]
- Use the following questions to write a 100-150-word entry for each of your three substantive sources (300-450 words total):
- What do you already know about the topic of the source based on your pre-read?
- What are some key terms of the source? [Note: Recall, when pre-reading a source, key terms or important words are often found in the title, section titles, topic sentences, concluding sentences, subject heading, and so on.]
- What did you learn from a quick YouTube or Wikipedia search about the topic of the source? How do you predict this new information will help direct your reading of the source?
- What are two focus questions for each source you created based on your pre-read?
- Why might this source be the most appropriate out of the three to deepen your understanding of your "happiness-enhancing practice" and the topic of well-being?
- Once you complete #1-3 for each of your three substantive sources, upload the document as a Word file (.doc or .docx) or a .pdf.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.209187
|
05/22/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104102/overview",
"title": "Research Skills: What is Pre-Reading?",
"author": "Andrew Kranzman"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90964/overview
|
Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template
Overview
This template is for Higher Education courses to share their syllabus, with a focus on opportunities to collaborate.
Why an Open Syllabus?
Rationale for openly sharing this syllabus
(Use this space to provide a short background on why there is value in openly sharing your syllabus.)
Aspects of this syllabus that may want specific attention for remixing
(Use this space to orient the professor to which sections of the syllabus might want need special attention for remixing based on student populations. Example - "This course features a high number of adults in a second career and they may not have expertise in __________________. This course features supports to help them slowly build their confidence with ____________.")
Opportunities for collaboration
(Use this space to identify specific parts of your course that you see as in the "continuous improvement" phase. This may be a section where you would appreciate seeing remixes so that you can grow from additional thought partnering. Example "This course is currently using peer feedback on the essay portion of assessment #2. The included peer rubric that is linked seems to have challenges with peers giving thorough feedback. Additional thoughts about including authentic peer feedback would be appreciated.)
Syllabus Content
(Copy and paste your syllabus into this space. You can also "Import from Google Docs" and attach Word Documents or PDFs.)
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.224477
|
Megan Simmons
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90964/overview",
"title": "Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template",
"author": "Joanna Schimizzi"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60448/overview
|
Chapter 1: Lecture Guide PPT
Overview
Attached is an overview of Chapter 1 in the form of PPT. It is structured with talking / discussion points instead of detailed notes. This correlates to Texas Government 1.0 Chapter 1.
Chapter 1: Lecture Guide
Attached is an overview of Chapter 1 in the form of PPT. It is structured with talking / discussion points instead of detailed notes. This correlates to Texas Government 1.0 Chapter 1.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.240755
|
12/06/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60448/overview",
"title": "Chapter 1: Lecture Guide PPT",
"author": "Annette Howard"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93609/overview
|
Spring 2022 13721 3
Introduction to Politicial Science: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
Survey of the Government of the United States with respect to historical background, constitutional framework and development, civil liberties and civil rights, the political process, including elections, political parties and interest groups, and the principle institutions and processes for the development and implementation of American Public policies. the study of California state and local government is a special component of this class.
Course Description
Survey of the Government of the United States with respect to historical background, constitutional framework and development, civil liberties and civil rights, the political process, including elections, political parties and interest groups, and the principle institutions and processes for the development and implementation of American Public policies. the study of California state and local government is a special component of this class.
Action Plan
OER and open pedagogy allow everyone's voices to be heard in the classroom, most books are written from a European colonial experience. By providing OER resources you can share information that may have been left out of the textbooks. It also gives students an opportunity to focus on learning, because there is no textbook cost.This way the learning field is leveled for everyone in the class.
