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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99078/overview	Worksheet 1 Worksheet 2 Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 10 Overview Here are some Google Slides and worksheets for Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 10 Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 10 Here are Google Slides and a corresponding worksheet to go along with Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 10. See the "notes" in the slides.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.259901	11/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99078/overview", "title": "Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 10", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56336/overview	Education Standards Urban Water Systems PD Outline Puget Sound State of Knowledge - Select Models Class Table Summary and Additional Resources NGSS DCI Progression Qualities of a Good Anchoring Phenomenon NGSS in Action: Urban Water Systems (Workshop 4 of 4) Overview The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)* call for students to use the practices, concepts and content of science and engineering to understand phenomena and solve problems that are relevant to their lives. Starting from a student’s own experiences and community makes the science meaningful and increases engagement while helping students understand how global issues like climate change are present and addressable in their lives. In this series we examine how you can use the new science standards and your community to understand and address real world environmental problems and explore together how to integrate NGSS into your district’s classroom science units. Would you like to learn more about how urban water systems actually work? Are you curious how water systems, the impacts of climate change, and related conservation issues can interest your students and integrate with NGSS? Join us to learn about wastewater and stormwater systems (may include tours of facilities, depending on the site) and then workshop how you might use this content in your classroom. Appropriate for all 4th-12th grade teachers. Workshop 4: Urban Water Systems Description: "Would you like to learn more about how urban water systems actually work? Are you curious how water systems, the impacts of climate change, and related conservation issues can interest your students and integrate with NGSS? Join us to learn about wastewater and stormwater systems (may include tours of facilities, depending on the site) and then workshop how you might use this content in your classroom. Appropriate for all 4th-12th grade teachers."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.281042	Life Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56336/overview", "title": "NGSS in Action: Urban Water Systems (Workshop 4 of 4)", "author": "Hydrology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99137/overview	Education Standards Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 9 Overview See the attached Google Slides to go alongside Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 9. Google Slides See the notes in the slides for more infomation	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.299916	11/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99137/overview", "title": "Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 9", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97430/overview	Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 3-4 Overview Eureka 6 Modules 1 Lessons 3-4 Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 3-4 This is a set of Google Slides and a PDF worksheet to support Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 3-4: Equivilent Ratios. See the slides in "Attached Resources"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.315578	09/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97430/overview", "title": "Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 3-4", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105234/overview	PRODUCT- BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Overview Students performances can be defined as targeted tasks that lead to a product made and not on the actual performance of making that product. A kind of assessment where in the assessor views and scores the final product made and not on the actual performance of making that product. Students performances can be defined as targeted tasks that lead to a product made and not on the actual performance of making that product.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.331492	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105234/overview", "title": "PRODUCT- BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT", "author": "Maria Patricia Carzano" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105175/overview	PROCESS- BASED ASSESSMENT Overview Process-based assessment is an approach to evaluating student learning that focuses on the learning process itself rather than just the final product or outcome. PROCESS-BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Subject: Technology and Livelihood Education: Home Economics Grade Level: Grade 7 Topic: Child Health and Nutrition INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson the students with 80% of accuracy should have: - Acquire knowledge of the nutritional requirements for different age groups, activity levels, and health conditions. - Demonstrate an understanding of the major food groups and their role in a balanced diet, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. - Develop the ability to plan and create menus that incorporate a variety of foods from different food groups to meet nutritional goals. ASSESSMENT TASK: To construct proper food nutrition menu INSTRUCTIONS: Materials: Pen and Paper/ Coloring Materials Process/ Mechanics: Let the student watch a video about the child health and nutrition. - After watching the video, I’ll give time to my students to identify the appropriate nutritious food. - Gathered nutrition facts that have variety of protein food and bring it to the school to categorized , if it is nutritious or not - Ask every students to create a menu Tips & Reminders: - Set your nutritional goals which determine your dietary needs - Include a variety of food groups,ensure your menu includes foods from all major food groups to obtain a wide range of nutrients - Portion control,used appropriate measuring tools or visual cues to estimate serving sizes - Be mindful of food preparation methods - Keep a food diary ,consider keeping a food diary or using a nutrition tracking app to monitor your food intake and make adjustments as needed - Limit added sugars and excessive sodium in processed food. - Prioritize fruits and vegetables aim to include a variety of colorful fruits and vegetables in your menu Time frame: 60-90 minutes (can be split to multiple sessions if needed) Submission: The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. RUBRICS: Instructions: Teachers or facilitators will use this rubric to assess and provide feedback on students’ performance. - The rubric should be shared with the students before the assessment begin, so they are aware of the criteria on which they will be evaluated. - Teachers/Facilitator can change the scoring or ratings to each component of the rubric. - The scores or rating can be compiled to calculate an overall score or rating for the students’ performance in this objective. - The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. - Teachers should introduce the rubric and explain its components and criteria to the students - Students should familiarize themselves with the rubric, understanding the criteria and expectations for each component. SCORING RUBRIC CRITERIA \| OUTSTANDING \| PROFICIENT \| NEED IMPROVEMENT \| Content \| The menu has at least 3 nutritious food in each section. \| The menu contains a somewhat nutritious food in each section. \| The menu has less than 2 nutritious food \| Meal Categorization \| The menu display appropriate food choices for each meal of the day. The students demonstrates knowledge of which foods are typically appropriate. \| The menu displays appropriate food choices for only 2 of the meals. The students somewhat demonstrates knowledge of which foods are typically appropriate. \| The menu does not display appropriate food choices for any of the meal sections. The student does not demonstrates knowledge of which food are typically appropriate. \| Diverse Food Group Choices \| The menu contains a variety of food groups in each meal section. The student demonstrates a strong understanding of the food group. \| The menu somewhat contains a variety of food from different food groups in each meal section. The student somewhat demonstrates an understanding of the food groups. \| The menu does not contain a wide variety of food from different food groups in each meal section. The student does not demonstrates. \| REFERENCES: (APA, categorized, alphabetical) DepEd Bohol. (2016). Health CG with tagged math equipment [PDF]. Retrieved from http://depedbohol.org/v2/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Health-CG_with-tagged-math-equipment.pdf Journals: PREPARED BY: ALONSO, RONNA MAE (ronnamae.alonso@ctu.edu.ph) May 2023 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.380338	Ronna Mae Alonso	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105175/overview", "title": "PROCESS- BASED ASSESSMENT", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56335/overview	Education Standards Engineering in your Community PD Outline Engineering Progression in NGSS Not Enough Wildlife Student Worksheet Project Planning Tool Project Resources Service Learning Standards Jigsaw Activity Action Project List Facilitator Details - Engineering Community Solutions PD Facilitator Details - Engineering Community Solutions PD - PDF Ideas for Project Resources Project Planning Tool - Folder Slide Deck - Engineering Community Solutions PD Slide Deck - Engineering Community Solutions PD - PDF NGSS in Action: Engineering in your Community (Workshop 3 of 4) Overview The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)* call for students to use the practices, concepts and content of science and engineering to understand phenomena and solve problems that are relevant to their lives. Starting from a student’s own experiences and community makes the science meaningful and increases engagement while helping students understand how global issues like climate change are present and addressable in their lives. In this series we examine how you can use the new science standards and your community to understand and address real world environmental problems and explore together how to integrate NGSS into your district’s classroom science units. How does engineering relate to solving problems in your community? Learn how IslandWood is using the engineering design process to help students investigate local stormwater problems, seek stakeholder input, and develop solutions. Explore what is involved in putting student ideas into action including possible real-world constraints, practical small-scale solutions potential partners, and mini-grant options. We’ll work together to figure out a plan for the topics and students you teach. Updated Files from 2019-2020 School Year "How does engineering relate to solving problems in your community? Learn how IslandWood is using the engineering design process to help students investigate local stormwater problems, seek stakeholder input, and develop solutions. Explore what is involved in putting student ideas into action including possible real-world constraints, practical small-scale solutions potential partners, and mini-grant options. We’ll work together to figure out a plan for the topics and students you teach." These files were significantly changed in our second year of presenting these workshops	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.416393	Life Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56335/overview", "title": "NGSS in Action: Engineering in your Community (Workshop 3 of 4)", "author": "Environmental Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87668/overview	OER Discovery Research: Librarian and Faculty Curation Personas Overview This content is an adaptation of slides from the OpenEd 2021 presentation by ISKME, VIVA, and LOUIS titled: "OER Discovery Research: Librarian and Faculty Curation Personas". The slides are based on research conducted by ISKME with funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), grant number LG-246327-OLS-20. Project Background & Research Questions ISKME, in collaboration with LOUIS Libraries, OhioLINK, VIVA, DigiTex, PALNI and PALCI, have partnered to develop a research-based metadata framework that enables more efficient discovery of course-aligned OER across states and consortia in order to impact: - Reduced time for faculty in identifying and adapting relevant OER to meet student learning needs and course requirements - Reduced time for library staff in curating OER, which frees up time to support faculty - Increased efficiency in translating descriptive data about resources from one state to another - Gorwth in course-relevant collections, as partnering consortia ingest curated content from other states Research Questions Phase 1 of the project entailed end-user research with faculty and library staff OER users in order to understand their search and discovery practies, painpoints, and needs, toward the development of OER curation personas that could inform the design of the solution. Key research questoins included: - What are the tasks and decision-making processes faculty and library staff use when selecting, evaluating, and assembling both individual OER and collections of OER? - What extensions to existing metadata are needed to accommodate their decision making? - What painpoints do they encounter in the OER curation process? Research Approach — Developing OER Curation Personas Recruit... \| Conduct... \| Analyze... \| Translate... \| 35 faculty and library staff with OER curation experience across the six partnering consortia (VIVA, LOUIS, OhioLINK, DigiTex, PALNI, PALCI) \| 90-minute interviews to assess their OER curation process, and the utility of different metadata in that process \| the interview data to develop OER curation personas and user stories for both faculty and library staff curators. \| the findings into implications for the design of an OER exchange network across academic library consortia, institutions, and states. \| Persona 1: Kendra, Textbook Replacer (Faculty) If you're going to take away my commercial text, I need a replacement with the same features. Faculty Textbook Replacer image from U.S. National Archives, Public Domain Archive I get that education is important, and I support my community college's mandate that we shift toward using OER. But finding quality open materials isn't always easy. What's 'quality'? For me, it's the resemblance to a commercial textbook. The presentation has to be professional. There has to be a natural progression of the content—an internal consistency. It has to have text banks and ancillaries like a commercial textbook. And it has to come packaged as one thing. I don't have time to cobble together bits and pieces and adjust them to that they integrate. That's not workable—especially when we're parachuting-in an adjunct at the last minute. I need a single resources I can use to replace a commercial text, and sometimes it's not easy to find. Once I select my OER, I want to import everything into a course manual/companion so that I can post it into my LMS to prevent students from getting derailed by external links and clicks.Metadata that are important for me in discovering OER include the table of contents, the material type and format, whether ancillaries are included, as well as user evaluations, information about the accessibility of the materials, and who the provider or original author is. Persona 2: Kevin, A La Carte Curator (Faculty) I take pride in customizing my courses each year with new and topical resources that bring out the best in me as a teacher, and in my students as learners. Faculty À La Carte Curator image is free for reuse from Unsplash. I’ve never liked commercial textbooks much. Teaching from the same dense book year after year is not a recipe for student engagement—or my own. I’m always looking for new OER; not just when I’m planning my courses, but all year long. It’s fun for me to go down the rabbit hole—finding things I haven’t seen before and getting ideas. Librarians have helped me become a better searcher, but probably there’s more for me to learn. I want the OER movement to transform teaching—not just by making more stuff available, but by creating a kind of interactivity that didn’t exist before. Once I select my OER, I want to save and organize items so that I can integrate them later. I then want to sequence items from a breadth of sources and resource types so that I can create a custom course in my LMS for my specific needs. Metadata that are important for me in discovering OER include the material type and format, the license type and whether it's remixable, as well as user evaluations and information about the accessibility of the materials. Persona 3: Mira, OER Reference Librarian I enjoy searching for OER to meet individual faculty needs, but it could be less complicated. OER Reference Librarian image is free for reuse from Unsplash I’m managing and troubleshooting electronic resources like databases and eBooks on our myriad platforms. A good part of my work relates to OER, and faculty reach out to me for support with searches, which sometimes means guiding them through a search and other times means doing the search for them. I am an evangelist for OER, and a competent curator, but even for me the process can be complicated. As the OER movement evolves, I’d like to see a process that is more efficient and simple—both for me and for the faculty—whose buy-in we need for the movement to really grow. Metadata that are important for me in discovering OER include the table of contents, the material type and format, the date that the resource was last updated, as well as user evaluations and who it was vetted by, information about the accessibility of the materials, and who the provider or original author is. Persona 4: Jacques, Collections Maintenance Librarian I focus on curating for breadth and supporting faculty discovery of OER in my OER collections. Collections Maintenance Librarian image is available under Public Domain I work to build out our existing collections of OER so that I cover the greatest breadth of subject matter possible, and organize materials so it's easy for faculty to identify what they need. I typically curate from collections that I know and that have indicators of quality, like faculty reviews. I often find that there is a lack of adequate controlled language for subjects in the higher education space, and that there’s an overall inconsistency in metadata across repositories, which slows me down. Because I think about discoverability, I’m concerned about the lack of metadata to handle the varied types of resources that faculty search for, and that OER aren’t embedded into the discovery systems they use. Big picture, I’d like to be able to efficiently leverage the curation work of others (e.g., through collections-level metadata), and to also to share the curation work I’ve done to benefit the wider OER community. Metadata that are important for me in discovering OER collections include the material type and format, the subject/topics covered, license type, date last updated, as well as who the provider or original author is, and who the content has been vetted by. Persona 5: Eva, Course Redesign Support Librarian If other states and consortia are also aligning OER to their courses, why can't I leverage that? Course Redesign Support Librarian image is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 I support the curation of OER for textbook replacement and course redesign—either as part of individual faculty projects or as part of broader initiatives for mapping OER to state-level course requirements. Sometimes I cherry pick materials in gap areas, and other times I curate with a lens toward mapping OER I find to as many courses as possible within a discipline. I really need a way to increase my success in finding hard-to curate-for, upper level courses, including enhanced metadata to help in aligning materials outside of my area of expertise. I also want more detailed metadata that can help faculty discover the materials they need (e.g., accessibility metadata, more nuanced material type metadata, etc.). I really wish I could more easily leverage and contribute to the curation work of other consortia, for example through a master record where participating libraries can access shared metadata, and add to it, as well as download and integrate it into their local records. Metadata that are important for me in discovering OER include the material type and format, the subject/topics covered, the accessibility of the resource, the date last updated, as well as user evaluations, who the provider or original author is, and who the content has been vetted by. Persona Profile Highlights \| Motivations \| Goals \| Painpoints \| \| \| Kendra, Faculty Textbook Replacer \| \| \| \| \| Kevin, Faculty A La Carte Curator \| \| \| \| \| Mira, OER Reference Librarian \| \| \| \| \| Jacques, Collections Maintenance Librarian \| \| \| \| \| Eva, Course Redesign Support Librarian \| \| \| \| Commonalities Across Personas \| Motivations \| Goals \| Painpoints \| \| \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.454296	Michelle Brennan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87668/overview", "title": "OER Discovery Research: Librarian and Faculty Curation Personas", "author": "Melinda Newfarmer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83067/overview	Equitable Practices: Exploring Culture, Race and Socioeconomic Status Overview This template has been created by Branch Alliance for Educator Diversity to facilitate the development of OER as instructional materials for teacher education classes. Within this resource are instructions, templates, and examples for using this template to create your own unit(s) for your own classes. Introduction Introduction This module explores equitable practices as it relates to culture, race and socioeconomic status. The unit begins with exploring the intersectionality of culture and reflect how those experiences impact student teacher interactions. In each unit, The Social Emotional Cultural Anchor Competency Framework is addressed. It promotes equitable practices through the use of social emotional learning and culturally responsive pedagogy. Students’ attunement to Teacher Lens of the Framework (exploring assumptions and beliefs, modeling, practice and reflection) reinforces the intentionality of equitable practices. In Units 2 (Race) and Unit 3 (Socioeconomic Status), students will critically examine and evaluate how policies and stereotypes have limited access for marginalized groups. Students will also research strategies and activites) to address their learners academic and social emotional needs. Audience – The course is intended for inservice or preservice teachers. Length of Course – This course will be integrated into an existing eight week