Datasets:

common-pile
/

oercommons

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 9.34k rows

id stringlengths 54 56	text stringlengths 0 1.34M	source stringclasses 1 value	added stringdate 2025-03-18 00:34:10 2025-03-18 00:39:48	created stringlengths 3 51 ⌀	metadata dict
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26302/overview	Legislative Immunities Overview Legislative Immunities Learning Objectives By the end of this section students will be able to - Understand the speech and debate immunities granted Texas legislators - Understand the arrrest immunities granted Texas legislators By the end of this section you’ll be able to - Understand the speech and debate immunities granted Texas legislators - Understand the arrrest immunities granted Texas legislators Types of Immunities Types of Immunities The Texas Constitution grants two types of immunities to Texas steate legislators. One protects speech and debate. The other prevents or limits arrest during the legislative session. Speech and debate immunities The Texas Constitution (Article III, Section 21) grants Texas state legislators a fundamental protection of free speech and debate. This immunity protects legislators from punitive executive or judicial action. The intent is to allow lawmakers to work independently and unimpeded by the threat of intervention from the other branches of government in the discharge of their legislative duties. Arrest Immunities Texas state legislators are also protected from arrest traveling to and from and during legislative sessions. Exceptions include treason, felony, or breach of the peace.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:42.902329	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26302/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview	Elections Overview Elections Introduction Introduction The Texas Secretary of State serves as Chief Election Officer for Texas, assisting county election officials and ensuring the uniform application and interpretation of election laws throughout Texas. This section explore Texas' elections. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses four types of elections: - Primary Elections - Runoff Elections - General Elections - Special Elections Primary Elections A primary election is an election used either to narrow the field of candidates for a given elective office or to determine the nominees for political parties in advance of a general election. State law, not federal, regulates most aspects of primary (as well as general) elections, and local election officials (county, city, and township) are predominantly responsible for administering them. Runoff Elections A runoff election is held when no candidate gets 50 percent plus one vote in the primary election. Primary elections often have multiple candidates vying to represent a party in the general election and it’s not uncommon that a single candidate fails to win 50 percent plus one vote. In such a case there is a runoff election between the top two vote-getters. General Elections General elections are elections held at any level (e.g. city, county, congressional district, state) that involve competition between at least two parties. General elections determine the final winner–the candidate to take office. The candidate obtaining the most votes (even if not necessarily a majority of votes) wins. Special Elections Special elections are used for constitutional amendments or to fill elected offices that have become vacant between general elections. In most cases, these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office. Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature. Types of Primaries Types of Primaries Among the fifty states, there are several different types of primary elections: - Closed primary. People may vote in a party’s primary only if they are registered members of that party prior to election day. Independents cannot participate. Note that because some political parties name themselves independent, the terms “non-partisan” or “unaffiliated” often replace “independent” when referring to those who are not affiliated with a political party. Eleven states – Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, District of Columbia, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming – have closed primaries. - Semi-closed. As in closed primaries, registered party members can vote only in their own party’s primary. Semi-closed systems, however, allow unaffiliated voters to participate as well. Depending on the state, independents either make their choice of party primary privately, inside the voting booth or publicly, by registering with any party on Election Day. Thirteen states – Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and West Virginia – have semi-closed primaries that allow voters to register or change party preference on election day. - Open primary. A registered voter may vote in any party primary regardless of his or her own party affiliation. Eleven states – Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Vermont, and Wisconsin – have open primaries. When voters do not register with a party before the primary, it is called a pick-a-party primary because the voter can select which party’s primary he or she wishes to vote in on election day. Because of the open nature of this system, a practice known as raiding may occur. Raiding consists of voters of one party crossing over and voting in the primary of another party, effectively allowing a party to help choose its opposition’s candidate. The theory is that opposing party members vote for the weakest candidate of the opposite party in order to give their own party the advantage in the general election. - Semi-open. A registered voter need not publicly declare which political party’s primary that they will vote in before entering the voting booth. When voters identify themselves to the election officials, they must request a party’s specific ballot. Only one ballot is cast by each voter. In many states with semi-open primaries, election officials or poll workers from their respective parties record each voter’s choice of party and provide access to this information. The primary difference between a semi-open and open primary system is the use of a party-specific ballot. In a semi-open primary, a public declaration in front of the election judges is made and a party-specific ballot given to the voter to cast. Certain states that use the open-primary format may print a single ballot and the voter must choose on the ballot itself which political party’s candidates they will select for a contested office. - Blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party. - Nonpartisan blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, where the top two candidates advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. Louisiana has famously operated under this system, which has been nicknamed the “jungle primary.” California has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2012 after passing Proposition 14 in 2010, and the state of Washington has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2008. Classifying Texas' Primaries Classifying Texas' Primaries Texas’ primaries are difficult to classify–they are somewhere between open and semi-open. Voters in Texas don’t register under a party label and may choose to vote in either party’s primary (but not both). Voters who cast ballots in one of the major party primary elections may only vote in the runoff election for the same party in which they cast their primary ballot. Voters who did not cast a ballot in primary elections are free to choose either party’s runoff ballot, but may only vote in one party’s runoff election. Notes Notes Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:42.923268	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26293/overview	Voting Overview Voting Introduction Introduction A vote is a formal expression of an individual's choice for or against some motion (for example, a proposed resolution); for or against some ballot question; or for a certain candidate, selection of candidates, or political party. This section explores voting in Texas. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision - Understand voter registration rates in Texas - Understand voter turnout in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision - Understand voter registration rates in Texas - Understand voter turnout in Texas Registration Registration Before most voters are allowed to cast a ballot, they must register to vote in their state. This process may be as simple as checking a box on a driver’s license application or as difficult as filling out a long form with complicated questions. Registration allows governments to determine which citizens are allowed to vote and, in some cases, from which list of candidates they may select a party nominee. Ironically, while government wants to increase voter turnout, the registration process may prevent various groups of citizens and non-citizens from participating in the electoral process. Registration Across The United States Registration Across The United States Elections are state-by-state contests. They include general elections for president and statewide offices (e.g., governor and U.S. senator), and they are often organized and paid for by the states. Because political cultures vary from state to state, the process of voter registration similarly varies. For example, suppose an 85-year-old retiree with an expired driver’s license wants to register to vote. He or she might be able to register quickly in California or Florida, but a current government ID might be required prior to registration in Texas or Indiana. The varied registration and voting laws across the United States have long caused controversy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, southern states enacted literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other requirements intended to disenfranchise black voters in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more blacks required to take them than whites.[1] Poll taxes required voters to pay a fee to vote. Grandfather clauses exempted individuals from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if they or their fathers or grandfathers had been permitted to vote prior to a certain point in time. While the Supreme Court determined that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional in 1915, states continued to use poll taxes and literacy tests to deter potential voters from registering.[2] States also ignored instances of violence and intimidation against African Americans wanting to register or vote.[3] The ratification of the Twenty-Fourth Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation.[4] The effects of the VRA were visible almost immediately. In Mississippi, only 6.7 percent of blacks were registered to vote in 1965; however, by the fall of 1967, nearly 60 percent were registered. Alabama experienced similar effects, with African American registration increasing from 19.3 percent to 51.6 percent. Voter turnout across these two states similarly increased. Mississippi went from 33.9 percent turnout to 53.2 percent, while Alabama increased from 35.9 percent to 52.7 percent between the 1964 and 1968 presidential elections.[5] Following the implementation of the VRA, many states have sought other methods of increasing voter registration. Several states make registering to vote relatively easy for citizens who have government documentation. Oregon has few requirements for registering and registers many of its voters automatically. North Dakota has no registration at all. In 2002, Arizona was the first state to offer online voter registration, which allowed citizens with a driver’s license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct. Citizens without a driver’s license still need to file a paper application. More than eighteen states have moved to online registration or passed laws to begin doing so. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimates, however, that adopting an online voter registration system can initially cost a state between $250,000 and $750,000.[6] Other states have decided against online registration due to concerns about voter fraud and security. Legislators also argue that online registration makes it difficult to ensure that only citizens are registering and that they are registering in the correct precincts. As technology continues to update other areas of state recordkeeping, online registration may become easier and safer. In some areas, citizens have pressured the states and pushed the process along. A bill to move registration online in Florida stalled for over a year in the legislature, based on security concerns. With strong citizen support, however, it was passed and signed in 2015, despite the governor’s lingering concerns. In other states, such as Texas, both the government and citizens are concerned about identity fraud, so traditional paper registration is still preferred. How Does a Citizen Register to Vote? How Does a Citizen Register to Vote? The National Commission on Voting Rights completed a study in September 2015 that found state registration laws can either raise or reduce voter turnout rates, especially among citizens who are young or whose income falls below the poverty line. States with simple voter registration had more registered citizens.[7] In all states except North Dakota, a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residence address, and in many cases party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often 30 days. Beyond these requirements, there may be an oath administered or more questions asked, such as felony convictions. If the application is completely online and the citizen has government documents (e.g., driver’s license or state identification card), the system will compare the application to other state records and accept an online signature or affidavit if everything matches up correctly. Citizens who do not have these state documents are often required to complete paper applications. States without online registration often allow a citizen to fill out an application on a website, but the citizen will receive a paper copy in the mail to sign and mail back to the state. Another aspect of registering to vote is the timeline. States may require registration to take place as much as thirty days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. Maine first implemented same-day registration in 1973. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver’s license or utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas), require registration forms to be mailed thirty days before an election. Moving means citizens must re-register or update addresses. College students, for example, may have to re-register or update addresses each year as they move. States that use same-day registration had a 4 percent higher voter turnout in the 2012 presidential election than states that did not.[8] Some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout.[9] In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly.[10] It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent.[11] In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout.[12] Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls.[13] The Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA) was passed in order to reform voting across the states and reduce these problems. As part of the Act, states were required to update voting equipment, make voting more accessible to the disabled, and maintain computerized voter rolls that could be updated regularly.[14] Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health.[15] Twenty-nine states now participate in the Interstate Voter Registration Crosscheck Program, which allows states to check for duplicate registrations.[16] At the same time, Florida’s use of the federal Systematic Alien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE) database has proven to be controversial, because county elections supervisors are allowed to remove voters deemed ineligible to vote.[17] Despite these efforts, a study commissioned by the Pew Charitable Trust found twenty-four million voter registrations nationwide were no longer valid. [18] Pew is now working with eight states to update their voter registration rolls and encouraging more states to share their rolls in an effort to find duplicates.[19 Who Is Allowed To Register? Who Is Allowed To Register? In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen, resident, and eighteen years old. But states often place additional requirements on the right to vote. The most common requirement is that voters must be mentally competent and not currently serving time in jail. Some states enforce more stringent or unusual requirements on citizens who have committed crimes. Florida and Kentucky permanently bar felons and ex-felons from voting unless they obtain a pardon from the governor, while Mississippi and Nevada allow former felons to apply to have their voting rights restored.[20] On the other end of the spectrum, Vermont does not limit voting based on incarceration unless the crime was election fraud.[21] Maine citizens serving in Maine prisons also may vote in elections. Beyond those jailed, some citizens have additional expectations placed on them when they register to vote. Wisconsin requires that voters “not wager on an election,” and Vermont citizens must recite the “Voter’s Oath” before they register, swearing to cast votes with a conscience and “without fear or favor of any person.”[22] Deciding How to Vote Deciding How to Vote When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts. One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization. Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision. Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight-ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat. Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70 percent of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54 percent voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court.[23] Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features.[24] They may also vote based on gender or race because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president.[25] Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win.[26] Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways. Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting. In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or third-choice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat.[27] In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly.[28] One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose. Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member—congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them.[29] Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers. Another incumbent advantage is gerrymandering, the drawing of district lines to guarantee a desired electoral outcome. Every ten years, following the U.S. Census, the number of House of Representatives members allotted to each state is determined based on a state’s population. If a state gains or loses seats in the House, the state must redraw districts to ensure each district has an equal number of citizens. States may also choose to redraw these districts at other times and for other reasons.[30] If the district is drawn to ensure that it includes a majority of Democratic or Republican Party members within its boundaries, for instance, then candidates from those parties will have an advantage. Gerrymandering helps local legislative candidates and members of the House of Representatives, who win reelection over 90 percent of the time. Senators and presidents do not benefit from gerrymandering because they are not running in a district. Presidents and senators win states, so they benefit only from war chests and name recognition. This is one reason why senators running in 2014, for example, won reelection only 82 percent of the time.[31] Texas' Voter Requirements Texas' Voter Requirements Texas voter requirements are:[32] - Must be a U.S. citizen - Must be a resident of the county - Must be at least 18 years old (a person may register to vote at 17 years and 10 months) - Not a convicted felon (Eligible to vote once the person’s sentence is complete) - Not declared mentally incapacitated by a court of law - Must present an acceptable form of photo identification Texas also has absentee voting (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election). Voter Registration Rates In Texas Voter Registration Rates In Texas Texas fares poorly in recent comparisons of registration rates among states. In the 2016 elections, Texas ranked 46 out of 51 (including the District of Columbia) for the percentage of eligible population (excluding non-citizens for instance). Voter Turnout In Texas Voter Turnout In Texas Similarly, Texas ranked 48 out of 51 for the percentage of eligible population who turned out to vote in the 2016 elections. Notes Notes - Stephen Medvic. 2014. Campaigns and Elections: Players and Processes, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. ↵ - Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915). ↵ - Medvic, Campaigns and Elections. ↵ - Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. ___ (2013). ↵ - Bernard Grofman, Lisa Handley, and Richard G. Niemi. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 25. ↵ - “The Canvass,” April 2014, Issue 48, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/states-and-election-reform-the-canvass-april-2014.aspx. ↵ - Tova Wang and Maria Peralta. 22 September 2015. “New Report Released by National Commission on Voting Rights: More Work Needed to Improve Registration and Voting in the U.S.” http://votingrightstoday.org/ncvr/resources/electionadmin. ↵ - Ibid. ↵ - Royce Crocker, “The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects,” Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R40609, September 18, 2013, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf. ↵ - “National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789–Present,” http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (November 4, 2015). ↵ - John B. Holbein, D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2015. “Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science (March). doi:10.1111/ajps.12177. ↵ - Russell Berman, “Should Voter Registration Be Automatic?” Atlantic, 20 March 2015; Maria L. La Ganga, “Under New Oregon Law, All Eligible Voters are Registered Unless They Opt Out,” Los Angeles Times, 17 March 2015. ↵ - “‘Unusable’ Voter Rolls,” Wall Street Journal, 7 November 2000. ↵ - “One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United States of America at the Second Session,” 23 January 2002. http://www.eac.gov/assets/1/workflow_staging/Page/41.PDF. ↵ - “Voter List Accuracy,”11 February 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-list-accuracy.aspx↵ - Brad Bryant and Kay Curtis, eds. December 2013. “Interstate Crosscheck Program Grows,” http://www.kssos.org/forms/communication/canvassing_kansas/dec13.pdf. ↵ - Troy Kinsey, “Proposed Bills Put Greater Scrutiny on Florida’s Voter Purges,” Bay News, 9 November 2015. ↵ - Pam Fessler, “Study: 1.8 Million Dead People Still Registered to Vote,” National Public Radio, 14 February 2013; “Report: Inaccurate, Costly, an Inefficient,” The Pew Charitable Trusts, February 14, 2012. ↵ - Fessler, “Study: 1.8 Million Dead People Still Registered to Vote.” ↵ - “Felon Voting Rights,” 15 July 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/felon-voting-rights.aspx. ↵ - Wilson Ring, “Vermont, Maine Only States to Let Inmates Vote,” Associated Press, 22 October 2008. ↵ - “Voter’s Qualifications and Oath,” https://votesmart.org/elections/ballot-measure/1583/voters-qualifications-and-oath#.VjQOJH6rS00 (November 12, 2015). ↵ - “Presidential Electors,” http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/president.html (July 15, 2015); “Judicial Retention–Supreme Court,” http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/retention/supremeCourt.html (July 15, 2015). ↵ - Lasse Laustsen. 2014. “Decomposing the Relationship Between Candidates’ Facial Appearance and Electoral Success,” Political Behavior 36, No. 4: 777–791. ↵ - Alan Silverleib. 15 June 2008. “Analysis: Age an Issue in the 2008 Campaign?” http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/15/mccain.age/index.html?iref=newssearch. ↵ - Laustsen. “Decomposing the Relationship,” 777–791. ↵ - R. Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler. 2000. “A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections,” British Journal of Political Science 30, No. 1: 57–75. ↵ - Nathan Thomburgh, “Could Third-Party Candidates Be Spoilers?” Time, 3 November 2008. ↵ - Matthew E. Glassman, “Congressional Franking Privilege: Background and Current Legislation,” Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22771, December 11, 2007, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22771.pdf. ↵ - League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006). ↵ - “Reelection Rates of the Years,” https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/reelect.php (November 2, 2015). ↵ - http://www.votetexas.gov/register-to-vote/need-id CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. License: CC BY: Attribution - Texas Voter Requirements. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:42.963075	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26293/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96643/overview	First_Grade_Word_Study_Guide First_Grade_Word_Study_Guide pdf Graphic and Questions Rubric Kindergarten_Word_Study_Guide Kindergarten_Word_Study_Guide pdf Language Development Progression Phonemic and Phonological Awareness testGM Phonemic Awareness Reflection Rubric Phonological Awareness activity assignment and rubric Phonological Awareness Activity Checklist References for Chapter 8- Oral Language and Phonological Awareness Development Overview This goal of this course is to introduce learners to phonological awareness, a foundational component of reading development in young children. This unit is meant to introduce pre-service teachers to the concepts of phonological awareness and how to work with English Learners in their oral language development. Phonological awareness is often misunderstood, therefore not addressed accurately in classroom settings. The course is intended to supplement an existing course in foundational reading development. Unit Introduction Introduction: This goal of this course is to introduce learners to oral language development, a foundational component of reading development in young children. This unit is meant to introduce pre-service teachers to the concepts of phonological awareness and how to work with English Learners in their oral language development. The course is intended to supplement an existing course in foundational reading development. Audience: The intended audience of this course are teacher candidates within a higher education certification program focused on elementary education. Length of course: This resource is part of a larger Reading Development course and has been designed to engage the participant for a minimum of 3 hours. This section of the course is taught for 2 weeks of a 16 week course. The content and standards are heavily supplemented with other activities, including working with young children during the face-to-face course setting. Unit-level outcomes: While engaging with this unit, learners will: - Identify oral language acquisition stages - Identify aspects of oral language instruction for English Learners. Technology requirements: Projector/Computer for instructor Internet access with higher level bandwidth for viewing and creating videos Access to Google applications for assignment creation Online journal (You are welcome to use a paper journal as well) Oral Language Development Some games we play in this section: Humdingers: write out 6 common nursery rhyme songs, such as Mary had a Little Lamb and Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star on index cards. Write out as many copies as you need for your class. Highlight each song an equal number of times. Randomly hand the cards out to the class. Students need to find their group by humming the tune of the song. Groups hum their song at the end to make sure everyone is correct and remainder of class guesses at the song. Discuss the importance of listening, how distractions can impact listening, and what this means for classroom instruction. Bubbles: Go outdoors and blow bubbles for a few minutes. When coming back inside, have students tell you words to describe the experience and the bubbles. Write these words on the board. Then show students a picture of the bubbles. Mark out words that can no longer be used with just an image, such as sticky, wet, etc. Then write the word bubbles on the board. Continue to mark out words that can no longer be used with just the written word. This discussion relates to the experiences children have that adds to their background knowledge and oral language development. Would you rather: This has various ways to play and there are many out there. Provide students with a set of cards with a question: "Would you rather _______ or _________? They answer aloud to partners with a sentence stem: "I would rather ____________ because ________________. This activity begins to show how we can assist Emergent Bilinguals in their oral language development as well. Oral Language Development UNIT 1 OBJECTIVES: 1. The student will identify stages of language acquisition. CONTENT: Close your eyes and listen to the sounds you hear. Perhaps you hear birds, cars driving nearby, people talking, the wind, or silence. Why should we stop to listen to the sounds we hear around us? It is relaxing! Although that is true, that is not the focus of what will be discussed in this unit. Young children learn to speak and listen well before they can read and write, however, we tend to focus on the end goal of reading rather than the skill development necessary to read. For several decades, reading instruction has focused on word reading skills, not language comprehension. Language comprehension includes oral language comprehension because students can understand language and how it works, a critical component of reading comprehension. Theories will insist language is developed by nature, naturally develops, or nurture, taught skills. However, it is a combination of both nature and nurture because children will pick up on language skills and they have to be taught aspects of language, otherwise, they may always say ‘psketi’ for spaghetti. Oral Language instruction must be explicit and systematic, just as all other reading instruction should be. Watch this video on the Simple View of Reading. Once you have watched the video, use your reflective journal to write out an example of a scenario in which yourself or a young child you work with has either low language comprehension or decoding skills. How does that impact their reading comprehension? One example from my teaching is when we had two high level readers in kindergarten who were reading at a third-grade level. However, when asked the comprehension questions at the end of the story, only one of the children could answer the questions. That child had both the language comprehension and the decoding skills to have full reading comprehension. The other child had good decoding with limited language comprehension, making the text easy to ready, but difficult to comprehend. This is important because you will continually grow in your understanding of how oral language impacts reading as you work through this module. Oral Language Development \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| It is necessary to understand how oral language progresses in order to internalize how the phonological awareness skills are systematically taught, dependent upon the language development of the child. Read through the textbook explanation of language development (Language Development Progression) and reflect in your journal regarding what experiences you have in hearing each of these stages. What would you do for a child who comes into preschool with limited language development, perhaps still within the telegraphic stage? Language Developmental Progression An important aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. The order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies recognize their mother’s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens et al., 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981). Do newborns communicate? Of course they do. They do not, however, communicate with the use of oral language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration. Intentional Vocalizations: In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. These gurgling, musical vocalizations can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization, as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. At about four to six months of age, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language. At about 7 months, infants begin Babbling, engaging in intentional vocalizations that lack specific meaning and comprise a consonant-vowel repeated sequence, such as ma-ma-ma, da-da- da. Children babble as practice in creating specific sounds, and by the time they are 1 year old, the babbling uses primarily the sounds of the language that they are learning (de Boysson- Bardies, Sagart, & Durand, 1984). These vocalizations have a conversational tone that sounds meaningful even though it isn’t. Babbling also helps children understand the social, communicative function of language. Children who are exposed to sign language babble in sign by making hand movements that represent real language (Petitto & Marentette, 1991). Gesturing: Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 2005). Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language is used when deaf babies sign just as it is when hearing babies babble. Understanding: At around ten months of age, the infant can understand more than he or she can say, which is referred to as receptive language. You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than contribute to it. One of the first words that children understand is their own name, usually by about 6 months, followed by commonly used words like “bottle,” “mama,” and “doggie” by 10 to 12 months (Mandel, Jusczyk, & Pisoni, 1995). Infants shake their head “no” around 6–9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like “wave bye-bye” or “blow a kiss” around 9–12 months. Children also use contextual information, particularly the cues that parents provide, to help them learn language. Children learn that people are usually referring to things that they are looking at when they are speaking (Baldwin, 1993), and that that the speaker’s emotional expressions are related to the content of their speech. Holophrasic Speech: Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one word expressions are referred to as Holophrasic Speech. For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase, and when this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who to a friend exclaims, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” to which the parent explains means, “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.” Language Errors: The early utterances of children contain many errors, for instance, confusing /b/ and /d/, or /c/ and /z/. The words children create are often simplified, in part because they are not yet able to make the more complex sounds of the real language (Dobrich & Scarborough, 1992). Children may say “keekee” for kitty, “nana” for banana, and “vesketti” for spaghetti because it is easier. Often these early words are accompanied by gestures that may also be easier to produce than the words themselves. Children’s pronunciations become increasingly accurate between 1 and 3 years, but some problems may persist until school age. A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object, which is referred to as Underextension. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie”, for example. More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object, which is called Overextension. For example, all animals become “doggies”. First words and cultural influences: First words if the child is using English tend to be nouns. The child labels objects such as cup, ball, or other items that they regularly interact with. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationships between objects, while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.). These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States. Two word sentences and telegraphic (text message) speech: By the time they become toddlers, children have a vocabulary of about 50-200 words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech, such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty”. Words needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet used. These expressions sound like a telegraph, or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message. Telegraphic Speech/Text Message Speech occurs when unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby ball” is used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Infant-directed Speech: Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk” or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children? This represents a universal tendency and is known as Infant-directed Speech. It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression (Clark, 2009). Why is this done? Infants are frequently more attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking than to the content of the words themselves, and are aware of the target of speech. Werker, Pegg, and McLeod (1994) found that infants listened longer to a woman who was speaking to a baby than to a woman who was speaking to another adult. It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved. It may also be because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one another. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Authored by: Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French. Provided by: College of Lake County Foundation. Located at: http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/LifespanDevelopment.pdf. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike As you consider the importance of oral language development, think about how this directly impacts reading development as we begin to explore the connections. Phonological Awareness You are welcome to add more activities here made for your space. For online sections, students can make vidoes, submit their reflection journal, or meet through ZOOM in small groups to complete activities. You can adjust this to make it fit how you teach. We assess and teach a phonological awareness plan and do many more activties which are not Creative Commons. This is just a small portion of what we do regarding this topic in class, however, it does provide a good foundation in phonological awareness. When you see the ear symbol, that is an indication that it is a discussion or embedded activit to do during class. Play this game to demonstrate how oral language comprehension can depend on various factors. Line up in even-numbered lines along two sides of the room. The instructor will provide each person at the front of the line a whispered word. That person then tells the next person a word they associate with that word. This continues until the last person has their word and they say it aloud to the class. What did you notice that happened? Why was this the case? What word did each line begin with? If the instructor used the same word for each line, the end word can be very different. What makes this happen? Brainstorm a list of influencing factors that contribute to the varying ending words. Yes, this is a version of the telephone game. Victoria-RuizVD: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 Phonological Awareness: How does this tie into our understanding of oral language? Everything! Phonological awareness consists of the oral skills children need in order to read. The next image provides you with the specific skills which are a part of phonological awareness. Each skill will be explained in this unit and the following unit. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Phonological awareness skills can be divided into three areas: Word level, Parts of words, and Individual sounds. Children must be able to distinguish between a word they hear and an individual sound in the word they may hear. The whole word is a much easier skill and children as young as two can begin building skills in the number of words in a sentence. \| Word Level Skills \| Word Parts Skills \| Phoneme Skills \| \| words in sentence \| syllable \| isolation \| \| rhyme \| onset/rime \| segmenting \| \| alliteration \| blending \| \| \| addition/deletion/substitution \| Word Level Skills: Word level skills consist of words in sentences, rhyming and alliteration because each of these skills works on the word as a whole. Read the explanations below each graphic and watch the videos that are linked below some of the graphics. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Sentence segmentation can also be thought of as working with words in sentences. One way to do this is to count the words in orally stated sentences. Three activities that can be used to teach words in sentences are to count the words in a sentence and use a manipulative to represent each word. The graphic uses tile squares to move as a sentence is read aloud. Of course we can clap or count the words on our fingers as well. It is important to remember that these sentences are not visible to the students. The words above the squares on the graphic are simple to show each tile represents one word in the sentence. The video also addressed syllables, which will be discussed in a later section. After watching the video and looking over the graphic, practice with small groups using the different methods to work with words within sentences. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Rhyming is defined as the same sound at the end of the word. These words will typically be one-syllable words for beginning phonological awareness, or CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) words, such as cat, hat. Rhyming is a fun skill that can be worked on in any location with any objects. I remember going around the grocery store with my son and he would want to know what items were. If I told him this was lettuce he would immediately say lettuce, pettuce, wettuce, etc. We would have so much fun in the store, on car rides, and with many other daily activities. Rhyming does not have to be real words! Nonsense words are very valuable to help determine if children truly understand the concept of rhyming. Rhyming skills can be reinforced through songs, books read aloud, matching games, I spy games and many more. Remember, no words are shown to the children. You can have a word list for yourself of potential rhyming words to use in a lesson, however, the children will not see those words. Pictures are wonderful to use because it also helps build vocabulary. For example, a child may have a picture of a jet, but they say airplane. The other picture would not rhyme with jet and you inform them of another word for airplane. The video addresses both rhyming and alliteration, which children can confuse because alliteration focuses on the beginning sound and rhyming focuses on the ending sounds of words. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Alliteration is defined as a repitition of sounds within a phrase or sentence. Do not confuse this with rhyming, which is the same sound at the end of the word. Alliteration is typically a repetition of the beginning sound, but can be a repetition of a sound with multiple words. An example would be Sally Sells Sea Shells By The Sea Shore. Tongue twisters are a favorite for children to try and say. Can you pick out the three tongue twisters in this graphic? One was already provided above. Wite a minimum of two alliteration phrases with your name and share with the class. Remember, that in your teaching, children will not see these sentences, they will only hear what you read aloud. See if anyone can add to your alliteration phrase. How long can the phrase or sentence go on before you run out of words? Parts of Words: In the previous section, you learned about whole word aspects of phonological awareness. In this section, you will rediscover skills which focus on word parts. I mention rediscover because one skill is a familiar and one is new. Syllables and Onset/Rime are parts of word phonological awareness skills because they focus on parts of the word, rather than whole word. These are the next level of phonological awareness skills for young children. Read the explanations below each graphic and watch the videos that are linked below some of the graphics. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Syllables are defined as the single unbroken sound of a spoken word. A syllable will include a vowel sound and usually consonants. We can remember working with syllables as young children because it was common to discuss syllables and perform activities such as clapping out our names. Clapping out names is certaintly still perfomed in classrooms and tied into math curriculum by creating a graph of the number of syllables in every child's name. The names are not written down for this activity because for phonological awareness, there are no letters or words used. We use physical movements such as clappnig to help feel the syllables. Another common activity is to put your hand under your chin and count how many times your hand goes down as you say a word. One activity that includes entire body movement is a hopping game. Put colored dots down on the floor, such as the ones used for PE class, and have children line up. As you say a word, one child should hop forward one time for each syllable. For example, happy would have the child hop twice. Reference the video above under counting words in sentences for work on syllables. After reviewing the video, create a class graph with the number of syllables in everyone's names in the class. How do accents and dialects play into how words are pronounced? Does blessed have one or two syllables? These are questions to keep in mind as you your with syllables with young children. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Onset and Rime is a more difficult skill than working with syllables. When we hear the word RIME we think about how words rhyme together and sound the same at the end of the word. That is not the case, although they are related. Onset is the part of the word that occurs before the vowel and the Rime is the remainder of the word. This will only be true in one syllable words. The graphics illustrates three activities that can be used to work with Onset and Rime. Remember that there are no letters or words used in phonological awareness and the letters with the tiles are used as a demonstration of what the tiles represent and would not be showed to a child completing this activity. As you can see, the tiles do work for Onset/Rime just as they work for syllables and words in sentences. We cut out pieces of felt to use that are different colors to use for these activities. Puzzles are a great option as well. You can purchase ready-made Onset/Rime puzzles, however, that is not necessary. Print out pictures of one syllable words and cut them into two parts. This is illustrated above with the snake. As the child is putting this puzzle piece together they would say 'sn'. 'ake' and then read the whole word, snake. This same concept can also be used as a picture that is cut into two parts and complete it the same way as the puzzle. Watch the video above to learn how one teacher specifically teaches this concept to her students. Locate 10 one-syllable words you can use for your Onset/Rime pictures. Create either puzzles or the picture option. These can be made with a Google application such as Slides or Drawings. Wrapping up Unit 1: You now have an introduction to phonological awareness and oral language development. To ensure you have a good grasp of this content before moving on to the next unit, there are two assessment activities to complete. These will both be useful activities for you as a teacher and in interviews or parent discussions. 1. Look at the first graphic provided that is entitled Phonological Awareness. Does this graphic help you understand the main idea about phonological awareness? How would you improve this graphic? Write a paragraph to answer these two questions and then create your own graphic to demonstrate your understanding of phonological awareness. Submit your answers to these questions and your graphic in your course's LMS. The rubric and assignment details are posted in the PA graphic document. 2. You are more than likely going to have to explain to someone, a parent or principal perhaps, what you know about phonological awareness at some point. It is important to know how to talk about phonological awareness to different audiences. You will create your elevator pitch for a parent and a principal. This elevator pitch will be a 1 minute video, one for each audience. You will make this video in FlipGrid. The expectations and grading rubric for this video are attached. Resources: All YouTube videos are Creative Commons Open License Children Image: Victoria-RuizVD: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 Lally, M. & Valentine-French, S. (2019). Language Developmental Progression. Life Span Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd ed. pp. 91-93. College of Lake County Foundation. http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/LifespanDevelopment.pdf. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Phonemic Awareness: One small, important part Answers to phonemes in words: cat (3), house (3), car (2), tiger (4), shop (3) Sounds which are short and have extra phoneme added to end: /b/, /d/, /t/, /ch/, /g/, /j/, /k/ Phonemic Awareness: One small, important part UNIT 1 OBJECTIVES: 1. The student will distinguish between the hierarchy of skills in phonological awareness and phonemeic awareness. 2. The student will evaluate phonemeic awarenesss activities for accuracy and developmentally appropriateness. 3. The student will share two resources for phonemic awareness. CONTENT: In the previous unit, you built a foundation of phonological awareness. One aspect of phonological awareness is phonemic awareness. These two terms are often confused and this can lead to misleading instruction. One way to distinguish between these two terms is to understand what the words mean. Phonological = study of language This is the reason all of our oral language skills are under this larger term. Many times you see it represented by an umbrella with all the skills underneath. Phoneme = smallest unit of sound This is a term centered around a specific concept with language skills. A phoneme is that smallest sound in a word. Close your eyes again. Forget about how a word is spelled. Take turns with a partner and say these words aloud and count the sounds you hear. Cat, House, Car, Tiger, Shop. How did you do? The answers are in the instructor notes. Look at the graphic below. This visual is intended to have you think about a phoneme as a single flower petal. How can you think about phonemes to help you understand it is an individual sound in a word? Create your own graphic using the remaining words from above. \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| One concept is important when thinking about the phonemes in words -- how to properly pronounce each of the 44 phonemes in the English Language. We document sounds with two back slashes on the outside of the sound. For example, cat would be /c/ /a/ /t/. Dialect and accents can make a difference in how an individual may voice the sounds, but there is one common error speakers make when pronouncing individual sounds of the English Language. An 'uh' is added at the end of certain letters. Can you think of some letter sounds in which it should be a short sound, yet an 'uh' is added at the end? Discuss this with your partner and be ready to share out with the whole group. Some possible answers will be in the instructor notes. To help prepare you to know how to accurately pronounce the different sounds in the English Language, watch this video in which each sound is modeled and explained. As you watch the video, think about what sounds you may struggle with. It may have been over 15 years since you have had to practice making the sounds of the English Language. Phonemic Awareness Skills: Specific skills are taught as part of phonemic awareness: isolation, segmenting, blending, adding/deleting/substitution. These skills are higher level skills than the previously mentioned phonological awareness skills in Unit 1. Each of the phonemic awareness skills will be explained below with graphics, some videos, and text. Isolation: \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Sound isolation, or phoneme isolation, can be a challanging task for young children, as with many of the phonemic awareness skills. You will work with beginning sounds first, then teach ending sounds, leaving the most difficult middle sounds to the last skill in this set. Some of the vowel sounds are tricky and sound similar to each other, making middle sounds a higher level skill. This is especially true for Spanish speakers and the /e/ and /i/ sounds. One game you can play is to listen to a song as a class and do an action each time the sound is heard in the song. We like to use sit down and stand up everytime we hear a specific sound. Pick your favorite song you can use for this activity and save it for yourself. Many songs have YouTube videos to watch, however, remember that the children should not see the lyrics. Watch the video above and learn how one teacher works on isolating sounds on her hands. Segmenting: \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Segmenting spoken words into phonemes is separating the spoken word into all the sounds heard. For example, when we say cat we will segment the word into the three sounds we hear, /c/ /a/ /t/. When we say shop, we will segment the spoken word into the three sounds we hear, /sh/ /o/ /p/. This can be a confusing skill for adults to manage because we tend to think about how a word is spelled and not just the sounds we hear. Here is a graphic to help you remember that phonological awareness, including phonemic awareness, skills can be taught in the dark. This will make sure that you understand to not use letters or printed words with your children. We will do another activity after discussing blending. Blending: \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Blending spoken phonemes into spoken words is bringing all the sounds heard separately back together to form a spoken word. For example, when we say /c/ /a/ /t/, the child should be able to tell us the word cat. When we say, /sh/ /o/ /p/, the child should be able to say the word shop. This is a fun exercise to use when lining up children to transition to lunch. You can say, "it is time for /l/ /u/ /n/ /ch/. Who can tell me what time it is? Yes, it is time for lunch!" Children love to guess the words and know they have to listen carefully to know what it is. Watch the video for segmenting and blending. What activities work well for you and your personality? Write in your reflective journal a minimum of three times of the day you can use blending and segmenting phonemes that is not your English Language Arts time. Phonemic awareness is a skill that is taught explicitly, however, it can be practiced throughout the day as well. Addition/Deletion/Substition: \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Now for the most difficult level of phonemic awareness skills for young children. These skills will not begin until the end of first grade into second grade. Phoneme manipulation involves addition (adding sounds), deletion (subracting sounds), and substition (exchanging one sound for another). This requires a strong foundation in the previously taught phonological awareness skills to master the highest level skills. What do each of these skills mean? From these examples below, you can see why these are more difficult. I encourage you to work on these skills with a partner on examples in the attached word study curriculu. addition: "I will add /h/ to the beginning of 'at'. Now I have 'hat'. I will add /t/ to the end of 'ten'. Now I have 'tent'". deletion: "I will take the /s/ from 'star'. Now I have 'tar'. I will say 'that' without the /th/. Now I have 'at'." substitution: "I will change the /sh/ in 'ship' to a /ch/. Now I have 'chip'. I will change the /st/ in 'must' to /d/. Now I have 'mud'." Selecting Quality Activities: Providing children with quality is just as valuable as you understanding the content provided in this module. Many times we can locate pre-made activities that do not address the skill, but are cute or fun activities. We can still locate or create fun activities that fulfill the greater purpose of teaching a phonemic awareness skill. Use the attached checklist to evaluate the two linked activities. Submit the two checklists in your LMS and be prepared to discuss your reasoning in a small group meeting. FCRR Feed the Animals Syllable Game Wrapping up Unit 2: You now have more information about the specific skills included in phonemic awareness. To ensure you have a good grasp of this content before moving on to the next unit, there are two asssessment activities to complete. These will both be useful activities for you as a teacher. 1. You evaluated two phonemic awareness activities and discussed your reasoning in small groups. It is your turn to locate a minimum of two phonemic awareness activities you can teach to young children. Use the checklist from your own evaluation to make sure these activities will be appropriate. Share your activities with the remainder of the class on Padlet with the link provided in the LMS. 2. Write a short reflective paper over your understanding of the phonemic awareness skills. Be sure to include how comfortable you are with the skills introduced and where you may see yourself struggle in teaching phonemic awareness. Submit this paper in the LMS. The paper will be graded with the attached rubric. Resources: All YouTube videos are Creative Commons Open License Feed the Animals Game. Florida Center for Reading Research. Guessing Game. Florida Center for Reading Research. Lightbulb image: Pixabay Open License https://pixabay.com/illustrations/light-bulb-idea-lit-inspiration-4514505/ Assessment Assessing phonological awareness is an important aspect of the reading instruction. Assessment results let us know what a child understands and what they need more development within. As with phonological awareness skills, assessements for phonological awareness skills are all oral. Children do not see any words, however, they may use manipulatives, depedent upon the type of assessment. The Phonemic and Phonological Awareness testGM document that is attached is to gauge your knowledge as a student learning more about these skills. This is not intended to use with children at all, but rather to see where you stand. Go ahead and take a few minutes to follow the instructions to see how you did. Emergent Bilinguals: Effective Instruction If working online, the charts can be created in an online format to share with each other. English Learners: Effective Instruction UNIT 3 OBJECTIVES: 1. The student will demonstrate basic understanding of language acquisition for English Learners, including the impact of dialect. 2. The student will demonstrate understanding of the speaking and listening domains when building activities. 3. The student will create phonological tasks, emphasizing explicit and systematic instruction for English Learners. CONTENT: You have been introduced to phonlogical awareness and the skills that fall under that larger term. This unit will look more closely at how to assist English Learners in their development of phonological awareness skills. Before we dive more into the instruction, you should know more about English Learners. Read this chapter below as an introduction to English Learners. After you have read the chapter, answer the two discussion questions in your reflective journal and be prepared to discuss in class with small groups. 8. Helping English Language Learners Develop Literacy Skills and Succeed Academically TESS M. DUSSLING Abstract The aim of this chapter is to provide educators with background knowledge on English language learners and information on how to better assist culturally and linguistically diverse students to develop the literacy skills crucial for academic success. Differences in social and academic language will be addressed, as well as theories of language acquisition and language learning. Recommendations to educators will be offered to better assist students as they become proficient in the English language while being exposed to new content in the classroom. The chapter also will draw upon the importance of including students’ previous experiences, along with embracing students’ cultural and linguistic diversity. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, readers will be able to - discuss how English language learners’ prior experiences influence how they learn; - explain different types of programs available for English language learners in schools; - describe the difference between social language proficiency and academic language proficiency; - explain the developmental stages of learning a new language; - offer suggestions for helping English language learners succeed academically. Introduction Today’s classrooms in the United States are filled with children who speak a variety of native languages and who bring great diversity, culture, and previous experiences with them. As schools become increasingly diverse, there is an urgent need to prepare all teachers to meet the challenge of teaching both content and English language skills to students. English language learners are the fastest growing population of students in the United States (Calderón, Slavin, & Sanchez, 2011), raising many concerns over how educators can best meet the needs of this diverse group of learners. School-aged children considered to be English language learners (ELLs) rose from 3.54 million in 1998-1999 to 5.3 million in 2008-2009 (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2011), and it is estimated that one in five students has a home language other than English (Gonzalez, Yawkey, & Minaya-Rowe, 2006). As the number of ELLs increases in schools across the country, educators face the challenge of providing instruction in English to students who are learning English while combatting academic achievement gaps. While the research cited and strategies discussed in this chapter are presented in the context of teaching English language learners in schools in the United States, educators in other countries can also apply what is reviewed when teaching English as a new language abroad. Who are English Language Learners? The definition of an English language learner is not a simple one as some students may have relatively no knowledge of the English language when entering the classroom while others have mastered many English skills and are now focusing on more difficult academic content. Terms used to describe English language learners do tend to cause some confusion as terms may overlap and change over time. In order to alleviate any confusion, some common terms and acronyms will be briefly explained for a better understanding throughout the rest of the chapter. English language learner (ELL) is a term used for a person learning English in addition to their native language. It is important to keep in mind that English language learners are students learning English while learning inEnglish. Throughout the chapter the term English language learner will be used as a way of emphasizing that the students are learning and progressing in a new language. This term is often preferred over others, as it highlights the learning aspect of acquiring a new language instead of suggesting that students with other native languages are in some way deficient. Some schools still use the term English as a second language (ESL), but that term may not be accurate for students who already have knowledge of more than one language. Often, ESL refers to the instructional support English language learners receive while in school. You may hear teachers or students refer to ESL class or ESL time during the school day. Certified ESL teachers may be “push-in” teachers, meaning they come into general education classrooms to assist English language learners, or they may pull English language learners out of class for more intensive English language instruction. English as a new language (ENL) is a term gaining popularity over ESL in some schools and teacher certification programs and is also the term used by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2010). Similarly, as a way of highlighting that many English language learners may have competency of more than two languages, the state of New York has changed Common Core Learning Standard terminology from English as a Second Language Learning Standards to New Language Arts Progressions (EngageNY, 2014). Other common terms seen in schools include English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as a foreign language (EFL), and English as another language (EAL). Limited English proficient (LEP) is the term used in legislation and state or federal documents to refer to students who lack sufficient mastery of the English language; however, it has been suggested by teachers and researchers that this term has a negative connotation and views the child as “limited,” when in fact, the child is actually acquiring new language skills. A subpopulation of English language learners who have experienced little or no formal schooling are referred to as students with interrupted formal education (SIFE) or students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). This group of ELLs has missed educational experiences in their home country due to a number of factors including the unavailability of school, war, or migration. It is quite possible that students with limited or interrupted education may not have a strong grasp of literacy in their native language and face a triple threat when entering schools in the United States: developing proficiency in the English language, learning grade-level subject matters, and developing and/or improving literacy skills (DeCapua, Smathers, & Tang, 2007). It should be noted that it is often much easier for a student to learn to read in English when they are already literate in their primary language (e.g., August & Shanahan, 2006; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005). Some researchers believe this is because students who are learning to read for the first time in a new language have to do twice the work since they are learning the process of reading while learning a new language (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007). In a large review of scientific research on English language learners in the United States, Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, and Christian (2005) reported that English literacy development is greatly influenced by literacy knowledge in the learner’s first language. Additionally, English language learners who are literate in their first language can draw upon strategies they already know such as making inferences and using prior knowledge to help gain understanding when reading in a new language. English Language Learners in Schools The academic performance of English language learners cannot be fully understood without considering their social, cultural, and economic characteristics, as well as the institutional history of U.S. schools (Jensen, 2008). As would be expected, there is a large range of socioeconomic status levels and parental education attainment levels among English language learners. However, English language learners are more likely than native English speaking students to live in poverty and have parents with limited formal education (García & Jensen, 2006). This is mentioned because it is important to keep in mind that the educational achievement of English language learners, like native English speaking students, can be impacted by a variety of background factors including family income, parental educational attainment, parental language proficiency, and family structure. It is imperative for educators to understand that children’s prior experiences can impact how they learn (e.g., Hammer, Lawrence, & Miccio, 2007; Konishi, 2007). There may be a tendency for teachers to lump English language learners into one group, expecting the children to act and learn in the same way. In reality, like native English speakers, English language learners come from a variety of backgrounds, cultures, and languages. ELLs are a highly heterogeneous group of students with diverse backgrounds, abilities, and needs. These children bring with them a range of experiences and varying prior knowledge. Children will develop language skills at different speeds, and teachers should be aware that they cannot expect all ELLs to learn in the same fashion (Harper & de Jong, 2004). It is also important to consider a child’s prior language experiences. Some children come to school with prior exposure to English, while others may not be introduced to English until they begin school. Children’s outcomes may differ depending on when they were first exposed to English (Hammer et al., 2007). Understanding students’ linguistic and cultural knowledge both at school and beyond school (e.g., first language literacy, oral proficiency levels, language(s) spoken at home, and prior experiences) can help teachers link new material and vocabulary words to things students may already know (Cummins et al., 2005; de Jong, Harper, & Coady, 2013). The amount of cultural and linguistic diversity in a classroom may vary depending on its location. In a metropolitan area there may be students from a great number of countries, representing many different languages, or a group of students that share the same native language if it is a location where many immigrants come to work in a specific industry or in a community that has recently welcomed a large refugee population. Each of these situations offers its own unique advantages and challenges. In a classroom full of cultural and linguistic diversity, English will be the only possible method of communication between a teacher and students. This will inevitably create a situation where students have no choice but to practice English often. On the other hand, if many of the students speak the same language, a teacher can embrace this by having the class note similarities and differences between the languages. Additionally, students can offer support for one another in their native language. Regardless of the composition of a class, it is important to remember that English language learners are not a homogenous group. As a reminder, even in a class where most of the students speak the same native language, they could have a variety of socioeconomic status backgrounds, may have lived in radically different parts of the same country, and could have vastly different experiences with formal schooling. For example, an English language learner in your class may have come from a country where students attend school for eight hours a day, five or six days a week, and prepare for competitive exams. Another student may have attended school in a refugee camp where classes with 70 to 80 peers took place in temporary shelters with little furniture. Educational programs for English language learners There is quite a bit of controversy about how to best ensure the success of English language learners. Policy makers, researchers, and educators alike have been trying to figure out what is the appropriate role of a child’s native language when learning English. A landmark legal case, Lau v. Nichols (1974), brought the issue of educational practices regarding English language learners into the limelight. Chinese American students challenged the school board in San Francisco, saying that they were not receiving appropriate educational opportunities because of their limited English proficiency. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the students, acknowledging the need to better serve English language learners. While the outcome of the case was an important legal event for bilingual education, it did not establish any specific bilingual policy. When referring to different types of educational programs for English language learners, it should be noted that there is a wide variety of both bilingual programs and English-only programs. Bilingual programs can encompass anything from dual language to early exit programs; while English-only programs may differ in the amount of help from the primary language they allow (Krashen & McField, 2005). In dual language programs, children are taught content in two languages throughout the school day, whereas early exit programs begin instruction in a child’s native language and then gradually transition to completely English instruction. In immersion programs, a child’s native language plays virtually no role. While teachers may use supportive strategies to help English language learners, a common feature is the exclusive use of English text. English immersion programs are being encouraged in several states due to adoption of English-only legislation. These laws require that all children be taught English by using solely English, with claims that children can reach English proficiency in one year’s time (MacSwan & Pray, 2005). For example, California, Arizona, and Massachusetts have passed laws with the intention to bar the use of primary language instruction for English language learners. These states have replaced bilingual programs with Structured English Immersion programs, which aim to expedite the English learning process by using simple English in the classroom with little to no attention on the students’ native languages (Gándara et al., 2010). All three states aim to have students in Structured English Immersion programs for no more than one year before they are moved to regular classes. However, evidence from research suggests that students need three to five years to achieve advanced English proficiency (Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2006). In their study on acquisition of English, MacSwan, and Pray (2005) found that only about two percent of children attained English language proficiency in one year. It has been suggested that since the United States has made an effort to maintain the dominance of the English language in schools, a culture has developed that defines students by English proficiency (Gándara et al., 2010). An example of this can be found in terms used in government documents and schools, such as Limited English Proficient, that focus exclusively on how well a student has acquired the English language. In contrast to English-only programs, bilingual education programs involve both the native language and English when addressing academic content. Bilingual education can refer to a wide range of instructional programs for children whose native language is not English with the goal of helping students acquire English so they can succeed in mainstream classes. In the United States, the most common bilingual programs offer instruction in English and Spanish, as approximately 80% of ELLs in U.S. schools are from Spanish-language backgrounds (Loeffer, 2007). Proponents of bilingual education believe that effective bilingual programs should strive to instill proficiency in both English and the student’s native language. In two-way bilingual programs, half of the students are native English speakers and half are considered English language learners. These programs aim to teach children more about language and culture and rest on the premise that diversity is a valuable resource. According to Krashen and McField (2005), “when it comes to English acquisition, native-language instruction is part of the solution, not part of the problem” (p. 10). A benefit of bilingual education programs is that children are able to further their language abilities in their home language while learning a new language. Studies conducted by Willig (1985) and Wong-Fillmore and Valadez (1986) found that benefits of bilingual education included improved reading and other academic skills, plus a recent meta-analysis by Rolstad et al. (2005) showed that bilingual education is superior to English-only programs by showing that bilingual education does promote academic achievement. Coppola (2005) stressed that knowledge gained in one language is available for use in the second language and that some language abilities can be transferred. A fear of English-only programs is that children will begin to lose skill in their native language. It is not a stretch to say that if children lose proficiency in their home language, they lose a piece of their identity. If students begin to lose their home language, communication with family members can become difficult, causing tension and disruption of family dynamics. Sadly, children may even begin to view their native language as inferior to English. Still, the hope is that bilingual programs will be adding a new language instead of replacing the native language with English. It should be noted that while benefits of bilingual education have a strong research base, a common argument against bilingual education is that many people have succeeded in acquiring a new language without such programs, fueling restrictive language policies in some states as mentioned previously. Academic and Social Language Proficiency Historically, literature has noted a divide between the development of social language abilities in English language learners and the development of academic language (Hawkins, 2004). Cummins (1979) coined the acronyms BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) to help explain students’ language abilities to teachers. This distinction helps highlight that many English language learners may quickly develop proficiency in casual spoken English but may continue to struggle with academic language and writing. Awareness of the differences between social language and academic language can help teachers assist students in all domains of language—listening, speaking, reading, and writing. When making the distinction between conversational or social language and academic language, Cummins drew upon work by Skutnabb-Kangas and Toukomaa (1976), who had been studying Finnish children living in Sweden. While the children were seemingly fluent in both Finnish and Swedish, they were falling behind academically and not meeting grade level expectations. Cummins (1979) hypothesized that there were two elements of language proficiency, one reflecting the ability to carry on conversations about everyday events, and another that was needed to comprehend school subjects. In one study testing this hypothesis, Cummins (1984) examined four hundred teacher referral forms and psychological assessments of English language learners from a large school district in Canada. Similar to what was found with Finnish children in Sweden, the forms prepared by teachers and psychologists noted that the children had no difficulty understanding English, yet they were performing poorly on English tasks in the classroom and on the verbal portions of cognitive ability tests. Since the English language learners appeared to speak English well, the teachers and psychologists assumed difficulties in class were due to cognitive abilities rather than linguistic factors and placed many of the children in special education. Cummins argued that English language learners may not necessarily have difficulties learning, but that there was the possibility that they had not developed the appropriate type of language proficiency to be successful in an academic setting. He believed that these ELLs had developed the ability to converse casually, but had not developed academic language proficiency. Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS), which are typically acquired first when learning a new language, refers to language skills often needed in social settings. Social language is the type of language students need for mingling in the lunchroom, on the playground, and in school hallways. Students may pick up on classroom routines quickly and learn essential vocabulary words such as water and bathroom. This is the type of language that is learned when there are many clues to aid comprehension. Background knowledge on the topic and clues such as facial expressions provide a context to understand this type of language; however, it can be easy to mistake the social ability that English language learners first develop for the type of proficiency and fluency necessary to succeed in the classroom. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to the formal academic language that is needed for success in school. In the literature surrounding the education of English language learners, academic language is thought of as the focus of the curriculum, textbooks, and formal instruction. This type of language is not part of a student’s typical vocabulary, yet is often required for lectures, reports, and other academic situations. When faced with academic language, students must be able to rely on the actual language, not clues, to make meaning. Introducing key terms before a lesson, utilizing pictures with new vocabulary words, and assessing background knowledge are all ways teachers can help engage English language learners with academic language. Cummins (1980) stated that BICS, language used in informal and face-to-face interactions, can be acquired by English language learners quite quickly and easily, while the more cognitively challenging CALP takes longer to acquire. Teachers are confused often when English language learners, who seem to converse with great fluency, struggle in academic areas. It is likely that this confusion is due to the fact that it takes much longer to develop proficiency in content material because it is much more demanding cognitively. The distinction between BICS and CALP is often shown using a picture of an iceberg (see Figure 1). The tip of the iceberg that we can see represents BICS, the conversational fluency that can often lead to mistaken assumptions about a student’s academic work abilities. However, the much larger portion of the iceberg is beneath the water, representing CALP, the academic language necessary for success in the classroom. Language Acquisition Theories and Application For teachers to effectively meet the needs of English language learners, it is important to have an understanding about the process of acquiring a new language. Research has long supported the idea that similar language and thinking processes are at play between acquiring a first language and acquiring another language (e.g., Dulay & Burt, 1974; Ervin-Tripp, 1974; Ravem, 1968). English language learners, like monolingual learners, acquire language through a series of developmental stages that form a continuum. This continuum is divided into levels signifying the proficiency level of the language learner. It is important to understand that while all English language learners typically acquire English by passing through the same series of stages, the pace of acquisition varies greatly. Students who are literate in their native language or who have had continuous schooling are much more likely to move through the stages at a faster pace than someone who is not literate in their native language or who has had limited or interrupted formal education. Understanding a student’s English proficiency level can help teachers plan appropriate lessons and assessments to meet the individual needs of the English language learner. Generally, English language learners have stronger receptive language skills (listening and reading) than productive language skills (speaking and writing), and their vocabulary will be stronger in whichever language they are exposed to the most often. An English language learner may know the name for a word in one language but not in the other language. For example, a child may know words for microwave and refrigerator only in Spanish because all prior experience with those objects occurred in the home with parents who speak Spanish. Conversely, the same child may know the names of school objects only in English because that is where they are exposed to them. Given appropriate exposure and opportunities to develop both languages, children can gain comparable abilities in each language. Theories about how people learn a new language are often derived from theories about how people learn a first language. Since first language acquisition is accomplished by children worldwide, researchers and educators interested in second (or third or fourth) language acquisition have often used first language acquisition theories as a model. Linguist Stephen Krashen believes that there is no fundamental difference between how people acquire their first language and how they acquire subsequent languages. However, Krashen (1982) does make a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. He notes that language acquisition is a natural process in that young children typically acquire their native language at home with no formal teaching. Acquiring a language is simply “picking it up” and being able to use the language in natural situations. When people have acquired a language, they do not need to think about the formal rules of the language. Instead, there is a subconscious feeling that sentences “sound right” or “sound wrong.” On the other hand, learning a new language includes understanding things such as grammar and the formal rules of the language. Krashen’s theories about how a child acquires a new language have been influential in promoting instructional practices that encourage teachers to focus on communication with students and that allow students to develop at a pace that is appropriate for their developmental stage. In their classic book The Natural Approach (1983), Krashen and Terrell first explored the stages of language acquisition and explained ways teachers could help with the process in the classroom. These naturally occurring stages, often referred to in literature surrounding the education of English language learners, are 1) pre-production, 2) early production, 3) speech emergence, 4) intermediate fluency, and 5) advanced fluency. An adapted summary of these five stages follows, along with approximate time frames, characteristics of each stage, and suggested instructional strategies for teachers. More information and summaries of these stages can be found on pages of websites such as ¡Colorín Colorado!,Everything ESL, ESL Base, and Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. The pre-production stage is generally thought to last anywhere from a few hours to the first six months when learning a new language. Often referred to as the silent or receptive stage, English language learners are beginning to understand the new language but typically do not engage in conversations. Students at this first stage may just be starting to feel comfortable in a new setting and may use nonverbal communication to respond to comments. It is important to keep in mind that silence does not necessarily mean that the student is not learning. The English language learner may be taking in a lot of information, but is just not yet ready to speak. Helpful instructional strategies include using real objects to illustrate concepts, role playing or pantomiming, pointing to pictures, and employing total physical response (TPR). The total physical response method, developed by psychologist James Asher (1977), coordinates language with physical movement to help students learn the target language. In early TPR lessons, students may learn simple commands such as stand up or clap your hands (taught while the teacher is standing up or clapping his or her hands). As students begin to develop a greater grasp of the language, the commands can become more complex and students can even give out commands for their teacher and peers to follow. TPR does not have to be limited to students at the earliest stage of language acquisition. Including body movements can help children of all language levels and in a variety of subject areas (Segal, 1983; Zwiers, 2007). It is quite likely that a student would gain a deeper understanding of vocabulary and concepts, such as how planets rotate around the sun by actually moving objects around a model of a sun. The same could be true for acting out an important event being taught in a history or social studies class. Early production, the second stage, thought to last six months to a year, is characterized by limited comprehension and the initiation of short sentences. Students at this phase are likely to grasp the main idea of topics but not every word spoken. During early production students may respond with one to three word groupings and begin to produce words that are frequently used. Teachers can help students at this stage by asking them yes or no questions during class. Granted, teachers are usually encouraged to ask open-ended questions to elicit more information from students; however, asking an English language learner yes–no questions during this phase may help create a low anxiety environment, help them feel more included in the classroom activities, and keep them engaged in the lessons. It may also be beneficial for teachers to rephrase statements using simpler vocabulary to boost comprehension. Speech emergence, lasting anywhere from one to three years, is thought of as a time of experimentation as students begin to learn more about vocabulary and sentence structure. Students at this stage often engage in trial and error as they initiate simple sentences. Teachers can help by providing language models for students to use in response to questions and by expanding the question format to include how and why questions. Students in the intermediate fluency stage begin to use longer and more complex sentences. At this time, students have typically been immersed in the new language for three to five years. Teachers can foster development at this stage by asking students to compare elements of language and focus on the similarities and differences between English and their native language. Many languages have cognates, which are words with shared meanings from common roots (e.g., curious/curioso, geography/geographía). Pointing out simple cognates can help increase students’ vocabularies and comprehension. This may also be a good time to point out false cognates which can be the root of some trouble in conversations for students. Examples of false cognates include rope and ropa, with ropa meaning clothes, and an even more troubling one includes embarrassed and embarazada (pregnant). During the intermediate fluency stage, teachers can also help students identify words they overuse, such as nice and good and build their vocabularies with more sophisticated terms. The last stage in Krashen and Terrell (1983) is advanced fluency, which usually happens between years five and seven of learning a new language. At this point students are beginning to converse and write in much the same way as native speakers of English. It is also during this time that students truly begin to grasp the academic language used in formal schooling, which allows teachers to focus more on abstract terminology and concepts. Knowing about stages of language acquisition helps educators understand that language learning is a gradual process and helps move some teachers away from the idea of avoiding presentation of academic content until students have a strong grasp on the language. Understanding the stages of language learning and where a student falls on the language learning continuum can help teachers tailor their lessons to meet the various needs of the students. Furthermore, when teachers understand an English language learner’s oral English proficiency, they can ask questions in a variety of appropriate forms, such as requiring a one word answer or a lengthy response (de Jong et al., 2013). Appropriately scaffolding instruction helps students feel challenged in the classroom, but not overwhelmed. Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of all learners in the classroom involves targeting instruction at each student’s zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a theory proposed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky explaining what a child can accomplish with support (e.g., scaffolding), compared to what he or she can accomplish independently. It may be helpful for teachers to think of this area as the area between what a student can do right now on their own and the point you want them to reach next. Teachers can help students reach that next area by providing support, guidance, modeling, and feedback to help them progress. Building upon Cultural and Linguistic Capital The rapidly changing demographics of the U.S. have posed extraordinary challenges for educators to accommodate the various needs of English language learners, including ways to promote the sociolinguistic, sociocultural, and socioemotional development of such a diverse student population (Li & Wang, 2008), in addition to teaching reading and content knowledge. To successfully address the needs of English language learners and to ensure their academic success, it is important for teachers to develop instructional practices that are culturally responsive and that build upon students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Gay, 2000; Li, 2008). For teachers to implement culturally responsive instructional practices, they must learn who their students are, where their students are from, factors that influence student learning both inside and outside of school, the types of resources available to the students, and appropriate strategies to facilitate student learning. Culturally responsive teaching is built on the notion that culture is central to student learning. According to Nieto (2000), culturally responsive teaching creates optimal learning environments by recognizing, respecting, and using students’ identities and previous experiences as meaningful sources of information. Language learning is complex and can be affected by many interrelated factors. How can teachers build upon the rich cultural and linguistic capital of their students? How can we expect English language learners to succeed in the classroom without bearing in mind how their cultures, languages, and previous experiences have shaped their background knowledge? Making connections to students’ backgrounds is one of the most important aspects of culturally responsive teaching. While building background knowledge is essential for all learners, it is especially important for English language learners who are learning content and language simultaneously. Whenever possible, programs for ELLs should support the child’s native language. This helps show value in the English language learner’s native language and ensures that learning English is an additive process and not one that results in losing the native language. Teachers must be able to understand the linguistic needs of English language learners and implement lessons that effectively meet those needs. Many teachers find it helpful to gain specific information regarding how much English their students use, when they use English, and with whom they speak English. Often, teachers may be working with children who may not yet have a strong foundation in their home language, making acquisition of English even more difficult. Young children in particular may not have completely developed many aspects of their first language. Additionally, it is important for teachers to know about students’ levels of literacy in their first language, levels of oral proficiency in English, and educational background. A case study by Rubinstein-Avila (2004) of Miguel, an adolescent English language learner who was struggling with literacy development, was able to show that even “students who do not necessarily conform to teachers’ notions of ‘academic applied pupils’ may possess a great deal of awareness about their own learning and be highly motivated” (p. 300). Although Miguel was a struggling reader at school, his literacy skills were crucial for life at home. He helped his mother with legal documents and by scouring weekly sale advertisements to find the best deals. Miguel also served as a translator, both written and oral, for his mother. Studies such as this one are crucial to the field to show educators that English language learners bring a variety of skills with them to the classroom and have a lot to offer. This study showed that the ways in which an individual uses literacy may not necessarily conform to traditional school views of literacy. It is important for both researchers and educators to be aware of the various contexts in which students use literacy. As English language learners are being enrolled in American schools in record numbers, educators must strive to provide effective learning environments that are developmentally and linguistically appropriate for all learners. Given that increasing numbers of students are coming from non-English speaking households, there is a need for educators to know about the needs of diverse students and to have an understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity (Coppola, 2005; Fernandez, 2000). Helping English Language Learners Develop Literacy Skills and Succeed Academically Research has shown that the process of learning to read is lengthy. It is recommended that all children, especially those at risk of experiencing reading difficulties, be exposed to print-rich environments that promote language and literacy growth (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Components of appropriate language environments for students include engaging them in conversations to foster oral communication and cognitive abilities. English language learners benefit from exposure to language modeling and may need specific developmentally appropriate strategies to assist the development of language skills (Oades-Sese, Esquivel, Kaliski, & Maniatis, 2011). Six years after the publication of the Report of the National Reading Panel (NRP; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), which excluded studies with English language learners, a large research review on educating English language learners was published. The National Literacy Panel (NLP) examined research on literacy development of English language learners ages 3 to 18 and included studies from around the world (August & Shanahan, 2006). The NLP found that English language learners who are learning to read in English, just like native English speakers learning to read in English, benefit from early and explicit instruction in the crucial components of literacy identified by the National Reading Panel—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (NICHD, 2000). According to Linan-Thompson, Cirino, and Vaughn (2007), there is growing evidence suggesting that many early reading intervention strategies that have been shown to be effective with native English speaking students can also be effective with English language learners. With the majority of English language learners receiving reading instruction solely in English (August, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008), it is important to continue to identify interventions that have been effective with English speaking struggling readers that are also effective for English language learners who are struggling to learn to read. Some adolescent English language learners may have reasonably developed language abilities, but still struggle learning to read. August and Shanahan (2006) suggest that it may be necessary, particularly for adolescent ELLs who cannot read or write in any language, to explicitly teach the basic components of reading, beginning with phonemic awareness and phonics. After adolescent ELLs have acquired the basic skills necessary for reading words, instruction can focus on comprehension strategies, fluency building exercises, and fostering greater vocabulary understanding through explicit instruction of words, word parts, and word relationships. In addition to knowledge related to language and reading skills, teachers working with diverse learners also need a collection of strategies and techniques to help meet the diverse cultural and linguistic needs of students. Students who are at the early stages of English language proficiency benefit from linguistic, graphic, and visual supports (Facella, Rampino, & Shea, 2005; Herrel & Jordan, 2012). For example, linguistic supports could include things such as opportunities to interact and engage in conversations, providing students with language models, and modification of sentence patterns. Examples of graphic supports would be providing tables or graphic organizers to assist learners. Graphic organizers, such as idea webs or story pyramids, are greatly beneficial to ELLs because they can facilitate an understanding of challenging concepts and ideas without the use of long explanations that may be confusing. Cummins, Mirza, and Stille (2012) advocate for the use of visual aids and graphic organizers as a way to scaffold academic language for English language learners, noting that this can enhance literacy engagement. See Table 1 at the end of this chapter for websites offering graphic organizers that can be downloaded. As a way of providing visual supports, teachers can use pictures or illustrations, manipulatives, and multimedia. Effective teaching strategies for ELLs as described by Facella and colleagues (2005) include the use of gestures and visual cues, repetition, and the use of real objects. Other useful strategies for teachers may include grouping ELLs with students who have strong English abilities, exposing ELLs to rich oral language, and incorporating their home language whenever possible. It is important to note that these groups and tasks should be purposefully designed and monitored by the teacher to ensure comfort and inclusion. While cooperative learning activities can be extremely helpful for English language learners, it is imperative that teachers scaffold these activities so that English language learners of all proficiency levels can benefit (Zwiers & Crawford, 2011). Teachers should also encourage parents to read with their children, even if that is only possible in their home language. As mentioned before, language skills can transfer and skills in one language can support language and literacy building in the other language. Many schools across the country use a framework known as sheltered instruction that incorporates techniques and strategies such as the use of graphic organizers and cooperative learning, as a way to help English language learners access the curriculum while emphasizing the development of academic language (Echevarria, 2006). The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model was developed through a federally funded research project (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2015) to help educators design and teach lessons aimed at improving the literacy abilities of English language learners. Additional research is still needed to specifically explore the effectiveness of the SIOP Model, since to date, no well controlled studies have been done to evaluate the model in comparisons to other approaches using evidence standards of research outlined in Chapter 2 of this textbook. Summary With the population of English language learners in U.S. schools continuing to rise, more and more teachers will be responsible for educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. English language learners come to the classroom with varying levels of English proficiency, various life and school experiences, as well as different learning needs. This chapter was designed to move through theory and into practice to help teachers engage all learners and design effective instructional opportunities for English language learners. A brief background of English language learners was presented, with an emphasis on language acquisition and learning theories. Information in this chapter provides educators with background knowledge and strategies to best meet the needs of English language learners to promote language acquisition and help them succeed academically. \| Resources \| Sponsor \| Weblink \| \| Bilingual (English and Spanish) website for families and educators of English language learners \| ¡Colorín Colorado! \| http://www.colorincolorado.org/ \| \| Lesson plans, teaching tips, and resources (including graphic organizers) for ESL teachers \| Everything ESL \| http://www.everythingesl.net/ \| \| Meeting place for ESL and EFL teachers and students from around the world \| Dave’s ESL Café \| http://www.eslcafe.com/ \| \| Collection of ready-to-use graphic organizers \| TeacherVision \| https://www.teachervision.com/ \| Questions and Activities - Suppose you overhear a teacher say that an English language learner in her class seems to have a strong grasp on the language because she hears him talking and joking with his friends at lunch and recess. She expresses concern and confusion over why he continues to struggle with the content in class. What can you say to this teacher to help her understand language development for English language learners? - Briefly explain how teachers can elicit responses and encourage classroom participation from English language learners in each of the stages of language acquisition addressed in this chapter (pre-production, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency). References are attached in document. Photo Credit - Photo by NOAA’s National Ocean Service, CCBY 2.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Iceberg LICENSE Steps to Success: Crossing the Bridge Between Literacy Research and Practice by Tess M. Dussling Dialect and Other Languages: A person's dialect can impact how words are pronounced, making some phonological task a little more difficult to assess. I always think about how Texans says certain words like get. We pronounce it as git. If you say 'Tell me a word that rhymes with get', but you pronounce it git, you will receive different responses. Accept the response if it matches how you said the word. Remember to focus on how to correctly articulate the different sounds in the English Language from the video in the previous unit. Watch this video to review phonological awareness and receive more information on how language and location can impact what children learn from language first. Explicit and Systematic Instruction: \| Leah Carruth, Creative Commons Attribution, Share-Alike \| Introducing a new topic to children can be a daunting task, especially if you do not understand the content yourself or if the children do not speak English as their first language. One proven method for introducing any new topic is the gradual release model. It is written out as the I do, We do, You do model because the teacher will explain and model the concept, work with the children on the concept, and gradually let the children try the task on their own. Watch this video about the gradual release model to help provide a building block for your understanding of this topic. You will use this method in creating two activities at the end of the unit. We hear the term explicit instruction in our trainings quite frequently now. What does that term mean to you? Discuss with a small group to determine what your working definition would be. Watch this video from Anita Archer regarding explicit instruction and how it ties into the gradual release model of teaching. Systematic instruction is another term you will hear repeated in literacy instruction frequently. How would you define systematic instruction to your peers and parents? Discuss with a small group and design a working definition to present to the larger group. Once the definitions have been shared, use your previous reading about English Learners to create a chart explaining how this approach is useful for our English Learners to engage in phonological awareness instruction. Strategies to assist English Learners (and all other students) Many strategies are available to help young children learn a task. When it comes to phonological awareness, some of the strategies are part of the instructional procedures already in place. Using pictures is one example. You created pictures to use in one previous activity in this module. Pictures are a great way to encourage participation from all learners. If your English Learner is not speaking so much yet, you can ask them a question and they are still able to point to pictures that show they understand what you are asking. Other strategies include: - Realia - using real objects in your lessons that children can touch while working on skills. Using baskets of items work for all of the skills in phonological awareness. - Visual aids - use visual aids such as graphics to help children understand the skill being taught. Movement - being able to move their bodies helps children internalize the skill. - Partner work - being allowed to work with someone takes the stress off the individual child. - Manipulatives - using a variety of objects, such as linking cubes or coins, help children have a concrete and visual representation of the skill being taught. Make sure to use items that are relevant to your children in the classroom. Beads are a manipulative that are representative among many different cultures. Stay away from using foods for your manipulatives even though it is popular to do so. Many children have food insecurity, meaning they do not have regular access to food, and it is disrespectful in certain cultures to 'play' with food. - Relationships - the most important strategy for any classroom setting. When you build relationships with your children, you learn more about them and that knowledge can be used within lessons. The manipulatives you use can directly relate to what children enjoy or have meaning to the children. When children know you care, they work harder, feel safe, and are more engaged in the classroom. Wrapping up Unit 3: Now it is time to show what you have learned throughout this unit and module. You have two tasks to complete, however, it does include multiple components. Task 1: Review the explicit and systematic instructional approach within the content of the unit. Open the Kindergarten and First Grade Phonological Awareness Activity documents. Within these documents you will find instructional strategies (explicit) and weekly lessons (systematic) for phonological awareness. What do you notice about the types of activities taught, how the skills progress, and when skills are taught? Look at the standards used by your state. In Texas we use the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills. How do these activities align to your state standards? Are they reflective of the phonological awareness skills addressed in your standards? Write a reflective paper or record a minimum of five (5) minute video answering these questions and anything else you may have questions about while examining these two documents and your state standards. Task 2: You will develop two phonological awareness activities, selecting a skill from two different columns on the chart below. \| Word Level Skills \| Word Parts Skills \| Phoneme Skills \| \| words in sentence \| syllable \| isolation \| \| rhyme \| onset/rime \| segmenting \| \| alliteration \| blending \| \| \| addition/deletion/substitution \| Using the provided template, you will create two lessons to teach your selected skills. Keep in mind explicit and systematic instruction as you create these lessons. You will add modifications for English Learners to the activities. Use at least two different langauge development stages below for your modifications. - Pre-production - Early production - Speech emergence - Intermediate fluency - Advanced fluency You may create these lessons in a format that best suits you as long as guidelines are met. Some potential formats are PowerPoint, Google Slides, and Word. The activities will be uploaded to Padlet for class sharing. A link will be provided during our meeting together. Resources: All YouTube videos are Creative Commons open license Dusslinig, T. M. (2021). Helping English Language Learners Develop Literacy Skills and Succeed Academically.Chapter within: Steps to Success: Crossing the Bridge Between Literacy Research and Practice Forsythe, G. (2012). Who are your learners? graphic, https://www.flickr.com/photos/gforsythe/8203776321	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.145165	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96643/overview", "title": "Oral Language and Phonological Awareness Development", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79140/overview	National income Overview The students will be anle to kow about the definition of National Income , concepts and Methods. This chapter was covered meaning, concepts and Methods.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.169064	SUGAPRIYA S.P	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79140/overview", "title": "National income", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113322/overview	Berlin Wall Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 12 A discussion of the Berlin Wall highlights the impact it had on separating East and West Germany, both physically and ideologically. The construction of the wall symbolized the growing divide between the communist East and the capitalist West during the Cold War. Although the Caribbean proved an important theatre in the Cold War in the early 1960s, it was not the only one. Throughout the 1960s, thousands of East Germans and other groups living behind the Iron Curtain migrated to the West, often through the free city of West Berlin. Worried about losing skilled labor, East German and Soviet officials slowly choked off migration to the West. On August 12, 1961, East German officials sealed the border with West Berlin. Over the next several weeks, brick walls topped by barbed wire, minefields, and a no man’s land sprang up between East and West Berlin. Although limited amounts of travel and trade between West and East Germany continued throughout the Cold War, the Berlin Wall essentially sealed both societies off from one another. Linked to the United States and NATO, West Germany became more capitalistic, individualistic and materialistic. Dominated by Russia, East Germany was characterized by single-party rule, state control of the economy, a police state complete with the secret police (Stasi), a controlled educational system, and constant inculcation of communist ideology. In summer 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited West Germany, including a trip to West Berlin. In front of the West Berlin Rathaus Schoneberg (city hall), Kennedy gave a rousing speech in which he declared, “Ich bin ein Berliner” (I am a Berliner). Although Kennedy primarily sought to show solidarity with a key Cold War ally, his speech helped cement, in the eyes of many Americans and Europeans, the perception that the West stood for freedom, opportunity and the future. In contrast, the Eastern Bloc appeared to be a closed police state trapped in the past.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.183764	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113322/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, Berlin Wall", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89210/overview	General Chemistry for Health Sciences lab manual 9: Acids and bases Overview This work consists of original text, adapted OpenStax content, and other Open Educational Resources (OER). Each image is attributed with the source page in the figure description, in accordance to each respective license. OpenStax content has been remixed into the “Theory and Background,” “Lab Examples,” and “Relations to Health Sciences” sections of this work. OpenStax remixing consists of rearrangement and minor instructional design augmentations. All other sections within this work are originally created content with adopted OER images, where indicated. Yavuz-Petrowski, O. (2021). General Chemistry for Health Sciences lab manual 9: Acids and bases (A. Perkins, Center for Online and Continuing Education, Ed.). Florida Atlantic University. CC BY-SA.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.201439	01/12/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89210/overview", "title": "General Chemistry for Health Sciences lab manual 9: Acids and bases", "author": "Ozlem Yavuz-Petrowski" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102578/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview My remix of the OER planning template. How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. My Project Plan My OER Goals & Purpose: Initially, my first thought was that OER had to be created from scratch. For me, this seemed like an impossible endeavor to find all these resources and then put it into a logical resource. However, I have quickly learned that this is not the case. OER can be a new resource, but it can also be handouts, assignments, question banks, or remixes of other sources. My goal is to continue to educate others that OER does not have to be from scratch, but it can be a remix of existing OER; with proper attribution of course. My Audience: I am currently not designing any OER content. Instead, I am the instructional designer for OER at my college. My audience is the faculty that I support. My Team: My team is everyone at my college. OER may seem like a process you do in isolation, but it does not have to be. It can be a team process with each member working on a specific part and supporting one another. Existing Resources: I am not creating any content, but I am looking at what resources are available in OER commons and creating my own resource folder. New Resources: None are needed, but I will continue to look for new resources. Supports Needed: As the instructional designer, I am looking for resources and training in best practices. Currently, I have been doing a lot of research on design practices for accessibility. I am looking forward to the In-Depth Look at Headings training provided by the grant. Our Timeline: I currently do not have any timelines. I will continue to reach out to faculty who are working on OER to see what assistance they may need. I am also going to send out training opportunities, like the Accelerated OER Academy, to our staff. Plan for OER I am currently not creating any OER. I am the instructional designer on the OER grant for my college. However, I am also an English adjunct instructor at my college, and I have used this time to explore the OER resources on the OER Commons website. One of the resources that I found that I will be using within my course is “88 Open Essays: A Reader for Students of Composition and Rhetoric.” I am always searching for new essays and resources for my students to write about and have discussions on and this is a great resource. I do not see myself remixing it, but I do like the information that it provides. I have also been exploring a lot of APA and MLA resources in OER Commons. I did find an APA/MLA Quiz Bank and Examples resource that I would like to load into my LMS and begin using it within my course. I do believe that my experience of finding new resources and incorporating them into my course is an experience that I can share with my faculty. We do not have to create OER from scratch or develop our own content. Rather, we can find resources and incorporate them. If we need to adjust a few things we can use the Remix button on OER Commons. Reflection While I may not be creating OER, I have a better understanding of OER and how it can be used for the faculty at my college. I now have more OER knowledge and what is available to me. I also know that I do not have to create brand new resources, but instead I can remix (with proper attribution) resources that are already available. For myself, I am looking into what resources currently exist and how I can bring them into my own classroom. My personal experiences are all something that I will share with faculty.