Anti-Racist Assignment / Module
This assignment will allow students to take a deep dive into the Supreme Court and how the judicial system overlooks certain groups.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.260806
|
Arnedra Jordan
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93609/overview",
"title": "Introduction to Politicial Science: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Homework/Assignment"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90052/overview
|
Conditional, Biconditional, and Validity of Arguments_accessible
Converting between percent, decimals, and fractions_accessible
Creating a MyOpenMath Instructor Account
Describing Sets_accessible
Divisibility_accessible
Estimating_accessible
Expanded Form and Place Value_accessible
Exploring decimals_accessible
Exploring Fractions_accessible
Exploring Radical corrected_accessbile
Exponents and Scientific Notation_accessible
GCD and LCM_accessible
Larger Roman Numerals Homework_accessible
MATH 1410 Capstone project_accessible
Modeling Addition Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible
Modeling Addition of Whole Numbers_accessible
Modeling Division of Whole Numbers Assignment_accessible
Modeling Multiplication Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible
Modeling Multiplication of Whole Numbers Assignment_accessible
Modeling Numbers Basics_accessible
Modeling Subtraction Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible
Modeling Subtraction of Whole Numbers_accessible
Operations in Other Base Systems_accessible
Patterns and Critical Thinking_accessible
Prime Numbers, Composite Numbers, and Prime Factorization_accessible
Problem Solving Strategies_accessible
Properties of Real Numbers_accessible
Roman Numerals_accessible
Set Operations_accessible
Set Theory Basics_accessible
Statements and Simple Negations_accessible
Topic 1-Place Value, Rounding, and Operations on Whole Numbers_accessible
Topic 2 - Integers and Absolute Value_accessible
Topic 3 - Fractions and Mixed Numbers_accessible
Topic 4 - Decimals_accessible
Topic 5 - Order of Operations, Exponents, and Roots_accessible
Types of Numbers and their Relationships_accessible
Understanding Other Base Systems and Converting Between Them_accessible
Math 1410 Number Concepts for Teachers
Overview
This course is an introduction to problem solving; logic, sets, and operations on sets; and properties and operations on whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. Modelling techniques necessary for future elementary educators will also be covered in this course.
Getting Started
MyOpenMath Help Video Playlist
A YouTube playlist has been created to help instructors navigate MyOpenMath. A multitude of videos have been created to help walk new users through everything they need to use MyOpenMath in their courses. Access the playlist at:
https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PL4DaWQ8GB98Q0VLyE9QCmrb697U8UUc4T
Can’t find what you need? Email chambersjh@roanestate.edu to request additional video help.
Hello and welcome to our algebra concepts course developed for teachers. In this course, students will have focus on eight different units of study. The first unit begins with a "boot camp" which allows students to review much needed math skills. The next three units will provide a focus on logic with problem solving and critical thinking, logic and reasoning, and set theory. The following three units will focus on number theory including number systems, base systems, and number theory. The course closes with a study of real numbers and modeling.
Copying the MyOpenMath
Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers Template
To copy the MyOpenMath Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers course that is to be used in conjunction with the materials in the OER Commons, begin by visiting https://www.myopenmath.com/ and then following these three easy steps:
Step 1: Log in to MyOpenMath by typing in the username and password you selected when creating your MyOpenMath account.
Step 2: Once you are logged in, click the “Add a New Course” button under the section titled “Courses you’re teaching”.
Step 3: To copy the promoted course, Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers, select “Copy a template or promoted course”. A box will open with all the available templates and promoted courses. Scroll down until you see Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers. To minimize the number of courses you have to scroll through, you can filter by level by selecting “Level” and checking Arithmetic, Prealgebra, Elementary Algebra, Non-STEM Algebra/Math Literacy, and Math for Liberal Arts/Quantitative Reasoning.