course. Module Outcomes Students will: - Critically examine personal biases and assumptions to determine how those impact interactions with diverse groups of students and families. - Evaluate institutional practices that promote the exclusion of minorities and how it impacts student achievement and social emotional learning. - Analyze factors that impact how cultural diversity is addressed in contemporary schools including interactions between teachers and educators of diverse backgrounds, commitment of school leaders, and parent/community/school relations. - Develop culturally responsive strategies that promote inclusion and community for diverse groups. Technology requirements: To successfully complete this module, students will need access to the internet and a computer, smart phone, or tablet. Unit 1 Culture Students will: - Examine the role that culture plays in the lives of students and their families and discuss the influence of the experiences of a cultural group in the community and society on our cultural identity. - Discuss the ways in which our assumptions and biases negatively impact cultural pluralism. - Identify the obstacles to creating a just and equal classroom and explore strategies for creating a classroom culture that is inclusive. **************** Unit 1 Content Unit 1 Activities Activities Culture Web After reviewing the material from concept of Intersectionality via lecture, create a personal Culture Web. Reflect on the various ways in which their cultural experiences intersect with one another. This activity will be useful throughout the unit and when your complete the Who am I Reflection Paper. Flipped Classroom Activity and Whole Class Discussion Prior to class, read Chapters 1 and 2 of Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain. and watch the Zaretta Hammond: Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain Webinar. Create a “phrase splash” chart of “culturally responsive” pedagogy. Each student will share a phrase from their chart and provide a culturally responsive strategy that fosters an inclusive classroom community. Surface, Shallow and Deep Culture Google Doc and Whole Group Discussion Review and complete the Culture Tree Activity. In a Google Doc, provide four common ways that surface, shallow and deep culture are implemented in classrooms. In class, we willl evaluate how these messages can impact teacher-student relationships and peer relationships Breakout Room – Think Pair Share Each group will explore The CASEL Wheel and identify specific challenges marginalized groups might face in each of the competencies. Develop a role playing activity that could be implemented to help learners hone that specific competency. Be prepared to share the role playing activity with the class and receive feedback. Flip Grid Discussion Board Students will be introduced to The Social Emotional Cultural Anchor Competencies Framework. An emphasis will be placed on the four steps of The Teacher Lens and the Building Trusting Relationships Anchor Competency. In the discussion board, students will provide ways teachers can “adjust their lens” to incorporate different aspects of culture into their classrooms. Responses will be provided via Flip Grid and students must respond to two peers. Readings: Hammonds, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Unit 1 Assessment Assessment Who am I Reflection Paper Students will critically examine discuss how their various cultural aspects intersect with one another? How will these experiences impact how your address your students’ diverse needs (social emotional and academic)? Acknowledge your strengths and anticipate challenges you might experience. Given your past experiences, how will you ensure that surface, shallow and deep culture are embedded into your instruction in affirming ways? References Center for Reaching and Teaching the Whole Child. (2020). Social, emotional, and cultural anchor competencies framework & guide. Retrieved from www.crtwc.org. Hammond, Z. (March 2017). Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain Webinar. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2kzbH7ZWGg. Hammonds, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Murray, A. and Yuhaniak, H. (2017). Leading for liberation developing the culturally responsive schools we need. https://ohioleadership.org/storage/ocali-ims-sites/ocali-ims- olac/documents/Culture-Tree.pdf Unit 2 Race and Ethnicity In Unit 2, students will: - Examine your biases in regard to race and ethnicity and reflect on how your experiences can impact the classroom culture. - Identify patterns of immigration and immigration policy and their impact on the education of children of foreign-born families - Explain how educational practices support or eliminate ethnic differences among students. - Evaluate the results of continuing racial and ethnic discrimination on communities and students. - Develop culturally responsive strategies and activities for affirming race and ethnicity in classroom Unit 2 Content Content Self-Assessment Videos Nationality vs. Ethnicity vs. Race Blue Eyed Brown Eyed Experiment A Lost Boy Finds His Purpose \| John Dau \| TEDxRVA Article(s) Racial Microaggressions and African American and Hispanic Students Miscellaneous Resources The Social Emotional Cultural Anchor Competencies Framework Activities: Discussion of Racism and Privilege Unit 2 Activities Activities Self-Reflective Activity Complete the Race IAT and view Blue Eyed Brown Eyed Experiment prior to Unit 2. Reflect on the following questions: Does the IAT score accurately reflect your views on race? How was the topic of race addressed in your school and family? How could your views on race impact interactions with your peers and colleagues? You will refer back to these answers throughout the Unit. Group Discussion and Whole Class Discussion Watch Nationality vs. Ethnicity vs. Race. View Examples of Microaggressions and Microaggressions_in_the_Classroom.pdf. In groups of four, discuss the common microaggressions you have witnessed and/or experienced. Evaluate which microaggressions are most common among specific marginalized groups. Be prepared to share your examples with the class. Podcast You will be assigned a policy form the Immigration Timeline. Based on your policy, create a five minute podcast and discuss the following: - What forms of discrimination might this group have experienced? - What microaggressions might this group experience today? - How can schools better meet the unique needs of this marginalized group? An Empathetic Perspective on Race – Lesson Plan Read Racial Microaggressions and African American and Hispanic Students. Review Activities: Discussion of Racism and Privilege and First Conversations with Race and Racism. View the Narrated Power Point of The Social Emotional Cultural Anchor Competencies Framework: Responding Constructively Across Differences Develop a Lesson Plan that addresses a racially charged incident which has impacted your students and their community. How would you address the topic with sensitivity? Discuss the measures you would take to address possible challenges? A lesson plan format will be provided. Upload your lesson plan to Google Doc link. Respond to two of your peers. Discussion Post After viewing Lost Boys of Sudan - Part 1 and A Lost Boy Finds His Purpose \| John Dau \| TEDxRVA respond to the following: a. What were some difficulties faced by the boys (physical, mental and emotional)? b. Was the school accommodating, Why or Why nott? How could the school have been more accommodating? c. If these students were entering your classroom, how would you welcome them and what would be some of the first skills you would introduce to them? d. After watching the second video, do you think that the young man was able to successfully assimilate to American culture? Why or Why not? e. After watching these videos, has your perception of immigrants shifted? Why or why not? Respond to two of your peers in the discussion post Google Doc – Culturally Responsive Strategies Develop a list of seven (evidence-based) culturally responsive strategies that can be implemented in your classroom. Explain in detail (8-10 sentences) how these practices will be implemented. Create a Google Doc entitled Culturally Responsive Strategies. You will add to the list throughout the semester. Respond to two of your peers. Unit 2 Assessment Assessment My Biases and the Biases of Others Reflection Paper – In two to three pages, discuss the biases you have of other races/ethnicities and what biases you perceive they might have of you? How could these biases impact the relationships we build with our students, their families and community. References Allen, A., Scott, M. & Lewis, C. (2003). Racial microaggressions and African American and hispanic students in urban schools: a call for culturally affirming practices. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 117-129. Anderson, A. (23 February 2018). Six Activities to Spark Conversation on Racism and Privilege. ASCD Inservice. Boulton, T.,* 2013). Jane Elliot and the Blue-Eyed Children Experiment. [online]. http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/07/jane- Center for Reaching and Teaching the Whole Child. (2020). Social, emotional, and cultural anchor competencies framework & guide. Retrieved from www.crtwc.org. Dua, J. (17 May 2016). A lost boy finds his purpose. . [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIrhaAMAhW8 Fabian, D. (21 May 2020). Nationality vs. Ethnicity vs. Race. [Video] Project Implicit, About Us, at https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/aboutus.html, accessed 29 December 2016. Simon, Bob. Sixty Minutes. (31 March 2013). The Lost Boys, part two [Video]. Speigler, Jhinnie. (27 September 2017). First Encounters With Race and Racism: Teaching Ideas for Classroom Conversations. The New York Times. Wing, C., Torino, Bucceri, H., Nadal, E. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 4, 271-28 Wing, Sue, D. (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation, Wiley & Sons, NJ. Unit 3 - Socioeconomic Status Unit 3 Socioeconomic Status Students will: - Examine personal biases and assumptions of students from various socio economic levels. - Discuss the five factors that contribute to an individual’s or family’s socioeconomic status. - Analyze the impact of the class of a student’s family on their school experiences. - Examine the interaction of socioeconomic status with race, ethnicity, gender, and age differences and impact of inequality on families and children. - Develop culturally responsive strategies that will address the needs of students from various socio economic levels. Unit 3 Content Unit 3 Activities Activities Lecture and KWL Chart The unit will open with a review of the The Social Emotional Cultural Anchor Competencies Framework and an introduction to the five determinants of Socio Economic Status. A KWL Chart will be completed on the five determinants of Socioeconomic Status. Read and Reflect/Think Pair Share Prior to class read Rural vs. Urban Poverty and What Unites and Divides Urban Suburban and Rural Communities. At the beginning of class, rank the five determinants of Socioeconomic Status. Create a Compare and Contrast for Urban and Rural Poverty. Exchange papers with two peers and discuss the information. Be prepared to share your information with the class. Discussion – Audio Clip, Video or Podcast Read Social Economic Status and Stratification. In a four to six-minute audio clip, video or podcast, discuss the importance of implementing culturally responsive strategies and social emotional learning to meet the needs of students from economically distressed communities. Upload your podcast to the discussion post. Respond to two of your peers. Google Doc – Culturally Responsive Strategies Develop a list of seven (evidence-based) culturally responsive strategies that can be implemented in your classroom. These strategies should take into account how to best meet the needs of students from lower socio-economic levels. Explain in detail (8-10 sentences) how these practices will be implemented. Continue to add to your Google Doc entitled Culturally Responsive Strategies. Respond to two of your peers. Unit 3 Assessment Assessment Complete the Iris Module – Socioeconomic Factors and submit it for a grade. Using the Socio Economic Privilege Checklist, complete the My Privileges and Biases Paper. Discuss how your biases impact the relationships we build with our students, families and community. References References Center for Reaching and Teaching the Whole Child. (2020). Social, emotional, and cultural anchor competencies framework & guide. Retrieved from www.crtwc.org. Guiterrez, E., Hund, J., Johnson, S.. Ramos, C. Rodriguez, & L. Tusuhako, J. .Social Stratification and Intersectionality. (2021, May 11). Retrieved July 2, 2021, from https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48885 The IRIS Center. (2012). Classroom diversity: An Introduction to student differences. Retrieved from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/ Parker K et al. (2018). What unites and divides urban, suburban, and rural Communities. Pew Research Center 2018. Tine, M. (4 October 2017). Growing up in rural vs. urban poverty: Contextual, academic, and cognitive Differences. Poverty, Inequality and Policy. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68581.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.555189	07/01/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83067/overview", "title": "Equitable Practices: Exploring Culture, Race and Socioeconomic Status", "author": "Megan Lyons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118209/overview	Solar System Video SpaceJeopardy-1 Main content All About Space! Overview This lesson is to get students familiar with all aspects of Space Exploration. They will have an understanding of the sun, planets, and satellites. This lesson is interactive with a video and space jeopardy. Space Chapter 1 Today, we are learning about space and all of the different components. As we learn about space, we will read an online book about the Milky Way galaxy. Objective: Students will be able to define the differences orally and visually about the contents of space. Oklahoma Academic Standards: 2.ESS1.1 Use information from several sources to provide evidence that Earth events can occur quickly or slowly. 2.PS1.3 Make observations to construct an evidence-based account of how an object made of a small set of pieces can be disassembled and made into a new object. 2.7.R Students will explore and compare ideas and topics in multimodal content. Step-By-Step We will watch the Solar System Video on YouTube to understand what the Milky Way is. Link Included We will then as a big group talk about the different parts of the solar system. This will include the characteristics of each part of the space. To include, the sun, planets, satellites, and Milky Way galaxy. We will read a short story on Read Works about Explore Our Solar System. This also includes questions about what they read. In the last part of this lesson, we will do Space Jeopardy. This will go over everything that we have learned and is interactive. If we have time we can do a Kahoot game with questions on Space. I love this game and gives them the opportunity to reinforce what they have learned. Assessments: Most of this lesson is assessed summatively. We are doing most of this lesson together except for the questions. The questions will be put on the smart/whiteboard and they will write answers on a piece of paper. This will be graded formatively. Closing: We will collectivly talk and I will ask them how they feel about the lesson. What was their favorite part of this lesson? Do they have any questions?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.576784	07/21/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118209/overview", "title": "All About Space!", "author": "Crystal Springsteen-Stowell" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/59287/overview	Perseverance Reflection Student Reflection What is Perseverance? Look up the definition online. \| Type your answer here. \| Rate your Perseverance On a scale of 1-10, how long do you stick with things that are difficult? 1 = I give up easily 10 = I never give up \| Type your answer here. \| Albert Einstein said: “It’s not that I’m so smart; it’s just that I stay with problems longer.” —Albert Einstein Do you agree or disagree with what Einstein is saying? Why or Why Not \| Type your answer here. \| Researchers give 4 ways to help students persevere. Choose the one that would best help YOU and paste in the box below. In 1 sentence, explain why you chose it. 1. Encourage positive self-talk. Think “I can do this.” 2. Focus on effort and thought process. It’s not about being “smart”. 3. Realize that failures help you learn and grow. 4. Students need the chance to struggle. \| Type your answer here. \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.591702	10/30/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/59287/overview", "title": "Perseverance Reflection", "author": "Kate Plewe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66236/overview	An Introduction to Topology by T B Singh Overview Structures and Spaces in Topology An Introduction of Topology by T B Singh Structures and Spaces §1 Digression on Sets We begin with a digression, which we would like to consider unnec- essary. Its subject is the first basic notions of the naive set theory. This is a part of the common mathematical language, too, but even more profound than general topology. We would not be able to say anything about topology without this part (look through the next section to see that this is not an exaggeration). Naturally, it may be expected that the naive set theory becomes familiar to a student when she or he studies Calculus or Algebra, two subjects usually preceding topology. If this is what really happened to you, then, please, glance through this section and move to the next one. §1◦1 Sets and Elements In any intellectual activity, one of the most profound actions is gath- ering objects into groups. The gathering is performed in mind and is not accompanied with any action in the physical world. As soon as the group has been created and assigned a name, it can be a subject of thoughts and arguments and, in particular, can be included into other groups. Mathematics has an elaborated system of notions, which organizes and regulates creating those groups and manipulating them. This system is the naive set theory , which is a slightly misleading name because this is rather a language than a theory. The first words in this language are set and element. By a set we understand an arbitrary collection of various objects. An object included into the collection is an element of the set. A set consists of its elements. It is also formed by them. To diversify wording, the word set is replaced by the word collection. Sometimes other words, such as class, family , and group, are used in the same sense, but this is not quite safe because each of these words is associated in modern mathematics with a more special meaning, and hence should be used instead of the word set with caution. If x is an element of a set A, then we write x ∈ A and say that x belongs to A and A contains x. The sign ∈ is a variant of the Greek letter epsilon, which is the first letter of the Latin word element .	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.609829	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66236/overview", "title": "An Introduction to Topology by T B Singh", "author": "Om Prakash Meena" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105092/overview	PORTFOLIO-BASED ASSESSMENT Overview Portfolio assessment is a powerful and multifaceted method of evaluating learning and growth that goes beyond traditional testing. In portfolio assessment, students curate a collection of their best work, which may include essays, projects, artwork, presentations, and other artifacts that demonstrate their knowledge, skills, and growth over time. PORTFOLIO -BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Subject: Technology and Livelihood Education: Home Economics Grade Level: Grade 4 Topic: Paglilinis ng Bahay Students Goal: To showcase the importance of cleanliness and hygiene. Teachers Goal: To guide and support my student in creating a documentary portfolio that effectively communicates the importance of cleanliness and hygiene. INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson the students with 80% of accuracy should have: - Understand the key elements of cleanliness and hygiene in relation to cleaning the house - Gather relevant information on the benefits of cleanliness and hygiene, supporting the documentary portfolio’s content. - Reflect on the documentary portfolio production process and identify areas for improvement in future projects. ASSESSMENT TASK: Students must create a Documentary Portfolio on “Paglilinis ng Bahay” applying the importance of cleanlines and hygiene. INSTRUCTIONS: Materials: Camera or Smartphone Process/ Mechanics: - Capture your Photos: Using a camera or smartphone, capture photos of yourself or with a family member cleaning the different areas of your home (minimum of 5). Be sure to capture photos of your progress throughout the cleaning process. - Students should include all the key parts of the portfolio (cover page, table of contents, Introduction, students’ goal, artifacts, and reflection). However, the student can also decide and has a freedom to make his/her documentary portfolio. - Organize your photos in the portfolio in an organized way. - Write a reflection on each progress including what they did during that process, challenges they faced, and how they overcome it. Tips & Reminders: • Finalize your portfolio: Review your photo document to ensure it meets the project requirement. • Make sure to check the rubrics prepared for better guidelines of the things needed to be accomplished • Note: Be sure to ask your parents/guardian in making this documentary portfolio. Time frame: For the whole 1st Grading Period Submission: The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. RUBRICS: Instructions: Teachers or facilitators will use this rubric to assess and provide feedback on students’ performance in creating a documentary portfolio. - The rubric should be shared with the students before the assessment begin, so they are aware of the criteria on which they will be evaluated. - Teachers/Facilitator can change the scoring or ratings to each component of the rubric. - The scores or rating can be compiled to calculate an overall score or rating for the students’ performance in this objective. - The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. - Teachers should introduce the rubric and explain its components and criteria to the students - Students should familiarize themselves with the rubric, understanding the criteria and expectations for each component. ANALYTIC RUBRIC CRITERIA \| EXCELLENT (5) \| FAIR (3) \| POOR (1) \| SCORE \| Completeness \| All required cleaning tasks (minimum of 5) are completed and documented. \| Most required cleaning tasks (minimum of 3) are completed and documented. \| Few required cleaning tasks (minimum of 2) are completed or documented. \| \| Organization \| Your photos are arranged neatly and in a way that makes it easy to understand the cleaning process. \| Your photos are mostly arranged neatly (has 3 mistakes or lapses) and in a way that makes it easy to understand the cleaning process. \| Your photos are not neatly arranged and are very confusing or hard to follow, so its impossible to understand the cleaning process. \| \| Coverage of Cleaning Process \| Portfolio shows photos of different parts of the cleaning process, from start to finish, so we can see how much progress you’ve made. \| Some parts of the cleaning process are missing or incomplete, so its hard to tell how much progress you’ve made. \| No parts of the cleaning process are shown, so its hard to tell if any progress was made. \| \| Reflection Writing \| You wrote about the cleaning process and explained what you did, challenges you’ve faced, and how you overcome them. \| You wrote about the cleaning process and explained what you did, but didn’t include how you overcome challenges. \| You didn’t write much (2 sentences only) about the cleaning process and didn’t explain what you did. \| \| REFERENCES: (APA, categorized, alphabetical) Online Sources: Department of Education (DepEd). (2019). Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) Curriculum Guide. https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/EPP-CG.pdf Books: Journals: PREPARED BY: AMAD, ASHLEY MAE (ashleymae.amad@ctu.edu.ph) May 2023 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.661143	06/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105092/overview", "title": "PORTFOLIO-BASED ASSESSMENT", "author": "Ashley Mae Amad" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/58593/overview	Lulzbot Mini 2 3D Printer Training: Printing with Cura Lulzbot Mini 2 Initial Setup Video Printing with the Lulzbot Mini 2 Overview Learn how to use the Lulzbot Mini2 for 3D Printing. Set up the printer Before you can print your next Hexapod (that's a thing) or articulated phone mount, you need to ensure your printer is set up and ready to go. See this instruction video to make sure all is well prior to loading your filament (step 3). Step 2 - Inserting Filament Now that your printer is ready to go, you'll need to decide what filament to use for your creation. There are myriad filament options you can use, but for this video, we will stick with PLA filament. Step 3 - Finding & Editing Your Print Project If you've always wanted to print your own Spirograph set, or you need a stacking can holder for your pantry, or you need a quick teacher gift, there's a print for that. Now that you've prepped the printer and loaded the filament, you can load the files needed to make it. Cura, the software that the Lulzbot uses can slice, resize, and prep the file for printing. Watch the video below to see how to use Cura to print your next masterpiece.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.682295	Alexandra Houff	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/58593/overview", "title": "Printing with the Lulzbot Mini 2", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75295/overview	Open Education Logo Overview Introducing Openness in Education Test Test Introducing Openness in Education Test	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.702731	12/02/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75295/overview", "title": "Open Education Logo", "author": "Khalid Berrada" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99079/overview	Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 16 Overview Google slides to go along with Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 16 Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 16 Google slides to go along with Eureka 7 Moudle 1 Lesson 16. See "notes" for more info	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.718446	11/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99079/overview", "title": "Eureka 7 Module 1 Lesson 16", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28138/overview	OER- II; Origin and Timeline Overview The Topic deals with the history, origin and timeline of OER globally. Section 1 The Topic deals with the history, origin and timeline of OER globally.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.734147	AJAY SEMALTY	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28138/overview", "title": "OER- II; Origin and Timeline", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93616/overview	The Haudenosaunee Confederacy Overview Students will receive exposure to new vocabulary, then read and annotate an article, discuss, and engage in a writing exercise, focused on the Iroquois Confederacy. LESSON DESCRIPTION The Haudenosaunee Confederacy Author of the Lesson: Jenoge Sora Khatter Lesson Summary/Overview: Students will receive exposure to new vocabulary, then read and annotate an article, discuss, and engage in a writing exercise, focused on the Iroquois Confederacy. LESSON GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Alignment and Objectives Content Standards: - 6.1 Compare and contrast early forms of governance including the treatment of historically marginalized groups and individuals via the study of early major western and non-western civilizations. - 6.4 Identify and analyze historical and contemporary means that societies have undertaken for the expansion of justice, equality, and equity for individuals and/or groups of previously historically underrepresented groups. - 6.14 Identify and describe how the physical and human characteristics of places and regions connect to human identities and cultures in the Western Hemisphere. - 6.17 Identify and examine the roles and impact of diverse groups of people (social roles, political and economic structures, and family and community systems) across indigenous civilizations. - 6.19 Examine the continuity and change of the indigenous cultures through relevance and contributions to modern society. - 6-8.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources. - 6-8.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions. - 6-8.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. - 6-8.6 Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author's point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). - 6-8.8 Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. - 6-8.10 By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Content Objectives: - Explain what a confederacy is. - Evaluate leadership considerations specific to a confederacy. - Explain what the Haudenosaunee Confederacy was. - Identify the roles of Hiawatha and the Peacemaker. - Identify Haudenosaunee women’s roles in government. - Interpret maps to identify the geographic distribution of Iroquian languages. - Evaluate the relevance of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy to the United States Republic. ELP Standards: - 6-8.1 Construct meaning from oral presentations and literary and informational text through grade appropriate listening, reading, and viewing. - 6-8.2 Participate in grade appropriate oral and written exchanges of information, ideas, and analyses, responding to peer, audience, or reader comments and questions. - 6-8.3 Speak and write about grade appropriate complex literary and informational texts and topics. - 6-8.4 Construct grade appropriate oral and written claims and support them with reasoning and evidence. - 6-8.6 Analyze and critique the arguments of others orally and in writing - 6-8.8 Determine the meaning of words and phrases in oral presentations and literary and informational text. - 6-8.9 Create clear and coherent grade appropriate speech and text. - 6-8.10 Make accurate use of standard English to communicate in grade appropriate speech and writing. Language (ELP) Objectives: Students will read and listen to new information about an unfamiliar topic. Students will complete highly, moderately, and loosely structured written responses using new information. Students will talk about their responses in small group and whole class settings. Simplified for students: - Read slides and short texts and listen to peers and teacher in order to answer questions using speech and writing. - Students will use sentence frames, word blanks, word banks, and context to provide spoken and written answers. Supporting Academic Language Language Functions: Make explanatory, interpretative, and evaluative statements; annotate text and use textual evidence to support statements; discuss and compare thoughts with peers Language Modalities: Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening Vocabulary: confederacy, Haudenosaunee, Iroquoian, inhabit, consist, elaborate, political, bicameral, representative, sachem, constitution, veto, renounce, longhouse, agriculture, matrilineal, persistent, treaty, conquest, archeologist confederación, Haudenosaunee, Iroquoiso, habitar, consistir, elaborar, político, bicameral, representativo, sachem, constitución, veto, renuncia, casa comunal, agricultura, matrilineal, persistente, tratado, conquista, arqueólogo confédération, Haudenosaunee, Iroquoise, habiter, consister, élaborer, politique, bicaméral, représentant, sachem, constitution, veto, renoncer, maison longue, agriculture, matrilinéaire, persistant, traité, conquête, archéologue 邦联，“建造房屋的人”，易洛魁人，居住，组成，精心制作，政治，两院制，代表，萨赫姆，宪法，否决权，放弃，长屋，农业，母系，持久，条约，征服，考古学家同盟、「家を建てる人々」、イロコイソ、居住、構成、精巧、政治、二院制、代表、サケム、憲法、拒否権、放棄、長屋、農業、母系、永続的、条約、征服、考古学者 Syntax or Sentence Structure(s): Sentence/statement frames and guided text-responses. Discourse: Comparing annotations and statements. LESSON PREPARATION Considerations Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills: Proficiency or near proficiency in general grade-level content and skills. Instructional Materials Resources, Materials, and Technology required or recommended for the lesson: - Laptop/tablet or printouts (in order to access the following) - Slide deck - “The Iroquois Tribes” (© Independence Hall Association, 2022) (13 paragraphs; 800 words) - support article (invites critique and bias analysis) - Learning Guide Learning Supports Socio-emotional supports: Information is presented in a sequential manner aimed at promoting student success (and, therefore, positive student affect) and processed through social interactions designed to affirm students and build their confidence using academic vocabulary. Cultural & Linguistic Responsiveness: Content and activity scaffolding allow for students with diverse backgrounds to access the material and engage in related activities. For example, consistent use of imagery and sentence frames. Representing multiple groups/individuals increases the likelihood that students will find aspects of their identity affirmed. Accessibility: Much of the material is visual and auditory, and writing tasks are focused on showing thinking -- not simply getting material written; core vocabulary will be previewed and utilized in a number of ways. Instructional Supports Differentiation: - Information is presented in a sequential manner - Information is processed through social interactions and teacher-modeling/facilitation - Content and activity scaffolding (growing from “known” to less known) - Consistent use of imagery - Sentence frames - Representing multiple groups/individuals - Much of the material is visual and auditory - Writing tasks focused on showing thinking - Core vocabulary will be previewed and utilized in a number of ways L1 Supports (native language): access to terms in L1 and to digital translators L2 Development (English, by level): - Level 1 - Context; visual aids; vocabulary activities; annotation strategies; learning guide/graphic organizer - Level 2 - Sentence frames; vocabulary activities; annotation strategies; learning guide/graphic organizer - Levels 3 - Vocabulary activities; actively speaking and listening; elaborate on written work; annotation strategies - Level 4 - In addition to the aforementioned, prompt these students to share (and what to share) during whole group discussion - Level 5 - In addition to the aforementioned, prompt these students to share during whole group discussion LESSON PROCEDURES Anticipatory Set/Motivation/Hook Time: 10 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher helps students get to the vocabulary warm-up Students complete vocabulary warm-up Focused Instruction (Teacher-as-Model) Time: 15 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher presents objectives/tasks for the day, shows some slides, and completes the reading with students after reviewing annotation strategies Students annotate their copy of the slides and copy of the article Guided Instruction (Teacher-to-Student Joint Responsibility) Time: 5 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher explains the Learning Guide and how students are expected to complete it. Teacher completes one example with the whole class Students listen while reviewing the Learning Guide visually, ask questions, and complete the example with the teacher Group Application (Student-to-Student Joint Responsibility) Time: 15 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher circulates, lets students known there’s about to be a pause (and prepares individuals to speak), and facilitates discussion Students work on the Learning Guide and participate in the discussions by listening or listening and speaking Individual Learning (Independent Practice and Application) Time: 10 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher circulates and has individual conversations with students as needed Students complete the Learning Guide, including an independent writing task at the end Closure Time: 5 minutes Teacher Does/Students Do: Teacher either shows a current event affecting the Haudenosaunee or connects the day’s learning to next lesson and facilitates discussion Students participate by listening or listening and speaking ASSESSMENTS Formative Assessment Content: Comprehension, application, and evaluation questions and prompts on Learning Guide in relation to the article and slide deck. Language: Completion of Learning Guide; Open-ended written response for students to demonstrate their understanding and thought process. Plans for Summative Assessments Content: Government comparison assessment and/or cause/effect assessment Language: Open-ended written response for students allows for summative assessment on some standards during this lesson. EXTENSIONS Ideas for Key Assignments, Extensions, and Adaptations for Online Learning Environments: Geographical tools, like native-land.ca, to explore ancestral homelands of diverse Indigenous peoples, and online Native American and Haudenosaunee (a, b, c, d, e) museums, and this film.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.778296	Assessment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93616/overview", "title": "The Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99085/overview	Education Standards My Dream Bedroom Overview See the attached document for the project to give to students. It's meant to be submitted virtually, but you could likely have them submit in person as well. My Dream Bedroom Project This is a project-based assessment to assess scaling at the 7th grade level. It correlates with Eureka 7 Module 1 and Common Core Standard 7.G.A.1	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.799403	Tasha Christensen	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99085/overview", "title": "My Dream Bedroom", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96310/overview	CS Unplugged Overview CS Unplugged is a collection of free teaching material that teaches Computer Science through engaging games and puzzles that use cards, string, crayons and lots of running around. Computer Science without a Computer CS Unplugged is a collection of free teaching material that teaches computer science through engaging games and puzzles that use cards, string, crayons, and lots of running around. Topics - Binary Numbers - Error Detection and Correction - Kidbots - Sorting Networks - Data Structures for Searching - Image Representation - Searching Algorithms Visit the CS Unplugged website for more information.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.812327	Vanessa Clark	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96310/overview", "title": "CS Unplugged", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68992/overview	Secondary Math II - Student Math Notebook Overview This is the Secondary Math II student math notebook that accompanies the Desmos collections that have been created for this online math course. Lessons have been built to accompany notes. Lessons are organized by units in Desmos Collections.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.827494	06/25/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68992/overview", "title": "Secondary Math II - Student Math Notebook", "author": "Mindy Branson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79717/overview	Jacobite Risings by The National Army Museum The Jacobite Risings Explained in 12 Minutes by Captivating History The Jacobite Rebellions Overview This lesson talks about the Jacobite Rebellions. The Jacobite Rebellions Answer Key for Jacobite Quiz b d b a c d a b d c This lesson will teach students about the Jacobite Rebellions. This includes how they started, how many rebellions there were, the key events of each rebellion, and how the rebellions all ended. First, the students should watch the video, and read the article after they have finished the video. After the lesson, the students will take a ten question quiz on the Jacobite Rebellions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.846728	04/29/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79717/overview", "title": "The Jacobite Rebellions", "author": "Austenne Van Valkenburgh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79386/overview	Weather & Climate Change \| Unit Overview and Core Ideas Overview High Level Overview of "Weather & Climate Change" and the Disciplinary Core Ideas of the Unit	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.863512	Unit of Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79386/overview", "title": "Weather & Climate Change \| Unit Overview and Core Ideas", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97432/overview	Worksheet Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 5-6 Overview Here are attached slides and a subsequent worksheet to support the teaching of Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 5-6. See the notes in "presenter view." Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 5-6 I've created Google Slides and a PDF of the connected worksheet to support the teaching of Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 5-6: Solving Problems by Finding Equivalent Ratios.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.879000	09/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97432/overview", "title": "Eureka 6 Module 1 Lessons 5-6", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99140/overview	Education Standards Eureka 8 Module 1 Lessons 4-5 Overview To go alongside Eureka 8 Module 1 Lessons 4-5 Google Slides See the "notes" in the slides for more information	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.899316	11/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99140/overview", "title": "Eureka 8 Module 1 Lessons 4-5", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99138/overview	Education Standards Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 10 Overview See the "notes" in the slides for more information Google Slides Here are Google Slides to go along side Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 10.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.918315	11/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99138/overview", "title": "Eureka 8 Module 1 Lesson 10", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67367/overview	Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms - Grade 5 Overview Elementary school lessons utilize local phenomenon and are organized by grade level. By organizing instruction around local phenomenon, students are provided with a reason to learn shifting the focus from learning about a disconnected topic to figuring out why or how something happens. #Going 3D with GRC Lesson - Plants Matter Student Science Performance Phenomenon: A tomato plant grows from a little seed. Gather: 1. Students develop questions to plan an investigation about what a seed needs to become a plant. Class Discussion about Questions to Investigate. 2. Students plan and carry out an investigation to gather evidence for what a seed needs to become a plant. (Materials: mung beans or similar plant seeds, jars, mesh, water, digital scale, pipette, paper towels. Grow for 2-3 weeks.) 3. Students use a class data chart (model) to record changes in plant growth. 4. Students obtain information about where plants get the matter they need to grow. (Teaching Suggestions: The teacher will show the students a tomato seed and seedling plant from a local nursery. The students will be asked to look at the seed and plant and develop questions about how the seed turns into the plant. Any local vegetable plant can be used. #2 After students develop questions, they will share and discuss the questions. Students will prioritize the questions to determine which questions are going to help them explain the phenomenon. #3 Students will collect data daily and record in team charts and class charts.) Reason: 5. Students analyze the data to find patterns to use as evidence. 