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.224746	04/03/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102578/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Joshua Tidwell" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99263/overview	Inoculation Theory Overview A brief outline of inoculation theory. Intended audience: undergraduate psychology students. Think back to the last time you got a flu shot. You likely knew that flu season was coming and didn’t want to get sick, so you decided to allow someone to inject you with a small, deactivated segment of the flu virus so that your body could promote antibodies to keep you healthy should you encounter the real thing in the wild. Because of your foresight in receiving the vaccine, you were able to remain healthy throughout the flu season. Inoculation Theory posits that just as our bodies grow stronger with exposure to an inactive virus, our attitudes can become more resistant to change with exposure to weak arguments that are easily refutable. Inoculation theory was developed in 1961 by the social-cognitive psychologist William McGuire (McGuire, 1961a; McGuire, 1961b) at the University of Illinois. In a seminal inoculation theory study (McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961), participants were exposed to experimental manipulation, including either an inoculation or a control condition, during an initial laboratory session prior to returning to the lab two days later for a second data collection session. In the experimental manipulation period, participants were assigned to read or write about a cultural truism they supported (e.g., value in daily tooth brushing, efficacy of penicillin). Participants read either a prompt/essay in favor of their supported belief or a prompt/essay in favor of their belief, in addition to multiple weak arguments attacking their belief and counterarguments against these attacks. The type of message received by participants in the inoculation condition, containing both weak arguments against the held attitude and rebuttals to these arguments, is known as a refutational pretreatment (McGuire, 1964) or two-sided message (Allen, 1994). Messages received by participants in the control condition, without weak attitude attacks, are known as supportive pretreatments or one-sided messages (McGuire, 1964). Two days after the manipulation session, participants returned to the lab for a data collection session. During the data collection, participants read two strong counterarguments to the truism they initially endorsed, plus an additional counterargument to an unrelated belief. Following exposure to the strong counterarguments, participants exposed to two-sided messages (those in the inoculation condition) displayed greater levels of belief in the statement they originally endorsed than those exposed to one-sided messages in support of their stance. In the years following early studies such as the experiment described above, the literature surrounding McGuire’s inoculation theory experienced substantial growth. Indeed, meta-analytic approaches have supported the hypothesis that exposure to inoculating messages is associated with greater resistance to attitude change with a small to moderate effect size (Banas & Rains, 2010). Inoculation theory has been applied to protect positive attitudes related to health behaviors, such as the protective utility of vaccinations (Wong & Harrison, 2014) and engagement in safe-sex practices (Parker et al., 2012). Examples such as these illustrate the role that attitude inoculation can play in our society, but how can inoculation theory explain this phenomenon from a social-cognitive perspective? The main components of the inoculation model are threat, counterarguing, and refuting (Compton, 2013; McGuire, 1964). If a persuasive message threatens a receiver's perceptions of the security of a held attitude, it is considered threatening (Compton, 2013). Threatening messages can further be subcategorized into messages that contain both implicit and explicit threats. Messages that present alternative viewpoints or challenges to an existing attitude are classified as implicit, whereas messages that directly signal direct persuasion are explicit threats (Compton, 2013; McGuire, 1964). Exposure to threats catalyzes the individual to search for further justification to support their extant attitude or position, prompting engagement in counterarguing and refutation. Counterarguing and refuting is the process of compiling responses and rebuttals to the content of a message that presents a threat to one's position or attitude. Although McGuire’s early work investigating inoculation and many studies following incorporated refutational pretreatments to support engagement in counterarguing processes, individuals can engage in counterarguing organically without immediate prompting (Compton, 2013). For example, suppose you are debating a political topic with a friend, and they make a statement that either implicitly or explicitly threatens your extant political attitude. In this situation, you will likely engage in counterarguing processes to maintain a consistent stance - searching for gaps in their logic or engaging in additional research to support your own political attitude. Research examining inoculation theory has identified various persuasive phenomena that can be understood through the framework of inoculation. One such occurrence is spreading inoculation, which occurs when the content of inoculation messages spreads throughout a social network (Compton & Pfau, 2009). As noted by Compton & Pfau (2009), attitude inoculation increases both the accessibility of an attitude (Pfau et al., 2003) and the willingness to discuss the inoculated attitude (Lin & Pfau, 2007). With these factors in mind, inoculation of an attitude may lead to the inoculated individual sharing their attitude more frequently with others, potentially prompting attitude threat for others in their network. With the advent of social media, some researchers suggest the potential for spreading inoculation to occur through virtual mediums such as social networks (Compton et al., 2021). The generalizability of inoculation within inoculation theory is another area that has received much attention within the attitude inoculation literature. Throughout a vast number of studies investigating the generalizability of attitude inoculation effects, meta-analytic approaches have found no significant differences in an attitude's resistance to persuasion between novel threats to an inoculated attitude and the originally refuted threat (Banas & Rains, 2010). In other words, if you were to successfully refute an attack on an attitude you hold, that same attitude would be more resistant to change from entirely different attacks. For example, if you hold the attitude “Devoting resources to protect the environment is a worthwhile endeavor,” and you successfully refute the attack “Protecting the environment is not worth the economic burden it carries with it,” then your attitude will also be more resistant to novel attacks such as “There is only so much we can do to protect the environment, so why bother?”. Because of the generalizability of inoculation across topographically different attitudinal attacks, some scholars have investigated alternative persuasive strategies to circumvent the extensive inoculation many individuals build throughout normal social interactions. One such approach is directly targeting values that underlie cognitive architecture supporting attitudes themselves. Indeed, indirectly attacking attitudes through related values is more effective than attacking attitudes themselves, potentially due to the fact that underlying values are threatened less frequently than attitudes (Bernard et al., 2003; Blankenship et al., 2015). As we go throughout our everyday lives, our own attitudes and beliefs are constantly being put to the test. Through repeated exposure to threats and repeated generation of refutations, our attitudes grow stronger and less susceptible to change. Take a moment to consider an attitude you hold, thinking back to a moment when it was challenged. Were you able to successfully refute the threat? Do you feel that your attitude was stronger because of it? This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. References Allen, M. (1991). Meta‐analysis comparing the persuasiveness of one‐sided and two‐sided messages. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 55(4), 390-404. Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2010). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281-311. Bernard, M. M., Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (2003). The vulnerability of values to attack: Inoculation of values and value-relevant attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(1), 63-75. Blankenship, K. L., Wegener, D. T., & Murray, R. A. (2015). Values, inter-attitudinal structure, and attitude change: Value accessibility can increase a related attitude’s resistance to change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(12), 1739-1750. Compton, J. (2013). Inoculation theory. The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice, 2, 220-237. Compton, J., & Pfau, M. (2009). Spreading inoculation: Inoculation, resistance to influence, and word-of-mouth communication. Communication Theory, 19(1), 9-28. Compton, J., van der Linden, S., Cook, J., & Basol, M. (2021). Inoculation theory in the post‐truth era: Extant findings and new frontiers for contested science, misinformation, and conspiracy theories. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 15(6), e12602. Lin, W.-K., & Pfau, M. (2007). Can inoculation work against the spiral of silence: A study of public opinion on the future of Taiwan. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19, 155–172. McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(2), 327. McGuire, W. J. (1961). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(2), 326. McGuire, W. J. (1961). The effectiveness of supportive and refutational defenses in immunizing and restoring beliefs against persuasion. Sociometry, 24(2), 184-197. McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion. Some contemporary approaches. CC Haaland and WO Kaelber (Eds.), Self and Society. An Anthology of Readings, Lexington, Mass.(Ginn Custom Publishing) 1981, pp. 192-230. Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B., & Compton, J. (2012). Inoculation's efficacy with young adults' risky behaviors: can inoculation confer cross-protection over related but untreated issues?. Health communication, 27(3), 223-233. Pfau, M., Roskos-Ewoldsen, D., Wood, M., Yin, S., Cho, J., Lu, K. H., & Shen, L. (2003). Attitude accessibility as an alternative explanation for how inoculation confers resistance. Communication Monographs, 70(1), 39-51. Wong, N. C., & Harrison, K. J. (2014). Nuances in Inoculation: Protecting positive attitudes toward the HPV vaccine and the practice of vaccinating children. J. Women’s Health Issues Care, 3(6).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.242046	12/05/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99263/overview", "title": "Inoculation Theory", "author": "Matt Andersland" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93203/overview	Syllabus SOC 204A Mass Media and Popular Culture Syllabus: Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture Overview This syllabus is for a 200 level Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture course, that uses a combination of open-access and library licensed material. The course explores two of the most transformational and interconnected social institutions in contemporary society, mass media and popular culture. Material is included to analyze the social impact of music, film, television, social media, gaming, sport and related topics. The material also includes and annotated list of additional resournces and readings to help professors adapt this course to their own needs. Syllabus and Resources This syllabus is for a 200 level Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture course, that uses a combination of open-access and library licensed material. The course explores two of the most transformational and interconnected social institutions in contemporary society, mass media and popular culture. Material is included to analyze the social impact of music, film, television, social media, gaming, sport and related topics. The material also includes and annotated list of additional resournces and readings to help professors adapt this course to their own needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.261462	Alecea Standlee	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93203/overview", "title": "Syllabus: Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82202/overview	The Rational Planning Process Overview Activities to demonstrate understanding of the rational planning model and develop alternatives. Activity: Rational Planning Fill in the Blank Review the Decision Making chapter of the Fundamentals of Transportation. Use the information provided in the chapter to fill in the blanks for the flow chart below. Adapted from: Flowchart of Rational Planning and Decision Making Process. David Levinson, CC BY-SA 3.0 Activity: Rational Planning Alternatives Review the Thought Questions, Issues with Rational Planning, and Alternative Planning Decision Making Paradigms. Consider the benefits and drawbacks of the rational planning model. Use the resources provided in the previous modules and available resources to develop your own equity-based planning model.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.280269	06/10/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82202/overview", "title": "The Rational Planning Process", "author": "Tia Boyd" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67511/overview	Retail Banking Overview Service with a smile is today’s banking tagline for the customers who decide for nothing less. Retail banking is archetypal marketable banking where a customer makes use of nearby branches of generously proportioned commercial banks. The services presented are: providing saving services, verifying accounts, security assets, individual loans, debit and credit cards, etc.Nowadays, banks are looking for substitute ways to bestow with and differentiate along with their varied services. Clienteles, both corporate as well as retail, are no longer excited to get in line in banks, or stay on the telephone, for the most fundamental services. They require and foresee to be competent to handle their financial transactions where and when they wish to. Introduction to Retail Banking INTRODUCTION The origins of banking can be related to ancient times, starting with elementary money lending and bartering practices for rural products, cultivation and other commodities. After the industrial revolution which began in Europe in the 17th century, when Europeans started forming colonies all over the place in the world and the necessity for credit for exchange was felt like at no other time, from here it has picked up an incredible catalyst. Until late into twentieth century, banks began working similarly. But the entrance of the Internet in the 1990s changed it all. A surplus of potentials arose for Indian commerce, which obviously had a great influence on the working of banks. 1.1 Current Banking System in India The Indian banking sector is categorised into:- Figure 1.1 Banking System in India Source: RBI Banking Innovations and Creativity in India In the 1990s, the banking sector in India posed greater importance on technology and improvement. In order to provide improved quality of services at superior speed, banks have started to use the technology. Banks also took a keen eye on rustic markets and commenced a wide range of customized products and services focussed only to the particular needs of their rural clientele. Banking activities also surpassed their conventional range and new thoughts like personal banking, retailing and banc assurance were brought in. Client Needs Expedite the collection of receivables from across the country Electronic banking interfaces to automate disbursements Implement efficient account structure for concentration of funds Minimize excess cash and overdraft balances Sound MIS for effective planning and decision making End-to-end integration with bank’s interface & ERP systems \| Key initiatives by Reserve Bank of India (RBI): \| Figure 1.2: Technology Developments in the Banking Industry Drivers for change in Indian Banking: The various drivers which led to change in Indian Banking. Four reasons can be dimensioned to it: - Governments have enforced doctrines and plan of action based on an addition in competition with regard to increase skills and efficiency; it has helped in the outcome as for the beginning of big new financial institutions that functions at the same time in various sectors such as retail banking, wholesale banking, insurance, asset management and risk management mechanism. - With the emergence of new technology it can create an infrastructure permitting a participant to move out with a broad orbit of banking and financial services. - Due to increase in the competition, banks had to answer to the enhanced success-fullness of their clients and to clients’ arousal to get the high-grade transaction achievable. These drivers have forced banks to move in various spheres and provide variant services. - Development of customized product is now the major concern for the banks, as now the customers are more Cell Phone and they need their transactions to be accomplished at one place as one-stop shop. 1.2 Retail Banking Service with a smile is today’s banking tagline for the customers who decide for nothing less. Retail banking is archetypal marketable banking where a customer makes use of nearby branches of generously proportioned commercial banks. The services presented are: providing saving services, verifying accounts, security assets, individual loans, debit and credit cards, etc. A comprehensive and innovative banking system is necessary for continuous financial enhancement. Banking sector expansion and growth has gone from side to side uncountable twists and turns after the independence. Technical advancement has been enormously accountable for the quick growth and extends of retail banking. There is also a growth in the nature and the number of products being offered underneath retail banking. Retail banking has vast prospect as well as challenges in a growing economy like India. The Retail Banking atmosphere today is moving swiftly. The market these days gives us challenges to offer several and innovative modern services to the customer through a combined aperture as so to make sure that the bank’s customer gets “steadiness and constancy” of service delivery across time across all channels. Present-day Automated bankers now more seem at reducing in their operational costs by accepting safe technology thus plunging the answer moment to their customers so as to get improved customer care services. Retail Banking- Meaning Retail banking is the management of commercial banks with separate clients, both on liabilities and assets sides of the balance sheet. Fixed, current/savings accounts being on the liabilities side; and home loans, advances being on the assets side, are the more legitimate of the items advertised by banks. Related added services comprised are credit cards and demat services. Retail Banking- Characteristics Retail Banking Sector is characterised as: Figure 1.3: Characteristics of Retail banking Advantages of Retail Banking: Retail banking has certain merits overshadowing certain demerits. Merits are analysed from resource perspective and asset perspective. Resource Perspective \| Asset Perspective \| Retail deposits are steady and comprise core deposits. \| Retail banking effects in better capitulate and better bottom line for a bank. \| They are interest not sensitive and less good buying for added interest. \| Retail section is a good boulevard for funds consumption. \| They comprise low cost funds for the banks. \| Consumer loans are supposed to be of lesser risk perception and NPA discernment. \| Effectual customer relationship management with the retail clientele built a strong client base. \| Helps profitable revitalization of the nation through greater than before production activity. \| Retail banking boosts the supplementary business of the banks. \| Improves standard of living and accomplish ambitions of the people through reasonably priced credit. \| Effect of Technology on Retail Banking Latest developments in technology have created a spurt in “technology-based self-service”. Such developments are varying the way that service firms and consumers interact, and are raising a host of exploration and practice issues relating to the distribution of e-service. E-service is becoming progressively significant not only in determining the victory or catastrophe of electronic commerce (Yang et al., 2001), but also providing that customers with a superior skill with respect to the collaborative flow of data. The financial system globally has been facing a lot of changes. Mergers and acquisitions, expanded rivalry, deregulation, changing data frameworks and innovation, and HR with various capacities are simply a few ‘potencies’ that are prompting the banking commerce (Pereira, 1995). Technology is one prime ‘driving force’ currently in different businesses. It is thus important to discover the investments in technology and their effect in the bank business. Dabholkar (1994) states that when the customer is in direct contact with the technology there is more control with Internet banking. Nonetheless, if there is a non-attendance of direct contact, for example, with phone banking, it is expected that there is less control gathered by the client through this exchange. Bateson (2000) has given numerous investigations on the need for purchasers to have control amid benefit strokes of luck. When a customer simply picks the technology to use as a form of service delivery the effect is high in terms of quality characters. Some of the quality features that are very important to customers are efficacy and speed. Role of E-Commerce in Retail Banking Financial services industry over time has opened to momentous revolution that can be termed as e-developments which is progressing quickly in every aspect of monetary intermediation and budgetary markets, for example, e-money, electronic banking (e-banking), e-fund, e-protection, e-trades, e-expediting, and e-observation. The driving forces behind the speedy revolution of banks are influential alterations in the economic setting comprise among others innovations in information technology, automations in financial products. These factors make it complex to design a bank’s policy, which Dabholkar (1994) talk over how technology-based services have made innovative service delivery options accessible to organizations, making customer contribution more extensively possible. Customers make use of touch screen “kiosks” to request take-away food, although banks have comprehensively distributed ATM to withdraw money, initiate funds transfer, making deposits into accounts and performing any other transactions like balance inquiry, e-ticketing. Technological advancement have removed tedious, time consuming jobs, reduced human fault to banking related services. Technology also delivers customer information that it would be much more costly to deliver on a person-to-person basis. Cell phone banking services permit non-cash transactions to be performed from anywhere, which required a visit to a branch before (Prendergast and Marr, 1994). 1.3 Scenario of Retail Banking in India The Indian economy is on a dynamic development path and boasts of a steady annual growth rate, with rising overseas trade reserves and prospering capital markets along with the other factors. World Bank has projected the Indian economy to be amongst the top 3 economies in the world by 2050. Retail banking setup in India perceives a remarkable revolution in the samples of product creation and operation. The intrusion of consumerism has its usual trickle over result in terms of amplified necessity of retail banking products- cards, loans, tailored products and services. The retail banking sector has its routine slit out: keeping rate of knots with the fast flowing vicious surroundings, best practice of technology, growing customer backing by directing at rural India on the way to inclusive banking, getting healthier the customer service ideologies & intentionally calculating revolutionary products and services on the way to targeted sections. April 11, 2016 was an epic day for masses living in India. The government launched a digital banking system known as Unified Payment Interface (UPI) that permits people to transfer money easily to and from a bank account or to others by means of a smartphone. Although money transferring of this kind was accessible to people before that date, it wasn’t easily reached to everyone. Now, with the help of UPI, almost everybody in the country can open a bank account, save money and perform various financial transactions. So far, in spite of the range of financial services on offer, customers in an unstable and undefined domain will progressively need an intellect of durability and safety for their deposits. Due to the low dispersion of formal, planned financial services among households and small and medium initiatives, the prospects for financial mediators, mainly banks, continue to be very lively. 1.4 IT in Banking - A New Era The Indian economy opened up in 1991 and almost kept up a correspondence with the worldwide Internet revolution which had a double impact on the Indian private and public sector banks that were as yet obstructed in old methods for working. After the Indian IT administrations organizations began to slam against, it was simply a question of time before Indian banks entire heartedly secured innovation. This changed the approach for business process computerization in managing an account, which aided better client benefit, lesser handling costs and expanded profitability. The banking sector has clutched the usage of technology to service its customer's quicker with better service at one click. Emergent engineering science (IT) has denatured the banking industry from traditional branch based banks to netted banking services and digitization. Broadband internet was a cheaper source and it had made the movement of data effortless and fast. Technology has changed the system of rules and administration system of all banks. And it is now dynamical and focusing on delivering services to their customers. Banks are have now blossomed into a supermarket where once the customer comes, and get all the things done in his basket. From providing conventional banking services, banks have progressively transformed themselves into worldwide banks. The concentration is shifting from collective banking to People centric banking with launching of various products which are highly customized. Branches are on the job for 24 X 7 running with the adoption of Telephone banking, Cell Phone Banking, Internet Banking, ATMs, and E - banking. In recent times, we cannot think about the victory of a banking system without information technology and communication. It has inflamed the role of banking sector in the economy. The financial transactions and payment can now be handled quickly and easily. The banks with the up-to-date technology and techniques are more successful in the competitive financial market. They have been able to produce more and more business resulting in their greater success. Many empirical and theoretical studies have been carried out at the national and international level to study the impact of electronic banking and information and communication technology (ICT) on banking sector, shoppers, and administration quality and instalment system. The examinations mostly accentuation upon e-banking effect on efficiency and benefit basically because of core banking system, electronic fund transfer, real time gross settlement system and electronic clearing services. From the banks perspective Internet Banking arrangements are for the most part identified with cost reserve funds and Internet Banking stays one of the practical and more compelling conveyance channels. It is notable that there is a number of driving force inspiring the adoption of internet banking that have been suggested in the literature. Electronic banking is a greater concept than banking through the internet and the internet is a key delivery channel for electronic banking and its value to consumers and banks is constantly increasing. Before IT emergence in order to withdraw money people had to stand in long lines and to clear the cheque it took a week. The banking industry has journeyed a long way and it has been possible because of IT usage in banks. Banks have advanced with the emergence of IT which has led to reduced operational costs and increased productivity. Although banks has benefited from IT, but the major beneficiaries of this technology advancement are the banking customers. Some of the major transformations brought by the addition of IT and how it has profited the banking customers are illustrated here: - - Core Banking Solution (CBS):This term refers to the systems management of branches, which allows its consumers to take benefit of banking services from any of the CBS enabled bank branch, regulate their records, and, paying little heed to where the client keeps his record. CBS branches are between connected with each other. Hereafter, Consumers of CBS branches can exploit from different banking offices from some other CBS branch found anyplace around the world. CBS has computerised all core banking operations such as debit and credit of transactions, maintaining passbook, calculation of interest on loans and deposits. Advantages of Core Banking Solutions are Customer Convenience, Multi-device User-friendliness, 24x7 facilities, Improved Efficiency and Improved Relationship. - Automated teller Machines: An automated teller machine (ATM) is a computer operated telecommunication device that offer banks’ customers to make transactions self-sufficiently without the help of a banker. ATM works by put in a plastic ATM card which has a magnetic stripe and a chip that has customer’s card number and some safety information. - Smart Cards: It is referred to as plastic money. These cards have inbuilt integrated circuit in it which helps to reduce the requirement for paper currency. With the help of these cards customers can shop by swiping their card and the money gets automatically debited from their account. - Internet Banking: Internet banking is a form of information system that makes use of the advanced resources of the Internet to permit customers to influence financial activities in simulated space. Internet banking is a fresh specific banking area, which authorize individuals to communicate with their banking accounts virtually from anywhere globally. - MICR: MICR stands for Magnetic ink character recognition. MICR code is an innovation utilized primarily to process and clear the checks and other reports simple by the managing an account industry. In MICR the encoding line is at the bottom of checks and contains the archive compose pointer, bank account number, bank code, cheque amount, check number, and a control indicator. The innovation grants MICR per users to sweep and read the information straight into a data-accumulation gadget. Distinct barcodes and related advancements, MICR characters can be perused by humans. This innovation spares time required to exchange cheques from one city to other and the cheque clearing time has likewise diminished from 3 to 1 day. - Cell phone Banking: Nowadays Cell phone plays a vital role in e-banking. This technological service provide customers to view their bank statements, transfer money from one account to another and gives the complete control over their account through the use of Cell phones. Cell phone Banking permits the bank’s customers to perform a number of financial transactions via Cell phone or tablet. - RFID in Banks: Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a modern development in the banking industry for maintaining healthier customer relationship management. The New tech banks like YES bank, DENA bank use this technology for its customers so that it can give them a special treatment when they visit the branch. Customers using this technology have a RFID enabled chips in their Cell phones which help them to pay at shopping malls and other outlets by waving their Cell phones on the contact less readers. The money gets immediately debited from their personal accounts. - Digital Wallet: These days, carrying hard cash is not necessary as with the emergence of Digital wallets purchase of any type can be made with payment cards, and spending can be traced online. The major benefit is that it’s more secure than carrying hard cash in your pockets. Cell Phone Applications hold the payment and loyalty card data. BHIM app, Mobiwik, Paytm, Google Wallet and Apple’s Passbook are some of the most common applications. - Digital Cash: Digital Cash is also known as e-money, e-cash, digital cash which alludes to an arrangement in which a man can pay for products or administrations safely by the means of electronic gadget without basically interfacing a bank to assist the transaction. A Digital Cash dealing generally incorporates three kinds of clients: A Payer (consumer), A Payee (merchant), A financial relation between a Bank with whom the Payer and Payee have accounts. 1.5 Internet Banking Internet Banking or Online Banking is an alternative channel offered to customers who can access their accounts and make transfers or payments electronically via internet. Anywhere banking has made life of the customers very relaxed who can perform financial transactions at a click of the mouse. Internet Banking is an important terminology for the process by which a consumer may implement banking transactions by electronic means without going to a brick-and-mortar institute. The major concerns with Internet Banking services are safety and privacy of personal private information. With the usage of Internet Banking, customers can use varied banking services from bill payment, e-ticketing to making investments in various sectors. Concept of Internet Banking Automated banking experienced incredible growth in both developed and developing countries and redesigned the banking activities. E-banking commonly known as internet banking permits the customers to do the banking services online without going the bank branches. This is one of the innovative delivery channels offered in the retail banking sector, which provides services like viewing transaction details, transferring funds, paying utility bills, or shopping on-line via telecommunication network. Internet banking changed the traditional methodology of ‘bricks and mortar’ service to the ‘clicks and mortar’ service with the support of the internet (Chau & Lai, 2003). ICICI bank was the pioneer which introduced internet banking in India in the year 1996 (Malhotra & Singh, 2007). Other banks, which followed the legacy, are HDFC, Citi bank and IndusInd Bank. Nationalized banks of State Bank of India, Canara Bank, Allahabad Bank, Punjab National Bank, Bank of Baroda, Syndicate Bank, and others followed the movement by acquainting with internet banking. To study the different facets of internet banking. Three levels of internet banking services are presented in India: - Information only systems, - Electronic information transfer system, and - Fully electronic transaction system. There are two means to deliver Internet banking services to its customers. Right off the bat, an existing bank with offices which are physically present can create a website and offer Internet banking beside its customary delivery channels. Furthermore, a bank may be setup as a branchless, bank with no physical branch. History of Internet Banking Internet banking is alluded to as a facility gave by banking and financial establishments that allow the client to execute bank related transactions over Internet. The major advantage of Internet banking is that people can complete the banking transactions and services sitting at his comfortable home. With the use of Internet banking services, the account holder does not have to individually visit the bank. Many transactions can be performed by the account holder with the assistance of Internet banking. To handle transactions like record of recent transaction, balance inquiry, etc. Internet banking is very useful. The thought of Internet banking has been instantaneously sprouting with the progression of the World Wide Web (WWW). Computer programmers came up with concepts for online banking transactions who were at work for maintaining banking databases, during 1980's. The innovative process of development of these services was perhaps flashed after many companies started the idea of online shopping. The online shopping encouraged the usage of credit cards via Internet. Many banking establishments had now started generating data warehouse services to make it simple for their working staffs. Banking and finance organizations in Europe and United States in 1980's, started evocative researches and programme experimentations on the idea of 'home banking'. Primarily when computers and Internet were not so well established, 'home banking' mostly made usage of fax machines and telephones to assist their customers. The widespread of Internet and programming facilities shaped more open doors for the development of locally situated banking. 1.5.1 Features of Internet Banking Online banking services are offered by various organizations that comprise of many features and competences; however some of them are application based. The common features are as per the following: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1.5.2 Current Scenario of Internet Banking in India Internet Banking has become an important piece of banking system. The idea of e-banking is of objectively current beginning in India. As in early 90’s old-style model of banking was prevailing which is branch banking, but after 90,s branchless banking services were started. The IT Act, 2000 was passed by the Indian government with effect from the 17th October 2000 to inspect different facets of Internet banking. RBI has set up a commission to discuss on Internet Banking and the committee had focussed on three major areas of Internet banking namely- - Technological and security issues, - Lawful issues and - Governing and controlling issues. RBI had accepted the recommendations and commendations of the Working committee and thus issued guiding principle to banks to implement internet banking in India. The deep-rooted manual systems which were dominant in Indian banking for centuries seem to be swapped by modern technologies. As per the survey by AVAYA, Indians prefer to use digital channels to perform banking transactions, and will not hesitate to object for poor services. As per the survey report various conclusions were made which are mentioned below: - 51% of Indians use online banking channels to perform their financial transactions. - 26% of Indian customers choose to access services by their bank’s website, and the same number of customers would choose to use a Cell Phone app instead of talking to a bank branch person. - 37% of Indian respondents say if they had a bad experience while performing any financial transaction they will change banks. - One out of four respondents will share their bad experience on social media like Facebook, twitter. - 44% of the respondents would let their friends and family know about their issues with the use of banking app or website. - 93% of respondents are happy by the service delivery from their bankers. - 22% of the respondents have never confronted any problem related to customer satisfaction. - 47% of the respondents want to receive information on a new offer or service. 1.6 Cell Phone Banking While in India traditional branch-based banking is widely used way of conducting banking operation, at the same time commercial banks are experiencing a swift change majorly focussed by the information & telecommunication (ITC) technology. ICICI bank initiated in Cell phone banking services in India. Amongst public banks in India, Union Bank of India was first to announce Cell phone banking (Ali et al. 2010). Cell phone banking in India is as a concept is mainly used for two basic purposes, firstly, for fund transfer (transfer of funds from one bank account to another) and secondly, for merchant banking transactions (purchase of train, bus and movie tickets, among others). Henceforth, the speed in which cell phone banking is growing in India depends on the speed in which banks prepare themselves to adapt to Cell phone banking technology. Meaning of Cell Phone /Cell Phone Banking: In terms of guiding principle issued by RBI, ‘Cell Phone Banking transaction’ means undertaking banking transactions using Cell Phone phones by the bank customers that includes accessing their accounts, debit and credit to their accounts. Concept of Cell phone/Cell Phone banking: Cell Phone/Cell Phone Banking refers to the delivery and using banking- and financial services with the help of Cell phone/Cell Phone devices. The range of services offered to customers includes facilities to conduct banking and stock market transactions, to manage accounts and to access personalised information. The important reasons for which financial institutions offer Cell phone banking services to their customers are: - Reduced operating costs - Larger geographic divergence - Better competitive situation - Increased customer demand for services, and - New revenue prospects Organisation of Cell Phone Banking in India The structural diagram of Cell Phone banking in India is given below: Figure: 1.4: Structure of Cell Phone Banking in India 1.6.1 Current Scenario of Cell Phone Banking in India Cell Phone Banking in India has seen remarkable growth and it can be seen that it has risen 150 % in volume and Value of transactions has risen to 224% from the FY 2015-16 to FY 2016-17. According to the survey by ASSOCHAM India in their report ‘M-Wallet: Scenario Post Demonetisation’. In FY 2017, Cell Phone/ Cell Phone banking segment is projected to contribute a largest share in Indian Cell Phone payment market, with the widely held being money transfers. Its share in the m-payment is projected to rise terrifically from 8% in FY 2014 to 56% in FY 2017 in terms of value. Money transferrals using Cell phone banking and immediate payment system (IMPS)–where money is transferred instantaneously using text message or online banking has showed the highest increase in over 12 months ending October 2016. As per the India Spend analysis of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) data, Cell phone banking transactions raised 175%, while transactions using Cell Phone banking grew 369% from October to November. The development in Cell Phone Banking transactions has seen histrionic rise post November 2016 demonetisation, as large sum of people started choosing Cell Phone banking and other substitutes of digital payments. Amongst the major banks, the State Bank of India (SBI) has a great lead in terms of numbers in the Cell Phone banking space, with 45 % growth in the calendar year 2014. Comparing to 8.57 million customers in 2013, SBI customers transacted on Cell Phone is 12.5 million in 2014. In terms of transactional value, private banks such as ICICI Bank and HDFC Bank lead in the Cell Phone banking space. HDFC Bank has noticed more than nine times growth in Cell phone banking transactions in January 2015 in contrast to January 2014. The bank continued the lead position in Cell phone transactions with Rs. 4,906.86 crore value noticed in January. According to data from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), it had 1.49 million transactions in January 2015 as compared to 290,000 transactions in January 2014. The bank is followed by ICICI Bank, State Bank of India and Punjab National Bank with respect to Cell Phone banking transactions. ICICI Bank had transactions worth Rs. 2,224.97 crore, followed by SBI with Rs. 1,586.4 crore and Punjab National Bank with Rs. 1,440.61 crore worth of transactions. Graph 1.1: Value of Cell Phone Banking Transactions Source: RBI The Major areas of concern of using Cell Phone banking: - Rapid growth. Cell phone banking and payments will constantly change, and the expectations among safety and cell phone experts are that the Cell phone channel will shortly become consumers' main financial-services platform. As the channel is useful and can be tailored, users will transfer from PC banking and payments to Cell phone. And the more Cell Phone users, the bigger the security threat. - Need for new security controls. Because the Cell Phone risk area is growing at a higher pace therefore Security measures need to be taken to improve security. - More players, more risks. The Cell Phone system depends on a number of players, many of which fall outside the scope of core financial services. Device making companies, operating systems, application developers and network operators all are involved. And all they need is to address security. - Privacy issues. Emergent Cell Phone confidentiality issues, such as those turning around Geo-location, will become more serious. As more Cell Phone technologies arise, institutions will have to provide stability to customer and member ease with safety and fraud stoppage. - Role of consumers. Financial institutions must progress approaches to educate their customers and members about vigorously handling their own Cell Phone-device security. - Insecure Information. There are some risks involved in Cell Phone banking. Retrieving financial services over Cell Phone banking involves submitting personal information via text message. Hackers via unsecured Wi-Fi hot spots can read and alter those messages. Other risks involved are that the banks are not investing enough amount and time in encryption security of its technology. - Governing Issues. Banking institutions hire telecom agents to install and maintain their Cell Phone banking services. The use of self-governing or franchised telecom agents makes it hard for a country’s central bank to control banking operations to have a general set of standards. This means that different banks can create different Cell Phone banking rules, use inferior banking security software and levy high fees for Cell Phone banking. - Coverage. One of the major challenges of Cell Phone banking is network coverage. Throughout the country there are a number of telecom service providers, but there is not essentially countrywide coverage for these providers. Bank users may not understand this and can close up with a large cell phone bill full of charges. - Viruses. Banking institutions must make sure that their channels are secured by a protected layer to confirm the safety of their consumers’ information. Though, some Cell Phones are very susceptible to bugs such as Trojans. These viruses provide hackers the chance to retrieve your banking information via your Cell Phone. - Security. Security can be an issue with Cell Phone banking although there are a number of government regulations with which cell phone providers must comply. Fraud protection must be developed within the cell phone company. Network security is out of the control of the bank as well as data access and use. 1.7 Benefits of Internet and Cell Phone Banking Internet and Cell Phone banking functions in the same way as traditional banking excluding that it provides to its customers the chance to access information of their accounts, to make payments or settlements performed in the accounts at any definite time with no prerequisite to be physically presented at the Bank branch. According to various studies Internet banking and Cell Phone banking is becoming more well-known because of the benefits it provides. Here are the benefits of Internet and Cell Phone banking for bankers and their customers: 1. With Internet and Cell Phone banking, there is no time limitation to bank hours or local locations. The web is available 24/7, which means be where (and when) your customers want you. 2. Improved Customer Service: Internet and Cell Phone banking allows customers to make various financial transactions like transfers between accounts, handling bill payments, or currency exchanges whether they’re on a sofa or in an aircraft. Internet and Cell Phone Banking reduces the traffic that the bank team struggles with in a physical location. 3. Reduced Customer Concern: While customers are muddled or feel distressed about their financial details, Internet and Cell Phone banking is a helping hand. By giving users permission to access their account anytime online via web, bank keep their customers up-to-date and informed with their individual record-keeping. 4. Paperless Statements: With Internet and Cell Phone banking, some customers choose for paperless statements. From the customer’s viewpoint, they get the handiness of their updates looking in their mails. Bankers can save money on physical printing and posting. The environment also smiles with less wasted paper. 5. Have a Complete View of Customers: Internet and Cell Phone banking helps to know customers well. When the banker assimilate the Internet and Cell Phone banking solution with the present backend solutions {such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software}, a banker gain a combined view of their customers that permits to aim them with tailored content and proposals. The user’s individual profile and account information is combined to give a complete view of what their wants are. 6. Location-based Services: Cell Phones have the capability to identify a user’s location, and this is data that Cell Phone banking solution has permission to. This is used for added security. For example, if an online enquiry occurs for a Chennai account from a Cell phone in Bhopal, bank site initiates a series of authorizations, possibly even direct contact, to safeguard the account of the customer. The location services help customers to identify their closest local branch. 7. Leverage SMS Messages: One more advantage of Cell phone banking for customers is the facility of receiving banking alerts on their cell phone. Whether targeting the customers with personalized promotions or giving them routine updates, banker address their customers more precisely by sending them direct messages. 8. Track Rewards and Customer Loyalty Programs: Internet and Cell Phone banking gives an outstanding chance to boost customer retention and attracting new customers. Customer loyalty programs are easy to track when the points and rewards are computerized and joined with the users’ online profiles. 9. Customer Service: Sometimes self-service isn’t enough, Customers want help from an actual person. With online chat and email facilities, Bankers keep their customers satisfied without bothering them to take out time and visit a physical bank location and stand in line. With all these benefits, Internet and Cell Phone banking have the prospects to increase bank’s own competence though exponentially growing the customer experience. And if the customers are satisfied today, Banks don’t have to wait for the future to reap the rewards. 1.8 Few Initiatives Taken By the Banks in Technology Space There are various initiatives which has been introduced by Indian banks with the emergence of technology in banking sector. The few initiatives are discussed below: - To improve its service quality, SBI has deployed web-based portal where customers can register all kind of complaints. - BoB has taken initiatives like windows server/desktop virtualization and backup consolidation to ensure optimization of resources. (e-TDS) module and leave module to improve its service delivery and efficiency. - PNB has done necessary up gradation to make its technology platform more stable, robust and improve quality of assets. - Canara Bank has undertaken several technology initiatives like internet banking, Cell Phone banking, online fund transfer, passbook printing self-service kiosk and financial supply chain management facility for corporate customers (for working capital finance). - Branding itself as modern tech savvy banks, BoI has implemented many technology based customer centric facilities like online nomination facility, banking through Cell Phone service, implementation of school fee module, self-service kiosk, barcode enabled passbook printing, viewing of public provident fund (PPF) account online and online application for education loans. - ICICI Bank has leveraged technology to improve customer quality, convenience and reduce customer complaints to enrich customer experience. - New initiatives like Click2Call and ‘Your Bank Account’ application on Facebook have demonstrated the bank’s focus on technology. - HDFC Bank has automated credit underwriting process and has enhanced its cross-selling and up- selling capabilities through the implementation of data mining and analytical customer relationship management solutions. - Axis Bank has made significant investments in making scalable and robust technology platform. The bank has launched the business process management system to improve operational efficiencies. Server virtualization and storage centralization have been put in place to ensure optimal utilization of resources. - IIBs advancements like cash on-Cell Phone, direct associate and fast reclaim benefit have helped the bank in giving better consumer loyalty and expanding its purchaser base. - Indian Government is empowering computerized exchanges forcefully. The launch of Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) and United Payments Interface (UPI) by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) are brilliant progress tools for computerized transformation in the space of Payment Systems. Under this study four major banks are studied and their innovative Electronic Banking services are discussed below: 1.9 State Bank of India (SBI) State Bank of India is the biggest bank of India with a network of 15000+ branches and 5 associate banks across India. State Bank of India (SBI) gives an extensive banking products and services to manufacturers, entrepreneurs and their clienteles. 1.9.1 Retail Internet Banking Services by SBI Figure 1.5: Internet Banking Services Provided by SBI 1.9.2 Corporate Internet Banking State Bank of India is offering a world class services to Corporate Customers through the portal www.onlinesbi.com. CINB facility of SBI allows the corporate customer to carry out banking activities which are as follows: Figure 1.6 Corporate Internet Banking Services Provided by SBI 1.9.3 The new initiatives of SBI - State Bank Anywhere Personal: State Bank Anywhere Personal is a cell phone banking app for its retail users. It has various features like safety, convenience and easy to use app which help users to maintain their banking on the move. APP is available in Google Play Store, iOS App store and Windows marketplace. - State Bank Secure OTP: This is an OTP generation App which confirms the transactions done by both State Bank Internet Banking and State Bank Anywhere App. - State Bank Anywhere Saral : This APP is simple transactional product introduced for: - single user friendly - for sole proprietorship concerns - For micro enterprises or distinct entrepreneurs - People who need online dealings facility in their commercial accounts. Features of State Bank Anywhere Saral \| \| \| \| - State Bank Anywhere Corporate' : State Bank Anywhere Corporate' is the service accessible on Mobile phones for: Figure 1.7: State Bank Anywhere Corporate by SBI - SBI Quick – Missed Call Banking: It is the new service which includes Banking by giving a Missed Call or sending an SMS with pre-decided keywords to pre-decided numbers. This service can only be started for the Cell number which is at present registered for a specific account with the Bank. - State Bank MobiCash: State Bank MobiCash State Bank of India in relationship with BSNL has propelled a Mobile Wallet known as MobiCash. It offers services like reserve exchange, payment of bill, mini statement, enquiry. This wallet can be utilized as a part of self-mode alongside helped mode with the assistance of BSNL CSPs. It can be progressed to Full-KYC wallet, which gives more noteworthy transaction limits and money withdrawal. Features of State Bank MobiCash – \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - State Bank Buddy: State Bank Buddy is one more mobile wallet on Smartphone which is introduced by SBI. It is also named as semi-closed prepaid wallet. The benefit of this wallet is to transfer money to other wallet users and bank accounts, anytime, anywhere. - State Bank mCASH : A simple, stress-free and quick method to claim funds using mobile number or e-mail id sent by SBI customers through Internet Banking. Features of Mcash – Figure 1.8: Features of State Bank CASH - State Bank of India SMS Banking: State Bank of India SMS Banking service is accessible on all smartphones. Customers just need to send keywords [SMS to 9223440000]. - “BHIM SBI Pay”: “BHIM SBI Pay” APP which allow a payment solution that authorise an account holders of Banks contributing in UPI to send and receive currency from their phones with a simulated payment address of the identifier. - State Bank of India 99#: State Bank of India 99# unifies USSD system with highly practical UPI platform. - State Bank No queue: One of the exclusive App to allow customers to book a Virtual Queue Ticket (e-Token) for specific services at particular SBI branches. Customers can generate e-Token beforehand reaching the branch, consequently evading waiting in the queue at the branch and saving time. Features of State Bank No queue - \| \| \| \| Figure 1.9: Features of State Bank No queue - State Bank of India Finder: This APP directs to search State Bank ATM, Branches, CDMs, Address /location of other Cash providing touch points and State Bank Customer Service Point (Cash@CSP) with ease of use of Cash can also be discovered. A customer can set either his/her current location as took through GPS or can set location manually also. Categories: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - SBI’s YONO : YONO stands for You Only Need One is a unified digital banking platform which allow users to access both type of services: 1. financial 2. other services Presently, YONO is available as a phone app for both Android and iOS. 'YONO' allows customers to instantaneously open accounts, carry out transactions, apply for loans and perform online shopping- altogether in one APP. Some of its important e-commerce partners comprise Amazon, Myntra, Jabong, Shoppers Stop, Uber, Ola, Cox & Kings, Yatra, Airbnb, Thomas Cook, Swiggy and Byjus, among others. 1.10 Punjab National Bank Punjab National bank was India’s first Swadeshi Bank, which started its activities on April 12, 189 from Lahore, with an approved capital of Rs. 2 lac and working capital of Rs. 20,000. The visionary forecaster and patriot’s demonstrated courage in offering face to the soul of patriotism by framing the first bank oversaw by the Indians. Amid the long history of more than 121 years of the Bank, 7 banks have converged with PNB and it has turned out to be more grounded and more grounded with a system of 6809 branches and 9669 ATMs as on 30th June16. 1.10.1 PNB Retail Internet Banking Punjab National Bank (PNB) enables its clients to utilize the internet banking office from anyplace whenever, to do basic, helpful, and snappy procedure of banking. 1.10.2 E- banking facilities provided by PNB Figure 1.11: E- Banking Facilities Provided by PNB - OTP Based Aadhaar Seeding and Authentication of Accounts: As far as Prevention of Money Laundering (Maintenance of Records) Second Amendment Rules, 2017, all records should be aadhaar linked and confirmed with biometric facility. - PNB Aadhaar Pay: A digital payment resolution which dealswith the PNB Individual or Sole Owner having Aadhaar Number to obtain payments for goods or services using android phone and Biometric scanner from customers having Aadhaar linked with bank account after Biometric verification from Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI). - Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) :Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) is established by the National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI). BHIM is inter-operatable with other Unified Payment Interface (UPI) applications, and bank accounts. - PNB Kitty :PNB Kitty is secured, quick and useful. By using PNB Kitty, all the payments can be made on a single click. Figure 1.12: Functions of PNB Kitty - PNB Mobile Banking: PNB has introduced the mobile banking facility which is known as PNB Mobile for hassle free transaction for its clients. It is quick, convenient and easy, mobile banking services can be availed on various types of mobile and it offers customers the choice of carrying out banking transactions, aids in fund transfers and can schedule forthcoming transactions as well. 1.11 ICICI BANK ICICI is one of the multinational banking and financial services provider organization. Being India's biggest private segment bank, ICICI Bank has add up to resources of Rs. 7,206.95 billion (US$ 109 billion) at March 31, 2016 and profit after assessment Rs. 97.26 billion (US$ 1,468 million) for the year ending March 31, 2016. ICICI Bank is right now having a system of 4,501 Branches and 14,271 ATM's crosswise over India. It is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Figure 1.13 Range of Financial Products and Services 1.11.1 The new initiatives at ICICI Bank 1. 24x7 Electronic Branches: ICICI Bank has started 24x7 electronic branches which are one-stop search for all banking transactions. Clients can execute their account activities without anyone else, with the assistance of different automated devices and booths. Electronic branch of ICICI offers: Figure 1.14 Range of e-services Offered by ICICI 2. Tab Banking: ICICI Bank has launched an Application named as Tab Banking, which gives a prospective client the ease of opening his/her, bank account at his/her home or workplace. 3. Bank-on-the-Move: A new instrument announced by ICICI Bank, in keeping with its promise to reach out and enable banking in areas where there are no branches and ATMs. Bank on move provide customers to avail various services like Figure 1.15 Range of e-services Offered by Bank on Move 4. Help-on-Tab: ICICI Bank has launched Help-on-Tab to enhance the experience for day-to-day banking, that permits its branch staff to pre–process clients’ transactions till the time clients are coming up to get serviced in the branch. 5. Smart keys – Transfer Money While Chatting Smart Keys : iMobile Smart Keys which helps to transfer funds while chatting. It is one of the new features of iMobile, which allows customer to perform Mobile Banking on smartphone’s keyboard. There is no need to switch between the apps or disturb your chat, rather it helps to transfer funds quickly. 6. E-Locker: Figure 1.16 Features of E-Locker 7. 'Touch &Pay':A new mobile payment solution 'Touch & Pay' that facilitates to make protected contactless payments at retail stores using Cell phones. Touch & Pay a Pockets app just give a feature to pat your cell phone at a NFC (Near Field Communication) enabled merchant terminal and make the payment through linked ICICI Bank Debit/Credit Card. 8. Voice Biometric: Remembering passwords is one of the most difficult task, so with this service, voice will act as password for performing all banking related transactions through ICICI call centres. The procedure includes as start communicating with phone banking employee, after that Voice Biometric service of ICICI gives a highly protected phone banking experience. 9. EftCheques : EftCheques permits a quick and simple way of transferring funds without losing out the physical cheque writing experience. This app enables to inscribe a virtual cheque to any individual from your phonebook. The receiver will on the spot receive a web-link via SMS which can be encashed into any bank account with choice of the customer. 10. Contactless Cards: ICICI Bank Contactless Credit and Debit Cards has a different feature of in-built NFC technology that lets customer to make protected and fast payments without the necessity to enter pin, customer need to touch card on the reader and the payment will be made. 11. UPI: This APP of ICICI, in which one can send and receive money using customer’s own name. With Unified Payment Interface (UPI) on iMobile or Pockets app create a virtual payment address of one’s choice (For example: charu@icici) and then link your bank account to send or receive money fast. There is no need of bank details like account number, IFSC etc. 12. Express Home Loans : Express Home Loans is being launched for providing rapid home loan services to customers by just applying at icicibank.com, then need to, upload all the necessary documents and get the home loan approved online within 8 working hours. 13. InstaBanking: This app agrees to initiate transactions through your cell phone at your suitability - anytime, anywhere. The procedure for the same is as follows: Figure 1.17: Procedure to do Insta Banking 14. Positive Pay :ICICI is providing a unique facility for its customer to use Positive Pay on iMobile app to send the particulars of the cheques with their pictures to bank before one handovers the cheque to the receiver. Bank will honour the cheques only when the details match with the physical cheques. This app gives safety to its customer for payments. 15. ‘MeraiMobile’ :This App assist its customer to save their time and cost of going to a branch to avail banking services. This app helps to carry out a range of regularly used banking services from their Smartphone, without using mobile internet services. 16. ‘iMobile’ : The ‘all new iMobile’ has best-in-class safety features. It allows the customers the facility of dual login, connect with the Bank’s call centre from or within the app without any additional verification, withdrawing cash from an ATM devoid of using a card, tag recurrent transactions as preferences, view collective details of all accounts in the application itself along with receiving alerts from Google Now. 17. Digital locker: DIGI Locker is an inventiveness of Department of Electronics & Information Technology (DEITY) under Ministry of Communications & IT, Government of India. . This initiative is in support of the Digital India programme to decrease needless consumption of paper, time and human efforts. 18. Pockets :It is a VISA-powered e-wallet that can be utilized by any customer of any bank, which is utilized to recharge mobile, send money, shop anyplace, pay bills and more. 1.12 HDFC HDFC Bank was incorporated in August 1994. It is India's one of the housing finance company. In a limited capacity to focus time HDFC has developed in three principal business fragments as a main player in retail banking, wholesale banking, and treasury operations. As of September 30, 2017, the Bank had a nationwide dispersion organize 4,729 branches and 12,259 ATM's in 2,669 urban communities/towns. Advanced in 1995 by Housing Development Finance Corporation (HDFC). 1.12.1 Some activities that can be done with Net Banking : \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1.12.2 Digital banking products HDFC Bank has introduced a multitude of very effective digital banking products. Figure 1.18 Digital Banking Products Offered by HDFC Powerful Net Banking portal and Mobile Banking app of HDFC allows customers to perform above 205 and 90 diverse types of transactions. - 30-minute paper-less Auto Loans using Biometric technology: HDFC Bank has propelled an auto loan that is dispensed in only 30 minutes utilizing biometric technology. It is available for HDFC Bank clients, and also others. With this technology-enabled solution, loans for two-wheelers can likewise be sanctioned inside 15 minutes. As of FY 2014-15, 63% of all exchanges at HDFC Bank are led through advanced digital channels. - 10-second Personal Loan on Net Banking: HDFCs 10 second individual credit is for current clients. Banks claim that they will not only approve the loan instantly, but the loan will be disbursed to the applicant’s account without any delay. Although this loan is just a click away, it is advisable to have a repayment plan ready before applying for it. - PayZapp: HDFC Bank PayZapp, a payment solution APP, giving customer the right to pay on One Click. Features of PayZapp: Figure 1.19 Features of PayZapp - Chillr: A mobile app which permits customers to immediately transfer money to any contact in their phone book 24×7 as it is connected to customer's bank account. The bank has combined with MobME, a Kochi-based technology firm, to unveil this app. - LITE App: For using this App one do not require any Internet connection, also doesn’t need too much space on phone and is fast to install, even over slow connections. No need of a Login ID / Password. Then too it is secure App as it works only from your mobile number that’s registered with the bank. - Missed Call Recharge: HDFC Bank is making life easier not only for the customer but for its family and relatives too, by just giving a missed call to 73 08 08 08 08. Get recharge done anytime, anywhere. - 'Fast personal loan' on ATMs: 'Fast personal loan' on ATMs are presented by HDFC to its prevalent customers. It helps the client to not only see the offer on ATMs but also acquire the personal loan only on a few clicks. - Robot IRA: HDFC Bank has recently propelled the primary "Humanoid" in the national keeping money space. The robot IRA is human-sized, will be situated at a city branch soon. The robot will go about as an associate to supplement services that are being given in the branches. The communicating humanoid named IRA (Intelligent Robotic Assistant) will help branch group in overhauling customers. IRA will be set close to the Welcome Desk, where it will welcome customers and guide them to the related counter in the branch, for example, Cash Deposit, Foreign Exchange, Loans, among others in the primary stage. 1.13 Customer attitude towards e-banking system (Internet and Cell Phone banking services) As per the progression of the international economy towards administrative development, electronic banking is developing very fast and information technology is the most vital factor in this expansion. Banking sector in India understood the significance of this move from the viewpoint of competitive advantage. Banking sector in India concentrated in the advancement of IT and innovation of services and products of electronic banking which includes ATMs, cell phone banking, electronic funds transfer (EFT), debit cards, credit cards, NEFT, RTGS etc. With the innovation in banking industry assessment of the customer attitude is the main factor and this study is focused on customer attitude towards internet and cell phone banking services in four large cities of Madhya Pradesh. Study of customer attitude after using internet and cell phone banking services will discover the various factors of why some banking consumers accept innovations with reference to internet and cell phone banking services and why some are not ready to accept it? Customers globally have easy access to their accounts, 24 X 7 availability of banking services. In India this is not yet common to use these services even at urban areas like Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpur. The consumers who identified that branch banking is time consuming are currently ready to perform transactions at the snap of their fingers. The banking industry has been extensively influenced by the evaluation of technology innovation. The move towards electronic system of banks has diminished the cost of transaction and enhanced the speed of administration from this time forward. Regardless of the adoption of electronic banking services, banks in India seem to be attentive of the opportunities provided by internet. In fact; banks are moving towards up-to-date internet services to customers at an advanced level. The enhancement and up gradations in the technology has assisted the user for easy access to the internet. Nowadays people are fascinated by technology that helps them to save time, cost and energy. Internet banking has developed as an operational tool to offer them with the needful. Internet banking can be stated as the setting up of a web page by a bank to deliver information about its product and services (Jasimuddin, 2001). At an improvement level, it involves providing facilities such as retrieving accounts, funds transfer, booking an e- ticket etc. Internet banking today can be seen as a stimulating area to be studied upon. Throughout the years many studies have been directed on the adoption of internet banking a rare of the studies on internet banking studied here notices a lot of development on the nature and opportunity of online banking. Plenteously research has been done in different homelands about the acceptance of internet banking. Some questions which arise to study customer attitude are: - Why customers behave in this particular way? - What is the motivating factor for this particular attitude? - What is the outcome of this particular attitude? In turn, the variation in customer attitude has affected the volume and the nature of internet and cell phone banking services. Customer attitude is considered as an imperative topic. It is now important for bankers to comprehend about customer attitude due to competitive economic environment. An understanding of customer attitude is considered as a key component in the success of banking sector. The aim of this chapter was to discover the topics of internet and cell phone technology and banking. This was done by studying prevailing published studies that reported the origins of the Internet and cell phone technologies. These studies also conferred the growth of these technologies, the marketing prospects they present and their potential to forefront alteration in retail banking in the 21st era. v INTRODUCTION The origins of banking can be related to ancient times, starting with elementary money lending and bartering practices for rural products, cultivation and other commodities. After the industrial revolution which began in Europe in the 17th century, when Europeans started forming colonies all over the place in the world and the necessity for credit for exchange was felt like at no other time, from here it has picked up an incredible catalyst. Until late into twentieth century, banks began working similarly. But the entrance of the Internet in the 1990s changed it all. A surplus of potentials arose for Indian commerce, which obviously had a great influence on the working of banks. 1.1 Current Banking System in India The Indian banking sector is categorised into:- Figure 1.1 Banking System in India Source: RBI Banking Innovations and Creativity in India In the 1990s, the banking sector in India posed greater importance on technology and improvement. In order to provide improved quality of services at superior speed, banks have started to use the technology. Banks also took a keen eye on rustic markets and commenced a wide range of customized products and services focussed only to the particular needs of their rural clientele. Banking activities also surpassed their conventional range and new thoughts like personal banking, retailing and banc assurance were brought in. Client Needs Expedite the collection of receivables from across the country Electronic banking interfaces to automate disbursements Implement efficient account structure for concentration of funds Minimize excess cash and overdraft balances Sound MIS for effective planning and decision making End-to-end integration with bank’s interface & ERP systems \| Key initiatives by Reserve Bank of India (RBI): \| Figure 1.2: Technology Developments in the Banking Industry Drivers for change in Indian Banking: The various drivers which led to change in Indian Banking. Four reasons can be dimensioned to it: - Governments have enforced doctrines and plan of action based on an addition in competition with regard to increase skills and efficiency; it has helped in the outcome as for the beginning of big new financial institutions that functions at the same time in various sectors such as retail banking, wholesale banking, insurance, asset management and risk management mechanism. - With the emergence of new technology it can create an infrastructure permitting a participant to move out with a broad orbit of banking and financial services. - Due to increase in the competition, banks had to answer to the enhanced success-fullness of their clients and to clients’ arousal to get the high-grade transaction achievable. These drivers have forced banks to move in various spheres and provide variant services. - Development of customized product is now the major concern for the banks, as now the customers are more Cell Phone and they need their transactions to be accomplished at one place as one-stop shop. 1.2 Retail Banking Service with a smile is today’s banking tagline for the customers who decide for nothing less. Retail banking is archetypal marketable banking where a customer makes use of nearby branches of generously proportioned commercial banks. The services presented are: providing saving services, verifying accounts, security assets, individual loans, debit and credit cards, etc. A comprehensive and innovative banking system is necessary for continuous financial enhancement. Banking sector expansion and growth has gone from side to side uncountable twists and turns after the independence. Technical advancement has been enormously accountable for the quick growth and extends of retail banking. There is also a growth in the nature and the number of products being offered underneath retail banking. Retail banking has vast prospect as well as challenges in a growing economy like India. The Retail Banking atmosphere today is moving swiftly. The market these days gives us challenges to offer several and innovative modern services to the customer through a combined aperture as so to make sure that the bank’s customer gets “steadiness and constancy” of service delivery across time across all channels. Present-day Automated bankers now more seem at reducing in their operational costs by accepting safe technology thus plunging the answer moment to their customers so as to get improved customer care services. Retail Banking- Meaning Retail banking is the management of commercial banks with separate clients, both on liabilities and assets sides of the balance sheet. Fixed, current/savings accounts being on the liabilities side; and home loans, advances being on the assets side, are the more legitimate of the items advertised by banks. Related added services comprised are credit cards and demat services. Retail Banking- Characteristics Retail Banking Sector is characterised as: Figure 1.3: Characteristics of Retail banking Advantages of Retail Banking: Retail banking has certain merits overshadowing certain demerits. Merits are analysed from resource perspective and asset perspective. Resource Perspective \| Asset Perspective \| Retail deposits are steady and comprise core deposits. \| Retail banking effects in better capitulate and better bottom line for a bank. \| They are interest not sensitive and less good buying for added interest. \| Retail section is a good boulevard for funds consumption. \| They comprise low cost funds for the banks. \| Consumer loans are supposed to be of lesser risk perception and NPA discernment. \| Effectual customer relationship management with the retail clientele built a strong client base. \| Helps profitable revitalization of the nation through greater than before production activity. \| Retail banking boosts the supplementary business of the banks. \| Improves standard of living and accomplish ambitions of the people through reasonably priced credit. \| Effect of Technology on Retail Banking Latest developments in technology have created a spurt in “technology-based self-service”. Such developments are varying the way that service firms and consumers interact, and are raising a host of exploration and practice issues relating to the distribution of e-service. E-service is becoming progressively significant not only in determining the victory or catastrophe of electronic commerce (Yang et al., 2001), but also providing that customers with a superior skill with respect to the collaborative flow of data. The financial system globally has been facing a lot of changes. Mergers and acquisitions, expanded rivalry, deregulation, changing data frameworks and innovation, and HR with various capacities are simply a few ‘potencies’ that are prompting the banking commerce (Pereira, 1995). Technology is one prime ‘driving force’ currently in different businesses. It is thus important to discover the investments in technology and their effect in the bank business. Dabholkar (1994) states that when the customer is in direct contact with the technology there is more control with Internet banking. Nonetheless, if there is a non-attendance of direct contact, for example, with phone banking, it is expected that there is less control gathered by the client through this exchange. Bateson (2000) has given numerous investigations on the need for purchasers to have control amid benefit strokes of luck. When a customer simply picks the technology to use as a form of service delivery the effect is high in terms of quality characters. Some of the quality features that are very important to customers are efficacy and speed. Role of E-Commerce in Retail Banking Financial services industry over time has opened to momentous revolution that can be termed as e-developments which is progressing quickly in every aspect of monetary intermediation and budgetary markets, for example, e-money, electronic banking (e-banking), e-fund, e-protection, e-trades, e-expediting, and e-observation. The driving forces behind the speedy revolution of banks are influential alterations in the economic setting comprise among others innovations in information technology, automations in financial products. These factors make it complex to design a bank’s policy, which Dabholkar (1994) talk over how technology-based services have made innovative service delivery options accessible to organizations, making customer contribution more extensively possible. Customers make use of touch screen “kiosks” to request take-away food, although banks have comprehensively distributed ATM to withdraw money, initiate funds transfer, making deposits into accounts and performing any other transactions like balance inquiry, e-ticketing. Technological advancement have removed tedious, time consuming jobs, reduced human fault to banking related services. Technology also delivers customer information that it would be much more costly to deliver on a person-to-person basis. Cell phone banking services permit non-cash transactions to be performed from anywhere, which required a visit to a branch before (Prendergast and Marr, 1994). 1.3 Scenario of Retail Banking in India The Indian economy is on a dynamic development path and boasts of a steady annual growth rate, with rising overseas trade reserves and prospering capital markets along with the other factors. World Bank has projected the Indian economy to be amongst the top 3 economies in the world by 2050. Retail banking setup in India perceives a remarkable revolution in the samples of product creation and operation. The intrusion of consumerism has its usual trickle over result in terms of amplified necessity of retail banking products- cards, loans, tailored products and services. The retail banking sector has its routine slit out: keeping rate of knots with the fast flowing vicious surroundings, best practice of technology, growing customer backing by directing at rural India on the way to inclusive banking, getting healthier the customer service ideologies & intentionally calculating revolutionary products and services on the way to targeted sections. April 11, 2016 was an epic day for masses living in India. The government launched a digital banking system known as Unified Payment Interface (UPI) that permits people to transfer money easily to and from a bank account or to others by means of a smartphone. Although money transferring of this kind was accessible to people before that date, it wasn’t easily reached to everyone. Now, with the help of UPI, almost everybody in the country can open a bank account, save money and perform various financial transactions. So far, in spite of the range of financial services on offer, customers in an unstable and undefined domain will progressively need an intellect of durability and safety for their deposits. Due to the low dispersion of formal, planned financial services among households and small and medium initiatives, the prospects for financial mediators, mainly banks, continue to be very lively. 1.4 IT in Banking - A New Era The Indian economy opened up in 1991 and almost kept up a correspondence with the worldwide Internet revolution which had a double impact on the Indian private and public sector banks that were as yet obstructed in old methods for working. After the Indian IT administrations organizations began to slam against, it was simply a question of time before Indian banks entire heartedly secured innovation. This changed the approach for business process computerization in managing an account, which aided better client benefit, lesser handling costs and expanded profitability. The banking sector has clutched the usage of technology to service its customer's quicker with better service at one click. Emergent engineering science (IT) has denatured the banking industry from traditional branch based banks to netted banking services and digitization. Broadband internet was a cheaper source and it had made the movement of data effortless and fast. Technology has changed the system of rules and administration system of all banks. And it is now dynamical and focusing on delivering services to their customers. Banks are have now blossomed into a supermarket where once the customer comes, and get all the things done in his basket. From providing conventional banking services, banks have progressively transformed themselves into worldwide banks. The concentration is shifting from collective banking to People centric banking with launching of various products which are highly customized. Branches are on the job for 24 X 7 running with the adoption of Telephone banking, Cell Phone Banking, Internet Banking, ATMs, and E - banking. In recent times, we cannot think about the victory of a banking system without information technology and communication. It has inflamed the role of banking sector in the economy. The financial transactions and payment can now be handled quickly and easily. The banks with the up-to-date technology and techniques are more successful in the competitive financial market. They have been able to produce more and more business resulting in their greater success. Many empirical and theoretical studies have been carried out at the national and international level to study the impact of electronic banking and information and communication technology (ICT) on banking sector, shoppers, and administration quality and instalment system. The examinations mostly accentuation upon e-banking effect on efficiency and benefit basically because of core banking system, electronic fund transfer, real time gross settlement system and electronic clearing services. From the banks perspective Internet Banking arrangements are for the most part identified with cost reserve funds and Internet Banking stays one of the practical and more compelling conveyance channels. It is notable that there is a number of driving force inspiring the adoption of internet banking that have been suggested in the literature. Electronic banking is a greater concept than banking through the internet and the internet is a key delivery channel for electronic banking and its value to consumers and banks is constantly increasing. Before IT emergence in order to withdraw money people had to stand in long lines and to clear the cheque it took a week. The banking industry has journeyed a long way and it has been possible because of IT usage in banks. Banks have advanced with the emergence of IT which has led to reduced operational costs and increased productivity. Although banks has benefited from IT, but the major beneficiaries of this technology advancement are the banking customers. Some of the major transformations brought by the addition of IT and how it has profited the banking customers are illustrated here: - - Core Banking Solution (CBS):This term refers to the systems management of branches, which allows its consumers to take benefit of banking services from any of the CBS enabled bank branch, regulate their records, and, paying little heed to where the client keeps his record. CBS branches are between connected with each other. Hereafter, Consumers of CBS branches can exploit from different banking offices from some other CBS branch found anyplace around the world. CBS has computerised all core banking operations such as debit and credit of transactions, maintaining passbook, calculation of interest on loans and deposits. Advantages of Core Banking Solutions are Customer Convenience, Multi-device User-friendliness, 24x7 facilities, Improved Efficiency and Improved Relationship. - Automated teller Machines: An automated teller machine (ATM) is a computer operated telecommunication device that offer banks’ customers to make transactions self-sufficiently without the help of a banker. ATM works by put in a plastic ATM card which has a magnetic stripe and a chip that has customer’s card number and some safety information. - Smart Cards: It is referred to as plastic money. These cards have inbuilt integrated circuit in it which helps to reduce the requirement for paper currency. With the help of these cards customers can shop by swiping their card and the money gets automatically debited from their account. - Internet Banking: Internet banking is a form of information system that makes use of the advanced resources of the Internet to permit customers to influence financial activities in simulated space. Internet banking is a fresh specific banking area, which authorize individuals to communicate with their banking accounts virtually from anywhere globally. - MICR: MICR stands for Magnetic ink character recognition. MICR code is an innovation utilized primarily to process and clear the checks and other reports simple by the managing an account industry. In MICR the encoding line is at the bottom of checks and contains the archive compose pointer, bank account number, bank code, cheque amount, check number, and a control indicator. The innovation grants MICR per users to sweep and read the information straight into a data-accumulation gadget. Distinct barcodes and related advancements, MICR characters can be perused by humans. This innovation spares time required to exchange cheques from one city to other and the cheque clearing time has likewise diminished from 3 to 1 day. - Cell phone Banking: Nowadays Cell phone plays a vital role in e-banking. This technological service provide customers to view their bank statements, transfer money from one account to another and gives the complete control over their account through the use of Cell phones. Cell phone Banking permits the bank’s customers to perform a number of financial transactions via Cell phone or tablet. - RFID in Banks: Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a modern development in the banking industry for maintaining healthier customer relationship management. The New tech banks like YES bank, DENA bank use this technology for its customers so that it can give them a special treatment when they visit the branch. Customers using this technology have a RFID enabled chips in their Cell phones which help them to pay at shopping malls and other outlets by waving their Cell phones on the contact less readers. The money gets immediately debited from their personal accounts. - Digital Wallet: These days, carrying hard cash is not necessary as with the emergence of Digital wallets purchase of any type can be made with payment cards, and spending can be traced online. The major benefit is that it’s more secure than carrying hard cash in your pockets. Cell Phone Applications hold the payment and loyalty card data. BHIM app, Mobiwik, Paytm, Google Wallet and Apple’s Passbook are some of the most common applications. - Digital Cash: Digital Cash is also known as e-money, e-cash, digital cash which alludes to an arrangement in which a man can pay for products or administrations safely by the means of electronic gadget without basically interfacing a bank to assist the transaction. A Digital Cash dealing generally incorporates three kinds of clients: A Payer (consumer), A Payee (merchant), A financial relation between a Bank with whom the Payer and Payee have accounts. 1.5 Internet Banking Internet Banking or Online Banking is an alternative channel offered to customers who can access their accounts and make transfers or payments electronically via internet. Anywhere banking has made life of the customers very relaxed who can perform financial transactions at a click of the mouse. Internet Banking is an important terminology for the process by which a consumer may implement banking transactions by electronic means without going to a brick-and-mortar institute. The major concerns with Internet Banking services are safety and privacy of personal private information. With the usage of Internet Banking, customers can use varied banking services from bill payment, e-ticketing to making investments in various sectors. Concept of Internet Banking Automated banking experienced incredible growth in both developed and developing countries and redesigned the banking activities. E-banking commonly known as internet banking permits the customers to do the banking services online without going the bank branches. This is one of the innovative delivery channels offered in the retail banking sector, which provides services like viewing transaction details, transferring funds, paying utility bills, or shopping on-line via telecommunication network. Internet banking changed the traditional methodology of ‘bricks and mortar’ service to the ‘clicks and mortar’ service with the support of the internet (Chau & Lai, 2003). ICICI bank was the pioneer which introduced internet banking in India in the year 1996 (Malhotra & Singh, 2007). Other banks, which followed the legacy, are HDFC, Citi bank and IndusInd Bank. Nationalized banks of State Bank of India, Canara Bank, Allahabad Bank, Punjab National Bank, Bank of Baroda, Syndicate Bank, and others followed the movement by acquainting with internet banking. To study the different facets of internet banking. Three levels of internet banking services are presented in India: - Information only systems, - Electronic information transfer system, and - Fully electronic transaction system. There are two means to deliver Internet banking services to its customers. Right off the bat, an existing bank with offices which are physically present can create a website and offer Internet banking beside its customary delivery channels. Furthermore, a bank may be setup as a branchless, bank with no physical branch. History of Internet Banking Internet banking is alluded to as a facility gave by banking and financial establishments that allow the client to execute bank related transactions over Internet. The major advantage of Internet banking is that people can complete the banking transactions and services sitting at his comfortable home. With the use of Internet banking services, the account holder does not have to individually visit the bank. Many transactions can be performed by the account holder with the assistance of Internet banking. To handle transactions like record of recent transaction, balance inquiry, etc. Internet banking is very useful. The thought of Internet banking has been instantaneously sprouting with the progression of the World Wide Web (WWW). Computer programmers came up with concepts for online banking transactions who were at work for maintaining banking databases, during 1980's. The innovative process of development of these services was perhaps flashed after many companies started the idea of online shopping. The online shopping encouraged the usage of credit cards via Internet. Many banking establishments had now started generating data warehouse services to make it simple for their working staffs. Banking and finance organizations in Europe and United States in 1980's, started evocative researches and programme experimentations on the idea of 'home banking'. Primarily when computers and Internet were not so well established, 'home banking' mostly made usage of fax machines and telephones to assist their customers. The widespread of Internet and programming facilities shaped more open doors for the development of locally situated banking. 1.5.1 Features of Internet Banking Online banking services are offered by various organizations that comprise of many features and competences; however some of them are application based. The common features are as per the following: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1.5.2 Current Scenario of Internet Banking in India Internet Banking has become an important piece of banking system. The idea of e-banking is of objectively current beginning in India. As in early 90’s old-style model of banking was prevailing which is branch banking, but after 90,s branchless banking services were started. The IT Act, 2000 was passed by the Indian government with effect from the 17th October 2000 to inspect different facets of Internet banking. RBI has set up a commission to discuss on Internet Banking and the committee had focussed on three major areas of Internet banking namely- - Technological and security issues, - Lawful issues and - Governing and controlling issues. RBI had accepted the recommendations and commendations of the Working committee and thus issued guiding principle to banks to implement internet banking in India. The deep-rooted manual systems which were dominant in Indian banking for centuries seem to be swapped by modern technologies. As per the survey by AVAYA, Indians prefer to use digital channels to perform banking transactions, and will not hesitate to object for poor services. As per the survey report various conclusions were made which are mentioned below: - 51% of Indians use online banking channels to perform their financial transactions. - 26% of Indian customers choose to access services by their bank’s website, and the same number of customers would choose to use a Cell Phone app instead of talking to a bank branch person. - 37% of Indian respondents say if they had a bad experience while performing any financial transaction they will change banks. - One out of four respondents will share their bad experience on social media like Facebook, twitter. - 44% of the respondents would let their friends and family know about their issues with the use of banking app or website. - 93% of respondents are happy by the service delivery from their bankers. - 22% of the respondents have never confronted any problem related to customer satisfaction. - 47% of the respondents want to receive information on a new offer or service. 1.6 Cell Phone Banking While in India traditional branch-based banking is widely used way of conducting banking operation, at the same time commercial banks are experiencing a swift change majorly focussed by the information & telecommunication (ITC) technology. ICICI bank initiated in Cell phone banking services in India. Amongst public banks in India, Union Bank of India was first to announce Cell phone banking (Ali et al. 2010). Cell phone banking in India is as a concept is mainly used for two basic purposes, firstly, for fund transfer (transfer of funds from one bank account to another) and secondly, for merchant banking transactions (purchase of train, bus and movie tickets, among others). Henceforth, the speed in which cell phone banking is growing in India depends on the speed in which banks prepare themselves to adapt to Cell phone banking technology. Meaning of Cell Phone /Cell Phone Banking: In terms of guiding principle issued by RBI, ‘Cell Phone Banking transaction’ means undertaking banking transactions using Cell Phone phones by the bank customers that includes accessing their accounts, debit and credit to their accounts. Concept of Cell phone/Cell Phone banking: Cell Phone/Cell Phone Banking refers to the delivery and using banking- and financial services with the help of Cell phone/Cell Phone devices. The range of services offered to customers includes facilities to conduct banking and stock market transactions, to manage accounts and to access personalised information. The important reasons for which financial institutions offer Cell phone banking services to their customers are: - Reduced operating costs - Larger geographic divergence - Better competitive situation - Increased customer demand for services, and - New revenue prospects Organisation of Cell Phone Banking in India The structural diagram of Cell Phone banking in India is given below: Figure: 1.4: Structure of Cell Phone Banking in India 1.6.1 Current Scenario of Cell Phone Banking in India Cell Phone Banking in India has seen remarkable growth and it can be seen that it has risen 150 % in volume and Value of transactions has risen to 224% from the FY 2015-16 to FY 2016-17. According to the survey by ASSOCHAM India in their report ‘M-Wallet: Scenario Post Demonetisation’. In FY 2017, Cell Phone/ Cell Phone banking segment is projected to contribute a largest share in Indian Cell Phone payment market, with the widely held being money transfers. Its share in the m-payment is projected to rise terrifically from 8% in FY 2014 to 56% in FY 2017 in terms of value. Money transferrals using Cell phone banking and immediate payment system (IMPS)–where money is transferred instantaneously using text message or online banking has showed the highest increase in over 12 months ending October 2016. As per the India Spend analysis of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) data, Cell phone banking transactions raised 175%, while transactions using Cell Phone banking grew 369% from October to November. The development in Cell Phone Banking transactions has seen histrionic rise post November 2016 demonetisation, as large sum of people started choosing Cell Phone banking and other substitutes of digital payments. Amongst the major banks, the State Bank of India (SBI) has a great lead in terms of numbers in the Cell Phone banking space, with 45 % growth in the calendar year 2014. Comparing to 8.57 million customers in 2013, SBI customers transacted on Cell Phone is 12.5 million in 2014. In terms of transactional value, private banks such as ICICI Bank and HDFC Bank lead in the Cell Phone banking space. HDFC Bank has noticed more than nine times growth in Cell phone banking transactions in January 2015 in contrast to January 2014. The bank continued the lead position in Cell phone transactions with Rs. 4,906.86 crore value noticed in January. According to data from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), it had 1.49 million transactions in January 2015 as compared to 290,000 transactions in January 2014. The bank is followed by ICICI Bank, State Bank of India and Punjab National Bank with respect to Cell Phone banking transactions. ICICI Bank had transactions worth Rs. 2,224.97 crore, followed by SBI with Rs. 1,586.4 crore and Punjab National Bank with Rs. 1,440.61 crore worth of transactions. Graph 1.1: Value of Cell Phone Banking Transactions Source: RBI The Major areas of concern of using Cell Phone banking: - Rapid growth. Cell phone banking and payments will constantly change, and the expectations among safety and cell phone experts are that the Cell phone channel will shortly become consumers' main financial-services platform. As the channel is useful and can be tailored, users will transfer from PC banking and payments to Cell phone. And the more Cell Phone users, the bigger the security threat. - Need for new security controls. Because the Cell Phone risk area is growing at a higher pace therefore Security measures need to be taken to improve security. - More players, more risks. The Cell Phone system depends on a number of players, many of which fall outside the scope of core financial services. Device making companies, operating systems, application developers and network operators all are involved. And all they need is to address security. - Privacy issues. Emergent Cell Phone confidentiality issues, such as those turning around Geo-location, will become more serious. As more Cell Phone technologies arise, institutions will have to provide stability to customer and member ease with safety and fraud stoppage. - Role of consumers. Financial institutions must progress approaches to educate their customers and members about vigorously handling their own Cell Phone-device security. - Insecure Information. There are some risks involved in Cell Phone banking. Retrieving financial services over Cell Phone banking involves submitting personal information via text message. Hackers via unsecured Wi-Fi hot spots can read and alter those messages. Other risks involved are that the banks are not investing enough amount and time in encryption security of its technology. - Governing Issues. Banking institutions hire telecom agents to install and maintain their Cell Phone banking services. The use of self-governing or franchised telecom agents makes it hard for a country’s central bank to control banking operations to have a general set of standards. This means that different banks can create different Cell Phone banking rules, use inferior banking security software and levy high fees for Cell Phone banking. - Coverage. One of the major challenges of Cell Phone banking is network coverage. Throughout the country there are a number of telecom service providers, but there is not essentially countrywide coverage for these providers. Bank users may not understand this and can close up with a large cell phone bill full of charges. - Viruses. Banking institutions must make sure that their channels are secured by a protected layer to confirm the safety of their consumers’ information. Though, some Cell Phones are very susceptible to bugs such as Trojans. These viruses provide hackers the chance to retrieve your banking information via your Cell Phone. - Security. Security can be an issue with Cell Phone banking although there are a number of government regulations with which cell phone providers must comply. Fraud protection must be developed within the cell phone company. Network security is out of the control of the bank as well as data access and use. 1.7 Benefits of Internet and Cell Phone Banking Internet and Cell Phone banking functions in the same way as traditional banking excluding that it provides to its customers the chance to access information of their accounts, to make payments or settlements performed in the accounts at any definite time with no prerequisite to be physically presented at the Bank branch. According to various studies Internet banking and Cell Phone banking is becoming more well-known because of the benefits it provides. Here are the benefits of Internet and Cell Phone banking for bankers and their customers: 1. With Internet and Cell Phone banking, there is no time limitation to bank hours or local locations. The web is available 24/7, which means be where (and when) your customers want you. 2. Improved Customer Service: Internet and Cell Phone banking allows customers to make various financial transactions like transfers between accounts, handling bill payments, or currency exchanges whether they’re on a sofa or in an aircraft. Internet and Cell Phone Banking reduces the traffic that the bank team struggles with in a physical location. 3. Reduced Customer Concern: While customers are muddled or feel distressed about their financial details, Internet and Cell Phone banking is a helping hand. By giving users permission to access their account anytime online via web, bank keep their customers up-to-date and informed with their individual record-keeping. 4. Paperless Statements: With Internet and Cell Phone banking, some customers choose for paperless statements. From the customer’s viewpoint, they get the handiness of their updates looking in their mails. Bankers can save money on physical printing and posting. The environment also smiles with less wasted paper. 5. Have a Complete View of Customers: Internet and Cell Phone banking helps to know customers well. When the banker assimilate the Internet and Cell Phone banking solution with the present backend solutions {such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software}, a banker gain a combined view of their customers that permits to aim them with tailored content and proposals. The user’s individual profile and account information is combined to give a complete view of what their wants are. 6. Location-based Services: Cell Phones have the capability to identify a user’s location, and this is data that Cell Phone banking solution has permission to. This is used for added security. For example, if an online enquiry occurs for a Chennai account from a Cell phone in Bhopal, bank site initiates a series of authorizations, possibly even direct contact, to safeguard the account of the customer. The location services help customers to identify their closest local branch. 7. Leverage SMS Messages: One more advantage of Cell phone banking for customers is the facility of receiving banking alerts on their cell phone. Whether targeting the customers with personalized promotions or giving them routine updates, banker address their customers more precisely by sending them direct messages. 8. Track Rewards and Customer Loyalty Programs: Internet and Cell Phone banking gives an outstanding chance to boost customer retention and attracting new customers. Customer loyalty programs are easy to track when the points and rewards are computerized and joined with the users’ online profiles. 9. Customer Service: Sometimes self-service isn’t enough, Customers want help from an actual person. With online chat and email facilities, Bankers keep their customers satisfied without bothering them to take out time and visit a physical bank location and stand in line. With all these benefits, Internet and Cell Phone banking have the prospects to increase bank’s own competence though exponentially growing the customer experience. And if the customers are satisfied today, Banks don’t have to wait for the future to reap the rewards. 1.8 Few Initiatives Taken By the Banks in Technology Space There are various initiatives which has been introduced by Indian banks with the emergence of technology in banking sector. The few initiatives are discussed below: - To improve its service quality, SBI has deployed web-based portal where customers can register all kind of complaints. - BoB has taken initiatives like windows server/desktop virtualization and backup consolidation to ensure optimization of resources. (e-TDS) module and leave module to improve its service delivery and efficiency. - PNB has done necessary up gradation to make its technology platform more stable, robust and improve quality of assets. - Canara Bank has undertaken several technology initiatives like internet banking, Cell Phone banking, online fund transfer, passbook printing self-service kiosk and financial supply chain management facility for corporate customers (for working capital finance). - Branding itself as modern tech savvy banks, BoI has implemented many technology based customer centric facilities like online nomination facility, banking through Cell Phone service, implementation of school fee module, self-service kiosk, barcode enabled passbook printing, viewing of public provident fund (PPF) account online and online application for education loans. - ICICI Bank has leveraged technology to improve customer quality, convenience and reduce customer complaints to enrich customer experience. - New initiatives like Click2Call and ‘Your Bank Account’ application on Facebook have demonstrated the bank’s focus on technology. - HDFC Bank has automated credit underwriting process and has enhanced its cross-selling and up- selling capabilities through the implementation of data mining and analytical customer relationship management solutions. - Axis Bank has made significant investments in making scalable and robust technology platform. The bank has launched the business process management system to improve operational efficiencies. Server virtualization and storage centralization have been put in place to ensure optimal utilization of resources. - IIBs advancements like cash on-Cell Phone, direct associate and fast reclaim benefit have helped the bank in giving better consumer loyalty and expanding its purchaser base. - Indian Government is empowering computerized exchanges forcefully. The launch of Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) and United Payments Interface (UPI) by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) are brilliant progress tools for computerized transformation in the space of Payment Systems. Under this study four major banks are studied and their innovative Electronic Banking services are discussed below: 1.9 State Bank of India (SBI) State Bank of India is the biggest bank of India with a network of 15000+ branches and 5 associate banks across India. State Bank of India (SBI) gives an extensive banking products and services to manufacturers, entrepreneurs and their clienteles. 1.9.1 Retail Internet Banking Services by SBI Figure 1.5: Internet Banking Services Provided by SBI 1.9.2 Corporate Internet Banking State Bank of India is offering a world class services to Corporate Customers through the portal www.onlinesbi.com. CINB facility of SBI allows the corporate customer to carry out banking activities which are as follows: Figure 1.6 Corporate Internet Banking Services Provided by SBI 1.9.3 The new initiatives of SBI - State Bank Anywhere Personal: State Bank Anywhere Personal is a cell phone banking app for its retail users. It has various features like safety, convenience and easy to use app which help users to maintain their banking on the move. APP is available in Google Play Store, iOS App store and Windows marketplace. - State Bank Secure OTP: This is an OTP generation App which confirms the transactions done by both State Bank Internet Banking and State Bank Anywhere App. - State Bank Anywhere Saral : This APP is simple transactional product introduced for: - single user friendly - for sole proprietorship concerns - For micro enterprises or distinct entrepreneurs - People who need online dealings facility in their commercial accounts. Features of State Bank Anywhere Saral \| \| \| \| - State Bank Anywhere Corporate' : State Bank Anywhere Corporate' is the service accessible on Mobile phones for: Figure 1.7: State Bank Anywhere Corporate by SBI - SBI Quick – Missed Call Banking: It is the new service which includes Banking by giving a Missed Call or sending an SMS with pre-decided keywords to pre-decided numbers. This service can only be started for the Cell number which is at present registered for a specific account with the Bank. - State Bank MobiCash: State Bank MobiCash State Bank of India in relationship with BSNL has propelled a Mobile Wallet known as MobiCash. It offers services like reserve exchange, payment of bill, mini statement, enquiry. This wallet can be utilized as a part of self-mode alongside helped mode with the assistance of BSNL CSPs. It can be progressed to Full-KYC wallet, which gives more noteworthy transaction limits and money withdrawal. Features of State Bank MobiCash – \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - State Bank Buddy: State Bank Buddy is one more mobile wallet on Smartphone which is introduced by SBI. It is also named as semi-closed prepaid wallet. The benefit of this wallet is to transfer money to other wallet users and bank accounts, anytime, anywhere. - State Bank mCASH : A simple, stress-free and quick method to claim funds using mobile number or e-mail id sent by SBI customers through Internet Banking. Features of Mcash – Figure 1.8: Features of State Bank CASH - State Bank of India SMS Banking: State Bank of India SMS Banking service is accessible on all smartphones. Customers just need to send keywords [SMS to 9223440000]. - “BHIM SBI Pay”: “BHIM SBI Pay” APP which allow a payment solution that authorise an account holders of Banks contributing in UPI to send and receive currency from their phones with a simulated payment address of the identifier. - State Bank of India 99#: State Bank of India 99# unifies USSD system with highly practical UPI platform. - State Bank No queue: One of the exclusive App to allow customers to book a Virtual Queue Ticket (e-Token) for specific services at particular SBI branches. Customers can generate e-Token beforehand reaching the branch, consequently evading waiting in the queue at the branch and saving time. Features of State Bank No queue - \| \| \| \| Figure 1.9: Features of State Bank No queue - State Bank of India Finder: This APP directs to search State Bank ATM, Branches, CDMs, Address /location of other Cash providing touch points and State Bank Customer Service Point (Cash@CSP) with ease of use of Cash can also be discovered. A customer can set either his/her current location as took through GPS or can set location manually also. Categories: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| - SBI’s YONO : YONO stands for You Only Need One is a unified digital banking platform which allow users to access both type of services: 1. financial 2. other services Presently, YONO is available as a phone app for both Android and iOS. 'YONO' allows customers to instantaneously open accounts, carry out transactions, apply for loans and perform online shopping- altogether in one APP. Some of its important e-commerce partners comprise Amazon, Myntra, Jabong, Shoppers Stop, Uber, Ola, Cox & Kings, Yatra, Airbnb, Thomas Cook, Swiggy and Byjus, among others. 1.10 Punjab National Bank Punjab National bank was India’s first Swadeshi Bank, which started its activities on April 12, 189 from Lahore, with an approved capital of Rs. 2 lac and working capital of Rs. 20,000. The visionary forecaster and patriot’s demonstrated courage in offering face to the soul of patriotism by framing the first bank oversaw by the Indians. Amid the long history of more than 121 years of the Bank, 7 banks have converged with PNB and it has turned out to be more grounded and more grounded with a system of 6809 branches and 9669 ATMs as on 30th June16. 1.10.1 PNB Retail Internet Banking Punjab National Bank (PNB) enables its clients to utilize the internet banking office from anyplace whenever, to do basic, helpful, and snappy procedure of banking. 1.10.2 E- banking facilities provided by PNB Figure 1.11: E- Banking Facilities Provided by PNB - OTP Based Aadhaar Seeding and Authentication of Accounts: As far as Prevention of Money Laundering (Maintenance of Records) Second Amendment Rules, 2017, all records should be aadhaar linked and confirmed with biometric facility. - PNB Aadhaar Pay: A digital payment resolution which dealswith the PNB Individual or Sole Owner having Aadhaar Number to obtain payments for goods or services using android phone and Biometric scanner from customers having Aadhaar linked with bank account after Biometric verification from Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI). - Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) :Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) is established by the National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI). BHIM is inter-operatable with other Unified Payment Interface (UPI) applications, and bank accounts. - PNB Kitty :PNB Kitty is secured, quick and useful. By using PNB Kitty, all the payments can be made on a single click. Figure 1.12: Functions of PNB Kitty - PNB Mobile Banking: PNB has introduced the mobile banking facility which is known as PNB Mobile for hassle free transaction for its clients. It is quick, convenient and easy, mobile banking services can be availed on various types of mobile and it offers customers the choice of carrying out banking transactions, aids in fund transfers and can schedule forthcoming transactions as well. 1.11 ICICI BANK ICICI is one of the multinational banking and financial services provider organization. Being India's biggest private segment bank, ICICI Bank has add up to resources of Rs. 7,206.95 billion (US$ 109 billion) at March 31, 2016 and profit after assessment Rs. 97.26 billion (US$ 1,468 million) for the year ending March 31, 2016. ICICI Bank is right now having a system of 4,501 Branches and 14,271 ATM's crosswise over India. It is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Figure 1.13 Range of Financial Products and Services 1.11.1 The new initiatives at ICICI Bank 1. 24x7 Electronic Branches: ICICI Bank has started 24x7 electronic branches which are one-stop search for all banking transactions. Clients can execute their account activities without anyone else, with the assistance of different automated devices and booths. Electronic branch of ICICI offers: Figure 1.14 Range of e-services Offered by ICICI 2. Tab Banking: ICICI Bank has launched an Application named as Tab Banking, which gives a prospective client the ease of opening his/her, bank account at his/her home or workplace. 3. Bank-on-the-Move: A new instrument announced by ICICI Bank, in keeping with its promise to reach out and enable banking in areas where there are no branches and ATMs. Bank on move provide customers to avail various services like Figure 1.15 Range of e-services Offered by Bank on Move 4. Help-on-Tab: ICICI Bank has launched Help-on-Tab to enhance the experience for day-to-day banking, that permits its branch staff to pre–process clients’ transactions till the time clients are coming up to get serviced in the branch. 5. Smart keys – Transfer Money While Chatting Smart Keys : iMobile Smart Keys which helps to transfer funds while chatting. It is one of the new features of iMobile, which allows customer to perform Mobile Banking on smartphone’s keyboard. There is no need to switch between the apps or disturb your chat, rather it helps to transfer funds quickly. 