Unit 0: Math Boot Camp
Keys
Topic_1-Place_Value_Rounding_and_Operations_on_Whole_Numbers_completed_accessible_1.docx
Topic_2_-_Integers_and_Absolute_Value_complete_accessible_1.docx
Topic_3_-_Fractions_and_Mixed_Numbers_completed_accessible_1.docx
Topic_4_-_Decimals_complete_accessible_1.docx
Topic_5_-_Order_of_Operations_Exponents_and_Roots_complete_accessible_1.docx
Topic List
- Topic 1: Place Value, Rounding, and Operations on Whole Numbers
- Topic 2: Integers and Absolute Value
- Topic 3: Fractions and Mixed Numbers
- Topic 4: Decimals
- Topic 5: Order of Operations, Exponents, and Roots
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 1: Problem Solving and Critical Thinking
Keys
Key_Patterns_and_Critical_Thinking_accessible.docx
Topic List
- Patterns and Critical Thinking
- Problem Solving Strategies
- Estimating Number
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 2: Logic and Reasoning
Keys
Key_Statements_and_Simple_Negations_accessible.docx
Key_Compound_Statements_and_Negations_accessible.docx
Key_Conditional_Biconditional_and_Validity_of_Arguments_accessible.docx
Topic List
- Statements and Simple Negations
- Compound Statements and Negations
- Conditional, Biconditional, and Validity of Reasoning
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 3: Set Theory
Topic List
- Set Theory Basics
- Describing Sets
- Set Operations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 4: Expanded Form, Place Value, and Roman Numerals
Topic List
- Expanded Form and Place Value
- Roman Numerals
Additional Homework
- Larger Roman Numberals
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 5: Other Base Systems
Topic List
- Understanding Other Base Systems and Converting Between Them
- Operations in Other Base System
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 6: Number Theory
Keys
Key_Divisibility_accessible.docx
Key_Prime_Numbers_Composite_Numbers_and_Prime_Factorization_accessible.docx
Topic List
- Divisibility
- GCD and LCM
- Prime Numbers, Composite Numbers, and Prime Factorization
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 7: Real Numbers and Their Properties
Keys
Key_Exploring_decimals_accessible.docx
Key_Exploring_Fractions_accessible.docx
Key_Converting_between_percent_decimals_and_fractions_accessible.
Key_Exponents_and_Scientific_Notation_accessible.docx
Key_Exploring_Radical_corrected_accessbile.docx
Key_Types_of_Numbers_and_their_Relationships_accessible.docx
Topic List
- Exploring Decimals
- Exploring Factions and Mixed Numbers
- Converting between Percent, Decimals, and Fractions
- Exponents and Scientific Notation
- Exploring Radicals
- Types of Numbers and their Relationships
- Properties of Real Numbers
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course
Unit 8: Modeling
Suggest Videos for Modeling Assignments:
Modeling whole numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBQV4LttpBI
Modeling decimals numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibR_iBxnITE and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDa0ytNgbJI
Count - on (10 frame) model: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8f8bDaxe-Ls
Partial Sums Addition: https://youtu.be/dP2ISPW1aoE
or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzdUIOJAEpI
Opposite-Change Algorithm:
Base 10-blocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FIwPGoaMzg
Chip Model: https://youtu.be/KQwvjE7eypE
Area Model: https://youtu.be/wv8GxBcmd40
and https://youtu.be/x33Xylme2_Y
Number line: https://youtu.be/0Y7XD2-0sYQ
Addition Decimals:
100’s Grids https://youtu.be/U7TNcp-T1CQ
Base 10 Blocks https://youtu.be/Ov9ky123rBU or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjvyB4zj_lQ&t=99s
Missing Addends Method:https://youtu.be/UPJruYaFnG8
Comparison Model: https://youtu.be/AtwNV7M19PE
Base 10 Blocks for Whole Numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQC9DXmoKt4
Chip Model: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_77vO0uzBfA
Number line Model for Integers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dfytkh_lYME
Number line Model for Fractions: https://youtu.be/c8uVU6QzKGM
Area model for Mixed Numbers: https://youtu.be/SuSat5kkamA
100's grid: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yI45amCNNE
Base 10 Blocks for Decimals: https://youtu.be/VfkgHq4jmyA
Multiplying Whole Numbers: https://youtu.be/6fvIRlgEoUo
Area Model https://youtu.be/zujhbT5deoA
Partial Products Algorithm https://youtu.be/4QXfymhSQzA
Distributive Property: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3wfb0CPhIY
Multiplying Integers: https://youtu.be/I2I0Nd_X_RA
Chip Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVwbaEPedys&t=10s
Number Line Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fW3FWuLfpFc
Multiplying Fractions and Mixed Numbers
Area Model https://youtu.be/B366S2aYgzU
Number Line Model https://youtu.be/sENA3Wc6c18
Area Model https://youtu.be/K_Uv7tvYu9g
Multiplying Decimals