6. Students construct an explanation for what a seed needs to become a plant. (Teaching Suggestions: Students write their explanations in their notebooks.) Class Discussion: - What do you notice? What do you see in your data? - Where is the matter coming from that causes the plant to grow? (conservation of matter) - How does the matter get out of the air and water and into the plant? - How are the tomato plant and mung bean plants similar in this investigation? (Teaching Suggestions: Students should end the class discussion by finalizing their explanations of how a tomato plant grows from a seed. Evidence can be from text sources, data, or models. ) 7. Students revise their explanation for how plants get the matter they need to grow Communicate Reasoning: 8. Students develop an argument for how the evidence you have gathered supports the explanation that plants get the matter they need to grow from air and water. (Teaching Suggestions: This is a good place to discuss with students their sources of evidence. You should use sentence frame and scaffolds from appendix C-1 to support students in performance #6 and #7.) Additional Lessons can be found at #Going 3D with GRC (Gathering, Reasoning and Communicating). Original authors were: Cheryl Aldrich, Ana Appel, and Duane Willsey	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.937733	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67367/overview", "title": "Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms - Grade 5", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102846/overview	California Community College's OER Starter Kit Overview This Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit is designed to support educators and librarians begin their OER journey of identifying, evaluating, curating, and authoring/remixing. Getting Started with OER Information Open Educational Resources (OER) refer to any teaching and learning materials that reside in the public domain or have been released under a license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation, and redistribution. Open Educational Practices (OEP) refer to collaborative teaching and learning practices that help educators to advance a culture of sharing and active learning through OER, including: - Collaboration: connect with educators with diverse expertise, brainstorm innovative ideas, contribute resources and best practices, get and give feedback, reflect and share our successes and challenges with our global community. - Curation: identify, evaluate, organize, and share resources that meet our learning objectives. - Design: create high-quality instructional materials by utilizing supports, like authoring templates and planning tools. Think deeply about how we design resources to meet the unique needs of our learners. Reflect and refine resources for continuous improvement. - Leadership: present, train, and share with others to build awareness and advocacy. Practice Which Open Educational Practices are you interested in advancing in your work? Get started with Open Educational Resources and Practices by: - Registering & creating an OER Commons profile. - Joining your College's Group on the Hub https://www.oercommons.org/hubs/ccc#college-groups - Exploring your group's shared resources and collections in the Hub. - Adding discussion posts and resouces to the group you join. Need help registering? Please read the help articles here. How to Create an Account. Identify OER Information Before searching for resources to use in your work, what considerations do you make? - Are there any specific content gap areas in my existing courses? For example, I might have an urgent need for math modeling or STEM literacy resources. - Are there new types of digital materials that I would like to integrate into my existing courses? For example, I might want to offer my students more opportunities to use interactive games and simulations. - Are there innovative teaching and learning strategies that I would like to incorporate into my instructional plan? For example, I might desire to try some kinesthetic learning or guided inquiry activities. - Are there current events and news topic areas that I need resources for? For example, I might be interested in finding the latest resources on climate change or refugees. Practice Type keyword(s) into the Search Bar or use Advanced Search to identify additional search criteria, such as material type, educational level, and more. Once you get your search results, you can further filter them. You can also browse resource collections, groups, and hubs, such as the California Community College Hub with collections for different content areas/practices, working groups for colleges, content areas and specific projects, and more. Share a link to a resource you identified, what you like about it, and how you plan to use it by replying to discussions in subject matter groups. Need help searching? Read the help articles here: How to use Search, Advanced Search, and Filter Evaluate OER Information What makes a resource high-quality? What do you specifically look for in a resource to use in your work? Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Explore the different Evaluation Tools below: - Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Standards - Achieve OER Rubric - Open Textbook Library Review Criteria - Curriculum Review Rubric - Tool for Identifying Bias in Sources - Washington’s Screening for Bias in Instructional Materials Practice Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? You can share your evaluation criteria with your group by posting a discussion and you can evaluate a resource you find in OER Commons by posting a comment directly on the resource. Curate OER Information Share an example of something you have curated. There are many ways that we thoughtfully collect and organize things that are important to us. Our homes are representations of how we curate collectables, art, books, plants, etc. We also curate articles and photos using social media like twitter, instagram, facebook, and pinterest. 1. What considerations do you make when curating resources to use in your work? Here are some curation considerations from OER Commons' digital librarians: - User-Centered Design: The first step our digital librarians take in curation is to research their intended audience. Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards. What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? - Identify and Select Resources: Next digital librarians select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the OER Commons curation criteria of having open licensing, being up to date and relevant, and high-quality. - Describe and Organize of Resources: Digital librarians put a lot of consideration into how they describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience. They add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search. They create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections. - Share and Promote Resources: Digital Librarians utilize collaborative spaces, like Hubs and Groups to share resources. They also use social media tools, like the twitter; newsletter mailings; and in person and virtual presentations and trainings to promote their collections with a larger audience. 2. Brainstorm your curation plans User-centered Design: Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards? What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? Identify and Select Resources: Select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the your evaluation criteria shared last week Describe and Organize of Resources: How will you describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience? Such as add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search and create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections Share and Promote Resources: What methods will you use to promote your curated resources? Such as social media, blogs, newsletters, listervs, websites, presentations and trainings Practice Submit an open educational resource to share in the OER Commons library: Click Submit a Resource in one of our groups and add the link and descriptive information. Create folders / subfolders and save resources you want to use and share: In group resourses click on New and add the title of the folder. To save resources, click Save on the resource and select the folder you wish to save it to. For inspiration, check out this example of a group curating language learning resources for the Pathways Project at Boise State University. Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate directly on the resource by clicking Add New Tag. OER Authoring & Remixing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.959916	Marissa Martinez	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102846/overview", "title": "California Community College's OER Starter Kit", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11695/overview	Joy Edwards Overview To promote Interaction and Communication Lesson title Lesson for learners with not much English or education background Abstract This is a group-work lesson designed for students with low-intermediate communication skills and not much educational back ground. The purpose of this lesson is to assist students to communicate with others and the community on the whole. It will also work to improve specific issues and challenges the student might face. * Low-intermediate communication skills:- Persons showing low or intermediate communications skills that is one who does not possess or show much communications skills. (low level, having no functional ability, intermediate having limited functional ability) * Not much educational background:- With little or no educational background. (limited reading/writing or no reading/writing skills and mathematics knowledge and skills) Issues and challenges that learners may face:- - Emotional and social and relationship skills, self-management and self/social awareness - Life skills, financial literacy and management - Employability skills, teamwork and engagement or collaboration, effective communication - Thinking skills, problem solving, critical and reasoning thinking Learner Audience / Primary Users This lesson is intended for a classroom setting with learners in groups of four to six. The content included in the lesson is targeted at learners with limited English communication skills. The lesson is specifically targeted at persons with but not limited to adults with low level educational back ground and who might be experiencing some level of low self-esteem. Educational Use - Module - Qualification & experience College & Career Readiness Standards Alignment - Level: Adult Education - Grade Level: B - Subjects: English Language Arts / Literacy & Computer literacy Reading - Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story or drama (e.g., where a story is set, how the action is ordered, how the characters are introduced and developed). - Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of text. - Know and use various text features; subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons, to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently. - Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in the text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including words with multiple meanings or language that is engaging, or beautiful. - Examine multiple interpretations of a story, drama, or poem - Evaluate ways authors develop point of view and style to achieve specific impression and purpose. Speaking and Listening - Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. - Ask and answer questions about information from a speaker, offering some form of elaboration. Computer skills - Give the learner a working knowledge of the hardware that comprises a personal computer. - Develop the learner's ability to use introductory Windows commands for file management. - Introduce the learner to the Internet and the use of electronic research and web-based communication methods. - Enable the student electronically to research the library. - Introduce the student to the methods of searching the Internet and the problems associated with using the research materials. Language - English Material Type - Instructional Material Learning Goals In this lesson ABE learners will: - Demonstrate good reading and literature skills - Compose open ended question for research or assignments - Develop clear and coherent writing skills - Use the computer Time Required for each Lesson - 40 – 60 minutes Prior Knowledge - Be able to read at an elementary level but not necessarily Required Resources - Student willingness to learn - Internet - Library - Experience teacher - Computer lab - pen/pencil and note book Preparation - Development of training objectives, outputs, topics, contents and inputs - Basic approaches, techniques and skills - Monitoring and evaluation of students - Creating awareness of attitudes and behaviour - Processes of changing attitudes and behaviour Sample lessons Lessen 1 40 - 60 minutes Warm up: Student is asked to introduce him/herself to others in class, example name also ask if there might be anything he/she wants to share. To create a comfortable atmosphere teacher introduces oneself also. Introduction: Test student english language literacy abilities. Example student is asked to finish a sentence by choosing from a list of unfinished sentences. To create a more interaction teacher can write on the board and have student communicate the correct answer to the whole class. Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word from below. 1. The forest has ……........... 2. The …..…………… went to the mall 3. The classroom is full of ………………………. 4. The teacher ……………. my paper - Children - Students - Trees - read Next a poem is presented to the learners and they are asked to express how the poem makes them feel. There are not wrong answers so everyone can say what's on their minds. Disappointments by Vivian Gilbert Zabel Every life has a room where memories are stored: A box of special occasions here, Shelves of shared laughter there. But back in the shadows Lurks a trunk locked tight, Not to be opened and searched. There hide disappointments Which darken every heart. Lesson 2 40 - 60 mins. Create interactive activities so everyone will be involve and yet still giving each person a chance to address the class individually base on the topic presented. - Example selecting a list of short stories, and asking the student to choose from list and read then give a presentation of what they perceive the author is trying to tell its readers. - Maybe paint a picture and explain what there picture represents Lesson 3 40 - 60 mins - Understanding the eight parts of Speech and explaining where they are use and how they form sentences. Verbs, Nouns, Pronouns, Adverbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections - Ask students to write a short bio of themself and call this "My Life Story" it do not necessariy have to be there true life story it could be made up, encourage student to write as much as possible. Lesson 4 40 - 60 mins - Discuss with students how they handle their finances without being imposing, example how they budget and if they do not inform the importance of budgeting. - Testing students ability to use a computer and the internet. Incorporating some of the things done in pass lesson, example using microsoft word to write sentences or short stories. Supplementary Resources http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/0/ http://www.gcflearnfree.org/additionsubtraction/introduction-to-addition/1/ References http://adult-literacy.net/gobsmackers-readers-for-adult-learners/ http://elcivics.com/esl-ebooks-free.html This content offered by Joy Edwards under a CC Attribution License. All content can be considered under this license unless otherwise noted. November 11, 2016 Section 1 To promote Interaction and Communication Lesson title Lesson for learners with not much English or education background Abstract This is a group-work lesson designed for students with low-intermediate communication skills and not much educational back ground. The purpose of this lesson is to assist students to communicate with others and the community on the whole. It will also work to improve specific issues and challenges the student might face. * Low-intermediate communication skills:- Persons showing low or intermediate communications skills that is one who does not possess or show much communications skills. (low level, having no functional ability, intermediate having limited functional ability) * Not much educational background:- With little or no educational background. (limited reading/writing or no reading/writing skills and mathematics knowledge and skills) Issues and challenges that learners may face:- - Emotional and social and relationship skills, self-management and self/social awareness - Life skills, financial literacy and management - Employability skills, teamwork and engagement or collaboration, effective communication - Thinking skills, problem solving, critical and reasoning thinking Learner Audience / Primary Users This lesson is intended for a classroom setting with learners in groups of four to six. The content included in the lesson is targeted at learners with limited English communication skills. The lesson is specifically targeted at persons with but not limited to adults with low level educational back ground and who might be experiencing some level of low self-esteem. Educational Use - Module - Qualification & experience College & Career Readiness Standards Alignment - Level: Adult Education - Grade Level: B - Subjects: English Language Arts / Literacy & Computer literacy Reading - Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story or drama (e.g., where a story is set, how the action is ordered, how the characters are introduced and developed). - Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of text. - Know and use various text features; subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons, to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently. - Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in the text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including words with multiple meanings or language that is engaging, or beautiful. - Examine multiple interpretations of a story, drama, or poem - Evaluate ways authors develop point of view and style to achieve specific impression and purpose. Speaking and Listening - Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. - Ask and answer questions about information from a speaker, offering some form of elaboration. Computer skills - Give the learner a working knowledge of the hardware that comprises a personal computer. - Develop the learner's ability to use introductory Windows commands for file management. - Introduce the learner to the Internet and the use of electronic research and web-based communication methods. - Enable the student electronically to research the library. - Introduce the student to the methods of searching the Internet and the problems associated with using the research materials. Language - English Material Type - Instructional Material Learning Goals In this lesson ABE learners will: - Demonstrate good reading and literature skills - Compose open ended question for research or assignments - Develop clear and coherent writing skills - Use the computer Time Required for each Lesson - 40 – 60 minutes Prior Knowledge - Be able to read at an elementary level but not necessarily Required Resources - Student willingness to learn - Internet - Library - Experience teacher - Computer lab - pen/pencil and note book	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:46.998126	11/10/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11695/overview", "title": "Joy Edwards", "author": "Joy Edwards" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105233/overview	PORTFOLIO-BASED ASSESSMENT Overview Assessment based on the systematic collection of learner work (such as written assignments, drafts, artwork, and presentations) that represents competencies, exemplary work, or the learner's developmental progress. Assessment based on the systematic collection of learner work (such as written assignments, drafts, artwork, and presentations) that represents competencies, exemplary work, or the learner's developmental progress.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.014576	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105233/overview", "title": "PORTFOLIO-BASED ASSESSMENT", "author": "Maria Patricia Carzano" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54341/overview	Time for Kids What Are Planets Starchild: The Solar System What what we learn - space videos National Geographic Kids - What is a planet? 2nd grade Planet research Overview Teacher: Angie Apauty Lesson Title/Topic: Planets of the Universe Grade: 2 Duration: 50 minutes Learning Objectives: At the conclusion of this activity, students will be able to identify, name, locate, and determine the order of the planets of our solar system. Number and Size of Groups: 5 groups of 3 students Learner Activity/Teacher Activity: Whole group discussion. The teacher will ask the students the question, "What do you remember about the planets of our solar system and can you list them all?". The teacher will allow students time to think and write down their answers on their mini white boards. Next, the teacher will use the main white board to write down all the planets the students can recall. Then the students will get into their groups and each group will work together to do research and create a presentation over the planets. The teacher will visit each group to offer any help the students may need. The students will work on their presentations on day two and on day three, each group will give their presentations to the class using the smart board. At the end of the lesson, each group will receive a card with a planet on it and tape on the back. One person from each group needs to come to the front and place their planet in the correct order in the solar system with the help of the class. Planet research - Prior to this lesson - students will need to have been introduced to URLs and Web Browsers. Students will also have been introduced to the concept of plagiarism and note taking. Students will use the attached resources to take research their planet. They will record any valuable information they find using a gaphic organizer.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.033009	05/15/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54341/overview", "title": "2nd grade Planet research", "author": "Olivia Dwyer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91120/overview	Nephology Worksheet Nephology: The Study of Clouds Overview Learn about the formation of clouds, types of clouds, the water cycle and wind patterns. Then complete a worksheet to check your knowledge about clouds. Student OER: Jennifer Park, Author Learn about the formation of clouds, types of clouds, the water cycle and wind patterns. Then complete a worksheet to check your knowledge about clouds.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.050915	Rose Van Moorlehem	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91120/overview", "title": "Nephology: The Study of Clouds", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103324/overview	Symbiotic Relationships Lesson Overview Hello and welcome to our lesson on symbiotic relationships! This lesson is directed towards students in grades 9-12 and will cover the different types of symbiotic relationships, how symbiotic relationships work, and why symbiotic relationships are important. This lesson includes a slide deck and two activities, one at the beginning and one at the end. A potential script with talking points for each topic and instructions for the activities can be found in the speaker notes on each slide. For even more information on the subject, our sources are provided in the speaker notes and at the end of the slide show presentation. This lesson is free to use for all! The lesson is licensed under CC-BY-SA but, no need to fear. This simply means that we ask you to give credit to the creators (Greta Achenbach, Matt Cochran, Madelaine Freitas, and Kaleigh Walsh). Feel free to share and adapt this presentation to suit your needs. Just make sure that any derivative works are shared under the same license. Enjoy! Lesson Slides Attached here is the instructor version of the lecture slides with the speaknotes included. Attached here is the student version of the lecture slides.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.069324	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103324/overview", "title": "Symbiotic Relationships Lesson", "author": "Environmental Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73361/overview	Economic Indicators Overview The resource is developed to create awareness about the various economic indicators how these indicators are impacting stock prices. Economic Indicators for analysing an Economy Economic activity has a major impact on stock market investment. As an investor we have to assess how the economy is performing and to find out how our investment will perform in the future. To craft investment strategy financial adviser/investor require to analyse the various economic indicators. There are varied economic indicators depend on the type of economy. As an investor we have to identify the trends in the various economic indicators, which helps the investor to take an investment decision. This particular activity will explore the various alternatives where investor can visualise, analyze and interpret the trends to take investment decisions. Instructions to Learners: 1. Learners are required to go through the economic indicators. 