6. E-Locker: Figure 1.16 Features of E-Locker 7. 'Touch &Pay':A new mobile payment solution 'Touch & Pay' that facilitates to make protected contactless payments at retail stores using Cell phones. Touch & Pay a Pockets app just give a feature to pat your cell phone at a NFC (Near Field Communication) enabled merchant terminal and make the payment through linked ICICI Bank Debit/Credit Card. 8. Voice Biometric: Remembering passwords is one of the most difficult task, so with this service, voice will act as password for performing all banking related transactions through ICICI call centres. The procedure includes as start communicating with phone banking employee, after that Voice Biometric service of ICICI gives a highly protected phone banking experience. 9. EftCheques : EftCheques permits a quick and simple way of transferring funds without losing out the physical cheque writing experience. This app enables to inscribe a virtual cheque to any individual from your phonebook. The receiver will on the spot receive a web-link via SMS which can be encashed into any bank account with choice of the customer. 10. Contactless Cards: ICICI Bank Contactless Credit and Debit Cards has a different feature of in-built NFC technology that lets customer to make protected and fast payments without the necessity to enter pin, customer need to touch card on the reader and the payment will be made. 11. UPI: This APP of ICICI, in which one can send and receive money using customer’s own name. With Unified Payment Interface (UPI) on iMobile or Pockets app create a virtual payment address of one’s choice (For example: charu@icici) and then link your bank account to send or receive money fast. There is no need of bank details like account number, IFSC etc. 12. Express Home Loans : Express Home Loans is being launched for providing rapid home loan services to customers by just applying at icicibank.com, then need to, upload all the necessary documents and get the home loan approved online within 8 working hours. 13. InstaBanking: This app agrees to initiate transactions through your cell phone at your suitability - anytime, anywhere. The procedure for the same is as follows: Figure 1.17: Procedure to do Insta Banking 14. Positive Pay :ICICI is providing a unique facility for its customer to use Positive Pay on iMobile app to send the particulars of the cheques with their pictures to bank before one handovers the cheque to the receiver. Bank will honour the cheques only when the details match with the physical cheques. This app gives safety to its customer for payments. 15. ‘MeraiMobile’ :This App assist its customer to save their time and cost of going to a branch to avail banking services. This app helps to carry out a range of regularly used banking services from their Smartphone, without using mobile internet services. 16. ‘iMobile’ : The ‘all new iMobile’ has best-in-class safety features. It allows the customers the facility of dual login, connect with the Bank’s call centre from or within the app without any additional verification, withdrawing cash from an ATM devoid of using a card, tag recurrent transactions as preferences, view collective details of all accounts in the application itself along with receiving alerts from Google Now. 17. Digital locker: DIGI Locker is an inventiveness of Department of Electronics & Information Technology (DEITY) under Ministry of Communications & IT, Government of India. . This initiative is in support of the Digital India programme to decrease needless consumption of paper, time and human efforts. 18. Pockets :It is a VISA-powered e-wallet that can be utilized by any customer of any bank, which is utilized to recharge mobile, send money, shop anyplace, pay bills and more. 1.12 HDFC HDFC Bank was incorporated in August 1994. It is India's one of the housing finance company. In a limited capacity to focus time HDFC has developed in three principal business fragments as a main player in retail banking, wholesale banking, and treasury operations. As of September 30, 2017, the Bank had a nationwide dispersion organize 4,729 branches and 12,259 ATM's in 2,669 urban communities/towns. Advanced in 1995 by Housing Development Finance Corporation (HDFC). 1.12.1 Some activities that can be done with Net Banking : \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1.12.2 Digital banking products HDFC Bank has introduced a multitude of very effective digital banking products. Figure 1.18 Digital Banking Products Offered by HDFC Powerful Net Banking portal and Mobile Banking app of HDFC allows customers to perform above 205 and 90 diverse types of transactions. - 30-minute paper-less Auto Loans using Biometric technology: HDFC Bank has propelled an auto loan that is dispensed in only 30 minutes utilizing biometric technology. It is available for HDFC Bank clients, and also others. With this technology-enabled solution, loans for two-wheelers can likewise be sanctioned inside 15 minutes. As of FY 2014-15, 63% of all exchanges at HDFC Bank are led through advanced digital channels. - 10-second Personal Loan on Net Banking: HDFCs 10 second individual credit is for current clients. Banks claim that they will not only approve the loan instantly, but the loan will be disbursed to the applicant’s account without any delay. Although this loan is just a click away, it is advisable to have a repayment plan ready before applying for it. - PayZapp: HDFC Bank PayZapp, a payment solution APP, giving customer the right to pay on One Click. Features of PayZapp: Figure 1.19 Features of PayZapp - Chillr: A mobile app which permits customers to immediately transfer money to any contact in their phone book 24×7 as it is connected to customer's bank account. The bank has combined with MobME, a Kochi-based technology firm, to unveil this app. - LITE App: For using this App one do not require any Internet connection, also doesn’t need too much space on phone and is fast to install, even over slow connections. No need of a Login ID / Password. Then too it is secure App as it works only from your mobile number that’s registered with the bank. - Missed Call Recharge: HDFC Bank is making life easier not only for the customer but for its family and relatives too, by just giving a missed call to 73 08 08 08 08. Get recharge done anytime, anywhere. - 'Fast personal loan' on ATMs: 'Fast personal loan' on ATMs are presented by HDFC to its prevalent customers. It helps the client to not only see the offer on ATMs but also acquire the personal loan only on a few clicks. - Robot IRA: HDFC Bank has recently propelled the primary "Humanoid" in the national keeping money space. The robot IRA is human-sized, will be situated at a city branch soon. The robot will go about as an associate to supplement services that are being given in the branches. The communicating humanoid named IRA (Intelligent Robotic Assistant) will help branch group in overhauling customers. IRA will be set close to the Welcome Desk, where it will welcome customers and guide them to the related counter in the branch, for example, Cash Deposit, Foreign Exchange, Loans, among others in the primary stage. 1.13 Customer attitude towards e-banking system (Internet and Cell Phone banking services) As per the progression of the international economy towards administrative development, electronic banking is developing very fast and information technology is the most vital factor in this expansion. Banking sector in India understood the significance of this move from the viewpoint of competitive advantage. Banking sector in India concentrated in the advancement of IT and innovation of services and products of electronic banking which includes ATMs, cell phone banking, electronic funds transfer (EFT), debit cards, credit cards, NEFT, RTGS etc. With the innovation in banking industry assessment of the customer attitude is the main factor and this study is focused on customer attitude towards internet and cell phone banking services in four large cities of Madhya Pradesh. Study of customer attitude after using internet and cell phone banking services will discover the various factors of why some banking consumers accept innovations with reference to internet and cell phone banking services and why some are not ready to accept it? Customers globally have easy access to their accounts, 24 X 7 availability of banking services. In India this is not yet common to use these services even at urban areas like Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpur. The consumers who identified that branch banking is time consuming are currently ready to perform transactions at the snap of their fingers. The banking industry has been extensively influenced by the evaluation of technology innovation. The move towards electronic system of banks has diminished the cost of transaction and enhanced the speed of administration from this time forward. Regardless of the adoption of electronic banking services, banks in India seem to be attentive of the opportunities provided by internet. In fact; banks are moving towards up-to-date internet services to customers at an advanced level. The enhancement and up gradations in the technology has assisted the user for easy access to the internet. Nowadays people are fascinated by technology that helps them to save time, cost and energy. Internet banking has developed as an operational tool to offer them with the needful. Internet banking can be stated as the setting up of a web page by a bank to deliver information about its product and services (Jasimuddin, 2001). At an improvement level, it involves providing facilities such as retrieving accounts, funds transfer, booking an e- ticket etc. Internet banking today can be seen as a stimulating area to be studied upon. Throughout the years many studies have been directed on the adoption of internet banking a rare of the studies on internet banking studied here notices a lot of development on the nature and opportunity of online banking. Plenteously research has been done in different homelands about the acceptance of internet banking. Some questions which arise to study customer attitude are: - Why customers behave in this particular way? - What is the motivating factor for this particular attitude? - What is the outcome of this particular attitude? In turn, the variation in customer attitude has affected the volume and the nature of internet and cell phone banking services. Customer attitude is considered as an imperative topic. It is now important for bankers to comprehend about customer attitude due to competitive economic environment. An understanding of customer attitude is considered as a key component in the success of banking sector. The aim of this chapter was to discover the topics of internet and cell phone technology and banking. This was done by studying prevailing published studies that reported the origins of the Internet and cell phone technologies. These studies also conferred the growth of these technologies, the marketing prospects they present and their potential to forefront alteration in retail banking in the 21st era. v	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.711773	charu modi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67511/overview", "title": "Retail Banking", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94722/overview	Literary Agents: The Why and How Overview The following is a PowerPoint on literary agents for creative writers. The goal is to give writers an overview of an agent and some advice for working with an agent. The PowerPoint covers the basics, An Overview of Literary Agents A literary agent can be very beneficial for a writer who is pursing traditional publishing for two main reasons. 1. Agents can add prestige to a writer, giving the writer's manuscript a better chance of being reviewed by publishing houses. - Some large publishing houses will ONLY look at a manuscript if the writer has an agent. 2. Agents help with negotiating a contract. - Generally, an agent does not get paid unless the writer gets paid, and agents typically get about 15% of what the writer makes from a deal. Therefore, the agent has the writer's best financial interest at heart. Agents are also very familiar with book contracts and can spot tricky language. For more information about agents, click the file below to download the PowerPoint guide.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.739450	06/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94722/overview", "title": "Literary Agents: The Why and How", "author": "Molly Hamilton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117777/overview	Theatre Warm-Up Exercises_Tongue Twisters Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups (Part 2): Tongue Twisters Overview A tongue-twister activity for theatre students. Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups: Tongue Twisters (Part 2) Theatre Warm-Up Exercise: Tongue Twisters OBJECTIVE Improve your articulation and diction through the use of tongue twisters. INSTRUCTIONS Start Slowly: Begin each tongue twister at a slow pace, ensuring that you enunciate each word clearly. Increase Speed Gradually: Once you are comfortable with the tongue twister, gradually increase your speed while maintaining clear enunciation. Focus on Precision: Pay attention to not drifting off or dropping the ends of words. Your goal is clarity, even at a faster pace. Warm-Up with These Tongue Twisters Very furry frogs are very rare Budda gudda budda gudda boo Crispy cookies crumble and they crunch Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, Where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked? Mommy made me mash my M&M's Princess Pippa picked a purple pig A noisy noise annoys an oyster To sit in solemn silence in a dull dark dock, in a pestilential prison with a life long lock, awaiting the sensation of a short sharp shock from a cheap and chippy chopper on a big black block. Lovely lemon liniment Twelve twins twirled twelve twigs Unique New York, Unique New York I slit a sheet; a sheet I slit, upon the slitted sheet I sit Humphrey Hunchback had a hundred Hedgehogs, Did Humphrey Hunchback have a hundred Hedgehogs? If Humphrey Hunchback had a hundred Hedgehogs, Where's the hundred Hedgehogs Humphrey Hunchback had? A proper cup of coffee in a copper coffee pot She sells seashells by the seashore I saw Susie sitting in a shoeshine shop Where she sits she shines, and where she shines she sits Can you can a can as a canner can can a can? Clean clams crammed in clean cans Six sick hicks nick six slick bricks with picks and sticks Rudder valve reversals He threw three free throws The seething sea ceaseth and thus the seething sea sufficeth us Amid the mists and coldest frosts With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts He thrusts his fists against the posts And still insists he sees the ghosts She stood in the doorway of Burgess’s fish store shop inexplicably mimicking him and welcoming him in CHALLENGE Use these tongue twisters in conjunction with enunciation exercises to maximize your articulation skills. For more practice, explore tongue twisters on the International Collection of Tongue Twisters website. adapted from Voice Acting/Tongue Twisters / CC BY-SA; This work is licensed CC BY-SA Cover image: Theatreland Masks by Garry Knight licensed CC BY 2.0/ *All twisters are in the Public Domain	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.763451	07/10/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117777/overview", "title": "Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups (Part 2): Tongue Twisters", "author": "Red Rocks CC" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104339/overview	COMM 10 Documentary/TV Series/Movie Assignment Cultural Documentary/TV Series/Movie Assignment Rubric Intercultural Communication Overview Intercultural Communication introduces students to the cultural variables and factors in the communication process. Emphasis is given to communicating effectively in diverse social and professional environments. Focus is given to the analysis and comparisons of message perception, verbal and nonverbal communication, communication climates and language interpretation in interactions between people from different cultures. The attached resources include my course syllabus, a culturally relevant assignment, and the remixed open education resources chapters used to make this course more antiracist. Action Plan My initial intended course for this experience changed due to low enrollment within two weeks of the semester beginning. My initial action plan was very ambitious. However, due to the required shift between courses and their respective modalities, my pivot caused me to take smaller (albeit more manageable) actions to make my course more antiracist and culturally relevant. I was able to integrate three open education resource (OER) chapters within my course. These chapters were remixed and revised by a colleague and I. This proved to enhance student content comprehension and lower stress levels regarding textbook cost. Additionally, we collectively created course learning environment agreements. Moreover, we revised and implemented a culturally relevent assignment, its guidelines, and its respective rubric. Lastly, we took time to reflecton our impressions on such assignments - how we navigated them and how we can apply concepts to everyday life. Course Objectives & Learning Outcomes COMM 10 - Intercultural Communication Course Objectives In the process of completing this course, students will: Recognize and articulate how core values, worldview, and communication patterns shape cultural and individual identity. Identify the components of culture and communication and their interrelationship. Explain how culture influences verbal and nonverbal communication. Identify and explain the social, psychological, and contextual variables of culture and its expression. Discuss the diversity of thought, perceptions, and interpretations. Compare and contrast cultural communication strategies in various contexts. Recognize barriers to effective intercultural competencies such as stereotyping, prejudice, and ethnocentrism. Identify elements of common ground among diverse cultures. Learnng Outcomes Upon completion of this course, students will be able to: Apply intercultural communication skills in various cultural contexts. Identify differences in verbal and nonverbal communication as they pertain to intercultural communication messages. Compare and contrast perspectives between cultures. Cultural Documentary/TV Series/Movie Assignment In this assignment, students watch a documentary, television series, or movie from a streaming platform on a culture or community that they are not a member of but would like to learn more about. Selections are chosen from students' suggestions and tallied by their level of interest. From there, they watch their selection and answer specific questions about it, and how it relates to course content. Additionally, students do an analysis of their own intersectional identity with that of identities represented in their selected documentary/television series/movie. Remixed/Revised OER Chapters The following attached chapters were remixed and revised with the intention to fill the gaps of content used within this Intercultural Communication course. However, after consideration my colleague and I will continue to revise and remix additional chapters to ultimately use a cultivated Open Educational Resource (OER) for this course. The hyperlinked and chapters utilized this semester include: 1. Introduction to Communication and Culture 3. Cultural Values and Dimensions	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.789851	05/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104339/overview", "title": "Intercultural Communication", "author": "Christina Wells" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105272/overview	Conduct Competency Assessment Overview Conducting a competency assessment refers to the process of evaluating an individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities in a particular area or job role. It involves assessing whether a person possesses the required competencies to perform their duties effectively. Competency assessments are commonly used in various contexts, including education, employment, and professional development. They help determine an individual's proficiency level and identify areas for improvement or training needs. Ed 227 Assessment in Learning 2 with Emphasis in Trainer Methodology I & II Conducting a competency assessment refers to the process of evaluating an individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities in a particular area or job role. It involves assessing whether a person possesses the required competencies to perform their duties effectively. Competency assessments are commonly used in various contexts, including education, employment, and professional development. They help determine an individual's proficiency level and identify areas for improvement or training needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.808111	06/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105272/overview", "title": "Conduct Competency Assessment", "author": "Kent Rodriguez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107819/overview	6.1.2 Knowledge check (with solutions) Estimate package costs. Overview This learning module (Lesson 1 of Unit 6) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on cost management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. Cost estimation lays the groundwork for a budget that will provide adequate funding to complete a project on time and according to requirements and standards. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Describe cost estimating techniques. - Define elements of cost. - Understand importance of cost estimation. What is cost estimation? \| note taker Download this handout for note taking. How do I estimate costs? \| 9 minute read Read this article about cost estimation techniques by AIPM (2022). It should echo back to what you learned in the module on Estimate activity durations. What are some other ways to estimate costs? \| 12 minute watch Test your knowledge. - Which of the following are the two main tyes of project cost estimation? - Rough order of magnitude and definitive estimates - Rough order of magnitude and ordinal estimates - Ordinal estimates and definitive estimates - Monetary and non-monetary - Which of the following is NOT one of the common cost estimation techniques? - Analogous - Parametric - Expert judgment - 3-point - Bottom-up - Synthetic - T/F: Three-point estimates require estimation of any three points (e.g., 25%, 50%, and 75%). - True - False	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.832846	08/17/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107819/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, Cost Management, Estimate package costs.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107706/overview	1.3.2 Instructions for Rock'n Bands game 1.3.3 Student debriefing and solution 1.3.4 Instructor ideas for debriefing Let’s begin. Overview This learning module (Lesson 3 of Unit 1) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of introductory learning modules, or as part of the course. This learning module consists of an experiential exercise called the Rock'n Bands game by Klassen & Willoughby (2003) where students engage in a simulated project management exercise. Learning outcomes. "Rock'n Bands: A Project Management Decision-Making Game" (c) by Ken Klassen and Keith Willoughby (2003) is a classic experiential exercise where students learn about project dynamics and the critical path. The authors give us permission to use it through an educational use agreement that pre-dates Creative Commons licensing, but would amount to the following: CC-BY-NC-SA. Authors must receive credit. It may only be used for educational purposes, but may not be sold. It may be used as-is or remixed. The game takes between 45 minutes and 1 hour to play. It also requires a short 10-15 minute debrief either immediately following or later, or perhaps as a reflection assignment. The game works equally-well live in-person or synchronously in a virtual environment. I find that the game is a perfect beginning of the semester or topic activity for students to engage in "cold" (i.e., without prior knowledge) as it surprises and delights them (and occassionally frustrates and discourages them) and serves strong touch-point throughout the course (especially during the Time Management lessons) and beyond. To prepare, you should thoroughly read the teaching note (provided as a link here rather than PDF in the learner section). Also, you will need the Excel spreadsheet (which has many cells locked so that you cannot alter the dynamic nature of the model). Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Understand the truly dynamic nature of projects (even fictious ones). - Appreciate how it is better to plan ahead rather than "wait and see." - Know that there is a crticial path within a project that must be actively monitored and managed. Preparing for the Rock'n Bands game (by Klassen & Willoughby). - Students should read the attached handout thorughly. - Make sure you remember the rules of the game: - Target: Complete project in 10 weeks or less. - Goal: Minimize costs (i.e., labor) associated with project. - You may assign up to five (5) workers per week. - The first four workers cost $200 per week and the fifth worker costs $300 per week. - You may assign no more than two (2) workers to any one activity each week. - You may not start any task until its predecessor has been finished (the week before). - Penalty: You will pay a penalty of $2,000 if you do not complete the project by the required target. - In teams of 3-5 students, using page 4 of the handout, complete your strategy for assigning workers for the duration of the project - how many to each task each week. Playing the Rock'n Bands game (by Klassen & Willoughby). As the instructor, you will need to coordinate the "game play" per the teaching note for guidance. Additionally, I would suggest you conduct a dry run of this game yourself as both a student team (supplying worker assignments) and as instructor (recording worker assignments and announcing any changes). Your instructor will coordinate the game and ask each team to relay their worker assignments each week. Occassionally, there may be some announcements that will impact the project. Debriefing the Rock'n Bands game (by Klassen & Willoughby). Here you will need to decide if you want to have a live debrief or have students do a reflective assignment or something else altogether. Whichever method you choose, you should refer to the Teaching Note for suggested topics to investigate. In my experience, in addition to the rich cognitive learning, this game also provides an opportunity for affective learning. You may like to examine the attached article on "Blind Spots" for ideas on how to frame your debrief (see appendix). Your instructor will lead either a debrief discussion or... Alternatively, you may wish to reflect upon your experience playing the game and consider the following questions: - What do the following terms mean in project management? - Task time - Precedence relationship - Network diagram - Resource allocation - Critical path - Crashing (expediting) - Why was this game challenging? - How did you feel as you were engaged in the game? - How might you have competed better in the game (i.e., met the target timeline with minimal cost)? Once you've thoroughly debriefed the experintial exercise (i.e., the Rock'n Bands game), check out the CPM analysis of how the critical path could have been found for the initial project conditions (see attached).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.861534	08/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107706/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, Getting Started, Let’s begin.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113214/overview	Russia Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 4, Lesson 1 Discussion of the Russian Empire, beginning from its rise from the medieval state Kievan Rus, expansion of its territory and centralization of its power under Ivan III and Ivan IV, and then, after a period of chaos, continued its expansion under the Romanov dynasty, solidifying its power through laws and religious conformity. The Russian Empire’s origins lay in the medieval Slavic state of Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus occupied most of present-day Belarus, Ukraine and northwest Russia. In the 13th century, the state, including the princes of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, remained under the command of Mongolian control. With the decline of the Mongol Empire, the princes of the Grand Duchy of Moscow successfully out-maneuvered other Kievan Rus princes, increasing their power and prestige. Ivan III (r. 1462-1505) expanded his control and, by 1480, was strong enough to declare the autonomy of Moscow from the Golden Horde. Known by his followers as Ivan the Great, he and his successors incorporated political, military and technological ideas from Asia and Europe. The Muscovites relied on the Boyars (high-ranking nobles) and the church for support. After the fall of Byzantium, Russians increasingly viewed themselves as the protectors of Orthodox Christians both within and outside their borders. Centralization accelerated under the erratic and iron-fisted rule of Ivan IV (r. 1533-1584), known to history as Ivan the Terrible. The term ‘terrible’ is better translated today to mean formidable. Unsatisfied with his status, in 1547 Ivan had himself crowned Czar of Russia. Ivan dedicated much of his reign to increasing both his power and that of the Russian state. Ivan had a tumultuous personal life. He had at least six wives (and as many as eight), and he likely killed his son and heir in 1581 in a fit of anger. Ivan believed in his right to rule without challenge or consent and expected his people, including serfs (peasants tied to the land), to obey his every wish. He successfully allied with the Cossacks (semi-nomadic and militarized peoples who occupied the borderlands in western Russia) and expanded Russia into Kazan, Astrakhan and the Ural Mountains. Under Ivan, Russia also made its first forays into Siberia. To reduce the power of the Boyars, Ivan established a new service-styled nobility, one which derived its position and power from supporting rather than challenging the crown. By his death in 1584, Ivan further strengthened Russia and the power of the Tsar. Ivan’s death in 1584 ushered in a period of chaos known as the Time of Trouble as his relatives struggled over the imperial throne. Centralized power waned until Ivan’s nephew, the new Czar Michael (r. 1613-1645), re- established centralized control, establishing the Romanov dynasty that would rule Russia until 1917. Resuming its expansionary push, Russia conquered parts of Ukraine in 1667 and seized control of Siberia by the end of the century. The borders of the Russian Empire now extended to the Pacific. The conquest of Siberia would be consequential for Russian development as its natural resources, especially its furs, brought increased wealth to the Russian state. In 1649, a new code of laws stipulated that anyone who did not own land would be considered a serf, which made it clear that landowners had the right to rule, direct and control the Russian state and people. The new laws also ended the period of religious tolerance and ordered all non-Russians to adopt the Eastern Orthodox faith.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.877905	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113214/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cultural Encounters and Expanding Empires in Asia and Eurasia, 1500-1700, Russia", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113209/overview	The Thirty Years War Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 3, Lesson 3 The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a devastating European conflict that began as a local religious conflict in Bohemia and eventually involved all of Europe. The war is divided into four phases and is marked by shifting alliances and interventions by foreign powers. Ultimately, the war ended in a stalemate with the Peace of Westphalia, which restated the terms of the Peace of Augsburg from 1555. Thirty Years’ War adapted from World History Encyclopedia \| CC BY-NC-SA The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) was the last major European conflict informed by religious divisions and one of the most devastating in European history resulting in a death toll of approximately 8 million. Beginning as a local conflict in Bohemia, it eventually involved all of Europe, influencing the development of the modern era. The war is most easily understood by dividing it into four phases: - Bohemian Revolt (1618-1620) - Denmark’s Engagement (1625-1629) - Sweden’s Engagement (1630-1634) - France’s Engagement (1635-1648) The Protestant Reformation had encouraged religious dissention and social unrest since 1517 which was addressed by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, establishing the policy of cuius regio, eius religio (“whose realm, their religion”) by which a ruler chose whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran (then the only recognized Protestant sect). When the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became king of Bohemia in 1617, it upset his largely Protestant subjects, initiating the Bohemian Revolt - and the Thirty Years’ War – in May 1618 after the Second Defenestration of Prague and the Protestants support for their choice of monarch, Frederick V of the Palatinate. Frederick V’s forces were defeated in 1620 at the Battle of White Mountain and Protestant Denmark engaged in the conflict in 1625, an event usually referenced as the first intervention of a foreign power in the war though, actually, the Dutch Protestants had been supplying Frederick V’s forces with arms and other resources since 1618 and Catholic Spain had supported Ferdinand II. The Protestant Christian IV of Denmark entered the war for religious reasons and to protect his commercial interests but also because King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was poised to enter the war as a Protestant champion, an honor Christian IV wanted for himself. Christian IV was unable to match the strength of the Imperial forces under the Catholic mercenary leader Albrecht von Wallenstein, leading him to agree to peace terms and withdraw Denmark’s troops and Scottish mercenaries in 1629. Adolphus had supported Christian IV since 1628 but in 1630, with resources from the Catholic Cardinal Richelieu of France took the field against Wallenstein. Richelieu supported the Protestant king against Catholic Imperial forces in the interests of maintaining a balance of power between France and neighboring regions controlled by the powerful Habsburg Dynasty. After Adolphus was killed in battle in 1632, the Swedes continued the fight, supported by the French in the final, and bloodiest, phase of the war. The Thirty Years' War concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. While the treaty didn't declare a definitive winner, it had profound implications for European politics and international relations. In terms of religion, the treaty largely reiterated the principles established by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. However, its broader significance lies in its political and territorial consequences. The Peace of Westphalia reshaped the European map, recognizing the sovereignty of individual states. and laying the foundation for the modern international system, characterized by the principle of state sovereignty and non-interference in domestic affairs. The Thirty Years’ War is recognized as the “official” end of the Protestant Reformation as, by the time it concluded, Calvinism was accepted along with Lutheranism and Catholicism as a legitimate belief system and so the period of the development of Protestant sects is thought to have concluded by 1648 – though this did nothing to resolve religious conflict going forward and, according to some scholars, the reformation is ongoing today. The war is also understood as the beginning of modern warfare as practiced by Adolphus Gustavus and the establishment of the modern international system of statehood, marking the conflict as a watershed event in the transition to the modern era.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.897381	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113209/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Early Modern Europe, The Thirty Years War", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113215/overview	China Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 4, Lesson 2 Discussion of the Ming dynasty in China, which ruled from 1368-1644. It covers the rise and fall of the dynasty, as well as its many accomplishments, including the construction of the Great Wall of China. China also benefited from the end of Mongol rule. By 1500, the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) had ruled China for more than 130 years. The rise of the Mings ushered in a new period of peace that allowed China to flourish. However, by 1500 problems had begun to beset the Ming dynasty. A succession of weak and incompetent emperors, coupled with fiscal, military and bureaucratic issues, undermined the stability of the Chinese state. Enthusiastic builders, the Mings constructed a new capital called Beijing. Built between 1407 and 1420, the new capital consisted of a series of squares within squares, each being more restrictive and private than the next. A palace complex of nearly 10,000 rooms, the Forbidden City was the most private area. Within these walls, the emperor and the bureaucracy worked, sometimes together, others at odds, to run the Chinese state. MING DYNASTY Chinese scholar-officials represented the backbone of the Chinese state and bureaucracy. Unlike Europe, China had no hereditary aristocracy, nor did its merchant class become politically significant as in some European countries. Deriving power and status from their education and high government office, scholar- officials became the most formidable check on the absolute power of the emperor. Scholar-officials gained their place in government by passing rigorous civil service examinations held at the prefecture, provincial and capital levels. Quotas ensured that each province could only send so many worthy candidates to the capital, ensuring no regional dominance in government. The prestige associated with being sent to the capital meant that families who could afford to do so would hire tutors to give their male children an advantage. Based mainly on Confucian texts, the examinations could last for several days. The grueling process of the exams, the writing of essays, the drafting of mock state papers and edicts, and commenting on Confucian texts, coupled with the meager passing rates, ensured that those who advanced would be adept public servants capable of administering the Chinese state. The rise of the Ming dynasty did not end the threat of another Mongol invasion. Ming rulers deeply respected and feared the Mongols, especially their fighting abilities. This encouraged them to expand, rebuild and improve a series of walls, some very old, to aid in keeping the Mongols at bay. Earlier walls, often made of rammed earth, were replaced, buttressed, or built anew with stone and brick. This increased the overall cost and labor needed to develop and improve the walls. The walls also had a series of watch towers and gates to facilitate trade, taxation and security. It is estimated that 3,800 miles were added to the original defensive structure. During the Ming dynasty, attention was paid to improving the countryside. During this period, whole populations, if judged necessary, would be moved to help increase farming or recover lands destroyed by natural disaster, war or neglect. The government also invested heavily in reforestation. Promoting agriculture led to increased food production and a healthier, wealthier and more numerous populations. Merchants sold cotton, silks, paper and textiles to large Chinese cities and foreign nations. By the end of the Ming dynasty, tobacco, imported from the Americas, became a popular consumption item for men and women. Due to its focus on education and its papermaking and publishing industries, China, during this period, had an unusually high literacy rate. Historians continue to debate the causes of the Ming dynasty's decline, with some attributing it to internal corruption, economic troubles, and external threats, while others emphasize social unrest and natural disasters. Whatever one’s view, historians agree that the competition with Japan combined with a series of natural disasters (floods, epidemics, etc.) put tremendous pressure on the Ming government, which disintegrated in the face of these problems and growing unrest. Unable to defend the state or deal with its underlying problems, the final Ming emperor committed suicide in 1644 as a rebel army gained control of Beijing. The Qings (1644-1912) now ruled China. Descended from the Jurchens, the Qing dynasty came from Manchuria. Like the neighboring Mongols, the Manchus excelled at archery from horseback. The Qing dynasty brought stability to China, and by the end of the century, China once again experienced a period of wealth and prosperity. Spotlight On \| Great Wall of China The earliest origins of the Great Wall of China belong to the Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BCE). During the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221-210 BCE) connected some of the various defensive walls to create a more extensive fortification to protect his newly founded dynasty from outside invasion. Subsequent dynasties would also build new walls. The Great Wall of China as it stands today largely dates from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Not all of the Wall is manufactured from stone and brick as natural hills, mountain ridges and rivers are woven into the defensive structure. Although parts of the Wall have disappeared over time (it is estimated that the total building would equal more than 13,000 miles), today, the best-preserved section is still more than 5,000 miles in length.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.915931	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113215/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cultural Encounters and Expanding Empires in Asia and Eurasia, 1500-1700, China", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107513/overview	2.3.2 Knowledge Check (with solutions) Plan communications. Overview This learning module (Lesson 3 of Unit 2) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on external management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. Crudely speaking, there are two sorts of communications in project management (internal and external). Internal communications involves inter-personal communications, including within the project team (and this will be covered in a later module - 3.2). External communications includes communicating with all of the external stakeholders. In all projects, effective communications is essential and can be planned. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Explain the basic communication model. - Describe communications types. - Create communications management plan. What is the basic communication model? \| 5 minute watch What is project management communication? \| 2 minute watch What are the different communication types? \| 3 minute read Read this article about communication techniques for effective project management by the Association for Project Management (2021). What is a communications management plan? \| 8 minute read Read this article about project management communications planning by LucidChart. Test your knowledge. - T/F: This module focused on planned communications as opposed to interpersonal communications. - True - False - Which of the following is NOT one of the key components of basic communications? - Channel - Coding - Feedback - Frequency - Message - Noise - Sender - Receiver - Match the forms of communication (on the left) with specific examples (on right). Interactive Billboard Push Email Pull Phone conversation Webpage repository - What is the first step in developing a communications management plan? - Choose format - Communicate with stakeholders - Establish timeline - Set goals	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.943189	08/07/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107513/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, External Management, Plan communications.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/12083/overview	SimilaritySim Overview A no-tech card game designed to give learners an insight into how assessors and examiners use Turnitin's originality checking service to identify potential plagiarism. The game uses two decks of cards. The first simulates the decision making process, presenting a series of extracts from Turnitin reports and asking students to judge whether they show examples of plagiarism or not. These are then compared to a model answer (which is open to debate - many of the examples are borderline) and students asked to reflect on and challenge any disagreement. The second deck of cards is introduced, these show descriptions which match up to the first deck, and provide a competitive element as groups compete to solve a word puzzle by correctly matching the pairs of cards. This emphasises how nuanced the inferences that can be drawn from the report are. Uses of the resource SimilaritySim can be used in several ways. Teaching how to understand Turnitin reports Where learners are given access to reports on their own work, this activity can be used as part of a session introducing them to how the reports are interpreted, and how to avoid common mistakes (eg paying too much attention to the % score). It can also be valuable in staff development sessions, to train staff who will be interpreting the reports in a scaffolded way that can be more engaging than simply showing examples on a screen. Academic integrity training SimilaritySim can be used to show students the range of types of unoriginal work which Turnitin can detect, which can help them to understand the difference between switching out a couple of words and proper paraphrasing. (Although care should be taken the importance of not plagiarising, rather than merely beating Turnitin). Reducing anxiety Some learners are quite nervous about submitting high stakes work to Turnitin, mainly due to misunderstanding the way in which Turnitin is used. This activity shows them that their assessor will need to spend considerable time working with the report, rather than it being a "computer says no" scenario. Preparation Download the game cards and facilitator notes from Section 1 A no-tech card game designed to give learners an insight into how assessors and examiners use Turnitin's originality checking service to identify potential plagiarism. The game uses two decks of cards. The first simulates the decision making process, presenting a series of extracts from Turnitin reports and asking students to judge whether they show examples of plagiarism or not. These are then compared to a model answer (which is open to debate - many of the examples are borderline) and students asked to reflect on and challenge any disagreement. The second deck of cards is introduced, these show descriptions which match up to the first deck, and provide a competitive element as groups compete to solve a word puzzle by correctly matching the pairs of cards. This emphasises how nuanced the inferences that can be drawn from the report are. Uses of the resource SimilaritySim can be used in several ways. Teaching how to understand Turnitin reports Where learners are given access to reports on their own work, this activity can be used as part of a session introducing them to how the reports are interpreted, and how to avoid common mistakes (eg paying too much attention to the % score). It can also be valuable in staff development sessions, to train staff who will be interpreting the reports in a scaffolded way that can be more engaging than simply showing examples on a screen. Academic integrity training SimilaritySim can be used to show students the range of types of unoriginal work which Turnitin can detect, which can help them to understand the difference between switching out a couple of words and proper paraphrasing. (Although care should be taken the importance of not plagiarising, rather than merely beating Turnitin). Reducing anxiety Some learners are quite nervous about submitting high stakes work to Turnitin, mainly due to misunderstanding the way in which Turnitin is used. This activity shows them that their assessor will need to spend considerable time working with the report, rather than it being a "computer says no" scenario.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:43.963181	12/02/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/12083/overview", "title": "SimilaritySim", "author": "Steve Bentley" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76459/overview	BranchED OER Template Overview This template has been created by Branch Alliance for Educator Diversity to facilitate the development of OER as instructional materials for teacher education classes. Within this resource are instructions, templates, and examples for using this template to create your own unit(s) for your own classes. About this template [DELETE THIS SECTION WHEN REMIXING] This template is intended to be used to create OER to fully support or supplement a university course, particularly in a teacher education program. This OER has been formatted to provide you with blank templates and examples of the course intro, course-level outcomes, content, activities, and assessment options. Section 9 offers reflection questions to improve this template. Please answer the reflection questions in the COMMENTS section of this template so that the next user can improve upon the template. This template is intended to be used as a guide to plug in your own course content. Simply hit the REMIX button and edit the OER to insert your own content. Additional units/weeks/lessons can be added by additional sections. Note: When you remix this template to make your own OER, delete section 1. Unit 1 Introduction to the Course [TEMPLATE & EXAMPLE] <<INTRODUCTION TEMPLATE>> This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in their own course introductions. Introduction to the unit: Audience: Length of course: Unit-level outcomes: Technology requirements: ************** <<INTRODUCTION EXAMPLE>> This section contains a sample introduction to the course. This is a sample of how this template can be used. Sample Introduction to the Course: Creating Instructional Infographics Introduction to the course/unit: This goal of this course is to introduce learners to the benefit of using instructional infographics to support higher education instructional materials. The course is intended to supplement an existing course or professional development workshop. Audience: The intended audience of this course is adults, instructors and educators who work with adults, particularly in higher education. Length of course: This resource has been designed to supplement a 2-week course. Unit-level outcomes: While engaging with this unit, learners will: Identify infographics that effectively communicates educational concepts. Create an infographic that effectively communicates an educational concept. Technology requirements: This section should identify all of the technology that is required to successfully complete the lesson. You should consider various educational contexts when designing your lesson plan. Be clear and descriptive as to what the classroom should be equipped with. Some example questions to answer include: What are the specific technologies that your lesson requires? Does the instructor need to use a computer during the lesson? Do learners need access to a computer during the lesson? Should the learning space be equipped with a projector, speakers, or a microphone? What level of internet access does the classroom need (e.g. high bandwidth, constant/streaming connection, etc.)? Do students need to use technology outside of the classroom, such as completing online homework or research assignments? Does your lesson plan have alternate activities for low-resource contexts? Example: No technology is required for this lesson. Optional: A projector can be used to display the debate topics for students to refer to during practice. (From EFL Lesson Plan Template: https://www.oercommons.org/authoring/52181-efl-lesson-plan-template/view) Unit 1 Content [TEMPLATE & EXAMPLE] <<CONTENT TEMPLATE>> This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own content options. Content: Description of content and explanation of how to use. To increase inclusivity and accessibility, use more than one content type. Listed below are possible content types: Articles, blog posts, written/textual content Lecture notes PowerPoint or Google slides Infographics (be sure they have a CC license) Images (be sure they have a CC license) Podcast Video Media Movie Recorded lecture ************ <<CONTENT EXAMPLE>> This section contains sample content options to show you how this section might be used. The definition of infographics we're using here: Information + anything graphical = infographics There are formal definitions of infographics. But for our instructional purposes, we are interested in any graphical display of information. Why infographics Dual Coding Theory (DCT) by Allan Paivio, a professor of psychology. DCT is the idea that we have cognitive subsystems for both verbal and nonverbal processes. One is for language and the other is for imagery. In the image below, we see a picture of a dog we think dog, and when we read the word dog, we think dog. If we know that we process both words and images, one way we can have a more inclusive classroom is by offering students both words and images when we teach content. We can't say one is more effective than another because there is conflicting data about that. Images are not accessible to visually impaired learners, so they are better as a supplement. If using images in a synchronous class, be sure to describe the images. If using them in an asynchronous context, be sure to use concise alt text to describe the image. An image can directly activate an image in the brain. For example, we see a dog and process dog. Or an image can represent verbal meanings. Like we see a picture that symbolizes something else. Heart makes us think of the concept or emotion love. Infographic Clarity Rules There are rules we must follow to create instructional infographics that enable the learner to quickly understand the concept being taught. Rule 1: Use simple, universally recognized icons. Examples=plus/minus, arrows, check marks, etc. Rule 2: Stay away from movie, book, or media references. They can be too complicated to represent, and your audience may not be familiar with the reference. Rule 3: Use no more than 3-4 colors, and make sure they contrast. The colors should be used to call the eye to the main part of the image. There is one main color (like red in the image below, and the other colors contrast the red so that it jumps off the screen/page. Use colors in a way that guides the eye where you want to guide it. Rule 4: Do not cross lines over borders. Things should fit neatly inside of frames and borders. Also, spacings should be equal. You want to make the image as easy to understand for the eye as possible. Equal spacings and neat borders can help guide the eye where you want it. Unit 1 Activities [TEMPLATE & EXAMPLE] <<ACTIVITIES TEMPLATE>> This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own activity options. Activities: Please include an option of at least 2 activities for students to choose from. Each activity should include learner instructions, facilitator notes, and which outcomes they address. Listed below are possible activity types: Discussion Synchronous discussion platforms: Face-to-face Zoom Google Meets Teams Asynchronous discussion platforms: Discussion boards (LMS or Google) FlipGrid Marco Polo Social Media (Twitter, Instagram Facebook, Slack, Discord, etc) Written assignment Paper Blog Web site Journal (paper or digital) Presentation Learners can create a PowerPoint or Google slides Learners can create a video of themselves presenting Other Meme Selfie/photo Communiating about content on a social media platform (IG, Twitter, etc) Video ************ <<ACTIVITIES EXAMPLE>> This section contains sample activity options to illustrate how this section can be designed. Activity options to address Outcome 1: Learner instructions: Look at the following images. In writing, identify the ones that effectively communicate an educational concept. Provide a written response about why each one does or does not. (Answer key below images). Facilitator notes: The images can be shared in OER, in a synchronous class, or in an LMS. Be sure to label the images with a number, name, or letter so that student can clearly identify them. Prompt students to refer to the Infographic Clarity Rules (above in content) when explaining which are effect and why. Look at the following images. In a synchronous class discussion, talk about which ones you find effective and why. If your classmates disagree, try to convince them why your answer is correct. Be prepared to share your answers with the whole class group, naming the infographics that effectively communicate an educational concept. Provide a written response about why each one does or does not. (Answer key included in instructional notes). Facilitation guidance: The images can be shared in OER, in a synchronous class, or in an LMS. Be sure to label the images with a number, name, or letter so that student can clearly identify them. Prompt students to refer to the Infographic Clarity Rules (above in content) when explaining which are effect and why. Image A: Image B: Suggested Answer Key \| Image A clearly communicates an educational concept because the theory and definition are stated simply on the infographic. There is a single image that represents the meaning of the definition. The image color contrasts with the background so that the image and definition are easy to see. Image B gives easy-to-understand images that illustrate each educational concept. This image may be considered less effective because the eye is guided from right to left, and then right again. Also, the image types are different, which can be visually distracting. \| Unit 1 Assessment [TEMPLATE & EXAMPLE] <<ASSESSMENT TEMPLATE>> This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own assessment options. Assessment: Please include an option of at least 2 assessment types for students to choose from. Please describe the assessment, how to administer, and how they meet the unit-level outcomes. Any of the assignment types listed above can be used to assess outcomes. Additional assessment types are listed below: Project-based assessment Authentic assessment Standards-based assessment Multiple-choice assessment. M/C questions can be listed in the OER, or a Google Form assessment can be shared through OER (be sure to make the Google Form public or at least viewable to anyone with the link) ************** <<ASSESSMENT EXAMPLE>> This section contains sample assessment options. This is a sample of how this template can be used. Assessment options to address Outcome 2: Using an infographic creation tool of your choice, create an infographic that illustrates your favorite educational theory. Be prepared to explain how this image effectively communicates the theory. Using paper and pen/pencil, draw an image that illustrates your favorite educational theory. Be prepared to explain how this image effectively communicates the theory. Unit 2 Content [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own content options. Content: Description of content and explanation of how to use. Listed below are possible content types: Articles, blog posts, written/textual content Lecture notes PowerPoint or Google slides Infographics (be sure they have a CC license) Images (be sure they have a CC license) Podcast Video Media Movie Recorded lecture Unit 2 Activities [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own activity options. Activities: Please include an option of at least 2 activities for students to choose from. Please describe the activities, how to facilitate them, and how they meet the unit-level outcomes. Listed below are possible activity types: Discussion Synchronous discussion platforms: Face-to-face Zoom Google Meets Teams Asynchronous discussion platforms: Discussion boards (LMS or Google) FlipGrid Marco Polo Social Media (Twitter, Instagram Facebook, Slack, Discord, etc) Written assignment Paper Blog Web site Journal (paper or digital) Presentation Learners can create a PowerPoint or Google slides Learners can create a video of themselves presenting Other Meme Selfie/photo Communiating about content on a social media platform (IG, Twitter, etc) Video Unit 2 Assessment [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own assessment options. Assessment: Please include an option of at least 2 assessment types for students to choose from. Please describe the assessment, how to administer, and how they meet the unit-level outcomes. Any of the assignment types listed above can be used to assess outcomes. Additional assessment types are listed below: Project-based assessment Authentic assessment Standards-based assessment Multiple-choice assessment. M/C questions can be listed in the OER, or a Google Form assessment can be shared through OER (be sure to make the Google Form public or at least viewable to anyone with the link) Unit 3 Content [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own content options. Content: Description of content and explanation of how to use. Listed below are possible content types: Articles, blog posts, written/textual content Lecture notes PowerPoint or Google slides Infographics (be sure they have a CC license) Images (be sure they have a CC license) Podcast Video Media Movie Recorded lecture Unit 3 Activities [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own activity options. Activities: Please include an option of at least 2 activities for students to choose from. Please describe the activities, how to facilitate them, and how they meet the unit-level outcomes. Listed below are possible activity types: Discussion Synchronous discussion platforms: Face-to-face Zoom Google Meets Teams Asynchronous discussion platforms: Discussion boards (LMS or Google) FlipGrid Marco Polo Social Media (Twitter, Instagram Facebook, Slack, Discord, etc) Written assignment Paper Blog Web site Journal (paper or digital) Presentation Learners can create a PowerPoint or Google slides Learners can create a video of themselves presenting Other Meme Selfie/photo Communiating about content on a social media platform (IG, Twitter, etc) Video Unit 3 Assessment [TEMPLATE] This section is a blank template with prompts for instructors to type in and upload their own assessment options. Assessment: Please include an option of at least 2 assessment types for students to choose from. Please describe the assessment, how to administer, and how they meet the unit-level outcomes. Any of the assignment types listed above can be used to assess outcomes. Additional assessment types are listed below: Project-based assessment Authentic assessment Standards-based assessment Multiple-choice assessment. M/C questions can be listed in the OER, or a Google Form assessment can be shared through OER (be sure to make the Google Form public or at least viewable to anyone with the link) Help us improve this template! [PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN THE COMMENTS OF THIS OER] Please answer the following questions and POST THEM IN THE COMMENTS SECTION OF THE ORIGINAL TEMPLATE OER. Reflection questions for template continous improvement: 1. What worked well for you when using this template? 2. What did not work well when using this template? 3. What changes would you make to this template the next time you use it? 4. Would you recommend this template to other educators? Why? Why not?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.025183	01/19/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76459/overview", "title": "BranchED OER Template", "author": "Aubree Evans" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71635/overview	PARTIAL EVALUATIONS Overview PARTIAL EVALUATIONS FOCUSED ON A1 ENGLISH LEVELS partial evaluations Partial evaluations	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.043161	08/24/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71635/overview", "title": "PARTIAL EVALUATIONS", "author": "Luis Yanchatipan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72213/overview	Harlem - Langston Hughes Overview The given material explains about the condition of postponed dreams. This is an assignment submitted in Swayam OER for Empowering Teachers. Harlem poem by Langston Hughes Harlem poem by Langston Hughes Langston Hughes, an eternal name in the history of American literature, was one of the revolutionary poets during the twentieth century who used his literary talent as a weapon in the struggle against capitalism, for the emancipation of the toiling humanity, taking pride in the black culture and heritage. Langston Hughes was an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance who made the African American experiences as his subject in his writings. Hughes’ poem “Harlem” or “Dream Deferred” demonstrated the need for dreams. It was written in 1951, as a result of whites’ brutality towards African Americans living in America. What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? Or fester like a sore— And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? Or crust and sugar over— like a syrupy sweet? Maybe it just sags like a heavy load. Or does it explode? (Hughes vol. 3 1-11) It is a well-known poem of Hughes, which provokes the readers to fulfill their dreams. According to him dreams are part of human existence, but he strongly believed that the unfulfilled dreams would bring adverse results. He warned those who dreamt but never acted. Dreams are not easy to be realized without perseverance. He compared the dreams deferred to raisins, which are dried up and get shrunken. They will lose their freshness and juicy state if they are kept under the sun for a long time. Hughes compared the ignored dreams similarly to rotten meat, sore, and sugar crust, which are turned to unhealthy products that could not be consumed or used. The postponed, neglected and ignored dreams are compared with rotten meat that would be harmful to health. Such unfulfilled dreams would become an intense, heavy and unbearable load or burden. A time would come when such hidden dreams would explode, causing undesired flutters and serious consequences.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.061425	09/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72213/overview", "title": "Harlem - Langston Hughes", "author": "Sasikaladevi S" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68270/overview	Lectures2 Honors Linear Algebra 2 Lecture Summary Overview Honors Linear Algebra 2 Lecture Summary Honors Linear Algebra 2 Lecture Summary	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.078061	06/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68270/overview", "title": "Honors Linear Algebra 2 Lecture Summary", "author": "Leonardo Rolla" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79355/overview	Multimedia Intro to Rubik's Cube, 1st 2 layers Overview A very basic introduction to solving the Rubik's Cube. This is part of a demonstration of various design features that can improve learning. This version has only one of those features: the Multimedia Principle (Clark and Mayer, 2016). It's a little better than text-only, but not a lot. Introduction This tutorial will teach how to solve the first two layers of the Rubik's Cube. Solving the last layer is more complicated. It will be covered in a future tutorial. Standards are listed here, because I couldn't fit them in the resource description: 1 Learning outcomes 1.1 Engish By the end of this module, learners should be able to: - remember and recognize the different types of Rubik's Cube (RC) pieces, - know the different terms describing the entire cube, - know how to make the white cross to start solving, - know how to insert the corners and edges to complete solving of the first two layers. 1.2 Bloom's By the end of this module, learners should be able to: - remember and recognize the different types of Rubik's Cube (RC) pieces, retrieving (1.2) Knowledge of terminology (Aa) identifying (1.1) Knowledge of specific details and elements (Ab) (but close to classifying based on on conceptual knowledge) - know the different terms describing the entire cube, retrieving (1.2) Knowledge of terminology (Aa) - (More about understanding how they're used in sentences) - know how to make the white cross to start solving, retrieving (1.2) and executing (3.1) knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms (Ca) - know how to insert the corners and edges to complete solving of the first two layers. retrieving (1.2) and executing (3.1) knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms (Ca) classifying (2.3) based on knowledge of classifications and categories (Ba) - because you have to recognize different situations - This becomes more important for the later stages of solving. Preliminary survey Here's an example pre-test Terminology Here are three key terms: face, layer, and piece - Face - A face is one of the 6 sides of the cube. If a cube is on the table, the top face is the side of it that is facing the ceiling. Faces are also often named with the color of their middle piece, for example, the blue face, or the red face. - Layer - This includes the face and the other side of each of the pieces that form the top layer. For example, the top layer of a cube is the top third of the cube. - Pieces - The pieces of the cube are the individual parts that can be switched around to "solve" (make each of the six faces a single color) the cube. Pieces have 1, 2, or 3 visible colors. The different pieces are: - Middles: the 6 pieces in the middle of each face. - Edges: the 12 pieces directly adjacent to each middle. - Corners: the 8 pieces on the corners of the cube. Visualization Note: I didn't continue the multimedia (pictures) after this. The first step in learning how to solve a Rubik's Cube is visualization. The key to visualization is to focus on the layers of the cube, not on the faces. For example, to "solve" the blue layer, it's not enough to have all the pieces with blue sides on the same side. Their other sides have to be on the correct faces as well. Making the white cross In this section, you will learn out to start solving the cube by beginning with the white face and its edges. Review of the Pieces The centers on each face never move in relation to the others. For example, white will always be across from yellow, red will always be across from orange, and blue across from green. Next, there are the edges which have two faces and can move on two axes. And lastly, the corners, with three faces that can move on three axes. Solving the white cross The first step to actually solving a Rubik's Cube is called the White Cross. In the White Cross, the edges with one white face are next to the white center but also, the non-white face of the edge is adjacent to the middle of its color. Most people can figure out how to solve the white cross on their own. If it is necessary to move one of the edges that is already in place to get another one, then do so, but move it back in place after twisting the second edge out of the way. If a white edge is on the "yellow face", it can be put in place by aligning its other side with the corresponding middle, and then twisting that side twice. The white corners Next up are the white corners. First, rotate the cube so that the white cross is on the bottom. In order to insert a corner into where it is supposed to be, take it and put it above where it should go in and then move the side so that the white face will be pointing down in its slot. Then move the other edge away, move the first side back, and the second side back. Then it should be in. Another case is if the white face of the corner is facing up. Then, no matter which way you turn it in, the white face won't be facing down. In this case, just twist one of the sides, move it away from that side, move the side back down, and then the corner will have the white face facing either right or left, but not up. Then just insert it as described above. Move it so that the white face is facing down, move the other edge away, move the first edge back, and move the edge back. You can repeat this process for all of the corners.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.101238	04/16/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79355/overview", "title": "Multimedia Intro to Rubik's Cube, 1st 2 layers", "author": "Peter Hastings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102087/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview Today I will demonstrate how to draw Gasket A, step-by-step. To begin, below is a Finished Drawing of Gasket A. Instructions for the assignment: Begin a New Drawing in AutoCAD, Set Limits to 0,0 and 8,6. Set Snap and Grid values appropriately. Units are Decimal inches with a precision of 0.00”. We will create the gasket above. Draw only the gasket shape, do not add dimensions or centerlines. (HINT: Locate and draw the four 0.5” diameter Circles, then create the concentric 0.5” radius arcs as full Circles then Trim. Make use of the Object Snaps and Trim whenever applicable.) Save the drawing using the filename GASKET A. Click to begin the video. How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.118639	Graphic Design	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102087/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Engineering" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85815/overview	Harvard Outline Formatting Overview Are your students struggling to create visually-organized speech outlines? This GoogleDocs handout demonstrates Harvard outline formatting, the most common type of outlining used in public speaking. It explains and demonstrates formatting expectations for: speech sections, main points, transitions, sub-points. It also offers advice about: indentation and symbolization, the principle of division in outlining, how to adjust your numbering scheme in GoogleDocs and Microsoft Word, spacing. Finally, it offers two student outline examples for clarity. Handout This link will allow you to copy the resource into your Google Drive, then edit your own copy to adapt it to your class.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.134846	09/13/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85815/overview", "title": "Harvard Outline Formatting", "author": "Leslie Collins" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101145/overview	History of the United States 1865-1990 Overview This text discusses modern U.S. history (1865-1990), with a lean toward foreign policy and international relations. It is written for a 100-level college course. This text can be used to supplement and support lectures, especially for instructions who have a foreign relations focus. It can be used as a textbook, a reader or both. History 102 Text and Reader History of the United State 1865-1990 An Introduction to Modern U.S. History with a Focue on Foreign Relations. With Primary Sources and Recommended Secondary Source Readings. Kristen Marjanovic Associate Professor of History, Palomar College San Marcos, CA CC-BY-SA	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.152405	02/19/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101145/overview", "title": "History of the United States 1865-1990", "author": "Kristen Marjanovic" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102399/overview	OER & Library Information for Student Success Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I want to create bite-size information that assists our campus instructors in navigating information resources that will be useful to their students. We have a wealth of resources that are not being used and I think creating explanatory resources migh have instructors to inbed them in their classes. My Audience: The audience is instructors. I think most people gravitate toward information that is simple and shows obvious benefit. I would want content that guides an instructor to use several different resources, including OER. My Team: Our design staff and other librarians. Higher education is often divided into those who instruct and those who support instructional endeavors, so I would like to unify the support side in designing this information. Our campus has one person who handles professional development and they would be a key person to add to this project. Existing Resources: There were some wonderful information literacy resources that would be for advanced information. I am hoping to start a bit smaller at first. One of these advanced information literacy slides has been saved for future use. New Resources: At the moment I would suggest adding some form of review. I anticipate creating new content and would want a review and revision stage to be included to make sure it's as simple as possible. Supports Needed: Time. I really think one of the biggest problems for anyone working in this area is the time to research and develop their content. I am concerned that there isn't enough time to add this commitment to what is already needed. I think research into the audience and how they might appreciate information would be great to add. Our Timeline: Right now, I don't think there is a deadline. OER Item This OER content is not associated with a current class or course. Reflection This process has been very insightful. I discovered how many people were working through OER creation issues on their campuses. I really appreciated hearing what other schools and other similar educators were doing. I discovered that there is a tremendous amount of information that is already available and that there are a lot of different approaches to using OER. Even though, I don't teach a class, there are ways that OER creation can be thought about and produced. My plan is two-fold: more library support and OER creation activities on my campus and creating library information for campus.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.173162	03/31/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102399/overview", "title": "OER & Library Information for Student Success", "author": "Tammy Powers" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/50430/overview	Political Socialization Overview Political Socialization Introduction Introduction This section explores the agents of socialization and takes a deeper look at the influence of mass media on political socialization. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Define political socialization - Understand the agents of socialization - Understand the influence of the mass media on political socialization - Understand that socialization is long-lasting and relatively homogenous By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define political socialization - Understand the agents of socialization - Understand the influence of the mass media on political socialization - Understand that socialization is long-lasting and relatively homogenous Definition Definition Political socialization is the “process by which individuals learn and frequently internalize a political lens framing their perceptions of how power is arranged and how the world around them is (and should be) organized; those perceptions, in turn, shape and define individuals’ definitions of who they are and how they should behave in the political and economic institutions in which they live.” Political socialization also encompasses the way in which people acquire values and opinions that shape their political stance and ideology: it is a “study of the developmental processes by which people of all ages and adolescents acquire political cognition, attitudes, and behaviors.” It refers to a learning process by which norms and behaviors acceptable to a well running political system are transmitted from one generation to another. It is through the performance of this function that individuals are inducted into the political culture and their orientations towards political objects are formed. Schools, media, and the state have a major influence on this process. Agents of Socialization Agents of Socialization Agents of socialization, sometimes referred to as institutions, work together to influence and shape people’s political and economic norms and values. Such institutions include, but are not limited to: families, media, peers, schools, religions, work and legal systems. Family: Families perpetuate values that support political authorities and can heavily contribute to children’s initial political ideological views, or party affiliations. Families have an effect on “political knowledge, identification, efficacy, and participation”, depending on variables such as “family demographics, life cycle, parenting style, parental level of political cynicism and frequency of political discussions.” - Schools: Spending numerous years in school, children in the United States are taught and reinforced a view of the world that “privileges capitalism and ownership, competitive individualism, and democracy.” Through primary, secondary and high schools, students are taught key principles such as individual rights and property, personal responsibility and duty to their nation. - Media: Mass media is not only a source of political information; it is an influence on political values and beliefs. Various media outlets, through news coverage and late-night programs, provide different partisan policy stances that are associated with political participation. - Religion: Religions beliefs and practices play a role in political opinion formation and political participation. The theological and moral perspectives offered by religious institutions shape judgement regarding public policy, and ultimately, translates to direct “political decision making on governmental matters such as the redistribution of wealth, equality, tolerance for deviance and the limits on individual freedom, the severity of criminal punishment, policies relating to family structure, gender roles, and the value of human life.” - Political parties: Scholars such as Campbell (1960) note that political parties have very little direct influence on a child due to a contrast of social factors such as age, context, power, etc. - The state: The state is a key source of information for media outlets, and has the ability to “inform, misinform, or disinform the press and thus the public”, a strategy which may be referred to as propaganda, in order to serve a political or economic agenda. The Media's Role in Political Socialization The Media's Role in Political Socialization In Children Political socialization begins in childhood. Some research suggests that family and school teachers are the most influential factors in socializing children, but recent research designs have more accurately estimated the high influence of the media in the process of political socialization. On average, both young children and teenagers in the United States spend more time a week consuming television and digital media than they spend in school. Young children consume an average of thirty-one hours a week, while teenagers consume forty-eight hours of media a week. High school students attribute the information that forms their opinions and attitudes about race, war, economics, and patriotism to mass media much more than their friends, family, or teachers. Research has also shown that children who consume more media than others show greater support for and understanding of American values, such as free speech. This may be because eighty percent of the media content children consume is intended for an adult audience. In addition, the impact of the messages is more powerful because children’s brains are “prime for learning,” thus more likely to take messages and representations of the world at face value. In Adulthood The media’s role in political socialization continues in adulthood through both fictional and factual media sources. Adults have increased exposure to news and political information embedded in entertainment; fictional entertainment (mostly television) is the most common source of political information. The culmination of information gained from entertainment becomes the values and standards by which people judge. Stability and Homogeneity Stability and Homogeneity While political socialization by the media is a lifelong process, after adolescence, people’s basic values generally do not change. Most people choose what media they are exposed to based on their already existing values, and they use information from the media to reaffirm what they already believe. Studies show two-thirds of newspaper readers do not know their newspaper’s position on specific issues- and most media stories are quickly forgotten. Studies on public opinion of the Bush administration’s energy policies show that the public pays more attention to issues that receive a lot of media coverage, and forms collective opinions about these issues. This demonstrates that the mass media attention to an issue affects public opinion. More so, extensive exposure to television has led to “mainstreaming," aligning people’s perception of political life and society with television’s portrayal of it. There are different patterns in socialization based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, income, education, geographic region, and city size. For example, generally, African Americans and Hispanics rely on television for their information more than white people. More women than men watch daytime television, and more men than women follow sports programs. Older people read more newspapers than younger people, and people from the ages of twelve to seventeen (although they consume the most media) consume the least amount of news. Northerners listen to radio programs more than Southerners do. News outlets on the East Coast tend to cover international affairs in Europe and the Middle East the most, while West Coast news outlets are more likely to cover Asian affairs; this demonstrates that region affects patterns in media socialization. Income level is also an important factor; high-income families rely more on print media than television and consume less television than most of the population. Ultimately, however, the common core of information and the interpretation the media applies to it leads to a shared knowledge and basic values throughout the United States. Most media entertainment and information does not vary much throughout the country, and it is consumed by all types of audiences. Although there are still disagreements and different political beliefs and party affiliations, generally there are not huge ideological disparities among the population because the media helps create a broad consensus on basic US democratic principles. Unit Remix Test Checking to see how this displays and what the URL does	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.194533	02/06/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/50430/overview", "title": "Political Socialization", "author": "Melinda Newfarmer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120594/overview	Shannon Dietz Remix OER Item Sharing - Dental Hygiene Overview OER Fundamentals Academy participants are invited to remix this sharing template to design and share their OER project plans, course information, any related resources and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? I have discovered new way to learn & share reputable content resources. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? Dental Hygiene 2nd year students preparing for graduation. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? My program director Holly Houck, and the Oregan Dental Hygiene Community is the next hub or group i will search for as they have some great leaders in the Dental Hygiene Educators Association. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. I was hoping to share the sample questions I have for the state licensing process for Arizona Jurisprudence, I will have to start small & that IS OK!!! New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? Time for research and collaboration with other Dental Hygiene Educators. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? Time to navigate more, research more and make sure i won't break any laws or rules to reshare content. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? Not sure I understand... OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.211001	Shannon Dietz	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120594/overview", "title": "Shannon Dietz Remix OER Item Sharing - Dental Hygiene", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98715/overview	Infant and Childhood Language Development Overview This is a brief introduction to the pathways of language development in infancy and early childhood. It focuses on the biological, cognitive, and social factors involved and how language shifts from crying to inner speech through development. It is presented in a low-tech accessible powerpoint presentation, with some opportunities to test your learning at the end. This lesson is designed for those who wish to gain further information on childhood development within a psychological lens. This OER is a low-tech powerpoint presentation course to provide avid learners with a brief overview of how language develops through infancy and early childhood.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.227193	Asia Silzer	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98715/overview", "title": "Infant and Childhood Language Development", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview	Introduction to Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview This Summer Institutute kick off webinar and reflection in group discussion covered the following: - Connect and get to know each other - Discuss Institute Goals, Outcomes and Expectations - Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview - Explore the What and Why - Discover how Open Educational Resources and Practices can support our work Introduction to Open Educational Resources & Practices Webinar Recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zMMyN6n__GZOTKfMznjDRaATEd28X6a8gCUXqfMPykpr2_Crl5BdzXjd4vIsyJOw Slides are attached Reply to group discussion: https://www.oercommons.org/groups/summer-2020-training-team/4846/discussions/1294?__hub_id=74 Summary of all known empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education https://openedgroup.org/review	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.246631	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, Introduction to Open Educational Resources and Practices", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview	OER Collaboration and Curation Overview The Summer Institute webinar and practice activities covered the following: 1.Share what collaboration looks like in your work 2.Explore tools and workflows for collaboration and curation –Create folders and subfolders –Save resources to folders OER Collaboration and Curation Webinar recording Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zshKKritp3xLRIXy40LlZJwgJoS7X6a81nJL__oLyk8XpNR6V06OQ0l_ejgw94Kd Slides are attached This week's practice activities: 1. Practice: Create a folder / subfolders and save resources you can use in your work. Learn how to create group folders. - Are you interested in creating a group? Learn how to create a group. 2. Practice: Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate To add a resource to one of the BranchED Hub Collections, find the the keyword below for the collection you want to add it to and tag it on the resource. \| Collection title \| Keywords \| \| Subject areas/content \| BranchED SC \| \| Teaching Methods \| BranchED Methods \| \| Social Emotional Learning \| BranchED SEL \| \| CLSP \| BranchED CLSP \| \| SPED \| BranchED SPED \| \| Assessment and Evaluation \| BranchED Assessment \| \| Foundations of Education \| BranchED Foundations \| \| Field-Based Courses \| BranchED FBC \| 3. Show & Tell: Bring a resource you created or remixed that you are proud of to share at our next meeting	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.267062	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, OER Collaboration and Curation", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview	OER Quality Evaluation Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share what high-quality resources look like in your work 2.Explore quality evaluation tools 3.Determine your own quality evaluation criteria Webinar Recording: Link to the zoom recording here: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/_v0pFZCu7XtLRNbw707tc48BFZnheaa8hyVKqKIKzRsRAQ7P0HYtwTxx24tN4Ipq?startTime=1591204997000 Slides are attached Quality Evaluation Tools: - Achieve OER Rubric https://www.achieve.org/files/AchieveOERRubrics.pdf - Open Textbook Library Review Criteria https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/reviews/rubric - BranchED’s Equity-Oriented Criteria https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65060/overview - Washington’s Model for Assessing Bias in Instructional Materials https://www.k12.wa.us/sites/default/files/public/equity/pubdocs/Washington%20Models%20for%20the%20Evaluation%20of%20Bias_2009.pdf This week's practice and reflection: Discuss: Share what your resource quality evaluation criteria is in the group discussion here. Practice: Evaluate a resource in our group folders using your own quality evaluation criteria. Write your review as a comment on the resource. For example: Here is a resource that was evaluated in the comment section Fractal Cities Discuss: Revisit your OER Content Development & Training Proposal. Reflect on any modifications or additions you many need to make to your module and/or training offerings given what you have worked on in the past month. Share any changes you made and why in our group discussion here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.294762	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, OER Quality Evaluation", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66687/overview	OER Design, Authoring and Remixing Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share any changes we made to our proposals 2.Explore designing and iterating for continuous improvement –Share best practices and get inspiration from other educators 3.Get an overview of OER authoring tool, Open Author –Discover how to edit, describe, and publish a resource Webinar recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/uedTDYqv5kFJWoWX5lH-eJ9_Q6K5eaa8gCAfq_JYzhrpBtLqZ6dSnHccl4vvoGvO?startTime=1591808490000 Slides are attached Here is the Open Author instructional video that shows you how to edit, describe, and publish a resource, as well as how to remix. This week's practice: Begin designing your module in Open Author - In our Summer Institute Group click Contribute to this Group and select Open Author (you need to be logged in) - Give your module a title and start creating your sections - add co-authors, format sections, embed media (images and videos), attach files from your computer, add instructor notes if applicable, check sections for accessibility - Describe your module, choose a license, add keywords, align to standards if applicable - Publish and be ready to share your first draft next week	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.314196	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66687/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, OER Design, Authoring and Remixing", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97121/overview	ERROR: type should be string, got "https://www.edutopia.org/blog/film-fest-ell-video-resources\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/authoring/8298-helpful-websites-for-ell-students\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/courses/classroom-videos\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/courses/what-works-teaching-literacy-skills-to-english-language-learners\nhttps://youtu.be/IqnUiXiGcZk\npiggy bank\nWhat is an Emergent Bilingual?\nOverview\nThis module is about Emergent Bilingual students, Professional Development for Teachers, and FREE resources available for students and teachers.\nIntroduction for Emergent Bilingual Students and Professional Development for Teachers.\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nEmergent Bilingual might be a new term, but we have known it for many years as English Language Learners (ELL), English Second Language (ESL), Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD), and many others. Although you may think this should be automatically funded and provided the truth is many schools are not able to provide the program to their students. Here we will provide information on how to apply appropriate and quality resources for the students, and the Teachers for their professional development.\nFederal School Budget\nAttribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)\nIn the article New Federal Equity Agenda for Dual Language Leanrners it talks about how more than 10 percent of US Pre-K-12 students are English Language Learners. Children under the age of 8 have at least one parent who speaks a non-English language. States and Schools districts have treated English Language linguistic diversity as an obstacle. English “only” approaches have denied many students of their emerging bilingual status and have failed to help them with their academic or professional success. In order to help these students meet requirements to be reclassified as English Proficient. Research has shown that developing bilingual proficiencies can help with cognitive benefits to young bilingual students.\nSchool districts have a low budget for English Learners. It is estimated that 10.5 percent of children in the United States can be considered English language learners. English learners are the fastest growing segment of the nation’s students. According to the U.S. Department of Education’s website, Doing What Works, “In the last two decades, the population of students who are limited English proficient has grown by 169 percent, while the general school population has grown only 12 percent.”\nDWW is a FREE website library sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education. Its content is primarily based on the Institute of Educational Sciences (IES) What Works Clearinghouse, which evaluates research on practices and interventions. On the WestEd.org website, educators can order FREE professionaldevelopment packages using DWW materials. The IES Practice Guide “Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in the Elementary Grades” (2007) recommends five essential practices in teaching young English language learners:\n1. Screen for reading problems and monitor progress\nusing English language measures of phonological processing, letter knowledge,\nand word and text reading\n2. Provide intensive small-group reading\ninterventions for at-risk learners\n3. Provide extensive and varied vocabulary\ninstruction daily\n4. Develop academic English, beginning in the primary\ngrades\n5. Schedule regular peer-assisted learning\nopportunities (approximately 90 minutes per week)\nThe Doing What Works home page contains information about early\nchildhood education, English language learners, and math and science. The\nresources discussed in this article are found on the Teaching Literacy in\nEnglish to K-5 English Learners page. Remember, it is FREE!\nProfessional Development for Teachers\nThis video it talks about how to prepare teachers for Professional Development of English Language Learners. Many opportunities were shown how to help teachers with the experience of the five core principles. Which are Heterogeneity & Collaboration, Experiential Learning, Language & Content Integration, Localized Autonomy & Responsibility, One Learning Model for All. In order to prepare the teachers they attend a workshop with hands-on learning activities that show what the teacher should integrate into their own classroom. The workshops help the teachers to come up with ideas for scaffolding and adapting texts, adopting trauma-informed practices, and deploying project based learning activities.\nBeing able to use videos that will help with professional development is key. These resources provide many ways for a teacher to be helpful with their students, especially emergent bilinguals. In these two resources you can find different classroom settings. Some cases show that schools have no fundings to provide extra resources for the emergent bilingual program, and many have never dealt with emergent bilingual students or even students with disabilities. So, it is vital that we can provide great resources for the teacher that is free and effective in their professional development. Not only are these resources wonderful for your emergent bilingual students but also for students with disabilities.\nHelpful Websites for Emergent Bilingual Students\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nAs a future educator I really appreciate how there are so many resources we can use for free. A couple of the resources provided below have information that can be shared with many students as a read along guide. This can be beneficial not only for Emergent Bilinguals but also for many students with disabilities. These resources can be really helpful as well for school districts that may not have enough funding for the Emergent Bilingual program. As there may be so many other programs here are a couple that may help.\nQuick Look\nAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)\nHere is an overview of all the sections. We will review the key points and provide a further understanding of the sections.\nWhat is an Emergent Bilingual?\nOver the last few decades, Emergent Bilingual students have had various names like English Language Learners (ELL), Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD), and many others. An Emergent Bilingual student is any student who is continuing to learn their mother or father tongue while also learning a second or new language.\nFederal School Budget\nAccording the article New Federal Equity Agenda for Dual Language Learners, more than 10% of U.S grade school through high school age students are English Language Learners. Most children under the age of 8 will have at least one parent who speaks a foreign language other than English. Unfortunately for these students, the states and school districts have treated them as obstacles. If teachers only use English teaching methods, English Language Learners will be left confused and intimated by the teacher rather than feeling safe or wanting to learn.\nNot only that but these approaches limit and\nNeglected ELL students of their emerging bilingual status and have failed to help them with their academic or professional success. To help young bilingual students become English Proficient, research has shown that nurturing bilingual abilities provides young bilingual kids with cognitive growth.\nProfessional Development for Teachers\nIn the Professional Development for Teachers of English Language video, English Language Learner teachers receive preparation for professional development. The video mentioned the five core principles that help teachers further advance their teaching skills to meet the needs of Emergent Bilingual students. The five core principles are Heterogeneity & Collaboration, Experiential Learning, Language & Content Integration, Localized Autonomy & Responsibility, and One Learning Model for All. Teachers attend training sessions with hands-on learning activities to prepare them for their classes. The workshops help the teachers develop ideas for scaffolding and adapting texts, adopting trauma-informed practices, and deploying project-based learning activities.\nResources Used\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nEnglishwsheets.com. (n.d.). Adjectives ESL printable worksheets and exercises. ESL Worksheets English Exercises. https://www.englishwsheets.com/adjectives.html\nExplore. create. collaborate. OER Commons. (n.d.). https://www.oercommons.org/\nFerlazzo, L. (2015, November 20). 5-Minute Film Festival: 7 videos for Ell Classrooms. Edutopia. From https://www.edutopia.org/blog/film-fest-ell-video-resources\nNewAmericaFoundation. (2020, March 2). Professional development for teachers of English learners: The internationals approach. YouTube.From https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqnUiXiGcZk\nWilliams, — C. P., Fellow, C. P. W. S., Williams, C. P., Fellow, S., Hinds, — B. C., — By Mark Zuckerman and Robert Shireman, Hart, — B. J., Foundation, — B. T. C., Potter, — B. H., & Hamilton, — B. L. T. (2022, March 23). A new federal equity agenda for Dual Language Learners and English learners. The Century Foundation. From https://tcf.org/content/report/new-federal-equity-agenda-dual-language-learners-english-learners/\nConclusion\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nWhat we have learned is how Emergent Bilingual students have limited resources in order to help them be successful in learning a new language. We also learned how Professional Development is important for teachers who are learning how to teach to Emergent Bilingual’s in a way that they will be able to comprehend and understand. With Professional Development the teacher’s are also learning new techniques. The most important thing for Emergent Bilingual students is having access to resources outside of the classroom that they can use."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.349962	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97121/overview", "title": "What is an Emergent Bilingual?", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22092/overview	[PDF Ebook] How to Avoid All Possible Types of Plagiarism in Writing What is Academic Plagiarism How to Avoid All Possible Types of Plagiarism in Writing Overview Plagiarism definitions are many: When it comes to spoken words, plagiarism means stealing ideas and thoughts of other people to claim them as one's own. Speaking of written words, plagiarism is defined as a lack of original content in a writing piece. Dictionaries call plagiarism "stealing and passing off ideas or words of another as one's own," and "presenting as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source." (Merriam-Webster) Plagiarism is a persistent problem. People do it unknowingly or willingly, and a large percentage of accusations corresponds to the academic world: students plagiarize writings for many reasons, use all possible types of this offensive act, and don't realize all the consequences. What they should try to do is be aware of plagiarism and avoid it in academic writings, citing and referencing their works accordingly. What are plagiarism types? The digital era calls the shots, so today we have many new forms of plagiarism, both intentional and unintentional ones. Academic and journalistic are the general names for plagiarism types, but both involve several variations. They are as follows: Full plagiarism Also known as "direct" or "complete" plagiarism, this form appears when you copy the content from a source as it is, word for word. Characteristics: no original research, no changes in lexical items or punctuation, no differences (even the tiniest ones) between two content pieces. Full plagiarism is the sin of incompetent authors or those who are mere lazy to give it their best shot and create something original. Speaking of the academic world, full plagiarism leads to a student's expulsion. Paraphrasing Some call it "partial" plagiarism because it happens when a writer takes data from several different sources, combines them with minor changes in language, and represent as original ideas. Paraphrasing itself is not plagiarism, and it's okay to use it if citing and referencing all sources. But it becomes so when represented as a rewrite of the original with no attributions. Characteristics: presenting the ideas from original sources in different forms, changes of sentence structure, active to passive voice manipulations, no cites or references. In the case of paraphrasing, an author takes pains to sound original and yet doesn't provide any first-hand research in his writing. In academia, this form of plagiarism signals about a lack of knowledge on the topic or not enough writing skills to expand ideas. Minimalistic plagiarism It's a kind of paraphrase too, but a more professional one: a writer copies ideas but changes the flow and order in which they are presented in the source. This form of plagiarism is difficult to detect because it does seem original, especially if checked with plagiarism detection software. Characteristics: changes in sentence structure, statements order, and writing style of the source; paraphrasing several sources in one text with no attributions; active use of synonyms. Minimalistic plagiarism happens when a student lacks time or patience to create original work but is ambitious of recognition and high grades. Mosaic plagiarism Also known as a poor rewrite, synonymization, or patch writing, mosaic plagiarism happens when an author takes phrases from the original, rearranges them in order, and represent in own work without citing. Or, when he keeps the same sentence structure and meaning but replace every word with synonyms so his work would look like a newly written one. Characteristics: rearrangements in word and phrase order, excessive synonymization, a flow changes, no attribution to sources. Students do love this type of plagiarism, and it's most common in their academic works. Mosaic plagiarism signals about procrastination, lack of knowledge, and ignorance of plagiarism consequences. Accidental plagiarism In plain English, it's unintentional copying of others' ideas and words. Speaking of students, they might fall into a trap of accidental plagiarism when don't know they borrow concepts from others and, therefore, neglect to reference sources because they do consider their writings original. Despite its accidental nature, this form of plagiarism is considered as copyright infringement and scholar ethics violation. So, the consequences are going to be as ominous as in the case of other plagiarism types. Self-plagiarism The trickiest one, self-plagiarism occurs when a student decides to submit his previous work to another class. Or, when he takes ideas, concepts, and passages from his other essays and use them for new assignments with no permission from both professors. This form is the most controversial one, and many still argue if they should consider it plagiarism at all. On the one hand, your work is your intellectual property, and so you can use it wherever you want. On the other, this work is no longer original after you've submitted it. It's a kind of bluff: the audience waits for new information from an author, but he misleads them and gives something they've heard already. In the world of academia, it would be wise for students to consult professors on the institution's policies to make sure it's okay to cite papers, previously submitted to other classes. Source plagiarism, or wrong referencing Authors refer to each other in their works. And when a student refers to a cited source rather than a primary one, it's called source plagiarism. Source formatting matters, either. Improperly cited sources, false referencing, or no references at all are the cases of plagiarism. Reasons for why a student avoids references in a paper vary: He asked a ghostwriter to create an essay, so he just can't refer to it. He used a source to steal arguments and just copied them with no changes. He used the essence of a source and just changed several keywords. He combined several sources in a paper for it to look original. It often happens that a student doesn't know how to use citations and references in his copy. It's not the case of plagiarism, but a professor may consider it so when detecting some misinformation in a list of references. This includes: Using wrong sources (see the above source plagiarism). Neglecting footnotes: a student cites an author but doesn't provide a location of the source. Using fake sources: a student plagiarizes the entire text of his essay and yet provides a long list of references to "prove" its original nature. Proper citation is a must in the academic world, so writers need to know how to use and structure references to avoid accusations of plagiarism. How to avoid plagiarism issues in writings? Plagiarism consequences are many, and most are not as evident as students might think. Copyright infringement and intellectual property theft are legal issues, and they might lead to far stronger effects than poor grades or reputation loss. To avoid them, stop believing all myths about plagiarism in academia and start doing in-depth research on assigned topics. It will allow understanding key concepts and structure a future essay right. Other tips on avoiding plagiarism in writing: Document every source you use. Make sure to format it right: don't forget about quotation marks when citing someone's words. Spare no time on research. When in doubts, ask peers to check your list of references and say if you format it right. The same goes for research: friends might help to find proper sources or recommend some. Never ask anyone to write essays for you: any ghostwriters, any custom services, any downloads from the web. PRO tip: after you completed writing a paper, run it through a pro commercial software that will find unintentional plagiarism in your text. Plagiarism is about ethics and principles. It's not enough to know the definition and consequences of the issue to avoid it. What matters is your determination: stay honest, do research, create original works for more people to learn new ideas, refer to other authors, and remember to mention their names when citing. Section 1 Plagiarism definitions are many: When it comes to spoken words, plagiarism means stealing ideas and thoughts of other people to claim them as one's own. Speaking of written words, plagiarism is defined as a lack of original content in a writing piece. Dictionaries call plagiarism "stealing and passing off ideas or words of another as one's own," and "presenting as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source." (Merriam-Webster) Plagiarism is a persistent problem. People do it unknowingly or willingly, and a large percentage of accusations corresponds to the academic world: students plagiarize writings for many reasons, use all possible types of this offensive act, and don't realize all the consequences. What they should try to do is be aware of plagiarism and avoid it in academic writings, citing and referencing their works accordingly. What are plagiarism types? The digital era calls the shots, so today we have many new forms of plagiarism, both intentional and unintentional ones. Academic and journalistic are the general names for plagiarism types, but both involve several variations. They are as follows: Full plagiarism Also known as "direct" or "complete" plagiarism, this form appears when you copy the content from a source as it is, word for word. Characteristics: no original research, no changes in lexical items or punctuation, no differences (even the tiniest ones) between two content pieces. Full plagiarism is the sin of incompetent authors or those who are mere lazy to give it their best shot and create something original. Speaking of the academic world, full plagiarism leads to a student's expulsion. Paraphrasing Some call it "partial" plagiarism because it happens when a writer takes data from several different sources, combines them with minor changes in language, and represent as original ideas. Paraphrasing itself is not plagiarism, and it's okay to use it if citing and referencing all sources. But it becomes so when represented as a rewrite of the original with no attributions. Characteristics: presenting the ideas from original sources in different forms, changes of sentence structure, active to passive voice manipulations, no cites or references. In the case of paraphrasing, an author takes pains to sound original and yet doesn't provide any first-hand research in his writing. In academia, this form of plagiarism signals about a lack of knowledge on the topic or not enough writing skills to expand ideas. Minimalistic plagiarism It's a kind of paraphrase too, but a more professional one: a writer copies ideas but changes the flow and order in which they are presented in the source. This form of plagiarism is difficult to detect because it does seem original, especially if checked with plagiarism detection software. Characteristics: changes in sentence structure, statements order, and writing style of the source; paraphrasing several sources in one text with no attributions; active use of synonyms. Minimalistic plagiarism happens when a student lacks time or patience to create original work but is ambitious of recognition and high grades. Mosaic plagiarism Also known as a poor rewrite, synonymization, or patch writing, mosaic plagiarism happens when an author takes phrases from the original, rearranges them in order, and represent in own work without citing. Or, when he keeps the same sentence structure and meaning but replace every word with synonyms so his work would look like a newly written one. Characteristics: rearrangements in word and phrase order, excessive synonymization, a flow changes, no attribution to sources. Students do love this type of plagiarism, and it's most common in their academic works. Mosaic plagiarism signals about procrastination, lack of knowledge, and ignorance of plagiarism consequences. Accidental plagiarism In plain English, it's unintentional copying of others' ideas and words. Speaking of students, they might fall into a trap of accidental plagiarism when don't know they borrow concepts from others and, therefore, neglect to reference sources because they do consider their writings original. Despite its accidental nature, this form of plagiarism is considered as copyright infringement and scholar ethics violation. So, the consequences are going to be as ominous as in the case of other plagiarism types. Self-plagiarism The trickiest one, self-plagiarism occurs when a student decides to submit his previous work to another class. Or, when he takes ideas, concepts, and passages from his other essays and use them for new assignments with no permission from both professors. This form is the most controversial one, and many still argue if they should consider it plagiarism at all. On the one hand, your work is your intellectual property, and so you can use it wherever you want. On the other, this work is no longer original after you've submitted it. It's a kind of bluff: the audience waits for new information from an author, but he misleads them and gives something they've heard already. In the world of academia, it would be wise for students to consult professors on the institution's policies to make sure it's okay to cite papers, previously submitted to other classes. Source plagiarism, or wrong referencing Authors refer to each other in their works. And when a student refers to a cited source rather than a primary one, it's called source plagiarism. Source formatting matters, either. Improperly cited sources, false referencing, or no references at all are the cases of plagiarism. Reasons for why a student avoids references in a paper vary: He asked a ghostwriter to create an essay, so he just can't refer to it. He used a source to steal arguments and just copied them with no changes. He used the essence of a source and just changed several keywords. He combined several sources in a paper for it to look original. It often happens that a student doesn't know how to use citations and references in his copy. It's not the case of plagiarism, but a professor may consider it so when detecting some misinformation in a list of references. This includes: Using wrong sources (see the above source plagiarism). Neglecting footnotes: a student cites an author but doesn't provide a location of the source. Using fake sources: a student plagiarizes the entire text of his essay and yet provides a long list of references to "prove" its original nature. Proper citation is a must in the academic world, so writers need to know how to use and structure references to avoid accusations of plagiarism. How to avoid plagiarism issues in writings? Plagiarism consequences are many, and most are not as evident as students might think. Copyright infringement and intellectual property theft are legal issues, and they might lead to far stronger effects than poor grades or reputation loss. To avoid them, stop believing all myths about plagiarism in academia and start doing in-depth research on assigned topics. It will allow understanding key concepts and structure a future essay right. Other tips on avoiding plagiarism in writing: Document every source you use. Make sure to format it right: don't forget about quotation marks when citing someone's words. Spare no time on research. When in doubts, ask peers to check your list of references and say if you format it right. The same goes for research: friends might help to find proper sources or recommend some. Never ask anyone to write essays for you: any ghostwriters, any custom services, any downloads from the web. PRO tip: after you completed writing a paper, run it through a pro commercial software that will find unintentional plagiarism in your text. Plagiarism is about ethics and principles. It's not enough to know the definition and consequences of the issue to avoid it. What matters is your determination: stay honest, do research, create original works for more people to learn new ideas, refer to other authors, and remember to mention their names when citing.