Grids https://youtu.be/IWTC4hYAz7M
Dividing Whole Numbers: https://youtu.be/aIJ-Eg9lW5Y
Repeated-Subtraction Model https://youtu.be/M0YHpVigG8M
Set Model https://youtu.be/dcisBh8zZ8E
Chip Model https://youtu.be/OoIMagblT5Q
Dividing Integers: https://youtu.be/QGWkw0Z5Ulg
Chip Model https://youtu.be/sk0hmctyUJ8
Dividing Decimals:
100’s Grids https://youtu.be/pyQf8uaSirw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDkvKI0AD5s
Base 10 Blocks https://youtu.be/LmWzhGvDt58
Homework List
- Modeling Whole Number and Decimals Homework
- Modeling Addition Homework
- Modeling Subtraction Homework
- Modeling Multiplication Homework
- Modeling Division Homework
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
Group Activities and Capstone Project
Projects and Group Activities
- Capstone Project
- Group Modeling
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.356586
|
Connie Blalock
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90052/overview",
"title": "Math 1410 Number Concepts for Teachers",
"author": "Ashley Morgan"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73749/overview
|
Education Standards
Music Education Videos - Website Guidance
Overview
The United States Army Band "Pershing's Own" provides musical support for the leadership of the United States, to include all branches of government, and to a wide spectrum of national and international events in order to connect the Army to the American people.
For teachers and students at all levels, as well as many parents, we know there is a real need for finding quality educational tools and content. We hope you enjoy what our world-class musicians have created to help us all stay connected through music.
Music Education Videos | The United States Army Band
Link to United States Army Band Education Outreach site
Purpose of Website
The Army Band musicians have developed over 300 educational videos for you and your students to access as a free resource and supplement while distance learning.
Site Navigation Strategy
Educational Videos
See the entire YouTube playlist, or view individual videos below. Some have associated sheet music or study guides.
- Woodwinds (Flute, Clarinet, Saxophone, Bassoon)
- Brass (Trumpet, Horn, Trombone, Low Brass)
- Strings
- Music Therapy
- Audition and Practice Tips
- Percussion
- Play Along
- Jazz
Videos for Beginners
Beginning Instrumental Series (see them all, organized by instrument)
Breaks down every step for every instrument- from opening cases to making sounds, to articulation, disassembly, and everything in-between. (Strings and voice included!)
- Horn
- Flute
- Trombone
- Percussion
- Euphonium
- Trumpet
- Clarinet
- Violin and Viola
- Cello and Bass
- Saxophone
- Tuba
- Voice
- Bassoon
- Oboe
Comments
All information on this site is considered public information and may be distributed or copied freely except where otherwise noted.
Attribution and License
Attribution
- Cover image copyright the U.S. Army Band “Pershing's Own”. Used pursuant to fair use.
License
Except where otherwise noted, this website guidance document by Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked.
This resource contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms before use.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.389560
|
Teaching/Learning Strategy
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73749/overview",
"title": "Music Education Videos - Website Guidance",
"author": "Activity/Lab"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61956/overview
|
Popular Article
Popular Vs. Peer-Reviewed Sources
English Composition I: Popular vs. Peer Reviewed Sources
Overview
Leading up to a final argumentative research paper in my Composition 1 course, I spend several classes acquainting students with the differences between popular and peer-reviewed sources. This lesson plan spans 3 50-minute periods and includes how I move through teaching these types of sources and the resources that I use.
Lesson on Sources: Popular vs. Peer-Reviewed
Leading up to a final argumentative research paper in my Composition 1 course, I spend several classes acquainting students with the differences between popular and peer-reviewed sources. This lesson plan spans 3 50-minute periods and includes how I move through teaching these types of sources and the resources that I use.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.408416
|
01/27/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61956/overview",
"title": "English Composition I: Popular vs. Peer Reviewed Sources",
"author": "Danielle Santos"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92905/overview
|
French Level 1, Activity 03: Les caractéristiques / Characteristics (Online)
Overview
Students will identify themselves using characteristics in French. Students will ask a partner questions about themselves to identify what the person is like. Students will then describe their partner to others.