2. Understand the importance of each economic indicator and its impact on various other indicators. 3. Select all the major indicators and select any two sub indicators. 4. Gather the previous five years of data and input in the form of table which is shown below. 5. Try to plot a chart, line trend or bar graph using excel sheet. 6. Interpret the chart from the perspective of an investor. Sample table format for collecting the data and converting data into chart: \| Major Economic Indicator \| Sub indicator \| Current Year \| Previous Year 4 \| Previous Year 03 \| Previous Year 02 \| Previous Year 01 \| \| \| Sub indicator \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| Sub indicator \| For reference download the attached resource of economic indicators	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.088790	10/11/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73361/overview", "title": "Economic Indicators", "author": "Gundupagi Manjunath" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71525/overview	SEMANA 13 segundo Interculturality Overview This document was creating with all love in teaching in order to share to new students a fun way to learn. Knowing other cultures Psd: If you find interesting the picture I made and shared with you in this task, I attached a file with the name of the app I used to work with. The second file is the worksheet. If we work together everything is possible even learn a new language. Dear students, you may find attach a file with the following worksheeet, be free to write any comment about the task. Best regrats, Margarita Muente EFL- Teacher	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.106932	Magui Muente	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71525/overview", "title": "Interculturality", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82874/overview	DIY Pollinator Garden Box Instructions Overview Congratulations! You are about to improve pollinator habitats in your own space! Did you know that pollinators are responsible for one in three bites of food that you eat? Bees, hummingbirds, butterflies, beetles, and flies, to name a few, are responsible for so many delicious foods we enjoy. From chocolate and coffee to apples and watermelons, we need these vital creatures to pollinate 80% of all flowering species and 35% of the world’s crops! And you can do your part to help the pollinators with a few simple steps. View Resource to learn more! DIY Pollinator Garden Box Instructions	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.124547	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82874/overview", "title": "DIY Pollinator Garden Box Instructions", "author": "Environmental Studies" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103096/overview	Lesson plan Powerpoint Mobilizing young voters through social media and best practices for online social activism Overview Do you remember the first social media account you made? What about the first time you read a news article or retweeted a tweet from your favorite politician? Have you caught your students feeling frustrated after a major event happens and they feel powerless? In this lesson, students will learn about democracy, voting requirements, and how to make a difference in politics. Using lateral reading (a strategy for investigating who's behind an unfamiliar online source by leaving the webpage and opening a new browser tab to see what trusted websites say about the unknown source) students will evaluate news articles or social media content to determine if it is credible to share online. This lesson plan includes a slide deck and lateral reading resources. Materials - Canva slide show (linked) - Resources/articles to use for lateral reading excercise (linked in Canva slideshow, but could use your own to make them more timely) - Students will need a phone/technology to access Kahoot - Kahoot links to gauge student knowledge before and after the lesson. Learning Outcomes Students will demonstrate knowledge of the voter registration process and reflect on eligibility requirements. Students will be able to recognize signs of misinformation and verbally explain steps to act responsibly when sharing online materials. Students will evaluate methods of lateral reading and demonstrate the steps and effectiveness of lateral reading. Before starting the lesson - Make a copy of the lesson slides so you can edit as needed. - Provide copies of any articles or internet resources if preferred by students. Main Lesson - Introduction and Overview of Democracy/Voting (5 minutes) - Introduction to Gen Z candidates (5 minutes) - What is Lateral Reading, how can we trust our sources? (5 minutes) Lateral reading activity - Introduce sources, let students pick which one is most interesting to them - Explain how to read, and what to look for - Allow 5-10 minutes to students to lateral read their sources Closing/Evaluation - Lead a group discussion on what students found, key takeaways, and any questions that remain (5 minutes) - Kahoot assessment (10 minutes)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.148533	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103096/overview", "title": "Mobilizing young voters through social media and best practices for online social activism", "author": "Technology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88642/overview	https://view.genial.ly/61b7c69fcc365b0d92960201/interactive-image-multiple-intelligences https://view.genial.ly/61b90ee62e7cd30d5ff1866e/interactive-content-psychology https://view.genial.ly/61ba48904301f70d78743033/interactive-content-escape-room-museum https://www.educaplay.com/learning-resources/11082840-multiple_intelligences.html Mystery-Box-Template PSYCHOLOGY LESSON PLAN Overview This is a course that deals with topics such as multiple intelligences and the professions that are most commonly related in the different fields. Introduction This is a course that deals with topics such as multiple intelligences and the professions that are most commonly related in different fields. There will also be activities related to the topic for students to show their progress. LESSON PLAN FORM Here is the educational plan of how the activities will be developed and more information PRE-ACTIVITY STs are going to start with an activity to know the things that Ss like or love. First STs will do an icebreaker activity called “choose two pictures”, the purpose with this exercise is to give them the opportunity to select two images and then answer some questions to tell us later why they chose those two and if they felt identified with some of the questions. WHILE ACTIVITY Then knowing the students’ previous knowledge about multiple intelligences. The STs will make a presentation in Genially through interactive images to explain the topic with their respective meanings and examples. In addition, we will talk about some professions that require the different Intelligences to be able to perform the jobs in a better way. After explaining the topic, the Educaplay application will be used by Ss to put into practice what was seen previously. -Genially Activity: Multiple Intelligences -Educaplay Activity: Matching Columns Game POST-ACTIVITY Here we provide the last activities to evaluate how much Ss have learned: -Powerpoint game -GENIALLY	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.174636	Sofia Vieda Avila	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88642/overview", "title": "PSYCHOLOGY LESSON PLAN", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93693/overview	Introduction of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Overview This lecture notes provide an overview of nosocomial infectious agent Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a wide spread, gram negative, rod shaped, biofilm forming, pathogenic bacterium. It is found in a variety of habitats and has ability to infect both plants and animals including humans. Clinical significance of this bacterium is intensified due to phenomenon of natural tendency for acquiring drug resistance mechanisms and as a result arising of Multi-Drug-Resistant strains. P. aeruginosa causes chronic nosocomial infections in hospitalized, immune-compromised and transplant recipient patients. Infections from MDR strains of P. aeruginosa in immune-compromised and transplant patients are becoming a very serious healthcare issue.(Zhe-Xian Tian, Micheal Mac Aoga´in, Hazel F. O’Connor, Emilie Fargier, Marlies J. Mooij, Claire Adams, Yi-Ping Wang 2009; Burgess and Ii 2007; Levy and Marshall 2004) Prominent infections by P. aeruginosa include skin burn wound infections, dermititis, eye infection, infections in transplant cancer and AIDS patients and lung infection and bacteremia in Cystic Fibrotic patients. In all these infections patients have weakened immune system and are unable to clear the infection effectively. P. aeruginosa produces many primary and secondary metabolites with multiple bioactivities. Prominent of them all are Pyocyanin (PYO), Pyoverdine, Prorubin. PYO is a redox active blue Phenazine pigment. It has two benzene rings and a hetrocycle in the middle. It has structural similarity with Methylene Blue, which is a Thio-analog with a sulfur atom instead of Nitrogen (Gardner 1996; Byng et al. 1979; Watson et al. 1986). Biosynthesis of PYO occurs under complete control and regulation of P. aeruginosa genome phz operons encode the genetic information required for PYO biosynthetic enzymes which convert a monocyclic molecule chorismate into tricyclic Phenazine-1-Carboxylic Acid (PCA) and then to Pyocyanin. Operons PhzA1B1C1D1E1F1G1 & PhzA2B2C2D2E2F2G2 encode enzymes which catalyze biosynthetic pathway and finally yield PCA. These operons are reported in multiple bacterial strains and aid in their pathogenicity while PhzM and PhzS modify PCA into PYO and are so far only reported in P. aeruginosa (Greenhagen et al. 2008; Gohain et al. 2006; Byng et al. 1979). Being a redox active compound PYO alters the redox equilibrium inside a biological system. Upon detection of PYO inside a cell, cells utilize their NAD(P)H to avoid the damage caused by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)/ Oxidative Stress, NAD(P)H reduces PYO and get oxidized. The reduced PYO (PYOH2) then interacts with another PYO molecule both share a H atom each and become PYOH. Finally H atoms are transferred to Oxygen (the terminal electron acceptor in eukaryotic aerobic respiration at Electron Transport Chain) to regain their oxidized state PYO, and generate ROS (H2O2). As a result cells loss their stockpiles of energy to be generated in electron transport chain and become starved while the damage due to oxidative stress and ROS continues to mount (Price-whelan et al. 2007). Bioactivities attributed to this pigment include antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antiparasitic, antimalarial, immune-modulatory, pro-inflammatory, pro-apoptotic, enzyme inactivation and cytotoxicity. All these bioactivities are one or the other way related to generation of ROS and induction of oxidative stress (Hassan and Fridovich 1980; Muller 2006; Price-whelan et al. 2007; Muller 2002; Ra 2010; Bradley E Britigan et al. 1999; O’Malley et al. 2004; Bianchi et al. 2008; Denning et al. 1998; Cheluvappa et al. 2008; Fulfillment and Sinha 2008; Hashimoto et al. 2007). PYO functions as a bio-control (antimicrobial) agent when P. aeruginosa faces competition over nutrients and / or habitat in environment, a signaling molecule in quorum sensing during and after the formation of biofilms, a virulence factor in infection, and one of the terminal electron acceptors when the bacterium respires anaerobically (Sadikot et al. 2005; Arai 2011; Winstanley and Fothergill 2009; Dietrich et al. 2006). The lung infection by P. aeruginosa in Cystic Fibrotic patients is one of the few serious disease complications. Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder in which a mutation in Cystic Fibrosis related Transmembrane conductance regulator protein effects all the body secretions and secretory organs as well. P. aeruginosa inside the lungs effects the host (lung and tracheal) tissues and cellular components of host immune system. PYO has been detected in higher quantities in sputum samples of P. aeruginosa infected CF patients, upto 100µM. These higher levels indicate the vital role PYO plays at the site of infection. Inside the lungs, studies have reported that PYO not only interacts with lung tissues but also with the cells of immune system. PYO induces apoptosis in Neutrophils, prevent the phagocytosis of these apoptotic neutrophils by Macrophages, increases the expression of inflammatory cytokines, inhibits ciliary beating of tracheal epithelial lining, depletes NAD(P)H stocks and induces apoptosis in the same. With all these actions this blue pigment tends to increase the survival chances and creates microenvironment inside lungs more favorable for P. aeruginosa growth (Cheluvappa et al. 2008; Bradley E Britigan et al. 1999; Muller 2002; Muller 2006; Winstanley and Fothergill 2009). Cystic Fibrosis Related Liver Disease (CFRLD) is another important CF disease complication. In CFRLD liver suffers from cirrhosis and fibrosis due to abnormal secretions, but these symptoms also result from oxidative stress and ROS as witnessed in all the types of hepatitis including hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, Alcoholic hepatitis and Autoimmune hepatitis. In all these disease conditions multiple pathways and mechanisms are involved but the commonality is either favored generation of ROS or negative interactions with oxidative stress countering mechanisms of cell (Albano 2006; Namazi 2009; Lim et al. 2010; Colombo 2007; Muller 2009)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.196112	06/13/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93693/overview", "title": "Introduction of Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "author": "Muhammad Ibrahim Rashid" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97640/overview	Worksheet Eureka 6 Module 1 Lesson 24 Slides Overview Here are slides that correspond with Eureka 6 Module 1 Lesson 24. Notes are in the slides themselves. Eureka 6 Module 1 Lesson 24 Slides These are Google Slides that correspond with Eureka 6 Module 1 Lesson 24.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.213198	10/02/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97640/overview", "title": "Eureka 6 Module 1 Lesson 24 Slides", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99139/overview	Education Standards Eureka 8 Module 1 Lessons 2-3 Overview See the "notes" in the slides for more information. Google Slides I use Minecraft Chickens to help teach the concept of exponential growth.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.233395	11/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99139/overview", "title": "Eureka 8 Module 1 Lessons 2-3", "author": "Tasha Christensen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77942/overview	Where Would We BEE Without Pollinators? Overview An educator's guide to pollination and pollinator conservation written by Mary Hannah Lindsay and Chanda L. Cooper with Richland Soil and Water Conservation District in South Carolina. Where Would We BEE Without Pollinators?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.252160	Environmental Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77942/overview", "title": "Where Would We BEE Without Pollinators?", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20135/overview	Learning to Use a Vector Editor - Gravit.io Overview This is a unit on learning how to use a vector editing program (gravit.io) used for my online graphic design class. This program is free and runs in the browser so was optimal for my students using chromebooks. Each of the 6 lessons has a written lesson tutorial with images, as well as a screencast video that goes over that lesson. 4 of the 6 lessons have an assignment associated with them. There is an outline for what each lesson goes over listed underneath the links for that lesson. All written tutorials, lessons and assignments are in google docs. - Lesson 1 - Basics \| Screencast Lesson 1 \| Assignment Lesson 1 - What is Gravit.io? - Canvas & Zoom - Selecting Objects - Moving objects - Copy/Paste/Delete/Duplicate - Supersize, Rotate, Flip - Grouping & Ungrouping - Arranging Objects - Align and Distribute - Saving - Lesson 2 - Shapes, Paths, Pen \| Screencast Lesson 2 \| Assignment Lesson 2 - Basic Shapes - Basic Star-based Shapes - Adjusting Objects - Shapes vs. Path - Path Operations - Pen Tool - Lesson 3 - More Paths & Type \| Screencast Lesson 3 \| Assignment Lesson 3 CC BY SA 3.0 Rebecca Erickson - Drawing Curves with the Pen - Types of Nodes - The Freehand Tool & Simplify - Fills & Borders - The Type Tool - Lesson 4 - More on Type \| Screencast Lesson 4 \| Assignment Lesson 4 - Working with Type: Text vs. Paths - Type Alignment - Character, Word and Line Spacing - Putting Type on Paths - Lesson 5 - Gradients & Textures \| Screencast Lesson 5 - Using the Gradient Tool - Fine-tuning Gradient Position - Adding More Points to a Gradient - Working with Textures - Adding Noise - Lesson 6 - Clipart & Vectorizing Images \| Screencast Lesson 6 - About openclipart.org - Importing Open Clip Art into Gravit - Vectorizing Images	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.269169	Ashley Webb	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20135/overview", "title": "Learning to Use a Vector Editor - Gravit.io", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105094/overview	PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT Overview The module on portfolio assessment for Grade 8 focuses on the concept of using portfolios as a method of evaluating student learning and growth. In this module, students will explore the benefits and importance of portfolio-based assessment, and they will specifically apply this approach to the context of baking tools and equipment. The main content of the module revolves around creating an e-documentary portfolio about baking tools and equipment. Students will be tasked with researching various baking tools, such as measuring cups, mixing bowls, spatulas, and baking pans, and understanding their functions and importance in the baking process. They will also learn about different types of equipment, such as ovens, mixers, and food processors, and their roles in achieving desired baking results ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 2 WITH FOCUS ON TRAINERS METHODOLOGY 1 AND 2 Portfolio-based assessment is a powerful method of evaluating student learning and growth. It involves the collection and review of various artifacts and evidence that demonstrate a student's knowledge, skills, and abilities. Unlike traditional assessments that rely solely on exams and quizzes, portfolio-based assessment provides a comprehensive view of a student's progress over time. One of the key advantages of portfolio-based assessment is its ability to capture the complexity and diversity of student learning. Instead of reducing learning to a single test score, portfolios allow students to showcase their work in different formats such as essays, projects, presentations, and creative pieces. This approach values the diverse talents and strengths of students, providing them with opportunities to demonstrate their unique abilities. Furthermore, portfolio-based assessment encourages reflection and self-assessment. As students curate their portfolios, they engage in the process of evaluating their own work and identifying areas of improvement. This metacognitive practice fosters a deeper understanding of one's own learning process and promotes the development of critical thinking skills. Students learn to set goals, monitor their progress, and make revisions based on feedback received. Additionally, portfolios serve as a valuable tool for assessing authentic and real-world skills. By including examples of practical applications and problem-solving, students can demonstrate their ability to transfer knowledge and skills to real-life situations. This type of assessment is more aligned with the demands of the workforce and higher education, as it emphasizes the application of knowledge rather than mere memorization. Portfolio-based assessment also promotes active engagement and ownership of learning. Students take an active role in selecting, organizing, and presenting their work, which empowers them to take responsibility for their education. This process enhances motivation and fosters a sense of pride and accomplishment. In conclusion, portfolio-based assessment is a versatile and holistic approach to evaluating student learning. By capturing the complexity of learning, promoting reflection and self-assessment, assessing authentic skills, and fostering active engagement, portfolios provide a comprehensive view of a student's abilities and growth. This assessment method values individual strengths, encourages lifelong learning, and prepares students for success in the dynamic and diverse world beyond the classroom.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.287407	06/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105094/overview", "title": "PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT", "author": "Leendon Gelborion" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/23627/overview	Natural Sciences Overview This corse is used to learn natura sciences Body Systems Identify and label the body sytems on the picture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.309164	05/25/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/23627/overview", "title": "Natural Sciences", "author": "Mzwandile Shongwe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123303/overview	Learning Domain: Language Standard: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. Learning Domain: Language Standard: Use conventional spelling for high-frequency and other studied words and for adding suffixes to base words (e.g., sitting, smiled, cries, happiness). Learning Domain: Language Standard: Use spelling patterns and generalizations (e.g., word families, position-based spellings, syllable patterns, ending rules, meaningful word parts) in writing words. Learning Domain: Reading: Foundational Skills Standard: Identify and know the meaning of the most common prefixes and derivational suffixes. Learning Domain: Reading: Foundational Skills Standard: Decode multisyllable words. Learning Domain: Language Standard: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. Learning Domain: Language Standard: Use conventional spelling for high-frequency and other studied words and for adding suffixes to base words (e.g., sitting, smiled, cries, happiness). Learning Domain: Language Standard: Use spelling patterns and generalizations (e.g., word families, position-based spellings, syllable patterns, ending rules, meaningful word parts) in writing words. Learning Domain: Reading: Foundational Skills Standard: Identify and know the meaning of the most common prefixes and derivational suffixes. Learning Domain: Reading: Foundational Skills Standard: Decode multisyllable words. Cluster: Conventions of Standard English. Standard: Use conventional spelling for high-frequency and other studied words and for adding suffixes to base words (e.g., sitting, smiled, cries, happiness). Cluster: Conventions of Standard English. Standard: Use spelling patterns and generalizations (e.g., word families, position-based spellings, syllable patterns, ending rules, meaningful word parts) in writing words. Cluster: Phonics and Word Recognition. Standard: Identify and know the meaning of the most common prefixes and derivational suffixes. Cluster: Phonics and Word Recognition. Standard: Decode multisyllable words.