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.384959	03/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22092/overview", "title": "How to Avoid All Possible Types of Plagiarism in Writing", "author": "Nancy Christinovich" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101425/overview	Free & Forced Vibration Quiz 01 Overview "File: Thinking Cartoon Businessman (Flipped).svg" by Clip Art by Vector Toons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. "File: Vertical-mass-on-spring-2.svg" by MikeRun is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. Free & Forced Vibration Quiz A short quiz was provided using LibreOffice (Open Document Drawing).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.401804	02/27/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101425/overview", "title": "Free & Forced Vibration Quiz 01", "author": "Farid Mahboubi Nasrekani" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90656/overview	Japanese Cuisine Overview The Relationship between the Culture and Cuisine The Relationship Between a Society and Its Cuisine To learn about the lifestyle of people living in a society, one can look at cuisine of that society. One of the perfect examples of this relationship is Japanese cuisine, which is one of the most popular cuisines in the world. Japanese cuisine and the way of life of Japanese people are closely related. One can understand that the Japanese people attach importance to aesthetics and beauty in their daily life and occupations by looking at the way they present their dishes. The fact that they pay attention to the appearance and colour harmony of the dishes clearly shows that they like to be meticulous about the work they do. Just as the Japanese are trying to adopt a healthy lifestyle in daily life, they generally prefer to use less oil and spices in their meals; thus, they manage to preserve not only nutritional value of the food but also its flavour. Serving food in small portions suggests that they are a more minimalist society rather than extravagant. Just as they give importance to the balance in their daily life, they also pay attention to balance in their meals and use rice instead of bread as their main source of carbohydrates. The fact that they attach great importance to table manners shows that they are a society that takes care of their values. To give an example of table manners, chopsticks should not be stuck in a rice dish called Hashi. This is because sticking a chopstick in Hashi rice is a traditional movement that is done in funerals as a sign of respect, which shows that the Japanese people are a society that respects the dead. To sum up, by looking at Japanese culture, we can get many clues about the life of Japanese society and it can be understood that people's lifestyles are an element that deeply affects culinary culture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.414863	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90656/overview", "title": "Japanese Cuisine", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89986/overview	Assistive Technologies for Diverse learners AutoDesk "Sketchbook" Common Core Standards Related to Technology and Media Common Sense Education- Digital Citizenship Scope and Sequence of the Curriculum Copyright and Fair Use video from Common Sense Education Digital Citizenship: Addressing Appropriate Technology Behavior, by Mike S. Ribble, Gerald D. Bailey and Tweed W. Ross Family Contract for Digital Citizenship GlassLab's Children's Privacy Policy http://thebookfairygoddess.blogspot.ca/2012/09/digital-citizenship.html?m=1 – attribution and thanks to to Sandy Liptak This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. Introduction to the TPACK module from Commonsense Media Kath Schrock's Guide to Everything, "Digital StoryTelling" Kathy Schrock's Guide to Everything "Online Tools and Web 2.0 Applications Math Playground's Privacy Statement Maximizing the Learning Impact with Technology Pressey, Briana. 2013. Comparative Analysis of National Teacher Surveys. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop. SAMR Worksheet Teacher Librarians and Classroom Teachers: Collaborative Partners Teaching with Technology Infographic Technology Evaluation Tool Technology in the Common Core State Standards Technology Tools Resources Technology Use by Teacher Characteristic The SAMR Model Explained By Students TPACK Graphic Organizer WebTools4U2use What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Introduction to Technology Integration Overview Knowing instructors have experiential knowledge of discipline-specific information and instruction success rates, this course is intended to convey an alternative to face-to-face instruction and aims to increase the commitment and desire of faculty to utilize online tools for instruction. Users I make no assumption about age or gender of learners; however, educational discipline and background are acknowledged, as well as the assumption that faculty have the knowledge to effectively operate a smart deviceSelf-Paced Study this course can be utilized as self-paced and focused on only those tools best suited according to discipline. Learning Objectives Learners will choose commonly utilized tools, technology and/or digital sources and identify technology(s) support of blended or fully online environment.Learners will use a technology evaluation rubric to evaluate a technology tool selected to meet a specific learning goal.Learners will develop a Technology Integration Professional Development Plan that will include their areas of need and a desire of use. "An Introduction to Technology Integration" When integrating technology always focus on: 1 WHAT IS THE LEARNING GOAL? 2 What technology tool can make this lesson better? Big Ideas: In this video, Adam Bellow shares:” I think to define technology integration, it's really using whatever resources you have to the best of your abilities. Technology, it's a tool. It's what you do with that tool, what you can make, what you allow the students to make. That's really what technology is about. If you can do this lesson without technology, that's great. But if you can do it better with technology, then that's why you use it.” The Common Core State Standards call for students to develop digital media and technology skill. Integrating Technology with face-to-face teacher time generally produces better academic outcomes than employing either technique alone. Research has show that technology integration improves: ...K-12 achievement when digital and face-to-face instruction are integrated. ...science learning over textbook instruction by allowing to collect, analyze and model data. ...student writing skills and engagement when 1:1 laptops are in place. ...student understanding of math concepts and attitudes toward math when they use virtual manipulative. edutopia (2012,12) Introduction to Technology Intergration [Video File].Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/technology-integration-introduction-video Technology integration Survey This is a short survey – 4 items aimed at getting information about the learners needs in terms of educational workplace setting, resources availability, and comfort level of working with technology. It is a type of formative assessment to assist the instructor experience level of the learners. The information can be used to focus attention throughout the module. For example: by grade level, learner variances, and availability of technology on the job. The instructor could use Google forms, Poll Everywhere or some other technology related survey tool to model use of technology and discuss how a survey can be used as a formative assessment. Formative Assessment - Please indicate the age group you work with. Undergraduate Studies Graduate Studies - Please indicate the description that best fits your teaching Discipline(s). 1:1 - Check off each of the following technologies that teachers and students have access to in your university. • desktop computers • laptop computers • television/DVR • Projectors • Interactive White Boards • Tablets- includes iPads • Smart Tables • Gaming Devices • cell phones • eBook readers • digital video recorders - Which term best describes your attitude or belief regarding your level of comfort using technology? • uncomfortable • apprehensive • moderately comfortable • very comfortable • tech savvy Research - What are educators saying about technology? Review Technology Integration Survey and introduce the research done by: http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/jgccteachersurveyanalysisfinal.pdf View Google Presentation on Technology Use by Teacher Characteristics. Discuss how teacher perceptions and attitudes affect technology integration. How can we change those attitudes. One example is the native/immigrant (student/teacher) analogy. Redefine that analogy as digital native/pioneers. This puts the teacher in a more positive light as an innovator of technology integration. Find the 4 steps teachers can take to embrace tech tools. This is in the middle section of the info-graphic Reiterate Research-What are educators saying about technology? Infographic- highlight a. Find the Right Tools b. Introduce One tool at a time c. Learn to evaluate tech d. Use tech to engage students • Overcome the attitudes about technology- Pioneers vs Immigrants Opening Google Presentation on Technology Use by Teacher Characteristics Research Article survey: Comparative Analysis of National Teacher Surveys Teaching with Technology Infographic: a. Find the Right Tools b. Introduce One tool at a time c. Learn to evaluate tech d. Use tech to engage students What is the Common Core saying about technology? Technology is embedded throughout the Common Core State Standards. This sample video is taken from Atomic Learning's TechCore solution, a set of collaborative planning tools that assist school leaders in identifying the professional development and technology needed for their schools to be successful implementing Common Core. Learn more at www.atomiclearning.com/k12/techcore. (2:21) Watch the video: Technology in the Common Core Standards Review the following example of a common core standard and possible technology tools to meet the standards English Language Arts Standards » Speaking & Listening » Grade 3 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.3.5 Create engaging audio recordings of stories or poems that demonstrate fluid reading at an understandable pace; add visual displays when appropriate to emphasize or enhance certain facts or details. audio recording devices: (Content and General Technologies) http://www.chirbit.com/ http://online-voice-recorder.com/ https://soundation.com/studio http://vocaroo.com/ iPad iPod tablet Windows Sound recorder Which tool best fits the learning environment, the learner and works well with exiting devices? see Kathy Schrock's Digital Story Telling Across the Curriculum, webpage for more tools. another example CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.7.G.A.2 Draw (freehand, with ruler and protractor, and with technology) geometric shapes with given conditions. Focus on constructing triangles from three measures of angles or sides, noticing when the conditions determine a unique triangle, more than one triangle, or no triangle. (Content and Specific Technology) see Autodesk Sketchbook link. How can this app be used to meet this standards? Notice the verbs used in the common core. Those verbs are the core of you instructional objectives. Look for technologies that "do" these things. What technology tools are available to meet these standards that ask student to: (Pedagogy and Technology) Produce Publish Update Draw Integrate Interpret Explore Collaborate Evaluate Assess Express information Demonstrate understanding Present a topic Application to Students with Disabilities Incorporate supports and accommodations including: Instructional supports based on the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Assistive technology devices and services to ensure access to the general education curriculum and Common Core State Standards Engage students with learner variances with the same technology tools as their "typical peers" and support as needed with assistive technologies. Performance Task Watch the video: Technology in the Common Core State Standards Review the handout: Common Core Standards Related to Technology and Media Using the Common Core Standards Related to Technology and Digital Media document (attached on this page), choose a standard that suggests using technology and/or digital sources of information. The focus is on selecting technology for the content area (TK and CK). • With your group, brainstorm technologies to support the learning objective (standard). • Write down your suggestion(s). • Determine what level of the SAMR model the technology addresses. It's OK to be at a lower level. You have to start somewhere. • Each group will share. • Have fun. Models of Technology Integration Before we can select technology for teaching we need to look at how decision are made regarding technology integration. Moving in that direction we are going to look at two models for integrating technology: TPACK and SAMR. See attachments on TPACK and SAMR. Reiterate When Planning for Technology Integration 1 WHAT IS THE LEARNING GOAL? 2 What technology tool can make this lesson better? Watch the TPACK video from Common Sense Media. Remember Technology Allows You to Think Differently and Perform New Tasks ~ It's not about the tech tool. It's how you use it. ~ The Ultimate Goal is to Maximizing Student Learning Opening When Planning for Technology Integration the two most important considerations are: 1 WHAT IS THE LEARNING GOAL? 2 What technology tool can make this lesson better? Models of technology integration TPACK - Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge SAMR Model of Technology Integration Before we can select technology for teaching we need to look at how decision are made regarding technology integration. Moving in that direction we are going to look at two models for integrating technology: TPACK and SAMR. See attachment on TPACK and SAMR. Read the research article on TPACK Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1),60-70 Watch the video from Common Sense Media on "Introduction to the TPACK Model Planning and Evaluation of Technology Integration - Analyze the teaching and learning needs. What is the learning goal? How will technology make this lesson better? Plan for integration. Decide on objectives and assessment of learning. Analyze results and make revisions Watch the video Maximizing the Learning Impact with Technology Watch the Google Presentation that reviews things to think about when planning for technology integration. Where can you find great resources ...without getting lost in the "Black Hole" of the Internet? Use Social Media Follow the top (edtech)leaders who are evaluating and sharing the types of resources you are looking for. Pintrest- social bookmarking Scoop-It- social bookmarking Blogs Facebook- ‘App Friday’ (https://www.facebook.com/AppFriday/) LinkedIn Groups Your School Librarian-Media Specialist Types of instructional software (apps/games) Drill and practice (usually free) ex. Math Playground Tutorial (usually free) ex, Khan Academy Interactives (usually free) ex. Illuminations math interactives ex. Illuminations for NCTM Simulations (usually not free-$) ex. Digital Frog Instructional Games (some free, more complex, ex. Mindcraft edu $) ex. Mindcraft EDU $, iCIVICS- free Problem Solving (often free, problem based learning) ex. Go North- Adventure learning (free) Performance Task Selecting Technology Tools Identify an area need of a student(s) you work with. Formulate a learning target to meet that need. Identify a technology tool that appears to be a good pathway to meeting that learning target. Use the evaluation rubric to evaluate the technology tool you selected. Post the name of the technology you are evaluating. Share your evaluation. Digital Citizenship Nine Themes of Digital Citizenship Download this Resource: Digital Citizenship: Addressing Appropriate Technology Behavior, by Mike S. Ribble, Gerald D. Bailey and Tweed W. Ross The authors unpack the nine standards with useful strategies on addressing the issues with K-12 students. The 9 general areas are: - Etiquette- electronic standards of conduct or procedure. - Communication: electronic exchange of information. - Education: the process of teaching and learning about technology and the use of technology. - Access: full electronic participation in society. - Commerce: electronic buying and selling of goods. - Responsibility: electronic responsibility for actions and deeds. - Rights: those freedoms extended to everyone in a digital world. - Safety: physical well-being in a digital technology world. - Security: (self-protection): electronic precautions to guarantee safety. Common Sense Education has a comprehensive and FREE K-12 curriculum that addresses digital literacy and citizenship See attachments: Scope and Sequence tool to find age-appropriate lessons How could you use this curriculum in your classroom? Brainstorm ways to weave these skills into existing lesson that are technology integrated. Does your classroom have an acceptable use policy for using technology? Proper use of technology devices needs rules and consequences. Performance Task TAKE A LOOK AT A PRIVACY POLICY Read the privacy policy for GlassLab Games, a developer (and host) of several popular educational games. If you were a teacher (elementary or secondary), would you feel comfortable recommending the use of GlassLab Games from a privacy standpoint? Yes No Read the privacy statement from Math Playground, would you fell comfortable using this site with your students? Yes No	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.474723	Aliceson Bell	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89986/overview", "title": "Introduction to Technology Integration", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26272/overview	Texas in the American Civil War Overview Texas in the American Civil War Introduction Introduction The U.S. state of Texas declared its secession from the United States of America on February 1, 1861, and joined the Confederate States on March 2, 1861, after it replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. As with those of other States, the Declaration was not recognized by the United States government at Washington. Some Texan military units fought in the Civil War east of the Mississippi River, but Texas was most useful for supplying soldiers and horses for Confederate forces. Texas’ supply role lasted until mid-1863, after which time Union gunboats controlled the Mississippi River, making large transfers of men, horses or cattle impossible. Some cotton was sold in Mexico, but most of the crop became useless because of the Union naval blockade of Galveston, Houston, and other ports. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand Texas’ role in the American Civil War - Understand the influence the American Civil War had on Texas - Understand the continuing influence the American Civil has on contemporary Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand Texas’ role in the American Civil War - Understand the influence the American Civil War had on Texas - Understand the continuing influence the American Civil has on contemporary Texas Secession Secession In the late winter of 1860, Texan counties sent delegates to a special convention to debate the merits of secession. The convention adopted an “Ordinance of Secession” by a vote of 166 to 8, which was ratified by a popular referendum on February 23.1 Separately from the Ordinance of Secession, which was considered a legal document, Texas also issued a declaration of causes spelling out the rationale for declaring secession.2 The document specifies several reasons for secession, including its solidarity with its “sister slave-holding States,” the U.S. government’s inability to prevent Indian attacks, slave-stealing raids, and other border-crossing acts of banditry. It accuses northern politicians and abolitionists of committing a variety of outrages upon Texans. The bulk of the document offers justifications for slavery saying that remaining a part of the United States would jeopardize the security of the two. The declaration includes this extract praising slavery, in which the Union itself is referred to as the “confederacy”: We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. — Texas Secession Convention, A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, (February 1861).3 At this time, African Americans comprised 30 percent of the state’s population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. According to one Texan, keeping them enslaved was the primary goal of the state in joining the Confederacy: Independence without slavery, would be valueless… The South without slavery would not be worth a mess of pottage. — Caleb Cutwell, letter to the Galveston Tri-Weekly, (February 22, 1865).4 Secession Convention and the Confederacy Secession Convention and the Confederacy Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, public opinion in the cotton states of the Lower South (South Carolina through Texas) swung in favor of secession. By February 1861, the other six states of the sub-region had separately passed ordinances of secession. However, events in Texas were delayed, largely due to the resistance of Southern Unionist governor, Sam Houston. Unlike the other “cotton states”‘ chief executives, who took the initiative in secessionist efforts, Houston refused to call the Texas Legislature into special session to consider the question, relenting only when it became apparent citizens were prepared to act without him. In early December 1860, before South Carolina even seceded, a group of State officials published via newspaper a call for a statewide election of convention delegates on January 8, 1861. This election was highly irregular, even for the standards of the day. It often relied on voice vote at public meetings, although “viva voce” (voice) voting for popular elections had been used since at least March 1846, less than three months after statehood.5 Unionists were often discouraged from attending or chose not to participate. This resulted in lopsided representation of secessionists delegates.6 The election call had stipulated for the delegates to assemble in convention on January 28. Houston called the Legislature into session, hoping that the elected body would declare the unauthorized convention illegal.7 On January 21, 1861, the Legislature met in Austin and was addressed by Houston. Calling Lincoln’s election “unfortunate,” he nonetheless emphasized, in a reference to the upcoming meeting of the secession convention, it was no justification for “rash action”. However, the Texas Legislature voted the delegates’ expense money and supplies and—over Houston’s veto—made a pledge to uphold the legality of the Convention’s actions. The only stipulation was that the people of Texas have the final say in referendum. With gubernatorial forces routed, the Secession Convention convened on January 28 and, in the first order of business, voted to back the legislature 140–28 in that an ordinance of secession, if adopted, be submitted for statewide consideration. The following day, convention president Oran Roberts introduced a resolution suggesting Texas leave the Union. The ordinance was read on the floor the next day, citing the failures of the federal government to protect the lives and property of Texas citizens and accusing the Northern states of using the same as a weapon to “strike down the interests and prosperity”8 of the Southern people. After the grievances were listed, the ordinance repealed the one of July 4, 1845, in which Texas approved annexation by the United States and the Constitution of the United States, and revoked all powers of, obligations to, and allegiance to, the U.S. federal government and the U.S. Constitution.9 In the interests of historical significance and posterity, the ordinance was written to take effect on March 2, the date of Texas Declaration of Independence (and, coincidentally, Houston’s birthday). On February 1, members of the Legislature, and a huge crowd of private citizens, packed the House galleries and balcony to watch the final vote on the question of secession. Seventy “yea” votes were recorded before there was a single “nay.” One of the negative votes is enshrined in Texas history books. James Webb Throckmorton, from Collin County in North Texas, in response to the roar of hisses and boos and catcalls which greeted his decision, retorted, “When the rabble hiss, well may patriots tremble.” Appreciating his style, the crowd afforded him a grudging round of applause (like many Texans who initially opposed secession, Throckmorton accepted the result and served his state, rising to the rank of brigadier-general in the Confederate army).10 The final tally for secession was 166–7, a vote whose legality was upheld by the Texas Legislature on February 7. Other than in South Carolina, where the vote was unanimous, this was the highest percentage of any other state of the Lower South. On February 7, the Legislature ordered a referendum to be held on the ordinance under the direction of the convention.11 The decision was further affirmed on February 23 when a statewide referendum resulted in Texas voters approving the measure, 46,129 to 14,697. The last order of business was to appoint a delegation to represent Texas in Montgomery, Alabama, where their counterparts from the other six seceding states were meeting to form a new Confederacy. On March 4, the convention assembled again to formally declare Texas out of the Union and to approve the “Constitution of the Confederate States of America”, which had been drawn up by its “Provisional Congress” (as it turned out, Texas had already been admitted into the fold on March 1). In March, George Williamson, the Louisianan state commissioner, addressed the Texan secession convention, where he called upon Texas and the slave states of the U.S. to declare secession from the Union in order to continue the institution of slavery: With the social balance wheel of slavery to regulate its machinery, we may fondly indulge the hope that our Southern government will be perpetual… Louisiana looks to the formation of a Southern confederacy to preserve the blessings of African slavery… — George Williamson, speech to the Texan secession convention, (March 1861).12 Governor Sam Houston accepted secession but asserted that the Convention had no power to link the state with the new Southern Confederacy. Instead, he urged that Texas revert to its former status as an independent republic and stay neutral. Houston took his seat on March 16, the date state officials were scheduled to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. He remained silent as his name was called out three times and, after failing to respond, the office of governor was declared vacant and Houston was deposed from office. Seizure of Federal Property and Arms Seizure of Federal Property and Arms After Texas passed its Ordinance of Secession, the state government appointed four men as “Commissioners of Public Safety” to negotiate with the federal government for the safe transfer of military installations and bases in Texas to the Confederates. Along with land baron Samuel A. Maverick and Thomas J. Devine, Dr. Philip N. Luckett met with U.S. Army General David E. Twiggs on February 8, 1861, to arrange the surrender of the federal property in San Antonio, including the military stores being housed in the old Alamo mission. As a result of the negotiations, Twiggs delivered his entire command and its associated Army property (10,000 rifled muskets) to the Confederacy, an act that brought cries of treason from Unionists throughout the state.[13 Almost immediately, Twiggs was dismissed from the U.S. Army by President Buchanan for “treachery to the flag of his country.” Shortly afterwards, he accepted a commission as general in the Confederate Army but was so upset by being branded a traitor that he wrote a letter to Buchanan stating the intention to call upon him for a “personal interview” (then a common euphemism to fight a duel).[14 Future Confederate general Robert E. Lee, then still a colonel in the U.S. Army, was in San Antonio at the time and when he heard the news of the surrender to Texas authorities, responded, “Has it come so soon as this?”[15] Unionist Sentiment and Opposition to the Confederacy Unionist Sentiment and Opposition to the Confederacy Despite the prevailing view of the vast majority of the state’s politicians and the delegates to the Secession Convention, there were a significant number of Texans who opposed secession. The referendum on the issue indicated that some 25% favored remaining in the Union at the time the question was originally considered. The largest concentration of anti-secession sentiment was among the German Texan population in the Texas Hill Country, and in some of the counties of North Texas. In the latter region, most of the residents were originally from states of the Upper South. Some of the leaders initially opposed to secession accepted the Confederate cause once the matter was decided, some withdrew from public life, others left the state, and a few even joined the Union army.[16] Confederate conscription laws forced most men of military age into the Confederate army, regardless of their sentiment. However, at least 2000 Texans joined the Union ranks.[17] Many Unionists were executed.[18] Conscription into the Confederate Army was unacceptable to many Unionists and some attempted to flee from Texas. Capt. James Duff, Confederate provost marshal for the Hill Country, executed two Unionists, prompting flight.[19] In August 1862, Confederate soldiers under Lt. Colin D. McRae tracked down a band of German Texans headed out of state and attacked their camp in a bend of the Nueces River. After a pitched battle that resulted in the deaths of two Confederates and the wounding of McRae and eighteen of his men, the Unionists were routed. Approximately 19 Unionists were killed in the fighting.[20] After the battle 9 to 11 of the wounded Unionists were murdered with shots to the head in what became known as the Nueces massacre. Another nine Unionists were pursued and executed in the following weeks.[21] Future Republican congressman Edward Degener was the father of two men who were murdered in the massacre.[22] The German population around Austin County, led by Paul Machemehl, was successful in reaching Mexico. In October 1862, approximately 150 settlers in and around Cooke County on the Red River were arrested by the 11th Texas Cavalry led by Colonel William C. Young on the orders of Colonel James Bourland, Confederate Provost Marshal for northern Texas. A court was convened in Gainesville to try them for allegedly plotting to seize the arsenals at Sherman and Gainesville and to kill their Confederate neighbors, seize their property, and to cooperate with Union army forces poised to invade northern Texas from Arkansas and/or Indian Territory. Several of the settlers were hanged in what is now downtown Gainesville during the first week of October. Nineteen additional men were found guilty and hanged before the end of the month. A total of about forty Unionists were hanged in Gainesville, two were shot while trying to escape, and two more were hanged elsewhere after being turned over to a military tribunal. Under the primitive conditions on the Texas frontier during the Civil War, evidence against the accused was questionable, and the legal proceedings were highly imperfect. A granite monument in a small park marks the spot where the hangings took place.[23] The Confederacy’s conscription act proved controversial, not only in Texas but all across the South. Despite the referendum result, some opponents argued that the war was being fought by poor people on behalf of a few wealthy slave owners. The Act exempted from the draft men who owned fifteen or more slaves.[24] Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot or captured and forced into the army.[25] Sam Houston Sam Houston Sam Houston was the premier Southern Unionist in Texas. While he argued for slave property rights and deplored the election of the Lincoln Administration, he considered secession unconstitutional and thought secession at that moment in time was a “rash action” that was certain to lead to a conflict favoring the industrial and populated North. He predicted: “Let me tell you what is coming. After the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South.”[26] Houston rejected the actions of the Texas Secession Convention, believing it had overstepped its authority in becoming a member state of the newly formed Confederacy. He refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy and was deposed from office. In a speech he wrote, but did not deliver, he said: Fellow-Citizens, in the name of your rights and liberties, which I believe have been trampled upon, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the nationality of Texas, which has been betrayed by the Convention, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the Constitution of Texas, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of my own conscience and manhood, which this Convention would degrade by dragging me before it, to pander to the malice of my enemies, I refuse to take this oath. I deny the power of this Convention to speak for Texas….I protest….against all the acts and doings of this convention and I declare them null and void.[27] After his ouster from the governor’s office, Houston maintained a low public profile until his death in July 1863. Before he died, Houston wrote a friend: “There comes a time a man’s section is his country…I stand with mine. I was a conservative citizen of the United States…I am now a conservative citizen of the Southern Confederacy.”[28] Military Recruitment Military Recruitment Over 70,000 Texans served in the Confederate army and Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war. Some men were veterans of the Mexican–American War; a few had served in the earlier Texas Revolution. The state furnished the Confederacy with 45 regiments of cavalry, 23 regiments of infantry, 12 battalions of cavalry, 4 battalions of infantry, 5 regiments of heavy artillery, and 30 batteries of light artillery. The state maintained at its own expense some additional troops that were for home defense. These included 5 regiments and 4 battalions of cavalry, and 4 regiments and one battalion of infantry. In 1862 the Confederate Congress in Richmond, Virginia, passed a conscription law that ordered all men from 18 to 45 years of age to be placed into military service except ministers, state, city, county officers, and certain slave owners; all persons holding 20 slaves or more were exempt from Confederate conscription under the “Twenty Negro Law.”[29] When the first companies of Texas soldiers reached Richmond, Virginia, Confederate President Jefferson Davis greeted them with the words: “Texans! The troops of other states have their reputations to gain, but the sons of the defenders of the Alamo have theirs to maintain. I am assured that you will be faithful to the trust.”[30] “The Texas Brigade” (also known as “Hood’s Brigade”) was a unit composed of the 1st, 4th and 5th Texas infantry regiments augmented at times by the 18th Georgia Infantry and Hampton’s (South Carolina) Legion until they were permanently teamed with the 3rd Arkansas Infantry. Often serving as “shock troops” of General Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, the Texas Brigade was “always favorites” of General Lee and on more than one occasion Lee praised their fighting qualities, remarking that none had brought greater honor to their native state than “my Texans.” Hood’s men suffered severe casualties in a number of fights, most notably at the Battle of Antietam, where they faced off with Wisconsin’s Iron Brigade, and at Gettysburg, where they assaulted Houck’s Ridge and then Little Round Top. “Walker’s Greyhound Division” was a division composed of four brigades with Texan units; the only division in the Confederate States Army that maintained its single-state composition throughout the War. Formed in 1862 under command of Major General John George Walker it fought in the Western Theater and the Trans-Mississippi Department, and was considered an elite backbone of the army. Detached from the division in 1863, the 4th brigade fought at the Battle of Arkansas Post, where it became isolated and was forced to surrender. A new fourth brigade was added the division in 1865. Among the most famous mounted units were Terry’s Texas Rangers, a militia of former rangers and frontiersmen, many of whom later became peacekeepers in the Old West; and the 33rd Texas Cavalry Regiment of Colonel Santos Benavides, which guarded the Confederate cotton trade lines from Texas into northern Mexico. Over 2,000 Texas men joined the Union Army. Notable among them was future Texas governor Edmund J. Davis who initially commanded the Union Army’s 1st Texas Cavalry and rose to the rank of brigadier general. Texas’s relatively large German population around Austin County led by Paul Machemehl tried to remain neutral in the War but eventually left Confederate Texas for Mexico. East Texas gave the most support to secession, and the only East Texas counties in which significant numbers of people opposed secession were Angelina County, Fannin County, and Lamar County, although these counties supplied many men to Texas regiments, including the 9th Texas Infantry Regiment; the 1st Partisan Rangers; 3rd, 4th, 9th, 27th, and 29th Texas Cavalry; and the 9th Texas Field Battery. In 1862, Abraham Lincoln named a former United States Congressman, Andrew J. Hamilton, as the Military Governor of Texas. Hamilton held the title throughout the War. During the early stages of Reconstruction Hamilton was named as the first provisional civilian governor. For a time thereafter, active-duty U.S. Army officers served as military governors of Texas. Years into the war, one Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that “we are fighting for our property”, whereas Union soldiers were fighting for the “flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo.”[31] Battles in Texas Battles in Texas Texas did not experience many significant battles. However, the Union mounted several attempts to capture the “Trans-Mississippi” regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war’s end. With ports to the east captured or under blockade, Texas in particular became a blockade-running haven. Referred to as the “backdoor” of the Confederacy, Texas and western Louisiana continued to provide loads of harvested cottonthat were transported overland to the Mexican border town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas and shipped to Europe in exchange for supplies. Determined to shut off this trade, the Union mounted several attacks, each of them unsuccessful. Texas Occupation Texas Occupation The U.S. Navy blockaded the principal seaport, Galveston, for four years, and federal infantry occupied the city for three months in late 1862. Confederate troops under Gen. John B. Magruder recaptured the city on January 1, 1863 and it remained in Confederate hands until the end of the war. A few days later the Confederate raider CSS Alabama attacked and sank the USS Hatteras in a naval engagement off the coast of Galveston. A few other cities also fell to Union troops at times during the war, including Port Lavaca, Indianola, and Brownsville. Federal attempts to seize control of Laredo, Corpus Christi, and Sabine Pass failed. By the end of the war no territory but Brazos Island and El Paso was in Union hands. The California Column occupied the region around El Paso from 1862 to the end of the war. The most notable military battle in Texas during the war happened on September 8, 1863. At the Second Battle of Sabine Pass, a small garrison of 46 Confederates from the mostly-Irish Davis Guards under Lt. Richard W. Dowling, 1st Texas Heavy Artillery, defeated a much larger Union force from New Orleans under Gen. William B. Franklin. Skilled gunnery by Dowling’s troops disabled the lead ships in Franklin’s flotilla, prompting the remainder—4,000 men on 27 ships—to retreat back to New Orleans. This victory against such overwhelming odds resulted in the Confederate Congress passing a special resolution of recognition, and the only contemporary military decoration of the South, the Davis Guard Medal. CSA President Jefferson Davis stated, “Sabine Pass will stand, perhaps for all time, as the greatest military victory in the history of the world.” In 1864, many Texas forces, including a division under Camille de Polignac, a French prince and Confederate general, moved into Northwestern Louisiana to stall Union Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks’ Red River Campaign, which was intended to advance into Texas from its eastern border. Confederate forces halted the expedition at the Battle of Mansfield, just east of the Texas border. Union forces from Brazos Island launched the Brazos Santiago Expedition, leading to the last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch, fought in Texas on May 12, 1865, well after Robert E. Lee’s surrender on April 9, 1865, at Old Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Collapse of Confederate Authority in Texas Collapse of Confederate Authority in Texas In the spring of 1865, Texas contained over 60,000 soldiers of the Army of the Trans-Mississippi under General Edmund Kirby Smith. As garrison troops far removed from the main theaters of the war, morale had deteriorated to the point of frequent desertion and thievery. News of the surrender of Lee and other Confederate generals east of the Mississippi finally reached Texas around April 20. Local Confederate authorities had mixed opinions on their future course of action. Most senior military leaders vowed to press on with the war, including commanding general Kirby Smith. Many soldiers, however, greeted frequent speeches whose theme was “fight on, boys” with derision, or simply failed to attend them. The month of May brought increasing rates of desertion. News of Joseph E. Johnston’s and Richard Taylor’s surrenders confirmed that Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were now essentially alone to continue the Confederate cause. On May 14, troops in Galveston briefly mutinied, but were persuaded to remain under arms. However, morale continued to sink. Generals John B. Magruder and Kirby Smith (who had already corresponded with Union Maj. Gen. John Pope regarding surrender terms on May 9) no longer sought to rally their demoralized troops, but rather began discussing the distribution of Confederate government property. Magruder pleaded that the rapid disbanding of the army would prevent depredations by disgruntled soldiers against the civilian population. The haste to disband the army, combined with the pressing need to protect Confederate property from Union confiscation, created general mayhem. Soldiers began openly pillaging the Galveston quartermasters stores on May 21. Over the next few days, a mob demanded that a government warehouse be opened to them, and soldiers detained and plundered a train. Several hundred civilians sacked the blockade runner Lark when it docked on May 24, and troops sent to pacify the crowd soon joined in the plunder. On May 23, residents in Houston sacked the ordnance building and the clothing bureau. Riots continued in the city until May 26. Both government and private stores were raided extensively in Tyler, Marshall, Huntsville, Gonzales, Hempstead, La Grange, and Brownsville. In Navasota, a powder explosion cost eight lives and flattened twenty buildings. In Austin, the State Treasury was raided and $17,000 in gold was stolen. By May 27, half of the original confederate forces in Texas had deserted or been disbanded, and formal order had disappeared into lawlessness in many areas of Texas. The formal remnants of Kirby Smith’s army had finally disintegrated by the end of May. Upon his arrival in Houston from Shreveport, the general called a court of inquiry to investigate the “causes and manner of the disbandment of the troops in the District of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.” The May 30 findings laid the blame primarily on the civilian population. Kirby Smith addressed his few remaining soldiers and condemned those that had fled for not struggling to the last and leaving him “a commander without an army– a General without troops.” On June 2, he formally surrendered what was left of the Army of the “Trans-Mississippi.” Notable Civil War Leaders From Texas Notable Civil War Leaders From Texas A number of notable leaders were associated with Texas during the Civil War. John Bell Hood gained fame as the commander of the Texas Brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia and played a prominent role as an army commander late in the war. “Sul” Ross was a significant leader in a number of “Trans-Mississippi” Confederate armies. Felix Huston Robertson was the only native Texan Confederate general. Capt. TJ Goree was one of Lt. General James Longstreet’s most trusted aides. John H. Reagan was an influential member of Jefferson Davis’s cabinet. Col. Santos Benavides was a Confederate colonel during the American Civil War. Benavides was the highest-ranking Tejano soldier to serve in the Confederate military. The office of Governor of Texas was in flux throughout the war, with several men in power at various times. Sam Houston was governor when Texas seceded from the United States, but refused to declare any loyalty to the new Confederacy. He was replaced by Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark. Clark filled the rest of Houston’s term in 1861, and narrowly lost re-election by just 124 votes to Francis Lubbock. During his tenure, Lubbock supported Confederate conscription, working to draft all able-bodied men, including resident aliens, into the Confederate army. When Lubbock’s term ended in 1863, he joined the military. Ardent secessionist Pendleton Murrah replaced him in office. Even after Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, Murrah encouraged Texans to continue the revolution, and he and several supporters fled to Mexico. Lingering Effects Lingering Effects The effects of the American Civil War linger even after 150 years have passed. It’s not uncommon to see the Confederate flag (especially the “Confederate Battle Flag”) and there are dozens of statues, monuments, and schools named after Confederate leaders. The controversy over these elements rages today. Notes Notes - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union". Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 2008. - "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union". Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 2008. - Cutwell, Caleb (February 22, 1865). "Letter to the Galveston Tri-Weekly". Civil War Talk. Texas. Retrieved September 13, 2015. - An Act to direct the mode of voting in all popular elections, approved March 19, 1846. Gammel, H.P.N., ed. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822-1897. 2. University of North Texas. p. 1318. - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - "An Ordinance: To dissolve the union between the State of Texas and the other States, united under the compact styled "The Constitution of the United States of America." Adopted in Convention, at Austin City, the first day of February, A.D. 1861." Narrative History of Texas Secessionand Readmission to the Union. Austin. August 24, 2011. - "An Ordinance: To dissolve the union between the State of Texas and the other States, united under the compact styled "The Constitution of the United States of America." Adopted in Convention, at Austin City, the first day of February, A.D. 1861." Narrative History of Texas Secessionand Readmission to the Union. Austin. August 24, 2011. - Minor, David (November 1, 2011). "Throckmorton, James Webb". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - An Act to provide for submitting the Ordinance of Secession to a vote of the People, approved February 7, 1861. Gammel, H.P.N., ed. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822-1897. 5. University of North Texas. pp. 347–348. - Winkler, E.W. (1861). Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas. Texas. Retrieved September 8, 2015. - Roberts, O.M. (1899). Evans, Clement A., ed. Texas. Confederate Military History. XI. Atlanta, Georgia: Confederate Publishing Company. pp. 20–22. - "General Twiggs and Buchanan". The New York Times. May 13, 1861. - Freeman, Douglas S. (1934). "R. E. Lee, A Biography". Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved May 20, 2008. - Enter your footnote content here. - "Civil War". Texas Military Forces Museum. Retrieved November 5, 2015. - Wooster, Ralph A. (March 4, 2011). "Civil War". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - McGowen, Stanley S. (July 2000). "Battle or Massacre? The Incident on the Nueces, August 10, 1862". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 104 (1): 64–86. JSTOR 30241669. - Campbell, Randolph B. (2003). Gone to Texas: A History of the Lone Star State. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-1998-8138-3. - "Lamar W. Henkins: German Freethinkers and the Massacre at the Nueces". The Rag Blog. August 15, 2012. - Foner, Eric (March 1989). "The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession". American Heritage. Vol. 40 no. 2. American Heritage Publishing Company. p. 5. Archived from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved December 18, 2013. - McCaslin, Richard B. (June 15, 2010). "Great Hanging at Gainesville". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 22 November 2014. - Texas in the Civil War: A Capsule History Archived August 20, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. - Elliott, Claude (1947). "Union Sentiment in Texas 1861-1865". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 50 (4): 449–477. JSTOR 30237490. - Williams, Alfred Mason (1893). Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas. Houghton, Mifflin and Company. p. 354. - Haley, James l. (2004). Sam Houston. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 390–391. ISBN 978-0-8061-5214-1. - Houston, General (June 2, 1861). "Gen. Houston's Position". The New York Times. Retrieved July 11, 2011. - Loewen, James W. (2007). Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: The New Press. pp. 224–226. ISBN 978-1-56584-100-0. OCLC 29877812. Retrieved January 19, 2016. - McComb, David G. (1989). Texas, a modern history. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-292-74665-2. - McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 117. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. OCLC 34912692. Retrieved March 8, 2016. - Clampitt, Brad R. (April 2005). "The Breakup: The Collapse of the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Army in Texas, 1865". Southwest Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 108 (4). JSTOR 30240424. - "An Act to admit the State of Texas to Representation in the Congress of the United States". Texas State Archives and Library Commission. Retrieved August 24, 2011.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.516470	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26272/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas History and Culture, Texas in the American Civil War", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26341/overview	Party Identification Overview Party Identification Introduction Introduction Party identification refers to the political party with which an individual identifies. Party identification is loyalty to a political party. Party identification is typically determined by the political party that an individual most commonly supports (by voting or other means). This section explores this phenomenon. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Define party identification - Understand how party identification is measured - Understand the importance of party identification - Understand the distribution of party identification in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define party identification - Understand how party identification is measured - Understand the importance of party identification - Understand the distribution of party identification in Texas Party Identification Party Identification Some researchers view party identification as “a form of social identity,” or a psychological attachment in the same way that a person identifies with a religious or ethnic group. This identity develops early in a person’s life mainly through family and social influences. This description would make party identification a stable perspective, which develops as a consequence of personal, family, social and environmental factors. Other researchers consider party identification to be more flexible and more of a conscious choice. They see it as a position and a choice based on the continued assessment of the political, economic and social environment. Party identification can increase or even shift by motivating events or conditions in the country, A number of studies have found that a partisan lens affects how a person perceives the world. Partisan voters judge character flaws more harshly in rival candidates than their own, believe the economy is doing better if their own side is in power, and underplay scandals and failures of their own side. Measuring Party Identification Measuring Party Identification It is important to measure party identification in order to determine its strengths and weaknesses. Political scientists have developed many ways to measure party identification in order to examine and evaluate it. One method of measuring party identification uses the Likert Scale, a 7-point scale to measure party identification, with Strong Democrat on one extreme and Strong Republican at the other. In between the two extremes are the classifications of “Lean Democrat/Republican” and “Weak Democrat/Republican.” The Importance of Party Identification The Importance of Party Identification Political scientists often refer to party identification as a “vote determinant.” Those people who identify with a party tend to vote for their party’s candidate for various offices in high percentages. Those who consider themselves to be strong partisans, strong Democrats and strong Republicans respectively, tend to be the most faithful in voting for their party’s nominee for office. In the case of voting for president, since the 1970s, party identification on voting behavior has been increasing significantly. By the late 1990s, party identification on voting behavior was at the highest level of any election since the 1950s. When voting in congressional elections, the trend is similar. Strong party identifiers voted overwhelmingly for their party’s nominee in the general election. It is important to note that each party respectively in certain elections, would have stronger voting behavior of their strongest party identifiers. For instance, in the years the Democrats dominated House and Senate elections in the 1970s and 1980s, it can be explained that their strong party identifiers were more loyal in voting for their party’s nominee for Congress than the Republicans were. The same level of voting behavior can also be applied to state and local levels. While straight-ticket voting has declined among the general voting population, it is still prevalent in those who are strong Republicans and strong Democrats. According to Paul Allen Beck and colleagues, “the stronger an individual’s party identification was, the more likely he or she was to vote a straight ticket.” The Distribution Of Party Identification In Texas The Distribution Of Party Identification In Texas Using the methodology described above, the University of Texas/Texas Tribune’s February 2018 Poll asked respondents about their party identification. The graphic below relays the results.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.538225	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26341/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Linkage Institutions, Party Identification", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26278/overview	Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas Overview Introduction Introduction Introduction A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed. What distinguishes Texas from other states is its unique history as an entity—a state, a republic, a nation—and the documents that created Texas as we know it today. Between the years of 1824 and 1876, Texas was at times a part of the United States of Mexico, an independent republic, a state within the Confederate States of America, and a state within the United States of America. Beginning in 1824, what we now know as Texas passed through many iterations—each with its own foundational documents. These founding documents legally established the entity of Texas, set forth the rights and responsibilities of its people, and defined the scope and powers of its government. This chapter discusses those constitutions and introduces the Constitution of 1876–Texas’ current constitution. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Define a constitution - Discuss the various constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define a constitution - Discuss the various constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.554024	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26278/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26283/overview	Constitution of 1861 Overview Texas Government: Constitution of 1861 Constitution of 1861 Constitution of 1861 After the Texas voters ratified secession from the Union on February 23, 1861, the Secession Convention reconvened. Convention delegates believed it their duty to direct the transition of Texas from a state in the United States to one of the Confederate States of America. As part of that duty they amended the Constitution of 1845. In most instances the wording of the older constitution was kept intact, but some changes were required to meet new circumstances. The words United States of America were replaced with Confederate States of America. Slavery and states’ rights were more directly defended. A clause providing for emancipation of slaves was eliminated, and the freeing of slaves was declared illegal. All current state officials were required to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy, and all existing laws not in conflict with the constitutions of Texas or the Confederate States were declared valid. Amending the constitution was also made easier. This constitution was as remarkable for what it did not do as for what it did. It did not legalize the resumption of the African slave trade, a move advocated by some leaders of the secession movement. It did not take an extreme position on the issue of states’ rights. It did not substantially change any important law. It was a conservative document partly designed to allay fears of the radical nature of the secessionists and to ease the transition of Texas into the Confederacy. For More Information For More Information More information on the Constitution of the State of Texas (1861) may be found at the Texas Constitutions 1824-1876 project of the Tarlton Law Library, Jamail Center for Legal Research at the University of Texas School of Law, The University of Texas at Austin. The project includes digitized images and searchable text versions of the constitutions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.569203	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26283/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Constitution of 1861", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90486/overview	Lesson 2 Section 2 The March of Capital Lesson 2 Section 3 The Rise of Inequality Lesson 2 Section 4 The Labor Movement Lesson 2 Section 5 The Populist Movement Lesson 2 Section 6 William Jennings Bryan and the Politics of Gold Lesson 2 Section 7 The Socialists Capital and Labor Overview Link to student view Unit 1 Lesson 2 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90486/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for this Unit 1 Lesson 2 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Quiz-16.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 heralded a new era of labor conflict in the United States. That year, mired in the stagnant economy that followed the bursting of the railroads’ financial bubble in 1873, rail lines slashed workers’ wages (even, workers complained, as they reaped enormous government subsidies and paid shareholders lucrative stock dividends). Workers struck from Baltimore to St. Louis, shutting down railroad traffic—the nation’s economic lifeblood—across the country. Panicked business leaders and friendly political officials reacted quickly. When local police forces would not or could not suppress the strikes, governors called out state militias to break them and restore rail service. Many strikers destroyed rail property rather than allow militias to reopen the rails. The protests approached a class war. The governor of Maryland deployed the state’s militia. In Baltimore, the militia fired into a crowd of striking workers, killing eleven and wounding many more. Strikes convulsed towns and cities across Pennsylvania. The head of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Thomas Andrew Scott, suggested that if workers were unhappy with their wages, they should be given “a rifle diet for a few days and see how they like that kind of bread.”1 Law enforcement in Pittsburgh refused to put down the protests, so the governor called out the state militia, who killed twenty strikers with bayonets and rifle fire. A month of chaos erupted. Strikers set fire to the city, destroying dozens of buildings, over a hundred engines, and over a thousand cars. In Reading, strikers destroyed rail property and an angry crowd bombarded militiamen with rocks and bottles. The militia fired into the crowd, killing ten. A general strike erupted in St. Louis, and strikers seized rail depots and declared for the eight-hour day and the abolition of child labor. Federal troops and vigilantes fought their way into the depot, killing eighteen and breaking the strike. Rail lines were shut down all across neighboring Illinois, where coal miners struck in sympathy, tens of thousands gathered to protest under the aegis of the Workingmen’s Party, and twenty protesters were killed in Chicago by special police and militiamen. Courts, police, and state militias suppressed the strikes, but it was federal troops that finally defeated them. When Pennsylvania militiamen were unable to contain the strikes, federal troops stepped in. When militia in West Virginia refused to break the strike, federal troops broke it instead. On the orders of the president, American soldiers were deployed all across northern rail lines. Soldiers moved from town to town, suppressing protests and reopening rail lines. Six weeks after it had begun, the strike had been crushed. Nearly 100 Americans died in “The Great Upheaval.” Workers destroyed nearly $40 million worth of property. The strike galvanized the country. It convinced laborers of the need for institutionalized unions, persuaded businesses of the need for even greater political influence and government aid, and foretold a half century of labor conflict in the United States.2 Notes Title Image A Maryland National Guard unit fires upon strikers during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Harper’s Weekly, via Wikimedia 1. David T. Burbank, Reign of the Rabble: The St. Louis General Strike of 1877 (New York: Kelley, 1966), 11. 2. Robert V. Bruce, 1877: Year of Violence (New York: Dee, 1957); Philip S. Foner, The Great Labor Uprising of 1877 (New York: Monad Press, 1977); David Omar Stowell, ed., The Great Strikes of 1877 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008). The March of Capital Growing labor unrest accompanied industrialization. The greatest strikes first hit the railroads only because no other industry had so effectively marshaled together capital, government support, and bureaucratic management. Many workers perceived their new powerlessness in the coming industrial order. Skills mattered less and less in an industrialized, mass-producing economy, and their strength as individuals seemed ever smaller and more insignificant when companies grew in size and power and managers grew flush with wealth and influence. Long hours, dangerous working conditions, and the difficulty of supporting a family on meager and unpredictable wages compelled armies of labor to organize and battle against the power of capital. The post–Civil War era saw revolutions in American industry. Technological innovations and national investments slashed the costs of production and distribution. New administrative frameworks sustained the weight of vast firms. National credit agencies eased the uncertainties surrounding rapid movement of capital among investors, manufacturers, and retailers. Plummeting transportation and communication costs opened new national media, which advertising agencies used to nationalize various products. By the turn of the century, corporate leaders and wealthy industrialists embraced the new principles of scientific management, or Taylorism, after its noted proponent, Frederick Taylor. The precision of steel parts, the harnessing of electricity, the innovations of machine tools, and the mass markets wrought by the railroads offered new avenues for efficiency. To match the demands of the machine age, Taylor said, firms needed a scientific organization of production. He urged all manufacturers to increase efficiency by subdividing tasks. Rather than having thirty mechanics individually making thirty machines, for instance, a manufacturer could assign thirty laborers to perform thirty distinct tasks. Such a shift would not only make workers as interchangeable as the parts they were using, it would also dramatically speed up the process of production. If managed by trained experts, specific tasks could be done quicker and more efficiently. Taylorism increased the scale and scope of manufacturing and allowed for the flowering of mass production. Building on the use of interchangeable parts in Civil War–era weapons manufacturing, American firms advanced mass production techniques and technologies. Singer sewing machines, Chicago packers’ “disassembly” lines, McCormick grain reapers, Duke cigarette rollers: all realized unprecedented efficiencies and achieved unheard-of levels of production that propelled their companies into the forefront of American business. Henry Ford made the assembly line famous, allowing the production of automobiles to skyrocket as their cost plummeted, but various American firms had been paving the way for decades.1 Cyrus McCormick had overseen the construction of mechanical reapers (used for harvesting wheat) for decades. He had relied on skilled blacksmiths, skilled machinists, and skilled woodworkers to handcraft horse-drawn machines. But production was slow and the machines were expensive. The reapers still enabled massive efficiency gains in grain farming, but their high cost and slow production times put them out of reach of most American wheat farmers. But then, in 1880, McCormick hired a production manager who had overseen the manufacturing of Colt firearms to transform his system of production. The Chicago plant introduced new jigs, steel gauges, and pattern machines that could make precise duplicates of new, interchangeable parts. The company had produced twenty-one thousand machines in 1880. It made twice as many in 1885, and by 1889, less than a decade later, it was producing over one hundred thousand a year.2 Industrialization and mass production pushed the United States into the forefront of the world. The American economy had lagged behind Britain, Germany, and France as recently as the 1860s, but by 1900 the United States was the world’s leading manufacturing nation. Thirteen years later, by 1913, the United States produced one third of the world’s industrial output—more than Britain, France, and Germany combined.3 Firms such as McCormick’s realized massive economies of scale: after accounting for their initial massive investments in machines and marketing, each additional product lost the company relatively little in production costs. The bigger the production, then, the bigger the profits. New industrial companies therefore hungered for markets to keep their high-volume production facilities operating. Retailers and advertisers sustained the massive markets needed for mass production, and corporate bureaucracies meanwhile allowed for the management of giant new firms. A new class of managers—comprising what one prominent economic historian called the “visible hand”—operated between the worlds of workers and owners and ensured the efficient operation and administration of mass production and mass distribution. Even more important to the growth and maintenance of these new companies, however, were the legal creations used to protect investors and sustain the power of massed capital.4 The costs of mass production were prohibitive for all but the very wealthiest individuals, and, even then, the risks would be too great to bear individually. The corporation itself was ages old, but the actual right to incorporate had generally been reserved for public works projects or government-sponsored monopolies. After the Civil War, however, the corporation, using new state incorporation laws passed during the Market Revolution of the early nineteenth century, became a legal mechanism for nearly any enterprise to marshal vast amounts of capital while limiting the liability of shareholders. By washing their hands of legal and financial obligations while still retaining the right to profit massively, investors flooded corporations with the capital needed to industrialize. But a competitive marketplace threatened the promise of investments. Once the efficiency gains of mass production were realized, profit margins could be undone by cutthroat competition, which kept costs low as price cutting sank into profits. Companies rose and fell—and investors suffered losses—as manufacturing firms struggled to maintain supremacy in their particular industries. Economies of scale were a double-edged sword: while additional production provided immense profits, the high fixed costs of operating expensive factories dictated that even modest losses from selling underpriced goods were preferable to not selling profitably priced goods at all. And as market share was won and lost, profits proved unstable. American industrial firms tried everything to avoid competition: they formed informal pools and trusts, they entered price-fixing agreements, they divided markets, and, when blocked by antitrust laws and renegade price cutting, merged into consolidations. Rather than suffer from ruinous competition, firms combined and bypassed it altogether. Between 1895 and 1904, and peaking between 1898 and 1902, a wave of mergers rocked the American economy. Competition melted away in what is known as “the great merger movement.” In nine years, four thousand companies—nearly 20 percent of the American economy—were folded into rival firms. In nearly every major industry, newly consolidated firms such as General Electric and DuPont utterly dominated their market. Forty-one separate consolidations each controlled over 70 percent of the market in their respective industries. In 1901, financier J. P. Morgan oversaw the formation of United States Steel, built from eight leading steel companies. Industrialization was built on steel, and one firm—the world’s first billion-dollar company—controlled the market. Monopoly had arrived.5 Notes - Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984). - Hounshell, From the American System, 153–188. - Alfred D. Chandler Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 52. - Chandler, Visible Hand. - Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895–1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985). The Rise of Inequality Industrial capitalism realized the greatest advances in efficiency and productivity that the world had ever seen. Massive new companies marshaled capital on an unprecedented scale and provided enormous profits that created unheard-of fortunes. But it also created millions of low-paid, unskilled, unreliable jobs with long hours and dangerous working conditions. The notion of a glittering world of wealth and technological innovation masking massive social inequities and deep-seated corruption gave the era its most common label, the Gilded Age, which drew from the title of an 1873 satirical novel written by Mark Twain and Charles Warner. Industrial capitalism confronted Gilded Age Americans with unprecedented inequalities. The sudden appearance of the extreme wealth of industrial and financial leaders alongside the crippling squalor of the urban and rural poor shocked Americans. “This association of poverty with progress is the great enigma of our times,” economist Henry George wrote in his 1879 bestseller, Progress and Poverty.1 The great financial and industrial titans, the so-called robber barons, including railroad operators such as Cornelius Vanderbilt, oilmen such as J. D. Rockefeller, steel magnates such as Andrew Carnegie, and bankers such as J. P. Morgan, won fortunes that, adjusted for inflation, are still among the largest the nation has ever seen. According to various measurements, in 1890 the wealthiest 1 percent of Americans owned one fourth of the nation’s assets; the top 10 percent owned over 70 percent. And inequality only accelerated. By 1900, the richest 10 percent controlled perhaps 90 percent of the nation’s wealth2 As these vast and unprecedented new fortunes accumulated among a small number of wealthy Americans, new ideas arose to bestow moral legitimacy upon them. In 1859, British naturalist Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution through natural selection in his On the Origin of Species. It was not until the 1870s, however, that those theories gained widespread traction among biologists, naturalists, and other scientists in the United States and, in turn, challenged the social, political, and religious beliefs of many Americans. One of Darwin’s greatest popularizers, the British sociologist and biologist Herbert Spencer, applied Darwin’s theories to society and popularized the phrase survival of the fittest. The fittest, Spencer said, would demonstrate their superiority through economic success, while state welfare and private charity would lead to social degeneration—it would encourage the survival of the weak.3 “There must be complete surrender to the law of natural selection,” the Baltimore Sun journalist H. L. Mencken wrote in 1907. “All growth must occur at the top. The strong must grow stronger, and that they may do so, they must waste no strength in the vain task of trying to uplift the weak.4 By the time Mencken wrote those words, the ideas of social Darwinism had spread among wealthy Americans and their defenders. Social Darwinism identified a natural order that extended from the laws of the cosmos to the workings of industrial society. All species and all societies, including modern humans, the theory went, were governed by a relentless competitive struggle for survival. The inequality of outcomes was to be not merely tolerated but encouraged and celebrated. It signified the progress of species and societies. Spencer’s major work, Synthetic Philosophy, sold nearly four hundred thousand copies in the United States by the time of his death in 1903. Gilded Age industrial elites, such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, inventor Thomas Edison, and Standard Oil’s John D. Rockefeller, were among Spencer’s prominent followers. Other American thinkers, such as Yale’s William Graham Sumner, echoed his ideas. Sumner said, “Before the tribunal of nature a man has no more right to life than a rattlesnake; he has no more right to liberty than any wild beast; his right to pursuit of happiness is nothing but a license to maintain the struggle for existence.”5 But not all so eagerly welcomed inequalities. The spectacular growth of the U.S. economy and the ensuing inequalities in living conditions and incomes confounded many Americans. But as industrial capitalism overtook the nation, it achieved political protections. Although both major political parties facilitated the rise of big business and used state power to support the interests of capital against labor, big business looked primarily to the Republican Party. The Republican Party had risen as an antislavery faction committed to “free labor,” but it was also an ardent supporter of American business. Abraham Lincoln had been a corporate lawyer who defended railroads, and during the Civil War the Republican national government took advantage of the wartime absence of southern Democrats to push through a pro-business agenda. The Republican congress gave millions of acres and dollars to railroad companies. Republicans became the party of business, and they dominated American politics throughout the Gilded Age and the first several decades of the twentieth century. Of the sixteen presidential elections between the Civil War and the Great Depression, Republican candidates won all but four. Republicans controlled the Senate in twenty-seven out of thirty-two sessions in the same period. Republican dominance maintained a high protective tariff, an import tax designed to shield American businesses from foreign competition. Southern planters had opposed this policy before the war but now could do nothing to stop it. It provided the protective foundation for a new American industrial order, while Spencer’s social Darwinism provided moral justification for national policies that minimized government interference in the economy for anything other than the protection and support of business. Notes - See especially See especially Edward O’Donnell, Henry George and the Crisis of Inequality: Progress and Poverty in the Gilded Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 41–45. - Michael McGerr, A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (New York: Free Press, 2003). - Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Books, 1955). - Henry Louis Mencken, The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche (Boston: Luce, 1908), 102–103. - William Graham Sumner, Earth-Hunger, and Other Essays, ed. Albert Galloway Keller (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1913), 234. The Labor Movement The ideas of social Darwinism attracted little support among the mass of American industrial laborers. American workers toiled in difficult jobs for long hours and little pay. Mechanization and mass production threw skilled laborers into unskilled positions. Industrial work ebbed and flowed with the economy. The typical industrial laborer could expect to be unemployed one month out of the year. They labored sixty hours a week and could still expect their annual income to fall below the poverty line. Among the working poor, wives and children were forced into the labor market to compensate. Crowded cities, meanwhile, failed to accommodate growing urban populations and skyrocketing rents trapped families in crowded slums. Strikes ruptured American industry throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Workers seeking higher wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions had struck throughout the antebellum era, but organized unions were fleeting and transitory. The Civil War and Reconstruction seemed to briefly distract the nation from the plight of labor, but the end of the sectional crisis and the explosive growth of big business, unprecedented fortunes, and a vast industrial workforce in the last quarter of the nineteenth century sparked the rise of a vast American labor movement. The failure of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 convinced workers of the need to organize. Union memberships began to climb. The Knights of Labor enjoyed considerable success in the early 1880s, due in part to its efforts to unite skilled and unskilled workers. It welcomed all laborers, including women (the Knights only barred lawyers, bankers, and liquor dealers). By 1886, the Knights had over seven hundred thousand members. The Knights envisioned a cooperative producer-centered society that rewarded labor, not capital, but, despite their sweeping vision, the Knights focused on practical gains that could be won through the organization of workers into local unions.1 In Marshall, Texas, in the spring of 1886, one of Jay Gould’s rail companies fired a Knights of Labor member for attending a union meeting. His local union walked off the job, and soon others joined. From Texas and Arkansas into Missouri, Kansas, and Illinois, nearly two hundred thousand workers struck against Gould’s rail lines. Gould hired strikebreakers and the Pinkerton Detective Agency, a kind of private security contractor, to suppress the strikes and get the rails moving again. Political leaders helped him, and state militias were called in support of Gould’s companies. The Texas governor called out the Texas Rangers. Workers countered by destroying property, only winning them negative headlines and for many justifying the use of strikebreakers and militiamen. The strike broke, briefly undermining the Knights of Labor, but the organization regrouped and set its eyes on a national campaign for the eight-hour day.2 In the summer of 1886, the campaign for an eight-hour day, long a rallying cry that united American laborers, culminated in a national strike on May 1, 1886. Somewhere between three hundred thousand and five hundred thousand workers struck across the country. In Chicago, police forces killed several workers while breaking up protesters at the McCormick reaper works. Labor leaders and radicals called for a protest at Haymarket Square the following day, which police also proceeded to break up. But as they did, a bomb exploded and killed seven policemen. Police fired into the crowd, killing four. The deaths of the Chicago policemen sparked outrage across the nation, and the sensationalization of the Haymarket Riot helped many Americans to associate unionism with radicalism. Eight Chicago anarchists were arrested and, despite no direct evidence implicating them in the bombing, were charged and found guilty of conspiracy. Four were hanged (and one died by suicide before he could be executed). Membership in the Knights had peaked earlier that year but fell rapidly after Haymarket; the group became associated with violence and radicalism. The national movement for an eight-hour day collapsed.3 The American Federation of Labor (AFL) emerged as a conservative alternative to the vision of the Knights of Labor. An alliance of craft unions (unions composed of skilled workers), the AFL rejected the Knights’ expansive vision of a “producerist” economy and advocated “pure and simple trade unionism,” a program that aimed for practical gains (higher wages, fewer hours, and safer conditions) through a conservative approach that tried to avoid strikes. But workers continued to strike. In 1892, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers struck at one of Carnegie’s steel mills in Homestead, Pennsylvania. After repeated wage cuts, workers shut the plant down and occupied the mill. The plant’s operator, Henry Clay Frick, immediately called in hundreds of Pinkerton detectives, but the steel workers fought back. The Pinkertons tried to land by river and were besieged by the striking steel workers. After several hours of pitched battle, the Pinkertons surrendered, ran a bloody gauntlet of workers, and were kicked out of the mill grounds. But the Pennsylvania governor called the state militia, broke the strike, and reopened the mill. The union was essentially destroyed in the aftermath.4 Still, despite repeated failure, strikes continued to roll across the industrial landscape. In 1894, workers in George Pullman’s Pullman car factories struck when he cut wages by a quarter but kept rents and utilities in his company town constant. The American Railway Union (ARU), led by Eugene Debs, launched a sympathy strike: the ARU would refuse to handle any Pullman cars on any rail line anywhere in the country. Thousands of workers struck and national railroad traffic ground to a halt. Unlike in nearly every other major strike, the governor of Illinois sympathized with workers and refused to dispatch the state militia. It didn’t matter. In July, President Grover Cleveland dispatched thousands of American soldiers to break the strike, and a federal court issued a preemptive injunction against Debs and the union’s leadership. The strike violated the injunction, and Debs was arrested and imprisoned. The strike evaporated without its leadership. Jail radicalized Debs, proving to him that political and judicial leaders were merely tools for capital in its struggle against labor.5 But it wasn’t just Debs. In 1905, the degrading conditions of industrial labor sparked strikes across the country. The final two decades of the nineteenth century saw over twenty thousand strikes and lockouts in the United States. Industrial laborers struggled to carve for themselves a piece of the prosperity lifting investors and a rapidly expanding middle class into unprecedented standards of living. But workers were not the only ones struggling to stay afloat in industrial America. American farmers also lashed out against the inequalities of the Gilded Age and denounced political corruption for enabling economic theft. Notes - Leon Fink, Workingmen’s Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983). - Ruth A. Allen, The Great Southwest Strike (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1942). - James R. Green, Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006). - Paul Krause, The Battle for Homestead, 1890–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992). - Almont Lindsey, The Pullman Strike: The Story of a Unique Experiment and of a Great Labor Upheaval (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943). The Populist Movement “Wall Street owns the country,” the Populist leader Mary Elizabeth Lease told dispossessed farmers around 1890. “It is no longer a government of the people, by the people, and for the people, but a government of Wall Street, by Wall Street, and for Wall Street.” Farmers, who remained a majority of the American population through the first decade of the twentieth century, were hit especially hard by industrialization. The expanding markets and technological improvements that increased efficiency also decreased commodity prices. Commercialization of agriculture put farmers in the hands of bankers, railroads, and various economic intermediaries. As the decades passed, more and more farmers fell ever further into debt, lost their land, and were forced to enter the industrial workforce or, especially in the South, became landless farmworkers. The rise of industrial giants reshaped the American countryside and the Americans who called it home. Railroad spur lines, telegraph lines, and credit crept into farming communities and linked rural Americans, who still made up a majority of the country’s population, with towns, regional cities, American financial centers in Chicago and New York, and, eventually, London and the world’s financial markets. Meanwhile, improved farm machinery, easy credit, and the latest consumer goods flooded the countryside. But new connections and new conveniences came at a price. Farmers had always been dependent on the whims of the weather and local markets. But now they staked their financial security on a national economic system subject to rapid price swings, rampant speculation, and limited regulation. Frustrated American farmers attempted to reshape the fundamental structures of the nation’s political and economic systems, systems they believed enriched parasitic bankers and industrial monopolists at the expense of the many laboring farmers who fed the nation by producing its many crops and farm goods. Their dissatisfaction with an erratic and impersonal system put many of them at the forefront of what would become perhaps the most serious challenge to the established political economy of Gilded Age America. Farmers organized and launched their challenge first through the cooperatives of the Farmers’ Alliance and later through the politics of the People’s (or Populist) Party. Mass production and business consolidations spawned giant corporations that monopolized nearly every sector of the U.S. economy in the decades after the Civil War. In contrast, the economic power of the individual farmer sank into oblivion. Threatened by ever-plummeting commodity prices and ever-rising indebtedness, Texas agrarians met in Lampasas, Texas, in 1877 and organized the first Farmers’ Alliance to restore some economic power to farmers as they dealt with railroads, merchants, and bankers. If big business relied on its numerical strength to exert its economic will, why shouldn’t farmers unite to counter that power? They could share machinery, bargain from wholesalers, and negotiate higher prices for their crops. Over the following years, organizers spread from town to town across the former Confederacy, the Midwest, and the Great Plains, holding evangelical-style camp meetings, distributing pamphlets, and establishing over one thousand alliance newspapers. As the alliance spread, so too did its near-religious vision of the nation’s future as a “cooperative commonwealth” that would protect the interests of the many from the predatory greed of the few. At its peak, the Farmers’ Alliance claimed 1,500,000 members meeting in 40,000 local sub-alliances.1 The alliance’s most innovative programs were a series of farmers’ cooperatives that enabled farmers to negotiate higher prices for their crops and lower prices for the goods they purchased. These cooperatives spread across the South between 1886 and 1892 and claimed more than a million members at their high point. While most failed financially, these “philanthropic monopolies,” as one alliance speaker termed them, inspired farmers to look to large-scale organization to cope with their economic difficulties.2 But cooperation was only part of the alliance message. In the South, alliance-backed Democratic candidates won four governorships and forty-eight congressional seats in 1890.3 But at a time when falling prices and rising debts conspired against the survival of family farmers, the two political parties seemed incapable of representing the needs of poor farmers. And so alliance members organized a political party—the People’s Party, or the Populists, as they came to be known. The Populists attracted supporters across the nation by appealing to those convinced that there were deep flaws in the political economy of Gilded Age America, flaws that both political parties refused to address. Veterans of earlier fights for currency reform, disaffected industrial laborers, proponents of the benevolent socialism of Edward Bellamy’s popular Looking Backward, and the champions of Henry George’s farmer-friendly “single-tax” proposal joined alliance members in the new party. The Populists nominated former Civil War general James B. Weaver as their presidential candidate at the party’s first national convention in Omaha, Nebraska, on July 4, 1892.4 At that meeting the party adopted a platform that crystallized the alliance’s cooperate program into a coherent political vision. The platform’s preamble, written by longtime political iconoclast and Minnesota populist Ignatius Donnelly, warned that “the fruits of the toil of millions [had been] boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few.”5 Taken as a whole, the Omaha Platform and the larger Populist movement sought to counter the scale and power of monopolistic capitalism with a strong, engaged, and modern federal government. The platform proposed an unprecedented expansion of federal power. It advocated nationalizing the country’s railroad and telegraph systems to ensure that essential services would be run in the best interests of the people. In an attempt to deal with the lack of currency available to farmers, it advocated postal savings banks to protect depositors and extend credit. It called for the establishment of a network of federally managed warehouses—called subtreasuries—which would extend government loans to farmers who stored crops in the warehouses as they awaited higher market prices. To save debtors it promoted an inflationary monetary policy by monetizing silver. Direct election of senators and the secret ballot would ensure that this federal government would serve the interest of the people rather than entrenched partisan interests, and a graduated income tax would protect Americans from the establishment of an American aristocracy. Combined, these efforts would, Populists believed, help shift economic and political power back toward the nation’s producing classes. In the Populists’ first national election campaign in 1892, Weaver received over one million votes (and twenty-two electoral votes), a truly startling performance that signaled a bright future for the Populists. And when the Panic of 1893 sparked the worst economic depression the nation had ever yet seen, the Populist movement won further credibility and gained even more ground. Kansas Populist Mary Lease, one of the movement’s most fervent speakers, famously, and perhaps apocryphally, called on farmers to “raise less corn and more Hell.” Populist stump speakers crossed the country, speaking with righteous indignation, blaming the greed of business elites and corrupt party politicians for causing the crisis fueling America’s widening inequality. Southern orators like Texas’s James “Cyclone” Davis and Georgian firebrand Tom Watson stumped across the South decrying the abuses of northern capitalists and the Democratic Party. Pamphlets such as W. H. Harvey’s Coin’s Financial School and Henry D. Lloyd’s Wealth Against Commonwealth provided Populist answers to the age’s many perceived problems. The faltering economy combined with the Populist’s extensive organizing. In the 1894 elections, Populists elected six senators and seven representatives to Congress. The third party seemed destined to conquer American politics.6 The movement, however, still faced substantial obstacles, especially in the South. The failure of alliance-backed Democrats to live up to their campaign promises drove some southerners to break with the party of their forefathers and join the Populists. Many, however, were unwilling to take what was, for southerners, a radical step. Southern Democrats, for their part, responded to the Populist challenge with electoral fraud and racial demagoguery. Both severely limited Populist gains. The alliance struggled to balance the pervasive white supremacy of the American South with their call for a grand union of the producing class. American racial attitudes—and their virulent southern strain—simply proved too formidable. Democrats race-baited Populists, and Populists capitulated. The Colored Farmers’ Alliance, which had formed as a segregated sister organization to the southern alliance and had as many as 250,000 members at its peak, fell prey to racial and class-based hostility. The group went into rapid decline in 1891 when faced with the violent white repression of a number of Colored Farmers’ Alliance–sponsored cotton picker strikes. Racial mistrust and division remained the rule, even among Populists, and even in North Carolina, where a political marriage of convenience between Populists and Republicans–fusion–resulted in the election of Populist Marion Butler to the Senate. Populists opposed Democratic corruption, but this did not necessarily make them champions of interracial democracy. As Butler explained to an audience in Edgecombe County, “We are in favor of white supremacy, but we are not in favor of cheating and fraud to get it.” By the middle of the 1890s, Populism had exploded in popularity. The first major political force to tap into the vast discomfort of many Americans with the disruptions wrought by industrial capitalism, the Populist Party seemed poised to capture political victory. And yet, even as Populism gained national traction, the movement was stumbling. The party’s often divided leadership found it difficult to shepherd what remained a diverse and loosely organized coalition of reformers toward unified political action. The Omaha platform was a radical document, and some state party leaders selectively embraced its reforms. More importantly, the institutionalized parties were still too strong, and the Democrats loomed, ready to swallow Populist frustrations and inaugurate a new era of American politics. Notes - Historians of the Populists have produced a large number of excellent histories. See especially Lawrence Goodwyn, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); and Charles Postel, The Populist Vision (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). - Lawrence Goodwyn argued that the Populists’ “cooperative vision” was the central element in their hopes of a “democratic economy.” Goodwyn, Democratic Promise, 54. - John Donald Hicks, The Populist Revolt: A History of the Farmers’ Alliance and the People’s Party (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1931), 178. - Ibid., 236. - Edward McPherson, A Handbook of Politics for 1892 (Washington, DC: Chapman, 1892), 269. - Hicks, Populist Revolt, 321–339. William Jennings Bryan and the Politics of Gold William Jennings Bryan (March 19, 1860–July 26, 1925) accomplished many different things in his life: he was a skilled orator, a Nebraska congressman, a three-time presidential candidate, U.S. secretary of state under Woodrow Wilson, and a lawyer who supported prohibition and opposed Darwinism (most notably in the 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial). In terms of his political career, he won national renown for his attack on the gold standard and his tireless promotion of free silver and policies for the benefit of the average American. Although Bryan was unsuccessful in winning the presidency, he forever altered the course of American political history.1 Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, in 1860 to a devout family with a strong passion for law, politics, and public speaking. At twenty, he attended Union Law College in Chicago and passed the bar shortly thereafter. After his marriage to Mary Baird in Illinois, Bryan and his young family relocated to Nebraska, where he won a reputation among the state’s Democratic Party leaders as an extraordinary orator. Bryan later won recognition as one of the greatest speakers in American history. When economic depressions struck the Midwest in the late 1880s, despairing farmers faced low crop prices and found few politicians on their side. While many rallied to the Populist cause, Bryan worked from within the Democratic Party, using the strength of his oratory. After delivering one speech, he told his wife, “Last night I found that I had a power over the audience. I could move them as I chose. I have more than usual power as a speaker. . . . God grant that I may use it wisely.”2 He soon won election to the House of Representatives, where he served for two terms. Although he lost a bid to join the Senate, Bryan turned his attention to a higher position: the presidency of the United States. There, he believed he could change the country by defending farmers and urban laborers against the corruptions of big business. In 1895–1896, Bryan launched a national speaking tour in which he promoted the free coinage of silver. He believed that bimetallism, by inflating American currency, could alleviate farmers’ debts. In contrast, Republicans championed the gold standard and a flat money supply. American monetary standards became a leading campaign issue. Then, in July 1896, the Democratic Party’s national convention met to choose their presidential nominee in the upcoming election. The party platform asserted that the gold standard was “not only un-American but anti-American.” Bryan spoke last at the convention. He astounded his listeners. At the conclusion of his stirring speech, he declared, “Having behind us the commercial interests and the laboring interests and all the toiling masses, we shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them, you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.”3 After a few seconds of stunned silence, the convention went wild. Some wept, many shouted, and the band began to play “For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow.” Bryan received the 1896 Democratic presidential nomination. The Republicans ran William McKinley, an economic conservative who championed business interests and the gold standard. Bryan crisscrossed the country spreading the silver gospel. The election drew enormous attention and much emotion. According to Bryan’s wife, he received two thousand letters of support every day that year, an enormous amount for any politician, let alone one not currently in office. Yet Bryan could not defeat McKinley. The pro-business Republicans outspent Bryan’s campaign fivefold. A notably high 79.3 percent of eligible American voters cast ballots, and turnout averaged 90 percent in areas supportive of Bryan, but Republicans swayed the population-dense Northeast and Great Lakes region and stymied the Democrats.4 In early 1900, Congress passed the Gold Standard Act, which put the country on the gold standard, effectively ending the debate over the nation’s monetary policy. Bryan sought the presidency again in 1900 but was again defeated, as he would be yet again in 1908. Bryan was among the most influential losers in American political history. When the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party nominated the Nebraska congressman in 1896, Bryan’s fiery condemnation of northeastern financial interests and his impassioned calls for “free and unlimited coinage of silver” co-opted popular Populist issues. The Democrats stood ready to siphon off a large proportion of the Populists’ political support. When the People’s Party held its own convention two weeks later, the party’s moderate wing, in a fiercely contested move, overrode the objections of more ideologically pure Populists and nominated Bryan as the Populist candidate as well. This strategy of temporary “fusion” movement fatally fractured the movement and the party. Populist energy moved from the radical-yet-still-weak People’s Party to the more moderate-yet-powerful Democratic Party. And although at first glance the Populist movement appears to have been a failure—its minor electoral gains were short-lived, it did little to dislodge the entrenched two-party system, and the Populist dream of a cooperative commonwealth never took shape—in terms of lasting impact, the Populist Party proved the most significant third-party movement in American history. The agrarian revolt established the roots of later reform, and the majority of policies outlined within the Omaha Platform would eventually be put into law over the following decades under the management of middle-class reformers. In large measure, the Populist vision laid the intellectual groundwork for the coming progressive movement.5 Notes - For William Jennings Bryan, see especially Michael Kazin, A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (New York: Knopf, 2006). - Ibid., 25. - Richard Franklin Bensel, Passion and Preferences: William Jennings Bryan and the 1896 Democratic Convention (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 232. - Lyn Ragsdale, Vital Statistics on the Presidency (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1998), 132–138. - Elizabeth Sanders, The Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999). The Socialists American socialists carried on the Populists’ radical tradition by uniting farmers and workers in a sustained, decades-long political struggle to reorder American economic life. Socialists argued that wealth and power were consolidated in the hands of too few individuals, that monopolies and trusts controlled too much of the economy, and that owners and investors grew rich while the workers who produced their wealth, despite massive productivity gains and rising national wealth, still suffered from low pay, long hours, and unsafe working conditions. Karl Marx had described the new industrial economy as a worldwide class struggle between the wealthy bourgeoisie, who owned the means of production, such as factories and farms, and the proletariat, factory workers and tenant farmers who worked only for the wealth of others. According to Eugene Debs, socialists sought “the overthrow of the capitalist system and the emancipation of the working class from wage slavery.”1 Under an imagined socialist cooperative commonwealth, the means of production would be owned collectively, ensuring that all men and women received a fair wage for their labor. According to socialist organizer and newspaper editor Oscar Ameringer, socialists wanted “ownership of the trust by the government, and the ownership of the government by the people.”2 The socialist movement drew from a diverse constituency. Party membership was open to all regardless of race, gender, class, ethnicity, or religion. Many prominent Americans, such as Helen Keller, Upton Sinclair, and Jack London, became socialists. They were joined by masses of American laborers from across the United States: factory workers, miners, railroad builders, tenant farmers, and small farmers all united under the red flag of socialism. Many united with labor leader William D. “Big Bill” Haywood and other radicals in 1905 to form the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), the “Wobblies,” a radical and confrontational union that welcomed all workers, regardless of race or gender.3 Others turned to politics. The Socialist Party of America (SPA), founded in 1901, carried on the American third-party political tradition. Socialist mayors were elected in thirty-three cities and towns, from Berkeley, California, to Schenectady, New York, and two socialists—Victor Berger from Wisconsin and Meyer London from New York—won congressional seats. All told, over one thousand socialist candidates won various American political offices. Julius A. Wayland, editor of the socialist newspaper Appeal to Reason, proclaimed that “socialism is coming. It’s coming like a prairie fire and nothing can stop it . . . you can feel it in the air.”4 By 1913 there were 150,000 members of the Socialist Party and, in 1912, Eugene V. Debs, the Indiana-born Socialist Party candidate for president, received almost one million votes, or 6 percent of the total.5 Over the following years, however, the embrace of many socialist policies by progressive reformers, internal ideological and tactical disagreements, a failure to dissuade most Americans of the perceived incompatibility between socialism and American values, and, especially, government oppression and censorship, particularly during and after World War I, ultimately sank the party. Like the Populists, however, socialists had tapped into a deep well of discontent, and their energy and organizing filtered out into American culture and American politics. Notes - Eugene V. Debs, “The Socialist Party and the Working Class,” International Socialist Review (September 1904). - Oscar Ameringer, Socialism: What It Is and How to Get It (Milwaukee, WI: Political Action, 1911), 31. - Philip S. Foner, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1965. - R. Laurence Moore, European Socialists and the American Promised Land (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 214 - Nick Salvatore, Eugene V. Debs, Citizen and Socialist (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983). Conclusion The march of capital transformed patterns of American life. While some enjoyed unprecedented levels of wealth, and an ever-growing slice of middle-class workers won an ever more comfortable standard of living, vast numbers of farmers lost their land and a growing industrial working class struggled to earn wages sufficient to support themselves and their families. Industrial capitalism brought wealth and it brought poverty; it created owners and investors and it created employees. But whether winners or losers in the new economy, all Americans reckoned in some way with their new industrial world. Primary Sources 1. William Graham Sumner on Social Darwnism (ca.1880s) William Graham Sumner, a sociologist at Yale University, penned several pieces associated with the philosophy of Social Darwinism. In the following, Sumner explains his vision of nature and liberty in a just society. 2. Henry George, Progress and Poverty, Selections (1879) In 1879, the economist Henry George penned a massive bestseller exploring the contradictory rise of both rapid economic growth and crippling poverty. 3. Andrew Carnegie’s Gospel of Wealth (1889) Andrew Carnegie, the American steel titan, explains his vision for the proper role of wealth in American society. 4. Grover Cleveland’s Veto of the Texas Seed Bill (1887) Amid a crushing drought that devastated many Texas farmers, Grover Cleveland vetoed a bill designed to help farmers recover by supplying them with seed. In his veto message, Cleveland explained his vision of proper government. 5. The “Omaha Platform” of the People’s Party (1892) In 1892, the People’s, or Populist, Party crafted a platform that indicted the corruptions of the Gilded Age and promised government policies to aid “the people.” 6. Dispatch from a Mississippi Colored Farmers’ Alliance (1889) The Colored Farmers’ Alliance, an African American alternative to the whites-only Southern Farmers’ Alliance, organized as many as a million Black southerners against the injustices of the predominately cotton-based, southern agricultural economy. Black Populists, however, were always more vulnerable to the violence of white southern conservatives than their white counterparts. Here, the publication The Forum publishes an account of violence against Black Populists in Mississippi. 7. Lucy Parsons on Women and Revolutionary Socialism (1905) Lucy Parsons was born into slavery in Texas, married a white radical, Albert Parsons, and moved to Chicago where they both worked on behalf of radical causes. After Albert Parsons was executed for conspiracy in the aftermath of the Haymarket bombing, Lucy Parsons emerged as a major American radical and vocal advocate of anarchism. In 1905, she spoke before the founding convention of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). 8. “The Tournament of Today” (1883) “Print shows a jousting tournament between an oversized knight riding horse-shaped armor labeled “Monopoly” over a locomotive, with a long plume labeled “Arrogance”, and carrying a shield labeled “Corruption of the Legislature” and a lance labeled “Subsidized Press”, and a barefoot man labeled “Labor” riding an emaciated horse labeled “Poverty”, and carrying a sledgehammer labeled “Strike”. On the left is seating “Reserved for Capitalists” where Cyrus W. Field, William H. Vanderbilt, John Roach, Jay Gould, and Russell Sage are sitting. On the right, behind the labor section, are telegraph lines flying monopoly banners that are labeled “Wall St., W.U.T. Co., [and] N.Y.C. RR”.” 9. Lawrence Textile Strike (1912) In 1912, The Industrial Workers of the World (the IWW, or the “Wobblies”) organized textile workers in Lawrence and Lowell, Massachusetts. This photo shows strikers, carrying American flags, confronting strikebreakers and militia bayonets. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Joseph Locke, with content contributions by Andrew C. Baker, Nicholas Blood, Justin Clark, Dan Du, Caroline Bunnell Harris, David Hochfelder Scott Libson, Joseph Locke, Leah Richier, Matthew Simmons, Kate Sohasky, Joseph Super, and Kaylynn Washnock. Recommended citation: Andrew C. Baker et al., “Capital and Labor,” Joseph Locke, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Beckert, Sven. Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. - Benson, Susan Porter. Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890–1940. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1986. - Cameron, Ardis. Radicals of the Worst Sort: Laboring Women in Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1860–1912. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993. - Chambers, John W. The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920, 2nd ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000. - Chandler, Alfred D., Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977. - Chandler, Alfred D., Jr. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990. - Cronon, William. Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York: Norton, 1991. - Edwards, Rebecca. New Spirits: Americans in the Gilded Age, 1865–1905. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. - Enstad, Nan. Ladies of Labor, Girls of Adventure: Working Women, Popular Culture, and Labor Politics at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - Fink, Leon. Workingmen’s Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993. - Goodwyn, Lawrence. Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. - Green, James. Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement, and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America. New York City: Pantheon Books, 2006. - Greene, Julie. Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881–1917. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. - Hofstadter, Richard. Social Darwinism in American Thought. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944. - Johnson, Kimberley S. Governing the American State: Congress and the New Federalism, 1877–1929. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006. - Kazin, Michael. A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan. New York: Knopf, 2006. - Kessler-Harris, Alice. Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. - Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, 1880–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992. - Lamoreaux, Naomi R. The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895–1904. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. - McMath, Robert C., Jr. American Populism: A Social History, 1877–1898. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. - Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. - Painter, Nell Irvin. Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919. New York: Norton, 1987. - Postel, Charles. The Populist Vision. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. - Sanders, Elizabeth. Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. - Trachtenberg, Alan. The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age. New York: Hill and Wang, 1982.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.636344	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90486/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Reconstruction, Growth, and Transformation, Capital and Labor", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90488/overview	Lesson 4 Section 2 Industrialization & Technological Innovation Lesson 4 Section 3 Immigration and Urbanization Lesson 4 Section 4 The New South and the Problem of Race Lesson 4 Section 5 Gender, Religion, and Culture Life in Industrial America Overview Link to student view Unit 1 Lesson 4 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90488/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for this Unit 1 Lesson 4 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Quiz-18.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction When British author Rudyard Kipling visited Chicago in 1889, he described a city captivated by technology and blinded by greed. He described a rushed and crowded city, a “huge wilderness” with “scores of miles of these terrible streets” and their “hundred thousand of these terrible people.” “The show impressed me with a great horror,” he wrote. “There was no color in the street and no beauty—only a maze of wire ropes overhead and dirty stone flagging under foot.” He took a cab “and the cabman said that these things were the proof of progress.” Kipling visited a “gilded and mirrored” hotel “crammed with people talking about money, and spitting about everywhere.” He visited extravagant churches and spoke with their congregants. “I listened to people who said that the mere fact of spiking down strips of iron to wood, and getting a steam and iron thing to run along them was progress, that the telephone was progress, and the network of wires overhead was progress. They repeated their statements again and again.” Kipling said American newspapers report “that the snarling together of telegraph-wires, the heaving up of houses, and the making of money is progress.”1 Chicago embodied the triumph of American industrialization. Its meatpacking industry typified the sweeping changes occurring in American life. The last decades of the nineteenth century, a new era for big business, saw the formation of large corporations, run by trained bureaucrats and salaried managers, doing national and international business. Chicago, for instance, became America’s butcher. The Chicago meat processing industry, a cartel of five firms, produced four fifths of the meat bought by American consumers. Kipling described in intimate detail the Union Stock Yards, the nation’s largest meat processing zone, a square mile just southwest of the city whose pens and slaughterhouses linked the city’s vast agricultural hinterland to the nation’s dinner tables. “Once having seen them,” he concluded, “you will never forget the sight.” Like other notable Chicago industries, such as agricultural machinery and steel production, the meatpacking industry was closely tied to urbanization and immigration. In 1850, Chicago had a population of about thirty thousand. Twenty years later, it had three hundred thousand. Nothing could stop the city’s growth. The Great Chicago Fire leveled 3.5 square miles and left a third of its residents homeless in 1871, but the city quickly recovered and resumed its spectacular growth. By the turn of the twentieth century, the city was home to 1.7 million people. Chicago’s explosive growth reflected national trends. In 1870, a quarter of the nation’s population lived in towns or cities with populations greater than 2,500. By 1920, a majority did. But if many who flocked to Chicago and other American cities came from rural America, many others emigrated from overseas. Mirroring national immigration patterns, Chicago’s newcomers had at first come mostly from Germany, the British Isles, and Scandinavia, but, by 1890, Poles, Italians, Czechs, Hungarians, Lithuanians, and others from southern and eastern Europe made up a majority of new immigrants. Chicago, like many other American industrial cities, was also an immigrant city. In 1900, nearly 80 percent of Chicago’s population was either foreign-born or the children of foreign-born immigrants.2 Kipling visited Chicago just as new industrial modes of production revolutionized the United States. The rise of cities, the evolution of American immigration, the transformation of American labor, the further making of a mass culture, the creation of great concentrated wealth, the growth of vast city slums, the conquest of the West, the emergence of a middle class, the problem of poverty, the triumph of big business, widening inequalities, battles between capital and labor, the final destruction of independent farming, breakthrough technologies, environmental destruction: industrialization created a new America. Notes Title Image Mulberry Street, New York City, c. 1900, Library of Congress 1.Rudyard Kipling, The Works of Rudyard Kipling, Volume II (New York: Doubleday, 1899), 141. 