Activity Information
Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench
Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner.
Characteristics / Les caractéristiques
Description
Students will identify themselves using characteristics in French. Students will ask a partner questions about themselves to identify what the person is like. Students will then describe their partner to others.
Semantic Topics
Stereotypes, identifying people, descriptions, les caractéristique, les stéréotypes, Identifier les gens, adjectives, les adjectifs
Products
Stereotypes, generalizations, identifying characteristics
Practices
Used to make friends and engage in lighthearted conversations
Perspectives
Stereotypes noted by the French can be a way for them to make fun of/mock themselves (e.g. always being on strike, drinking wine and smoking cigarettes). These stereotypes are heavily influenced by regional cultures and often reinforced through international media.
- What can we do, as foreigners, to separate stereotypes of a culture from their reality? In other words, how can we look past stereotypes and generalizations to better understand cultures different than our own?
NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards
- Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in French to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions.
- Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics.
- Standard 2.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the cultures of the francophone world.
- Standard 4.2: Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture through comparisons of francophone cultures and their own.
Idaho State Content Standards
- COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions.
- COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics.
- CLTR 1.1: Analyze the cultural practices/patterns of behavior accepted as the societal norm in the target culture.
- CLTR 1.2: Explain the relationship between cultural practices/behaviors and the perspectives that represent the target culture’s view of the world.
- COMP 1.1: Observe formal and informal forms of language.
NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements
- I can recognize basic cultural differences.
- I can describe myself and someone that I know (Relationship, nationality, characteristics).
- I can respond to basic questions about my background.
Materials Needed
Warm-Up
Warm-up
1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today's activity.
2. Play a few minutes of the video, “Cliché” (make sure to turn on the subtitles).
3. After, ask students which stereotypes they have heard or believed:
Quels sont les stéréotypes que vous avez entendus des Français ? Est-ce qu'il y a des stéréotypes que vous croyiez ? Pensez-vous que les Français ont des stéréotypes des Américains ? Lesquels ?
4. Make sure to explain that although some of these stereotypes do exist, rarely do we find individuals who fit all aspects. France is very multicultural and has habitants from all over:
Bien que certains de ces stéréotypes existent, nous trouvons rarement des personnes qui correspondent à tous les aspects. La France est un pays très multiculturelle et compte des habitants de partout.
L'Algérie: 702,000
Le Maroc: 645,000
L'Afrique sub-saharienne: 644,000
Main Activity
Main Activity
1. First, have students practice going around describing themselves using phrases such as:
Premièrement, les étudiants doivent pratiquer comment se décrire:
- Comment t'appelles-tu ?
- Vous êtes/tu es américain(e) ?
- Je m'appelle (nom)
- Je suis américain(e)/ canadien(ne)/ anglais(e)/ italien(ne), etc.
- Je suis d'origine américaine/ algérienne/ sénégalaise/ irlandaise/ française, etc.
- Je suis étudiant(e)/ copain/ copine/ soeur/ frère/ fille/ fils, etc.
2. Next, have students choose a person they know. This could be a roommate, parent, partner, etc. (if they want, have them show a picture to the rest of the group)
Ensuite, les étudiants devront choisir une personne qu’ils connaissent, il peut s’agir d’un colocataire, un parent, un partenaire, etc. (s’ils le désirent, ils peuvent montrer une photo au reste du groupe)
3. Ask them who this person is using phrases like:
Demandez-leur qui est cette personne en utilisant les phrases:
- Il (elle) s'appelle comment ?
- Comment est-il (elle) ?
4. Have them practice using phrases to describe this person such as:
Les étudiants doivent pratiquer à utiliser les phrases ci-dessous afin de décrire des personnes:
- (Nom) est mon/ma colocataire/ mère/ père/ soeur/ copain/ copine, etc.