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.342171	Andrea Raven	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123303/overview", "title": "Book Worms-Shared Reading-Module 1-L11-15-Fudge-a-Mania", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/19877/overview	Learning Domain: Algebra: Creating Equations Standard: Represent constraints by equations or inequalities, and by systems of equations and/or inequalities, and interpret solutions as viable or non-viable options in a modeling context. For example, represent inequalities describing nutritional and cost constraints on combinations of different foods.* Learning Domain: Algebra: Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities Standard: Prove that, given a system of two equations in two variables, replacing one equation by the sum of that equation and a multiple of the other produces a system with the same solutions. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Model with mathematics. Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not served its purpose. Cluster: Create equations that describe numbers or relationship Standard: Represent constraints by equations or inequalities, and by systems of equations and/or inequalities, and interpret solutions as viable or non-viable options in a modeling context. For example, represent inequalities describing nutritional and cost constraints on combinations of different foods.* Cluster: Solve systems of equations Standard: Prove that, given a system of two equations in two variables, replacing one equation by the sum of that equation and a multiple of the other produces a system with the same solutions. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Model with mathematics. Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not served its purpose.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.368829	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/19877/overview", "title": "Modeling with Systems of Equations", "author": "Numbers and Operations" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108367/overview	Environ Crime Law and Justice Syllabus Template Midterm Essay Questions Environmental Crime, Law, and Justice Overview Students will be introduced to Environmental Crime and Law. Students will consider critical questions such as, why study environmental harm? Should these harms be considered crimes? Furthermore, where might criminal justice and environmental degradation intersect? A theoretical foundation will be surveyed as well as a short historical analysis of environmental movements. The course will then turn toward looking at Environmental Crime Investigation, which organizations and databases are used for data collection, and some future issues and challenges that may emerge. Syllabus Template Course Description: Students will be introduced to Environmental Crime and Law. Students will consider critical questions such as, why study environmental harm? Should these harms be considered crimes? Furthermore, where might criminal justice and environmental degradation intersect? A theoretical foundation will be surveyed as well as a short historical analysis of environmental movements. The course will then turn toward looking at Environmental Crime Investigation, which organizations and databases are used for data collection, and some future issues and challenges that may emerge. Midterm Essay Questions Template These are template questions that go with the class Environmental Crime, Justice, and Law. I generally have students choose 3 of the 5 questions to answer in a one-hour and fifteen-minute period of time. PowerPoint Slides CJL 390 Environmental Crime Theories PowerPoint slides	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.389941	Syllabus	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108367/overview", "title": "Environmental Crime, Law, and Justice", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90861/overview	Vacation in a hot place Overview Vacation in a hot place When I hear of the word vacation I imagine a place that is hot. People, usually prefer hot and natural places because just like me they get bored from living in a big crowded cities. These cities make people sick and tired so they want to escape . Turkey is really a good country for a vacation so I can prefer . When considered , there are lots of places in Turkey to visit. Bodrum , Fethiye, Nevşehir Antalya can be given as examples. My personal prefrence is Antalya. Antalya has limitless variety of activities an natural surroundings. First, the place should has all of the natural surroundings ı want. I should be able of walking around sea. In Antalya you can walk by the sea and feel the touches of the wind and smell the beach. The last time I have been there was really fantastic. Touches of the sun also make people relaxed. Having sunbath there is like going from the world to somewhere you do not have to worry for anything. Sea experience was quite good. Also I liked the behaviors of the people around me. They were so kind they were mostly tourists. Another natural surrounding ı visited was a waterfall. I was fascinated by the view. Water was flowing in a massive way and the nature around it was rally green. This place had a really fresh air so it felt better breathing there. Secondly, The place ı want to visit should has the natural activites ı want. I love visiting ancient places. In Antalya there are lots of ancient cities wait people to visit them. I felt the feeling of the cities and viewed them. They were so big and complicated that ı was surprised. Another activity you can do there is the sports actually the water sports like surfing, bungee jumping. Bungee jumping was breathtaking. I tried it and it was quite hard to try but when ı tired ı really enjoyed it. My adreline increased and ı was scared but ı loved it. Outside was so hot and the water was cool. It was relaxing. In Short, When asked about where to go for a vacation I prefer a hot place rather than a cold place. Antalya is a good example with its natural surroundings and activities. I am looking forward go there again.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.404820	03/11/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90861/overview", "title": "Vacation in a hot place", "author": "Batuhan Kaymak" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90831/overview	Digital Education and Degrowth Overview This OER first looks at the effects of capitalism and growth on the environment, and then introduces the concept of degrowth. Next, it will look at how education and digital education in particular can adapt itself to the concepts of degrowth in order to be sustainable and not harm the environment. Introduction Welcome! This OER aims to look at the Degrowth movement and Digital Education and how it can transform itself to be more sustainable and embrace the future. It will do so in four main parts - Look at the state of the world and how capitalism has created an environmental crisis. - Introduce Degrowth as an alternative to capitalism. - Analyse how green Digital Education currently is and the issues it is facing. - Look into ways Digital Education can learn from Degrowth and embrace its concepts to become more sustainable. You will be encouraged to share your thoughts and impressions of some of the activities or videos via different Padlet links. In addition to that, you will be prompted to complete some reflective tasks by yourself, which you can choose to share or keep to yourself. You should take around three hours to complete all the sections. You are encouraged to share your thoughts and opinions via Padlet for some sections. The Padlets are designed to be anonymous if you are worried about writing your thoughts using your name. I hope you enjoy learning about Degrowth and how digital education can benefit from it as much as I've enjoyed writing this OER. The Issue with Capitalism and Endless Growth This section will look at how capitalism and endless growth are the root cause of climate change. Capitalism is an economic system in which private entities buy and sell goods and set the prices of said commodities. In this system, private entities and individuals are encouraged to purchase/sell material goods to turn a profit. Until recently, capitalism was often seen and described as the only viable economic system as it fosters competition and creativity and ultimately leads to creating a more equal society than other systems such as socialist economies. These claims have been challenged more often than not and demonstrate that capitalism has created a wealth of issues on a global scale. In the past century, capitalism has allowed the Global North to reach the status of 'developed' nations. They have collected unprecedented amounts of wealth, often at the expense of the Global South and poorer countries. The main issue with capitalism that we will focus on today is that it is an unsustainable concept. The idea of endless growth on a planet with finite resources doesn't make sense. We consume far too much for our planet to keep up as things currently are. In 2021, the world used all the resources the planet can provide within a given year by the 29th of July (Earth Overshoot day). The same source shows how many planets would be required if the world lived like specific countries. The primary indicator of growth used to measure how well a country is doing is the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GDP is the measure of all finished products made and sold within a nation within a time period. In other words, wealth is calculated by the products made and sold in a country. GDP ignores a lot in its calculations, such as unpaid work or care work. A mother looking after her child, although a full-time activity, wouldn't be counted in the figures. There are other examples of what GDP doesn't take into account, but one thing that isn't counted in the GDP figures is the environment. GDP looks into the final products made and sold; the environmental costs aren't considered. This means that the charge on nature for making a product is ignored regardless of its impact on the environment. The first half of this Podcast from the Progress Network discusses the issues with GDP in more detail, whereas the second half focuses on alternatives to GDP with a section on Donut economics, which we will look into later on in this OER. In addition to not providing benefits to the environment, capitalism has also shown that growth beyond a certain point does not equate to higher levels of happiness or of their mental wellbeing (Easterlin et al., 2010). Capitalism has done quite the opposite as it creates more inequality between people. This 2018 report by Oxfam estimated that the wealth of the 26 wealthiest people on the planet was equal to that of the poorest half of the world's population. Watch the video below to find out more about the issues with capitalism. Source: Our Changing Climate Youtube Channel. In conclusion, if capitalism and endless growth aren't the answer to a prosperous society, then what is? This is what we are going to look into in the following section. Activity To go deeper into the issue with capitalism and how it is not unsustainable one, please read the paper below. https://jayveetee.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/van-tol-2019-endless-growth-on-a-finite-planet-agta-conference-2019.pdf Once you have read it, answer the following question: - Do you believe a whole new economic system needs to be put into place, or do you believe capitalim can adapt itself to be more sustainable? You can keep the answer to yourself or share it on this Padlet page. References Earth Overshoot Day (2022). Earth Overshoot Day 2019. [online] Earth Overshoot Day. Available at: https://www.overshootday.org/ [Accessed 21 Mar. 2022]. Easterlin, R.A., McVey, L.A., Switek, M., Sawangfa, O. and Zweig, J.S. (2010). The happiness-income Paradox Revisited. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, [online] 107(52), pp.22463–22468. Available at: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1015962107 Lawson, M., Chan, M.-K., Rhodes, F., Butt, A.P., Marriott, A., Ehmke, E., Jacobs, D., Seghers, J., Atienza, J. and Gowland, R. (2019). Public Good or Private wealth? [online] Available at: https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620599/bp-public-good-or-private-wealth-210119-en.pdf [Accessed 21 Mar. 2022]. Vallier, K. (2021). ‘Neoliberalism’ the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [online] plato.stanford.edu. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=neoliberalism [Accessed 24 Apr. 2022]. van Tol, J. (2019). Endless Growth on a Finite Planet: An Ecological Economic Approach to Sustainability. [online] AGTA Conference. Available at: https://jayveetee.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/van-tol-2019-endless-growth-on-a-finite-planet-agta-conference-2019.pdf [Accessed 21 Mar. 2022]. Pre-Task: Degrowth What is Degrowth? Now that we looked at capitalism and how it has contributed to global warming and the unfolding climate crisis, we will look at degrowth and explore how it could be a viable alternative to the current system in place. Before you find out more about the degrowth movement, I'd like you to share your thoughts and write down what the term degrowth means to you. You can do this by clicking the link to this Padlet page. Degrowth as an Alternative What alternatives are there to Capitalism then? The answer could lie in the Degrowth movement. Degrowth is a relatively new concept, often vilified in the public media and the political class, who associate Degrowth with recession. Degrowth is something completely different. It's not about making economies go into recession and go back into the stone ages, as some have claimed. Degrowth could be resumed in the following statement made at a conference in Paris in 2008. The objectives of degrowth are to meet basic human needs and ensure a high quality of life while reducing the ecological impact of the global economy to a sustainable level, equitably distributed between nations…Once right-sizing has been achieved through the process of degrowth, the aim should be to maintain a steady-state economy with a relatively stable, mildly fluctuating level of consumption. (Research and Degrowth, 2010). To get a better idea of what Degrowth is, watch this video where Dr Gerber explains key concepts of what Degrowth is. Source: John Akerman Ozgüc from AquinoxMedia - http://www.aquinoxmedia.com/ & Dr Julien-François Gerber. Alexander H Jones (Jones, 2020) breaks degrowth into four pillars, simplicity, care, conviviality and the destruction of accumulation. The four pillars of degrowth Jones writes about are: Simplicity Simplicity is about doing more with less (Jones, 2020). It's about dematerialism and being able to change our mindsets to not assume that material wealth will solve current issues. Care While capitalism puts growth and material comodities before people and nature, care is about stopping this and putting people at the heart of how we live as a society. It's about redfining what a good life is and placing experience and people before material gains. Conviviality Conviviality is about breaking our dependence on material things and technology. It's about learning to go without tools that are made to look indispensable and make our lives easier, when in reality they trap us and make us have to work more to be able to purchase. Destruction of Accumulation This Jones says is of utmost importance. It is ritualising deaccumulation. Just as we are encouraged to always purchase more and more in our capitalist society, the destruction of accumulation would be to have the complete opposite mindset about accumulating goods. It'd encourage us to rethink why we'd need to get something. In other words putting our needs before our wants. What could Degrowth look like? As more and more people realise that capitalism and its addiction to growth are the problems in our current society, additional research has been conducted for alternative solutions. In 2012, Kate Raworth, an economist, came up with a new economic model she called 'Donuts Economics" in a report for Oxfam. In her theory, she discusses how humanity should live within the "donut" and anything on the outside of the donut represents humanity overexploiting resources, while anything within the inner circle represents social shortfalls that need addressing. This system looks aims for humanity to live comfortably and in a way that doesn't put extra pressure on the planet. Source: https://doughnuteconomics.org/about-doughnut-economics In 2020, this was how things looked when represented by the donut. Source: https://doughnuteconomics.org/tools-and-stories/11 For further information about donut economics, please watch the TED Talk below, where Kate Raworth describes its functionings in further detail. Source: TED via Youtube. Activity In your home, count up all the digital technology you own. Consider whether or not you need every item. Think about which ones you couldn't go without and those you absolutely need. Consider a way to reduce the digital technology you have around the house without losing in quality of life. If you feel comfortable, share your results on this Padlet page. References Jones, A.H. (2020). What Is an Educational Good? Theorising Education as Degrowth. Journal of Philosophy of Education, [online] 55(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12494 Research & Degrowth (2010). Degrowth Declaration of the Paris 2008 Conference. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(6), pp.523–524. Digital Education Today Education and Capitalism Now that we have looked at the root cause of the environmental crisis and offered an alternative with the Degrowth movement, let's look at the role the world of education plays. We will particularly look into Digital Education and the claims that it is a greener, more sustainable approach to teaching than face to face teaching. Is education part of the capitalist system, or does it stand outside the current system? According to Graupe, education is not only part of the capitalist system, but it also takes an active part in moulding the mind of the people going through it. The western educational system is shaped by and reproduces assumptions that constrain ideas for sustainable futures (Graupe in Kaufmann, Sanders & Wortmann 2019). Other researchers confirm this assumption. Educational institutions such as schools and universities are seen as stabilisers of the system in place; they are largely resistant to reflection, because they are strongly locked-in by power structures and path dependencies (cf. Göpel 2016; Narberhaus 2016). The private sector in the digital education sector is taking an ever-growing part in the way people learn nowadays. The education system and digital education, in particular, are becoming an increasing part of this shift towards capitalism. Companies offer MOOCs (Coursera, Futurelearn) and other services via apps (Duolingo, Memrize). Digital Education and Sustainability If Private entities largely dominate digital education, how does it fare for sustainability and protecting the environment? In 2008 traditional education accounted for 3% of the UK's commercial waste (Roy, Potter & Yarrow. 2008). The bulk of the pollution came from transportation and accommodation. Digital Education is a more sustainable solution than more traditional forms of learning. In a 2008 study, Roy, Potter & Yarrow claimed that digital education only produces 15% of the emissions traditional learning does (Roy, Potter & Yarrow. 