2. For the transformation of Chicago, see William Cronon’s defining work, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the West (New York: Norton, 1991). Industrialization & Technological Innovation The railroads created the first great concentrations of capital, spawned the first massive corporations, made the first of the vast fortunes that would define the Gilded Age, unleashed labor demands that united thousands of farmers and immigrants, and linked many towns and cities. National railroad mileage tripled in the twenty years after the outbreak of the Civil War, and tripled again over the four decades that followed. Railroads impelled the creation of uniform time zones across the country, gave industrialists access to remote markets, and opened the American West. Railroad companies were the nation’s largest businesses. Their vast national operations demanded the creation of innovative new corporate organization, advanced management techniques, and vast sums of capital. Their huge expenditures spurred countless industries and attracted droves of laborers. And as they crisscrossed the nation, they created a national market, a truly national economy, and, seemingly, a new national culture.1 The railroads were not natural creations. Their vast capital requirements required the use of incorporation, a legal innovation that protected shareholders from losses. Enormous amounts of government support followed. Federal, state, and local governments offered unrivaled handouts to create the national rail networks. Lincoln’s Republican Party—which dominated government policy during the Civil War and Reconstruction—passed legislation granting vast subsidies. Hundreds of millions of acres of land and millions of dollars’ worth of government bonds were freely given to build the great transcontinental railroads and the innumerable trunk lines that quickly annihilated the vast geographic barriers that had so long sheltered American cities from one another. As railroad construction drove economic development, new means of production spawned new systems of labor. Many wage earners had traditionally seen factory work as a temporary stepping-stone to attaining their own small businesses or farms. After the war, however, new technology and greater mechanization meant fewer and fewer workers could legitimately aspire to economic independence. Stronger and more organized labor unions formed to fight for a growing, more-permanent working class. At the same time, the growing scale of economic enterprises increasingly disconnected owners from their employees and day-to-day business operations. To handle their vast new operations, owners turned to managers. Educated bureaucrats swelled the ranks of an emerging middle class. Industrialization also remade much of American life outside the workplace. Rapidly growing industrialized cities knit together urban consumers and rural producers into a single, integrated national market. Food production and consumption, for instance, were utterly nationalized. Chicago’s stockyards seemingly tied it all together. Between 1866 and 1886, ranchers drove a million head of cattle annually overland from Texas ranches to railroad depots in Kansas for shipment by rail to Chicago. After travelling through modern “disassembly lines,” the animals left the adjoining slaughterhouses as slabs of meat to be packed into refrigerated rail cars and sent to butcher shops across the continent. By 1885, a handful of large-scale industrial meatpackers in Chicago were producing nearly five hundred million pounds of “dressed” beef annually.2 The new scale of industrialized meat production transformed the landscape. Buffalo herds, grasslands, and old-growth forests gave way to cattle, corn, and wheat. Chicago became the Gateway City, a crossroads connecting American agricultural goods, capital markets in New York and London, and consumers from all corners of the United States. Technological innovation accompanied economic development. For April Fool’s Day in 1878, the New York Daily Graphic published a fictitious interview with the celebrated inventor Thomas A. Edison. The piece described the “biggest invention of the age”—a new Edison machine that could create forty different kinds of food and drink out of only air, water, and dirt. “Meat will no longer be killed and vegetables no longer grown, except by savages,” Edison promised. The machine would end “famine and pauperism.” And all for $5 or $6 per machine! The story was a joke, of course, but Edison nevertheless received inquiries from readers wondering when the food machine would be ready for the market. Americans had apparently witnessed such startling technological advances—advances that would have seemed far-fetched mere years earlier—that the Edison food machine seemed entirely plausible.3 In September 1878, Edison announced a new and ambitious line of research and development—electric power and lighting. The scientific principles behind dynamos and electric motors—the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical power, and vice versa—were long known, but Edison applied the age’s bureaucratic and commercial ethos to the problem. Far from a lone inventor gripped by inspiration toiling in isolation, Edison advanced the model of commercially minded management of research and development. Edison folded his two identities, business manager and inventor, together. He called his Menlo Park research laboratory an “invention factory” and promised to turn out “a minor invention every ten days and a big thing every six months or so.” He brought his fully equipped Menlo Park research laboratory and the skilled machinists and scientists he employed to bear on the problem of building an electric power system—and commercializing it. By late fall 1879, Edison exhibited his system of power generation and electrical light for reporters and investors. Then he scaled up production. He sold generators to businesses. By the middle of 1883, Edison had overseen construction of 330 plants powering over sixty thousand lamps in factories, offices, printing houses, hotels, and theaters around the world. He convinced municipal officials to build central power stations and run power lines. New York’s Pearl Street central station opened in September 1882 and powered a square mile of downtown Manhattan. Electricity revolutionized the world. It not only illuminated the night, it powered the Second Industrial Revolution. Factories could operate anywhere at any hour. Electric rail cars allowed for cities to build out and electric elevators allowed for them to build up. Economic advances, technological innovation, social and cultural evolution, demographic changes: the United States was a nation transformed. Industry boosted productivity, railroads connected the nation, more and more Americans labored for wages, new bureaucratic occupations created a vast “white collar” middle class, and unprecedented fortunes rewarded the owners of capital. These revolutionary changes, of course, would not occur without conflict or consequence (see Chapter 16), but they demonstrated the profound transformations remaking the nation. Change was not confined to economics alone. Change gripped the lives of everyday Americans and fundamentally reshaped American culture.4 Notes - See Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: Norton, 2011). - Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis, 239. - David Hochfelder, “Edison and the Age of Invention,” in A Companion to the Reconstruction Presidents 1865–1881, ed. Edward O. Frantz (Chichester, UK: Blackwell, 2014), 499. - Ibid., 499–517. Immigration and Urbanization Industry pulled ever more Americans into cities. Manufacturing needed the labor pool and the infrastructure. America’s urban population increased sevenfold in the half century after the Civil War. Soon the United States had more large cities than any country in the world. The 1920 U.S. census revealed that, for the first time, a majority of Americans lived in urban areas. Much of that urban growth came from the millions of immigrants pouring into the nation. Between 1870 and 1920, over twenty-five million immigrants arrived in the United States. By the turn of the twentieth century, new immigrant groups such as Italians, Poles, and Eastern European Jews made up a larger percentage of arrivals than the Irish and Germans. The specific reasons that immigrants left their particular countries and the reasons they came to the United States (what historians call push and pull factors) varied. For example, a young husband and wife living in Sweden in the 1880s and unable to purchase farmland might read an advertisement for inexpensive land in the American Midwest and immigrate to the United States to begin a new life. A young Italian man might simply hope to labor in a steel factory long enough to save up enough money to return home and purchase land for a family. A Russian Jewish family persecuted in European pogroms might look to the United States as a sanctuary. Or perhaps a Japanese migrant might hear of fertile farming land on the West Coast and choose to sail for California. But if many factors pushed people away from their home countries, by far the most important factor drawing immigrants was economics. Immigrants came to the United States looking for work. Industrial capitalism was the most important factor that drew immigrants to the United States between 1880 and 1920. Immigrant workers labored in large industrial complexes producing goods such as steel, textiles, and food products, replacing smaller and more local workshops. The influx of immigrants, alongside a large movement of Americans from the countryside to the city, helped propel the rapid growth of cities like New York, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. By 1890, immigrants and their children accounted for roughly 60 percent of the population in most large northern cities (and sometimes as high as 80 or 90 percent). Many immigrants, especially from Italy and the Balkans, always intended to return home with enough money to purchase land. But what about those who stayed? Did the new arrivals assimilate together in the American melting pot—becoming just like those already in the United States—or did they retain, and sometimes even strengthen, their traditional ethnic identities? The answer lies somewhere in between. Immigrants from specific countries—and often even specific communities—often clustered together in ethnic neighborhoods. They formed vibrant organizations and societies, such as Italian workmen’s clubs, Eastern European Jewish mutual aid societies, and Polish Catholic churches, to ease the transition to their new American home. Immigrant communities published newspapers in dozens of languages and purchased spaces to keep their arts, languages, and traditions alive. And from these foundations they facilitated even more immigration: after staking out a claim to some corner of American life, they wrote home and encouraged others to follow them (historians call this chain migration). Many cities’ politics adapted to immigrant populations. The infamous urban political machines often operated as a kind of mutual aid society. New York City’s Democratic Party machine, popularly known as Tammany Hall, drew the greatest ire from critics and seemed to embody all of the worst of city machines, but it also responded to immigrant needs. In 1903, journalist William Riordon published a book, Plunkitt of Tammany Hall, which chronicled the activities of ward heeler George Washington Plunkitt. Plunkitt elaborately explained to Riordon the difference between “honest graft” and “dishonest graft”: “I made my pile in politics, but, at the same time, I served the organization and got more big improvements for New York City than any other livin’ man.” While exposing corruption, Riordon also revealed the hard work Plunkitt undertook on behalf of his largely immigrant constituency. On a typical day, Riordon wrote, Plunkitt was awakened at two a.m. to bail out a saloonkeeper who stayed open too late, was awakened again at six a.m. because of a fire in the neighborhood and spent time finding lodgings for the families displaced by the fire, and, after spending the rest of the morning in court to secure the release of several of his constituents, found jobs for four unemployed men, attended an Italian funeral, visited a church social, and dropped in on a Jewish wedding. He returned home at midnight.1 Tammany Hall’s corruption, especially under the reign of William “Boss” Tweed, was legendary, but the public works projects that funded Tammany Hall’s graft also provided essential infrastructure and public services for the city’s rapidly expanding population. Water, sewer, and gas lines; schools, hospitals, civic buildings, and museums; police and fire departments; roads, parks (notably Central Park), and bridges (notably the Brooklyn Bridge): all could, in whole or in part, be credited to Tammany’s reign. Still, machine politics could never be enough. As the urban population exploded, many immigrants found themselves trapped in crowded, crime-ridden slums. Americans eventually took notice of this urban crisis and proposed municipal reforms but also grew concerned about the declining quality of life in rural areas. While cities boomed, rural worlds languished. Some Americans scoffed at rural backwardness and reveled in the countryside’s decay, but many romanticized the countryside, celebrated rural life, and wondered what had been lost in the cities. Sociologist Kenyon Butterfield, concerned by the sprawling nature of industrial cities and suburbs, regretted the eroding social position of rural citizens and farmers: “Agriculture does not hold the same relative rank among our industries that it did in former years.” Butterfield saw “the farm problem” as part of “the whole question of democratic civilization.”2 He and many others thought the rise of the cities and the fall of the countryside threatened traditional American values. Many proposed conservation. Liberty Hyde Bailey, a botanist and rural scholar selected by Theodore Roosevelt to chair a federal Commission on Country Life in 1907, believed that rural places and industrial cities were linked: “Every agricultural question is a city question.”3 Many longed for a middle path between the cities and the country. New suburban communities on the outskirts of American cities defined themselves in opposition to urban crowding. Americans contemplated the complicated relationships between rural places, suburban living, and urban spaces. Los Angeles became a model for the suburban development of rural places. Dana Barlett, a social reformer in Los Angeles, noted that the city, stretching across dozens of small towns, was “a better city” because of its residential identity as a “city of homes.”4 This language was seized upon by many suburbs that hoped to avoid both urban sprawl and rural decay. In Glendora, one of these small towns on the outskirts of Los Angeles, local leaders were “loath as anyone to see it become cosmopolitan.” Instead, in order to have Glendora “grow along the lines necessary to have it remain an enjoyable city of homes,” they needed to “bestir ourselves to direct its growth” by encouraging not industry or agriculture but residential development.5 Notes - William L. Riordon, Plunkitt of Tammany Hall: A Series of Very Plain Talks on Very Practical Politics (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1905). - Kenyon L. Butterfield, Chapters in Rural Progress (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1908), 15. - L. H. Bailey, The Harvest of the Year to the Tiller of the Soil (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 60. - Oscar Osburn Winther, “The Rise of Metropolitan Los Angeles, 1870–1900,” Huntington Library Quarterly 10 (August 1947), 391-405. - “Chamber Meeting,” Glendora Gleaner, September 28, 1923. The New South and the Problem of Race “There was a South of slavery and secession,” Atlanta Constitution editor Henry Grady proclaimed in an 1886 speech in New York. “That South is dead.”1 Grady captured the sentiment of many white southern business and political leaders who imagined a New South that could turn its back to the past by embracing industrialization and diversified agriculture. He promoted the region’s economic possibilities and mutual future prosperity through an alliance of northern capital and southern labor. Grady and other New South boosters hoped to shape the region’s economy in the North’s image. They wanted industry and they wanted infrastructure. But the past could not be escaped. Economically and socially, the “New South” would still be much like the old. A “New South” seemed an obvious need. The Confederacy’s failed insurrection wreaked havoc on the southern economy and crippled southern prestige. Property was destroyed. Lives were lost. Political power vanished. And four million enslaved Americans—representing the wealth and power of the antebellum white South—threw off their chains and walked proudly forward into freedom. Emancipation unsettled the southern social order. When Reconstruction regimes attempted to grant freedpeople full citizenship rights, anxious whites struck back. From their fear, anger, and resentment they lashed out, not only in organized terrorist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan but in political corruption, economic exploitation, and violent intimidation. White southerners took back control of state and local governments and used their reclaimed power to disenfranchise African Americans and pass “Jim Crow” laws segregating schools, transportation, employment, and various public and private facilities. The reestablishment of white supremacy after the “redemption” of the South from Reconstruction contradicted proclamations of a “New” South. Perhaps nothing harked so forcefully back to the barbaric southern past than the wave of lynchings—the extralegal murder of individuals by vigilantes—that washed across the South after Reconstruction. Whether for actual crimes or fabricated crimes or for no crimes at all, white mobs murdered roughly five thousand African Americans between the 1880s and the 1950s. Lynching was not just murder, it was a ritual rich with symbolism. Victims were not simply hanged, they were mutilated, burned alive, and shot. Lynchings could become carnivals, public spectacles attended by thousands of eager spectators. Rail lines ran special cars to accommodate the rush of participants. Vendors sold goods and keepsakes. Perpetrators posed for photos and collected mementos. And it was increasingly common. One notorious example occurred in Georgia in 1899. Accused of killing his white employer and raping the man’s wife, Sam Hose was captured by a mob and taken to the town of Newnan. Word of the impending lynching quickly spread, and specially chartered passenger trains brought some four thousand visitors from Atlanta to witness the gruesome affair. Members of the mob tortured Hose for about an hour. They sliced off pieces of his body as he screamed in agony. Then they poured a can of kerosene over his body and burned him alive.2 At the barbaric height of southern lynching, in the last years of the nineteenth century, southerners lynched two to three African Americans every week. In general, lynchings were most frequent in the Cotton Belt of the Lower South, where southern Black people were most numerous and where the majority worked as tenant farmers and field hands on the cotton farms of white landowners. The states of Mississippi and Georgia had the greatest number of recorded lynchings: from 1880 to 1930, Mississippi lynch mobs killed over five hundred African Americans; Georgia mobs murdered more than four hundred. Throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of prominent southerners openly supported lynching, arguing that it was a necessary evil to punish Black rapists and deter others. In the late 1890s, Georgia newspaper columnist and noted women’s rights activist Rebecca Latimer Felton—who would later become the first woman to serve in the U.S. Senate—endorsed such extrajudicial killings. She said, “If it takes lynching to protect women’s dearest possession from drunken, ravening beasts, then I say lynch a thousand a week.”3 When opponents argued that lynching violated victims’ constitutional rights, South Carolina governor Coleman Blease angrily responded, “Whenever the Constitution comes between me and the virtue of the white women of South Carolina, I say to hell with the Constitution.”4 Black activists and white allies worked to outlaw lynching. Ida B. Wells, an African American woman born in the last years of slavery and a pioneering anti-lynching advocate, lost three friends to a lynch mob in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1892. That year, Wells published Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases, a groundbreaking work that documented the South’s lynching culture and exposed the myth of the Black rapist.5 The Tuskegee Institute and the NAACP both compiled and publicized lists of every reported lynching in the United States. In 1918, Representative Leonidas Dyer of Missouri introduced federal anti-lynching legislation that would have made local counties where lynchings took place legally liable for such killings. Throughout the early 1920s, the Dyer Bill was the subject of heated political debate, but, fiercely opposed by southern congressmen and unable to win enough northern champions, the proposed bill was never enacted. Lynching was not only the form of racial violence that survived Reconstruction. White political violence continued to follow African American political participation and labor organization, however severely circumscribed. When the Populist insurgency created new opportunities for black political activism, white Democrats responded with terror. In North Carolina, Populists and Republicans “fused” together and won stunning electoral gains in 1896. Shocked White Democrats formed “Red Shirt” groups, paramilitary organizations dedicated to eradicating black political participation and restoring Democratic rule through violence and intimidation. Launching a self-described “white supremacy campaign” of violence and intimidation against black voters and officeholders during the 1898 state elections, the Red Shirts effectively took back state government. But municipal elections were not held that year in Wilmington, where Fusionists controlled city government. After manning armed barricades blocking black voters from entering the town to vote in the state elections, the Red Shirts drafted a “White Declaration of Independence” which declared “that that we will no longer be ruled and will never again be ruled, by men of African origin.” 457 white Democrats signed the document. They also issued a twelve-hour ultimatum that editor of the city’s black daily paper flee the city. The editor left, but it wasn’t enough. Twelve hours later, hundreds of Red Shirts raided the city’s armory and ransacked the newspaper office anyway. The mob swelled and turned on the city’s black neighborhood, destroying homes and businesses and opening fire on any Black person they found. Dozens were killed and hundreds more fled the city. The mob then forced the mayor, the city’s aldermen, and the police chief, at gun point, to immediately resign. To ensure their gains, the Democrats rounded up prominent fusionists, placed them on railroad cars, and, under armed guard, sent them out of the state. The mob installed and swore in their own replacements. It was a full-blown coup. Lynching and organized terror campaigns were only the violent worst of the South’s racial world. Discrimination in employment and housing and the legal segregation of public and private life also reflected the rise of a new Jim Crow South. So-called Jim Crow laws legalized what custom had long dictated. Southern states and municipalities enforced racial segregation in public places and in private lives. Separate coach laws were some of the first such laws to appear, beginning in Tennessee in the 1880s. Soon schools, stores, theaters, restaurants, bathrooms, and nearly every other part of public life were segregated. So too were social lives. The sin of racial mixing, critics said, had to be heavily guarded against. Marriage laws regulated against interracial couples, and white men, ever anxious of relationships between Black men and white women, passed miscegenation laws and justified lynching as an appropriate extralegal tool to police the racial divide. In politics, de facto limitations of Black voting had suppressed Black voters since Reconstruction. Whites stuffed ballot boxes and intimidated Black voters with physical and economic threats. And then, from roughly 1890 to 1908, southern states implemented de jure, or legal, disfranchisement. They passed laws requiring voters to pass literacy tests (which could be judged arbitrarily) and pay poll taxes (which hit poor white and poor Black Americans alike), effectively denying Black men the franchise that was supposed to have been guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amendment. Those responsible for such laws posed as reformers and justified voting restrictions as for the public good, a way to clean up politics by purging corrupt African Americans from the voting rolls. With white supremacy secured, prominent white southerners looked outward for support. New South boosters hoped to confront post-Reconstruction uncertainties by rebuilding the South’s economy and convincing the nation that the South could be more than an economically backward, race-obsessed backwater. And as they did, they began to retell the history of the recent past. A kind of civic religion known as the “Lost Cause” glorified the Confederacy and romanticized the Old South. White southerners looked forward while simultaneously harking back to a mythic imagined past inhabited by contented and loyal slaves, benevolent and generous masters, chivalric and honorable men, and pure and faithful southern belles. Secession, they said, had little to do with the institution of slavery, and soldiers fought only for home and honor, not the continued ownership of human beings. The New South, then, would be built physically with new technologies, new investments, and new industries, but undergirded by political and social custom. Henry Grady might have declared the Confederate South dead, but its memory pervaded the thoughts and actions of white southerners. Lost Cause champions overtook the South. Women’s groups, such as the United Daughters of the Confederacy, joined with Confederate veterans to preserve a pro-Confederate past. They built Confederate monuments and celebrated Confederate veterans on Memorial Day. Across the South, towns erected statues of General Robert E. Lee and other Confederate figures. By the turn of the twentieth century, the idealized Lost Cause past was entrenched not only in the South but across the country. In 1905, for instance, North Carolinian Thomas F. Dixon published a novel, The Clansman, which depicted the Ku Klux Klan as heroic defenders of the South against the corruption of African American and northern “carpetbag” misrule during Reconstruction. In 1915, acclaimed film director David W. Griffith adapted Dixon’s novel into the groundbreaking blockbuster film, Birth of a Nation. (The film almost singlehandedly rejuvenated the Ku Klux Klan.) The romanticized version of the antebellum South and the distorted version of Reconstruction dominated popular imagination.6 While Lost Cause defenders mythologized their past, New South boosters struggled to wrench the South into the modern world. The railroads became their focus. The region had lagged behind the North in the railroad building boom of the midnineteenth century, and postwar expansion facilitated connections between the most rural segments of the population and the region’s rising urban areas. Boosters campaigned for the construction of new hard-surfaced roads as well, arguing that improved roads would further increase the flow of goods and people and entice northern businesses to relocate to the region. The rising popularity of the automobile after the turn of the century only increased pressure for the construction of reliable roads between cities, towns, county seats, and the vast farmlands of the South. Along with new transportation networks, New South boosters continued to promote industrial growth. The region witnessed the rise of various manufacturing industries, predominantly textiles, tobacco, furniture, and steel. While agriculture—cotton in particular—remained the mainstay of the region’s economy, these new industries provided new wealth for owners, new investments for the region, and new opportunities for the exploding number of landless farmers to finally flee the land. Industries offered low-paying jobs but also opportunity for rural poor who could no longer sustain themselves through subsistence farming. Men, women, and children all moved into wage work. At the turn of the twentieth century, nearly one fourth of southern mill workers were children aged six to sixteen. In most cases, as in most aspects of life in the New South, new factory jobs were racially segregated. Better-paying jobs were reserved for whites, while the most dangerous, labor-intensive, dirtiest, and lowest-paying positions were relegated to African Americans. African American women, shut out of most industries, found employment most often as domestic help for white families. As poor as white southern mill workers were, southern Black people were poorer. Some white mill workers could even afford to pay for domestic help in caring for young children, cleaning houses, doing laundry, and cooking meals. Mill villages that grew up alongside factories were whites-only, and African American families were pushed to the outer perimeter of the settlements. That a “New South” emerged in the decades between Reconstruction and World War I is debatable. If measured by industrial output and railroad construction, the New South was a reality but if measured relative to the rest of the nation, it was a limited one. If measured in terms of racial discrimination, however, the New South looked much like the Old. Boosters such as Henry Grady said the South was done with racial questions but lynching and segregation and the institutionalization of Jim Crow exposed the South’s lingering racial obsessions. Meanwhile, most southerners still toiled in agriculture and still lived in poverty. Industrial development and expanding infrastructure, rather than re-creating the South, coexisted easily with white supremacy and an impoverished agricultural economy. The trains came, factories were built, and capital was invested, but the region remained mired in poverty and racial apartheid. Much of the “New South,” then, was anything but new. Notes - Henry Grady, The Complete Orations and Speeches of Henry Grady, ed. Edwin DuBois Shurter (New York: Hinds, Noble and Eldredge, 1910), 7. - William Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 82–84. - Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), 201. - Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt Against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women’s Campaign Against Lynching (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 195. - Ida B. Wells, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). - Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980). Gender, Religion, and Culture In 1905, Standard Oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller donated $100,000 (about $2.5 million today) to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Rockefeller was the richest man in America but also one of the most hated and mistrusted. Even admirers conceded that he achieved his wealth through often illegal and usually immoral business practices. Journalist Ida Tarbell had made waves describing Standard Oil’s long-standing ruthlessness and predilections for political corruption. Clergymen, led by reformer Washington Gladden, fiercely protested the donation. A decade earlier, Gladden had asked of such donations, “Is this clean money? Can any man, can any institution, knowing its origin, touch it without being defiled?” Gladden said, “In the cool brutality with which properties are wrecked, securities destroyed, and people by the hundreds robbed of their little all to build up the fortunes of the multi-millionaires, we have an appalling revelation of the kind of monster that a human being may become.”1 Despite widespread criticism, the board accepted Rockefeller’s donation. Board president Samuel Capen did not defend Rockefeller, arguing that the gift was charitable and the board could not assess the origin of every donation, but the dispute shook Capen. Was a corporate background incompatible with a religious organization? The “tainted money debate” reflected questions about the proper relationship between religion and capitalism. With rising income inequality, would religious groups be forced to support either the elite or the disempowered? What was moral in the new industrial United States? And what obligations did wealth bring? Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie popularized the idea of a “gospel of wealth” in an 1889 article, claiming that “the true antidote for the temporary unequal distribution of wealth” was the moral obligation of the rich to give to charity.2 Farmers and labor organizers, meanwhile, argued that God had blessed the weak and that new Gilded Age fortunes and corporate management were inherently immoral. As time passed, American churches increasingly adapted themselves to the new industrial order. Even Gladden came to accept donations from the so-called robber barons, such as the Baptist John D. Rockefeller, who increasingly touted the morality of business. Meanwhile, as many churches wondered about the compatibility of large fortunes with Christian values, others were concerned for the fate of traditional American masculinity. The economic and social changes of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries—including increased urbanization, immigration, advancements in science and technology, patterns of consumption and the new availability of goods, and new awareness of economic, racial, and gender inequalities—challenged traditional gender norms. At the same time, urban spaces and shifting cultural and social values presented new opportunities to challenge traditional gender and sexual norms. Many women, carrying on a campaign that stretched long into the past, vied for equal rights. They became activists: they targeted municipal reforms, launched labor rights campaigns, and, above all, bolstered the suffrage movement. Urbanization and immigration fueled anxieties that old social mores were being subverted and that old forms of social and moral policing were increasingly inadequate. The anonymity of urban spaces presented an opportunity in particular for female sexuality and for male and female sexual experimentation along a spectrum of orientations and gender identities. Anxiety over female sexuality reflected generational tensions and differences, as well as racial and class ones. As young women pushed back against social mores through premarital sexual exploration and expression, social welfare experts and moral reformers labeled such girls feeble-minded, believing even that such unfeminine behavior could be symptomatic of clinical insanity rather than free-willed expression. Generational differences exacerbated the social and familial tensions provoked by shifting gender norms. Youths challenged the norms of their parents’ generations by donning new fashions and enjoying the delights of the city. Women’s fashion loosed its physical constraints: corsets relaxed and hemlines rose. The newfound physical freedom enabled by looser dress was also mimicked in the pursuit of other freedoms. While many women worked to liberate themselves, many, sometimes simultaneously, worked to uplift others. Women’s work against alcohol propelled temperance into one of the foremost moral reforms of the period. Middle-class, typically Protestant women based their assault on alcohol on the basis of their feminine virtue, Christian sentiment, and their protective role in the family and home. Others, like Jane Addams and settlement house workers, sought to impart a middle-class education on immigrant and working-class women through the establishment of settlement homes. Other reformers touted a “scientific motherhood”: the new science of hygiene was deployed as a method of both social uplift and moralizing, particularly of working-class and immigrant women. Women vocalized new discontents through literature. Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” attacked the “naturalness” of feminine domesticity and critiqued Victorian psychological remedies administered to women, such as the “rest cure.” Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, set in the American South, likewise criticized the domestic and familial role ascribed to women by society and gave expression to feelings of malaise, desperation, and desire. Such literature directly challenged the status quo of the Victorian era’s constructions of femininity and feminine virtue, as well as established feminine roles. While many men worried about female activism, they worried too about their own masculinity. To anxious observers, industrial capitalism was withering American manhood. Rather than working on farms and in factories, where young men formed physical muscle and spiritual grit, new generations of workers labored behind desks, wore white collars, and, in the words of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, appeared “black-coated, stiff-jointed, soft-muscled, [and] paste-complexioned.”3 Neurologist George Beard even coined a medical term, neurasthenia, for a new emasculated condition that was marked by depression, indigestion, hypochondria, and extreme nervousness. The philosopher William James called it “Americanitis.” Academics increasingly warned that America had become a nation of emasculated men. Churches too worried about feminization. Women had always comprised a clear majority of church memberships in the United States, but now the theologian Washington Gladden said, “A preponderance of female influence in the Church or anywhere else in society is unnatural and injurious.” Many feared that the feminized church had feminized Christ himself. Rather than a rough-hewn carpenter, Jesus had been made “mushy” and “sweetly effeminate,” in the words of Walter Rauschenbusch. Advocates of a so-called muscular Christianity sought to stiffen young men’s backbones by putting them back in touch with their primal manliness. Pulling from contemporary developmental theory, they believed that young men ought to evolve as civilization evolved, advancing from primitive nature-dwelling to modern industrial enlightenment. To facilitate “primitive” encounters with nature, muscular Christians founded summer camps and outdoor boys’ clubs like the Woodcraft Indians, the Sons of Daniel Boone, and the Boy Brigades—all precursors of the Boy Scouts. Other champions of muscular Christianity, such as the newly formed Young Men’s Christian Association, built gymnasiums, often attached to churches, where youths could strengthen their bodies as well as their spirits. It was a Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) leader who coined the term bodybuilding, and others invented the sports of basketball and volleyball.4 Muscular Christianity, though, was about even more than building strong bodies and minds. Many advocates also ardently championed Western imperialism, cheering on attempts to civilize non-Western peoples. Gilded Age men were encouraged to embrace a particular vision of masculinity connected intimately with the rising tides of nationalism, militarism, and imperialism. Contemporary ideals of American masculinity at the turn of the century developed in concert with the United States’ imperial and militaristic endeavors in the West and abroad. During the Spanish-American War in 1898, Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders embodied the idealized image of the tall, strong, virile, and fit American man that simultaneously epitomized the ideals of power that informed the United States’ imperial agenda. Roosevelt and others like him believed a reinvigorated masculinity would preserve the American race’s superiority against foreign foes and the effeminizing effects of overcivilization. But while many fretted about traditional American life, others lost themselves in new forms of mass culture. Vaudeville signaled new cultural worlds. A unique variety of popular entertainments, these traveling circuit shows first appeared during the Civil War and peaked between 1880 and 1920. Vaudeville shows featured comedians, musicians, actors, jugglers, and other talents that could captivate an audience. Unlike earlier rowdy acts meant for a male audience that included alcohol, vaudeville was considered family-friendly, “polite” entertainment, though the acts involved offensive ethnic and racial caricatures of African Americans and recent immigrants. Vaudeville performances were often small and quirky, though venues such as the renowned Palace Theatre in New York City signaled true stardom for many performers. Popular entertainers such as silent film star Charlie Chaplin and magician Harry Houdini made names for themselves on the vaudeville circuit. But if live entertainment still captivated audiences, others looked to entirely new technologies. By the turn of the century, two technologies pioneered by Edison—the phonograph and motion pictures—stood ready to revolutionize leisure and help create the mass entertainment culture of the twentieth century. The phonograph was the first reliable device capable of recording and reproducing sound. But it was more than that. The phonograph could create multiple copies of recordings, sparking a great expansion of the market for popular music. Although the phonograph was a technical success, Edison at first had trouble developing commercial applications for it. He thought it might be used for dictation, recording audio letters, preserving speeches and dying words of great men, producing talking clocks, or teaching elocution. He did not anticipate that its greatest use would be in the field of mass entertainment, but Edison’s sales agents soon reported that many phonographs were being used for just that, especially in so-called phonograph parlors, where customers could pay a nickel to hear a piece of music. By the turn of the century, Americans were purchasing phonographs for home use. Entertainment became the phonograph’s major market. Inspired by the success of the phonograph as an entertainment device, Edison decided in 1888 to develop “an instrument which does for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear.” In 1888, he patented the concept of motion pictures. In 1889, he innovated the rolling of film. By 1891, he was exhibiting a motion-picture camera (a kinetograph) and a viewer (a kinetoscope). By 1894, the Edison Company had produced about seventy-five films suitable for sale and viewing. They could be viewed through a small eyepiece in an arcade or parlor. They were short, typically about three minutes long. Many of the early films depicted athletic feats and competitions. One 1894 film, for example, showed a six-round boxing match. The catalog description gave a sense of the appeal it had for male viewers: “Full of hard fighting, clever hits, punches, leads, dodges, body blows and some slugging.” Other early kinetoscope subjects included Indian dances, nature and outdoor scenes, re-creations of historical events, and humorous skits. By 1896, the Edison Vitascope could project film, shifting audiences away from arcades and pulling them into theaters. Edison’s film catalog meanwhile grew in sophistication. He sent filmmakers to distant and exotic locales like Japan and China. Long-form fictional films created a demand for “movie stars,” such as the glamorous Mary Pickford, the swashbuckling Douglas Fairbanks, the acrobatic comedian Buster Keaton, who began to appear in the popular imagination beginning around 1910. Alongside professional boxing and baseball, the film industry was creating the modern culture of celebrity that would characterize twentieth-century mass entertainment.5 Notes - Washington Gladden, The New Idolatry and Other Discussions (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1905), 21. - Andrew Carnegie, “Wealth,” North American Review 391 (June 1889): 656, 660. - Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 41. - Norman Vance, The Sinews of the Spirit: The Ideal of Christian Manliness in Victorian Literature and Religious Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985). - Hochfelder, “Edison and the Age of Invention,” 499–517. Conclusion After enduring four bloody years of warfare and a strained, decade-long effort to reconstruct the defeated South, the United States abandoned itself to industrial development. Businesses expanded in scale and scope. The nature of labor shifted. A middle class rose. Wealth concentrated. Immigrants crowded into the cities, which grew upward and outward. The Jim Crow South stripped away the vestiges of Reconstruction, and New South boosters papered over the scars. Industrialists hunted profits. Evangelists appealed to people’s morals. Consumers lost themselves in new goods and new technologies. Women emerging into new urban spaces embraced new social possibilities. In all of its many facets, by the turn of the twentieth century, the United States had been radically transformed. And the transformations continued to ripple outward into the West and overseas, and inward into radical protest and progressive reforms. For Americans at the twilight of the nineteenth century and the dawn of the twentieth, a bold new world loomed. Primary Sources 1. Andrew Carnegie on “The Triumph of America” (1885) Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie celebrated and explored American economic progress in this 1885 article, later reprinted in his 1886 book, Triumphant Democracy. 2. Henry Grady on the New South (1886) Atlanta newspaperman and apostle of the “New South,” Henry Grady, won national recognition for his December 21, 1886 speech to the New England Society in New York City. 3. Ida B. Wells-Barnett, “Lynch Law in America” (1900) Ida B. Wells-Barnett, born enslaved in Mississippi, was a pioneering activist and journalist. She did much to expose the epidemic of lynching in the United States and her writing and research exploded many of the justifications—particularly the rape of white women by Black men—commonly offered to justify the practice. 4. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (1918) Henry Adams, the great grandson of President John Adams, the grandson of President John Quincy Adams, the son of a major American diplomat, and an accomplished Harvard historian, writing in the third person, describes his experience at the Great Exposition in Paris in 1900 and writes of his encounter with “forces totally new.” 5. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, “Why I Wrote The Yellow Wallpaper” (1913) Charlotte Perkins Gilman won much attention in 1892 for publishing “The Yellow Wallpaper,” a semi-autobiographical short story dealing with mental health and contemporary social expectations for women. In the following piece, Gilman reflected on writing and publishing the piece. 6. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives (1890) Jacob Riis, a Danish immigrant, combined photography and journalism into a powerful indictment of poverty in America. His 1890, How the Other Half Lives shocked Americans with its raw depictions of urban slums. Here, he describes poverty in New York. 7. Rose Cohen on the World Beyond her Immigrant Neighborhood (ca.1897/1918) Rose Cohen was born in Russia in 1880 as Rahel Golub. She immigrated to the United States in 1892 and lived in a Russian Jewish neighborhood in New York’s Lower East Side. Her, she writes about her encounter with the world outside of her ethnic neighborhood. At the turn of the century, New York City’s Lower East Side became the most densely packed urban area in the world. This colorized photomechanical print from the Detroit Photographic depicts daily life on Mulberry Street, the area’s central artery. 9. Coney Island (ca. 1910-1915) Amusement-hungry Americans flocked to new entertainments at the turn of the twentieth century. In this early-twentieth century photograph, visitors enjoy Luna Park, one of the original amusement parks on Brooklyn’s famous Coney Island. Reference Material This chapter was edited by David Hochfelder, with content contributions by Jacob Betz, David Hochfelder, Gerard Koeppel, Scott Libson, Kyle Livie, Paul Matzko, Isabella Morales, Andrew Robichaud, Kate Sohasky, Joseph Super, Susan Thomas, Kaylynn Washnock, and Kevin Young. Recommended citation: Jacob Betz et al., “Life in Industrial America,” David Hochfelder, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Ayers, Edward. The Promise of the New South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. - Beckert, Sven. Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. - Bederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. - Blight, David. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. - Briggs, Laura. “The Race of Hysteria: ‘Overcivilization’ and the ‘Savage’ Woman in Late Nineteenth-Century Obstetrics and Gynecology.” American Quarterly 52 (June 2000). 246–273. - Chauncey, George. Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940. New York: Basic Books, 1995. - Cole, Stephanie, and Natalie J. Ring, eds. The Folly of Jim Crow: Rethinking the Segregated South. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2012. - Cott, Nancy. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. - Cronon, William. Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York: Norton, 1991. - Edwards, Rebecca. New Spirits: Americans in the Gilded Age, 1865–1905. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. - Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. - Gutman, Herbert. Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History. New York: Knopf, 1976. - Hale, Grace Elizabeth. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940. New York: Pantheon Books, 1998. - Hicks, Cheryl. Talk with You Like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890–1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. - Kasson, John F. Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century. New York: Hill and Wang, 1978. - Leach, William. Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture. New York: Random House, 1993. - Lears, T. J. Jackson. No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. - Odem, Mary. Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885–1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. - Peiss, Kathy. Cheap Amusements. Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986. - Peiss, Kathy. Hope in a Jar: The Making of America’s Beauty Culture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. - Putney, Clifford. Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. - Silber, Nina. The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865–1900. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. - Strouse, Jean. Alice James: A Biography. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. - Trachtenberg, Alan. The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age. New York: Hill and Wang, 2007. - Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877–1913. Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1951.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.704908	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90488/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Reconstruction, Growth, and Transformation, Life in Industrial America", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85690/overview	Introduction to Chemistry Tools and Vocabulary through Word Walls and Centers Learning Centers: Teaching Strategies 8 Lessons Learned with Elementary STEM Centers Measuring Sound with iPads The Scientific Power of Music Two Teachers Learn from Their Students: Examining Teaching, Learning, and the Use of Learning Centers Using Center Activities to Promote Student Learning Content Learning Centers Overview This project is about Learning Centers: What are learning centers, how they are beneficial for children and teachers. The main goals within learning centers, and how to design appropriate centers sufficiently. Also included are examples and informational videos. Introduction to Learning Centers This project is about Learning Centers: what they do, how they help children, how they help teachers, main goals within learning centers, and how to design centers sufficiently. Defining Content Learning Centers Defining Learning Centers: Learning centers or workstations are small areas around the classroom that allow students to select activities to practice and apply the skills they have learned. These activities are prepared by the teacher to help the students. The teacher creates different learning centers that help build and or reinforce skills for their students. In these centers, students need to be actively engaged in their centers while accommodating their own different approaches to learning, as well as their playful natures, and their need for choice. By allowing the children to make choices and having developmentally appropriate centers, a teacher can help develop their physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development, as well. Learning centers encourage a positive relationship with learning, allowing children to discover new things and create. Learning centers apply to all the different ways students learn. Why are learning centers beneficial for students and teachers? Learning centers are beneficial for students because they are vital to children’s development and learning. These centers should be actively engaging and they should accommodate each child’s varying learning styles and approaches to learning. Children are involved in learning center engagement when it is self-directed and based on the student’s own strengths, abilities, and interests. This engagement will help children develop enhanced skills. These centers are beneficial for teachers, as well. Teachers can see how a child is doing while working in a center, and they can see where improvement and encouragement is needed. A teacher can then modify the learning center as needed. Learning centers should not remain the same all year long, rather, throughout the year there should be different activities for the children to learn and master. While activities could be similar, the learning is different. Using Center Activities to Promote Student Learning Rational: Center activities play a critical role in fostering student learning. Cognitive skills are developed in a child-centered environment as students are empowered to make decisions, negotiate with peers, and create projects and scenarios while engaged in play. Executive function skills, such as self-control, planning/organizing, and cognitive flexibility, are central as students cooperate, problem solve and persist in an environment of creativity and curiosity. These same skills and behaviors, which are also assessed on the Kindergarten Readiness Assessment, connect directly to a person’s later success in school, college and career. Centers are an integral part of the teacher’s daily schedule in early childhood classrooms. Dramatic play, blocks or construction zone, science, math, and art are some examples of centers commonly found in classrooms. Centers that allow students choice in how they engage and explore the materials are often referred to as developmental centers. Teachers Role: The teacher’s role is two-fold. First, a teacher should be purposeful in establishing the routines, selecting the materials, and planning a purpose or problem to solve for each center. The teacher is thoughtful in introducing the center to the entire class with a hands-on demonstration in the proper usage of the materials and the rules to follow. The second role of the teacher is being intentional and visible by observing and engaging students during center time. Throughout the year, the teacher asks questions, provides feedback, highlights positive examples of student behavior and work, and makes adjustments when necessary. The information collected is used as formative assessment to inform instruction. It may be to introduce a new skill or concept, re-teach a skill, or challenge individual students to the next level in their learning. (Using Center Activities to Promote Student Learning) How to Make a Content Learning Centers When creating a learning center, it is important to have a good understanding on what the topic they are teaching to the students. There are important steps within creating a content learning center which are: - Opening- Discuss what will take place - Large Group Activity- Teacher will teach the whole class - Follow- Up Activity - Students work either individually or together - Closure- Highlight the successes, solve problems collaboratively Within the center, teachers should be sure to include most core content intertwined with the center. Whether it be science and reading, history and writing, or even math. There are four goals that teachers should strive to achieve when doing Content Learning Centers. The four goals include: fairness, harmony, inclusion, and academic excellence. Fairness is to create opportunities for the children to get assistance if needed by both their peers and teachers and for students to collaborate with others. Harmony is for the students to collaborate within small or large groups. Inclusion is to increase the collaboration by all students. Academic Excellence is for the instruction to be meaningful for all the students, create opportunities for the children to engage within core curriculum, and to create instruction that is challenging to the students so they can advance in understanding to more complex levels. Real-World Examples Real-World Examples of Learning Centers - 4th and 5th Grade STEM Centers Students engaged in 12 learning centers to learn about the science and technology of sound and music. Students who partcipated used iPads to interact with the centers and teacher, Dr. Wesley Fryer. Dr. Fryer had pre-recorded instructional videos that students were able to access through a QR code scan at the centers. Sometimes Fryer would include informational videos at a center to provide variation of instruction. Below are two examples of centers used. Centers: 1. Scientifc Power of Music Dr. Fryer had students watch a short YouTube video before starting the center (see below) before answering some questions about the video. Students used their iPads to log into a classroom blog where they would write a post about the discussion questions and what they learned. 2. Measuring Sound with iPads Students at this center were provided with a pre-recorded instructional video by Dr. Wesley Fryer (see below). Students used iPad apps like SpectrumView and Decibel 10th to measure the sounds of a xlophone. They were given a list of questions to complete during the experiments. Students then had to record themselves defining amplitude, decibels, and frequency as a group. This would be posted to their classroom blog. - Chemistry Centers for Grades 1-3 Faith Sohns had her elementary class become familiar with tools and vocabulary words used in Chemistry through word walls and centers. Students who participated were assessed through observation and successful completion of centers. Centers: - Tracing: Chemistry tools Scanning the Tool - Pipette Pictures Rice Table - Fill the Container Find the Tool - Word Hunt - Old Maid Matching - Term and tool - Screen Science How many centers you choose to do will depend on the time allotted for center participation. Dr. Wesley Fryer, see above, used 12 centers. Each of the centers required less time to complete compared to Sohns' 5 centers.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.743639	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85690/overview", "title": "Content Learning Centers", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14358/overview	Correlation & Linear Regression Example Overview This example walks student through process step by step. Section 1 This example walks student through process step by step.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.760648	05/24/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14358/overview", "title": "Correlation & Linear Regression Example", "author": "Laura Ralston" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68507/overview	Alaska Native Language Center Alaska Native Language Revitalization Assistive Technology to support literacy Dena'ina Qenaga Writing Formative Assessment-Personalized Assessment From Visual Symbols to Word Recognition How to read and comprehend Language Acquisition Theories Language and Literacy:Teaching Students in the 21st Century Literacy in a Digital World Scholarly article on Benefits to Bilingual Education Steps to Succeed: Chapter 8 pages 108-120 (12 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 12 pages 173-187 (14 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 13 pages 191-207 (16 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 1 (pages 1-8) Steps to Success: Chapter 4 pages 43-58 (15 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 5 pages 59-72 (13 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 6 pages 75-86 (11 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 7 pages 90-104 Steps to Success: Chapter 9 pages 125-139 Steps to Success.....Read Chapter 3 pages 27-40 (13 pages) Strategies for Supporting English Limited Language Learners Developing Children as Readers and Writers Overview This course will instruct paraeducators on how to assist teachers in assessing students’ reading and writing skills, especially in rural Alaska. Students will also learn techniques and develop an understanding of how to create environments that inspire children as readers and writers using a variety of indigenous authors. A Brief Introduction to Literacy - Read pages 1-8 Titled: A Brief Introduction to Literacy - Write Down Key Terms/vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 5 activities on page 8 to complete and submit on Populi Word Recognition Skills: One of Two Essential Components of Reading Comprehension - Read Pages 27-40 (13 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 40 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Language Comprehension Ability - Read Pages 43-58 (15 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 56 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Types of Literacy Assessment - Read Pages 59-72 (13 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 72 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Approaches to Writing Instruction in Elementary Classrooms - Read Pages 75-86 (11 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 86/87 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Influence of the Digital Age on Children's Literature and Its use in the Classroom - Read Pages 90-104 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 6 activities on page 104/105 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Helping English Language Learners Develop Literacy Skills and Succeed Academically - Read Pages 108-120 (12 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 7 activities on page 120/121 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities - Read Pages 125-139 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 139 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Culturally Responsive Disciplinary Literacy Strategies Instruction - Read Pages 173-187 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 187 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) World Language and Literacy - Read Pages 191-207 (16 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 207/208 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.805026	06/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68507/overview", "title": "Developing Children as Readers and Writers", "author": "Katie Olson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116982/overview	Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity Overview The OER course "Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity" is an interactive online course designed using the H5P tool. The course aims to raise understanding and awareness of landscape conservation and biodiversity connectivity in Europe. Course description The course will present various case studies and initiatives focusing on landscape restoration and biodiversity promotion. Through interactive elements such as quizzes, videos and other H5P modules, participants will be actively involved in the learning process. Learning objectives Participants will acquire a sound knowledge of the importance of nature conservation, the challenges and solutions in landscape restoration and the role of transboundary projects in biodiversity conservation. Methodology By using H5P, the learning content is delivered in an engaging and interactive way, enabling effective and sustainable learning. This course provides a comprehensive and interactive learning experience that raises awareness of the importance of landscape conservation and biodiversity in Europe and identifies practical solutions to address current challenges. Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity Literature Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland e.V.: European Green Belt. Available online at https://www.bund.net/fileadmin/user_upload_bund/publikationen/gruenes_band/European_Green_Belt_2020_Gesamt_Eng.pdf, checked on 5/23/2024. EuroNatur (2024): Green Belt Europe: Europe's largest nature conservation initiative. EuroNatur. Available online at https://www.euronatur.org/en/what-we-do/european-green-belt, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. European Beech Forests (2024): Globally unique. Available online at https://www.europeanbeechforests.org/europes-wilderness/globally-unique, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. European Green Belt (2024): Home. EuroNatur. Available online at https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. Interreg Danube (2024): ForestConnect \| Homepage. Available online at https://interreg-danube.eu/projects/forestconnect, updated on 5/24/2024, checked on 5/24/2024. UNESCO World Heritage (2024): Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe. Available online at https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. World Natural Heritage Beech Forests (2024): UNESCO World Heritage Beech Forests. Available online at https://www.weltnaturerbe-buchenwaelder.at/unesco-world-heritage-beech-forests/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe: The designation of the ancient beech forests as UNESCO World Heritage Sites not only underscores their outstanding significance as natural heritage but also their unique role as living archives, providing deep insights into the evolution of beech trees. These forests not only serve as outstanding examples of terrestrial ecosystem recolonization since the last Ice Age but also as significant evidence of nature's adaptability and resilience to environmental changes. Green Belt Initiative: The European Green Belt, a historic symbol of the Iron Curtain, spans 24 countries and 12,500 kilometers, offering vital biodiversity and serving as a cornerstone of Europe's green infrastructure. The initiative seeks to balance human activities with nature, promoting local development while preserving ecological harmony. Forest Connect: ForestConnect, part of the transnational Interreg Danube programme, is dedicated to the protection of ecological corridors for large carnivores in the Carpathians, the Balkans and the Dinarides. The programme operates in key areas and addresses the challenges of sustainability and climate change. The main objective is to create resilient forest corridors for large carnivores by promoting co-operation between stakeholders, developing monitoring tools and improving forest connectivity. Outcomes include shared monitoring resources, conservation guidelines and strategies for climate-resilient forest management. Using a collaborative approach, the project engages different stakeholders to ensure sustainability and knowledge transfer after the project to strengthen biodiversity conservation in the Danube region.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.825525	06/19/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116982/overview", "title": "Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity", "author": "Elisabeth Wiegele" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102310/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I have learned about the variety of tools that are available for reducing textbook costs and creating more tailored materials. OER is one piece of that and I feel more confident about the entire OEAR (Open Educational and Affordable Resources) landscape. My Audience: My OER item is designed for administrators who can benefit from an OER process document that is closely tied to instructional design best practices. My Team: This would be helpful for deans, librarians, etc. It starts with needs analysis, which is ALWAYS the correct starting point and considers the possibility that building an OER from scratch is not always the best solution to the defined problem that is being solved. As I always say, OERs are great, but they are not the only answer. Existing Resources: New Resources: Supports Needed: Our Timeline: OER Item - ADDIE Backwards Designed Checklist for OER Adoption/Adaption/Builds ADDIE Backwards-Designed Checklist for OERs Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate Step One: Analysis – Does OER Meet Course Needs? \| \|\| \| 1A. Discuss your OER Project with your Division Dean, Department Chair and peers to determine whether your OER ideas and plans fit into program and department level-needs. What problem are you trying to solve? \| \| \| 1B. Determine If Course Needs are being/can be met with other options. OERs can be complex and time-consuming. Sometimes they are not the best answer and are often confused with other types of low-cost materials. \| \| \| Affordable Course Content (ACC) No > Consider using Library-Licensed Materials. \| \| Library Licensed Materials (LLM) Yes > Work with Dean & Electronic Librarian to source, serve, & negotiate fees. No > Consider using Open Access Materials. \| \| \| Open Access Materials (OA) No > Consider adopting, remixing, and creating OER Materials in that order. \| \| Step Two: Backwards Design Plan – Are Objectives & Assessments Adequate? \| \|\| \| 2A. Verify Course Objectives and Learning Outcomes are current, approved and acceptable to you. You must locate/develop OERs based on them. Yes > Proceed to Course Assessments Not Sure > Consult with FSC Curriculum Development Manager No > Discuss concerns with division dean / department chair / peer instructors and rework them within Cochise College course change policies. \| \| \| 2B. Revisit Course Assessments to make sure they align clearly with course learning objectives and outcomes and to be sure you are confident they tell you everything you need to know about student achievement. Yes > Proceed to Skills to Materials Mapping Not Sure > Consult with FSC Instructional Designer No > Discuss concerns with division dean / department chair / peer instructors and develop a plan to rewrite/add major assessments. \| \| \| 2C. Map Skills to Materials Needs by determining knowledge & skills learners need to perform successfully on assessments and identifying existing materials gaps, inadequacies, replacement needs, additions and eliminations. Use resulting list to search for OER materials to adopt, adapt/remix and develop materials, open source textbooks and/or OER courses in that order. \| \| Step Three: Develop - Find / Modify / Create OERs \| \|\| \| 3A. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create OER Course Materials by searching vetted OER materials databases for content that you can effectively use or modify. \| \| \| Are There Existing OER Course Materials to Adopt? \| \| Are There Existing OER Course Materials That Can Be Adapted/Remixed? No > Consider creating new materials under Creative Commons license. \| \| \| If OER Course Materials need to be developed… \| \| \| \| 3B. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create Open Source Textbooks by searching vetted Open Textbook databases. \| \| \| Are There Existing Open Source Textbooks to Adopt? No > Consider adapting/remixing elements of OER open source textbooks. \| \| Are There Existing Open Source Textbooks You Can Adapt/Remix? No > Consider creating a new OER open source textbook. \| \| \| If an Open Source Textbook needs to be developed… \| \| \| All adopted, adapted/remixed and developed open source textbooks must clearly align with existing approved course outcomes. If the selected OER will significantly alter your course, discuss this with the Faculty Support Center Curriculum Development Manager. Such changes may necessitate you to go throughh the curriculum development process to insure the course is compliant and transferrable. \| \|\| \| \|\| \| 3C. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create an OER Course beginning with Curriculum Scope & Sequence Mapping from learning objectives and assessments with an eye to program articulation, logical progression, transitions, progressive information spiraling, etc. Before OER course development, make sure you fully clear on how it fits into, drives, and/or support the curriculum? \| \| \| Is there an existing OER course that meets curricular and accreditation needs? \| \| Is/Are there existing OER course(s) close to what you need that could be reworked or combined for your purposes? Is it/Are they licensed under a Creative Commons that allows remixing and redistribution? No > Consider creating a new OER course. \| \| \| If an OER course needs to be developed… \| \| Step Four: Implement – Review, License, Store, & Distribute OERs \| \|\| \| 4A. Conduct Subject Matter Expert Review to vet chosen, modified, and created materials/textbooks/courses. Have your materials been adequately vetted using external and/or internal reviewers? No > Discuss with Division Dean and/or department chair. Instructional Designer can assist with resources and/or performing/assisting with logistics. \| \| \| 4B. Ensure Copyright & Licensing Compliance by making sure all adopted, adapted/remixed and created materials are stored, accessed, and distributed according to appropriate copyright licensing conventions. All OERs in use at Cochise College need to have an Excel sheet on file in the College’s OER Database (we need to develop this) listing materials used, source locations, and creative commons licensing conventions. \| \| \| All Adopted Materials released for use AND redistribution under Public Domain, Fair Use, and/or Creative Commons licensing? \| \| All Adapted/Remixed Materials based on original materials that allow for adaptation, remixing, AND redistribution as part of their licensing conventions? (Make sure materials from different creative commons licensing categories are not mixed together if any of their licensing conventions prohibit remixing.) \| \| \| All Developed Materials have a correctly worded Creative Commons license that allows for free use, remixing and redistribution? In the case of materials paid for by Cochise College, do the materials contain a Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY Cochise College as per Policy 3015? In the case of grant-funded materials, does the Creative Commons license assigned to the materials fall within those guidelines and no conflict present? \| \| \| \| 4C. Assign Content Hosting and Distribution to make materials accessible according to licensing. True OERS (print or electronic media) can be hosted anywhere and distributed to anybody with proper attribution as per CC license. No > Discuss with Electronic Librarian and/or Instructional Designer. The Library can assist with access to web-based materials, databases, multi-media, etc. The Faculty Support Center Moodle team can also provide dedicated shells for materials as long licensing requirements are met. \| Step Five: Evaluate - Perform Ongoing Quality Assurance & Revision \| \|\| \| 5A. Plan for Quality Assurance & Revision by determining timeline for OER review and revision based on norms of your discipline and a procedure for suggesting and adopting changes at least every five years. No > Discuss with Faculty Support Center instructional designer for quality control models and/or assistance building your own. \| \| Author: Wendy Ashby, Ph.D. Date: December 8, 2022 I hereby release these materials under Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution International license. You are free to: Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially. Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Reflection I have not really been able to use it. As with most course and materials builds, ADDIE as an actual best practice standard is a hard sell. Everybody just wants to jump in making materials. It is almost impossible to get people to sit back, think about the needs analysis, think about the evaluation tools, map objectives, analyze existing materials to identify needed edits, source approaprate materials to fill gaps, etc. Everybody wants to be a poet/artist/author. Absent any intention on the part of my institution to require an Instructional Designer consult - let alone listening to one - we continue to have "look at me - I'm a creator" instead of "look at the student - I am a curator".	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.897706	03/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102310/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Wendy Ashby" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102316/overview	AI, Smart Education and the Edu-Metaverse Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? This OER thing is way more manageable and understandable than I thought. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I haven't been able to find any AI or metaverse materials, so I am providing some resources My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? ChatGPT is my friend in the creation of this particular materials I am creating. I ask the questions and it spits back the answers. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. While there are no OER resources in the commons for this, there is plenty out there on the WWW. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? I have generated some AI iimages for this as well. I am not sure all I will need, but I plan to use AI to help me make this whole thing. What new AI will be developed. And when can I get into the meta-verse. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? ChatGPT has its intricacies. Learning how to ask the right questions in the right way to evoke the response that one is looking for is a task and somehting to learn. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? This work will be an ever changing item. It will always have a moving timeline target. OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. This is a link to the OER resource in build. It is published and subject to constant flux. Exploring the Possibilities of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.915339	03/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102316/overview", "title": "AI, Smart Education and the Edu-Metaverse", "author": "Robyn Bryce" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101039/overview	The Lactose Operon: Mutant analysis worksheet Overview This is a worksheet (with sample answers for instructors) that was developed to help learners get a better understanding of the nuances related to the regulation of the Lac operon, and to provide them with opportunities to practice analytical thinking. We have used it for years in the biology component of a first year university science course (for science majors). Worksheet for learners A set of sample answers for instructors are available (below), as well as a slide with a simplified diagram of the Lac operon. This worksheet was developed to help students get a better understanding of the nuances related to the regulation of the Lac operon, and to provide them with opportunities to practice analytical thinking. We have used it for years in the biology component of a first year university science course (for science majors).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.932998	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101039/overview", "title": "The Lactose Operon: Mutant analysis worksheet", "author": "Data Set" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18504/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.956704	11/08/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18504/overview", "title": "Innovative Types of Arabic Inscriptions", "author": "Heba AbdelNaby" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105198/overview	Product Based Assessment Overview Product Based Assessment Product Based Assessment By: Girlly Oyangoren	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:44.973331	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105198/overview", "title": "Product Based Assessment", "author": "Girlly Oyangoren" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26340/overview	Political Parties Overview Political Parties Introduction Introduction At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals. This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, studens will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas Political Parties As Unique Organizations Political Parties As Unique Organizations In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. The Party-In-The-Electorate The Party-In-The-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties.[16] Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other.[17] Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million.[18] While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the all-important general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.”[19] Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012.[20] People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country.[21] National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half.[22] National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have become increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004.[23] With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours.[24] One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence.[25] The Party-In-Government The Party-In-Government THE PARTY-IN-GOVERNMENT One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate,because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures.[26] Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an officeholder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it.[27] A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas The 19th-century culture of Texas was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South, dependent on African-American slave labor, as well as the patron system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government’s primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party From 1848 until Richard M. Nixon’s victory in 1972, Texas voted for the Democrat candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. A full century of Democratic Governors stretched between the departure of Republican Governor E.J. Davis (1874) and the election of Republican William P. Clements (1979). The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen’s Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League. His protégé Cuney was a mulatto whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in the Union League and the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in the South during the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites by imposing the poll tax and white primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Republican Party became non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures’ disenfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature excluded them by passing a poll tax and the white primary. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. Although blacks made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics. Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the so-called “German counties” – the rural Texas Hill Country inhabited by German immigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates. Harry M. Wurzbach was elected from the 14th district from 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power. Republicans Rising Republicans Rising Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952 when Democrat Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands. He worked to help Texas native General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state. Eisenhower was generally highly respected due to his role as Commander of the Allies in World War II and was popular nationally, winning the election. Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding “country club suburbs” around Dallas and Houston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such as John Tower (who had shifted from the Democrat Party) and George H. W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported the civil rights movement and achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democrat leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. After passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, southern white Democrats began to leave the party and join the Republicans, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities’ constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower’s 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democrat presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican Dominance Republican Dominance Republicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. This makes Texas one of the most Republican states in the U.S. Despite overall Republican dominance, Austin, the state capital, is primarily Democrat, as are El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, and the Rio Grande Valley. However, the suburbs of these cities remain heavily Republican. What Does The Future Hold? What Does The Future Hold? The Hispanic population had continued to increase, based on both natural increase and continued immigration from Mexico. It accounted for 38.1% of the state’s population as of 2011 (compared to 44.8% for non-Hispanic whites). The state’s changing demographics may result in a change in its overall political alignment, as most Hispanic and Latino voters support the Democrat Party. Mark Yzaguirre questioned forecasts of Democrat dominance by highlighting Governor Rick Perry’s courting of 39% of Hispanics in his victory in the 2010 Texas Gubernatorial election. Analysts with Gallup suggest that low turnout among Texas Hispanics is all that enables continued Republican dominance. In addition to the descendants of the state’s former slave population, the African American population in Texas is also increasing due to the New Great Migration; the majority supporting the Democrat party. Notes Notes CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution - Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151. ↵ - Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press, 11. ↵ - James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80. ↵ - Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books. ↵ - R. R. Stenberg, “Jackson, Buchanan, and the “Corrupt Bargain” Calumny,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85. ↵ - 2009. “Democratic-Republican Party,” In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; “Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America,” http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016). ↵ - Virginia Historical Society. “Elections from 1789–1828.” http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidential-campaign-0 (March 11, 2016). ↵ - William G. Shade. 1983. “The Second Party System.” In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111. ↵ - Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3. ↵ - Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34. ↵ - Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton. ↵ - Calvin Jillson. 1994. “Patterns and Periodicity.” In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41. ↵ - Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12. ↵ - 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388. ↵ - “Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016). ↵ - “Party Affiliation,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Jeffrey L. Jones, “Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Russ Choma, “Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed,” 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Elizabeth Lehman, “Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues,” http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennials-more-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016). ↵ - “Voter Turnout,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Abdullah Halimah, “Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About,” 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016). ↵ - “Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates,” http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventions-candidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Timothy Zick, “Speech and Spatial Tactics,” Texas Law Review February (2006): 581. ↵ - Thomas E. Patterson, “Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?” http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Todd Leopold, “The Day America Met Barack Obama,” http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27. ↵ - Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, “What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016). ↵	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.014838	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26340/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Linkage Institutions, Political Parties", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26310/overview	Structure Of The Texas Court System Overview Structure Of The Texas Court System Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System The Texas court system is a bifurcated system, meaning there are two highest courts of appeals for criminal and civil cases. The table below depicts the structure of the Texas court system with some additional jurisdiction and court information. Note that Juvenile Courts preside in the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. [1] Structure of the Texas Court System CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Court Organization. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Trial Courts Trial Courts In trial courts: - Witnesses are heard; - Testimony is received; - Exhibits are offered into evidence; and - A verdict is rendered. The trial court structure in Texas has several different levels, each level handling different types of cases, with some overlap. The state trial court of general jurisdiction is known as the district court. The county-level courts consist of the constitutional county courts, statutory county courts, and statutory probate courts. In addition, there is at least one justice court located in each county, and there are municipal courts located in each incorporated city. Municipal Courts Municipal Courts Under its constitutional authority to create “such other courts as may be provided by law,” the Legislature has created municipal courts in each incorporated municipality in the state. In lieu of a municipal court created by the Legislature, municipalities may choose to establish municipal courts of record. The jurisdiction of municipal courts is provided in Chapters 29 and 30 of the Texas Government Code. Municipal courts have: - Original and exclusive jurisdiction over criminal violations of certain municipal ordinances and airport board rules, orders, or resolutions that do not exceed $2,000 in some instances and $500 in others; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in certain misdemeanor criminal cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. In addition to the jurisdiction of a regular municipal court, municipal courts of record also have jurisdiction over criminal cases arising under ordinances authorized by certain provisions of the Local Government Code. The municipality may also provide by ordinance that a municipal court of record have additional jurisdiction in certain civil and criminal matters. Municipal judges also serve in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the municipal judge may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. Trials in municipal courts are not generally “of record;” many appeals go to the county court, county court at law, or district court by a trial de novo. Appeals from municipal courts of record are generally heard in the county criminal courts, county criminal courts of appeal or municipal courts of appeal. If none of these courts exist in the county or municipality, appeals are to a county court at law. Justice Courts Justice Courts As amended in November 1983, the Texas Constitution provides that each county is to be divided, according to population, into at least one, and not more than eight, justice precincts, in each of which is to be elected one or more justices of the peace. Generally, the justice courts have: - Original jurisdiction in misdemeanor criminal cases where punishment upon conviction may be by fine only; - Exclusive jurisdiction over civil matters when the amount in controversy does not exceed $200; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts when the amount in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Exclusive jurisdiction over forcible entry and detainer (eviction) cases; - Concurrent jurisdiction over repair and remedy cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. Trials in justice courts are not “of record.” Appeals from these courts are by trial de novo in the constitutional county court, the county court at law, or the district court. The justice of the peace also serves in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the justice of the peace may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. In addition, the justice of the peace serves as the coroner in those counties where there is no provision for a medical examiner, serves as an ex officio notary public, and may perform marriage ceremonies for additional compensation. County-Level Courts County-Level Courts Constitutional County Courts The Texas Constitution provides for a county court in each of the 254 counties of the state, though all such courts do not exercise judicial functions. In populous counties, the “county judge” may devote his or her full attention to the administration of county government. Generally, the constitutional county courts have: - Concurrent jurisdiction with justice courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the district courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $5,000; - General jurisdiction over probate and guardianship cases; - Juvenile jurisdiction; and - Exclusive original jurisdiction over misdemeanors, other than those involving official misconduct, where punishment for the offense is by fine exceeding $500 or a jail sentence not to exceed one year. County courts generally have appellate jurisdiction (usually by trial de novo) over cases tried originally in the justice and municipal courts. Original and appellate judgments of the county courts may be appealed to the courts of appeals. In 36 counties, the county court, by special statute, has been given concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in all civil matters over which the justice courts have jurisdiction. In counties with a population of 1.75 million or more, the county court has jurisdiction over truancy cases. Statutory County Courts And Probate Courts Under its constitutional authorization to “...establish such other courts as it may deem necessary... [and to] conform the jurisdiction of the district and other inferior courts thereto,” the Legislature created the first statutory county court in 1907 to relieve the county judge of some or all of the judicial duties of office. Statutory County Courts include: - County courts at law - County civil courts at law - County criminal courts at law - County criminal courts - County criminal courts of appeal Section 25.003 of the Texas Government Code provides statutory county courts with jurisdiction over all causes and proceedings prescribed by law for constitutional county courts. In general, statutory county courts that exercise civil jurisdiction concurrent with the constitutional county court also have concurrent civil jurisdiction with the district courts in: 1) civil cases in which the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $200,000, and 2) appeals of final rulings and decisions of the Texas Workers’ Compensation Commission. However, the actual jurisdiction of each statutory county court varies considerably according to the statute under which it was created. A few statutory county courts even hear felony cases. In addition, some of these courts have been established to exercise subject-matter jurisdiction in only limited fields, such as civil, criminal, or appellate cases (from justice or municipal courts). In general, statutory probate courts have general jurisdiction provided to probate courts by the Texas Estates Code, as well as the jurisdiction provided by law for a county court to hear and determine cases and matters instituted under various sections and chapters of the Texas Health and Safety Code. District Courts District Courts District courts are the primary trial courts in Texas. The Constitution of the Republic provided for not less than three or more than eight district courts, each having a judge elected by a joint ballot of both houses of the Legislature for a term of four years. Most constitutions of the state continued the district courts but provided that the judges were to be elected by the qualified voters. (The exceptions were the Constitutions of 1845 and 1861 which provided for the appointment of judges by the Governor with confirmation by the Senate). All constitutions have provided that the judges of these courts must be chosen from defined districts (as opposed to statewide election). In many locations, the geographical jurisdiction of two or more district courts is overlapping. District courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution extends a district court’s potential jurisdiction to “all actions” but makes such jurisdiction relative by excluding any matters in which exclusive, appellate, or original jurisdiction is conferred by law upon some other court. For this reason, while one can speak of the “general” jurisdiction of a district court, the actual jurisdiction of any specific court will always be limited by the constitutional or statutory provisions that confer exclusive, original, or appellate jurisdiction on other courts serving the same county or counties. With this caveat, it can be said that district courts generally have the following jurisdiction: - Original jurisdiction in all criminal cases of the grade of felony and misdemeanors involving official misconduct; - Cases of divorce or other family law disputes; - Suits for title to land or enforcement of liens on land; - Contested elections; - Suits for slander or defamation; and - Suits on behalf of the State for penalties, forfeitures and escheat. Most district courts exercise criminal and civil jurisdiction, but in the metropolitan areas there is a tendency for the courts to specialize in civil, criminal, juvenile or family law matters. Thirteen district courts are designated “criminal district courts” but have general jurisdiction. A limited number of district courts also exercise the subject-matter jurisdiction normally exercised by county courts. The district courts also have jurisdiction in civil matters with a minimum monetary limit but no maximum limit. The amount of the lower limit has for many years been the subject of controversy, with differing opinions from the courts of appeal. House Bill 79 from the 82nd Legislature, 1st Called Session (2011), included a provision in Section 24.007(b) of the Government Code which was intended to resolve the dispute and to set the minimum jurisdiction of district courts at $500. However, there is still a potential conflict between Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution (which gives the district courts jurisdiction of all actions…except in cases where exclusive) and the amendment. Therefore, there are still differing opinions as to whether the minimum monetary jurisdiction of the district courts is $200.01 or $500. In counties having statutory county courts, the district courts generally have exclusive jurisdiction in civil cases where the amount in controversy is $200,000 or more, and concurrent jurisdiction with the statutory county courts in cases where the amount in controversy exceeds $500 but is less than $200,000. The district courts may also hear contested matters in probate and guardianship cases and have general supervisory control over commissioners courts. In addition, district courts have the power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, certiorari, sequestration, attachment, garnishment, and all writs necessary to enforce their jurisdiction. Appeals from judgments of the district courts are to the courts of appeals (except appeals of death sentences). A 1985 constitutional amendment established the Judicial Districts Board to reapportion Texas judicial districts, subject to legislative approval. The same amendment also allows for more than one judge per judicial district. Appellate Courts Appellate Courts The appellate courts of the Texas Judicial System are: - The Supreme Court, the highest state appellate court for civil and juvenile cases; - The Court of Criminal Appeals, the highest state appellate court for criminal cases; and - The courts of appeals, the intermediate appellate courts for civil and criminal appeals from the trial courts. Appellate courts do not try cases, have juries, or hear witnesses. Rather, they review actions and decisions of the lower courts on questions of law or allegations of procedural error. In carrying out this review, the appellate courts are usually restricted to the evidence and exhibits presented in the trial court. The Courts of Appeals The Courts of Appeals The first intermediate appellate court in Texas was created by the Constitution of 1876, which created a Court of Appeals with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in all civil cases originating in the county courts. In 1891, an amendment was added to the Constitution authorizing the Legislature to establish intermediate courts of civil appeals located at various places throughout the state. The purpose of this amendment was to preclude the large quantity of civil litigation from further congesting the docket of the Supreme Court, while providing for a more convenient and less expensive system of intermediate appellate courts for civil cases. In 1980, a constitutional amendment extended the appellate jurisdiction of the courts of civil appeals to include criminal cases and changed the name of the courts to the “courts of appeals.” Each court of appeals has jurisdiction over appeals from the trial courts located in its respective district. The appeals heard in these courts are based upon the “record” (a written transcription of the testimony given, exhibits introduced, and the documents filed in the trial court) and the written and oral arguments of the appellate lawyers. The courts of appeals do not receive testimony or hear witnesses in considering the cases on appeal, but they may hear oral argument on the issues under consideration. The Legislature has divided the state into 14 court of appeals districts and has established a court of appeals in each. One court of appeals is currently located in each of the following cities: - Amarillo - Austin - Beaumont - Corpus Christi/Edinburg - Dallas - Eastland - El Paso - Fort Worth - San Antonio - Texarkana - Tyler - Waco - Houston (2) Each of the courts of appeals has at least three justices—a chief justice and two associate justices. While 80 justices currently serve on the courts of appeals, the Legislature is empowered to increase this number whenever the workload of an individual court requires additional justices. The Supreme Court The Supreme Court In most civil and juvenile cases, the Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Texas was first established in 1836 by the Constitution of the Republic of Texas, which vested the judicial power of the Republic in “...one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as the Congress may establish.” This court was re-established by each successive constitution adopted throughout the course of Texas history and currently consists of one chief justice and eight justices. The Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction in most civil and juvenile cases. Its caseload is directly affected by the structure and jurisdiction of Texas’ appellate court system, as the courts of appeals handle most of the state’s criminal and civil appeals from the district and county-level courts, and the Court of Criminal Appeals handles all criminal appeals beyond the intermediate courts of appeals. The Supreme Court’s caseload can be broken down into three broad categories: - Determining whether to grant review of the final judgment of a court of appeals (i.e., to grant or not grant a petition for review); - Disposition of regular causes (i.e., granted petitions for review, accepted petitions for writs of mandamus or habeas corpus, certified questions, accepted parental notification appeals, and direct appeals); and - Disposition of numerous motions related to petitions and regular causes. Much of the Supreme Court’s time is spent determining which petitions for review will be granted, as it must consider all petitions for review that are filed. However, the Court exercises some control over its caseload in deciding which petitions will be granted. The Court usually takes only those cases that present the most significant Texas legal issues in need of clarification. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to answer questions of state law certified from a federal appellate court; has original jurisdiction to issue writs and to conduct proceedings for the involuntary retirement or removal of judges; and reviews cases involving attorney discipline upon appeal from the Board of Disciplinary Appeals of the State Bar of Texas. In addition, the Court: - Promulgates all rules of civil trial practice and procedure, evidence, and appellate procedure; - Promulgates rules of administration to provide for the efficient administration of justice in the state; - Monitors the caseloads of the courts of appeals and orders the transfer of cases between the courts in order to make the workloads more equal; and - With the assistance of the Texas Equal Access to Justice Foundation, administers funds for the Basic Civil Legal Services Program, which provides basic civil legal services to the indigent. The Court of Criminal Appeals The Court of Criminal Appeals To relieve the Supreme Court of some of its caseload, the Constitution of 1876 created the Court of Appeals, composed of three elected judges, with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in those civil cases tried by the county courts. In 1891, a constitutional amendment: - Changed the name of this court to the Court of Criminal Appeals; - Limited its jurisdiction to appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases only; and - Increased the number of judges to nine: one presiding judge and eight associate judges. The Court of Criminal Appeals is the highest state court for criminal appeals. Its caseload consists of both mandatory and discretionary matters. All cases that result in the death penalty are automatically directed to the Court of Criminal Appeals from the trial court level. A significant portion of the Court’s workload also involves the mandatory review of applications for post-conviction habeas corpus relief in felony cases without a death penalty, over which the Court has sole authority. In addition, decisions made by the intermediate courts of appeals in criminal cases may be appealed to the Court of Criminal Appeals by petition for discretionary review, which may be filed by the State, the defendant, or both. However, the Court may also review a decision on its own motion. In conjunction with the Supreme Court of Texas, the Court of Criminal Appeals promulgates rules of appellate procedure and rules of evidence for criminal cases. The Court of Criminal Appeals also administers public funds that are appropriated for the education of judges, prosecuting attorneys, criminal defense attorneys who regularly represent indigent defendants, clerks and other personnel of the state’s appellate, district, county-level, justice, and municipal courts.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.052794	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26310/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Structure Of The Texas Court System", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26312/overview	Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Overview Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Texas’ Criminal Justice Process The Texas court systems have two conflicting goals: they must protect the people and the accused. Therefore the state of Texas must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters- this is known as due process. The steps in the Texas criminal justice process are: 1. Arrest, 2. Indictment, 3. Plea bargaining, 4. Trial, and 5. Post-trial. - Arrest. One aspect pertinent to arrest are the Miranda Rights. Miranda Rights derived from the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona (1966). During the Miranda case the question was whether or not procedures must be utilized by law enforcement officials to ensure that an individual’s 5th Amendment Self-incrimination rights are not violated. The United States Supreme Court ruled that a person must be made aware of their rights prior to being questioned. [1] Once an arrest is made, the defendant is arraigned and bond is set. Arraignment is when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. After this the defendant may receive bail, although bail is not guaranteed (Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 11 & 11a-b). - Indictment. If the charge is a felony, than an indictment must occur for the process to continue. A grand jury is in charge of determining whether there is enough evidence to move forward with the charge- 9 out of 12 grand jury members must agree that the process can move forward. If this occurs it is knows as a “true bill” (indictment), if not it is known as a “No bill.” - Plea bargaining. Due to the fact that there are overcrowded dockets, plea bargaining is the most common method for resolving criminal cases in Texas. Plea bargaining is when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial- the concept is that this saves time and money. - Trial. If the case reaches trial, the defendant may choose to have a trial by jury (guaranteed by the Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 15); or waive that right and choose trial by a presiding judge. Texas utilizes an adversary system, which means the two sides will attempt to convince the jury or judge why they are correct. - Post Trial. Post trial is the final step where the defendant, if found guilty, will receive a form of rehabilitation or punishment. Some examples of rehabilitation or punishment are prison time, probation, parole, house arrest, and fines. - http://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-miranda-v-arizona ↵ CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Texas Criminal Justice Process. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.070917	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26312/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Texas’ Criminal Justice Process", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview	Elections Overview Elections Introduction Introduction The Texas Secretary of State serves as Chief Election Officer for Texas, assisting county election officials and ensuring the uniform application and interpretation of election laws throughout Texas. This section explore Texas' elections. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses four types of elections: - Primary Elections - Runoff Elections - General Elections - Special Elections Primary Elections A primary election is an election used either to narrow the field of candidates for a given elective office or to determine the nominees for political parties in advance of a general election. State law, not federal, regulates most aspects of primary (as well as general) elections, and local election officials (county, city, and township) are predominantly responsible for administering them. Runoff Elections A runoff election is held when no candidate gets 50 percent plus one vote in the primary election. Primary elections often have multiple candidates vying to represent a party in the general election and it’s not uncommon that a single candidate fails to win 50 percent plus one vote. In such a case there is a runoff election between the top two vote-getters. General Elections General elections are elections held at any level (e.g. city, county, congressional district, state) that involve competition between at least two parties. General elections determine the final winner–the candidate to take office. The candidate obtaining the most votes (even if not necessarily a majority of votes) wins. Special Elections Special elections are used for constitutional amendments or to fill elected offices that have become vacant between general elections. In most cases, these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office. Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature. Types of Primaries Types of Primaries Among the fifty states, there are several different types of primary elections: - Closed primary. People may vote in a party’s primary only if they are registered members of that party prior to election day. Independents cannot participate. Note that because some political parties name themselves independent, the terms “non-partisan” or “unaffiliated” often replace “independent” when referring to those who are not affiliated with a political party. Eleven states – Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, District of Columbia, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming – have closed primaries. - Semi-closed. As in closed primaries, registered party members can vote only in their own party’s primary. Semi-closed systems, however, allow unaffiliated voters to participate as well. Depending on the state, independents either make their choice of party primary privately, inside the voting booth or publicly, by registering with any party on Election Day. Thirteen states – Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and West Virginia – have semi-closed primaries that allow voters to register or change party preference on election day. - Open primary. A registered voter may vote in any party primary regardless of his or her own party affiliation. Eleven states – Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Vermont, and Wisconsin – have open primaries. When voters do not register with a party before the primary, it is called a pick-a-party primary because the voter can select which party’s primary he or she wishes to vote in on election day. Because of the open nature of this system, a practice known as raiding may occur. Raiding consists of voters of one party crossing over and voting in the primary of another party, effectively allowing a party to help choose its opposition’s candidate. The theory is that opposing party members vote for the weakest candidate of the opposite party in order to give their own party the advantage in the general election. - Semi-open. A registered voter need not publicly declare which political party’s primary that they will vote in before entering the voting booth. When voters identify themselves to the election officials, they must request a party’s specific ballot. Only one ballot is cast by each voter. In many states with semi-open primaries, election officials or poll workers from their respective parties record each voter’s choice of party and provide access to this information. The primary difference between a semi-open and open primary system is the use of a party-specific ballot. In a semi-open primary, a public declaration in front of the election judges is made and a party-specific ballot given to the voter to cast. Certain states that use the open-primary format may print a single ballot and the voter must choose on the ballot itself which political party’s candidates they will select for a contested office. - Blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party. - Nonpartisan blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, where the top two candidates advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. Louisiana has famously operated under this system, which has been nicknamed the “jungle primary.” California has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2012 after passing Proposition 14 in 2010, and the state of Washington has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2008. Classifying Texas' Primaries Classifying Texas' Primaries Texas’ primaries are difficult to classify–they are somewhere between open and semi-open. Voters in Texas don’t register under a party label and may choose to vote in either party’s primary (but not both). Voters who cast ballots in one of the major party primary elections may only vote in the runoff election for the same party in which they cast their primary ballot. Voters who did not cast a ballot in primary elections are free to choose either party’s runoff ballot, but may only vote in one party’s runoff election. Notes Notes Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.091884	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting, Elections", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113300/overview	Rise of the Soviet Union Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 2 A discussion of the beginning of the Soviet Union including Joseph Stalin, a brutal dictator who pursued rapid industrialization, military expansion, and the suppression of dissent through the Great Purge. Hitler’s lebensraum plans brought him into conflict with the Soviet Union. In October 1917, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin’s Bolshevik forces overthrew the government of Czar Nicholas II. Executing the Czar and his family, the revolutionaries announced the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the first Communist state in the world. As secretary general of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Lenin signed a humiliating peace treaty, surrendered territory to Germany, and fought off challenges from Russian military forces still loyal to the old Czarist regime. He also nationalized all aspects of Russia’s economy and began plans to industrialize the nation. In 1924, Lenin suffered a series of strokes and died in office. Joseph Stalin (1870-1953), a Georgian native who had trained to become a priest before becoming a full-time communist revolutionary, became the new leader of the USSR. A bold visionary and brutal dictator, Stalin announced the creation of Russia’s first five- year plan by which industry would be pursued at all costs and private farms would be collectivized. Stalin rapidly increased the size of the Soviet military and instituted a secret police force known as the NKVD to crack down on dissenters. During the Great Purge, which lasted from 1936-1938, Stalin’s agents targeted millions of intellectuals, writers, religious leaders, ethnic minorities and other “enemies of the state.”	