- Il/elle est américain(e)...
- Il/elle est poli(e)/ réservé(e)/ intelligent(e)/ élégant(e)/ sociable/ gentil(le)/ méchant(e), etc.
- Il/elle aime/ il/elle n'aime pas...
Wrap-Up
Wrap-up
Ask the following question(s) to finish the activity:
- Si vous pouviez déménager dans un pays francophone, lequel serait-il ? La France ? Le Sénégal? La Martinique ? Le Maroc ? (If you could move to a francophone country, which one would it be?)
Cultural Resource
A video where French people discuss stereotypes that other countries have about France!
End of Activity
- Can-Do statement check-in... “Where are we?”
- Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence.
- Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation
- Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities!
NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements
- I can recognize basic cultural differences.
- I can describe myself and someone that I know (Relationship, nationality, characteristics).
- I can respond to basic questions about my background.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.447458
|
Amber Hoye
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92905/overview",
"title": "French Level 1, Activity 03: Les caractéristiques / Characteristics (Online)",
"author": "Mimi Fahnstrom"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92086/overview
|
Connect, engage, and inspire all learners at scale
Creating your first Nearpod lesson
Find lessons and videos in the Nearpod Library
Integrating Nearpod with Google Slides
Keeping up to date: The latest updates to Nearpod
Nearpod for Higher Ed overview
Nearpod OER
Open Educational Resources (OER)
Teaching with Nearpod
The Beginner’s Guide to Nearpod
What is Nearpod?
What is Nearpod?
Overview
Are you tired of the same, boring lessons? Are your students ready to be engaged by interactive video presentations? Have you heard of Nearpod, but are unsure of how to get started? Then this resource is for you.
Key Features
Nearpod Library
The Nearpod library offers 8,500+ premade K-12 video lesson presentations in all subject areas. Not seeing what you’re looking for? Simply create your own lesson, video or class activity through Nearpod with a click of a button. Nearpod can also be integrated into any Google Slides presentation already created!
Integrating Nearpod with Google Slides
Polls
While in a Nearpod lesson presentation, teachers are able to spontaneously ask questions to their students to check for understanding, take a class vote, highlight student opinions, and more. Polls, like other activities in Nearpod, can include a reference photo, PDF, video, audio, or website.
Draw It
This feature allows students to draw, underline, highlight and/or annotate while in a lesson. Teachers can also use this feature within their Nearpod lesson presentation to allow students to answer questions with an illustration.
Collaborations
Teachers can add the collaborative feature to any lesson presentation. Once your lesson is launched, teachers will be able to interact and engage students with discussions.
Matching Pairs
Nearpod offers many interactive games within a Nearpod lesson presentation. To play, the teacher creates pairs of items that can be images, text or both. When activated, students see the full list of all possible tiles/options and match them together. When students correct pair items, they will disappear from the screen. Just as in other activities, the teacher can interact and prompt students with questions as they play.
Quizzes
Quizzes can be easily inserted into a presentation without requiring students to move to a new website. Quizzes can be in the form of multiple-choice, open-ended questions and fill in the blanks. When creating the quiz, the teacher can decide one or more correct answers for the software to simultaneously self grade. When all students are finished with the quiz, the teacher can receive a final report of student responses.
Virtual Field Trips
This new feature on Nearpod allows teachers to take their students on virtual field trips around the world from within a presentation. Once activated, each student’s device will display a 3D virtual reality experience of a preselected location. While within the Nearpod experience, students will be able to explore by moving and spinning using their devices.
Summary Reports
As previously mentioned, summary reports are available for the teacher providing the grades and individual responses from all student participants from any completed activity throughout the presentation.
Student Pacing
Nearpod allows teachers to be able to pace their lessons providing synchronous and asynchronous learning. With student pacing turned on, students are able to move through an assigned NearPod presentation at whatever pace works best for them and their learning. Teachers are also able to share out any lesson or activity to their learning management system such as Google Classroom or Remind.