2008). When we take a closer look at how digital education reduces emissions of greenhouse gasses, we notice that proponents of digital education replacing traditional education compare how much cleaner it is in teaching places. They claim that thanks to digitalisation and smart appliances, schools and universities are greener than in the past. The issue is that they usually only look at figures from places of learning. They look over the fact that with digital education, the source of pollution often comes from other places. The most significant sources of pollution with digital learning are - The infrastructure of the internet - The hardware The Infrastructure of the Internet Let's first focus on the infrastructure. The infrastructure primarily consists of servers hosted in data centres. They are the backbone of the internet and where all the information shared and used is stored. They are incredibly energy-hungry. A large data centre can require up to 100 megawatts of energy. That amounts to the energy needed to power 80,000 homes in the USA (Energy and Innovation, 2020). The issue with data centres is how they are powered. International corporations such as Apple and Google have worked hard to ensure their data centres run on clean energy. This report by Greenpeace shows that a handful of companies are working hard to reduce their carbon footprint. Though the report dates back to 2017, it shows that most companies still power their data centres using energies that contribute to global warming. Although things are changing, it's a process that takes time. In addition to that, it's often tricky knowing what type of cloud service the digital education sector is using. There are so many different companies, universities and schools that it's challenging to keep track. So when a university, school, or education company claims they are being green because most of the courses are now conducted online instead of face to face, it is vital to know how the servers they use are powered. Watch the video below to learn more about data centres and the pollution they create. However, the claims made that online education is greener than traditional forms of education are valid. Conducting lessons online pollutes less than conventional forms of education. With the current trends, where more digitalisation is taking place, and more is conducted online, the internet's infrastructure is more in demand. If the current growth patterns remain the same worldwide, the ICT sector could reach 14% of the world's energy consumption by 2040 (Belkhir and Elmeligi, 2018). As digital education looks for ways of growing and using more technology and more power, the overall energy consumption increases. This puts extra stress on nature as more infrastructure needs to be created and run. The Hardware Now let's look at the hardware and the costs electronic products have on the environment. Moving education away from the classroom and onto the internet doesn't only put additional stress on the infrastructure but also requires users, teaching institutions and, on some occasions, private education companies to require more equipment to teach/learn. Digital education as it stands today often requires students to bring their own devices, which Selwyn describes as 'bring your own' technology to study (Selwyn, 2021). Considering that 80% of a device's carbon footprint is created during the device's production (Cook & Jardim, 2017), asking each student to have their device in addition to replacing them every 2-4 years has a substantial impact on the environment. In addition to that, planned obsolescence often means that devices are not made to last more than four years (Selwyn, 2021). Watch this video about the costs of Apple products. The video focuses on Apple products, but the same applies to all companies that manufacture electronic products. Digital Education and Capitalism Besides encouraging consumption by requiring learners and educators to have their own devices that need to be updated regularly, digital education fails to be green on another critical point: its relationship to capitalism and growth. In this final point in this section, we'll cover how digital education fully embraces capitalism in pursuit of eternal growth. Whether from the public sector or a private entity, digital education today searches for growth to maximise profit and stay afloat. Digital education operates through competition instead of collaboration, putting profit ahead of learning. The private sector focuses on profit and growth, and the public sector is increasingly being run similarly to how companies are (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2016). A perfect example of that would be to look at the university ladders. Universities are constantly competing to get to the top and claim the number one spot. This state of competition means companies or universities are constantly looking to outdo each other, which often results in more products, more apps, more things to have, possess and use, whether or not they are helpful or benefit the teachers or the students. An example of this can be found in a paper written by Melo et al. They wanted to develop a VR headset to assist students with Focused Associational Thinking (FAT). They spent months developing the code, the headset, and the learning experience's content. They ultimately didn't create the VR headset in time and fell back on doing the task using handouts and pencils. This helped them realise that: …virtual reality does not present a new way of looking at the world. Instead, it enforces the opposite, teleologically binding our VR environment to a profoundly conventional way of experiencing the world (Melo et al., 2019). By creating constant states of competition, digital education follows the same pattern of growth that led capitalism to create the environmental disaster we're facing today. Not only is digital education polluting through its infrastructure, but it's also contributing to global warming by having people purchase more things they don't necessarily need. Although digital education is a greener solution than a more traditional approach to education, it is not sustainable or friendly for the environment. It is currently a tool for creating a more sustainable society (Becker & Otto in Filho, 2019). For education to become sustainable, it needs to go beyond capitalism, change its approach, and understand that 'business as usual is not sustainable in the long term. Activity If you are a teacher, look at how your teaching practice has changed over the years and consider how much technology you must use in the classroom. Consider whether it has had a positive impact on your teaching and whether or not all the digitalisation could have been avoided. As a learner, consider whether all the lessons you now have online have positively impacted your learning and whether moving towards doing even more online will benefit your learning. References Belkhir, L. and Elmeligi, A. (2018). Assessing ICT Global Emissions footprint: Trends to 2040 & Recommendations. Journal of Cleaner Production, [online] 177, pp.448–463. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095965261733233X [Accessed 5 Mar. 2022]. Cook, G. and Jardim, E. (2017). Guide to Greener Electronics 2017. [online] Greenpeace USA. Available at: https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/greener-electronics-2017/#1507729520628-e628e904-76bc [Accessed 22 Mar. 2022]. Cook, G., Lee, J., Tsai, T., Kong, A., Deans, J., Johnson, B. and Jardin, E. (2017). Clicking Clean: Who Is Winning the Race to Build a Clean Internet. [online] Greenpeace.org. 702 H Street, NW Suite 300 Washington, D.C. 20001 United States: Greenpeace Inc. Available at: https://www.greenpeace.de/sites/default/files/publications/20170110_greenpeace_clicking_clean.pdf [Accessed 16 Mar. 2022]. Filho, W.L. (2019). Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education Volume 3 S-Z. Cham Springer. Göpel M (2016) The great mind-shift. How a new economic paradigm and sustainability transformation go hand in hand. Springer, Wiesbaden Kaufmann, N., Sanders, C. and Wortmann, J. (2019). Building new foundations: the future of education from a degrowth perspective. Sustainability Science, [online] 14(4), pp.931–941. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-019-00699-4 Melo, M., Bentley, E., McAllister, K.S. and Cortez, J. (2019). Pedagogy of Productive Failure: Navigating the Challenges of Integrating VR into the Classroom. Journal for Virtual Worlds Research, [online] 12(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.4101/jvwr.v12i1.7318 Narberhaus M (2016) Gesellschaftlicher Wandel als Lernprozess. Zeitschrift für internationale Bildungsforschung und Entwick-lungspädagogik 39(1):23–26 Pucciarelli, F. and Kaplan, A. (2016). Competition and Strategy in Higher education: Managing Complexity and Uncertainty. Business Horizons, [online] 59(3), pp.311–320. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0007681316000045 [Accessed 22 Mar. 2022]. Digital Education Tomorrow Now we have looked at how digital education has failed to adapt itself and become sustainable; we're going to take a look at how it can go from being just a greener alternative to traditional education and indeed become sustainable by embracing degrowth. We have seen how education and digital education are currently in a capitalist mindset and remain addicted to growth to stay relevant. If digital education wants to survive and thrive, it must not only adapt its content to integrate climate issues such as biodiversity, sustainable lifestyles, or climate change; it must first and foremost focus on transforming the pedagogical approaches and learning environment (Becker & Otto in Filho, 2019). It is also essential for digital education to rethink what needs to be conducted digitally. The use of technology should not be something Selwyn describes as an always-on mode. Digital education needs to focus on online activities with clear educational values (Selwyn, 2021). Simplicity in Digital Education One pillar of degrowth is simplicity; in other words, doing more with less. To become sustainable instead of a greener alternative to the current system, digital education needs to reduce its dependence on technology. It looks and sounds counterintuitive. After all, shouldn't digital technology be fully online? What is meant here is that institutions and companies should focus their use of technology on what is essential in the classroom. Technology should be implemented when there's a need for it. Let's take the example of a middle school classroom. How much technology is necessary for this context? Do all students need to have their own device to study. Do they need to use them during each lesson? Institutions need to consider the cost of running the infrastructure and the costs of purchasing the hardware. Is it worth it? Can activities be completed in the classrooms without the students requiring a specific device? It could be worth taking into account what Heidegger said back in 1977, in that, the essence of technology is by no means anything technological" (Heidegger, 1977). Care in Digital Education Digital Education currently operates through competition instead of collaboration, putting profit ahead of learning. As we mentioned in the previous section, the private sector focuses on profit and growth, and the public sector is increasingly being run similarly to how companies are (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2016). To move away from the cycle of growth Digital Education is locked in, it needs to refocus its effort on togetherness and collaboration instead of endless competition (Hammershøj, 2009). Working together and putting learners ahead of profit and performance is vital in transforming the field needs. Furthermore, to achieve care and put the focus of digital education back in the hands of the people, it's essential to understand how current methods of individualisation through the use of data is counterproductive and takes power away from students and teachers alike. The powers rest in the hands of proprietary algorithms that quantify everything based on criteria only the companies or institutions who create them are in charge of. Jones describes financial capitalism and its relationship to data to control education as the coloniser-teacher in the classroom paradigm (Jones, 2021). Putting an end to the mass harvest of data to 'personalise' education is thus essential to creating a learning environment that focuses on the interactions between learners and thus reduce our dependence on technology in the classroom. More care could be given to the development of group activities where technology can be used sparingly, and where the curriculum focuses on relationships between people. Conviviality in Digital Education Being part of this capitalist society where we are constantly looking for growth and the next big thing, digital education sometimes fails to realise what it already has. Conviviality is about breaking the cycle of getting the next big thing we are told is going to make our lives far simpler and make the field of education easier to navigate. The example given in the previous section about Melo et al. trying to develop a VR platform to help learners learn better is the perfect example that the next big thing isn't always what it hopes to be, nor is it necessary. There is already so much we have in terms of the technology used for digital education, that constantly looking to create something new that people will be required to buy and use is not only bad for the environment; but also counterpoductive in terms of learning. Technology moves faster than people and more often than not, teachers and learners do not need the next big thing in order to learn. The only benefactors are those who create, market and sell said technologies as they require growth to stay around. To take control back, Jones goes as far as putting the power in the hands of the educators and puts forward the idea that educators who wish to resist financial capitalism's power and resist technology dehumanising students into data points would thus create a sense of togetherness, conviviality and interdependence that would subvert capitalism's hold on education (Jones, 2021). The Destruction of Accumulation in Digital Technology The final aspect mentioned by Jones is the destruction of accumulation. Selwyn touches on that when he describes the need for schools and universities to rethink how they use technology and how they should re-establish technology use in education as a shared and communal activity instead of everyone using their tools (Selwyn, 2021). This would make sense to reduce the number of devices being used and purchased and create a sense of community and togetherness that is not as easy to develop when everyone has their own device. Jones goes further by saying limits should be put in places of learning on the use of resources, grades or marks and standardised scores. Some institutions are already beginning to do this. The ritualisation of results, growth and exam-based education is what needs to stop if the destruction of accumulation is to succeed in places of learning. It is both about creating a new way of thinking in terms of the tools we use to learn and rethinking how to monitor and support learning so that the constant state of competition places of learning are locked in stops. Final Words For Digital Education to be sustainable, more than using sustainable energy to power factories and server rooms is required. Change needs to come from the makers of said technology and the people who need to embrace a different approach to using technology to learn. Doing more with less is something that none of us are familiar with as we've spent our lives being told more is always better. It seems daunting as it's not only a change in how we use technology but also a change in how we think and approach how we teach and learn. We are all used to education being the way it is. We have all grown up with exams, with competition amongst other students. We have also looked at the universities we'd like to attend from a list of rankings explaining why such a university is the best. We're told to learn more using an ever-increasing amount of technology, varying from hardware to different apps, platforms and programmes. Applying degrowth to digital education would require radical changes to the way we approach learning, the way we conduct learning and more importantly, the way we are used and datafied by algorithms that are taking more and more space in our learning process. Activity Take a look at your classroom and how you teach. How can you embrace the four pillars of learning in your classroom to place more emphasis on the learners instead of results? References Filho, W.L. (2019). Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education Volume 3 S-Z. Cham Springer. Hammershøj, L.G. (2009). Creativity as a Question of Bildung. Journal of Philosophy of Education, [online] 43(4), pp.545–558. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2009.00703.x [Accessed 22 Mar. 2022]. Heidegger, M. (1977). The question concerning technology. (William Lovitt, Trans.). In The question concerning technology and other essays(3-35). New York: Harper & Row. Jones, A.H. (2020). What Is an Educational Good? Theorising Education as Degrowth. Journal of Philosophy of Education, [online] 55(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12494 [Accessed 22 Mar. 2022]. Pucciarelli, F. and Kaplan, A. (2016). Competition and Strategy in Higher education: Managing Complexity and Uncertainty. Business Horizons, [online] 59(3), pp.311–320. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0007681316000045 [Accessed 22 Mar. 2022]. Selwyn, N. (2021). Ed-Tech within Limits: Anticipating Educational Technology in Times of Environmental Crisis. E-Learning and Digital Media, 18(5), pp.496–510. Conclusions In this OER, we explored a wide array of topics. We began looking at the issue with capitalism, without which the other problems wouldn't be necessary. We then explored a sustainable alternative to capitalism in degrowth. In the second half, we looked into where education stood in terms of capitalism and sustainability before finally offering alternatives and solutions to education and, more specifically, digital education could use to become truly sustainable as well as refocusing on people. I believe in the idea of degrowth, and I think we as a society will go through degrowth to achieve sustainability and live in better harmony with nature and non-human living entities. Whether degrowth is achieved because we want it and strive to complete it as a species, or whether it is imposed on us because we cannot stop our addiction to growth and push the planet's ecosystem beyond a tipping point is a different story. The research used for this OER suggests that at the current pace of things, the latter scenario is the one most likely to happen. Politics and people in power don't seem to grasp the urgency we are facing, and essential lifestyle changes, such as a reduction in consumption, are not encouraged; instead, we are told 'green growth' is the way of the future. Change is needed both from the top, in terms of how decisions are made and how policies are devised, but degrowth and change in all fields, including digital education also need to come from everyday people as they realise the leading cause of the climate crisis is growth and overconsumption.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.443475	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90831/overview", "title": "Digital Education and Degrowth", "author": "Interactive" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110120/overview	Introduction to Linguistics Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning - My OER Goals & Purpose: I have discovered and learned ways to find OER sources, remix them, learn about different attributions, and how to create/remix materials for a college course. - My Audience: My targeted audience is undergraduate students who will be taking an introductory course in linguistics. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? - For this project, I am just testing and learning in the area I'm well-trained in. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. -I've looked up and found a few sources on the introductory level of linguistics. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? - New sources include published textbooks. on linguistics. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? - I will need to collect data and look at more resources to be able to put together reliable materials. OER Item Introduction To Linguistics Learning Objective: Upon completing this undergraduate introduction to linguistics course, students should be able to: Understand the Fundamental Concepts of Linguistics: Define and explain core linguistic concepts, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Analyze and Describe Language Structures: Analyze the structures of various languages, identifying patterns and rules governing sound, word formation, sentence structure, and meaning. Demonstrate Knowledge of Language Variation: Recognize and explain regional, social, and cultural variations in language, considering factors such as dialects, accents, and sociolinguistic factors. Apply Linguistic Methods to Analyze Real-world Data: Utilize linguistic methods and tools to analyze real-world linguistic data, such as spoken or written texts, and draw informed conclusions about language structures and usage. Discuss Historical and Evolutionary Aspects of Languages: Examine historical changes in languages and understand the principles of language evolution, tracing language families and understanding language change over time. Explore the Relationship between Language and Cognition: Investigate the connection between language and cognitive processes, including the study of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and the cognitive aspects of language use. Evaluate Societal and Cultural Impacts of Linguistic Diversity: Assess the impact of linguistic diversity on societies and cultures, considering issues of language endangerment, language revitalization, and the role of language in identity. Engage in Critical Thinking about Language and Communication: Develop critical thinking skills to evaluate linguistic theories, research methodologies, and their implications for understanding human communication. Apply Knowledge to Practical Linguistic Analysis: Apply theoretical knowledge to practical linguistic analysis, demonstrating the ability to describe and analyze linguistic phenomena in diverse languages and contexts. Effectively Communicate Linguistic Concepts: Communicate linguistic concepts and analyses clearly and coherently, both in written and oral formats, demonstrating effective communication skills within the field of linguistics. Engage in Ethical Language Research Practices: Demonstrate an understanding of ethical considerations in linguistic research, including respect for linguistic diversity, the rights of language communities, and responsible research practices. Develop a Lifelong Interest in Linguistics: Foster curiosity and appreciation for linguistics as a field of study, encouraging students to pursue further exploration and engagement with linguistic topics beyond the introductory course. By achieving these learning objectives, students will gain a solid foundation in linguistics and be prepared for more advanced coursework in the field. Reflection My learning experience in this series of webinars has been an eye-opening one. While I can still remember that I used a few OER materials during my college years, I was using them just as an end-user without knowing much about them, how they are created, designed, remixed, published, etc. To be honest, I just looked at OERs as being inferior to textbooks. However, during this series of webinars, I realized how much effort and time are invested to create an OER or even just remix one. I've come to realize that collaborative projects on OER can be very useful and rigorous when the projects are planned and executed properly. Furthermore, I came to the realization that creating one is best done through collaborations. One great feature I find very unique and one of the most important aspects of an OER is the ability to keep updating and revising the OER (unlike published textbooks) which makes them highly dynamic documents that can keep students and users informed and updated about the subject matter.