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.106325	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113300/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, Rise of the Soviet Union", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113304/overview	Battle in the East and America Enters the War Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 6 A discussion of the Battle in the East covers Hitler's invasion of Russia and the United States' response, including the Lend-Lease Act. Also details about Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, which led to America's entry into the war Battle In The East After knocking France out of the war and having failed to conquer Britain, Hitler turned to his plans for creating lebensraum, or “living room,” for German settlers in Eastern Europe. Viewing the Soviet Union as the primary block to his plans, Hitler ordered an invasion of Russia on June 22, 1941. Dubbed Operation Barbarossa, the charge saw three million Axis soldiers launching attacks toward Leningrad, Moscow and Ukraine. Taken by surprise, inexperienced Russian troops initially retreated before the German blitzkrieg. Minsk, Smolensk and Kyiv quickly fell to German forces. Long tired of Russian domination, some Ukrainians initially welcomed the Germans as liberators. Worried about these developments, the United States, which had remained neutral to this point, began taking steps to support the British and Chinese war efforts. Although limited by Neutrality Acts which sought to maintain American neutrality, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) secured passage of the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941, which allowed the President to exchange or lease military items, food, fuel, or any item deemed necessary for the defense and security of the United States to its allies.” Spotlight On \| THE ATLANTIC CHARTER OF FREEDOM In August, Roosevelt met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill aboard the HMS Prince of Wales off the coast of the Dominion of Newfoundland, to issue the Atlantic Charter of Freedom. Although not a formal treaty, the charter represented a statement of common goals both nations pledged to work toward. The charter consisted of eight points, including a pledge to seek no territorial expansion, no territorial changes except those freely agreed upon, the right of all people to choose the government under which they lived, free trade, labor and economic rights, freedom from fear and want, freedom of the seas, and the creation of a system of worldwide general security. America Enters the War While strengthening its ties to Britain, America also took steps to contain Japanese expansionism. In July 1940, the U.S. banned all oil exports to Japan. The following year Congress ordered American banks to freeze all Japanese accounts. In September 1941, U.S. officials stopped all iron and steel sales designed to aid the Japanese war industry. American and Japanese diplomats spent much of 1941 unsuccessfully negotiating a compromise. But when the U.S. repeatedly demanded that Japan remove its forces from China, the Japanese imperial government, under the control of Prime Minister Hideki Togo (1884-1948), decided upon a preemptive strike. In late November 1941, a Japanese fleet of six aircraft carriers, two battleships, six destroyers, 28 submarines and a variety of supporting craft under the command of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (1884- 1943) began to steam toward the Hawaiian Islands. On December 7, 1941, Yamamoto ordered his troops to attack the American Pacific fleet stationed at a large naval base known as Pearl Harbor. Attacking at dawn, Japanese Aichi and Nakajima dive bombers sank four American battleships and damaged four others. By day’s end, over 2,300 American servicemen had been killed. The following day U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 7 “a day that would live in infamy” and asked Congress to declare war against Japan. Germany responded by declaring war on the United States. America had now entered the fray.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.122480	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113304/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, Battle in the East and America Enters the War", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113224/overview	Social and Political Consequences of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 6, Lesson 4 A discussion of the Enlightenment and its impact on political and social thought, including the American and French Revolutions. The text also explores the Enlightenment's influence on the abolitionist movement and women's rights. Includes excerpts from Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary, Part 4: Law (Civil and Ecclesiastical). The intellectual resources unleashed by the Scientific Revolution brought a similar transformation in social and political beliefs. For centuries, Western theologians and scholars had taught that human nature, mired in original sin, needed strong governments and laws to keep it in check. God ordained feudal hierarchies by determining what social classes humans were born into. Individuals should not seek to change the natural social order and instead concentrate on leading virtuous lives to gain salvation after death. The Crusades, Renaissance, Columbian Exchange and Scientific Revolution challenged early modern beliefs. In the 1600s, Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler argued that the universe operated by specific, predictable laws. A century later, John Locke, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), François-Marie d’Arouet (Voltaire) and Jean Jacques Rousseau similarly insisted that human beings were created with an innate ability to reason and use education and science to improve society by overcoming the ignorance and superstition of past centuries. John Locke’s arguments that humans possessed natural rights to life, liberty and property, and constructed governments to protect such rights, proved a tremendous inspiration to America’s founding generation. Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (1748) postulated that mixed governments, which provided political representation to different social classes and divided power between different branches, represented more efficient regimes than traditional monarchies. In contrast, the French philosopher Voltaire argued that although humans had natural rights and rationality, most were incapable of governing themselves. The best form of government was, therefore, one run by a benevolent despot. Voltaire also wrote extensively about the separation of church and state, particularly in his "Philisophical Dictionary". Perhaps the most expansive thinker of the Enlightenment, Rousseau argued that governments derived legitimacy not from divine right or tradition but the consent of the governed. When humans agreed to live together in organized communities, they created a social contract. Rulers whose dictates went against what the majority in a society wished could therefore be overthrown and replaced by a government more responsive to the needs of the people. Enlightenment ideas quickly spread throughout the salons, university classrooms, pulpits and town squares of Europe. The theories of Locke, Montesquieu and Rousseau helped inspire the generation of American revolutionaries such as Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), who authored the Declaration of Independence, and James Madison (1751-1836) and Alexander Hamilton (1755 or 1757-1804), who contributed to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. Enlightenment ideas also played a role in the outbreak of the Haitian and French Revolutions. Ironically, although an absolute despot, Napoleon (1769-1821) helped to spread the Enlightenment-inspired ideals of fraternity, equality and liberty throughout his conquest of large swaths of western and eastern Europe. Spotlight On \| THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE By the convening of the Second Continental Congress in May 1775, hostilities had already commenced between Patriot and British forces. On June 11, 1776, Congress created a committee of five including John Adams (1735-1826), Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston (1746-1813) and Roger Sherman (1721-1793) to draft a formal declaration of independence. As one of the younger and most erudite member of the committee, Jefferson authored the initial document. Drawing from the Enlightenment thought of John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau, Jefferson argued that all people had natural rights, that the purpose of government was to protect these rights, and that governments that usurped the rights of their citizens could be legitimately overthrown. The document then went on to blame British King George III and his government for restricting trade stationing British troops in American cities, suspending elected colonial governments, declaring martial law, supporting the Atlantic slave trade, and setting Native Americans against colonial settlers. Adopted by delegates from all thirteen colonies, the Declaration of Independence was read aloud from pulpits and in town squares across the newly created United States. Enlightenment ideals also helped to create more progressive, egalitarian societies throughout Europe and the Americas. Many Enlightenment thinkers like Thomas Paine (1737-1809) and Thomas Jefferson became deists. Although they believed that God had created the universe and the natural laws that governed it, deists maintained that humans could use their reason to promote good in the world around them. Methodist theologians of the mid-1700s, like John Wesley (1703- 1791) and George Whitefield (1714-1770), began to urge their congregations to cultivate personal relationships with God and pursue virtuous lives through their efforts. New denominations like Baptists promoted adult baptism and that all people, regardless of social class, were equals in God’s eyes. The notions of natural rights inspired numerous movements including the right to vote, the rights of women, and groups opposed to slavery. In the 1780s, British abolitionists like William Wilberforce (1759-1833) invoked natural rights to argue against slavery within the British Empire and the international slave trade. His efforts culminated in the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in 1807 and slavery in the British Empire in 1833. Mary Wollstonecraft’s (1759- 1797) A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) asserted that women and men enjoyed natural rights. On a more general level, Enlightenment beliefs that humans could use rationality and education to improve society led to the growth of universities, lending libraries, affordable primary and secondary schools, museums, hospitals and asylums. Spotlight On \| MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT Born in 1759 to a wealthy farming family, Mary Wollstonecraft became a successful governess and social companion. Inspired by Enlightenment thought and frustrated by the lack of professional options for women in traditional British society, Wollstonecraft published her seminal work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Stricture on Political and Moral Subjects, in 1792. Throughout her work, Wollstonecraft argued that women played a vital role in the health of the nation and as the educators of young children, women should be allowed to pursue educations so as to be able to raise future generations of British subjects. Furthermore, wives should be treated as companions of husbands rather than merely spouses. Wollstonecraft’s daughter Mary Shelley (1797-1851) would become famous in her own right as the author of the novel Frankenstein. Generations of women’s rights advocates would cite A Vindication of the Rights of Woman as inspiration for their causes. Primary Source \| Enlightenment Ideals Excerpt from Voltaire (1764), “Philosophical Dictionary: Law (Civil and Ecclesiastical) ” No law made by the Church should ever have the least force unless expressly sanctioned by the government. It was owing to this precaution that Athens and Rome escaped all religious quarrels. Such religious quarrels are the trait of barbarous nations or such as have become barbarous. The civil magistrate alone may permit or prohibit labor on religious festivals, since it is not the function of the priest to forbid men to cultivate their fields. Everything relating to marriage should depend entirely upon the civil magistrate. The priests should confine themselves to the august function of blessing the union. Lending money at interest should be regulated entirely by the civil law, since trade is governed by civil law. All ecclesiastics should be subject in every case to the government, since they are subjects of the state. Never should the ridiculous and shameful custom be maintained of paying to a foreign priest the first year’s revenue of land given to a priest by his fellow-citizens. No priest can deprive a citizen of the least of his rights on the ground that the citizen is a sinner, since the priest—himself a sinner—should pray for other sinners, not judge them. Officials, laborers, and priests all alike pay the taxes of the state, since they all alike belong to the state. There should be but one standard of weights and measures and one system of law. Let the punishment of criminals be upheld. A man when hanged is good for nothing: a man condemned to hard labor continues to serve his country and furnish a living lesson. Every law should be clear, uniform, and precise. To interpret law is almost always to corrupt it. Nothing should be regarded as infamous except vice. The taxes should never be otherwise than proportional to the resources of him who pays. From The Philosophical Dictionary Part 4, Law (Civil and Ecclesiastical) https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/fleming-the-works-of-voltaire-vol-vi-philosophical-dictionary-part-4	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.143858	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113224/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Age of Reason - The Scientific Revolution, Enlightened Thought and its Impact, Social and Political Consequences of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113260/overview	World War I on the Eastern Front Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 12, Lesson 4 A discussion of World War I on the Eastern Front, focusing on the Russian army's struggles against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Despite early victories, Russia's lack of resources and military leadership led to devastating losses, setting the stage for their eventual withdrawal from the war. World War I on the Eastern Front adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA When Germany declared war on Russia, two main concerns erupted for them. Firstly, Germany recognized it would have to serve on a two-front, European war (a fact to be repeated in World War II). It would engage in combat against the French and British along the Western Front and Russia along the Eastern Front. Secondly, most of Europe regarded Russia as a country with countless resources, particularly in manpower. For this reason, Germany attempted to knock France out of the war before England could fully deploy its strength. Then Germany could turn its full strength toward defeating Russia. For its part, Russia sought to regain territory that had once belonged to it. In particular, they sought to reclaim parts of Eastern Prussia in Northern Germany. The Russians incorrectly believed that German forces proved less of a threat to them than those of Austria-Hungary, so they deployed massively insufficient troops to assault the German forces near Northern Prussia. Instead, most of their troops were sent further south to fight against the Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia—a territory in the present-day areas of eastern Poland and western Ukraine. Unlike the Western Front, which was iconic for its use of trench warfare, the Eastern Front was largely a war of mobility. This involved troops attacking one other’s borders and territory by launching large supply chains and armies. Logistics and Russia’s dramatic lack of resources account for the different style of warfare. While strong in its human resources, Russia remained a century behind the rest of Europe in terms of its technological and military developments. Because of the war on the Western Front, Germany was initially under-defended on their eastern borders. As a result, Russia experienced early, small success with their attacks. But by the third week of August, things would shift to favor Germany. The Battle of Tannenberg In late August 1914, the German High Command sent two officers, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, to take command of their forces in East Prussia. Making use of the superior German artillery and the element of surprise, the German army encircled the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg (present-day northeast Poland). Caught entirely by surprise, the battle resulted in the destruction of multiple Russian units with nearly 200,000 Russian casualties in less than a week. In comparison, the Germans lost only 12,000 men. The disparity in the battle casualties between Russia and Germany remained enormous for the next three years. Adding insult to the injury that the Russian army sustained at Tannenberg, the Austro-Hungarian army had achieved a strong victory against the Russians further south at the Battle of Lemberg (Lviv) in present-day Ukraine. By the end of August, the Central Powers had kicked Russia out of East Prussia and pushed the Eastern Front toward Russian territory. The fall of 1914 marked an ominous beginning for the Russian war effort and set in motion events that would bring down the mighty Russian empire. The Great Russian Retreat: 1915 In the spring of 1915, the better organized and equipped German Army came to the aid of the struggling Austro-Hungarian Army. Their arrival marked the beginning of the end for the Russian Army, despite the fact it would take more than three years before the Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed, officially ending Russia’s involvement in the war. From May to September 1915, the German and Austro-Hungarian Armies repeatedly attacked and advanced against the Russian Army. Suffering from disorganization and severe lack of supplies the Russians suffered enormous casualties, with Russian prisoners of war numbering in the hundreds of thousands. In August, the Germans captured the city of Warsaw—a city that had been under Russian control for a hundred years. By September, the Russian Army was pushed entirely out of Galicia (present-day Poland and Ukraine) and forced to retreat toward Russia. In their retreat, Russia lost access to grain-growing regions; villagers in the region succumbed to starvation and disease as the German Army occupied the lands. Worse news was yet to come for Russia. In September 1915, Tsar Nicholas II dismissed his senior military chiefs to lead and oversee the Russian Army himself from his headquarters at Stavka. This was a choice undertaken by Nicholas to inspire Russian troops to continue fighting. Moreover, it suited Nicholas’ personal fascination with the military. However, the tsar entirely lacked knowledge in military matters, and his decision to lead the army proved disastrous.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.162211	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113260/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World in Crisis, Conflict, and the Struggle for Independence - World War I, the Russian Revolution, and the Indian Independence Movement, World War I on the Eastern Front", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113241/overview	Nation Building and Reform in Africa 1700-1900 and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 9, Lesson 9 A discussion of the interactions between African kingdoms and European nations between 1700 and 1900, focusing on the Atlantic slave trade and the resulting economic and political changes in Africa; detailing the eventual decline of the slave trade and the transition to other forms of commerce, as well as the increasing European interest in colonizing the African continent. As Europeans became more interested in Africa, knowledge about the African continent and its people slowly spread to other parts of the world. Africans initially had minimal contact with Europeans, primarily in coastal areas. However, by the 1700s the Atlantic slave trade offered a new economic outlet opened for those African rulers and merchants who participated in the sale of human beings. The Atlantic trade had a significant economic and political impact on West and Central Africa, but other important developments were also occurring across the continent. Initially peripheral actors on the African continent, Europeans spread the commercial revolution along the Eastern and Western sides of the African continent. In the centuries leading up to the Atlantic age, the ancient empires Ghana, Mali and Songhay dominated West African history. Before the opening of the Atlantic trade, most polities in West Africa were economically oriented toward the trans-Saharan trading networks with links to the Middle East. It was initially the imports of American tobacco, peanuts, corn, cassava and new kinds of beans that helped drag West Africa into the commercial activities of the Atlantic world. Later, imports of firearms in exchange for enslaved people changed the political tapestry of West Africa and strengthened coastal regions. The Portuguese began the transatlantic slave trade in the 15th century, while the Dutch, English, French and Danish became substantially more involved in the 17th century. As sugar and tobacco plantations began to develop in the New World the demand for labor increased. Trading companies, such as the English Royal African Company (RAC), started to build their trading monopolies along the West African coast. Initially focused on the gold trade, the RAC would dominate the English slave trade until its abolishment in 1807. In the western part of Africa, after the fall of the Songhay empire in 1492, small and medium size kingdoms arose in the regions south of the Niger Bend and upstream along the Niger River. One of these kingdoms, the Mandingo kingdom of Segu, developed in the heartlands of the former Mali Empire. Its power rested on an army of enslaved people. North of Segu, in the Sahel region, the Soninke kingdom of Jaara dominated the area. In this part of West Africa, a mix of class and caste institutions controlled access to political authority and economic activities. To the east of the Niger Bend and north of the rainforest, the Mossi kingdoms, whose rulers used cavalry-based armies, started to arise in the 16th and 17th centuries. Juula merchants traded in the Mossi capital towns and connected the Mossi regions to the trans-Saharan and West African commercial networks. Further west in the Senegambia region, along the Gambia and Senegal Rivers, the Jolof state and the kingdom of Kaabu dominated the area politically and economically. Their leaders became increasingly involved with Portuguese and later Dutch and British merchants. In the 16th century, three states gained importance due to their strong ties to the Atlantic slave trade: Oyo, Asante, and Dahomey. Another important state in this region, the kingdom of Benin located in present-day Nigeria, although it participated in the slave trade it primarily focused on other forms of trade. During the 15th and 16th century, Benin experienced its most significant expansion. Such growth happened in the 15th century under the warrior kings Ewuare (c. 1440) and Ozolua (c. 1481) and in the 16th century under Esigie (1504), Orhogbua (c. 1550) and Ehengbuda (c. 1578-1608). The first contact with the Portuguese occurred in 1485, when Portuguese traders brought a cargo of guns and coconuts to Benin. Soon after, trade relationships were established between the king of Portugal and the Benin rulers, and commodities were exchanged. Over the ensuing decades ivory, cloth, pepper and other goods were exported to Benin in exchange for damask, silk, manillas and cowries. While encounters with Europeans influenced the external politics of the Benin kingdom, Benin kings primarily dealt with the Igala kingdom, located to the east of the Niger-Benue confluence in the interior, as an intermediary. Portuguese missionaries brought Christianity to the Benin kingdom, and Oba Esigie’s oldest son and various chiefs converted to Catholicism. Strengthened by their victory over the Igala kingdom and the diplomatic exchanges with the Portuguese, Benin’s imperialist leaders now directed their efforts toward the coast, spreading as far as Lagos and Badagry and waging war against villages and towns along the way. The 16th and early 17th centuries saw a period of relative stability and peace in the region. But a civil war broke out in the late 17th century. Conflicts over succession devastated the kingdom. Concerned over the sincerity of adoption and spread of Christianity, Pope Innocent XII (1615-1700) sent a Catholic mission to Benin to keep its rulers focused on spreading the faith. The mission determined that earlier efforts at Christianization had failed to take root as the churches had been converted to shrines and priests had returned to practicing African traditional religions. While the 18th century remained relatively uneventful, increasing European pressure during the 19th century eventually placed the Benin kingdom under British jurisdiction. In 1892, the British signed a treaty with the Oba of Benin that also allowed for the opening of the kingdom to British missionaries and merchants. The Oba ignored the treaty and continued as usual. Sent to Benin in 1897, acting General consul James R. Philipps (1863-1897) tried to persuade the ruler to obey the treaty. Believing that the British planned to invade them, Benin soldiers killed Philipps about 25 miles outside the capital. Consequently, a British punitive naval expedition arrived to establish British control. British troops occupied Benin City and looted houses, sacred sites, ceremonial buildings and the palaces of high-ranked chiefs and the Oba itself. The Oba and his eight wives fled into exile to Calabar while British officials hanged six chiefs in the Benin City marketplace. The looted artwork, which included a thousand metal plaques and sculptures known as the “Benin Bronzes,” was carried to Britain. This looting triggered one of the most significant controversies in modern time over stolen African art and its repatriation to Africa. In the rainforest west of the Niger River, the Oyo Empire rose to power dominating many of the Yoruba city-states who had tributary relationships to Oyo. The key to Oyo strength lay in its reliance on a strong cavalry consisting of horses supplied by their northern neighbors. The Oyo conducted many wars against other Yoruba city- states to gain prisoners of war which could be sold to merchants involved in the Atlantic slave trade. As the demand for slaves increased, the Oyo developed into a major slave trading empire trading enslaved people. Dahomey was another West African state heavily involved in the Atlantic trade. Founded around 1620, Dahomey was initially a small kingdom. By the 1700s, Dahomey exercised an increasing amount of control over the trade with Europeans while at the same time restricting their access to the interior. The Oyo attack of 1730 eventually made Dahomey a tributary to the Oyo Empire for about 80 years. While this changed regional power dynamics, the Kings of Dahomey continued to rule over smaller chiefdoms. In the Dahomey Army all female regiments, known as Amazons, fought alongside their male counterparts. West of Dahomey lay the Akan kingdoms which emerged in the early 17th century. In the early 18th century, political power shifted to the rising Asante kingdom. A confederation of small inland kingdoms governed from the capital city of Kumasi; Asante became an important commercial hub for West African trading networks. Under the stewardship of Osei Tutu (1680-1718) and his successor Opuko Ware (1718- 1748) the Asante Confederation was transformed into a powerful empire. Starting with Osei Tutu, all Asante rulers took the title of Asantehene and received religious legitimacy through the Golden Stool which was provided by priests during coronation ceremonies. The empire became known for producing gold and kola nuts, rivaling the cotton textile and indigo trade of the Hausa city-states northeast of Kumasi in the Sahel region of West Africa. The Ashanti kingdom became heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade selling prisoners of war down to the coast. It controlled territories to the north, such as the tributary Dagomba kingdom, and smaller Akan-speaking kingdoms to the south. One of the important imports both Dahomey and Asante made were European firearms which they acquired in exchange for slaves. By the 18th century both kingdoms could call upon about 10,000 soldiers armed with muskets while fielding armies upwards of 80,000 strong. In the Sahel regions around Lake Chad the powerful, centuries-old kingdom Sultanate of Kanem-Bornu gained increasing influence. This influence reached west to the Hausa kingdoms as well as south and north of Lake Chad. In the second half of the 16th century Mai Idris Aloma (1564–1596), started to import firearms from north Africa and established diplomatic contacts with the Ottoman Empire whose troops had penetrated the Kanem-Bornu empire. The Hausa states had profited from their vicinity to the trans-Saharan trade and the savanna trading networks. Hausa traders travelled as far south to the coasts as well to the Asante areas, trading slaves, kola nuts, gold and ivory. Bornu became a center of Islamic teaching from which Islam spread to the Hausa city states. In the early 19th century, the same region was shaken by military uprisings and Islamic Revolutions with the goal of reforming existing states that were ruled by nominal Muslims and dual practitioners of traditional African religions and Islam. These revolts were as much about Islamization and the establishment of a strict interpretation of Islam as they were about the quest for political domination and economic control. Some of the major ethnic groups involved in these reform movements were the Fulbe, who were mainly pastoralists but who had a more sedentary and learned elite. The best-known Islamic reform movements in West Africa were those in the 18th and early 19th century in the highlands of Futa Toro and Futa Jalon located in modern-day Guinea. In the regions of the Hausa states, holy wars in the name of Islam were performed under the leadership of Uthman dan Fodio (1754-1817), his family and followers. Born into a scholarly family, Uthman dan Fodio had become a famous Islamic preacher and scholar who advocated for a purist practice of Islam. The jihad or holy war was directed against the Hausa kings who, despite being Muslims, continued to practice traditional African religions. The jihad resulted in the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1804. An Islamic State based on Sharia Law, the economy of the Sokoto Caliphate was based on agriculture and to a great extent on slave plantations. This made the Caliphate one of the biggest slave states of the time, boasting more slaves than even the United States. As the Islamic state expanded many of the Hausa kings were either killed or fled into exile. The Sokoto Caliphate lasted about one hundred years until its final defeat to European powers in 1903. In 1807, the British Empire abolished its transatlantic, though slavery itself continued in the British colonies until 1834. The British Navy’s “Anti-Slavery Squadron” began to patrol the West African coast, capture ships with slaves on board, and resettle their human cargos in Sierra Leone. The United States also banned the import of slaves in 1808. The British used its military and economic might to encourage other European powers to sign anti-slave trade treaties. Afterwards, the slave trade rested primarily in the hands of illegal traders who developed tactics to smuggle slaves around British naval patrols. Domestic slavery was not abolished in Britain’s overseas colonies until 1834, in French colonies until 1848, in the United States until 1865, Cuba in 1886, and Brazil until 1888. More than 1.3 million Africans were still transported across the Atlantic between 1807-1888. Intellectual movements including the Enlightenment, the American War of Independence and the French Revolution had an impact on abolitionist thinkers and intellectuals. On the other hand, the demand for slaves in the New World had also started to decline in some regions. Modern machinery and overproduction made the importation of slaves in some of the sugar producing regions less profitable. In addition, Africans and people of African descent often rebelled against their masters making slave-based plantations less profitable and less productive. As Europeans slowly outlawed the slave trade and slavery, they transitioned to what became known as “legitimate commerce” in African products like groundnuts or palm oil which replaced the trade in slaves, as the African continent also became a destination for the import of cheap products from Europe. As public interest in the interior of Africa increased, more geographical and anthropological studies were performed by European explorers. In addition, European traders backed by their respective governments became interested in controlling the African continent and maximizing profits. Similarly, to West Africa, the western equatorial rainforest and the savannas to the south in what is today modern- day Angola became involved in the slave trade. As early as the 1500s, the Portuguese had started to circumvent the Kongo Empire in gaining control of the slave trade and had established Luanda as a major port city to which slaves captured in the interior were transported and then shipped across the Atlantic. In the 1600s, the Portuguese also established the coastal town of Benguela from which they secured slaves from the highland territories of the Ovimbundu kingdoms. In the 18th century, the merchants of the Ovimbundu kingdoms traveled as far as the Lunda kingdom but also to the areas of the upper Zambezi River to acquire goods and slaves. The early 19th century also saw turbulence in southern Africa. The Nguni of the southeast described these as mfecane, the “crashing,” and the Sotho-Tswana referred to them as difaqane, the “scattering.” The mfecane emerged as conflict erupted between the emerging northern Nguni kingdoms over access to natural resources. Famine caused by a drought that lasted from 1802 until 1804 and intensified warfare between 1816-1819 rattled the region. In 1819, a minor chief named Shaka (c.1787-1828) consolidated the various Zulu groups into a single kingdom. He then expanded his borders from Tugela and Pongola into the Drakensberg foothills and started to demand tribute payments from the people between the Tugela and Umzimkulu Rivers. By the mid-1820s, he controlled most of the area of modern day KwaZulu Natal in South Africa. Shaka developed a centralized government in which the king wielded absolute control. In the newly conquered regions, petty chiefs answered directly to Shaka. In 1828, Shaka was assassinated by his half-brother Dingane (c. 1795-1840) who made himself king. While it took Shaka ten years to establish the Zulu kingdom, his half-brother took less than a decade to lose it. In 1795, the British government seized control of South Africa from the Dutch East India Company. One of the consequences of the establishment of British settlements in the region was the annexation of Natal. Thousands of Dutch settlers known as Boers fled Natal for the Zulu dominated lowveld. The Boers killed 3,000 Zulus in several pitched battles before settling south of Tugela, creating the short-lived Republic of Natalia (1839-1843). Tied up by a civil war in which Chief Mpande (1848-1872) usurped his brother Dingane, the Zulu remained too divided to deal with the Boers. In 1879, British military invaded the Zulu kingdom, beginning the Anglo-Zulu war that resulted in a defeat of the Zulu people and the absorption of their area into the Colony of Natal which later became part of the Union of South Africa. SUMMARY The period of 1700-1900 provided momentous change for the world. Ground zero for the Enlightenment, Romanticism and the Industrial Revolution, Europe witnessed a series of revolutions that challenged the old feudal social order. While Britain and France tried to liberalize their political systems, Germany, Italy and Russia struggled to modernize and unify. Across the Atlantic, Spain, France and Britain established massive empires in the Americas. However, as they struggled to exterminate or incorporate indigenous peoples into their empires, they had to deal with increasingly rebellious colonists. Beginning with the American Revolution in the late 1700s, one by one the provinces of English, French and Spanish America threw off their colonial chains. Meanwhile, on the African continent, Central African kingdoms declined as West Africa became embroiled in the Atlantic slave trade. By the late 1800s, a Scramble for Africa left almost the entire continent in the hands of European occupiers. As the world approached the twentieth century, the unresolved issues of colonialism, imperialism and nationalism would set the stages for the outbreak of world war in 1914.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.185618	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113241/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Nation Building and Reform 1700-1900, Nation Building and Reform in Africa 1700-1900 and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113236/overview	German Unification Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 9, Lesson 4 A discussion of the unification of Germany during the 1800s, highlighting the role of Otto von Bismarck. Key events include the defeat of Denmark and Austria, the establishment of the North German Confederation, and the Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in the proclamation of the German Empire. In many ways, the process of German unification paralleled that of Italian unification. For centuries German-speaking people lived in a variety of separate kingdoms, duchies and empires. In 800, Emperor Charlemagne (747-814) unified them into a loose confederation known as the Holy Roman Empire. By the early 1800s, the Kingdom of Prussia had emerged as a powerful state in opposition to the Austrian Empire. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the different German states were combined into the German Confederation. During the revolutions of 1848, progressive German nationalists, intellectuals, and politicians elected a German National Assembly. However, this movement fell apart after only a few months in power. Many Germans remained divided over whether Germany should be unified with or without the Austrian Empire. Throughout the 1850s and 1860s, Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) led efforts to unify Germany under Prussian leadership. In 1862, he initially cooperated with Austria to oppose Denmark's annexation of Schleswig and Holstein. However, this alliance was short-lived, as Bismarck sought to exclude Austria from German affairs. After defeating Denmark, Prussia annexed the two territories. In 1866, Prussia provoked a war with Austria, defeating its rival in a swift campaign. This victory marked Austria's exclusion from German affairs and paved the way for Prussian dominance. While there was no formal treaty between Prussia and Italy, both states benefited from Austria's defeat. Prussia annexed several German states, including Hanover and Nassau, significantly increasing its territory and power. In 1867, Bismarck created the North German Confederation, which unified many German states under Prussia’s leadership. Worried about the growth of Prussia, Napoleon III demanded that Prussia return Luxembourg and parts of Saarland and Bavaria. Bismarck not only refused these demands but continued to block French ambitions. In response, France declared war on Germany. With virtually all German states except Austria supporting Prussia, German forces quickly defeated several French armies and occupied Paris. In January 1871, German officials and generals proclaimed Prussian King Wilhelm as Wilhelm I, Emperor of the German Empire (1797-1888)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.202133	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113236/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Nation Building and Reform 1700-1900, German Unification", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113227/overview	French Revolution Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 7, Lesson 2 A discussion of the causes of the French Revolution, the social structure of France, and the events that led to the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, detailing the impact of the French Revolution on France and Europe. The causes of the French Revolution lie primarily in the structure of French society. Since the medieval period, France, which at the eve of the Revolution had a population numbering around 27 million, had been divided into three unequal estates or classes, each with its own responsibilities and, for the first two estates, special privileges. The First Estate consisted of the clergy and numbered some 125,000 people. The Church controlled about one- tenth of the land in France. The clergy had special rights, exemptions, courts and status and were exempted from paying the main tax called the taille. The clergy were not a unified class, as those who tended to occupy the Church’s highest offices were often from or related to the nobility. At the same time, the parish priests were almost uniformly poorer and lacked the political and financial power of those tied to the nobility. The nobility formed the Second Estate. They comprised some 350,000 people who controlled about 30 percent of the land. Like the clergy, the aristocracy had certain rights, privileges and exemptions. They also held the highest positions within the state and military. They, too, were exempt from paying the taille. The Third Estate was comprised of nearly everyone else. Although they constituted the bulk of the population, they only controlled about 40 percent of the land. Like the clergy, they too were divided as some of their members were wealthy and educated while most, upward of 80 percent, were poor peasants. Peasants also had certain obligations to the nobility and had to pay for the rights to use certain infrastructure. At the top of this pyramid were the king and his family. Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) had centralized power at his palace in Versailles, and this meant that a strong and vibrant king was needed to keep the state functioning. Not only charged with protecting the nation, the current King Louis XVI (r. 1774-1792) had to be sensitive to economic issues, including inflation, wage deflation, unemployment, and how to service the growing national debt. Bad harvests, slowing production and food shortages had exacerbated these problems. Unable to fix these problems, Louis XVI had no real choice but to call for a meeting of the Estates-General, a parliament that had not met since 1614. Each Estate elected 300 members. In an attempt to demonstrate flexibility and win popular support, the king ruled that since it made up a vast majority of the population, the Third Estate could elect and send 600 members to the parliament. The Estates-General convened at the splendid palace of Versailles on May 5, 1789. Voting had traditionally occurred by estate. This meant that, effectively, the First and Second Estates could cancel out the vote of the Third Estate. Members of the Third Estate wondered why the King had allowed it to have double the number of members if the King did not expect voting by head. All knew that if voting proceeded by head, the agenda of the Third Estate would dominate as they could count on votes from sympathetic clergy members and nobles. When the First Estate refused to alter the voting by Estate, members of the Third Estate left the parliament, declared themselves the National Assembly, and began drafting their own constitution. Threatened by a concentration of troops and frustrated that government members sympathetic to the Third Estate had been dismissed, Parisians stormed the Bastille, a royal armory and prison. Known today as Bastille Day, July 14 is France’s national day of celebration. The storming of the Bastille signaled a change as members of the Third Estate rose up all over France to contest the government and the old regime. Soon much of France was in the hands of those who wanted change. Constitutional Monarchy As the National Assembly took charge, they began to abolish the old order, including the rights of landlords and the exemptions and privileges held by the clergy and the nobility. The National Assembly would adopt the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), which granted all men equal rights under the law. It protected free speech and stated that all government officers would be employed based on talent, not birth. Ironically, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen explicitly excluded women, slaves, and non-citizens. Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) argued that all citizens should be equal under the law and was inspired to write her own Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791). The National Assembly did not heed her demands, and in 1793 she was executed for her outspoken criticism of the revolutionary government. As the National Assembly began to reform France it had to deal with the size, power and popularity of the Church. The National Assembly decided to seize much of the Church’s land and put into the service of the state. Adopted in 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy made the Church a part of the state as clergy were now paid by the state and elected by the people. This put the National Assembly at odds with the Catholic Church, which still wielded tremendous influence in France. As faith in the King diminished, France became a constitutional monarchy with all legislative power vested in the National Assembly. Captured while trying to flee France in June 1791, the attempted flight caused the king to lose further support. Eventually, the king would be stripped of all his power and imprisoned. Angered at the treatment of Louis XVI, Austria and Prussia proclaimed their willingness to invade France to place Louis XVI back on the throne. This put pressure on the revolutionary government. In response to these threats, the National Assembly voted, in April 1792, to go to war. Radical Republic The war further radicalized the public, and in September 1792, a new assembly, known as the National Convention, officially proclaimed France a republic. Under the sway of more radical elements, including Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) and Georges Jacques Danton (1759-1794), the Convention tried and convicted the king of treason. Louis was executed on January 21, 1793. Later that year, his wife, Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), would also be executed. Their son and heir, the Dauphine (1785-1795), would die in prison. In 1793, France declared war on Britain, Spain and the Dutch Republic. While trying to keep foreign powers at bay, the National Convention struggled to suppress opposition at home, including counterrevolutionaries who supported the old order. Internally the Convention was divided between more moderate and radical groups. Known as sans-culotte (meaning without breeches) for they wore trousers instead of the knee breeches associated with the wealthy, on June 2, 1793, Parisian workers joined with the most radical elements (known as the Mountain) to enter the Convention and arrest 29 moderates. The most radical elements of the revolution now controlled the state. Faced by threats on all sides, Robespierre and his allies did all they could to gain control. Central to this was a new set of programs aimed at rooting out the old regime’s remaining vestiges, symbols, and traditions. For instance, the Convention banned female participation in politics, adopted the decimal system and created a calendar with a week lasting ten rather than seven days. To gain control over the economy, Robespierre and his allies initiated price controls and even told some citizens what to produce. Anxious to build up loyalty, the government-sponsored art and entertainment aimed at producing a sense of patriotism and a commitment to the republican government. They also initiated a program of de-Christianization, although this was dropped in 1794 because of resistance to it especially in the countryside. Despite these reforms, Robespierre and his allies still worried about counter-revolution and that to many French citizens lacked a real commitment to the republican cause. This led to a Reign of Terror where many suspected traitors, individuals with royalist connections or sympathies, and those who criticized the government were sent to the guillotine. Spotlight On \| GUILLOTINE Employed as a tool for execution using beheading, the guillotine is most readily associated with France, the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. The guillotine derives its name from Joseph-Ignace Guillotine (1738-1814), a French physician who, although opposed to the deathpenalty, suggested, in 1789, the use of the tall, bladed instrument to make executions less gruesome and more efficient. Originally called the Louisette, Tobias Schmidt (1755-1831) and Antoine Louis (1723-1792) had built the actual prototype. During the Reign of Terror, approximately 17,000 people were guillotined. Last used in France in the 1970s, the last public execution employing the guillotine occurred in 1939. During the Reign of Terror even ardent revolutionaries, many of which had been part of the republican movement from its earliest days but, similar to Olympe de Gouges, had been critical of Robespierre and the current government were targeted. Worried that they too might be convicted of treason, a group of moderates supported by some radicals moved against Robespierre and his allies. Convicted of treason, Robespierre, on July 28 (or 10 Thermidor in the new calendar), was guillotined. Reactionary Republic Known as the Thermidorian Reaction, the execution of Robespierre announced a new period of more moderate government. Fearing another Robespierre, eventually a five-person executive council known as the Directory would be formed. The Directory ruled until 1799 when a famous general Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) ended the Directory, making himself the sole ruler of France. Born Napoleone Buonaparte in Corsica in 1769, Napoleon was only a few months old when France formally annexed the island. Son of a minor Italian aristocrat, his father’s connections allowed Bonaparte to enter a prestigious French military school. In 1785, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the artillery. With the outbreak of the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, Napoleon found further opportunities for advancement. Although only 25 years old, by 1794, Napoleon had been made a brigadier general. Entrusted with leading the French armies in Italy and Egypt, Napoleon returned to France and staged the 1799 coup. Napoleon The coup established Napoleon as the consul of France. The consul had complete power over the executive branch of the government and, with the army’s support, could also influence the legislature. Made Consul for Life in 1802, Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804. Napoleon ensured that the revolution took a decidedly more conservative and pragmatic turn. Desiring peace with the Church, Napoleon agreed to a concordat with the Pope in 1801 that allowed Catholicism to be recognized as the majority religion of French people, while the Church agreed not to seek the return of lands seized during earlier phases of the Revolution. Making peace with the Church bought much goodwill with various interest groups in France. Napoleon set about reforming the state. One of his most lasting achievements was the codification of a new Civil Code. The Civil Code sought to preserve the language of equality while creating a unified, centralized state rather than one governed by local laws and traditions. As Napoleon conquered new lands, this Civil Code would be exported, bringing a new uniformity to Europe. Meritocracy, republicanism and civil equality (largely restricted to men) would be promoted in these conquered territories, which would have a lasting impact on Europe and its development. A talented general, Napoleon and his armies swept across Europe. To ensure loyalty and that his dictates would be followed without question or dissent, Napoleon placed his relatives in charge of conquered territories, including Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Confederation of the Rhine and the Duchy of Warsaw. One difficulty for Napoleon and his plans was the strength of the British navy. The British had previously defeated France and its allies, and its victory at Trafalgar in 1805 secured British dominance of the seas. Unable to attack England directly, Napoleon devised the Continental System. A form of economic warfare, the Continental System sought to prevent British goods from entering the continent. France’s allies disliked it as it led to shortages and drove up the costs of goods. Tired of the economic disruption, Russia stopped adhering to the Continental System. Napoleon either had to abandon the Continental System or invade Russia: He chose invasion. In June 1812, Napoleon led his large army of some 600,000 troops into Russia. Hoping for a quick victory that would force the Russians back into the Continental System, Napoleon would be disappointed as, instead of engaging in a set battle, the Russians opted for a tactical retreat. They burned their crops and villages as they withdrew further and further into Russia, refusing to fight Napoleon. Napoleon pressed on under the assumption that the Russians would at least try and defend their capital Moscow: They did not. Moscow, too was set ablaze. Having “conquered” the capital in late October, Napoleon ordered a retreat. The lack of food, cold weather clothing, disease and an increasingly severe Russian winter took its toll. Only 40,000 of the 600,000 invading soldiers made it to Poland by January 1813. This cost Napoleon much of his fighting force and called into question his reputation as an invincible military commander. In the wake of the Russian disaster, other European powers renewed their efforts against Napoleon. By March 1814, Paris was captured, and the defeated Napoleon was exiled to Elba, a tiny island off the coast of Italy. Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, was proclaimed King of France. Eventually, Napoleon successfully snuck off the island and returned toFrance. Sent to arrest him, soldiers of the 5th Regiment disregarded the order cheering “Vive l’Empereur” while promising to help him regain his throne. Returning to Paris in March 1815, Napoleon determined that his best strategy would be an offensive one and quickly got together an army and invaded Belgium. On 18 June 1815, Napoleon met a combined British, Prussian and Dutch army led by the Duke of Wellington (1769-1852). Wellington defeated Napoleon; this time, he was exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic. Napoleon would remain on the island until his death in 1821. Although Napoleon had died, the French state, the people and those he had conquered would have to wrestle with the legacy of Napoleon and the legal and political frameworks he constructed. At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), delegates redrew the map of Europe, creating what they hoped would be a balance of power that would prevent another nation from dominating Europe and European politics.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.272067	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113227/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Challenging the Old Order - The Age of Revolutions and Independence Movements, French Revolution", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113234/overview	Imperialism and Colonialism Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 9, Lesson 2 A brief discussion of Imperialism and Colonialism, focusing on the European conquest of foreign lands and the establishment of colonies for resources and wealth. Imperialism Throughout this period, many Western nations pursued imperial and colonial ambitions. In the early modern period, European rulers were aware of imperialism. The concept went back to the Greek and Roman Empires and involved the military or diplomatic conquest of other regions and exploiting their natural resources. In the late 1300s and 1400s, Portugal and Spain overthrew Moorish rule and emerged as modern empires. Armed with classical descriptions of India and China and Arabic inventions such as ribbed hulled ships and astrolabes, explorers such as Vasco De Gama and Christopher Columbus brought knowledge of Africa, India and the Americas back to their European sponsors. Due to a lack of royal funds, Portuguese and Spanish monarchs granted explorers and conquistadors in the 1500s royal charters to conquer certain regions in return for a share of the wealth extracted from such regions. In the 1600s, England and France followed suit, offering colonial charters to noblemen and joint-stock companies in return for a percentage of the wealth these groups generated off their overseas adventures. Colonialism European rulers viewed overseas colonies as more than just sources of wealth. Monarchs and their advisors also viewed such areas as sites where their own subjects could settle and create families and communities among themselves or through unions with indigenous people. Such colonists could then help procure raw resources, which would then be shipped back to the home country for processing into manufactured goods, which could either be sold abroad or back to the colonists at considerable markups. Royal officials likewise argued that they could use the colonies to dispose of unwanted groups of people, such as criminals, ethnic minorities, or simply debtors. Some nations, such as England, envisioned colonies expanding the borders of their empires, creating miniature versions of the home country around the world. Although colonial powers had significant advantages over indigenous peoples and colonists, they were not all-powerful. Beginning in the late 1700s, areas such as the thirteen British North American colonies, Haiti, Mexico, Peru, Colombia and Rio de la Plata, began to declare themselves independent of the British and Spanish empires. By the mid-19th century, even post-colonial states like the United States were experimenting with becoming imperial and colonial powers. It would only be after the Second World War that de-colonization would emerge as a worldwide movement. Spotlight On \| RICHARD HAKLUYT Born in Herefordshire, Richard Hakluyt (1553- 1616) became an Anglican Priest and writer in his teens. A favorite at the court of Elizabeth I, Hakluyt published Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589–1600). These works became cornerstones in defining and promoting English colonialism. While Hakluyt argued for a more humane approach to colonization compared to the Spanish, emphasizing the potential for peaceful coexistence and cultural exchange, his vision often overlooked the inherent violence and exploitation that characterized English colonial practices. His writings, in essence, served as powerful propaganda for English expansionism, promoting the economic and political benefits of establishing colonies while downplaying the inevitable conflicts and dispossession of indigenous peoples. His ideas, however, exerted a significant influence on the establishment of the British North American colonies and, subsequently, the United States.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.290611	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113234/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Nation Building and Reform 1700-1900, Imperialism and Colonialism", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113252/overview	Australia and New Zealand Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 11, Lesson 5 A discussion of how European settlement affected Australia and New Zealand. Europeans also expanded into Asia. Most British travelers who settled in the Pacific went to either Australia or New Zealand. First explored by Captain James Cook (1728-1779) in the late 1760s and 1770s, Australia began as a penal colony in 1787. By the time the British government stopped shipping convicts to Australia in 1869, over 160,000 prisoners had been deported to the colony. By the late 1800s, Europeans began voluntarily migrating to Australia in larger numbers. They came mostly to farm or herd sheep. Boasting an impressive export economy, Australia attracted foreign investors and their capital. To encourage migration and the growth of trade, immigrants were offered free passage and free land. The discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 also accelerated migration. When Cook first came to Australia, he encountered indigenous people who lived by hunting and gathering. As sheep farmers began to settle the outback, they pushed aborigines out of their traditional hunting grounds. Violence and disease would act in tandem to reduce the Aboriginal population and dispossess them of their land. New Zealand developed along a different path. Resistance from the Māori people made settlement more difficult for Europeans, many of whom chose to relocate to Australia. Australia and New Zealand gained responsible government over the 19th century as the British parliament allowed the larger European- dominated colonies within its empire more control over local affairs. The politics of these places, then and now, were heavily influenced by British traditions. Even today, Australia and New Zealand are a part of the British Commonwealth and remain constitutional monarchies.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.305624	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113252/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Second Wave of Imperialism 1700-1900, Australia and New Zealand", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88820/overview	Realism PDF Modern World Literature Volume 4: Realism Overview This is a textbook covering the Realism period with works from selected authors. Modern World Literature Volume 4: Realism This is volume 4 of a 5 volume set for Modern World Literature that covers the Realism period.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.323616	12/16/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88820/overview", "title": "Modern World Literature Volume 4: Realism", "author": "Colleen McCready" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101740/overview	battery B-Experimental design and R intro C-Graphical-representations D-Numerical desctriptions of data E-Probability F-Discrete Probability Distribution G-Continuous Probability Distributions H-One Sample Inference Intro introductory-statistics-export I-One Sample Inference J-Confidence Intervals K-Two Sample Inference L-Regression and Correlation Guided Lecture Notes for Statistics Using Technology - Kozak Overview This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu Chapter 1 – Statistics Foundations Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 1 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Evaluate experimental design for appropriate use or misuse of statistical concepts. Objectives: - Define various statistical symbols and terminology - Identify the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics - Determine the level of measurement for a given data set - Distinguish between parameters and statistics - Distinguish between discrete and continuous data - Distinguish among different types of observational studies and experiments - Determine the sampling technique used to collect data - Evaluate whether a sample is likely to be representative of the population - Develop alternative conclusions to given statistical results - Evaluate given scenarios for misuses of statistical concepts. Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 2 – Graphical Descriptions of Data Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 2 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Create graphical and numerical summaries of statistical data identifying descriptive characteristics (center, variation, distribution, position, trends) Objectives: - Construct various frequency distributions for data sets, including grouped, ungrouped, relative frequency, cumulative frequency distributions - Construct various graphical representations of data sets, including bar graphs, histograms, stem and leaf plots, and pie charts - Analyze frequency distributions of data sets for descriptive characteristics in context (center, variation, distribution, position, trends) - Analyze graphical representations of data sets for descriptive characteristics in context (center, variation, distribution, position, trends) Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 3 – Numerical Descriptions of Data Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 3 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Create graphical and numerical summaries of statistical data identifying descriptive characteristics (center, variation, distribution, position, trends) Objectives: - Calculate measures of central tendency for data sets, including mean, mode, median - Calculate measures of variation for data sets, including range, variance, standard deviation - Calculate measures of position for data sets, including z-scores, quartiles, percentiles - Analyze numerical measures of data sets (central tendency, variation, position) for descriptive characteristics in context (center, variation, distribution, position, trends) - Apply numerical measures to distinguish between values that are usual and unusual - Compare data values using measures of position - Construct box and whisker plots as a graphical representation of data sets Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 4 – Probability Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 4 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Evaluate the likelihood of an event using calculated probability values. Objectives: - Calculate empirical probabilities of simple events using relative frequency - Calculate theoretical probabilities of simple events - Calculate the probability of the complement of an event - Calculate the probability of compound events choosing the correct multiplication or addition rule - Calculate the probability of compound events adjusting computations for dependent and/or conditional events - Apply probabilities to distinguish between values that are usual and unusual Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 5 – Discrete Probability Distribution Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 5 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Create discrete probability distributions to compare theoretical probabilities to actual results. Objectives: - Define a random variable - Distinguish between discrete and continuous random variables - Determine if a distribution of a variable represents a probability distribution - Determine whether a given procedure results in a binomial distribution - Calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation for a probability distribution - Construct a probability histogram from a probability distribution - Calculate probabilities using the binomial probability formula - Apply probabilities to determine if an unusually high or low number of successes exists among n trials Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 6 – Continuous Probability Distribution Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 6 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Formulate probabilities for continuous random variables using the standard normal distribution. Objectives: - Distinguish between discrete and continuous random variables - Calculate the z-score for an event - Apply the standard normal distribution to determine the probability of an event - Construct and interpret sampling distributions for various statistics (mean, median, range, variance, standard deviation, proportion) - Determine which statistics reasonably estimate population parameters - Apply the Central Limit Theorem to determine probabilities of events - Apply the rare event rule to interpret probability calculations from the Central Limit Theorem - Approximate binomial probability distributions using the normal distribution - Apply the continuity correction when using the normal distribution to approximate binomial probability - Evaluate whether sample data appear to come from a population that is normally distributed using quantile plots Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 7 – One-Sample Inference Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 7 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Test hypotheses or claims about a population proportion, mean, and standard deviation (of variance) based on sample data. Objectives: - Formulate null and alternative hypotheses from a given problem statement and/or data set - Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors - Relate Type I error to the level of significance for a hypothesis test - Determine which type of test (two-tailed, left-tailed, and right-tailed) is appropriate for a hypothesis test - Decide which type of distribution is appropriate for a hypothesis test - Test hypotheses on proportion and mean using the traditional method and P-value method - Assess the results of hypothesis tests in context Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 8 – Estimation Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 8 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Formulate population parameter estimates for proportion, mean, and variance from sample data. Objectives: - Calculate point estimates for the proportion and mean - Outline the disadvantages of using a point estimate for population parameters - Determine whether the normal or t- distribution applies to the given circumstances - Calculate margin of error for proportion and mean estimates - Create confidence intervals (interval estimates) for proportion and mean - Examine the meaning of a confidence interval in context - Apply confidence intervals to determine rare events - Test hypotheses on proportion and mean using the confidence interval method Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 9 – Two-Sample Inference Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 9 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Test hypotheses or claims about population parameters comparing two sets of sample data. Objectives: - Conduct a formal hypothesis test of a claim made about two population proportions - Construct a confidence interval estimate of the difference between two population proportions. - Distinguish between a situation involving two independent samples and a situation involving two samples that are not independent - Conduct a formal hypothesis test of a claim made about two means from independent populations - Construct a confidence interval estimate of the difference between two population means - Determine if sample data consists of matched pairs - Conduct a formal hypothesis test of a claim made about the mean of the differences between matched pairs - Construct a confidence interval estimate of the mean difference between matched pairs Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. Chapter 10 – Regression and Correlation Material Description This resource is a series of guided lecture notes which cover topics from chapter 10 of Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Topics covered are Competency: Draw conclusions about relationships between bivariate sample data, making predictions if appropriate. Objectives: - Calculate the linear correlation coefficient for two paired variables - Determine whether there is a statistically significant relationship between two paired variables - Generalize the relationship between two variables with a regression equation - Apply regression equations to predict values for the variables - Evaluate the accuracy of predicted values using prediction intervals and the coefficient of determination Context for sharing: These notes may be used in a lecture to follow along with Statistics Using Technology 3rd edition, Kozak. Additional information about the resource: If you would like a copy of the notes completed, please reach out to Mike Rozinski at mrozinski@mohave.edu. Other sections under construction. LMS and Homework Materials A Canvas course shell has been created for this material, which includes weekly discussion post assignments, weekly homework assignments, two midterm exams, and one final exam. See attached file for Canvas export package. Some homework assignments are hosted in MyOpenMath (OER). The MyOpenMath course shell ID is 180282 and is titled Intro Statistics - Teaching w/ Technology. You are free to templete, remix, and reuse the course shell.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.376340	Mike Rozinski	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101740/overview", "title": "Guided Lecture Notes for Statistics Using Technology - Kozak", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118631/overview	Tennessee Open Education Planning Template Overview The TN Open Education Cycle 4 OER Grant provides opportunities for teams of community college, technical college, and university faculty members to convert courses currently using commercially published textbooks to courses using OER. In addition to increasing access through the affordability that OER provides, faculty have the opportunity to maximize student engagement and success by aligning materials with learning outcomes and customize tools to support their unique pedagogical approaches. Instructors may adapt, adopt, curate, or create OER materials to support the redesign of a course. This may mean selecting, modifying, or creating OER materials to replace and/or supplement existing course materials, assignments, and/or texts. Grantees are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. (See this primer for additional information about how to get started with OER.) Tennessee Open Education Planning We aim to add a General Education Core Humanities option at Motlow through the creation of an Introduction to Film course. This course will leverage students' existing knowledge and experience with film, a Fine Art, to provide a Humanities option that engages students and offers practical, real-world applications. We anticipate this will enhance student excitement and positively impact retention and progression. Our course targets incoming freshmen who must complete learning support requirements and need general education core courses without prerequisites to register as full-time students. It offers an additional Humanities option that builds on students' familiarity with film, making it potentially more appealing. The course will be designed to accommodate students in learning support courses by including assessments that do not require extensive experience with academic writing. The team collaborated on course outcomes. Team leader, Wes Spratlin, is responsible for the selection of the primary and secondary texts in the course. Dr. Will Murphy is responsible for the creation of unit and module objectives as well as ensuring that assessments align with module, unit, course, and TBR Fine Arts/Humanities Outcomes. Our existing resources include the following: Sharman, Russell, Moving Pictures: An Introduction to Cinema, https://uark.pressbooks.pub/movingpictures/ Moss, Yelizaveta and Candice Wilson, Film Appreciation, https://alg.manifoldapp.org/projects/film-appreciation Various resources available via YouTube In terms of new resources, we are creating weekly module Terms/Concepts Glossaries that will provide the module’s major terms and concepts along with definitions and examples in the form of still pictures or brief videos. As much as possible, these examples will feature stills and clips form the primary film featured in the module for that week. For example, Module 5 focuses on Truffaut’s, The 400 Blows, and introduces the concept of camera movement, so the definition of a Tracking Shot in the weekly glossary will feature the famous low-angle tracking shot that opens The 400 Blows Regarding needed support, our Dean of Libraries is using her budget to subscribe to Kanopy, a widely-used subscription service for academic and public library patrons. Kanopy will not provide the students with the 12 primary films we will cover in the class, but it’s clip feature will allow us to create clips from those films for use in our module Terms/Concepts Glossaries. In addition, we will need the help of various Motlow State departments and offices to promote the course and to educate students, faculty, Success Coaches, and Advisors regarding the course before pre-registration for the spring semester. In terms of course design/delivery assessment, we will rely on guidance and assistance from Motlow’s Office of Institutional Research and Effectiveness. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we are relying on TBR’s General Education Core Committee to provide guidance toward the acceptance of the course as a Humanities option at Motlow for the 2025-2026 catalog. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER Project deliverables? OER Project needs to be piloted by Spring 2025 term and uploaded to the TBR Group on the Tennessee Open Education Hub by January 15, 2025 Project Planning Our OER Goals & Purpose: Why are you doing this OER Project and what are you hoping to accomplish? Our Audience: Who are you designing this OER Project for and what are their learning needs and preferences? Our Team: Who is on your OER Project Team and what are their roles and responsibilities? Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER Project? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER Project? Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER Project? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER Project? Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER Project deliverables? OER Project needs to be piloted by Spring 2025 term and uploaded to the TBR Group on the Tennessee Open Education Hub by January 15, 2025 Course Description This course provides an overview of film history using selected works from world cinema. The course introduces the basic elements of film expression and analysis while also examining film’s social impact as a medium and demonstrating the diversity of human experience across multiple time periods and cultural perspectives. ENGL 2860 Introduction to Film syllabus Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Project, such as student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.396991	Wes Spratlin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118631/overview", "title": "Tennessee Open Education Planning Template", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113299/overview	Introduction and Nazi Germany Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 1 A discussion of the build up to WWII with the rise of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It covers Hitler's consolidation of power, the persecution of Jews, and the lead up to the Holocaust, as well as Stalin's rise and policies in the Soviet Union. Fought from 1939-1945, World War II was the bloodiest war in world history. Fought in theaters stretching from the frozen fields of Russia to the sweltering jungles of Myanmar, the Second World War witnessed the defeat and division of Germany, the use of nuclear weapons on Japan, the expansion of Soviet-style communism throughout Eastern Europe, the emergence of the United States as a superpower, and the decline of colonial empires around the world. Nazi Germany Having seized control of the German political system, Hitler turned next to stifling dissent within his own ranks. During his rise to power, Hitler had used the Nazi party to formally agitate for more power. However, behind the scenes he relied upon a group of paramilitary party members known as the Sturmabteilung (storm battalion), informally known as the SA or the “Brownshirts” due to their habit of dressing in brown shirts complete with ties. Hitler used the Brownshirts to intimidate, beat or even kill political rivals. Although many Brownshirts were World War I veterans completely loyal to Hitler, they were also a well-trained and well-armed group that could at times prove difficult to rein in. In June 1930, Hitler received word of a rumor that SA leader Ernst Röhm (1887-1934) planned to launch a coup against him. On June 30 to July 2, Hitler ordered a group of handpicked Brownshirts and Gestapo (secret police) agents to purge Röhm and his followers. Hitler used his emergency powers to suspend all political and civil rights, to arrest anyone suspicious of agitating against the government, and keep them in prison indefinitely without fair trials or due process. As only Nazi Party members could now become judges, Hitler’s regime controlled what judicial processes remained in Germany. The Nazis reorganized Germany into Gaue, or districts, and put them under the command of Gauleiters (district leaders). Each town was also divided into smaller units called Viertels (quarters). Each quarter had its own warden who would monitor his section and investigate suspicious individuals. The warden was the direct link to the Nazi Party. People were encouraged to report their families, neighbors and friends if they were not in full support of Hitler and the Nazi Party. Within the state, all cultural activities were geared toward propagating the ideology of National Socialism. Many cultural events were organized to show open support for Hitler. Everything was strictly controlled, and non-monitored art and cultural activities were prohibited. The Nazis used an immense propaganda machine to support Hitler and the Nazi state. Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945) was put in charge of the Nazi propaganda programs, which were broadcasted through completely controlled radio stations, cinemas, speeches, parades and rallies, youth organizations and K-12 education. Given limited opportunities, women were told to concern themselves with “children, church, kitchen” (Kinder, Kirche, Küche). Hitler worked closely with Heinrich Himmler (1900- 1945), the head of the SS and the Gestapo. Himmler headed the Reich Security Main Office, which was charged with internal safety and security. He is also seen as the principal architect of the concentration and death camps. Concentration and death camps housed political opponents and were used to systematically murder people – most of them Jews. On September 15, 1935, the Nazi government announced the passage of a slew of laws that discriminated against Jewish people. These Nuremburg Laws, (the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor) emphasized that Germans, but not Jewish people, belonged to the so- called Aryan race. According to these discriminatory laws, Jewish people threatened the purity of the German people and thus, the Nazis believed that they had to identify and separate Jews from German society. The law banned marriages and relationships with Jews and pushed Jews into ghettos. The rules also applied to the Sinti and Roma communities. The Reich Citizenship Law underscored that only racially pure people could hold German citizenship, which meant that Jews could never be considered full German citizens. The situation worsened in 1938 when new laws were passed that prohibited Jews from any participation in public life. The regulations also highlighted if Jews were to emigrate that they would surrender their property to the German state. Furthermore, Jews had to publicly wear a yellow star embossed with the word “Jew” and obtain a “J” label on their passports. On November 9, 1938, during Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass), over 7500 Jewish businesses and over 400 synagogues were destroyed, more than 90 Jews were killed, and over 30,000 arrested. Spotlight On \| KRISTALLNACHT Kristallnacht was a wave of state- sponsored terrorism directed against Germany’s Jews from November 9-10, 1938. In early November, Nazi officials expelled over 5,000 Jews of Polish descent from Germany. When learning that his parents had been among the deportees, 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan (b. 1921) assassinated Ernest vom Rath (1909-1938), a German embassy official in Paris. Vom Rath died on November 9, the anniversary of Hitler’s 1923 attempted coup known as the “Beer Hall Putsch.” When Hitler’s propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels suggested that his followers begin a series of spontaneous demonstrations to protest the assassination of vom Rath, violence against Jewish synagogues, businesses and homes broke out across Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland. By the morning of November 10, over 7,500 Jewish businesses had been looted, and nearly a hundred victims lay dead. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin in 1942, Hitler suggested the Final Solution for the Jewish problem. Jews were collected from the ghettos and sent to the death camps in Poland. The Holocaust did not end until Germany’s defeat in 1945 and the end of World War II. By the time of their liberation, over 6 million Jews died in the Holocaust and another 6 million Romani, Slavs and other targeted groups had also been killed by the Nazis. Millions of prisoners of war, especially from the Soviet Union, also died at the hands of the Nazis. Many people blindly supported Hitler because he reduced unemployment. He built up the German weapon industry, which created many jobs and helped promote economic efficiency. Overall unemployment fell from 6 million in 1933 to below 1 million in 1939. The rearmament benefited big enterprises especially. Although the overall economy did not necessarily improve under Hitler’s leadership, the German people saw shrinking unemployment, vigorous social investment policies, and some prosperity. An increased industrial effort was centered on the armament industries and presupposed the coming of a war.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.415211	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113299/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, Introduction and Nazi Germany", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113315/overview	Decolonization in Africa Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 5 A discussion of decolonization in Africa, highlighting the Mau Mau Rebellion, the Rhodesian Bush War, the Algerian War for Independence, and the Libyan Revolution. These events illustrate the complex and often violent transition from European colonial rule to independent African nations. During the Second World War, Allied Powers such as Great Britain and the United States enjoyed tremendous support from their colonies and overseas territories. Indian Gurkhas, Australian and New Zealand “diggers,” and Filipino “hunters” all contributed to the Allied war effort with the hope of independence for their homelands when the war was over. The one recurrent theme that ran through the Atlantic Charter, Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam Declarations, and the Charter of the United Nations was that of national self-determination for all peoples including the developing world. From the 1940s to the 1970s, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands were forced to grant independence to most, if not all, of their overseas empires. To be sure, many imperialists fought the loss of their overseas territories tooth and nail. As British Prime Minister Winston Churchill quipped in November 1942, “I have not become the King’s First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire.” However, not even a figure as formidable as Churchill could turn back the forces of decolonization in the developing world. Mau Mau Rebellion and the Rhodesian Bush War From the 1880s to the 1910s, many European nations competed in the “scramble for Africa.” By the eve of World War II, virtually the entire continent lay under the control of one European power or another. During World War II, 1.3 million Ghanese, Kenyan, South African, Botswanan, Malawian and Zambian troops served in the British forces and returned home with a sense of group solidarity and confidence. In 1960, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (1894-1986) gave a speech in Johannesburg, South Africa, in which he recognized “the wind of change blowing through the continent.” Although Britain’s leaders granted independence to many African colonies, they fought to keep Kenya and Rhodesia (current day Zimbabwe) in the empire. From 1952-1960, British troops ruthlessly suppressed the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. The Mau Mau revolt began when poor Kikuyu people, having been forced off their traditional land, made war against British officials and upper-class, “Anglicized” members of their communities. Many Mau Mau adopted British Scout uniforms and merit badges to fool British soldiers into believing they were loyal Kenyans. Over time, the Mau Mau began to wear scout uniforms as symbols of resistance and pride. Kikuyu men and women who trained to become Mau Mau warriors often believed their initiation rituals would make them invincible to British bullets. As such, they fought ferociously in battle. British officials killed over 20,000 Mau Mau during the conflict and placed another 20,000 Kikuyu and other minorities into brutal “labor camps” that bore more than a passing resemblance to German concentration camps. Although British colonial forces defeated the largest Mau Mau army in 1956, they could not stop international pressure and local resistance. At the First Lancaster House Conference, held in 1960, British and Kenyan delegates worked out a roadmap for a transition government that provided complete independence for Kenya in 1963. Kenya’s experience provided a blueprint for other British colonies in Africa to seek their independence. In 1965, the governing white minority population of Rhodesia declared the region’s independence from the British Empire. This led to the Rhodesian Bush War (1964-1979), in which the white-dominated Rhodesian government fought against several African revolutionary groups. Placed in the position of peacemaker, the British government helped negotiate a cease-fire at the Second Lancaster House Conference in 1979. Under the terms of this agreement, white settlers agreed to share power with indigenous Africans in a new nation called Zimbabwe, which became fully independent in 1980. Algerian War for Independence During the Second World War, most of France’s overseas territories were occupied by Japanese, British, or American forces. This made France’s resumption of power in such areas tenuous at best. Nevertheless, under Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970), a former general and hero of two World Wars, the French government attempted to reconstitute its prewar empire. In 1830, French forces invaded and occupied Algeria. For the next century, thousands of French colonists, known as “pieds-noirs” (black feet), created enclaves throughout the region and introduced French technology, language and culture to the native Algerians. Following World War II, Messali Hadj’s (1898-1974) Movement for the Triumph of Liberal Democracies (MTDL) launched an independence movement against French rule. While the MTDL publicly campaigned for a peaceful end to French imperialism, a group of Algerian militants known as the Special Organization (SO) used ambushes, assassinations and bombings to take the fight directly to French soldiers and colonial administrators. Both groups joined together to form the National Liberation Front, which carried on the struggle for independence. After a decade of fighting and losing 36,000 soldiers and civilians, De Gaulle’s government finally agreed on a transition plan that resulted in Algerian independence in 1963. Spotlight On \| WOMEN IN THE ALGERIAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT Women such as Djmila Bouhired (b. 1935) played leading roles in the Algerian liberation movement. Born into a middle-class family in colonial Algeria, Bouhired ran into discipline problems in primary school for shouting “Algeria is our Mother” instead of the customary “France is our mother” at morning assemblies. Becoming an active demonstrator against French imperialism, the dedicated and determined Bouhired once endured 17 hours of torture at the hand of colonial officials without revealing any useful information. In July 1957, French authorities arrested Bouhired on charges of bombing a café that killed 11 people. French attorney Jacques Verges agreed to represent Bouhired at trial. In a sensational courtroom event that garnered international attention, Verges accused French colonial officials of carrying out the bombing. When a jury found Bouhired guilty and sentenced her to death by guillotine, protest groups campaigned on her behalf. Due to the personal intervention of Moroccan Princess Laila Ayesha, French President René Coty commuted Bouhired’s punishment to life imprisonment. After serving five years in a prison in Reims, she was released in 1962 as part of a general amnesty policy. Libyan Revolution adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent, and on December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya—a constitutional and hereditary monarchy—led by King Idris, Libya’s only monarch. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled Libya, one of the world’s historically poorest nations, to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government’s finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation’s wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East, so while the continued presence of Americans, Italians, and British in Libya aided in the increased levels of wealth and tourism following WWII, it was seen by some as a threat. On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d’état against King Idris, launching the successful Libyan Revolution. On the birthday of Muhammad in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a “Five-Point Address.” He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of Sharia. He said that the country would be purged of the “politically sick”; a “people’s militia” would “protect the revolution”; and there would be an administrative revolution and a cultural revolution. Gaddafi set up an extensive surveillance system: 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees, which monitored place in government, factories, and the education sector. Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels. Additionally, he employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world. In 1977, Libya officially became the “Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.” Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People’s Committees and, henceforth, claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead, but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power. Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself. The new government he established was officially referred to as a form of direct democracy, though the government refused to publish election results. Gaddafi was ruler of Libya until the 2011 Libyan Civil War, when he was deposed with the backing of NATO. Since then, Libya has experienced instability.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.436073	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113315/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, Decolonization in Africa", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113324/overview	The Cold War in Latin America Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 14 A discussion of the Cold War in Latin America, focusing on the United States' involvement in political conflicts in Nicaragua and El Salvador. The U.S. government's fear of the spread of communism led to interventions that had significant consequences for the people of those countries. Operation Condor adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC BY-SA Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, the United States had become increasingly afraid of communism spreading throughout Latin America following the Cuban Revolution. To stop the spread of socialism and communism in Chile and Argentina, Nixon’s government supported a program known as Operation Condor. Operation Condor was a covert campaign of political repression and state terror carried out by right-wing dictatorships in South America from 1975 to 1983. It involved intelligence operations, coups, and assassinations aimed at eliminating left-wing sympathizers. Operation Condor had devastating effects in Chile and Argentina. Thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered by the regimes. The campaign targeted not only suspected guerrillas but also students, labor leaders, intellectuals, and anyone deemed to be a threat to the ruling juntas. The widespread disappearances and extrajudicial killings created a climate of fear and severely damaged the social fabric of both countries, leaving lasting scars that continue to impact these nations today. Nicaragua and the Contras adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC BY-SA With the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, relations between the United States and the Sandinista regime in Nicaragua became an active front in the Cold War. The Sandinistas were a left-leaning political organization that had led a successful revolution against the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua in 1979. They implemented social programs aimed at improving literacy and healthcare, which garnered them popular support, especially among the poor. However, the Reagan administration insisted that the Sandinistas posed a Communist threat, reacting particularly to the support provided to them by Cuban president Fidel Castro, as well as the Sandinistas’ close military relations with the Soviets and Cubans. The Reagan administration also wished to protect U.S. interests in the region which were threatened by the policies of the Sandinista government. Regan’s government quickly suspended aid to Nicaragua and expanded the supply of arms and training to the Contras, Nicaraguan rebels who had fled to neighboring Honduras. American pressure against the Nicaraguan government escalated throughout 1983 and 1984. Meanwhile, the Contras began a campaign of economic sabotage and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua’s Port of Corinto, an action condemned by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) as illegal. The UN General Assembly also passed a resolution in order to pressure the U.S. to pay the fine. The U.S. refused to pay restitution and claimed that the ICJ was not competent to judge the case. On May 1, 1985, Reagan issued an executive order that imposed a full economic embargo on Nicaragua, which remained in force until March 1990. However, in 1982, legislation was enacted by the U.S. Congress to prohibit further direct aid to the Contras. Reagan’s officials attempted to illegally supply them out of the proceeds of arms sales to Iran and third-party donations, triggering the Iran-Contra Affair of 1986 – 87. Mutual exhaustion, Sandinista fears of Contra unity and military success, and mediation by other regional governments led to the Sapoa ceasefire between the Sandinistas and the Contras on March 23, 1988. Subsequent agreements were designed to reintegrate the Contras and their supporters into Nicaraguan society in preparation for general elections. El Salvador adapted from openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-2/ Many thousands of Salvadoran migrants have entered the United States each year, especially during and after the El Salvador Civil War. That war began in 1979 with a military coup supported by the United States, which feared that radical leftist elements in El Salvador were destabilizing the country and leading it in a direction contrary to U.S. Cold War interests. By supporting the coup with money, military training, and the sharing of intelligence reports, the United States hoped to return stability to El Salvador, but the opposite occurred. Many in El Salvador felt the military government was illegitimate and staged protests and resistance. The military responded with violence of its own, such as a deadly attack on demonstrators in 1980. There were also rightist paramilitary groups, often referred to as “death squads,” fighting against leftist guerrilla forces in the countryside and committing murders and massacres. As the country descended into chaos, many left and found refuge in the United States.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.454850	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113324/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, The Cold War in Latin America", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/overview	Lesson 6 Section 2 Welfare Capitalism Lesson 6 Section 3 Mobilizing for Reform Lesson 6 Section 4 Women's Movements Lesson 6 Section 5 Targeting the Trusts Lesson 6 Section 6 Progressive Environmentalism Lesson 6 Section 7 Jim Crow and African American Life The Progressive Era Overview Link to student view Unit 1 Lesson 6 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 1 Lesson 6 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Ch-20.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction “Never in the history of the world was society in so terrific flux as it is right now,” Jack London wrote in The Iron Heel, his 1908 dystopian novel in which a corporate oligarchy comes to rule the United States. He wrote, “The swift changes in our industrial system are causing equally swift changes in our religious, political, and social structures. An unseen and fearful revolution is taking place in the fiber and structure of society. One can only dimly feel these things, but they are in the air, now, today.”1 The many problems associated with the Gilded Age—the rise of unprecedented fortunes and unprecedented poverty, controversies over imperialism, urban squalor, a near-war between capital and labor, loosening social mores, unsanitary food production, the onrush of foreign immigration, environmental destruction, and the outbreak of political radicalism—confronted Americans. Terrible forces seemed out of control and the nation seemed imperiled. Farmers and workers had been waging political war against capitalists and political conservatives for decades, but then, slowly, toward the end of the nineteenth century a new generation of middle-class Americans interjected themselves into public life and advocated new reforms to tame the runaway world of the Gilded Age. Widespread dissatisfaction with new trends in American society spurred the Progressive Era, named for the various progressive movements that attracted various constituencies around various reforms. Americans had many different ideas about how the country’s development should be managed and whose interests required the greatest protection. Reformers sought to clean up politics; Black Americans continued their long struggle for civil rights; women demanded the vote with greater intensity while also demanding a more equal role in society at large; and workers demanded higher wages, safer workplaces, and the union recognition that would guarantee these rights. Whatever their goals, reform became the word of the age, and the sum of their efforts, whatever their ultimate impact or original intentions, gave the era its name. Notes Title image From an undated William Jennings Bryan campaign print, “Shall the People Rule?” Library of Congress. 1. Jack London, The Iron Heel (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 104. Welfare Capitalism More information about Welfare Capitalism: http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1332.html Welfare capitalism refers either to the combination of a capitalist economic system with a welfare state or, in the American context, to the practice of private businesses providing welfare-like services to employees. In this second form of welfare capitalism, also known as industrial paternalism, companies have a two-fold interest in providing these services. First, the companies act in a paternalistic manner, giving employees what managers think is best for them. Second, the companies recognize that providing workers with some minor benefits can forestall complaints about larger structural issues, such as unsafe conditions and long hours. Following this logic, in the nineteenth century, some manufacturing companies began offering new benefits for their employees. Companies sponsored sports teams, established social clubs, and provided educational and cultural activities for workers. Some companies even provided housing, such as the boarding houses provided for female employees of textile manufacturers in Lowell, Massachusetts. The mid-twentieth century marked the height of business provisions for employees, including benefits such as more generous retirement packages and health care. However, even at the peak of this form of welfare capitalism, not all workers enjoyed the same benefits. Business-led welfare capitalism was only common in American industries that employed skilled labor. Not all companies freely choose to provide even minor benefits to workers. As workers became frustrated with meager or nonexistent benefits, they appealed to government for help, giving rise to the first form of welfare capitalism: welfare provisions provided by the state within the context of a capitalist economy. In the United States, workers formed labor unions to gain greater collective bargaining power. In addition to directly challenging businesses, they lobbied the government to enact basic standards of labor. In the United States, the first two decades of the twentieth century—the Progressive Era—saw an increase in the number of protections the government was able to extend to workers. Yet by mid-century, many of these protections had been pushed back through the court system. Notes Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Mobilizing for Reform The Anthracite Coal Strike (May-October 1902) began after mine operators refused to meet with representatives of the United Mine Workers of America. Anthracite—or hard coal—was solid and rich in carbon, ideal for industrial and domestic use. The strike began in eastern Pennsylvania, where almost all anthracite coal was mined at the time, on May 12, 1902, after the railroad companies which owned the mines refused to meet with representatives of the union. Workers’ requests for better wages, a shorter work week, and recognition of their union had also been denied. Coal prices doubled as production dropped. As the autumn began and negotiations between the owners and the miners were ineffective, President Theodore Roosevelt feared that a coal shortage would result in hardship to Americans during the winter. With the conflict unresolved, Henry Cabot Lodge, a senior Republican and close friend of Theodore Roosevelt, warned the president of the potentially disastrous consequences for the party if the anthracite strike dragged into November, when elections were to be held. Heeding Lodge's advice, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to gather information and propose ways to settle the strike. In Washington on October 3, 1902, he met with presidents of the mine-owning railroads and union leaders. At that meeting the union president, John Mitchell, outlined the union's case while the railroad bosses asserted the impossibility of compromise. The conference disbanded without resolving the crisis and Roosevelt formed a commission to investigate the strike. Secretary of War Elihu Root and banker J. P. Morgan convinced railroad leaders to abide by the findings of the presidentially appointed commission. The union also accepted the commission and, on October 20, voted to end the anthracite strike. The anthracite-coal commission recommended in March 1903 increasing miners' pay by ten percent (one-half of their demand), reducing the working day from ten to nine hours, and other concessions. By negotiating with organized labor Roosevelt championed a new approach to relations between capital and labor, often cited as an example of his Square Deal.1 In 1911 the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in Manhattan caught fire. The doors of the factory had been chained shut to prevent employees from taking unauthorized breaks (the managers who held the keys saved themselves, but left over two hundred women behind). A rickety fire ladder on the side of the building collapsed immediately. Women lined the rooftop and windows of the ten-story building and jumped, landing in a “mangled, bloody pulp.” Life nets held by firemen tore at the impact of the falling bodies. Among the onlookers, “women were hysterical, scores fainted; men wept as, in paroxysms of frenzy, they hurled themselves against the police lines.” By the time the fire burned itself out, 71 workers were injured and 146 had died.2 A year before, the Triangle workers had gone on strike demanding union recognition, higher wages, and better safety conditions. Remembering their workers’ “chief value,” the owners of the factory decided that a viable fire escape and unlocked doors were too expensive and called in the city police to break up the strike. After the 1911 fire, reporter Bill Shepherd reflected, “I looked upon the heap of dead bodies and I remembered these girls were shirtwaist makers. I remembered their great strike last year in which the same girls had demanded more sanitary conditions and more safety precautions in the shops. These dead bodies were the answer.”3 Former Triangle worker and labor organizer Rose Schneiderman said, “This is not the first time girls have been burned alive in this city. Every week I must learn of the untimely death of one of my sister workers . . . the life of men and women is so cheap and property is so sacred! There are so many of us for one job, it matters little if 140-odd are burned to death.”4 After the fire, Triangle owners Max Blanck and Isaac Harris were brought up on manslaughter charges. They were acquitted after less than two hours of deliberation. The outcome continued a trend in the industrializing economy that saw workers’ deaths answered with little punishment of the business owners responsible for such dangerous conditions. But as such tragedies mounted and working and living conditions worsened and inequality grew, it became increasingly difficult to develop justifications for this new modern order. Events such as the Triangle Shirtwaist fire convinced many Americans of the need for reform, but the energies of activists were needed to spread a new commitment to political activism and government interference in the economy. Politicians, journalists, novelists, religious leaders, and activists all raised their voices to push Americans toward reform. Reformers turned to books and mass-circulation magazines to publicize the plight of the nation’s poor and the many corruptions endemic to the new industrial order. Journalists who exposed business practices, poverty, and corruption—labeled by Theodore Roosevelt as “muckrakers”—aroused public demands for reform. Magazines such as McClure’s detailed political corruption and economic malfeasance. The muckrakers confirmed Americans’ suspicions about runaway wealth and political corruption. Ray Stannard Baker, a journalist whose reports on U.S. Steel exposed the underbelly of the new corporate capitalism, wrote, “I think I can understand now why these exposure articles took such a hold upon the American people. It was because the country, for years, had been swept by the agitation of soap-box orators, prophets crying in the wilderness, and political campaigns based upon charges of corruption and privilege which everyone believed or suspected had some basis of truth, but which were largely unsubstantiated.”5 Journalists shaped popular perceptions of Gilded Age injustice. In 1890, New York City journalist Jacob Riis published How the Other Half Lives, a scathing indictment of living and working conditions in the city’s slums. Riis not only vividly described the squalor he saw, he documented it with photography, giving readers an unflinching view of urban poverty. Riis’s book led to housing reform in New York and other cities and helped instill the idea that society bore at least some responsibility for alleviating poverty.6 In 1906, Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a novel dramatizing the experiences of a Lithuanian immigrant family who moved to Chicago to work in the stockyards. Although Sinclair intended the novel to reveal the brutal exploitation of labor in the meatpacking industry, and thus to build support for the socialist movement, its major impact was to lay bare the entire process of industrialized food production. The growing invisibility of slaughterhouses and livestock production for urban consumers had enabled unsanitary and unsafe conditions. “The slaughtering machine ran on, visitors or no visitors,” wrote Sinclair, “like some horrible crime committed in a dungeon, all unseen and unheeded, buried out of sight and of memory.”7 Sinclair’s exposé led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. Of course, it was not only journalists who raised questions about American society. One of the most popular novels of the nineteenth century, Edward Bellamy’s 1888 Looking Backward, was a national sensation. In it, a man falls asleep in Boston in 1887 and awakens in 2000 to find society radically altered. Poverty and disease and competition gave way as new industrial armies cooperated to build a utopia of social harmony and economic prosperity. Bellamy’s vision of a reformed society enthralled readers, inspired hundreds of Bellamy clubs, and pushed many young readers onto the road to reform.8 It led countless Americans to question the realities of American life in the nineteenth century: “I am aware that you called yourselves free in the nineteenth century. The meaning of the word could not then, however, have been at all what it is at present, or you certainly would not have applied it to a society of which nearly every member was in a position of galling personal dependence upon others as to the very means of life, the poor upon the rich, or employed upon employer, women upon men, children upon parents.”9 But Americans were urged to action not only by books and magazines but by preachers and theologians, too. Confronted by both the benefits and the ravages of industrialization, many Americans asked themselves, “What Would Jesus Do?” In 1896, Charles Sheldon, a Congregational minister in Topeka, Kansas, published In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do? The novel told the story of Henry Maxwell, a pastor in a small Midwestern town one day confronted by an unemployed migrant who criticized his congregation’s lack of concern for the poor and downtrodden. Moved by the man’s plight, Maxwell preached a series of sermons in which he asked his congregation: “Would it not be true, think you, that if every Christian in America did as Jesus would do, society itself, the business world, yes, the very political system under which our commercial and government activity is carried on, would be so changed that human suffering would be reduced to a minimum?”10 Sheldon’s novel became a best seller, not only because of its story but because the book’s plot connected with a new movement transforming American religion: the social gospel. The social gospel emerged within Protestant Christianity at the end of the nineteenth century. It emphasized the need for Christians to be concerned for the salvation of society, and not simply individual souls. Instead of just caring for family or fellow church members, social gospel advocates encouraged Christians to engage society; challenge social, political, and economic structures; and help those less fortunate than themselves. Responding to the developments of the industrial revolution in America and the increasing concentration of people in urban spaces, with its attendant social and economic problems, some social gospelers went so far as to advocate a form of Christian socialism, but all urged Americans to confront the sins of their society. One of the most notable advocates of the social gospel was Walter Rauschenbusch. After graduating from Rochester Theological Seminary, in 1886 Rauschenbusch accepted the pastorate of a German Baptist church in the Hell’s Kitchen section of New York City, where he confronted rampant crime and stark poverty, problems not adequately addressed by the political leaders of the city. Rauschenbusch joined with fellow reformers to elect a new mayoral candidate, but he also realized that a new theological framework had to reflect his interest in society and its problems. He revived Jesus’s phrase, “the Kingdom of God,” claiming that it encompassed every aspect of life and made every part of society a purview of the proper Christian. Like Charles Sheldon’s fictional Rev. Maxwell, Rauschenbusch believed that every Christian, whether they were a businessperson, a politician, or a stay-at-home parent, should ask themselves what they could do to enact the kingdom of God on Earth.11 “The social gospel is the old message of salvation, but enlarged and intensified. The individualistic gospel has taught us to see the sinfulness of every human heart and has inspired us with faith in the willingness and power of God to save every soul that comes to him. But it has not given us an adequate understanding of the sinfulness of the social order and its share in the sins of all individuals within it. It has not evoked faith in the will and power of God to redeem the permanent institutions of human society from their inherited guilt of oppression and extortion. Both our sense of sin and our faith in salvation have fallen short of the realities under its teaching. The social gospel seeks to bring men under repentance for their collective sins and to create a more sensitive and more modern conscience. It calls on us for the faith of the old prophets who believed in the salvation of nations.”12 Glaring blind spots persisted within the proposals of most social gospel advocates. As men, they often ignored the plight of women, and thus most refused to support women’s suffrage. Many were also silent on the plight of African Americans, Native Americans, and other oppressed minority groups. However, the writings of Rauschenbusch and other social gospel proponents had a profound influence on twentieth-century American life. Most immediately, they fueled progressive reform. But they also inspired future activists, including Martin Luther King Jr., who envisioned a “beloved community” that resembled Rauschenbusch’s “Kingdom of God.” Notes - Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University. (n.d.). Anthracite Coal Strike. Retrieved from https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Learn-About-TR/TR-Encyclopedia/Capitalism-and-Labor/Anthracite-Coal-Strike - Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement: From Colonial Times to the Eve of World War I (New York: Free Press, 1979.). - Leon Stein, The Triangle Fire (Ithaca, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1962), 20. - Ibid., 144. - Ray Stannard Baker, American Chronicle: The Autobiography of Ray Stannard Baker (New York: Scribner, 1945), 183. - Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: Scribner, 1890). - Upton Sinclair, The Jungle (New York: Doubleday, 1906), 40. - Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward: 2000–1887 (Boston: Ticknor, 1888). - Ibid., 368. - Charles M. Sheldon, In His Steps: “What Would Jesus Do?” (Chicago: Advance, 1896), 273. - Walter Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social Gospel (New York: Macmillan, 1917). - Ibid., 5. Women's Movements Reform opened new possibilities for women’s activism in American public life and gave new impetus to the long campaign for women’s suffrage. Much energy for women’s work came from female “clubs,” social organizations devoted to various purposes. Some focused on intellectual development; others emphasized philanthropic activities. Increasingly, these organizations looked outward, to their communities and to the place of women in the larger political sphere. Women’s clubs flourished in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the 1890s women formed national women’s club federations. Particularly significant in campaigns for suffrage and women’s rights were the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (formed in New York City in 1890) and the National Association of Colored Women (organized in Washington, D.C., in 1896), both of which were dominated by upper-middle-class, educated, northern women. Few of these organizations were biracial, a legacy of the sometimes uneasy midnineteenth-century relationship between socially active African Americans and white women. Rising American prejudice led many white female activists to ban inclusion of their African American sisters. The segregation of Black women into distinct clubs nonetheless still produced vibrant organizations that could promise racial uplift and civil rights for all Black Americans as well as equal rights for women. Other women worked through churches and moral reform organizations to clean up American life. And still others worked as moral vigilantes. The fearsome Carrie A. Nation, an imposing woman who believed she worked God’s will, won headlines for destroying saloons. In Wichita, Kansas, on December 27, 1900, Nation took a hatchet and broke bottles and bars at the luxurious Carey Hotel. Arrested and charged with causing $3,000 in damages, Nation spent a month in jail before the county dismissed the charges on account of “a delusion to such an extent as to be practically irresponsible.” But Nation’s “hatchetation” drew national attention. Describing herself as “a bulldog running along at the feet of Jesus, barking at what He doesn’t like,” she continued her assaults, and days later she smashed two more Wichita bars.1 Few women followed in Nation’s footsteps, and many more worked within more reputable organizations. Nation, for instance, had founded a chapter of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), but the organization’s leaders described her as “unwomanly and unchristian.” The WCTU was founded in 1874 as a modest temperance organization devoted to combating the evils of drunkenness. But then, from 1879 to 1898, Frances Willard invigorated the organization by transforming it into a national political organization, embracing a “do everything” policy that adopted any and all reasonable reforms that would improve social welfare and advance women’s rights. Temperance, and then the full prohibition of alcohol, however, always loomed large. Many American reformers associated alcohol with nearly every social ill. Alcohol was blamed for domestic abuse, poverty, crime, and disease. The 1912 Anti-Saloon League Yearbook, for instance, presented charts indicating comparable increases in alcohol consumption alongside rising divorce rates. The WCTU called alcohol a “home wrecker.” More insidiously, perhaps, reformers also associated alcohol with cities and immigrants, necessarily maligning America’s immigrants, Catholics, and working classes in their crusade against liquor. Still, reformers believed that the abolition of “strong drink” would bring about social progress, obviate the need for prisons and insane asylums, save women and children from domestic abuse, and usher in a more just, progressive society. Powerful female activists emerged out of the club movement and temperance campaigns. Perhaps no American reformer matched Jane Addams in fame, energy, and innovation. Born in Cedarville, Illinois, in 1860, Addams lost her mother by age two and lived under the attentive care of her father. At seventeen, she left home to attend Rockford Female Seminary. An idealist, Addams sought the means to make the world a better place. She believed that well-educated women of means, such as herself, lacked practical strategies for engaging everyday reform. After four years at Rockford, Addams embarked on a multiyear “grand tour” of Europe. She found herself drawn to English settlement houses, a kind of prototype for social work in which philanthropists embedded themselves among communities and offered services to disadvantaged populations. After visiting London’s Toynbee Hall in 1887, Addams returned to the United States and in 1889 founded Hull House in Chicago with her longtime confidant and companion Ellen Gates Starr.2 The Settlement … is an experimental effort to aid in the solution of the social and industrial problems which are engendered by the modern conditions of life in a great city. It insists that these problems are not confined to any one portion of the city. It is an attempt to relieve, at the same time, the overaccumulation at one end of society and the destitution at the other … It must be grounded in a philosophy whose foundation is on the solidarity of the human race, a philosophy which will not waver when the race happens to be represented by a drunken woman or an idiot boy.3 Hull House workers provided for their neighbors by running a nursery and a kindergarten, administering classes for parents and clubs for children, and organizing social and cultural events for the community. Reformer Florence Kelley, who stayed at Hull House from 1891 to 1899, convinced Addams to move into the realm of social reform.4 Hull House began exposing conditions in local sweatshops and advocated for the organization of workers. She called the conditions caused by urban poverty and industrialization a “social crime.” Hull House workers surveyed their community and produced statistics on poverty, disease, and living conditions. Addams began pressuring politicians. Together Kelley and Addams petitioned legislators to pass antisweatshop legislation that limited the hours of work for women and children to eight per day. Yet Addams was an upper-class white Protestant woman who, like many reformers, refused to embrace more radical policies. While Addams called labor organizing a “social obligation,” she also warned the labor movement against the “constant temptation towards class warfare.” Addams, like many reformers, favored cooperation between rich and poor and bosses and workers, whether cooperation was a realistic possibility or not.5 Addams became a kind of celebrity. In 1912, she became the first woman to give a nominating speech at a major party convention when she seconded the nomination of Theodore Roosevelt as the Progressive Party’s candidate for president. Her campaigns for social reform and women’s rights won headlines and her voice became ubiquitous in progressive politics.6 Addams’s advocacy grew beyond domestic concerns. Beginning with her work in the Anti-Imperialist League during the Spanish-American War, Addams increasingly began to see militarism as a drain on resources better spent on social reform. In 1907 she wrote Newer Ideals of Peace, a book that would become for many a philosophical foundation of pacifism. Addams emerged as a prominent opponent of America’s entry into World War I. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.7 In the early 20th century, at a time when matters surrounding family planning or women’s healthcare were not spoken in public, Margaret Sanger founded the birth control movement and became an outspoken and life-long advocate for women’s reproductive rights. In her later life, Sanger spearheaded the effort that resulted in the modern birth control pill by 1960. Born September 14, 1879, in Corning, New York, the sixth of eleven children, Sanger’s life course was shaped by the poverty of her childhood and the death of her mother at age 50, which Sanger understood resulted from the physical toll of eleven pregnancies. Sanger later became a nurse, married William Sanger, an architect, and moved to Hastings, New York, where the couple had three children. The Sangers moved to New York City in 1910, where they became involved with various Progressive Era activists and intellectuals. Sanger became a member of the Women’s Committee of the New York chapter of the Socialist Party, and participated in women’s labor protests. Sanger strongly believed that the ability to control family size was crucial to ending the cycle of women’s poverty. But it was illegal to distribute birth control information. Working as a visiting nurse, she frequented the homes of poor immigrants, often with large families and wives whose health was impaired by too many pregnancies, miscarriages, or in desperation botched abortions. Often, too, immigrant wives would ask her to tell them “the secret,” presuming that educated white women like Sanger knew how to limit family size. Sanger made it her mission to 1) provide women with birth control information and 2) repeal the federal Comstock Law, which prohibited the distribution of obscene materials through the mails, and regarded birth control information as such. In 1914, Sanger launched her own feminist publication, The Woman Rebel, advocating for birth control. She was charged with violating the Comstock laws and fled to England, though had friends share a pamphlet she authored on contraceptive techniques in her absence. She returned a year later to stand trial, but when her five-year-old daughter died unexpectedly, public pressure led to the charges against Sanger being dropped. In 1916, she opened the first birth control clinic in Brownsville, Brooklyn. Barely a week later, she was arrested and spent 30 days in jail. Sanger’s arrest garnered much media attention and brought her several affluent supporters. She appealed her conviction, and although she lost, the courts ruled that physicians could prescribe contraceptives to women for medical reasons, a loophole that allowed Sanger to open a clinic in 1923 staffed by female doctors and social workers, which would later become the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Sanger and her husband divorced in 1914; she remarried James Noah Slow, an oil tycoon, in 1922, while continuing her advocacy work. Sanger launched the Birth Control Review in 1917 and founded the American Birth Control League in 1921 to gain support from social workers, medical professionals, and the public for birth control. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control to lobby Congress for legislation that would permit doctors to prescribe birth control. Despite resistance from doctors and the Catholic Church throughout her activist career, over time, Sanger’s efforts led to the legalization and wide-spread usage of contraceptives in the United States. In 1936, the courts made it legal for doctors to prescribe birth control. In 1971 the Comstock laws finally ended, nearly a century after their passage. Sanger’s steadfast focus on birth control sometimes had unintended consequences. She spent time with the eugenics movement, which sought to “breed” out “undesirable” populations by limiting their ability to procreate through birth control and sterilization. Sanger saw the value of birth control science in preventing birth defects, and although she disagreed with the racial and class focus of the eugenics movement, her association with it tarnished her reputation. In the 1920s and 1930s, Sanger expanded her efforts internationally. Sanger retired in 1942, though she remained a passionate advocate for birth control. In the late 1950s, with funding from International Harvester heiress Katharine McCormick, Sanger recruited researcher Gregory Pincus to develop an oral contraceptive. The “pill” was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1960. Sanger died in 1966 at the age of 86.8 It would be suffrage, ultimately, that would mark the full emergence of women in American public life. Generations of women—and, occasionally, men—had pushed for women’s suffrage. Suffragists’ hard work resulted in slow but encouraging steps forward during the last decades of the nineteenth century. Notable victories were won in the West, where suffragists mobilized large numbers of women and male politicians were open to experimental forms of governance. By 1911, six western states had passed suffrage amendments to their constitutions. Women’s suffrage was typically entwined with a wide range of reform efforts. Many suffragists argued that women’s votes were necessary to clean up politics and combat social evils. By the 1890s, for example, the WCTU, then the largest women’s organization in America, endorsed suffrage. An alliance of working-class and middle- and upper-class women organized the Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL) in 1903 and campaigned for the vote alongside the National American Woman Suffrage Association, a leading suffrage organization composed largely of middle- and upper-class women. WTUL members viewed the vote as a way to further their economic interests and to foster a new sense of respect for working-class women. “What the woman who labors wants is the right to live, not simply exist,” said Rose Schneiderman, a WTUL leader, during a 1912 speech. “The worker must have bread, but she must have roses, too.”9 Many suffragists adopted a much crueler message. Some, even outside the South, argued that white women’s votes were necessary to maintain white supremacy. Many white American women argued that enfranchising white upper- and middle-class women would counteract Black voters. These arguments even stretched into international politics. But whether the message advocated gender equality, class politics, or white supremacy, the suffrage campaign was winning. The final push for women’s suffrage came on the eve of World War I. Determined to win the vote, the National American Woman Suffrage Association developed a dual strategy that focused on the passage of state voting rights laws and on the ratification of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Meanwhile, a new, more militant, suffrage organization emerged on the scene. Led by Alice Paul, the National Woman’s Party took to the streets to demand voting rights, organizing marches and protests that mobilized thousands of women. Beginning in January 1917, National Woman’s Party members also began to picket the White House, an action that led to the arrest and imprisonment of over 150 women.10 In January 1918, President Woodrow Wilson declared his support for the women’s suffrage amendment, and two years later women’s suffrage became a reality. After the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, women from all walks of life mobilized to vote. They were driven by the promise of change but also in some cases by their anxieties about the future. Much had changed since their campaign began; the United States was now more industrial than not, increasingly more urban than rural. The activism and activities of these new urban denizens also gave rise to a new American culture. Notes - John Kobler, Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition (Boston: Da Capo Press, 1993), 147. - Toynbee Hall was the first settlement house. It was built in 1884 by Samuel Barnett as a place for Oxford students to live while at the same time working in the house’s poor neighborhood. Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998), 64–65; Victoria Bissell Brown, The Education of Jane Addams (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). - Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 125–126. - Allen Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 77. - Jane Addams, “The Settlement as a Factor in the Labor Movement,” reprinted in Hull-House Maps and Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago Together with Comments and Essays on Problems Growing out of the Social Conditions (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 145, 149. - Kathryn Kish Sklar, “‘Some of Us Who Deal with the Social Fabric’: Jane Addams Blends Peace and Social Justice, 1907–1919,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2, no. 1 (January 2003). - Karen Manners Smith, “New Paths to Power: 1890–1920,” in No Small Courage: A History of Women in the United States, ed. Nancy Cott (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 392. - Debra Michals, PhD. "Margaret Sanger." National Women's History Museum, 2017, https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/margaret-sanger. Accessed 29 March, 2022. - Sarah Eisenstein, Give Us Bread but Give Us Roses: Working Women’s Consciousness in the United States, 1890 to the First World War (New York: Routledge, 1983), 32. - Ellen Carol Dubois, Women’s Suffrage and Women’s Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1998). Targeting the Trusts In one of the defining books of the Progressive Era, The Promise of American Life, Herbert Croly argued that because “the corrupt politician has usurped too much of the power which should be exercised by the people,” the “millionaire and the trust have appropriated too many of the economic opportunities formerly enjoyed by the people.” Croly and other reformers believed that wealth inequality eroded democracy and reformers had to win back for the people the power usurped by the moneyed trusts. But what exactly were these “trusts,” and why did it suddenly seem so important to reform them?1 In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a trust was a monopoly or cartel associated with the large corporations of the Gilded and Progressive Eras who entered into agreements—legal or otherwise—or consolidations to exercise exclusive control over a specific product or industry under the control of a single entity. Certain types of monopolies, specifically for intellectual property like copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets, are protected under the Constitution “to promote the progress of science and useful arts,” but for powerful entities to control entire national markets was something wholly new, and, for many Americans, wholly unsettling. The rapid industrialization, technological advancement, and urban growth of the 1870s and 1880s triggered major changes in the way businesses structured themselves. The Second Industrial Revolution, made possible by available natural resources, growth in the labor supply through immigration, increasing capital, new legal economic entities, novel production strategies, and a growing national market, was commonly asserted to be the natural product of the federal government’s laissez faire, or “hands off,” economic policy. An unregulated business climate, the argument went, allowed for the growth of major trusts, most notably Andrew Carnegie’s Carnegie Steel (later consolidated with other producers as U.S. Steel) and John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company. Each displayed the vertical and horizontal integration strategies common to the new trusts: Carnegie first used vertical integration by controlling every phase of business (raw materials, transportation, manufacturing, distribution), and Rockefeller adhered to horizontal integration by buying out competing refineries. Once dominant in a market, critics alleged, the trusts could artificially inflate prices, bully rivals, and bribe politicians. Between 1897 and 1904, over four thousand companies were consolidated down into 257 corporate firms. As one historian wrote, “By 1904 a total of 318 trusts held 40% of US manufacturing assets and boasted a capitalization of $7 billion, seven times bigger than the US national debt.”2 With the twentieth century came the age of monopoly. Mergers and the aggressive business policies of wealthy men such as Carnegie and Rockefeller earned them the epithet robber barons. Their cutthroat stifling of economic competition, mistreatment of workers, and corruption of politics sparked an opposition that pushed for regulations to rein in the power of monopolies. The great corporations became a major target of reformers. Big business, whether in meatpacking, railroads, telegraph lines, oil, or steel, posed new problems for the American legal system. Before the Civil War, most businesses operated in a single state. They might ship goods across state lines or to other countries, but they typically had offices and factories in just one state. Individual states naturally regulated industry and commerce. But extensive railroad routes crossed several state lines and new mass-producing corporations operated across the nation, raising questions about where the authority to regulate such practices rested. During the 1870s, many states passed laws to check the growing power of vast new corporations. In the Midwest, farmers formed a network of organizations that were part political pressure group, part social club, and part mutual aid society. Together they pushed for so-called Granger laws that regulated railroads and other new companies. Railroads and others opposed these regulations because they restrained profits and because of the difficulty of meeting the standards of each state’s separate regulatory laws. In 1877, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld these laws in a series of rulings, finding in cases such as Munn v. Illinois and Stone v. Wisconsin that railroads and other companies of such size necessarily affected the public interest and could thus be regulated by individual states. In Munn, the court declared, “Property does become clothed with a public interest when used in a manner to make it of public consequence, and affect the community at large. When, therefore, one devoted his property to a use in which the public has an interest, he, in effect, grants to the public an interest in that use, and must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good, to the extent of the interest he has thus created.”3 Later rulings, however, conceded that only the federal government could constitutionally regulate interstate commerce and the new national businesses operating it. And as more and more power and capital and market share flowed to the great corporations, the onus of regulation passed to the federal government. In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act, which established the Interstate Commerce Commission to stop discriminatory and predatory pricing practices. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 aimed to limit anticompetitive practices, such as those institutionalized in cartels and monopolistic corporations. It stated that a “trust . . . or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce . . . is declared to be illegal” and that those who “monopolize . . . any part of the trade or commerce . . . shall be deemed guilty.”4 The Sherman Anti-Trust Act declared that not all monopolies were illegal, only those that “unreasonably” stifled free trade. The courts seized on the law’s vague language, however, and the act was turned against itself, manipulated and used, for instance, to limit the growing power of labor unions. Only in 1914, with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, did Congress attempt to close loopholes in previous legislation. Aggression against the trusts—and the progressive vogue for “trust busting”—took on new meaning under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, a reform-minded Republican who ascended to the presidency after the death of William McKinley in 1901. Roosevelt’s youthful energy and confrontational politics captivated the nation.”5 Roosevelt was by no means antibusiness. Instead, he envisioned his presidency as a mediator between opposing forces, such as between labor unions and corporate executives. Despite his own wealthy background, Roosevelt pushed for antitrust legislation and regulations, arguing that the courts could not be relied on to break up the trusts. Roosevelt also used his own moral judgment to determine which monopolies he would pursue. Roosevelt believed that there were good and bad trusts, necessary monopolies and corrupt ones. Although his reputation as a trust buster was wildly exaggerated, he was the first major national politician to go after the trusts. “The great corporations which we have grown to speak of rather loosely as trusts,” he said, “are the creatures of the State, and the State not only has the right to control them, but it is in duty bound to control them wherever the need of such control is shown."6 His first target was the Northern Securities Company, a “holding” trust in which several wealthy bankers, most famously J. P. Morgan, used to hold controlling shares in all the major railroad companies in the American Northwest. Holding trusts had emerged as a way to circumvent the Sherman Anti-Trust Act: by controlling the majority of shares, rather than the principal, Morgan and his collaborators tried to claim that it was not a monopoly. Roosevelt’s administration sued and won in court, and in 1904 the Northern Securities Company was ordered to disband into separate competitive companies. Two years later, in 1906, Roosevelt signed the Hepburn Act, allowing the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate best practices and set reasonable rates for the railroads. Roosevelt was more interested in regulating corporations than breaking them apart. Besides, the courts were slow and unpredictable. However, his successor after 1908, William Howard Taft, firmly believed in court-oriented trust busting and during his four years in office more than doubled the number of monopoly breakups that occurred during Roosevelt’s seven years in office. Taft notably went after U.S. Steel, the world’s first billion-dollar corporation formed from the consolidation of nearly every major American steel producer. Trust busting and the handling of monopolies dominated the election of 1912. When the Republican Party spurned Roosevelt’s return to politics and renominated the incumbent Taft, Roosevelt left and formed his own coalition, the Progressive or “Bull Moose” Party. Whereas Taft took an all-encompassing view on the illegality of monopolies, Roosevelt adopted a New Nationalism program, which once again emphasized the regulation of already existing corporations or the expansion of federal power over the economy. In contrast, Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic Party nominee, emphasized in his New Freedom agenda neither trust busting nor federal regulation but rather small-business incentives so that individual companies could increase their competitive chances. Yet once he won the election, Wilson edged nearer to Roosevelt’s position, signing the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act substantially enhanced the Sherman Act, specifically regulating mergers and price discrimination and protecting labor’s access to collective bargaining and related strategies of picketing, boycotting, and protesting. Congress further created the Federal Trade Commission to enforce the Clayton Act, ensuring at least some measure of implementation.7 While the three presidents—Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson—pushed the development and enforcement of antitrust law, their commitments were uneven, and trust busting itself manifested the political pressure put on politicians by the workers, farmers, and progressive writers who so strongly drew attention to the ramifications of trusts and corporate capital on the lives of everyday Americans. Notes - Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 145. - Kevin P. Phillips, Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich (New York: Broadway Books, 2003), 307. - Munn v. Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1877). - Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. - The writer Henry Adams said that he “showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act.” Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1918), 413. - Theodore Roosevelt, Addresses and Presidential Messages of Theodore Roosevelt, 1902–1904, 15. - The historiography on American progressive politics is vast. See, for instance, Michael McGerr, A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (New York: Free Press, 2003). Progressive Environmentalism The potential scope of environmental destruction wrought by industrial capitalism was unparalleled in human history. Professional bison hunting expeditions nearly eradicated an entire species, industrialized logging companies denuded whole forests, and chemical plants polluted an entire region’s water supply. As American development and industrialization marched westward, reformers embraced environmental protections. Historians often cite preservation and conservation as two competing strategies that dueled for supremacy among environmental reformers during the Progressive Era. The tensions between these two approaches crystalized in the debate over a proposed dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in California. The fight revolved around the provision of water for San Francisco. Engineers identified the location where the Tuolumne River ran through Hetch Hetchy as an ideal site for a reservoir. The project had been suggested in the 1880s but picked up momentum in the early twentieth century. But the valley was located inside Yosemite National Park. (Yosemite was designated a national park in 1890, though the land had been set aside earlier in a grant approved by President Lincoln in 1864.) The debate over Hetch Hetchy revealed two distinct positions on the value of the valley and on the purpose of public lands. John Muir, a naturalist, a writer, and founder of the Sierra Club, invoked the “God of the Mountains” in his defense of the valley in its supposedly pristine condition. Gifford Pinchot, arguably the father of American forestry and a key player in the federal management of national forests, meanwhile emphasized what he understood to be the purpose of conservation: “to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which it will serve the most people.” Muir took a wider view of what the people needed, writing that “everybody needs beauty as well as bread.”1 These dueling arguments revealed the key differences in environmental thought: Muir, on the side of the preservationists, advocated setting aside pristine lands for their aesthetic and spiritual value, for those who could take his advice to “[get] in touch with the nerves of Mother Earth.”2 Pinchot, on the other hand, led the charge for conservation, a kind of environmental utilitarianism that emphasized the efficient use of available resources, through planning and control and “the prevention of waste.”3 In Hetch Hetchy, conservation won out. Congress approved the project in 1913. The dam was built and the valley flooded for the benefit of San Francisco residents. While preservation was often articulated as an escape from an increasingly urbanized and industrialized way of life and as a welcome respite from the challenges of modernity (at least, for those who had the means to escape), the conservationists were more closely aligned with broader trends in American society. Although the “greatest good for the greatest number” was very nearly the catchphrase of conservation, conservationist policies most often benefited the nation’s financial interests. For example, many states instituted game laws to regulate hunting and protect wildlife, but laws could be entirely unbalanced. In Pennsylvania, local game laws included requiring firearm permits for noncitizens, barred hunting on Sundays, and banned the shooting of songbirds. These laws disproportionately affected Italian immigrants, critics said, as Italians often hunted songbirds for subsistence, worked in mines for low wages every day but Sunday, and were too poor to purchase permits or to pay the fines levied against them when game wardens caught them breaking these new laws. Other laws, for example, offered up resources to businesses at costs prohibitive to all but the wealthiest companies and individuals, or with regulatory requirements that could be met only by companies with extensive resources. But Progressive Era environmentalism addressed more than the management of American public lands. After all, reformers addressing issues facing the urban poor were also doing environmental work. Settlement house workers like Jane Addams and Florence Kelley focused on questions of health and sanitation, while activists concerned with working conditions, most notably Dr. Alice Hamilton, investigated both worksite hazards and occupational and bodily harm. The progressives’ commitment to the provision of public services at the municipal level meant more coordination and oversight in matters of public health, waste management, and even playgrounds and city parks. Their work focused on the intersection of communities and their material environments, highlighting the urgency of urban environmental concerns. While reform movements focused their attention on the urban poor, other efforts targeted rural communities. The Country Life movement, spearheaded by Liberty Hyde Bailey, sought to support agrarian families and encourage young people to stay in their communities and run family farms. Early-twentieth-century educational reforms included a commitment to environmentalism at the elementary level. Led by Bailey and Anna Botsford Comstock, the nature study movement took students outside to experience natural processes and to help them develop observational skills and an appreciation for the natural world. Other examples highlight the interconnectedness of urban and rural communities in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The extinction of the North American passenger pigeon reveals the complexity of Progressive Era relationships between people and nature. Passenger pigeons were actively hunted, prepared at New York’s finest restaurants and in the humblest of farm kitchens. Some hunted them for pay; others shot them in competitions at sporting clubs. And then they were gone, their ubiquity giving way only to nostalgia. Many Americans took notice at the great extinction of a species that had perhaps numbered in the billions and then was eradicated. Women in Audubon Society chapters organized against the fashion of wearing feathers—even whole birds—on ladies’ hats. Upper- and middle-class women made up the lion’s share of the membership of these societies. They used their social standing to fight for birds. Pressure created national wildlife refuges and key laws and regulations that included the Lacey Act of 1900, banning the shipment of species killed illegally across state lines. Examining how women mobilized contemporary notions of womanhood in the service of protecting birds reveals a tangle of cultural and economic processes. Such examples also reveal the range of ideas, policies, and practices wrapped up in figuring out what—and who—American nature should be for. Notes - Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 4th ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 167–168, 171, 165. - John Muir, Our National Parks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1901). - Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (New York: Doubleday Page, 1910), 44. Jim Crow and African American Life America’s tragic racial history was not erased by the Progressive Era. In fact, in all too many ways, reform removed African Americans ever farther from American public life. In the South, electoral politics remained a parade of electoral fraud, voter intimidation, and race-baiting. Democratic Party candidates stirred southern whites into frenzies with warnings of “negro domination” and of Black men violating white women. The region’s culture of racial violence and the rise of lynching as a mass public spectacle accelerated. And as the remaining African American voters threatened the dominance of Democratic leadership in the South, southern Democrats turned to what many white southerners understood as a series of progressive electoral and social reforms—disenfranchisement and segregation. Just as reformers would clean up politics by taming city political machines, white southerners would “purify” the ballot box by restricting Black voting, and they would prevent racial strife by legislating the social separation of the races. The strongest supporters of such measures in the South were progressive Democrats and former Populists, both of whom saw in these reforms a way to eliminate the racial demagoguery that conservative Democratic party leaders had so effectively wielded. Leaders in both the North and South embraced and proclaimed the reunion of the sections on the basis of white supremacy. As the nation took up the “white man’s burden” to uplift the world’s racially inferior peoples, the North looked to the South as an example of how to manage nonwhite populations. The South had become the nation’s racial vanguard.1 The question was how to accomplish disfranchisement. The Fifteenth Amendment clearly prohibited states from denying any citizen the right to vote on the basis of race. In 1890, a Mississippi state newspaper called on politicians to devise “some legal defensible substitute for the abhorrent and evil methods on which white supremacy lies.”2 The state’s Democratic Party responded with a new state constitution designed to purge corruption at the ballot box through disenfranchisement. African Americans hoping to vote in Mississippi would have to jump through a series of hurdles designed with the explicit purpose of excluding them from political power. The state first established a poll tax, which required voters to pay for the privilege of voting. Second, it stripped suffrage from those convicted of petty crimes most common among the state’s African Americans. Next, the state required voters to pass a literacy test. Local voting officials, who were themselves part of the local party machine, were responsible for judging whether voters were able to read and understand a section of the Constitution. In order to protect illiterate whites from exclusion, the so-called “understanding clause” allowed a voter to qualify if they could adequately explain the meaning of a section that was read to them. In practice these rules were systematically abused to the point where local election officials effectively wielded the power to permit and deny suffrage at will. The disenfranchisement laws effectively moved electoral conflict from the ballot box, where public attention was greatest, to the voting registrar, where supposedly color-blind laws allowed local party officials to deny the ballot without the appearance of fraud.3 Between 1895 and 1908, the rest of the states in the South approved new constitutions including these disenfranchisement tools. Six southern states also added a grandfather clause, which bestowed suffrage on anyone whose grandfather was eligible to vote in 1867. This ensured that whites who would have been otherwise excluded through mechanisms such as poll taxes or literacy tests would still be eligible, at least until grandfather clauses were struck down by the Supreme Court in 1915. Finally, each southern state adopted an all-white primary and excluded Black Americans from the Democratic primary, the only political contests that mattered across much of the South.4 For all the legal double-talk, the purpose of these laws was plain. James Kimble Vardaman, later governor of Mississippi, boasted that “there is no use to equivocate or lie about the matter. Mississippi’s constitutional convention was held for no other purpose than to eliminate the nigger from politics; not the ignorant—but the nigger.”5 These technically color-blind tools did their work well. In 1900 Alabama had 121,159 literate Black men of voting age. Only 3,742 were registered to vote. Louisiana had 130,000 Black voters in the contentious election of 1896. Only 5,320 voted in 1900. Black people were clearly the target of these laws, but that did not prevent some whites from being disenfranchised as well. Louisiana dropped 80,000 white voters over the same period. Most politically engaged southern whites considered this a price worth paying to prevent the alleged fraud that plagued the region’s elections.6 At the same time that the South’s Democratic leaders were adopting the tools to disenfranchise the region’s Black voters, these same legislatures were constructing a system of racial segregation even more pernicious. While it built on earlier practice, segregation was primarily a modern and urban system of enforcing racial subordination and deference. In rural areas, white and Black southerners negotiated the meaning of racial difference within the context of personal relationships of kinship and patronage. An African American who broke the local community’s racial norms could expect swift personal sanction that often included violence. The crop lien and convict lease systems were the most important legal tools of racial control in the rural South. Maintaining white supremacy there did not require segregation. Maintaining white supremacy within the city, however, was a different matter altogether. As the region’s railroad networks and cities expanded, so too did the anonymity and therefore freedom of southern Black people. Southern cities were becoming a center of Black middle-class life that was an implicit threat to racial hierarchies. White southerners created the system of segregation as a way to maintain white supremacy in restaurants, theaters, public restrooms, schools, water fountains, train cars, and hospitals. Segregation inscribed the superiority of whites and the deference of Black people into the very geography of public spaces. As with disenfranchisement, segregation violated a plain reading of the Constitution—in this case the Fourteenth Amendment. Here the Supreme Court intervened, ruling in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment only prevented discrimination directly by states. It did not prevent discrimination by individuals, businesses, or other entities. Southern states exploited this interpretation with the first legal segregation of railroad cars in 1888. In a case that reached the Supreme Court in 1896, New Orleans resident Homer Plessy challenged the constitutionality of Louisiana’s segregation of streetcars. The court ruled against Plessy and, in the process, established the legal principle of separate but equal. Racially segregated facilities were legal provided they were equivalent. In practice this was almost never the case. The court’s majority defended its position with logic that reflected the racial assumptions of the day. “If one race be inferior to the other socially,” the court explained, “the Constitution of the United States cannot put them upon the same plane.” Justice John Harlan, the lone dissenter, countered, “Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.” Harlan went on to warn that the court’s decision would “permit the seeds of race hatred to be planted under the sanction of law.”7 In their rush to fulfill Harlan’s prophecy, southern whites codified and enforced the segregation of public spaces. Segregation was built on a fiction—that there could be a white South socially and culturally distinct from African Americans. Its legal basis rested on the constitutional fallacy of “separate but equal.” Southern whites erected a bulwark of white supremacy that would last for nearly sixty years. Segregation and disenfranchisement in the South rejected Black citizenship and relegated Black social and cultural life to segregated spaces. African Americans lived divided lives, acting the part whites demanded of them in public, while maintaining their own world apart from whites. This segregated world provided a measure of independence for the region’s growing Black middle class, yet at the cost of poisoning the relationship between Black and white. Segregation and disenfranchisement created entrenched structures of racism that completed the total rejection of the promises of Reconstruction. And yet many Black Americans of the Progressive Era fought back. Just as activists such as Ida Wells worked against southern lynching, Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois vied for leadership among African American activists, resulting in years of intense rivalry and debated strategies for the uplifting of Black Americans. Born into the world of bondage in Virginia in 1856, Booker Taliaferro Washington was subjected to the degradation and exploitation of slavery early in life. But Washington also developed an insatiable thirst to learn. Working against tremendous odds, Washington matriculated into Hampton University in Virginia and thereafter established a southern institution that would educate many Black Americans, the Tuskegee Institute, located in Alabama. Washington envisioned that Tuskegee’s contribution to Black life would come through industrial education and vocational training. He believed that such skills would help African Americans accomplish economic independence while developing a sense of self-worth and pride of accomplishment, even while living within the putrid confines of Jim Crow. Washington poured his life into Tuskegee, and thereby connected with leading white philanthropic interests. Individuals such as Andrew Carnegie, for instance, financially assisted Washington and his educational ventures. Washington became a leading spokesperson for Black Americans at the turn of the twentieth century, particularly after Frederick Douglass’s death in early 1895. Washington’s famous “Atlanta Compromise” speech from that same year encouraged Black Americans to “cast your bucket down” to improve life’s lot under segregation. In the same speech, delivered one year before the Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision that legalized segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine, Washington said to white Americans, “In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.”8 Washington was both praised as a race leader and pilloried as an accommodationist to America’s unjust racial hierarchy; his public advocacy of a conciliatory posture toward white supremacy concealed the efforts to which he went to assist African Americans in the legal and economic quest for racial justice. In addition to founding Tuskegee, Washington also published a handful of influential books, including the autobiography Up from Slavery (1901). Like Du Bois, Washington was also active in Black journalism, working to fund and support Black newspaper publications, most of which sought to counter Du Bois’s growing influence. Washington died in 1915, during World War I, of ill health in Tuskegee, Alabama. Speaking decades later, Du Bois said Washington had, in his 1895 “Compromise” speech, “implicitly abandoned all political and social rights. . . . I never thought Washington was a bad man . . . I believed him to be sincere, though wrong.” Du Bois would directly attack Washington in his classic 1903 The Souls of Black Folk, but at the turn of the century he could never escape the shadow of his longtime rival. “I admired much about him,” Du Bois admitted. “Washington . . . died in 1915. A lot of people think I died at the same time.”9 Du Bois’s criticism reveals the politicized context of the Black freedom struggle and exposes the many positions available to Black activists. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1868, Du Bois entered the world as a free person of color three years after the Civil War ended. He was raised by a hardworking and independent mother; his New England childhood alerted him to the reality of race even as it invested the emerging thinker with an abiding faith in the power of education. Du Bois graduated at the top of his high school class and attended Fisk University. Du Bois’s sojourn to the South in 1880s left a distinct impression that would guide his life’s work to study what he called the “Negro problem,” the systemic racial and economic discrimination that Du Bois prophetically pronounced would be the problem of the twentieth century. After Fisk, Du Bois’s educational path trended back North. He attended Harvard, earned his second degree, crossed the Atlantic for graduate work in Germany, and circulated back to Harvard, and in 1895, he became the first Black American to receive a PhD there. Du Bois became one of America’s foremost intellectual leaders on questions of social justice by producing scholarship that underscored the humanity of African Americans. Du Bois’s work as an intellectual, scholar, and college professor began during the Progressive Era, a time in American history marked by rapid social and cultural change as well as complex global political conflicts and developments. Du Bois addressed these domestic and international concerns not only in his classrooms at Wilberforce University in Ohio and Atlanta University in Georgia but also in a number of his early publications on the history of the transatlantic slave trade and Black life in urban Philadelphia. The most well-known of these early works included The Souls of Black Folk (1903) and Darkwater (1920). In these books, Du Bois combined incisive historical analysis with engaging literary drama to validate Black personhood and attack the inhumanity of white supremacy, particularly in the lead-up to and during World War I. In addition to publications and teaching, Du Bois set his sights on political organizing for civil rights, first with the Niagara Movement and later with its offspring, the NAACP. Du Bois’s main work with the NAACP lasted from 1909 to 1934 as editor of The Crisis, one of America’s leading Black publications. Du Bois attacked Washington and urged Black Americans to concede to nothing, to make no compromises and advocate for equal rights under the law. Throughout his early career, he pushed for civil rights legislation, launched legal challenges against discrimination, organized protests against injustice, and applied his capacity for clear research and sharp prose to expose the racial sins of Progressive Era America. “We refuse to allow the impression to remain that the Negro-American assents to inferiority, is submissive under oppression and apologetic before insults. . . . Any discrimination based simply on race or color is barbarous, we care not how hallowed it be by custom, expediency or prejudice . . . discriminations based simply and solely on physical peculiarities, place of birth, color of skin, are relics of that unreasoning human savagery of which the world is and ought to be thoroughly ashamed. . . . Persistent manly agitation is the way to liberty.”10 W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington made a tremendous historical impact and left a notable historical legacy. They were reared under markedly different circumstances, and thus their early life experiences and even personal temperaments oriented both leaders’ lives and outlooks in decidedly different ways. Du Bois’s confrontational voice boldly targeted white supremacy. He believed in the power of social science to arrest the reach of white supremacy. Washington advocated incremental change for longer-term gain. He contended that economic self-sufficiency would pay off at a future date. Four years after Du Bois directly spoke out against Washington in the chapter “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington” in Souls of Black Folk, the two men shared the same lectern at Philadelphia Divinity School to address matters of race, history, and culture in the American South. Although their philosophies often differed, both men inspired others to demand that America live up to its democratic creed. Notes - Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). - Edward Ayers, The Promise of the New South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 147. - Ibid. - Ibid. - Neil R. McMillen, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 43. - Perman, Struggle for Mastery, 147. - Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). - Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1901), 221–222. - Kate A. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters Between Black and Red (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 297 n. 28. - W. E. B. DuBois, “Niagara’s Declaration of Principles, 1905,” Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition, https://glc.yale.edu/niagaras-declaration-principles-1905, accessed June 15, 2018. Conclusion Industrial capitalism unleashed powerful forces in American life. Along with wealth, technological innovation, and rising standards of living, a host of social problems unsettled many who turned to reform politics to set the world right again. The Progressive Era signaled that a turning point had been reached for many Americans who were suddenly willing to confront the age’s problems with national political solutions. Reformers sought to bring order to chaos, to bring efficiency to inefficiency, and to bring justice to injustice. Causes varied, constituencies shifted, and the tangible effects of so much energy was difficult to measure, but the Progressive Era signaled a bursting of long-simmering tensions and introduced new patterns in the relationship between American society, American culture, and American politics. Primary Sources 1. Booker T. Washington & W.E.B. DuBois on Black Progress (1895, 1903) Booker T. Washington, born enslaved in Virginia in 1856, founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881 and became a leading advocate of African American progress. Introduced as “a representative of Negro enterprise and Negro civilization,” Washington delivered the following remarks, sometimes called the “Atlanta Compromise” speech, at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta in 1895. 2. Jane Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements” (1892) Hull House, Chicago’s famed “settlement house,” was designed to uplift urban populations. Here, Addams explains why she believes reformers must “add the social function to democracy.” As Addams explained, Hull House “was opened on the theory that the dependence of classes on each other is reciprocal.” 3. Eugene Debs, “How I Became a Socialist” (April, 1902) A native of Terre Haute, Indiana, Eugene V. Debs began working as a locomotive fireman (tending the fires of a train’s steam engine) as a youth in the 1870s. His experience in the American labor movement later led him to socialism. In the early-twentieth century, as the Socialist Party of America’s candidate, he ran for the presidency five times and twice earned nearly one-million votes. He was America’s most prominent socialist. In 1902, a New York paper asked Debs how he became a socialist. This is his answer. 4. Walter Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis (1907) Walter Rauschenbusch, a Baptist minister and theologian, advocated for a “social gospel.” Here, he explains why he believes Christianity must address social questions. 5. Alice Stone Blackwell, Answering Objections to Women’s Suffrage (1917) Alice Stone Blackwell was a feminist activist and writer. In an edited volume published in 1917, Blackwell responded to popular anti-women’s-suffrage arguments. 6. Woodrow Wilson on the “New Freedom,” 1912 Woodrow Wilson campaigned for the presidency in 1912 as a progressive democrat. Wilson argued that changing economic conditions demanded new and aggressive government policies–he called his political program “the New Freedom”– to preserve traditional American liberties. 7. Theodore Roosevelt on “The New Nationalism” (1910) In 1910, a newly invigorated Theodore Roosevelt delivered his outline for a bold new progressive agenda, which he would advance in 1912 during a failed presidential run under the new Progressive, or “Bull Moose,” Party. Illustration shows a “Standard Oil” storage tank as an octopus with many tentacles wrapped around the steel, copper, and shipping industries, as well as a state house, the U.S. Capitol, and one tentacle reaching for the White House. The only building not yet within reach of the octopus is the White House—President Teddy Roosevelt had won a reputation as a “trust buster.” 9. “College Day on the Picket Line” (1917) Women protested silently in front of the White House for over two years before the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. Here, women represent their colleges as they picket the White House in support of women’s suffrage. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Mary Anne Henderson, with content contributions by Andrew C. Baker, Peter Catapano, Blaine Hamilton, Mary Anne Henderson, Amanda Hughett, Amy Kohout, Maria Montalvo, Brent Ruswick, Philip Luke Sinitiere, Nora Slonimsky, Whitney Stewart, and Brandy Thomas Wells. Recommended citation: Andrew C. Baker et al., “The Progressive Era,” Mary Anne Henderson, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Ayers, Edward. The Promise of the New South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. - Bay, Mia. To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. - Cott, Nancy. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. - Dawley, Alan. Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991. - Dubois, Ellen Carol. Women’s Suffrage and Women’s Rights. New York: New York University Press, 1998. - Filene, Peter. “An Obituary for ‘The Progressive Movement,’” American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 20–34. - Flanagan, Maureen. America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. - Foley, Neil. The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. - Gilmore, Glenda E. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. - Hale, Grace Elizabeth. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. - Hicks, Cheryl. Talk with You Like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890–1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. - Hofstadter, Richard. The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Knopf, 1955. - Johnson, Kimberley. Governing the American State: Congress and the New Federalism, 1877–1929. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006. - Kessler-Harris, Alice. In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. - Kloppenberg, James T. Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870–1920. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. - Kolko, Gabriel. The Triumph of Conservatism. New York: Free Press, 1963. - Kousser, J. Morgan. The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974. - McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. New York: Free Press, 2003. - Molina, Natalia. Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. - Muncy, Robyn. Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. - Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. - Sanders, Elizabeth. The Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. - Stromquist, Shelton. Re-Inventing “The People”: The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2006. - White, Deborah. Too Heavy a Load: In Defense of Themselves. New York: Norton, 1999. - Wiebe, Robert. The Search for Order, 1877–1920. New York: Hill and Wang, 1967.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.538208	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Reconstruction, Growth, and Transformation, The Progressive Era", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/overview	Lesson 4 Section 10 Race and World War II Lesson 4 Section 11 Toward a Postwar World Lesson 4 Section 2 The Origins of the Pacific War Lesson 4 Section 3 The Origins of the European War Lesson 4 Section 4 American Isolationism Lesson 4 Section 5 The United States and the European War Lesson 4 Section 6 The United States and the Japanese War Lesson 4 Section 7 Soldiers’ Experiences Lesson 4 Section 8 The Wartime Economy Lesson 4 Section 9 Women and World War II World War II Overview Link to student view Unit 2 Lesson 4 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 2 Lesson 4 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Quiz-24.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction The 1930s and 1940s were trying times. A global economic crisis gave way to a global war that became the deadliest and most destructive in human history. Perhaps eighty million individuals lost their lives during World War II. The war saw industrialized genocide and nearly threatened the eradication of an entire people. It also unleashed the most fearsome technology ever used in war. And when it ended, the United States found itself alone as the world’s greatest superpower. Armed with the world’s greatest economy, it looked forward to the fruits of a prosperous consumers’ economy. But the war raised as many questions as it would settle and unleashed new social forces at home and abroad that confronted generations of Americans to come. Notes Title image American soldiers recover the dead on Omaha Beach in 1944. Library of Congress. The Origins of the Pacific War Although the United States joined the war in 1941, two years after Europe exploded into conflict in 1939, the path to the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, the surprise attack that threw the United States headlong into war, began much earlier. For the Empire of Japan, the war had begun a decade before Pearl Harbor. On September 18, 1931, a small explosion tore up railroad tracks controlled by the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway near the city of Shenyang (Mukden) in the Chinese province of Manchuria. The railway company condemned the bombing as the work of anti-Japanese Chinese dissidents. Evidence, though, suggests that the initial explosion was neither an act of Chinese anti-Japanese sentiment nor an accident but an elaborate ruse planned by the Japanese to provide a basis for invasion. In response, the privately operated Japanese Guandong (Kwangtung) army began shelling the Shenyang garrison the next day, and the garrison fell before nightfall. Hungry for Chinese territory and witnessing the weakness and disorganization of Chinese forces, but under the pretense of protecting Japanese citizens and investments, the Japanese Imperial Army ordered a full-scale invasion of Manchuria. The invasion was swift. Without a centralized Chinese army, the Japanese quickly defeated isolated Chinese warlords and by the end of February 1932, all of Manchuria was firmly under Japanese control. Japan established the nation of Manchukuo out of the former province of Manchuria.1 This seemingly small skirmish—known by the Chinese as the September 18 Incident and the Japanese as the Manchurian Incident—sparked a war that would last thirteen years and claim the lives of over thirty-five million people. Comprehending Japanese motivations for attacking China and the grueling stalemate of the ensuing war are crucial for understanding Japan’s seemingly unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, and, therefore, for understanding the involvement of the United States in World War II as well. Despite their rapid advance into Manchuria, the Japanese put off the invasion of China for nearly three years. Japan occupied a precarious domestic and international position after the September 18 Incident. At home, Japan was riven by political factionalism due to its stagnating economy. Leaders were torn as to whether to address modernization and lack of natural resources through unilateral expansion (the conquest of resource-rich areas such as Manchuria to export raw materials to domestic Japanese industrial bases such as Hiroshima and Nagasaki) or international cooperation (a philosophy of pan-Asianism in an anti-Western coalition that would push the colonial powers out of Asia). Ultimately, after a series of political crises and assassinations enflamed tensions, pro-war elements within the Japanese military triumphed over the more moderate civilian government. Japan committed itself to aggressive military expansion. Chinese leaders Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang appealed to the League of Nations for assistance against Japan. The United States supported the Chinese protest, proclaiming the Stimson Doctrine in January 1932, which refused to recognize any state established as a result of Japanese aggression. Meanwhile, the League of Nations sent Englishman Victor Bulwer-Lytton to investigate the September 18 Incident. After a six-month investigation, Bulwer-Lytton found the Japanese guilty of inciting the September 18 incident and demanded the return of Manchuria to China. The Japanese withdrew from the League of Nations in March 1933. Japan isolated itself from the world. Its diplomatic isolation empowered radical military leaders who could point to Japanese military success in Manchuria and compare it to the diplomatic failures of the civilian government. The military took over Japanese policy. And in the military’s eyes, the conquest of China would not only provide for Japan’s industrial needs, it would secure Japanese supremacy in East Asia. The Japanese launched a full-scale invasion of China. It assaulted the Marco Polo Bridge on July 7, 1937, and routed the forces of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek. The broken Chinese army gave up Beiping (Beijing) to the Japanese on August 8, Shanghai on November 26, and the capital, Nanjing (Nanking), on December 13. Between 250,000 and 300,000 people were killed, and tens of thousands of women were raped, when the Japanese besieged and then sacked Nanjing. The Western press labeled it the Rape of Nanjing. To halt the invading enemy, Chiang Kai-shek adopted a scorched-earth strategy of “trading space for time.” His Nationalist government retreated inland, burning villages and destroying dams, and established a new capital at the Yangtze River port of Chongqing (Chungking). Although the Nationalists’ scorched-earth policy hurt the Japanese military effort, it alienated scores of dislocated Chinese civilians and became a potent propaganda tool of the emerging Chinese Communist Party (CCP).2 Americans read about the brutal fighting in China, but the United States lacked both the will and the military power to oppose the Japanese invasion. After the gut-wrenching carnage of World War I, many Americans retreated toward isolationism by opposing any involvement in the conflagrations burning in Europe and Asia. And even if Americans wished to intervene, their military was lacking. The Japanese army was a technologically advanced force consisting of 4,100,000 men and 900,000 Chinese collaborators—and that was in China alone. The Japanese military was armed with modern rifles, artillery, armor, and aircraft. By 1940, the Japanese navy was the third-largest and among the most technologically advanced in the world. Still, Chinese Nationalists lobbied Washington for aid. Chiang Kai-shek’s wife, Soong May-ling—known to the American public as Madame Chiang—led the effort. Born into a wealthy Chinese merchant family in 1898, Madame Chiang spent much of her childhood in the United States and graduated from Wellesley College in 1917 with a major in English literature. In contrast to her gruff husband, Madame Chiang was charming and able to use her knowledge of American culture and values to garner support for her husband and his government. But while the United States denounced Japanese aggression, it took no action during the 1930s. As Chinese Nationalists fought for survival, the Communist Party was busy collecting people and supplies in the northwestern Shaanxi Province. China had been at war with itself when the Japanese came. Nationalists battled a stubborn communist insurgency. In 1935 the Nationalists threw the communists out of the fertile Chinese coast, but an ambitious young commander named Mao Zedong recognized the power of the Chinese peasant population. In Shaanxi, Mao recruited from the local peasantry, building his force from a meager seven thousand survivors at the end of the Long March in 1935 to a robust 1.2 million members by the end of the war. Although Japan had conquered much of the country, the Nationalists regrouped and the communists rearmed. An uneasy truce paused the country’s civil war and refocused efforts on the invaders. The Chinese could not dislodge the Japanese, but they could stall their advance. The war mired in stalemate. Notes - For the second Sino-Japanese War, see, for instance, Michael A. Barnhart, Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987); Dick Wilson, When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945 (New York: Viking, 1982); and Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds., The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011). - See Joshua A. Fogel, The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). The Origins of the European War Across the globe in Europe, the continent’s major powers were still struggling with the aftereffects of World War I when the global economic crisis spiraled much of the continent into chaos. Germany’s Weimar Republic collapsed with the economy, and out of the ashes emerged Adolf Hitler’s National Socialists—the Nazis. Championing German racial supremacy, fascist government, and military expansionism, Hitler rose to power and, after aborted attempts to take power in Germany, became chancellor in 1933 and the Nazis conquered German institutions. Democratic traditions were smashed. Leftist groups were purged. Hitler repudiated the punitive damages and strict military limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. He rebuilt the German military and navy. He reoccupied regions lost during the war and remilitarized the Rhineland, along the border with France. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Hitler and Benito Mussolini—the fascist Italian leader who had risen to power in the 1920s—intervened for the Spanish fascists, toppling the communist Spanish Republican Party. Britain and France stood by warily and began to rebuild their militaries, anxious in the face of a renewed Germany but still unwilling to draw Europe into another bloody war.1 In his autobiographical manifesto, Mein Kampf, Hitler advocated for the unification of Europe’s German peoples under one nation and that nation’s need for Lebensraum, or living space, particularly in Eastern Europe, to supply Germans with the land and resources needed for future prosperity. The Untermenschen (lesser humans) would have to go. Once in power, Hitler worked toward the twin goals of unification and expansion. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and set its sights on the Sudetenland, a large, ethnically German area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France, alarmed but still anxious to avoid war, agreed—without Czechoslovakia’s input—that Germany could annex the region in return for a promise to stop all future German aggression. They thought that Hitler could be appeased, but it became clear that his ambitions would continue pushing German expansion. In March 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia and began to make demands on Poland. Britain and France promised war. And war came. Hitler signed a secret agreement—the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—with the Soviet Union that coordinated the splitting of Poland between the two powers and promised nonaggression thereafter. The European war began when the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France declared war two days later and mobilized their armies. Britain and France hoped that the Poles could hold out for three to four months, enough time for the Allies to intervene. Poland fell in three weeks. The German army, anxious to avoid the rigid, grinding war of attrition that took so many millions in the stalemate of World War I, built their new modern army for speed and maneuverability. German doctrine emphasized the use of tanks, planes, and motorized infantry (infantry that used trucks for transportation instead of marching) to concentrate forces, smash front lines, and wreak havoc behind the enemy’s defenses. It was called Blitzkrieg, or lightning war. After the fall of Poland, France and its British allies braced for an inevitable German attack. Throughout the winter of 1939–1940, however, fighting was mostly confined to smaller fronts in Norway. Belligerents called it the Sitzkrieg (sitting war). But in May 1940, Hitler launched his attack into Western Europe. Mirroring the German’s Schlieffen Plan of 1914 in the previous war, Germany attacked through the Netherlands and Belgium to avoid the prepared French defenses along the French-German border. Poland had fallen in three weeks; France lasted only a few weeks more. By June, Hitler was posing for photographs in front of the Eiffel Tower. Germany split France in half. Germany occupied and governed the north, and the south would be ruled under a puppet government in Vichy. With France under heel, Hitler turned to Britain. Operation Sea Lion—the planned German invasion of the British Isles—required air superiority over the English Channel. From June until October the German Luftwaffe fought the Royal Air Force (RAF) for control of the skies. Despite having fewer planes, British pilots won the so-called Battle of Britain, saving the islands from immediate invasion and prompting the new prime minister, Winston Churchill, to declare, “Never before in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few.” If Britain was safe from invasion, it was not immune from additional air attacks. Stymied in the Battle of Britain, Hitler began the Blitz—a bombing campaign against cities and civilians. Hoping to crush the British will to fight, the Luftwaffe bombed the cities of London, Liverpool, and Manchester every night from September to the following May. Children were sent far into the countryside to live with strangers to shield them from the bombings. Remaining residents took refuge in shelters and subway tunnels, emerging each morning to put out fires and bury the dead. The Blitz ended in June 1941, when Hitler, confident that Britain was temporarily out of the fight, launched Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union. Hoping to capture agricultural lands, seize oil fields, and break the military threat of Stalin’s Soviet Union, Hitler broke the two powers’ 1939 nonaggression pact and, on June 22, invaded the Soviet Union. It was the largest land invasion in history. France and Poland had fallen in weeks, and German officials hoped to break Russia before the winter. And initially, the Blitzkrieg worked. The German military quickly conquered enormous swaths of land and netted hundreds of thousands of prisoners. But Russia was too big and the Soviets were willing to sacrifice millions to stop the fascist advance. After recovering from the initial shock of the German invasion, Stalin moved his factories east of the Urals, out of range of the Luftwaffe. He ordered his retreating army to adopt a “scorched earth” policy, to move east and destroy food, rails, and shelters to stymie the advancing German army. The German army slogged forward. It split into three pieces and stood at the gates of Moscow, Stalingrad, and Leningrad, but supply lines now stretched thousands of miles, Soviet infrastructure had been destroyed, partisans harried German lines, and the brutal Russian winter arrived. Germany had won massive gains but the winter found Germany exhausted and overextended. In the north, the German army starved Leningrad to death during an interminable siege; in the south, at Stalingrad, the two armies bled themselves to death in the destroyed city; and, in the center, on the outskirts of Moscow, in sight of the capital city, the German army faltered and fell back. It was the Soviet Union that broke Hitler’s army. Twenty-five million Soviet soldiers and civilians died during the Great Patriotic War, and roughly 80 percent of all German casualties during the war came on the Eastern Front. The German army and its various conscripts suffered 850,000 casualties at the Battle of Stalingrad alone. In December 1941, Germany began its long retreat.2 Notes - On the origins of World War II in Europe, see, for instance, P. M. H. Bell, The Origins of the Second World War in Europe (New York: Routledge, 1986). - Antony Beevor, Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege, 1942–1943 (New York: Penguin, 1999); Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941–45: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1986); Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939–1945 (New York: Picador, 2006). American Isolationism For more information about Lend-Lease, EDSITEment!, FDR and the Lend-Lease Act, https://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plans/lesson-4-fdr-and-lend-lease-act Between 1935 and 1937 Congress passed three "Neutrality Acts" that tried to keep the United States out of war, by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms, or other war materials to belligerent nations. Supporters of neutrality, called "isolationists" by their critics, argued that America should avoid entangling itself in European wars. "Internationalists" rejected the idea that the United States could remain aloof from Europe and held that the nation should aid countries threatened with aggression. In the spring of 1939, as Germany, Japan, and Italy pursued militaristic policies, President Roosevelt wanted more flexibility to meet the Fascist challenge. FDR suggested amending the act to allow warring nations to purchase munitions if they paid cash and transported the goods on non-American ships, a policy that favored Britain and France. Initially, this proposal failed, but after Germany invaded Poland in September, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 ending the munitions embargo on a "cash and carry" basis. The passage of the 1939 Neutrality Act marked the beginning of a congressional shift away from isolationism. Over the next 2 years, Congress took further steps to oppose fascism. One of the most important was the 1941 approval of Lend-Lease, which allowed the United States to transfer arms to nations vital to the national defense.1 The Lend-Lease Act, approved by Congress in March 1941, had given President Roosevelt virtually unlimited authority to direct material aid such as ammunition, tanks, airplanes, trucks, and food to the war effort in Europe without violating the nation’s official position of neutrality. This aid was intended to assist in the defense of nations whose security was deemed vital to the security of the United States. President Roosevelt, who favored U.S. intervention in WWII, advocated creating the program as a way to provide indirect support for the Allies without engaging the U.S. in a war for which there was not yet overwhelming public support.2 Notes - "Congress, Neutrality, and Lend-Lease," National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/text/page20_text.html. Accessed 30 March, 2022. - This account is based on the artilce, "Today in History - October 23, The Lend-Lease Act," Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/october-23/#:~:text=The%20Lend%2DLease%20Act%2C%20approved,nation's%20official%20position%20of%20neutrality. The United States and the European War While Hitler marched across Europe, the Japanese continued their war in the Pacific. In 1939 the United States dissolved its trade treaties with Japan and the following year cut off supplies of war materials by embargoing oil, steel, rubber, and other vital goods. It was hoped that economic pressure would shut down the Japanese war machine. Instead, Japan’s resource-starved military launched invasions across the Pacific to sustain its war effort. The Japanese called their new empire the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and, with the cry of “Asia for the Asians,” made war against European powers and independent nations throughout the region. Diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States collapsed. The United States demanded that Japan withdraw from China; Japan considered the oil embargo a de facto declaration of war.1 Japanese military planners, believing that American intervention was inevitable, planned a coordinated Pacific offensive to neutralize the United States and other European powers and provide time for Japan to complete its conquests and fortify its positions. On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japanese military planners hoped to destroy enough battleships and aircraft carriers to cripple American naval power for years. Twenty-four hundred Americans were killed in the attack. American isolationism fell at Pearl Harbor. Japan also assaulted Hong Kong, the Philippines, and American holdings throughout the Pacific, but it was the attack on Hawaii that threw the United States into a global conflict. Franklin Roosevelt called December 7 “a date which will live in infamy” and called for a declaration of war, which Congress answered within hours. Within a week of Pearl Harbor the United States had declared war on the entire Axis, turning two previously separate conflicts into a true world war. The American war began slowly. Britain had stood alone militarily in Europe, but American supplies had bolstered their resistance. Hitler unleashed his U-boat “wolf packs” into the Atlantic Ocean with orders to sink anything carrying aid to Britain, but Britain’s and the United States’ superior tactics and technology won them the Battle of the Atlantic. British code breakers cracked Germany’s radio codes and the surge of intelligence, dubbed Ultra, coupled with massive naval convoys escorted by destroyers armed with sonar and depth charges, gave the advantage to the Allies and by 1942, Hitler’s Kriegsmarine was losing ships faster than they could be built.2 In North Africa in 1942, British victory at El Alamein began pushing the Germans back. In November, the first American combat troops entered the European war, landing in French Morocco and pushing the Germans east while the British pushed west.3 By 1943, the Allies had pushed Axis forces out of Africa. In January President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met at Casablanca to discuss the next step of the European war. Churchill convinced Roosevelt to chase the Axis up Italy, into the “soft underbelly” of Europe. Afterward, Roosevelt announced to the press that the Allies would accept nothing less than unconditional surrender. Meanwhile, the Army Air Force (AAF) sent hundreds (and eventually thousands) of bombers to England in preparation for a massive strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The plan was to bomb Germany around the clock. American bombers hit German ball-bearing factories, rail yards, oil fields, and manufacturing centers during the day, while the British RAF carpet-bombed German cities at night. Flying in formation, they initially flew unescorted, since many believed that bombers equipped with defensive firepower flew too high and too fast to be attacked. However, advanced German technology allowed fighters to easily shoot down the lumbering bombers. On some disastrous missions, the Germans shot down almost 50 percent of American aircraft. However, the advent and implementation of a long-range escort fighter let the bombers hit their targets more accurately while fighters confronted opposing German aircraft. In the wake of the Soviets’ victory at Stalingrad, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met in Tehran in November 1943. Dismissing Africa and Italy as a sideshow, Stalin demanded that Britain and the United States invade France to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front. Churchill was hesitant, but Roosevelt was eager. The invasion was tentatively scheduled for 1944. Back in Italy, the “soft underbelly” turned out to be much tougher than Churchill had imagined. Italy’s narrow, mountainous terrain gave the defending Axis the advantage. Movement up the peninsula was slow, and in some places conditions returned to the trenchlike warfare of World War I. Americans attempted to land troops behind them at Anzio on the western coast of Italy, but, surrounded, they suffered heavy casualties. Still, the Allies pushed up the peninsula, Mussolini’s government revolted, and a new Italian government quickly made peace. On the day the American army entered Rome, American, British and Canadian forces launched Operation Overlord, the long-awaited invasion of France. D-Day, as it became popularly known, was the largest amphibious assault in history. American general Dwight Eisenhower was uncertain enough of the attack’s chances that the night before the invasion he wrote two speeches: one for success and one for failure. The Allied landings at Normandy were successful, and although progress across France was much slower than hoped for, Paris was liberated roughly two months later. Allied bombing expeditions meanwhile continued to level German cities and industrial capacity. Perhaps four hundred thousand German civilians were killed by allied bombing.4 The Nazis were crumbling on both fronts. Hitler tried but failed to turn the war in his favor in the west. The Battle of the Bulge failed to drive the Allies back to the English Channel, but the delay cost the Allies the winter. The invasion of Germany would have to wait, while the Soviet Union continued its relentless push westward, ravaging German populations in retribution for German war crimes.5 German counterattacks in the east failed to dislodge the Soviet advance, destroying any last chance Germany might have had to regain the initiative. 1945 dawned with the end of European war in sight. The Big Three met again at Yalta in the Soviet Union, where they reaffirmed the demand for Hitler’s unconditional surrender and began to plan for postwar Europe. The Soviet Union reached Germany in January, and the Americans crossed the Rhine in March. In late April American and Soviet troops met at the Elbe while the Soviets pushed relentlessly by Stalin to reach Berlin first and took the capital city in May, days after Hitler and his high command had died by suicide in a city bunker. Germany was conquered. The European war was over. Allied leaders met again, this time at Potsdam, Germany, where it was decided that Germany would be divided into pieces according to current Allied occupation, with Berlin likewise divided, pending future elections. Stalin also agreed to join the fight against Japan in approximately three months.6 Notes - Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor: The Coming of the War Between the United States and Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950). - For the United States on the European front, see, for instance, John Keegan, The Second World War (New York: Viking, 1990); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005). - Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943 (New York: Holt, 2002. - Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. - Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York: Norton, 1997). - Christopher Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993. The United States and the Japanese War As Americans celebrated V-E (Victory in Europe) Day, they redirected their full attention to the still-raging Pacific War. As in Europe, the war in the Pacific started slowly. After Pearl Harbor, the American-controlled Philippine archipelago fell to Japan. After running out of ammunition and supplies, the garrison of American and Filipino soldiers surrendered. The prisoners were marched eighty miles to their prisoner-of-war camp without food, water, or rest. Ten thousand died on the Bataan Death March.1 But as Americans mobilized their armed forces, the tide turned. In the summer of 1942, American naval victories at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the aircraft carrier duel at the Battle of Midway crippled Japan’s Pacific naval operations. To dislodge Japan’s hold over the Pacific, the U.S. military began island hopping: attacking island after island, bypassing the strongest but seizing those capable of holding airfields to continue pushing Japan out of the region. Combat was vicious. At Guadalcanal American soldiers saw Japanese soldiers launch suicidal charges rather than surrender. Many Japanese soldiers refused to be taken prisoner or to take prisoners themselves. Such tactics, coupled with American racial prejudice, turned the Pacific Theater into a more brutal and barbarous conflict than the European Theater.2 Japanese defenders fought tenaciously. Few battles were as one-sided as the Battle of the Philippine Sea, or what the Americans called the Japanese counterattack, the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot. Japanese soldiers bled the Americans in their advance across the Pacific. At Iwo Jima, an eight-square-mile island of volcanic rock, seventeen thousand Japanese soldiers held the island against seventy thousand Marines for over a month. At the cost of nearly their entire force, they inflicted almost thirty thousand casualties before the island was lost. By February 1945, American bombers were in range of the mainland. Bombers hit Japan’s industrial facilities but suffered high casualties. To spare bomber crews from dangerous daylight raids, and to achieve maximum effect against Japan’s wooden cities, many American bombers dropped incendiary weapons that created massive firestorms and wreaked havoc on Japanese cities. Over sixty Japanese cities were fire-bombed. American fire bombs killed one hundred thousand civilians in Tokyo in March 1945. In June 1945, after eighty days of fighting and tens of thousands of casualties, the Americans captured the island of Okinawa. The mainland of Japan was open before them. It was a viable base from which to launch a full invasion of the Japanese homeland and end the war. Estimates varied, but given the tenacity of Japanese soldiers fighting on islands far from their home, some officials estimated that an invasion of the Japanese mainland could cost half a million American casualties and perhaps millions of Japanese civilians. Historians debate the many motivations that ultimately drove the Americans to use atomic weapons against Japan, and many American officials criticized the decision, but these would be the numbers later cited by government leaders and military officials to justify their use.3 Early in the war, fearing that the Germans might develop an atomic bomb, the U.S. government launched the Manhattan Project, a hugely expensive, ambitious program to harness atomic energy and create a single weapon capable of leveling entire cities. The Americans successfully exploded the world’s first nuclear device, Trinity, in New Mexico in July 1945. (Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, where the bomb was designed, later recalled that the event reminded him of Hindu scripture: “Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.”) Two more bombs—Fat Man and Little Boy—were built and detonated over two Japanese cities in August. Hiroshima was hit on August 6. Over one hundred thousand civilians were killed. Nagasaki followed on August 9. Perhaps eighty thousand civilians were killed. Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan on August 15. On September 2, aboard the battleship USS Missouri, delegates from the Japanese government formally signed their surrender. World War II was finally over. Notes - For the Pacific War, see, for instance, Ronald Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Keegan, Second World War; John Costello, The Pacific War: 1941–1945 (New York: Harper, 2009); and John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). - Dower, War Without Mercy. - Michael J. Hogan, Hiroshima in History and Memory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb (New York: Vintage Books, 1996). Soldiers’ Experiences Almost eighteen million men served in World War II. Volunteers rushed to join the military after Pearl Harbor, but the majority—over ten million—were drafted into service. Volunteers could express their preference for assignment, and many preempted the draft by volunteering. Regardless, recruits judged I-A, “fit for service,” were moved into basic training, where soldiers were developed physically and trained in the basic use of weapons and military equipment. Soldiers were indoctrinated into the chain of command and introduced to military life. After basic, soldiers moved on to more specialized training. For example, combat infantrymen received additional weapons and tactical training, and radio operators learned transmission codes and the operation of field radios. Afterward, an individual’s experience varied depending on what service he entered and to what theater he was assigned.1 Soldiers and Marines bore the brunt of on-the-ground combat. After transportation to the front by trains, ships, and trucks, they could expect to march carrying packs weighing anywhere from twenty to fifty pounds containing rations, ammunition, bandages, tools, clothing, and miscellaneous personal items in addition to their weapons. Sailors, once deployed, spent months at sea operating their assigned vessels. Larger ships, particularly aircraft carriers, were veritable floating cities. In most, sailors lived and worked in cramped conditions, often sleeping in bunks stacked in rooms housing dozens of sailors. Senior officers received small rooms of their own. Sixty thousand American sailors lost their lives in the war. During World War II, the Air Force was still a branch of the U.S. Army and soldiers served in ground and air crews. World War II saw the institutionalization of massive bombing campaigns against cities and industrial production. Large bombers like the B-17 Flying Fortress required pilots, navigators, bombardiers, radio operators, and four dedicated machine gunners. Airmen on bombing raids left from bases in England or Italy or from Pacific islands and endured hours of flight before approaching enemy territory. At high altitude, and without pressurized cabins, crews used oxygen tanks to breathe and on-board temperatures plummeted. Once in enemy airspace, crews confronted enemy fighters and anti-aircraft flak from the ground. While fighter pilots flew as escorts, the Air Corps suffered heavy casualties. Tens of thousands of airmen lost their lives. On the ground, conditions varied. Soldiers in Europe endured freezing winters, impenetrable French hedgerows, Italian mountain ranges, and dense forests. Germans fought with a Western mentality familiar to Americans. Soldiers in the Pacific endured heat and humidity, monsoons, jungles, and tropical diseases. And they confronted an unfamiliar foe. Americans, for instance, could understand surrender as prudent; many Japanese soldiers saw it as cowardice. What Americans saw as a fanatical waste of life, the Japanese saw as brave and honorable. Atrocities flourished in the Pacific at a level unmatched in Europe. Notes - Works on the experiences of World War II soldiers are seemingly endless and include popular histories such as Stephen E. Ambrose’s Citizen Soldiers (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997) and memoirs such as Eugene Sledge’s With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa (New York: Presidio Press, 1981). The Wartime Economy Economies win wars no less than militaries. The war converted American factories to wartime production, reawakened Americans’ economic might, armed Allied belligerents and the American armed forces, effectively pulled America out of the Great Depression, and ushered in an era of unparalleled economic prosperity.1 Roosevelt’s New Deal had ameliorated the worst of the Depression, but the economy still limped its way forward into the 1930s. But then Europe fell into war, and, despite its isolationism, Americans were glad to sell the Allies arms and supplies. And then Pearl Harbor changed everything. The United States drafted the economy into war service. The “sleeping giant” mobilized its unrivaled economic capacity to wage worldwide war. Governmental entities such as the War Production Board and the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion managed economic production for the war effort and economic output exploded. An economy that was unable to provide work for a quarter of the workforce less than a decade earlier now struggled to fill vacant positions. Government spending during the four years of war doubled all federal spending in all of American history up to that point. The budget deficit soared, but, just as Depression-era economists had counseled, the government’s massive intervention annihilated unemployment and propelled growth. The economy that came out of the war looked nothing like the one that had begun it. Military production came at the expense of the civilian consumer economy. Appliance and automobile manufacturers converted their plants to produce weapons and vehicles. Consumer choice was foreclosed. Every American received rationing cards and, legally, goods such as gasoline, coffee, meat, cheese, butter, processed food, firewood, and sugar could not be purchased without them. The housing industry was shut down, and the cities became overcrowded. But the wartime economy boomed. The Roosevelt administration urged citizens to save their earnings or buy war bonds to prevent inflation. Bond drives were held nationally and headlined by Hollywood celebrities. Such drives were hugely successful. They not only funded much of the war effort, they helped tame inflation as well. So too did tax rates. The federal government raised income taxes and boosted the top marginal tax rate to 94 percent. With the economy booming and twenty million American workers placed into military service, unemployment virtually disappeared. More and more African Americans continued to leave the agrarian South for the industrial North. And as more and more men joined the military, and more and more positions went unfilled, women joined the workforce en masse. Other American producers looked outside the United States, southward, to Mexico, to fill its labor force. Between 1942 and 1964, the United States contracted thousands of Mexican nationals to work in American agriculture and railroads in the Bracero Program. Jointly administered by the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Department of Justice, the binational agreement secured five million contracts across twenty-four states.2 With factory work proliferating across the country and agricultural labor experiencing severe labor shortages, the presidents of Mexico and the United States signed an agreement in July 1942 to bring the first group of legally contracted workers to California. Discriminatory policies toward people of Mexican descent prevented bracero contracts in Texas until 1947. The Bracero Program survived the war, enshrined in law until the 1960s, when the United States liberalized its immigration laws. Though braceros suffered exploitative labor conditions, for the men who participated the program was a mixed blessing. Interviews with ex-braceros captured the complexity. “They would call us pigs . . . they didn’t have to treat us that way,” one said of his employers, while another said, “For me it was a blessing, the United States was a blessing . . . it is a nation I fell in love with because of the excess work and good pay.”3 After the exodus of Mexican migrants during the Depression, the program helped reestablish Mexican migration, institutionalized migrant farm work across much of the country, and further planted a Mexican presence in the southern and western United States. Notes - See, for instance, Michael Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Mark Harrison, ed., The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Kennedy, Freedom from Fear). - Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011). - Interview with Rogelio Valdez Robles by Valerie Martinez and Lydia Valdez, transcribed by Nancy Valerio, September 21, 2008; interview with Alvaro Hernández by Myrna Parra-Mantilla, February 5, 2003, Interview No. 33, Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso. Women and World War II President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his administration had encouraged all able-bodied American women to help the war effort. He considered the role of women in the war critical for American victory, and the public expected women to assume various functions to free men for active military service. While most women opted to remain at home or volunteer with charitable organizations, many went to work or donned a military uniform. World War II brought unprecedented labor opportunities for American women. Industrial labor, an occupational sphere dominated by men, shifted in part to women for the duration of wartime mobilization. Women applied for jobs in converted munitions factories. The iconic illustrated image of Rosie the Riveter, a muscular woman dressed in coveralls with her hair in a kerchief and inscribed with the phrase We Can Do It!, came to stand for female factory labor during the war. But women also worked in various auxiliary positions for the government. Although such jobs were often traditionally gendered female, over a million administrative jobs at the local, state, and national levels were transferred from men to women for the duration of the war.1 For women who elected not to work, many volunteer opportunities presented themselves. The American Red Cross, the largest charitable organization in the nation, encouraged women to volunteer with local city chapters. Millions of women organized community social events for families, packed and shipped almost half a million tons of medical supplies overseas, and prepared twenty-seven million care packages of nonperishable items for American and other Allied prisoners of war. The American Red Cross further required all female volunteers to certify as nurse’s aides, providing an extra benefit and work opportunity for hospital staffs that suffered severe personnel losses. Other charity organizations, such as church and synagogue affiliates, benevolent associations, and social club auxiliaries, gave women further outlets for volunteer work. Military service was another option for women who wanted to join the war effort. Over 350,000 women served in several all-female units of the military branches. The Army and Navy Nurse Corps Reserves, the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, the Navy’s Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service, the Coast Guard’s SPARs (named for the Coast Guard motto, Semper Paratus, “Always Ready”), and Marine Corps units gave women the opportunity to serve as either commissioned officers or enlisted members at military bases at home and abroad. The Nurse Corps Reserves alone commissioned 105,000 army and navy nurses recruited by the American Red Cross. Military nurses worked at base hospitals, mobile medical units, and onboard hospital “mercy” ships.2 Jim Crow segregation in both the civilian and military sectors remained a problem for Black women who wanted to join the war effort. Even after President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 in 1941, supervisors who hired Black women still often relegated them to the most menial tasks on factory floors. Segregation was further upheld in factory lunchrooms, and many Black women were forced to work at night to keep them separate from whites. In the military, only the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps and the Nurse Corps Reserves accepted Black women for active service, and the army set a limited quota of 10 percent of total end strength for Black female officers and enlisted women and segregated Black units on active duty. The American Red Cross, meanwhile, recruited only four hundred Black nurses for the Army and Navy Nurse Corps Reserves, and Black Army and Navy nurses worked in segregated military hospitals on bases stateside and overseas. And for all of the postwar celebration of Rosie the Riveter, after the war ended the men returned and most women voluntarily left the workforce or lost their jobs. Meanwhile, former military women faced a litany of obstacles in obtaining veteran’s benefits during their transition to civilian life. The nation that beckoned the call for assistance to millions of women during the four-year crisis hardly stood ready to accommodate their postwar needs and demands. Notes - Alecea Standlee, “Shifting Spheres: Gender, Labor, and the Construction of National Identity in U.S. Propaganda During the Second World War,” Minerva Journal of Women and War 4 (Spring 2010): 43–62. - Major Jeanne Holm, USAF (Ret.), Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1982), 21–109; Portia Kernodle, The Red Cross Nurse in Action, 1882–1948 (New York: Harper), 406–453. Race and World War II For more information about desegregation in the US military, History.com Why Harry Turman Ended Segregation in the US Military in 1948 World War II affected nearly every aspect of life in the United States, and America’s racial relationships were not immune. African Americans, Mexicans and Mexican Americans, Jews, and Japanese Americans were profoundly impacted. In early 1941, months before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the largest Black trade union in the nation, made headlines by threatening President Roosevelt with a march on Washington, D.C. In this “crisis of democracy,” Randolph said, many defense contractors still refused to hire Black workers and the armed forces remained segregated. In exchange for Randolph calling off the march, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, the Fair Employment Practice in Defense Industries Act, banning racial and religious discrimination in defense industries and establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to monitor defense industry hiring practices. While the armed forces remained segregated throughout the war, and the FEPC had limited influence, the order showed that the federal government could stand against discrimination. The Black workforce in defense industries rose from 3 percent in 1942 to 9 percent in 1945.1 More than one million African Americans fought in the war. Most Black servicemen served in segregated, noncombat units led by white officers. Some gains were made, however. The number of Black officers increased from five in 1940 to over seven thousand in 1945. The all-Black pilot squadrons, known as the Tuskegee Airmen, completed more than 1,500 missions, escorted heavy bombers into Germany, and earned several hundred merits and medals. Many bomber crews specifically requested the Red Tail Angels as escorts. And near the end of the war, the army and navy began integrating some of their units and facilities2, before President Truman desegregated the armed forces by executive order in July 1948, overriding many objections that the military was no place for social experimentation.3 While Black Americans served in the armed forces (though they were segregated), on the home front they became riveters and welders, rationed food and gasoline, and bought victory bonds. But many Black Americans saw the war as an opportunity not only to serve their country but to improve it. The Pittsburgh Courier, a leading Black newspaper, spearheaded the Double V campaign. It called on African Americans to fight two wars: the war against Nazism and fascism abroad and the war against racial inequality at home. To achieve victory, to achieve “real democracy,” the Courier encouraged its readers to enlist in the armed forces, volunteer on the home front, and fight against racial segregation and discrimination.4 During the war, membership in the NAACP jumped tenfold, from fifty thousand to five hundred thousand. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was formed in 1942 and spearheaded the method of nonviolent direct action to achieve desegregation. Between 1940 and 1950, some 1.5 million Black southerners, the largest number of any decade since the beginning of the Great Migration, also indirectly demonstrated their opposition to racism and violence by migrating out of the Jim Crow South to the North. But transitions were not easy. Racial tensions erupted in 1943 in a series of riots in cities such as Mobile, Beaumont, and Harlem. The bloodiest race riot occurred in Detroit and resulted in the death of twenty-five Black and nine White Americans. Still, the war ignited in African Americans an urgency for equality that they would carry with them into the subsequent years.5 Many Americans had to navigate American prejudice, and America’s entry into the war left foreign nationals from the belligerent nations in a precarious position. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) targeted many on suspicions of disloyalty for detainment, hearings, and possible internment under the Alien Enemy Act. Those who received an order for internment were sent to government camps secured by barbed wire and armed guards. Such internments were supposed to be for cause. Then, on February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of any persons from designated “exclusion zones”—which ultimately covered nearly a third of the country—at the discretion of military commanders. Thirty thousand Japanese Americans fought for the United States in World War II, but wartime anti-Japanese sentiment built on historical prejudices, and under the order, people of Japanese descent, both immigrants and American citizens, were detained and placed under the custody of the War Relocation Authority, the civil agency that supervised their relocation to internment camps. They lost their homes and jobs. Over ten thousand German nationals and a smaller number of Italian nationals were interned at various times in the United States during World War II, but American policies disproportionately targeted Japanese-descended populations, and individuals did not receive personalized reviews prior to their internment. This policy of mass exclusion and detention affected over 110,000 Japanese and Japanese-descended individuals. Seventy thousand were American citizens.6 In its 1982 report, Personal Justice Denied, the congressionally appointed Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians concluded that “the broad historical causes” shaping the relocation program were “race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.”7 Although the exclusion orders were found to have been constitutionally permissible under the vagaries of national security, they were later judged, even by the military and judicial leaders of the time, to have been a grave injustice against people of Japanese descent. In 1988, President Reagan signed a law that formally apologized for internment and provided reparations to surviving internees. But if actions taken during war would later prove repugnant, so too could inaction. As the Allies pushed into Germany and Poland, they uncovered the full extent of Hitler’s genocidal atrocities. The Allies liberated massive camp systems set up for the imprisonment, forced labor, and extermination of all those deemed racially, ideologically, or biologically “unfit” by Nazi Germany. But the Holocaust—the systematic murder of eleven million civilians, including six million Jews—had been under way for years. How did America respond? Initially, American officials expressed little official concern for Nazi persecutions. At the first signs of trouble in the 1930s, the State Department and most U.S. embassies did relatively little to aid European Jews. Roosevelt publicly spoke out against the persecution and even withdrew the U.S. ambassador to Germany after Kristallnacht. He pushed for the 1938 Evian Conference in France, in which international leaders discussed the Jewish refugee problem and worked to expand Jewish immigration quotas by tens of thousands of people per year. But the conference came to nothing, and the United States turned away countless Jewish refugees who requested asylum in the United States. In 1939, the German ship St. Louis carried over nine hundred Jewish refugees. They could not find a country that would take them. The passengers could not receive visas under the U.S. quota system. A State Department wire to one passenger read that all must “await their turns on the waiting list and qualify for and obtain immigration visas before they may be admissible into the United States.” The ship cabled the president for special privilege, but the president said nothing. The ship was forced to return to Europe. Hundreds of the St. Louis’s passengers would perish in the Holocaust. Anti-Semitism still permeated the United States. Even if Roosevelt wanted to do more—it’s difficult to trace his own thoughts and personal views—he judged the political price for increasing immigration quotas as too high. In 1938 and 1939, the U.S. Congress debated the Wagner-Rogers Bill, an act to allow twenty thousand German-Jewish children into the United States. First lady Eleanor Roosevelt endorsed the measure, but the president remained publicly silent. The bill was opposed by roughly two thirds of the American public and was defeated. Historians speculate that Roosevelt, anxious to protect the New Deal and his rearmament programs, was unwilling to expend political capital to protect foreign groups that the American public had little interest in protecting.8 Knowledge of the full extent of the Holocaust was slow in coming. When the war began, American officials, including Roosevelt, doubted initial reports of industrial death camps. But even when they conceded their existence, officials pointed to their genuinely limited options. The most plausible response for the U.S. military was to bomb either the camps or the railroads leading to them, but those options were rejected by military and civilian officials who argued that it would do little to stop the deportations, would distract from the war effort, and could cause casualties among concentration camp prisoners. Whether bombing would have saved lives remains a hotly debated question.9 Late in the war, secretary of the treasury Henry Morgenthau, himself born into a wealthy New York Jewish family, pushed through major changes in American policy. In 1944, he formed the War Refugees Board (WRB) and became a passionate advocate for Jewish refugees. The WRB saved perhaps two hundred thousand Jews and twenty thousand others. Morgenthau also convinced Roosevelt to issue a public statement condemning the Nazi’s persecution. But it was already 1944, and such policies were far too little, far too late.10 Notes - William P. Jones, The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (New York: Norton, 2013). - Stephen Tuck, Fog of War: The Second World War and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000). - "U.S. History" by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 - Andrew Buni, Robert L. Vann of the Pittsburgh Courier: Politics and Black Journalism (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1974). - Dominic J. Capeci Jr. and Martha Wilkerson, Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991). - Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001). - Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), 18). - Richard Breitman and Allan J. Lichtman, FDR and the Jews (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2013), 149. - Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999). - David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 274. Toward a Postwar World Americans celebrated the end of the war. At home and abroad, the United States looked to create a postwar order that would guarantee global peace and domestic prosperity. Although the alliance of convenience with Stalin’s Soviet Union would collapse, Americans nevertheless looked for the means to ensure postwar stability and economic security for returning veterans. The inability of the League of Nations to stop German, Italian, and Japanese aggressions caused many to question whether any global organization or agreements could ever ensure world peace. This included Franklin Roosevelt, who, as Woodrow Wilson’s undersecretary of the navy, witnessed the rejection of this idea by both the American people and the Senate. In 1941, Roosevelt believed that postwar security could be maintained by an informal agreement between what he termed the Four Policemen—the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and China—instead of a rejuvenated League of Nations. But others, including secretary of state Cordell Hull and British prime minister Winston Churchill, disagreed and convinced Roosevelt to push for a new global organization. As the war ran its course, Roosevelt came around to the idea. And so did the American public. Pollster George Gallup noted a “profound change” in American attitudes. The United States had rejected membership in the League of Nations after World War I, and in 1937 only a third of Americans polled supported such an idea. But as war broke out in Europe, half of Americans did. America’s entry into the war bolstered support, and, by 1945, with the war closing, 81 percent of Americans favored the idea.1 Whatever his support, Roosevelt had long shown enthusiasm for the ideas later enshrined in the United Nations (UN) charter. In January 1941, he announced his Four Freedoms—freedom of speech, of worship, from want, and from fear—that all of the world’s citizens should enjoy. That same year he signed the Atlantic Charter with Churchill, which reinforced those ideas and added the right of self-determination and promised some sort of postwar economic and political cooperation. Roosevelt first used the term united nations to describe the Allied powers, not the subsequent postwar organization. But the name stuck. At Tehran in 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill convinced Stalin to send a Soviet delegation to a conference at Dumbarton Oaks, in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in August 1944, where they agreed on the basic structure of the new organization. It would have a Security Council—the original Four Policemen, plus France—which would consult on how best to keep the peace and when to deploy the military power of the assembled nations. According to one historian, the organization demonstrated an understanding that “only the Great Powers, working together, could provide real security.” But the plan was a kind of hybrid between Roosevelt’s policemen idea and a global organization of equal representation. There would also be a General Assembly, made up of all nations; an International Court of Justice; and a council for economic and social matters. Dumbarton Oaks was a mixed success—the Soviets especially expressed concern over how the Security Council would work—but the powers agreed to meet again in San Francisco between April and June 1945 for further negotiations. There, on June 26, 1945, fifty nations signed the UN charter.2 Anticipating victory in World War II, leaders not only looked to the postwar global order, they looked to the fate of returning American servicemen. American politicians and interest groups sought to avoid another economic depression—the economy had tanked after World War I—by gradually easing returning veterans back into the civilian economy. The brainchild of William Atherton, the head of the American Legion, the G.I. Bill won support from progressives and conservatives alike. Passed in 1944, the G.I. Bill was a multifaceted, multibillion-dollar entitlement program that rewarded honorably discharged veterans with numerous benefits.3 Faced with the prospect of over fifteen million members of the armed services (including approximately 350,000 women) suddenly returning to civilian life, the G.I. Bill offered a bevy of inducements to slow their influx into the civilian workforce as well as reward their service with public benefits. The legislation offered a year’s worth of unemployment benefits for veterans unable to secure work. About half of American veterans (eight million) received $4 billion in unemployment benefits over the life of the bill. The G.I. Bill also made postsecondary education a reality for many. The Veterans Administration (VA) paid the lion’s share of educational expenses, including tuition, fees, supplies, and even stipends for living expenses. The G.I. Bill sparked a boom in higher education. Enrollments at accredited colleges, universities, and technical and professional schools spiked, rising from 1.5 million in 1940 to 3.6 million in 1960. The VA disbursed over $14 billon in educational aid in just over a decade. Furthermore, the bill encouraged home ownership. Roughly 40 percent of Americans owned homes in 1945, but that figure climbed to 60 percent a decade after the close of the war. Because the bill did away with down payment requirements, veterans could obtain home loans for as little as $1 down. Close to four million veterans purchased homes through the G.I. Bill, sparking a construction bonanza that fueled postwar growth. In addition, the VA also helped nearly two hundred thousand veterans secure farms and offered thousands more guaranteed financing for small businesses.4 Not all Americans, however, benefited equally from the G.I. Bill. Indirectly, since the military limited the number of female personnel, men qualified for the bill’s benefits in far higher numbers. Colleges also limited the number of female applicants to guarantee space for male veterans. African Americans, too, faced discrimination. Segregation forced Black veterans into overcrowded “historically Black colleges” that had to turn away close to twenty thousand applicants. Meanwhile, residential segregation limited Black home ownership in various neighborhoods, denying Black homeowners the equity and investment that would come with home ownership. There were other limits and other disadvantaged groups. Veterans accused of homosexuality, for instance, were similarly unable to claim GI benefits.5 The effects of the G.I. Bill were significant and long-lasting. It helped sustain the great postwar economic boom and, even if many could not attain it, it nevertheless established the hallmarks of American middle class life. Notes - Fraser J. Harbutt, Yalta 1945: Europe and America at the Crossroads of Peace (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 258; Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of a Modern Idea (New York: Penguin, 2012, 208. - Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York: Random House, 2006). - Kathleen Frydl, The G.I. Bill (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Suzanne Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens: The G.I. Bill and the Making of the Greatest Generation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). - Kathleen Frydl, G.I. Bill; Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens. - Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003). Primary Sources 1. Charles A. Lindbergh, “America First” (1941) Charles Lindbergh won international fame in 1927 after completing the first non-stop, solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. As Hitler’s armies marched across the European continent, many Americans began to imagine American participation in the war. Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee, advocating “America First,” championed American isolationism. 2. A. Philip Randolph and Franklin Roosevelt on Racial Discrimination in the Defense Industry (1941) As the United States prepared for war, Black labor leader A. Philip Randolph recoiled at rampant employment discrimination in the defense industry. Together with NAACP head Walter White and other leaders, Randolph planned “a mass March on Washington” to push for fair employment practices. President Franklin Roosevelt met with Randolph and White on June 18, and, faced with mobilized discontent and a possible disruption of wartime industries, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry. Randolph and other leaders declared victory and called off the march. 3. The Atlantic Charter (1941) The leaders of the United States and United Kingdom signed the Atlantic Charter in August 1941. The short document neatly outlined an idealized vision for political and economic order of the postwar world. 4. FDR, Executive Order No. 9066 (1942) During World War II, the federal government removed over 120,000 men, women, and children of Japanese descent (both foreign-born “issei” and native-born “nisei”) from the West Coast and interned in camps. President Roosevelt authorized the internments with his Executive Order No. 9066, issued on February 19, 1942. 5. Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga on Japanese Internment (1942/1994) Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga was born in 1924 in Los Angeles, California. A second-generation (“Nisei”) Japanese American, she was incarcerated at the Manzanar internment camp in California and later at other internment camps in Arkansas. Her she describes learning about Pearl Harbor, her family’s forced evacuation, and her impressions of her internment camp. 6. Harry Truman Announcing the Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima (1945) On August 6, 1945, Harry Truman disclosed to the American public that the United States had detonated an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan. 7. Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1945) Vietnam, which had been colonized by the French and then by the Japanese, declared their independence from colonial rule—particularly the re-imposition of a French colonial regime—in the aftermath of Japan’s defeat in World War II. Proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh in September 1945, Vietnam’s Declaration of Independence reflected back the early promises of the Allies in World War II and even borrowed directly from the American Declaration of Independence. The Tuskegee Airmen stand at attention as Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, one of the first graduates of the Tuskegee cadets. The Tuskegee Airmen who continued a tradition of African American military service while honorably serving a country that still considered them second-class citizens. 9. World War II Recruitment Posters (1942 & 1943) This pair of US Military recruiting posters demonstrates the way that two branches of the military—the Marines and the Women’s Army Corps—borrowed techniques from advertising professionals to “sell” a romantic vision of war to Americans. These two images take different strategies: one shows Marines at war in a lush jungle, reminding viewers that the war was taking place in exotic lands, the other depicted women taking on new jobs as a patriotic duty. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Joseph Locke, with content contributions by Mary Beth Chopas, Andrew David, Ashton Ellett, Paula Fortier, Joseph Locke, Jennifer Mandel, Valerie Martinez, Ryan Menath, Chris Thomas. Recommended citation: Mary Beth Chopas et al., “World War II,” Joseph Locke, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Adams, Michael. The Best War Ever: America and World War II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. - Anderson, Karen. Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During WWII. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981. - Black, Gregory D. Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profit and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies. New York: Free Press, 1987. - Blum, John Morton. V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II. New York: Marine Books, 1976. - Borgwardt, Elizabeth. A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. - Daniels, Roger. Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. - Dower, John. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1993. - Honey, Maureen. Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda During World War II. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984. - Hooks, Gregory Michael. Forging the Military-Industrial Complex: World War II’s Battle of the Potomac. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991. - Kaminski, Theresa. Angels of the Underground: The American Women Who Resisted the Japanese in the Philippines in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. - Keegan, John. The Second World War. New York: Viking, 1990. - Kennedy, David. Freedom from Fear: America in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. - Leonard, Kevin Allen. The Battle for Los Angeles: Racial Ideology and World War II. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006. - Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor’s War at Home: The CIO in World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. - Malloy, Sean L. Atomic Tragedy: Henry L. Stimson and the Decision to Use the Bomb. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008. - Meyer, Leisa D. Creating G.I. Jane: The Regulation of Sexuality and Sexual Behavior in the Women’s Army Corps During WWII. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. - Murray, Alice Yang. Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment and the Struggle for Redress. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007. - O’Neill, William L. A Democracy at War: America’s Fight at Home and Abroad in World War II. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. - Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. - Russell, Jan Jarboe. The Train to Crystal City: FDR’s Secret Prisoner Exchange Program and America’s Only Family Internment Camp During World War II. New York: Scribner, 2015. - Schulman, Bruce J. From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. - Sparrow, James T. Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. - Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan. New York: Random House, 1985 - Takaki, Ronald T. Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II. New York: Little, Brown, 2000. - Wynn, Neil A. The African American Experience During World War II. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.629580	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Crisis at Home and Abroad, World War II", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111326/overview	Checklist for Evaluating Open Educational Resources (OER) UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (OER) UNESCO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS REGARDING OPEN EDUCATION What does Mason OER Metafinder search? Open Educational Resources Starter Pack Overview This Open Educational Resource (OER) manual instructs educators on how to begin creating OERs. It includes an overview of OERs, their alignment with UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals, their definition, creation, discovery and evaluation, accessibility, licencing, hosting and production, metadata, and OER hosting and curation. What are Open Educational Resources? Open Educational Resources (OERs) are versatile materials that have open licenses enabling others to access, retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute freely. A video, an entire course, or an open textbook can be one of these. But they can be anything and everything! Besides their numerous educational and cost-saving advantages, OERs play a crucial role in promoting social justice, equity in learning, and advancing universal knowledge. The UNESCO recommendation on OERs is crucial to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and the spread of global knowledge. "OER is sharing" by Giulia Forsythe is licensed under CC BY 4.0. "Open Educational Resources concept: What is an OER?" by UNESCO is licensed under CC BY 4.0. “UNESCO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS FOR OPEN EDUCATION” by Kirstine McDermid is licensed under CC BY 4.0. It is an adaptation of “Sustainable Development Goals Infographics" by UNESCO licensed under CC BY 4.0. Develop your OER Evaluate the content you already possess. Whether you want to start from scratch or have something already from your teaching that would be ideal for an OER, there are many options available to you. If your students are struggling with a topic that isn’t addressed in the other readings you’ve assigned or something new has come to light, it may be time to create some additional OERs. Consider expanding your focus beyond your current students. How could releasing high quality content reach and benefit others? Don't forget, you have the ability to remix and collaborate on existing OERs with educators worldwide! "Creating Open Educational Resources: Tips for New Creators" by Abbey Elder is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Accessibility Ensure your OER complies with international and institutional guidelines for accessibility and employs Universal Design for Learning. OERs should aim to reduce barriers, so that all learners can be included regardless of race, disability, health or geographic location. Likewise, content must be considered. Are there any visual or textual materials that reinforce prejudices or convey negative connotations? Do populations have equitable representation? "The BCcampus Open Education Accessibility Toolkit – 2nd Edition" by Amanda Coolidge, Sue Doner, Tara Robertson, and Josie Gray is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence. Finding & Evaluating OERs OERs can be found for use in your curriculum, as references in your reading lists, or to customise and create unique OERs. You can search these well-known repositories: A Google Advanced search can be conducted to refine results by "usage rights". Mason OER Metafinder enables cross-searching of multiple OER platforms at once. Assessing the quality of OERs is essential. Verify the content and accuracy of the OER, considering multiple perspectives. Remember to assess accessibility and production quality standards. "Checklist for Evaluating Open Educational Resources (OER) by Kirstine McDermid is licensed under CC BY 4.0 It is an adaptation of "Checklist for Evaluating Open Educational Resources (OER)" by ACC Office of Instructional & Faculty Development licensed under CC BY 4.0. Check Permissions, Attributions and Licencing Ensure you have checked permissions and attributions for third-party content, including all creator attributions and license information. Select the appropriate Creative Commons licence so that the conditions under which users may utilise the OER are clearly displayed. It is imperative to ensure that the licence associated with the adapted content is compatible with the final OER. To enable maximum remixing and reuse, it is recommended to use CC BY for OERs. "License Compatibility Chart" by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY 4.0. "Creating OER and Combining Licenses" by TheOGRepository is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Find an OER Platform Check out OER Commons, MERLOT, OERu, or GitHub as potential platforms for creating/hosting your OER. Share your OER Maximise the discoverability of your OER. The presence of specific metadata enables easier discovery of OERs. Tags and descriptions can be added to OER platforms (a collection of specific keywords). Describing your content correctly boosts its visibility in search results. "OER" by Catherine Cronin is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.668113	12/26/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111326/overview", "title": "Open Educational Resources Starter Pack", "author": "Kirstine McDermid" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113945/overview	Introduction to Applied AI for Professionals Overview The Foundations of Applied AI course is an introductory exploration into the world of artificial intelligence (AI), designed for undergraduates with no prior experience in AI. This online, 3-credit course offers a deep dive into AI's core concepts, applications, and the ethical implications of deploying AI technologies across various industries. Through multimedia lectures, case studies, and hands-on projects, students will gain a comprehensive understanding of how AI can transform business, healthcare, and more, while also navigating the ethical considerations vital for responsible AI use. By the end of the course, students will be equipped to identify AI opportunities, understand AI's potential impacts, and discuss the importance of ethical frameworks in AI development. This course lays the groundwork for a future in AI, preparing students for further specialization or to apply AI insights in their fields. Course Overview and Weekly Breakdown Course Overview Welcome! This course and the resources found here aim to equip professionals with the knowledge and skills to critically analyze, apply, and innovate with the essential principles of artificial intelligence (AI) across various industrial contexts. These authored and curated resources emphasize the design and implementation of ethical AI solutions, ethical management of AI projects, and the advocacy of responsible AI use. This resource is broken down into modules that mirror the course AI 210: Applied AI Foundations offered at St. Thomas University. Those modules are broken down below: Module Breakdown Module 1: Introduction to AI and Its Core Principles - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Identify fundamental AI concepts and their applications. - Types of Resources for this Module: - Videos and resources on AI history, key technologies, and terminologies. - Introduction to major AI applications in business, healthcare, and other industries. Module 2: AI Applications in Professional Settings - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Describe opportunities for AI integration in professional settings. - Types of Resources for this Module: - Case studies highlighting AI success stories across different sectors. - Interactive discussion on potential AI integration in students' industries. Module 3: Analyzing Real-World AI Implementations - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Analyze real-world AI implementations across industries. - Types of Resources for this Module: - Deep dives into case studies of AI use, focusing on strategy, outcomes, and challenges. - Group discussions on lessons learned and applicability. Module 4: Ethical AI Use and Its Importance - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Outline strategies for ethical AI use. - Types of Resources for this Module: - Workshops on ethical considerations in AI, including privacy, fairness, and transparency. - Exploration of ethical frameworks and guidelines. Module 5: Designing Ethical AI Solutions - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Design and implement innovative solutions using generative AI technologies. - Types of Resources for this Module: - Project-based learning on designing AI solutions with ethical considerations at the forefront. - Use of AI tools and platforms for prototyping. Module 6: Managing and Leading AI Projects - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Manage AI projects from initiation to completion, focusing on ethical considerations. - Types of Resources for this Module: Seminars on project management methodologies adapted for AI projects. Leadership and ethical decision-making exercises. Module 7: AI and the Future of Everything - Module Learning Objective (MLO): Articulate a plan to promote the ethical use of AI and responsible innovation. - Types of Resources for this Module: Futuring industries with a focus on the impact of AI and discussions on regulatory requirements and societal impacts. Module 1: Introduction to AI and Its Core Principles Articles to read: Bellini, V., Cascella, M., Cutugno, F., Russo, M., Lanza, R., Compagnone, C., & Bignami, E. G. (2022). Understanding basic principles of Artificial Intelligence: a practical guide for intensivists. Acta bio-medica : Atenei Parmensis, 93(5), e2022297. Dobrin, S. (2021, September 30). The four keys to trustworthy AI. IBM Blog. Chojnowska, M. (2023, May 8). The basics of artificial intelligence - Understanding the key concepts and terminology. Sunscrapers. Videos to Watch: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Core Concepts of AI and Their Technologies Machine Learning: Understanding the basics of algorithms and models that learn from data. Deep Learning: Exploring neural networks and their capabilities in processing complex data inputs. Natural Language Processing: How machines understand and generate human language. Computer Vision: Enabling computers to see and interpret visual information from the world. Methodologies of AI Supervised, Unsupervised, and Reinforcement Learning: Differentiating the learning techniques and their use cases. Generative Adversarial Networks: Introduction to AI's ability to create. Transfer Learning: Leveraging pre-existing models for new problems. Supplemental Resources (Optional) Module 2: AI Applications in Professional Settings Articles to Read Cardona, M. A., Rodriguez, R. J., & Ishmael, K. (2023, May). Artificial Intelligence and the future of teaching and learning: Insights and recommendations. Office of Educational Technology \| U.S. Department of Education. EDUCAUSE. (2023). 2023 Educause horizon report: Teaching and learning eduction. Elahi, M., Afolaranmi, S.O., & Martinez Lastra, J.L. (2023). A comprehensive literature review of the applications of AI techniques through the lifecycle of industrial equipment. Discov Artif Intell 3(43). McKinsey & Company. (2023, August 1). The state of AI in 2023: Generative AI’s breakout year. Takyar, A. (2023, October 3). AI use cases & applications across major industries. LeewayHertz - AI Development Company. Videos to Watch: Applications of AI Across Industries Real-world examples of AI Integration - Business: Real-world examples of AI Integration - Education: Real-world examples of AI Integration - Healthcare: Real-world examples of AI Integration - Finance: Real-world examples of AI Integration - Retail: Real-world examples of AI Integration - Manufacturing: Supplemental Resources (Optional) Aspen Institute. (2024). Following Dirty Money Around the World. Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast]. Module 3: Analyzing Real-World AI Implementations Articles to read: Spielkamp, M. (June 12, 2017). “Inspecting Algorithms for Bias.” MIT Technology Review. Hao, K. (January 21, 2019). “AI Is Sending People to Jail—and Getting It Wrong.” MIT Technology Review. Emerging Technology from the arXiv (October 22, 2015). “Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill.” MIT Technology Review. Videos to Watch: Supplemental Resources (Optional): Module 4: Ethical AI Use and Its Importance Articles to Read: Boothman, B. (2020, December 4). Ethical concerns mount as AI takes bigger decision-making role. Harvard Gazette. Marr, B. (2021, September 10). How do we use artificial intelligence ethically? Forbes. Videos to Watch: Supplemental Resources (Optional) Aspen Institute. (2024). Hacked medical devices at risk. Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast]. Module 5: Designing Ethical AI Solutions Podcasts to Listen to: Aspen Institute. (2024). How your data powers artificial intelligence. Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast]. Videos to Watch: Supplemental Resources (Optional): Module 6: Managing and Leading AI Projects Articles to Read: Atera Team. (2024, March 1). A CIO’s guide to crafting a winning AI strategy in 2024. Atera. Srivastava, S. (2023, August 24). How to effectively manage AI projects. Appinventiv. Tang, T. (2021, July). How to manage AI projects effectively. DataCamp. Videos to Watch: Supplemental Resources (Optional) Module 7: AI and the Future of Everything Articles to Read: Dutt, D., Ammanath, B., Perricos, C., & Sniderman, B. (2024, January). State of generative AI in the enterprise 2024. Deloitte United States. Zimmerman, M. (2021). Hands-on AI projects for the classroom: A guide on ethics and AI. ISTE. Podcast Episodes to Listen To: Aspen Institute. (2024). Artificial intelligence and the future of everything. Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast]. Videos to Watch: Supplemental Resources (Optional): Snowflake. (2024). Data + AI Predictions 2024. Aspen Institute. (2024). Rebuilding trust in science. Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast]. Aspen Institute. (2024). Can robots curb loneliness? Aspen Ideas [Audio Podcast].	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.700332	Technology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113945/overview", "title": "Introduction to Applied AI for Professionals", "author": "Electronic Technology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107821/overview	6.3.2 Chapter 10 of PMF by Christianson 6.3.3 Knowledge check (part A) (with solutions) 6.3.4 Chapter 9 of PMF by Christianson 6.3.5 Knowledge check (part B) (with solutions) Track costs. Overview This learning module (Lesson 3 of Unit 6) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on cost management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes (part A - monitoring). Earned value analysis is an elegant way to measure adherance to schedule and budget at the same time. It requires some computation, but it is an essential skills of project managers in the execution and monitoring of project progress. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Calculate schedule metrics. - Calculate budget metrics. - Identify project quadrant and necessary actions. What is earned value analysis? \| 20-30 minute read Porf. Christianson considers his Project Management Fundamentals textbook a work-in-progress (version 0.5). It is available at OER Commons as PDF download. He also provides a nice companion student workbook also available as a PDF download. For each chapter, the workbook provides a skeletal outline and knowledge checks (with answer keys). In many chapters, there are exercises and examples. It may be provided to students as a whole workbook or subsections may be provided with each chapter. Download the attached handout. Read chapter 10 (Earned Value Analysis) of Christianson's Project Management Fundamentals text (PDF resource attached). FYI: J. Scott Christianson is a professor at the University of Missouri and has an interesting website about technology (from AI to blockchain to crypto and everything in between). How do I calculate earned value? \| 20 minute watch Watch this overview video of earned value analysis by Szwed (2019). Practice caluclating earned value \| 20-30 minute exercise There are several texts on project management available as open educational resources (OER): - Project Management: from Simple to Complex by anonymous (2010) NOTE: This will be unpublished on 31 December 2024. - Project Management by Adrienne Watt (2014) - Delivering Value with Project Management by Woods, Marshal, and Schlesiger (2023) - Project Management: Navigating the Complexity with a Systematic Approach by Abdullah Oguz (2022) - Project Management Fundamentals by Christianson (2016) with accompanying student workbook You may like to explore some of theses. I have used several of them and decided the PMF by Christianson suited my needs for this course. Here is a useful set of exercises to practice calculating earned value created as an open text called "Project Management: from Simple to Complex" published anonymously in 2010. Test your knowledge (part A - monitoring). \| 2. T/F: Each chunk of work corresponds to a chunk of budget and a chunk of schedule. - True - False 3. If schedule variance is less than zero (SV<0) and cost variance is greater than zero (CV>0), you should: - do nothing. - scope down. - de-scope. - crash activities on critical path 4. T/F: You can monitor cost variance and schedule variance for each activity. - True - False Learning outcomes (part B- controlling). As you just learned in part A, earned value analysis is a form of monioting a project. Sometimes, when your project is behind schedule, you will need to perform special activities to "catch-up." In order to put what you learned through moniotring (eva) into action, you will need to execute a compensating activity to get your project back on shcedule. Crashing is the most common example. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Identify common forms of schedule compression. - Calculate the cost to benefit of each opportunity. - Select the most opportune activities to crash. What is schedule compression? \| 20-30 minute read Porf. Christianson considers his Project Management Fundamentals textbook a work-in-progress (version 0.5). It is available at OER Commons as PDF download. He also provides a nice companion student workbook also available as a PDF download. For each chapter, the workbook provides a skeletal outline and knowledge checks (with answer keys). In many chapters, there are exercises and examples. It may be provided to students as a whole workbook or subsections may be provided with each chapter. Read chapter 9 (Reducing Project Duration) of Christianson's Project Management Fundamentals text (PDF resource attached). FYI: J. Scott Christianson is a professor at the University of Missouri and has an interesting website about technology (from AI to blockchain to crypto and everything in between). What is crashing? \| 6 minute watch How do I crash a project? \| 20 minute watch - 2 videos Test your knowledge (part B - controlling). - Crashing a task involves: - showing up unannounced. - allocating additional resources. - reducing the scope. - driving the project team "off-the-road." - T/F: You should crash the task that has the best cost efficiency regardless of whether or not it is on the critical path. - True - False	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.737224	08/17/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107821/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, Cost Management, Track costs.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115655/overview	Neuroscience of Emotions Overview Lehigh University BIOS332 Behavioral Neuroanatomy Emotions Chapter See the Emotions chapter attached to this lesson.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.753908	05/01/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115655/overview", "title": "Neuroscience of Emotions", "author": "Christopher Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98290/overview	Visual Storytelling: Activity 3 Storyboard Overview The Visual Storytelling lesson plan is a series of four learning ladder activities designed around mobile/digital technology for use by intermediate art and design students. It is a framework for concept ideation, visual design planning, and production. Activity 3: Subtext Storyboard is a versitle tool students can use to develop including both abstract concepts and narrative structure. Subtext Storyboard Summary National Core Arts Standards - VA: Cr1.2, Cr2.1, Pr4.1, Pr6.1, Re9.1, Cn10.1 Instructor Step by Step: - Provide lecture notes and/or video. - Provide customized instructions as needed. - Publish a sample Pinterest storyboard. - Technology Support: Include relevant links for tech tutorials as needed. - App Limitations: Include instructional parameters for image resolution and file size based on forum limitations as needed. Additions: Extend this lesson by having students create a secondary subcategory board on Pinterest where they post videos and images that are similar in style to their own. Each pin should include a description of one visual element that the student could use as inspiration. The storyboard is a versatile tool students can use to develop rich visual stories that include both abstract concepts and narrative structure. Students can create freehand sketch boards to illustrate project choices or use an online image curation tool to develop large production catalogs. This also allows for exploring visual cues used to convey theme subtext. STUDENT OBJECTIVES Student Goals - Curate media in multiple formats to achieve project goals. - Evaluate and modify a visual production guide. - Organize and publish a visual storyboard. *final artifact SUGGESTED TECHNOLOGY Part 1: An image collection app with commenting options. (Pinterest) Subtext Storyboard Read & Watch This is a simplified framework for developing a visual story but one you can use on any project. Why is a framework important? For the sole reason that consistency is how the audience will recognize the story ‘world’ you've created. It also provides a launch pad for future projects that expand on this same story or transition into new ones. Suggested Presentation Suggested content: provide an example curation of Pinterest storyboard, including search options and resources for royalty free images, and proper image source referencing. Suggested Video Content & Prompts Video: 11 Visual Hierarchy Visual Design Principles by Visme Writing Prompt: Is there a sequential order to how graphics are viewed? How does the audience know what to look at first? Video: Adding Depth to Your Film Using Visual Subtext by MZed / FilmRiot Writing Prompt: How do we link visual design to the theme of a story? Subtext Storyboard Activity Student Step by Step: You've already completed two important steps in finishing your final project: - brainstorming story ideas and their key messages - selecting a story concept You may already have some ideas on how to visually share your story but if not this next step in design development is crucial to get the ball rolling. There is no wrong way to explore design as long as you take time to experiment with ideas. PART 1 Use the Storyboard Worksheet to sketch out ideas for what you might want to include in your Pinterest board. Are there specific accessories your character would carry? What time period do they live in? What items need to be in place to convey an action or event? PART 2 For this assignment you'll need to register with Pinterest. On Pinterest: - Create one story board. - Find and 'pin' a minimum of ten images for each of the three story sections (character, location, event). - Label each pin with a simple descriptive reminder of why you chose it. - Submit a link to your Pinterest board below. Prompts Is there a cohesive style and/or theme to your pins? Which visual design elements did you take into account when selecting pins?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.787911	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98290/overview", "title": "Visual Storytelling: Activity 3 Storyboard", "author": "Visual Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98288/overview	Visual Storytelling: Activity 2 Concept Mapping Overview The Visual Storytelling lesson plan is a series of four learning ladder activities designed around mobile/digital technology for use by intermediate art and design students. It is a framework for concept ideation, visual design planning, and production. Activity 2: Concept Mapping is a foundational activity for developing narrative visual storytelling skills. Mapping is utilized to exampine concepts for story development and visual design. Concept Mapping Summary National Core Arts Standards - VA: Cr1.1, Cr2.2, Re8.1, Cn10.1 Instructor Step by Step: - Provide lecture notes and/or video. - Provide customized instructions as needed. - Technology Support: Include relevant links for tech tutorials as needed. - App Limitations: Include instructional parameters for image resolution and file size based on forum limitations as needed. Additions: Extend this activity with an exploratory essay on visual metaphors. Create an eLearning forum with a series of (or one single) movie poster. Have students pick one poster and outline the metaphors and/or motifs. This activity provides students with an opportunity to examine and explore conceptual development and how it impacts visual design for storytelling. They will use their own story concept to start building a foundation for more insightful creative expression. STUDENT OBJECTIVES Student Goals - Invent a new story concept. - Define and describe project goals and audience. - Create a mindmap of ideas relevant to all goals. *final artifact SUGGESTED TECHNOLOGY Any mind mapping app (Mindomo) (Mindmeister) or a simple table and text editor (Google Docs) (Word). This can also be written by hand then captured and saved as a PDF file using a scanning app (Scannable) or photographed. Concept Mapping Read & Watch Storytelling is a craft that combines both science and artistic creativity. Understanding how the different elements play a part in the audience experience should help the artist develop more powerful images. Suggested Presentation Prezi Slidedeck: Thematic Design by Kristene Markert https://prezi.com/view/HKQMeFpKtgS9Hd5undVD/ Video: Theme by Brainpop https://youtu.be/x1MqqDOxAl0 Dark Knight by Ekalavya Bhattacharya https://youtu.be/VpuC7HhCPWA Suggested Video Content & Prompts Video: Visualizing Big Ideas, TED-Ed Lesson Writing Prompt: Can metaphors replace story themes? Video: The Magical Science of Storytelling by David JP Phillips Writing Prompt: What is your favorite piece of art and how does it make you feel? Concept Mapping Activity Student Step by Step: PART 1 Invent a simplified story idea based around the following. Write a one paragraph description for each item. Story Prompts: - One character - One location - One action or event PART 2 Using the Concept Mapping Worksheet to brainstorm ideas for how to convey this story to viewers. This exercise is text based to allow for exploration of multiple options prior to creating visuals. Brainstorming Prompts: - What type of themes and/or motifs would your story be based on? - What type of experience would you viewer have? Will they be feeling certain emotions or taking any actions in response? - Who would your viewer be? Would you adjust elements of the story based on different viewers? - How will you exhibit this work? Will the viewers engage with it in different ways or at different locations and times? PART 3 Extend your concept map to a second page if needed. Include ideas for how you might visually design this story. What design elements would be used?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.821140	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98288/overview", "title": "Visual Storytelling: Activity 2 Concept Mapping", "author": "Visual Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63897/overview	Education Standards Ireland and the Great Hunger STEM Emigration, Immigration and Potatoes Overview Students will examine the Irish Potato Famine through the lens of data. Creating, transforming and analyzing different data visualizations will give students an opportunity to utilize real world STEM skills in a traditional social studies class, without compromising the nature of understanding the historical narrative. Short Overview Using data, students will examine the effects of the potato famine in Ireland on migration patterns. The students will use a variety of data sources to analyze effects of Irish migration on both the Irish and American populations. Lesson Desired Results Big Idea(s)& Essential Questions \| Big Ideas: Migration Patterns, Data Analysis \| Essential Questions: How did the Great Irish Potato Famine change Irealnd and the United States in the nineteenth century? How can a single event have widespread effects? \| Students Will Know \| Students Will Be Doing \| \| \| Evidence of Understanding Assessments (Formative and Summative): \| Performance Task(s) \| \| \| Lesson Learning Targets Learning Activities: \| \| Lesson Procedure 1. Have students read the article from History.com to provide background information. 2. Print copies of the Ireland and the Great Hunger STEM for students to complete. 3. If students do not have access to or practice using Charts in either Google Sheets or Microsoft Excel and you don't wish to spend time experimenting, replace the instructions on page 5 and question 11 with the image below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.868041	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63897/overview", "title": "Emigration, Immigration and Potatoes", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72072/overview	Chapter 1 Reading Guide Overview This resource is intended to be used as for guided note-taking by students as they read the text. Open Stax Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1 Reading Guide 1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology ________________________________ is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Anatomy areas of specialization ________________________ is the study of the structures visible to the naked eye. _________________________ is the study of structures visible with magnification __________________________ studies structures in each region of the body, i.e., abdomen _______________________________ studies structures associated with a given body system, i.e., cardiovascular system _______________________________ is the study of the physics and chemistry of the body. ___________________________ is the steady-state condition under which the body operates. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body A _________________ is the basic functional unit of the human body Cells are made up of smaller parts called _____________________. Organelles are made up of ____________________, which are made up of ___________. ________________ are groups of cells that work together for a common function. ______________________ are discrete structures made up of two or more tissue types. __________________________ are groups of organs that work together for common functions. ______________________ is the highest level of function. It is a living being that that can independently perform all physiological functions necessary for life. - _________________________ - Cells are organized into discrete compartments. - Body cells are kept separate from the external environment - Internal fluids are separate from microorganisms that can cause harm. - Cell membranes maintain the internal environment of cells. - Blood vessels maintain a closed circulatory system - _____________________ - The chemical reactions that sustain life. - _______________________________ – the chemical reactions that build complex molecules from simpler ones. These reactions require energy. - _____________________________ – The breakdown of complex compounds into simpler ones, tend to release energy. 1.3 Functions of Human Life - ___________________________ – the body reacts to changes in the external and internal environments. - ______________________________ – movement of muscles, the flow of blood through the circulatory system, moving of air in and out of the lungs. - ______________________________ – the total of changes that a body goes through in its life. - _______________________ – cells become specialized for a given function - _________________________ – the increase in size due to cell division and enlargement - _______________________ – the formation of offspring 1.4 Requirements for Human Life - _____________________________ – A vital component of the chemical reactions that produce ATP, which is needed to keep the body alive. - _____________________________ – any substance in a food or beverage that the body needs to maintain life. - ____________________ – the universal solvent of biological chemistry - __________________________________ such as carbohydrates and fats. - __________________________ supply amino acids which are the building blocks of the body. - Water, the energy-yielding nutrients, and proteins are referred to as ____________________________ - ___________________________ – are the vitamins and minerals needed in small quantities, and participate in important metabolic reactions - ________________________________________ means that the chemical reactions that make life possible occur around 37◦C. - ____________________________________ can cause enzymes to denature and stop metabolism. - _______________________________ (hypothermia) can slow down the reactions of life to a point where death occurs. - __________________________________________ - ________________________ is the force of air molecules pushing against the human body. - The ability to breath depends upon precise atmospheric pressure. 1.5 Homeostasis - ___________________________________ is the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal state that persists despite changes in the external environment. - The body must continuously monitor its internal environment. - Each physiological function has its _____________________ (a physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates). - A _________________________________ is the restricted set of values that is optimal for normal body function. - Control centers in the body measure and react to deviations in homeostasis by using negative feedback. - _________________________________ – is a mechanism that maintains normal parameters of physiological function inside the body. - Components of a negative feedback system - _________________ – monitors the physiological value - _________________ – compares the measured value to the normal range - __________________ – causes a change back to the normal range. - ____________________________ – intensifies a physiological change rather than reversing it. - Labor contractions in childbirth and blood clotting 1.6 Anatomical Terminology - ________________________________ a standardized way to view the human body. - The body is standing upright, feet pointing forward, palms facing the front. - _________________ – the body is lying face up - __________________ – the body is lying face down. - Regional terms – describe specific parts of the body (see next slide) - Directional terms - ________________ (or ventral) – towards the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot. - ________________ (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella. - ________________ (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the oris. - ________________ (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper, near, or toward the tail. (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. - ________________ describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits. - ________________ describes the middle or direction toward the center of the body. The hallux is the medial toe. - ________________ describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium. - ________________l describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur. - ________________ describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones. - ________________ describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull. - Body Sections and Planes - A ________________ is a 2D view of a 3D section that has been cut. - A ________________ is an imaginary 2D surface that passes through the body. - ________________ – A vertical plane that divides the body or organ into a right and left side. - ________________ – runs down the midline of the body and divides the body into equal right and left sides. - ________________ – divides the body into unequal left and right sides - ________________– A vertical plane that divides the body into a front (anterior) and rear (posterior) portions. - ________________– A horizontal plane that divides the body into upper and lower portions. - Body Cavities and Serous Membranes - Dorsal and Ventral Cavities - ________________consists of the________________and ________________ cavities. - ________________consists of the ________________ (pleural and pericardial cavities), and ________________ (abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity). - Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b) four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal cavity. - This technique promotes clear communication, for instance, about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass. - Anterior Body Cavity Serous Membranes - Provide cushioning and reduce friction for internal organs - ________________– line the pleural cavities, one surrounds each lung. - ________________ – serous membranes that surround the heart and line the pericardial cavity. - ________________ surrounds the peritoneal cavity and encloses several abdominal organs Chapter 1 Lecture Notes: An Introduction to the Human Body	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.899074	09/04/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/72072/overview", "title": "Chapter 1 Reading Guide", "author": "Bryon Spicci" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93085/overview	Perkins V-Based Data Reports Handbook Overview aweiovdoiacnvoaienoaisdvn TEST This document is provided to support...	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:45.915981	05/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93085/overview", "title": "Perkins V-Based Data Reports Handbook", "author": "Jim Taylor" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98062/overview	AudioEditExample-IntroBreakOutro Beethoven5thSymphonyMozartBorrowing Learning Audacity - Recording and Editing Basics Overview This OER is meant to teach those new to Audacity and audio editing the basic skills of the open-source software, as well as provide some basic narration tips. Though an introduction, this resource will allow those interested in podcasting, audio editing, video making, music creation, and more to apply these skills to larger projects. No required knowledge of Audacity or audio editing skills required. Though skills in an operating system (Windows, OSX, Linux) is highly reccomended. Learning Audacity - Recording and Editing Basics If you're new to Audacity this resource is for you! This lesson will cover what is Audacity is and how to install it, the UI of Audacity, and the basics of recording, playing, and editing an audio file. No prior knowledge of Audacity is needed, but knowledge of an operating system (OSX, Windows, or Linux) and basic computer skills are recommended. This lesson is best suited for those new to Audacity who wish to record their own voice for voice overs, or those new to audio editing who wish to increase their skillset for creating videos or podcasts. The skills taught in this lesson are beginner level but will create the foundation for further development of: - audio or video editing - creating podcasts - narrating videos or podcasts - recording music - and more This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Learning Objectives By the end of this course, you will be able to: - understand the purpose and use of Audacity - install Audacity onto your computer - record, playback, and import and export audio files in Audacity - understand the difference between exporting and saving files in Audacity - edit audio files using various tools such as trim, history, zoom, and noise reduction Now let's get started! What is Audacity? (Image of the UI of Audacity) Audacity is a free, easy-to-use audio editor and recorder for Windows, Mac OS X, and GNU/Linux. You can use Audacity to: - Record live audio; - Cut, Copy and Paste, Delete, Duplicate, and Split audio files; - Change the speed, pitch or volume of a recording; - Apply effects to any part of the sound; - Align audio segments. Audacity is a popular Open Source tool for creating and editing podcasts; it is freely available to download, install and modify, and is relatively easy to use. Best of all, it is free and open source software (licensed under the GNU GPLv2) so you can use, copy, and share it freely. This invites conversations about copyright and Creative Commons licensing. "Using Audacity/What is Audacity" by WikiEducator is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Students and teachers can explore sound effects, and Audacity makes it easy to cut, copy, and paste music tracks, and to create new versions of songs. Students use Audacity to interview teachers, each other, and parents and grandparents, incorporate these recordings into their classroom activities, and upload them to streaming web servers. They learn about the best audio file formats to use. For example, Audacity projects should be saved in two different formats: as Audacity project .aup files to allow for future editing and revision, and exported to a final playback format such as MP3 or WAV. "A quick introduction to Audacity for teachers" by Don Watkins, OpenSource is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 How accessible is Audacity for motion- or visually-impaired users? Audacity has numerous keyboard shortcuts which can be customised in the Keyboard Preferences. Most of Audacity can be wholly or partially used without a mouse, with excellent keyboard navigation of the selection. A few features currently have no keyboard alternatives, notably clips, Time Tracks and the Tools Toolbar tools except Selection Tool. Audacity works well with most screen-reader applications on Windows (including Jaws, Window-Eyes and NVDA). However a few features, notably Label Tracks, are not read. We still have to improve screen-reader support for Linux. For more information, see Accessibility. There are useful links to free screen readers and support resources for the blind on our Wiki page Audacity for blind users. "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 You can also view the following video for an overview of Audacity: "Audacity Review for Educators" by EDUC 592A, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Setting up Audacity In this section you will learn: - how to download and install Audacity - what FFPMEG is and how to install it - how to install and use your microphone in Audacity In order to use and learn Audacity we'll need to download the software. Luckily its available for most platforms (Windows, OSX, and Linux) and is easy to install. And even better - its open source and absolutely free! This section will also cover downloading the FFPMEG Library that is essential to have when using Audacity. As well, this section will cover setting up your microphone so you are able to record your voice. Downloading and Installing Audacity Windows For detailed system requirements for a Windows installation see this page on the Audacity Website Go to the Windows Download page of the Audacity site and follow the instructions there. "Installing and updating Audacity on Windows" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 OSX Audacity for Mac is for OS X 10.7 Lion and later. Audacity runs best with at least 1 GB RAM and a 1 GHz processor (2 GB RAM/2 GHz on OS X 10.7 and later). For lengthy multi-track projects, we recommend a minimum of 2 GB RAM and 2 GHz processor (4 GB RAM on OS X 10.7 and later). Go to the Mac Download page of the Audacity site. - On the download page, left-click the "installer" link, the .dmg file. This takes you to the FossHub site where our downloads are hosted. - On the FossHub Audacity page left-click the Audacity macOS DMG link. This will start the download. - Once the download has completed to your Downloads folder, double-click the DMG file to mount it. (Some browsers may offer the option to automatically open the DMG file for you.) - Drag the Audacity.app icon rightwards onto the Applications folder shortcut. - You can also drag Audacity.app out of the DMG to any other location. You need the administrator password to copy Audacity to Applications. - Launch Audacity.app from Applications or from your chosen location. Depending on your Finder Preferences, the Audacity icon may be titled "Audacity" or "Audacity.app". "Installing and updating Audacity on Mac" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Linux We recommend using the latest version of GNU/Linux from your distribution that is compatible with your hardware specifications. Audacity will run best with at least 1GB RAM and a 2 GHz processor. The recommended way to install software for most GNU/Linux and Unix-like Desktop distributions, is to install from the official distribution repository using a package manager. Most distributions provide Audacity packages. Alternatively you can build the latest Audacity tagged release from our source code. "Installing and updating Audacity on Linux" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Installing FFPMEG The optional FFmpeg library allows Audacity to import and export a much larger range of audio formats including M4A (AAC), AC3, AMR (narrow band) and WMA and also to import audio from most video files. Because of software patents, Audacity cannot include the FFmpeg software or distribute it from its own websites. Instead, use the following instructions to download and install the free and recommended FFmpeg third-party library. It is recommended that you exit Audacity before installing FFmpeg. Use the following links to download the FFmpeg Library and install it: - Windows install instructions : use the FFmpeg v2.2.2 INSTALLER (.EXE) - Mac install instructions : use the lame_64bit_osx.pkg - Linux install instructions After you have installed the FFmpeg Library, close Audacity if you have it open and relaunch the application Select ‘Edit’ from the main menu Then click on ‘Preferences’ In the Preferences window select ‘Libraries’ in the menu on the left Windows: OSX: Linux: Click the “Locate” button Audacity should automatically locate the FFmpeg libraries. You can select ‘No’, to not locate them manually and continue using the application with a larger array of file types. Once the FFmpeg Library has been installed, you can import video files and strip the audio from them. This can be very useful for editing videos in the future, because Audacity is has much better tools for audio editing than most video editors. Text source: "FFmpeg Library" by David Kwasny & Matthew Humphries, Open Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Images source: "FAQ:Installation, Startup and Plugins" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 / highlights added Setting Up Your Microphone You can view this video for an overview of setting up your microphone in Audacity [timestamps: 3:00 to 5:00]: "How To Set Up Your Microphone In Audacity Beginners Guide Ep 2" by Logan D, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 3.0 What if you don't have a microphone (AUX) port? If your computer does not have a microphone input port Do not plug a microphone into the line input port on your computer. The volume will be way too low (the line input port does not apply the needed amplification to boost the very quiet signal from the microphone). You will not break anything, but you will be very frustrated with the results. Option 1 - Buy a microphone to USB adapter These devices plug into a USB port on your computer, and have a microphone input jack (usually 1/8"). You will still need a compatible microphone. Be sure to carefully read the specifications of any adapter you are considering and make sure you get a microphone that will work with that interface. Option 2 - Buy a USB microphone These microphones are becoming more common. They combine a microphone and the USB adapter all in one package. Models are available by Logitech, Samson, Nady and Audio-technica, among others. "Connecting audio equipment" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Audacity Interface In this section you will learn: - the main UI of Audacity - the playback tools - the tools toolbar - the editing toolbar The interface to Audacity can be intiminating at first. This section will help to explain the different sections of Audacity and what they're used for. This is the main screen of Audacity when you open the software: 1 Menu Bar 9 Unpinned Play/Recording Head 10 Timeline 13 Audio Track 14 Label Track 16 Time Toolbar 18 Status Bar "Guide to the Audacity Project Window" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 What are the blue lines on screen? They're called waveforms and are a visual representation of an audio signal. Audacity Waveforms show you overall loudness best. They are the default view in Audacity. - You might see the danger of imminent clipping. - Precision in cutting and splicing is also best performed in Waveform view. "Audacity Waveform" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Playback Control Toolbar moves the cursor to the start of the project. plays your project from the position of the cursor. Use to listen to the audio in your project. pressing the record button will record a new track from your computer's sound input device. pause playback or recording. Press again to unpause. stops playback or recording. moves the cursor to the end of the project. Tools Toolbar The Selection Tool use to select sections of an audio track to work on. The Envelope Tool this tool allows you to control how tracks fade in and out. The Draw Tool allows you to draw on the waveforms of individual tracks. The Zoom Tool zooms in or out of a specific part of the audio. The Timeshift Tool allows you to change the positioning of tracks relative to one another in time Edit Toolbar Cut removes selected audio data and places it on the clipboard. Copy copies the selected audio data to the clipboard without removing it from the track. Paste pastes whatever is in the clipboard into the track at the position of the selection cursor. Trim deletes all of the track except the current selection. Silence replaces the current selection with silence instead of removing it completely. Undo undo the last editing operation performed. Redo redo any editing operations that were just undone. Zoom In zooms in on displayed tracks displaying less time and giving a more detailed view of the track. Zoom Out zooms out displaying more time and a less detailed view of tracks. Fit Selection fits selected audio into the width of the screen to show the selection in more detail. Fit Project shows entire project in one screen. "Using Audacity/The Interface" by WikiEducator is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 You can watch the following video from the beginning to 3:16 to see the UI of Audacity and some explanations too: "Using Audacity" by Tony Vincent, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Knowledge Check When you feel comfortable with the Audacity UI, feel free to test your knowledge using the following knowledge check: Audacity Basics In this section you will learn: - recording your voice - playing audio - how to save and export and the difference between them - importing audio How to Record Your Voice Select the red circle button to begin recording. Record for as long as you would like. And then select the black square button (the stop button) when you want to finish. Recording Best Practices There are some simple and easy best practices to keep in mind when recording. Following these will provide you with better quality recordings as well as make it easier to do any editing later. - Practice rehearsing your script out loud on your own and with a colleague to make the appropriate edits before you record. - Always leave a 10 second silence buffer before recording to ensure you are able to collect the noise profile and edit out the background noise. This also helps to reduce chances of you cutting off your audio - When recording, try to aim for a maximum peak of around –6 dB or 0.5 if you have your meters set to linear rather than dB. - Record all of your audio at once. If you make a mistake in your recording, stop and take a breath and then try saying the sentence again. This can be tweaked in the editing phase. - Be aware of the pace of your speech. Intentionally speak slower than you normally would, so your voiceover can be understood. - Smile when you're recording the audio.This helps to make you sound more energetic and happy. "Record Audio with Audacity" by University of Guelph Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 / added text and explanations Playing Audio The easiest way to control Audacity playback and recording is with Transport Toolbar: Clicking Play plays from the cursor point to the end of the project, or from the start of the selection region to the end of that region. "Playing and Recording" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Saving and Exporting It is important to know the difference between Saving and Exporting while working in Audacity. If you are working on a project but wish to close Audacity in order to continue working on the project at a later date it is important that you save your work. Audacity saves your project into a folder which will include all the separate audio tracks that you have either recorded or imported into your project. Audacity project files (.aup) let you save everything you're working on exactly as it appears on the Audacity screen. Most other audio programs cannot open Audacity project files. If you want to save your project into a file that can be opened by other programs you will need to select the export option. "Using Audacity/Saving" by WikiEducator is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Saving To save a project you are still working on, it is recommended to: File -> Save Project -> Save Project or “Ctrl +S” You might get this warning. But, as you can tell, it states this is not the file you would play for others. Exporting To export an audio file to distribute or share, it is recommended to: File -> Export -> Export as MP3 You might get this warning. This means it is reducing your project into one track. This is okay. It needs to be in this format to distribute, and we already saved the project, if it needs to be edited again. "Saving & Exporting" by David Kwasny & Matthew Humphries, Open Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 / text added You can also view this video as a recap of saving and exporting [timestamps: 10:13 onward]: "Audacity Basics: Recording, Editing, Mixing" by Kyle Stedman, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Importing an Audio File You don't always start with a blank recording, but instead you may wish to do edits on an existing audio file. For this, we'll need to import the audio file into Audacity. - Click File in the menu bar at the top of your screen. - Click Import from the dropdown menu. - Select Audio. - Select your file from your device to import. "Record Audio with Audacity" by University of Guelph Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 / text added You may also watch the following video for a video explanation of importing audio [timestamps: 10:25 to 13:24]: "Using Audacity" by Tony Vincent, YouTube is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Editing Basics In this section you will learn: - selecting specific pieces of audio - copying, cutting, and pasting audio - deleting audio - amplifying audio volume - zooming in and out of waveforms in Audacity Selecting Audio Almost all editing in Audacity will require you to select specific audio you want to work with. You may sometimes wish to change all the audio in a file, but more often than not you'll want to edit a specific section. We will go into how to select audio in Audacity here. Note that you can select the entire length of all tracks on screen with Select > All or use the shortcut Ctrl + A (or ⌘ + A on a Mac). To select audio, first choose the Selection Tool. Now click the left mouse button anywhere inside of an audio track, and click and drag to the other edge of your selection, and release. "Selecting Audio" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 /text and explanations added Copying, Cutting, and Pasting Audio Copying and pasting audio works just like other software. For example, copying text in Microsoft Word allows you to paste that text in other areas of the document. This is the same as Audacity - copying audio allows you to paste it anywhere within an audio file. Copying Use the Selection Tool to select a section of audio from the source track with click-and-drag (the source and target tracks are labeled SOURCE and TARGET in the examples.) Copy the selected audio to the Audacity clipboard by clicking on Edit > Copy or press the shortcut Ctrl + C or ⌘ + C on Mac). Conversely, you can also cut a selected audio. This will remove the audio from the waveform but keep it in your clipbaord to be pasted. This is akin to moving a piece of audio rather than copying it. Cut the selected audio to the Audacity clipboard by clicking on Edit > Cut or press the shortcut Ctrl + X or ⌘ + X on Mac). Pasting To make the paste select Edit > Paste from the Edit Menu or press the shortcut Ctrl + V or (⌘ +V on Mac). "Copy and Paste a section of audio" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 /text added and section on cutting added Deleting Audio Often, one of the most common edits you will want to do with audio is to remove aspects of it. This could be bad takes, mistakes, or maybe even some silence where you paused when talking. Deleting audio in Audacity is very easy! Click and drag your mouse to select the portion of audio you would like to delete. Click the play button to listen to your selected portion and confirm that you have selected the correct time. Select Edit > Delete, or press the delete/backspace button on your keyboard. The selected audio is removed from the track, and the rest of the audio moves to fill the space left after the delete. Listen back to each edit to make sure it sounds natural. If not, choose Edit > Undo Delete and try again. "Record Audio with Audacity" by University of Guelph Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 / text removed to condense steps Amplify Audio Amplyfing audio is raising the amplitude of an audio file. Amplitude refers to the level or magntitude of a signal. Audio signals with higher amplitude will sound louder. "Glossary" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Amplify always preserves the relative volumes of the tracks and/or channels. 1. Select Effect > Amplify from the menu bar at the top of your screen. 2. In the input box, type a value for the amount of amplification you would like to apply. Positive values make the sound louder, negative values make it quieter. As you type, the New Peak Amplitude input box will be updated. 3. If you take the negative of the value shown in the Amplification (dB) box, this will give you the current peak amplitude of the selection. 4. Drag the slider right to make the sound louder, or to the left to make it quieter. As you drag, your selected value will be updated in the input box, and the New Peak Amplitude input box will be updated. "Record Audio with Audacity" by University of Guelph Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Zooming In and Out It is often helpful to be able to zoom in to see the individual parts of the audio clip waveform in order to edit out sections or remove undesirable noises or pauses Zooming in shows you more detail about the waveform. This can be useful for editing out imperfections. Zooming out shows less detail but is useful to get a wider overview of your project. "Using Audacity/Zooming" by WikiEducator is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 How to Zoom There are five ways to zoom horizontally: View > Zoom submenu: use the four commands in this submenu to: - View > Zoom > Zoom In: double the current zoom level. - View > Zoom > Zoom Normal: reverts back to Audacity's default zoom, where you can see 5 - 10 seconds at a time - View > Zoom > Zoom Out: cuts the current zoom level in half - View > Zoom > Zoom to Selection: zooms and scroll so that the selection just fits in the window - View > Zoom > Zoom Toggle: toggles between two pre-defined zoom levels, these are user selectable in Tracks Preferences. Defaults are normal Default Zoom level and 4 Pixels per Sample (which shows a fraction of a second of audio as samples) Five of the view commands have equivalent buttons on the right of the Edit Toolbar: - Zoom In - Zoom Out - Fit Selection (to Width of the Window). aka 'Zoom to Selection' - Fit Project (to Width of the Window). - Zooms between two preset levels. These can be set using Tracks preferences. "Editing Audio" by David Kwasny & Matthew Humphries, Open Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Activity: Recording and Editing a File With all the skills you've learned thus far, let's put them into practice by editing an existing audio file. Instructions Recording You will need a partner for this first section. Have them record themselves in Audacity (with your assistance) the following: - 1. Please state your name. - 2. In 30 words, 15 seconds or less, please summarize why you came today. Next, record yourself saying the following: - 1.. [Intro]: You are about to hear a shockingly brief interview with ____________ [say the name of your partner for this exercise, whom you just interviewed]. - 2. (pause) - 3. [Break]: You are listening to a shockingly brief interview with _____________ [say the person's name again]. - 4. (pause) - 5. [Outro]: You have been listening to a shockingly brief interview with ___________ [say the person's name again]. This is ______________ [say your name], reporting for 90.1 FM, KKFI, Kansas City Community Radio. [NOTE: The “90.1 FM, KKFI, Kansas City Community Radio” in KKFI's official legal ID. If you say “Kansas City's Community Radio” on KKFI's Program Associate's exam, you will flunk, because it's “Kansas City Community Radio”, NOT “Kansas City's Community Radio.] The first part is a toy interview. The second part is Intro, Break and Outro, used to make that a complete piece, editing together with Audacity. Deleting Unneeded Portions To delete a portion of a recording, First select what you want to delete by specifying start and end of selection and discussed above. Verify that's what you want to delete. You can do this in multiple ways, e.g., first selecting a larger segment, then listening to it by playing it or part of it, and using the scroll bar at the bottom. Then select Edit > Delete (or <ctrl>+K or <cmd>+K on a Mac). Amplify a portion of a recording that may be quieter than other parts Select a portion of the recording that you want to amplify. Then Effects > Amplify. In contrast to when you want to push down a peak, you probably want to accept the default amplification by clicking “OK”. As before, if you don't like that, use <ctrl>+Z (or <cmd>+Z on a Mac) to revert your changes and restart. Cut pieces from different recordings and paste them together Using Cut and Paste tools, put the audio in an order that makes sense given the context. It might be easiest to open a new track and have it available to you as a blank slate to use rather than moving around existing audio. Export as MP3 Once you have what you want, it's wise to listen to it (or at least listen to parts of it) to make sure it's what you want. Then in the composite window, File > Export > “Export as MP3”. Again before you click “Save” you need to change the directory to what you want, because Audacity by default stores it in the last place it stored an export file, which is probably NOT where you want it. Click “Save”. Exercise adapted from: "Grassroots media training/KKFI/Audacity" by Wikiversity is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 / text and instructions added, text removed for brevity If you do not have access to a microphone or partner, you can use the attached audio instead. Audio provided by: DavidMCEddy, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Activity: Editing an Existing Audio File It's important to be able to edit existing audio files. In this activity, we will use multiple tools previously discussed to create short 10-second version of an audio file. Instructions Find an Existing Audio File Audacity can import many common audio file formats, including WAV, AIFF, and MP3. If the optional FFmpeg library is installed, a larger range of formats, including WMA and the audio content of most video files, can be imported. Audacity cannot import copy-protected music files. If you want to edit music that you have on an audio CD, you need to "rip" the music into an audio file. See the Audio CDs page for information on getting the audio off of CDs and into Audacity. No audio files handy? You can use the audio file attached to this section. Import the file into Audacity First launch Audacity, then import an audio file by selecting File > Import > Audio Look at the waveform This image above shows a stereo waveform. The left channel is displayed in the top half of the track and the right channel in the bottom half. The track name takes the name of the imported audio file ("No Town" in this example). Where the waveform reaches closer to the top and bottom of the track, the audio is louder (and vice versa). The ruler above the waveform shows you the length of the audio in minutes and seconds. Listen to the imported audio The image above shows Transport Toolbar. Click the Play button to listen to the audio. Click the Stop button to stop playback. If you do not hear anything, see Audacity Setup and Configuration. You can use the Space key on the keyboard as a shortcut for Play or Stop. Click on Selection Tool then click on the waveform to choose a place to start, then click the Play button . Click and drag to create a selection, and then when you click Play button only the selection will play. Create a 10-second clip from your audio To cut this audio file down to exactly 10 seconds, use these following steps. - With playback stopped, click near the point where you want the 10-second piece to begin. - Zoom in until the Timeline shows 10 seconds or more before and after the cursor. - While holding down the Shift key, click 10 seconds to the right of the cursor. 4. Press Space to listen to the entire selection. Playback will stop when the end of the selection is reached 5. Adjust the start and end of the selection with the mouse as follows. - Move the pointer over the start of the selection - the cursor will change to a left-pointing hand. - Click and drag to adjust the beginning of the selection. - You can adjust the end of the selection in a similar manner. 6. Press Space to listen to the adjusted selection. You do not have to listen to all of it; press Space again at any time to stop playback You have now selected the portion of the audio that you want to keep. Make sure you have pressed Space to stop if the track is still playing, then to delete everything except the selected audio, click on Edit > Remove Special > Trim Audio. Export the resulting file When you save an Audacity project with File > Save Project > Save Project you are doing just that - saving an Audacity project. Audacity projects can be opened only by Audacity. If you want other applications (such as Apple Music/iTunes or Windows Media Player) to be able to open this file you need to export it. Before we export this 10 second clip to a separate file we are going to simplify things a bit. Go to the Import / Export Preferences, and under When exporting tracks to an audio file uncheck "Show Metadata Editor prior to export step". Metadata Editor adds extra information about the speech or music into the file - see For More Information below to learn more. You can go back to the Import / Export Preferences at any time to re-enable Metadata Editor. Exporting a WAV file - Click on File > Export > Export Audio... - the standard "Save" dialog for your operating system appears. - Give the file a different name. Audacity always suggests a name for the file that is the same as the name of your Audacity project. It is always best to alter this so you do not confuse your exported file with your Audacity project. - Choose a location to save the file in the usual manner. - At the bottom of the Save dialog is a dropdown menu labeled "Format". From this menu choose "WAV (Microsoft) signed 16-bit PCM". - There are no options for the WAV file format, so there is no need to click the Options button. - Click the Save button to complete the export of your project to a WAV file. Exporting an MP3 file The steps for exporting a file in MP3 format are the same as for a WAV file, except: - In the Save dialog, from the "Format" menu, choose "MP3 files" - Then click the Options button to set the bit rate and other options for the MP3 file. Exercise adapted from: "Tutorial - Editing an Existing Audio File" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 / text and instructions added Editing Tools in Audacity In this section you will learn: - trimming audio to any length - adding silence to audio - remove unwanted background noise from audio - utilize the history tool to reverse mistakes Recall this is the toolbar menu in Audacity "Editing Audio" by David Kwasny & Matthew Humphries, Open Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 We have previously discussed copy, cut, paste, and zooming in and out. Now we will delve into silence and trim. Trimming Audio The ‘Trim’ tool works in the opposite way of the ‘Cut’ tool, and can also be found on the Edit Toolbar. Using ‘Trim’ you will be left with the selected area, and the unselected parts of the clip will be removed. Be careful when using this tool on large audio clips, you might remove more than you intended. Adding Silence Silence does exactly what it sounds like it would do, it silences audio. You can use this as an alternative to cutting parts of your clip, if you would like. It is also a good way of reducing unwanted background noise between dialogue clips. "Editing Audio" by David Kwasny & Matthew Humphries, Open Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Noise Reduction What is Noise Reduction? Noise Reduction can reduce constant background sounds such as hum, whistle, whine, buzz, and "hiss", such as tape hiss, fan noise or FM/webcast carrier noise. It is not suitable for individual clicks and pops, or irregular background noise such as from traffic or an audience. To use Noise Reduction, you need a region in the waveform that contains only the noise you want to reduce. Be aware that it may be impossible to get a satisfactory removal when the noise is very loud, when the noise is variable, when the music or speech is not much louder than the noise or when the noise frequencies are very similar to those of the music or speech. "Noise Reduction" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 How to Perform Noise Reduction Audacity has a great built-in noise reduction tool. To get it to do its job properly, you need to get your hands a bit dirty. So, first you need to get a noise profile which lets Audacity recognize what noise in the file actually is. The profile gives Audacity a baseline from which to work. To get a good noise profile, you need to find a section of the audio file in which there's no talking. This appears as a flat line in Audacity. Several seconds worth of dead air is best. If you don't have that much, use what you can. "How to clean up digital recordings using Audacity" by Scott Nesbitt, OpenSource.com is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 1. Leave a 10 second silence buffer at the beginning or end of your recording to capture the room noise. 2. Click and drag your mouse to highlight a section of dead air. 3. Click Effect > Noise Reduction and then select Get Noise Profile 4. Once you’ve captured the Noise Profile, press CRTL/COMMAND + A to select the entire audio clip. 5. Go back to Effect > Noise Reduction. Leaving the default settings, click Okay and it will remove the background noises from the entire audio track. 6. If you only want the noise reduced for a particular section, only highlight that part with your mouse instead of highlighting your entire track. 7. You can also select a section of audio and press CTRL+L to silence that section of audio. This can also be done using the silence audio button in the toolbar. "Record Audio with Audacity" by University of Guelph Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 History Tool Audacity is a forgiving application. If you are afraid of messing up, relax, because Audacity is designed to let you try something and then undo it if you do not like it, or redo it if you like your first idea after all. This is really the only way to work with audio because it is often hard to judge an effect or other change in context of the entire project until you do it. - Undo/Redo is fast, irrespective of how long the original action took. Use it to listen easily to "before" and "after" versions of your work. - As you apply more actions, the disk space needed to allow Undo/Redo of those actions grows. - The Undo/Redo space usage is discarded on closing the project. - Undo/Redo steps for an open project can be managed in the History window. Only changes that modify the project data can be undone. Changes that cannot be undone include: - Saving or exporting - Changing the track height or the selection or cursor position (these are saved when you save a change that is recorded by Undo/Redo) - Changing preferences settings. he History dialog lets you view and manage all of the actions you have taken since you opened a project. Accessed by View > History... the History dialog window can be resized by clicking and dragging on its borders. Manage History The History list has two columns: - "Action" shows a list of all project states that you can go back or forward to, earliest state first. - "Used Space" shows for each action in the list the amount of disk space that that action used. Space Used - Total space used: Displays the total disk space currently used by the project, which is the total of all the "Used Space" values shown in the History list. - Clipboard space used: This indicates the amount of disk space currently used by the Audacity Clipboard. Buttons - OK button: Accepts the changes made in the History window, if any, and closes the window. - help button, brings you to the appropriate page in the Manual, this page. "History - Undo and Redo" by Audacity 3.3 Manual is licensed under CC BY 3.0 Glossary of Terms and Conclusion Congratulations on reaching the end of the Audacity lesson! We have covered a lot of different terminology, tools, and actions within the software. If you need to ever refresh your understanding of terminology used in Audio Editing, the Audacity Manual has a fantastic glossary of terms: As well, if you need a refresher on best practices for audio narration the following is a useful, short guide: Tips for Recording Audio at Home You've reached the end of Learning Audacity - Recording and Editing Basics. Thank you for reading and good luck!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.004152	David McNulty	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98062/overview", "title": "Learning Audacity - Recording and Editing Basics", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85677/overview	Library Orientation 5: Credo Reference Overview Part 5 of 15. Introduces Credo Reference. Includes outlines for an assignment and a quiz. Welcome You may want to put your contact information under "Resources." Introduction Credo Reference is a database that houses over 750 full-text reference titles as well as reference media files covering a wide range of general academic topics. Users are particularly fond of the excellent illustrations. This is a great place to start your research and can provide you with overviews that are appropriate to cite in a paper. Objectives - Successfully use Credo Reference to find an appropriate resource. - Create a single annotated bibliography entry based on a resource obtained from Credo Reference. Resources - Library eResources Web page: https://www.sheltonstate.edu/instruction-workforce-development/library-services/eresources/ Readings and Videos Credo Reference is an online database of general reference works provided by Shelton State. It covers everything from art to zoology. To get to Credo Reference: - From the library's main web site, select eResources from the tiled menu or the left-hand menu. - Select Credo Reference from the list. - You will need your MyShelton credentials to use this resource. Searching Credo Reference will provide you with reference book articles, diagrams, artwork, video and audio clips, mind maps, and other resources related to your topic. Searching is easy. Credo also provides their own video content to illustrate the full functions of the tools they provide. Once you are logged in to Credo Reference, scroll to the bottom of the page and there will be a rotating menu of resources that are tool-specific. Two important points: - If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire. - The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right. Assignment Restricting the student to the assignment submission module in your course management software is a second option. Introduction - This assignment will illustrate your ability to utilize Credo Reference to find an appropriate academic research resource. - Completing this assignment will give you one piece of your final annotated bibliography. Submissions will be graded and corrected versions can be used in your final assignment. Objectives - Create an annotated MLA or APA citation for a resource you found on Credo Reference. Instructions - Watch the videos and read the documentation in this module related to Credo Reference. - Navigate to Credo Reference and search using the topic you chose in the discussion from Module 2. - Select a resource that fits your topic and read or watch it. - Using the citation tools provided, select the MLA or APA citation format and copy and paste the citation into the assignment. MLA or APA can be utilized, but be consistent. Use either MLA or APA consistently throughout this class. - Write a brief paragraph that summarizes the resource. - If you have trouble finding a resource, don't hesitate to contact your instructor. Submission Requirements - This assignment can be submitted via email in the text of the message or as a PDF or MS Word attachment. - This assignment is worth 5 points. - 2 points: Proper Citation Format - 3 points: Annotation (spelling and grammar count) Example In your final document, the citation should have a hanging indent, as per the example of the final project. Different databases provide different citation styles, even within the database. Projects for subject-level courses will require you standardize your entries to suit the format that the instructor requires. For this project, you need only copy and paste the citation from the database. MLA: "knitting." World of Art: The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Fashion and Fashion Designers, Georgina O'Hara Callan, Thames & Hudson, 2nd edition, 2008. Credo Reference, https://sheltonstate.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/thfashion/knitting/0?institutionId=8650. Accessed 18 Aug. 2021. This brief article defines the knitting process. Especially useful are the links to articles that talk about specific knit types and some knitwear. APA: knitting. (2008). In G. O. Callan, World of art: The Thames and Hudson dictionary of fashion and fashion designers (2nd ed.). Thames & Hudson. Credo Reference: https://sheltonstate.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/thfashion/knitting/0?institutionId=8650. This brief article defines the knitting process. Especially useful are the links to articles that talk about specific knit types and some knitwear. Quiz Change the instructions to fit your needs. Use the quiz module of your course management software to ask questions. Here are mine, but you will have to modify them to suit your own library requirements: - Credo Reference is a collection of journal articles. FALSE - You cannot use images from Credo Reference in an academic presentation. FALSE - Credo Reference provides citation help for all of its materials. TRUE - Credo Reference is less reliable than Wikipedia. FALSE - Credo Reference is a collection of reference books. TRUE Introduction This quiz will test your knowledge of Credo Reference. Objectives - Confirm that you have retained key information about Credo Reference. Instructions - There are 5 true-false questions. - You have 15 minutes for this quiz. - Please use the Chrome browser for best performance. - Once you start the quiz, you must complete it; there are 2 attempts. You cannot save to return to later. If you log out, you cannot return to the quiz. - The attempt with the highest score will be graded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.028677	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85677/overview", "title": "Library Orientation 5: Credo Reference", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128363/overview	What were people from the past like? Overview Set of three illustrations that encourage students to ask questions about the past and to carry out a process of inquiry to give a broad and reflective response to it. It is structured in three phases based on the three figures that make up the resource: a first one for detecting prior ideas (illustration 1); a second one for developing the investigation (illustration 2); and a third one for conclusion and closure (illustration 3). For further suggestions and tips about how to implement the cases selected in this itinerary, we encourage you to consult the kit for teachers that can be found here: https://www.letheproject.eu/toolkit/ Infographs and helpful materials are provided. A specific teaching itinerary is presented for the development of several history lessons from an active learner who seeks to initiate a reflection in the classroom on the past and its social and cultural characteristics. For this purpose, an itinerary marked by three phases is offered: 1. Figure 1. Starting from initial motivation questions [How do you imagine the people of the past?] and the request for a specific action by the student [Try to recreate a scene from any given day on this street in a city from the Roman era. You can draw or on the Internet, print and cut out, the different people who could have passed through that street] the student is asked to recreate how he imagines the society of the past. The result is usually a homogeneous, masculine, exclusive image, where numerous voices and key social groups are excluded. 2. Figure 2. The student is offered the exploration of different historical cases (8 in particular) developed within the framework of the LETHE project (https://www.letheproject.eu/) which presents the student with 8 situations that show how the past can be diverse and integrate the action of characters that usually do not appear prominently in the historical narratives that appear in textbooks and curricular materials. These cases are developed from a historical research strategy where the student reflects on the past based on the sources and supporting questions that are established. The idea is for the student to reach his or her own conclusions and for the teacher to act as a mediator in the process (more advice on how to apply the pedagogy proposed by LETHE can be found in its manual). 3. Figure 3. Once the students have carried out the various inquiry processes and have reached their own conclusions, we propose an alternative image of what the people of the past could have been like, exemplified in a street in a city during the Roman era. Students will be able to discuss the results of their research and the reasons for the lack of knowledge about the groups represented here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.048150	03/11/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128363/overview", "title": "What were people from the past like?", "author": "Laura Arias-Ferrer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122968/overview	ENGL 2860: Introduction to Film Course Common Cartridge Overview This resource contains a downloadable common cartridge file for ENGL 2860: Intorduction to Film. The entire course is a true OER remix, containing original OER materials as well as OERs adopted or adapted from other authors. The course includes links to films via Motlow's Kanopy Collection as well as videos, lectures, gloassries, assessments, and rubrics.. The course is an overview of film history using selected works from world cinema and introduces the basic elements of film expression and analysis while also examining how films reflect their cultural and historical context and the extent to which films reflect the diversity of human experience across multiple time periods and cultural perspectives. Project Planning Our OER Goals & Purpose: Why are you doing this OER Project and what are you hoping to accomplish? Our Audience: Who are you designing this OER Project for and what are their learning needs and preferences? Our Team: Who is on your OER Project Team and what are their roles and responsibilities? Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER Project? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER Project? Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER Project? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER Project? Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER Project deliverables? OER Project needs to be piloted by Spring 2025 term and uploaded to the TBR Group on the Tennessee Open Education Hub by January 15, 2025 Tennessee Open Education Planning We aim to add a General Education Core Humanities option at Motlow through the creation of an Introduction to Film course. This course will leverage students' existing knowledge and experience with film, a Fine Art, to provide a Humanities option that engages students and offers practical, real-world applications. We anticipate this will enhance student excitement and positively impact retention and progression. Our course targets incoming freshmen who must complete learning support requirements and need general education core courses without prerequisites to register as full-time students. It offers an additional Humanities option that builds on students' familiarity with film, making it potentially more appealing. The course will be designed to accommodate students in learning support courses by including assessments that do not require extensive experience with academic writing. The team collaborated on course outcomes. Team leader, Wes Spratlin, is responsible for the selection of the primary and secondary texts in the course. Dr. Will Murphy is responsible for the creation of unit and module objectives as well as ensuring that assessments align with module, unit, course, and TBR Fine Arts/Humanities Outcomes. Our existing resources include the following: Sharman, Russell, Moving Pictures: An Introduction to Cinema, https://uark.pressbooks.pub/movingpictures/ Moss, Yelizaveta and Candice Wilson, Film Appreciation, https://alg.manifoldapp.org/projects/film-appreciation Various resources available via YouTube In terms of new resources, we are creating weekly module Terms/Concepts Glossaries that will provide the module’s major terms and concepts along with definitions and examples in the form of still pictures or brief videos. As much as possible, these examples will feature stills and clips form the primary film featured in the module for that week. For example, Module 5 focuses on Truffaut’s, The 400 Blows, and introduces the concept of camera movement, so the definition of a Tracking Shot in the weekly glossary will feature the famous low-angle tracking shot that opens The 400 Blows Regarding needed support, our Dean of Libraries is using her budget to subscribe to Kanopy, a widely-used subscription service for academic and public library patrons. Kanopy will not provide the students with the 12 primary films we will cover in the class, but it’s clip feature will allow us to create clips from those films for use in our module Terms/Concepts Glossaries. In addition, we will need the help of various Motlow State departments and offices to promote the course and to educate students, faculty, Success Coaches, and Advisors regarding the course before pre-registration for the spring semester. In terms of course design/delivery assessment, we will rely on guidance and assistance from Motlow’s Office of Institutional Research and Effectiveness. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we are relying on TBR’s General Education Core Committee to provide guidance toward the acceptance of the course as a Humanities option at Motlow for the 2025-2026 catalog. Our Timeline: Aug. 30 Meet with Nancy Stano for update/consultation Sept. 5 Meet with Academic Technologies regarding Kanopy app and Motlow Hub Sept. 10 Meet with Academic. Affairs to ensure 2024-25 catalog is correct Sept. 15 Submit application to TBR for Humanities designation Oct. 1 Meet with Student Success to discuss how to advertise course for spring Oct. 7 Submit application for Global Awareness HIP designation Oct. 15 All course materials finished and added to shell Oct. 15 Present course to Nancy Stano for feedback Oct. 15 Present course to select ENGL and Humanities faculty for feedback Dec. 1 Upload course to TN Open Ed Programs & Projects site Jan. 13 Formally present course to Languages and Humanities faculty Course Description This course provides an overview of film history using selected works from world cinema. The course introduces the basic elements of film expression and analysis while also examining film’s social impact as a medium and demonstrating the diversity of human experience across multiple time periods and cultural perspectives. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Project, such as student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.078821	Wes Spratlin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122968/overview", "title": "ENGL 2860: Introduction to Film Course Common Cartridge", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79271/overview	How to Share Your Resources (PDF) How to Share Your Resources (Word) Guidelines for Licensing Learning Objects for Re-use with Creative Commons Overview The guidelines assist creators of learning objects in considering the range of issues to take into account when making their content available for re-use under a Creative Commons licence. This includes whether the content is appropriate to licence for re-use, how to identify a suitable Creative Commons licence, how to practically apply the licence to the learning object, and other considerations for re-use. A one page handout summarising the main points of the Guidelines is also available to download in Word or PDF format. These guidelines assist creators of learning objects in considering the range of issues to take into account when making their content available for re-use under a Creative Commons licence. This includes whether the content is appropriate to licence for re-use, how to identify a suitable Creative Commons licence, how to practically apply the licence to the learning object, and other considerations for re-use. The term ‘learning object’ is used in many contexts with many variations in how it is defined. We take ‘learning object’ to mean a self-contained, digital resource created for the purposes of achieving a learning objective. It can be interactive or static, has some level of portability (i.e. can be used in multiple contexts), and is suitable for re-use. Learning objects can manifest in a wide range of material types – including documents, videos, audio recordings, apps, programs, interactive files, HTML webpages, etc. The guidelines attempt to describe copyright to suit a general audience, however if you are located outside of Australia, we recommend you check your local copyright legislation as this will apply to your situation. This guide is for information only, and does not constitute legal advice. A one page handout summarising the main points of the Guidelines is also available to download in Word and pdf formats.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.098552	Karen Miller	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79271/overview", "title": "Guidelines for Licensing Learning Objects for Re-use with Creative Commons", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103079/overview	Mobilizing young voters through social media and best practices for online social activism Overview Do you remember the first social media account you made? What about the first time you read a news article or retweeted a tweet from your favorite politician? Have you caught your students feeling frustrated after a major event happens and they feel powerless? In this lesson, students will learn about democracy, voting requirements, and how to make a difference in politics. Using lateral reading (a strategy for investigating who's behind an unfamiliar online source by leaving the webpage and opening a new browser tab to see what trusted websites say about the unknown source) students will evaluate news articles or social media content to determine if it is credible to share online. This lesson plan includes a slide deck and lateral reading resources. Lesson Plan The lesson plan is attached. Initially used for a 30 minute lecture, but can be adapted for longer or shorter. Vocabulary Words Definitions for each word can be determined by the instructor, or as a class activity. - Voting - Democracy - Generation Z - Congress - Lateral reading - Upstream reading - Site:congress.gov Learning Outcomes Students will demonstrate knowledge of the voter registration process and reflect on eligibility requirements. Students will be able to recognize signs of misinformation and verbally explain steps to act responsibly when sharing online materials. Students will evaluate methods of lateral reading and demonstrate the steps and effectiveness of lateral reading. Teaching Materials - Canva slide show (linked) - Resources/articles to use for lateral reading excercise (linked in Canva slideshow, but could use your own to make them more timely) - Kahoot links to gauge student knowledge before and after the lesson. Before starting the lesson - Make a copy of the lesson slides so you can edit as needed. - Provide copies of any articles or internet resources if preferred by students.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.119784	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103079/overview", "title": "Mobilizing young voters through social media and best practices for online social activism", "author": "Interactive" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83666/overview	Creation Story Overview This is a multi-day lesson about Creation aimed at kindergarten students or lower elementary. It does not use a lot of computer assisted technology in deference to the abilities of these students and the possible lack of one to one computers at this grade level. Introduction This is a multi-day unit about creation aimed at kindergarten students. - It begins with this brief video about creation, narrated by children, and with images ranging from cartooon to photographic. There are some periods of quiet in it, so perhaps prepare the children for that, or use that time for quick discussions. - The next days will use the activity described in section 2. Students will be reviewing the important things created each day of creation week and making their own cards to help remember these. Optionally, they will learn the ASL signs for many of these things. - The "game" portion of the lesson involves a simple and repetitive rhyme song further reviewing the order of creation. Either the cards, ASL, or both could be used during this game song. This also acts as a formative assessment. - The summative assessment piece is last, of course. Students will be asked to mix up their cards face down, turn them over, and put them in the correct sequence. Activity Materials needed: Index cards or papers (8 per student), drawing materials, paper clips or envelopes for keeping each student's work separate. Depending on the abilities and age of your students, you may want to use index cards that are lined on one side for their name to go on and/or pre-print their names so they just have to trace them. I teach some ASL signs for the nouns in this story as well. I have included a link to an easy ASL online visual dictionary in case you want to do that. For example: - dark - God - light - water ( I use rain for the water above and river for the water below) - dry land - sun - moon - stars This section usually takes me a couple days. ( I Have them for about 25 minutes a day.) The quality of the art is not the important part, so reassure them as needed. Each child will be given 8 pieces of paper (I plan to use plain 3 by 5 cards because they are a good size) for this activity. Put your own name on one side of each card. Mine look like this. Now choose one card, and turn it over so you can't see your name. Do you remember what it was like before God began creating? Yes it was DARK. Draw on this card something that shows what dark is for you. I colored mine all black, but you do what you think dark looks like. Set that card aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. Do you remember the first thing God created? YES, it was LIGHT!! Draw on this card something that shows what light is for you. Then set that card aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. Do you remember the second thing God created? YES. It was WATER! What is water above? And water below the sky? Great...Draw some pictures to show that, then set that card aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. What is the third thing God created? YES! PLANTS AND TREES! Draw some pictures of those, then set that card aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. What did God create on the fourth day? YES. THE SUN, MOON, AND STARS!!! So many stars!! Draw some pictures showing those, then set that card aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. What did God create on the fifth day? YES...BIRDS AND FISH. Draw some birds and fish on this card, then set it aside. Now choose another card and turn it over so you can't see your name. What did God create on the sixth day? YES....ANIMALS AND PEOPLE!! HURRAY!! Draw some of those on this card, then set it aside. Last card. You know what to do...turn it over so you can't see your name. What did God do on the seventh day? YES....HE RESTED!! Draw a picture that shows rest on this card, then set it aside. We will be using this cards for some fun now. The Game Creation Rhyme Song by Jan Crowe Words with easy ASL signs are in blue Before God created things, Everything was dark, a And there was nothing here except God. On the first day of creation, God said “Let there be light” And so there was light, And God looked and said “this is good”. On the second day of creation, God said “Let there be water and dry land” And so there was water up above and water down below And there was dry land, And there was still the light And God looked and said “this is good”. On the third day of creation God said “Let there be plants and trees” And so there were plants and trees And there was water up above and water down below And there was dry land, And there was still the light And God looked and said “this is good”. On the fourth day of creation God said “I want a sun, and a moon, and lots of stars” And so there was a sun, and a moon, and lots of stars, And there were plants and trees And there was water up above and water down below And there was dry land, And there was still the light And God looked and said “this is good”. On the fifth day of creation God said, “I’d like birds and fish” And so there were birds and lots of fish And a sun, and a moon, and lots of stars, And there were plants and trees And there was water up above and water down below And there was dry land, And there was still the light And God looked and said “this is good”. On the sixth day of creation God said, “let there be animals and…..some people” And so there were animals and some people And so there were birds and lots of fish And a sun, and a moon, and lots of stars, And there were plants and trees And there was water up above and water down below And there was dry land, And there was still the light And God looked and said “this is really good”. On the seventh day of creation God looked at all He’d done, And He said, “This is really good” But He was tired soooo He took a rest! For this part, each student needs their cards, and (if you choose) their hands free for ASL signs. Each student's cards should be face up in front of them in no particular order As the rhyme-song is spoken, chanted, or sung, they pick up and show the card that is being referenced. An assessment Materials needed: student made cards from the Activity Students begin with their own cards face down (names showing) in front of them, and the task is to turn the cards over one at a time and put them in the correct order. Optionally, they can sing the song to themselves or as a group to help if desired. The students will be asked to start with their cards from the activity face down (names showing) and then one by one, turn a card over and put the cards in the correct order.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.156468	Jan Crowe	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83666/overview", "title": "Creation Story", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99084/overview	Eureka 7 Module 1 Lessons 8-9 Overview See the "notes" on the slides for more info and instruction Eureka 7 Module 1 Lessons 8-9 Google slides to correspond with Eureka 7 Module 1 Lessons 8-9	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.173297	11/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99084/overview", "title": "Eureka 7 Module 1 Lessons 8-9", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80841/overview	Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit Overview This Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit is designed to support educators and librarians begin their OER journey of identifying, evaluating, curating, and authoring/remixing. Getting Started with OER Open Educational Resources (OER) refer to any teaching and learning materials that reside in the public domain or have been released under a license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution. Open Educational Practices (OEP) refer to collaborative teaching and learning practices that help educators to advance a culture of sharing and active learning through OER, including - Collaboration: connect with educators with diverse expertise, brainstorm innovative ideas, contribute resources and best practices, get and give feedback, reflect and share our successes and challenges with our global community - Curation: identify, evaluate, organize, and share resources that meet our learning objectives - Design: create high-quality instructional materials by utilizing supports, like authoring templates and planning tools. Think deeply about how we design resources to meet the unique needs of our learners. Reflect and refine resources for continuous improvement - Leadership: present, train, and share with others to build awareness and advocacy Reflect: Which Open Educational Practices are you interested in advancing in your work? Practice: Get started with Open Educational Resources and Practices by - Registering & Creating a Profile here: https://www.oercommons.org/registration - Joining a Group - School District of South Orange and Maplewood https://www.oercommons.org/groups/school-district-of-south-orange-maplewood/6955/ - Exploring Group Resource Folders and Replying to the Discussion Need help registering? Read the help articles here: How to Register Identify OER Reflect: Before searching for resources to use in your work, what considerations do you make? - Are there any specific content gap areas in my existing courses? For example, I might have an urgent need for math modeling or STEM literacy resources. - Are there new types of digital materials that I would like to integrate into my existing courses? For example, I might want to offer my students more opportunities to use interactive games and simulations. - Are there innovative teaching and learning strategies that I would like to incorporate into my instructional plan? For example, I might desire to try some kinesthetic learning or guided inquiry activities. - Are there current events and news topic areas that I need resources for? For example, I might be interested in finding the latest resources on climate change or refugees. Practice: Type keyword(s) into the Search bar or use Advanced Search to identify additional search criteria, such as material type, educational level, and more. Once you get your search results, you can further filter them. You can also browse resource collections, groups, and hubs, such as Washington's OER Hub with continuous learning collections for different content areas/practices and audiences, working groups for content areas and specific projects, and more. Share a link to a resource you identified, what you like about it, and how you plan to use it by replying to the Discussion Need help searching? Read the help articles here: How to use Search, Advanced Search, and Filter Evaluate OER Reflect: What makes a resource high-quality? What do you specifically look for in a resource to use in your work? Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Explore the different Evaluation Tools below: Achieve OER Rubric https://www.achieve.org/files/AchieveOERRubrics.pdf Open Textbook Library Review Criteria https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/reviews/rubric Curriculum Review Rubric https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WhIeMRNInxws2EkMS3DVP9I1-uifeytjEC5SFARTbEw/edit Tool for Identifying Bias in Sources https://docs.google.com/document/d/1qYIvkwBYEStX-cCsMp2-_p0XC6mqPVIMrs6C1ARL38I/edit?pli=1 Washington’s Screening for Bias in Instructional Materials https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74736/overview Practice: Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Share what your resource evaluation criteria is by replying to the Group discussion Evaluate a resource using your own criteria by writing your review as a comment on the resource. Curate OER Reflect: Share an example of something you have curated. There are many ways that we thoughtfully collect and organize things that are important to us. Our homes are representations of how we curate collectables, art, books, plants, etc. We also curate articles and photos using social media like twitter, instagram, facebook, and pinterest. 1. What considerations do you make when curating resources to use in your work? Here are some curation considerations from OER Commons' digital librarians: - User-centered Design: The first step our digital librarians take in curation is to research their intended audience. Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards. What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? - Identify and Select Resources: Next digital librarians select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the OER Commons curation criteria of having open licensing, being up to date and relevant, and high-quality. - Describe and Organize of Resources: Digital librarians put a lot of consideration into how they describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience. They add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search. They create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections. - Share and Promote Resources: Digital Librarians utilize collaborative spaces, like Hubs and Groups to share resources. They also use social media tools, like the twitter; newsletter mailings; and in person and virtual presentations and trainings to promote their collections with a larger audience. 2. Brainstorm your curation plans User-centered Design: Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards? What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? Identify and Select Resources: Select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the your evaluation criteria shared last week Describe and Organize of Resources: How will you describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience?Such as add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search and create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections Share and Promote Resources: What methods will you use to promote your curated resources? Such as social media, blogs, newsletters, listervs, websites, presentations and trainings Practice: Submit an open educational resource to share in the OER Commons library (click Submit a Resource in our group and add the link and descriptive information) Create folders / subfolders and save resources you want to use and share (In group resourses click on New and add the title of the folder. To save resources, click on Save on the resource and select the folder you wish to save it to.) For inspiration, check out this example of a group curating language learning resources for the Pathways Project at Boise State University Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate directly on the resource by clicking Add New Tag OER Authoring & Remixing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.196168	05/26/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80841/overview", "title": "Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68857/overview	Adolescent Development Reading BrainWorks 1: Human Development BrainWorks 1: Student Notes BrainWorks 2: Cognitive Development BrainWorks 2: Cognitive Development Activity BrainWorks 3: Building A Framework of Understanding https://vimeo.com/user34119652/review/201102894/39de176f14 Lesson Overview O objetivo é compartilhar materiais sobre os processos cognitivos envolvidos na aquisição da leitura e da escrita. Acredito que os materiais possam auxiliar profissionais da educação, como também as famílias. Em decorrência, penso que muitas crianças podem ser beneficiadas pela disseminação deste conhecimento tão importante para que os processos de leitura e escrita possam se desenvolver com mais tranquilidade. AS RELAÇÕES DA FALA, DA ESCRITA E DA LEITURA PARA A APRENDIZAGEM ESCOLAR… COMO ISSO FUNCIONA? O objetivo de remixar o recurso BrainWorks, o qual encontrei no site https://www.oercommons.org/, é para criar um pequeno curso para professores sobre os processos de leitura. Data de criação: junho de 2020 Licença: CC By NC SA 4.0 OBS: Remixei este recurso, pois achei interessante para divulgação de material que eu organizo para explicações para os professores sobre as funções cognitivas do ler e escrever. A imagem do título é de minha autoria Pp. Eliane Costa Kretzer, o desnho é da Fita de Möbius com 3 voltas que é o símbolo da Psicopedagogia. O símbolo representa "[...] o olhar do psicopedagogo. As voltas estão dispostas de forma a representar a aprendizagem do indivíduo. O círculo central representa o indivíduo em processo para a aquisição de conhecimento, chegando ao fim com mudanças perceptíveis (círculo vermelho). Assim, este símbolo caracteriza nossa área de atuação, representando o psicopedagogo o psicopedagogo na relação com seu objeto de conhecimento, a aprendizagem." (ABPp - Associação Brasileira de Psicopedagogia). O vídeo é da Universidade Aberta (http://hdl.handle.net/10400.2/6195). Importante ressaltar que neste site encontramos muitos outros materiais. INFORMAÇÕES SOBRE O RECURSO E A REMIXAGEM: O objetivo de remixar o recurso BrainWorks, o qual encontrei no site https://www.oercommons.org/, é para criar um pequeno curso para professores sobre os processos de leitura. Achei interessante para divulgação de material que eu organizo para explicações para os professores sobre as funções cognitivas do ler e escrever. Data de criação: junho de 2020 Licença: CC By NC SA 4.0 Créditos da imagem do título é de minha autoria Pp. Eliane Costa Kretzer, o desnho é da Fita de Möbius com 3 voltas que é o símbolo da Psicopedagogia. O símbolo representa "[...] o olhar do psicopedagogo. As voltas estão dispostas de forma a representar a aprendizagem do indivíduo. O círculo central representa o indivíduo em processo para a aquisição de conhecimento, chegando ao fim com mudanças perceptíveis (círculo vermelho). Assim, este símbolo caracteriza nossa área de atuação, representando o psicopedagogo o psicopedagogo na relação com seu objeto de conhecimento, a aprendizagem." (ABPp - Associação Brasileira de Psicopedagogia). Créditos do vídeo é da Universidade Aberta (http://hdl.handle.net/10400.2/6195). Importante ressaltar que neste site encontramos muitos outros materiais. Texto introdutório: O vídeo que compartilho nesta seção é uma produção da Universidade Aberta (http://hdl.handle.net/10400.2/6195) sobre como as "Competências em Leitura e a Escrita são fundamentais para a humanidade". O vídeo “aborda um requisito indispensável para essa competência, a aprendizagem da leitura e da escrita, salientando os processos cognitivos que instam e as dificuldades que suscita.” (Castro, São Luís; Gomes, Inês – Dificuldades de aprendizagem da língua materna [Em linha] : aprender a literacia. Realização de Luís Luder; Tecnóloga Teresa Ribeiro. Lisboa : Universidade Aberta, 2000. 1 prog. vídeo (24 min., 35 seg.)). Acredito que este vídeo possa auxiliar profissionais da educação, como também as famílias. Em decorrência, penso que muitas crianças podem ser beneficiadas pela disseminação deste conhecimento tão importante para que os processos de leitura e escrita possam se desenvolver com mais tranquilidade. Aproveite para aprender! E aguarde os novos materiais!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.221694	Elementary Education	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68857/overview", "title": "Lesson", "author": "Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115897/overview	Lesson Slides Teacher's Outline Immigration & Colourism Lesson Overview The intersection of colorism and anti-immigrant thought in the modern day is rarely studied in classes. Our research has revealed that it is rampant both in conscious and unconscious opinions both on the wave of immigration across the southern border as well as other immigrants. This lesson plan is provided free of charge as a way to educate students to the dangers of the impact of colorist thought on some anti-immigration ideas and xenophobia. Immigration & Colourism Lesson Teacher’s Outline (Slides): Opening discussion questions Definitions Watch clips and debrief Introduce guiding question and worksheet Break into small groups Have students fill out worksheet Reflection on worksheet as a class The intersection of colorism and anti-immigrant thought in the modern day is rarely studied in classes. Our research has revealed that it is rampant both in conscious and unconscious opinions both on the wave of immigration across the southern border as well as other immigrants. This lesson plan is provided free of charge as a way to educate students to the dangers of the impact of colorist thought on some anti-immigration ideas and xenophobia.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.242547	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115897/overview", "title": "Immigration & Colourism Lesson", "author": "Activity/Lab" }

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.