Sources:
The Nearpod Team. (2021, May 2). Integrating Nearpod with Google Slides. Nearpod. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://nearpod.com/blog/nearpod-google-slides/
How Does Nearpod Work?
Sources
Nearpod. (2020b, September 3). Creating your first Nearpod lesson [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stIWHnJx5rc
The Nearpod Team. (2020, April 27). The Beginner’s Guide to Nearpod. Nearpod. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://nearpod.com/blog/beginners-guide-to-nearpod/
How Does it Work for Educational Purposes?
Sources:
Nearpod. (2020, September 1). Find lessons and videos in the Nearpod Library [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TASkbHHwszY
Who is using Nearpod?
The customizable nature of the app means that it can be applied to any age range and teaching context. It saves you time with real-time formative assessment and session reports and helps build a connected culture in and outside of the classroom.
Real Life Example:
Miss Weis, Fourth Grade Teacher at Perry Elementary, New York
Miss Weis' Library:
Miss Weis uses premade Nearpod video lessons while teaching math to her 4th grade students.
Additional Example: (Youtube)
Amanda Clark, high school teacher from Blount County School District in Maryville, Tennessee, shares her Nearpod story.
Sources:
Nearpod. (2019, May 1). #MyNearpodStory: Amanda C. [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/ItQDvk780PE
Why Nearpod?
Why I Chose Nearpod?
Nearpod offers a range of engagement for any learning environment. My students thrive while using their 1:1 devices in my classroom. They enjoy being immersed in the lesson while experiencing real-time assessments and activities to help with comprehension.
My favorite part about Nearpod is that it is constantly changing to adapt with the modern day classroom.
Why Should You?
Nearpod is a fun and interactive gamified tool that can be used to help teach any concept K-12.
Nearpod is simple and easy to use. Substitute any Powerpoint or Google Slides presentation with an immersive Nearpod presentation. Upload any of your lessons into Nearpod and make them interactive, or select one of the 8,500+ premade lessons to use with your students. Additionally, choose from countless activities to use throughout your teaching as live formative assessments. Your students will thank you!
Sources:
Nearpod. (2021, October 20). What is Nearpod? [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/anTtMRaQLsM
Challenges to Nearpod
Cons
It'll take more time than some competitors to get comfortable.
Content Filters could be better
Every free user gets up to 50 MBs of space, and can host up to 30 students per session
Solutions
- Test Drive the lesson prior to launching and presenting with your students.
- Play around with the many interactive activities before selecting the one(s) you want.When filtering through the 8,500+ premade lessons within the Neapod Library, be sure to select your needed criteria using the side search tool.
- To avoid having to upgrade your account, save lessons to a Google Document instead of your Nearpod Library by copying and pasting the URL. This ensures that your favorite lessons are kept safe and organized in your files, but avoids running out of space.
- If you have more than 30 students in your class, encourage students to partner up. Another option could be to share a lesson on any LMS like Google Classroom, Canvas or Schoology by using the link on Nearpod. Additionally, for live and self-paced lessons, with upgraded school-level access, up to 150 students can join your lesson at the same time. For users with district-level access, 250 students can join your lesson at the same time.
Common Sense Education Rating:
The Future of Nearpod
Check out Nearpod's blog to learn more about what is new with Nearpod!
OER
OER on Nearpod by Erika Weis
What is OER?
Open Educational Resources (OER) are free online resources, such as curriculum maps, lesson plans, and course materials, in addition to any other materials that have been designed for use in teaching and learning.
The unique thing about OER’s is that they can be Reused, Retained, Revised, Remixed, and Redistributed.
My Viewpoints of OER:
Being able to reuse, retain and revise resources allows for educational transformation in the learning environment.
“While its educational value lies in the idea of using resources as an integral method of communication of curriculum in educational courses (i.e. resource-based learning), its transformative power lies in the ease with which such resources, when digitized, can be shared via the Internet” (Butcher et al., 2011).
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:39:21.489125
|
Erika Weis
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92086/overview",
"title": "What is Nearpod?",
"author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy"
}
|
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