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.474570	11/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110120/overview", "title": "Introduction to Linguistics", "author": "Khaleel Abusal" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92260/overview	TALES Overview This is a reading passage about Hansel and Gretel, and Aladdin. Tales Hansel & Gretel ("Hansel and Gretel" is a German fairy tale collected by the German Brothers Grimm and published in 1812 in Grimm's Fairy Tales.) Hansel and Gretel are the young children of a poor woodcutter. When a famine settles over the land, the woodcutter's second wife tells the woodcutter to take the children into the woods and leave them there to fend for themselves, so that she and her husband do not starve to death. The woodcutter opposes the plan, but his wife claims that maybe a stranger will take the children in and provide for them, which the woodcutter and she simply cannot do. With the scheme seemingly justified, the woodcutter reluctantly is forced to submit to it. They are unaware that in the children's bedroom, Hansel and Gretel have overheard them. After the parents have gone to bed, Hansel sneaks out of the house and gathers as many white pebbles as he can, then returns to his room, reassuring Gretel that God will not forsake them. The next day, the family walk deep into the woods and Hansel lays a trail of white pebbles. After their parents abandon them, the children wait for the moon to rise and then they followed the pebbles back home. They return home safely, much to their stepmother's rage. Once again, provisions become scarce and the stepmother angrily orders her husband to take the children further into the woods and leave them there. Hansel and Gretel attempt to gather more pebbles, but find the front door locked. The following morning, the family treks into the woods. Hansel takes a slice of bread and leaves a trail of bread crumbs for them to follow to return back home. However, after they are once again abandoned, they find that the birds have eaten the crumbs and they are lost in the woods. After days of wandering, they follow a beautiful white bird to a clearing in the woods, and discover a large cottage built of gingerbread, cookies, cakes, candy and with window panes of clear sugar. Hungry and tired, the children begin to eat the rooftop of the house, when the door opens and a "very old woman" emerges and lures the children inside with the promise of soft beds and delicious food. They enter without realizing that their hostess is a bloodthirsty witch who built the gingerbread house to waylay children to cook and eat them. The next morning, the witch locks Hansel in an iron cage in the garden and forces Gretel into becoming a slave. The witch feeds Hansel regularly to fatten him up, but serves Gretel nothing but crab shells. The witch then tries to touch Hansel's finger to see how fat he has become, but Hansel cleverly offers a thin bone he found in the cage. As the witch's eyes are too weak to notice the deception, she is fooled into thinking Hansel is still too thin to eat. After weeks of this, the witch grows impatient and decides to eat Hansel, "be he fat or lean". She prepares the oven for Hansel, but decides she is hungry enough to eat Gretel, too. She coaxes Gretel to the open oven and asks her to lean over in front of it to see if the fire is hot enough. Gretel, sensing the witch's intent, pretends she does not understand what the witch means. Infuriated, the witch demonstrates, and Gretel instantly shoves her into the hot oven, slams and bolts the door shut, and leaves "the ungodly witch to be burned in ashes". Gretel frees Hansel from the cage and the pair discover a vase full of treasure, including precious stones. Putting the jewels into their clothing, the children set off for home. A swan ferries them across an expanse of water, and at home they find only their father; his wife died from some unknown cause. Their father had spent all his days lamenting the loss of his children, and is delighted to see them safe and sound. With the witch's wealth, they all live happily ever after. Aladdin (Aladdin is a Middle-Eastern folk tale. It is one of the best-known tales associated with The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (The Arabian Nights).) Aladdin is an impoverished young ne'er-do-well, dwelling in "one of the cities of China". He is recruited by a sorcerer from the Maghreb, who passes himself off as the brother of Aladdin's late father, Mustapha the tailor, convincing Aladdin and his mother of his good will by pretending to set up the lad as a wealthy merchant. The sorcerer's real motive is to persuade young Aladdin to retrieve a wonderful oil lamp (chirag) from a booby-trapped magic cave. After the sorcerer attempts to double-cross him, Aladdin finds himself trapped in the cave. Aladdin is still wearing a magic ring the sorcerer has lent him. When he rubs his hands in despair, he inadvertently rubs the ring and a jinnī (or "genie") appears and releases him from the cave, allowing him to return to his mother while in possession of the lamp. When his mother tries to clean the lamp, so they can sell it to buy food for their supper, a second far more powerful genie appears who is bound to do the bidding of the person holding the lamp. With the aid of the genie of the lamp, Aladdin becomes rich and powerful and marries Princess Badroulbadour, the sultan's daughter (after magically foiling her marriage to the vizier's son). The genie builds Aladdin and his bride a wonderful palace, far more magnificent than the sultan's. The sorcerer hears of Aladdin's good fortune, and returns; he gets his hands on the lamp by tricking Aladdin's wife (who is unaware of the lamp's importance) by offering to exchange "new lamps for old". He orders the genie of the lamp to take the palace, along with all its contents, to his home in the Maghreb. Aladdin still has the magic ring and is able to summon the lesser genie. The genie of the ring cannot directly undo any of the magic of the genie of the lamp, but he is able to transport Aladdin to the Maghreb where, with the help of the "woman's wiles" of the princess, he recovers the lamp and slays the sorcerer, returning the palace to its proper place. The sorcerer's more powerful and evil brother plots to destroy Aladdin for killing his brother by disguising himself as an old woman known for her healing powers. Badroulbadour falls for his disguise and commands the "woman" to stay in her palace in case of any illnesses. Aladdin is warned of this danger by the genie of the lamp and slays the impostor. Aladdin eventually succeeds to his father-in-law's throne.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.489564	04/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92260/overview", "title": "TALES", "author": "Fatma Zehra Şahin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86544/overview	"The film Script Challenge" : An OEP for CALL Overview "The film Script Challenge" is an Oper Educational Practice for CALL that is created by Dr. Maria Perifanou in the context of the DC4LT webinar series “The film script challenge!” This is an Open Educational Practice for Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), and it is created by Dr. Maria Peerifanou in the context of the DC4LT series of webinars	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.507464	Language Education (ESL)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86544/overview", "title": "\"The film Script Challenge\" : An OEP for CALL", "author": "English Language Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108162/overview	Making a Website Using GitHub Pages Overview Learn how to make a static website using the free resource GitHub Pages Creating a Website Using GitHub Pages Last updated September 3, 2023 This tutorial will help you use GitHub Pages to create a website. This tutorial should take between 30 and 60 minutes to complete. At the end of the tutorial, you will have the basis for your own website. Tools A GitHub account, which is freely available Any HTML, CSS, or other files you would like to include on your website What is GitHub? GitHub is a platform for sharing, collaborating, and managing projects that allows developers to store and manage code in an open environment. GitHub is frequently used to host open source software development projects and, as of June 2023, is the largest source code host. It allows for people to freely share and publish their work online. You can also use GitHub to create static web publications, which you can learn more about in works like Chris Diaz's Static Web Publishing for Digital Scholarship, and you can use GitHub Pages to create websites. GitHub Pages is a static site hosting service offered for free by GitHub. Users are allowed one site per GitHub account or organization and can also create unlimited project sites. In this tutorial, we will work through the steps to create a user website using GitHub Pages. Steps Step One: Create a GitHub Account To complete this project, you will need to register for a free GitHub account. If you are a student or teacher, there are special benefits available to you through GitHub Education. Step Two: Create a Repository A repository is where you will collect and share all of the code and documents associated with your project. You can create a site in an existing repository, but for the purposes of this tutorial we will be working from a new repository. To begin, create a new repository. You can create a new repository by clicking on the + symbol in the upper-right corner of any page and selecting New Repository. If this is your first time creating a repository, you can click on the left side of the screen under Create your first project and select Create repository. If you have created a repository before, then you can go to the Repositories tab at the top of the page, then select New from the upper right hand corner of the Repositories page. Step Three: Name Your Repository Name this repository username.github.io, where username is your username on GitHub. Make sure that this exactly matches your username. If your username contains uppercase letters, you must lowercase the letters. Step Four: Set your repository visibility to public Setting your repository visibility to public will ensure that people can view all of the materials in your repository. They will also be able to fork your code. Forking means creating a copy of source code. Step Five: Create your entry file The entry file is the home page for your site. You will want to use an index.html, index.md, or README.md file as the entry file. For the purpose of this tutorial, we will use an index.html file. To create a new file, click on Create New File under the Add File tab. If you have created an HTML file that you would like to use as your landing page, then you can upload it using the Upload Files selection. You can then rename the file index.html. Whenever you make a change to a file, make sure to select Commit changes in the upper right corner to save your work. You can add an extended description to each change to help you remember what edits you made. Step Six: Add More Files You can use the Upload files tool to upload all of the files that you want to display on your website, including any CSS that you will be applying to your HTML pages. Step Seven: Apply CSS If you have created CSS files that you would like to use with your HTML, you can add those to your repository using Upload files. You will then use the address of the CSS file in your HTML documents to apply CSS to those pages. Step Eight: Visit your site To visit your site, go to username.github.io where username is your username. Making Future Changes Editing Pages To edit pages on your site, open the file. Then click on the pencil icon edit this file. When you have finished editing, make sure to Commit changes. Unpublishing and Republishing Your Site To unpublish your site, go to Settings, then Pages. At the top of the page, where it says your site is live, select Unpublish site. To republish your site, go to Actions at the top of the page. Click on pages build and deployment. Then at the top of the screen select Re-run all jobs. It may take a moment to republish your site. To check on the status, go to Actions. Here you can view if the job is still in progress. Additional Information The GitHub Pages documentation can provide you with information about other ways to customize your site, as well as troubleshooting information. This OER was funded by the VILLA: Working in the Open Virtual Information Literacy Library Atelier sponsored by Iwasaki Library at Emerson College, held May 11-19, 2023.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.526372	09/03/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108162/overview", "title": "Making a Website Using GitHub Pages", "author": "Alyn Gamble" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118465/overview	Introduction to Social Skills and Networking and its Importance for Freshman Success Overview This video introduces freshmen to the importance of social skills and networking in both personal and professional contexts. It explains how good social skills, such as active listening and empathy, can help build meaningful relationships and a supportive community. Additionally, it highlights how networking can connect students with mentors, internships, and professional opportunities, setting the foundation for career growth and success. The video encourages students to practice and develop these skills, emphasizing their long-term benefits for a successful college experience. MOOC: Student Success for College Freshman; Module 7: Social Skills and Networking	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.542902	Pooja Potdar	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/118465/overview", "title": "Introduction to Social Skills and Networking and its Importance for Freshman Success", "author": "Student Guide" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113268/overview	The Weimar Republic Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 13, Lesson 2 A discussion of the Weimar Republic, a weak, unpopular regime in Germany during the 1920s, that faced numerous challenges including hyperinflation, political instability, and the rise of the Nazi Party. Despite its flaws and ultimate demise, this era also witnessed a flourishing of German artistic and cultural expression. Given the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859- 1941) at the war’s end, a new government came to power in Germany. Nicknamed after its capital city, the “Weimar Republic” remained a weak, unpopular regime throughout the 1920s. For instance, in 1922, the Weimar government attempted diplomatically to reintegrate into the rest of Europe. Like Germany, the USSR lost millions of soldiers in the Great War and was not afforded a voice at the Paris Peace Conference. In 1922, Weimar and Soviet diplomats signed the Treaty of Rapallo, by which Germany took steps to diplomatically recognize the Soviet Union in return for the USSR foregoing any territorial and reparation claims against their former enemy. At the urging of Foreign Minister Gustave Stresemann (1878-1929), the Weimar government signed the Treaty of Locarno with Belgium, Britain, France and Italy in 1925. By accepting the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to France and promising to submit any future border disputes regarding Poland and Czechoslovakia to international arbitration, Germany secured admission to the League of Nations in 1926. Two years later, Germany signed the well-intentioned but ultimately naive and unenforceable Kellogg-Briand Pact that promoted diplomacy and negotiation rather than war as the primary means of settling disputes between nations. Despite these encouraging steps, many Germans blamed Britain, France and Weimar officials for their problems. Many right-wing political leaders argued that the German war effort in World War I had been “stabbed in the back” by socialists, Jews and leftists in general. In March 1920, American-born conservative politician Wolfgang Kapp (1858-1922), World War I veteran Hermann Ehrhardt (1881-1971), and their Freikorps (militia) followers seized control of the German government. Only a general strike by German socialists kept the coup from succeeding. Freikorps forces retaliated by assassinating almost 400 progressive political leaders. Matters came to a head in November 1922 when the Weimar government defaulted on a reparation payment. French and Belgium troops responded by occupying the valuable industrial Ruhr Valley in the Rhineland. Germans countered with a passive resistance campaign, refusing to work or do business with the occupying troops. Weimar officials also inflated Germany’s currency to rob the French government of any profits from the Ruhr. In January 1921, an American dollar was worth 120 German marks. A year later, a U.S. dollar was theoretically worth 4,200,000,000,000 marks. Although this hyperinflation significantly hurt the French economy, it also wiped out the savings and pensions of millions of working-class Germans. Seizing upon the desperation felt by many ordinary Germans, Adolph Hitler (1889-1945), the charismatic leader of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (known popularly as the Nazi Party), launched another coup to overthrow the Weimar regime. Started in a tavern in the conservative-leaning city of Munich, Bavaria, the “Beer Hall Putsch” failed to attract widespread public support. Authorities arrested Hitler, who served an eight-year jail sentence during which he wrote his best-selling Mein Kampf (My Struggle). In late 1923, the Allied Reparation Commission formed a subcommittee headed by U.S. banker Charles G. Dawes (1865-1951) to address the issue of German war reparations. In April 1924, the committee offered its proposal, known as the “Dawes Plan.” The scheme reduced Germany’s annual reparation payments until the nation’s economy recovered from hyperinflation. The German government would replace its inflated Papiermark with a new form of currency called the Reichsmark, pegged to real estate rather than specie. As a sign of good faith, France and Belgium would withdraw their troops from the Ruhr Valley. U.S. banks would loan Germany $200 million to rebuild its economy and make reparation payments to Britain and France, who would then use such funds to repay American loans incurred during World War I. For his efforts, Dawes would become U.S. Vice-President and win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925. So long as U.S. loans could guarantee German reparation payments, the Dawes system functioned. However, a stock market crash in October 1929 and a subsequent depression, known as the Great Depression, abruptly ended the conspicuous consumption which had defined the 1920s. Between 1929-1932, the world’s GDP fell by 15%. Savings and pensions were wiped out, unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25%, and prices for farm goods fell by nearly 70%. Under these circumstances, American banks lacked the capital to loan money to Germany. European and American leaders floated different proposals to cancel Germany’s reparation payments (and British and French loans to the United States) but failed to reach a solution. Ironically, the political instability of the 1920s triggered a period of tremendous German artistic and cultural expression. Walter Gropius (1883-1969) pioneered international or rational architecture, which drew from modernism to reflect the values of a young, urban generation of Germans. Rejecting traditional European architecture’s gilded and ornamental style, Gropius created giant skyscrapers composed of glass and steel, such as the Fagus building in Alfeld and the Haus am Horn in Weimar. Expressionist painters, including Max Beckmann (1884-1950), Otto Dix (1891-1969), and George Grosz (1893-1959), led the Neue Sachlichkeit (new objectivity) movement. As World War I veterans, they produced art that reflected the brutality and inhumanity of war. Beckman’s The Night (1919) portrayed three men invading a family home, hanging a father, raping a mother, and kidnapping a child. Dix’s Sex Murder (1922) conveyed a woman who had been raped and murdered. In 1928, Composer Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) created Die Dreigroschenoper (The Threepenny Opera), a satire in which the crime lord Macheath escapes the gallows and is made a Baron by Queen Victoria. Robert Wiene’s (1873-1938) movie Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari (The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari) used surreal landscapes and multiple camera angles to replicate feelings of isolation and madness. Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927) likewise represented a groundbreaking science fiction film that questioned whether human beings would merge with technology in an increasingly mechanized future. The Great Depression brought about immediate consequences for Germany. By 1932, the German government defaulted on its loan payments to American investors, struggled to address the needs of 6 million unemployed workers, faced an industrial decline of 50%, and suffered the loss of two-thirds of its foreign trade. The aging World War I war hero turned German President Paul Hindenburg (1847-1934) used his emergency executive powers to appoint moderate Heinrich Brüning (1885-1970) as Chancellor. However, Brüning’s austerity policies proved deeply unpopular with German voters. From 1930-1932, the rightwing Nazis and leftwing Socialists made massive political gains in the Reichstag. In particular, by 1932, the Nazis could boast a membership of close to 1,400,000 and appeared to be on the verge of taking over the government. For an individual who would cause the death of millions, Adolph Hitler came from an unremarkable background. Born to a single mother, Hitler was raised in Braunau am Inn in Austro-Hungary, near the German border. After his mother died of cancer, Hitler became a homeless watercolor artist living on the streets of Vienna. In 1914, he volunteered for service in the German army, serving as a dispatch runner. While recovering from a mustard gas attack, Hitler learned of Germany’s surrender. Devastated, Hitler believed that Jews and subversives had undermined the German war effort from within. He became a member of the German Worker’s Party in 1919. A master orator, Hitler soon became a rising star in the organization. When the party rebranded itself the National Socialist Workers Democratic Party (or Nazi Party for short), Hitler designed its swastika insignia. In 1921, Hitler became the undisputed leader of the Nazi Party. Two years later, Hitler and his followers attempted a military coup to take over the German government. Referred to as the “Beer Hall Putsch” because it began in a Munich beer hall, Hitler’s movement failed, and he received a five-year prison sentence. Realizing that he could achieve his goals through mass party mobilization rather than a coup, Hitler, after being released from prison, began working toward gaining control of the German government. By the 1920s, the inability of the Weimar government to address the problems of war reparations and inflation caused the regime to become very unpopular in the eyes of the German public. Hitler agitated for overturning the Treaty of Versailles and making Germany great again. Before the Weimar Republic came into being, Germany was controlled by authoritarian rulers. After the surrender in World War I, a new constitution was written, which established a democratic government, which had a president, chosen by the German people, who appointed a chancellor and cabinet ministers. As hyperinflation set in following the outbreak of the Great Depression, many Germans lost their pensions. The death of Chancellor Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) further weakened the Weimar government. The German economy also relied heavily on U.S. loans, and when the Great Depression hit, Washington discontinued the program. The downfall of the German economy in 1930-1931, eventually paved the way for the ascent of the Nazis to political power. Unemployment rose from 2.25 million in early 1930 to 6 million and beyond in 1932. It significantly affected the governing coalition of Social Democrats and moderate conservatives, which collapsed leading to new elections. Those on the right (the Nazis) and the left (Communists) gained followers and with that, seats in the Reichstag. In 1930, the Nazis won 107 seats (they had held only 12 after the previous election). As the economy became more and more unstable, Hitler promised that the Nazi Party would combat unemployment and provide aid to farmers. In the next national election, the Nazi Party won 14.5 million out of 35 million votes, making it the largest party in the government. Hitler continued to agitate for reform and was eventually appointed chancellor by President Paul Hindenburg (1847-1934) on January 30, 1933. Within eight weeks, Hitler created a dictatorship. He proclaimed his office to be the true source of executive, legislative and judicial power, eliminated competing political groups, and stirred up the masses against the biggest and most dangerous enemies of the Nazis: the communists. The National Socialists also gained momentum in the German Reichstag due to the disagreement among left- wing forces. The Social Democrats refused to work with the Communist Party because of their radical views. In March 1932, Ernst Thälman (1886-1944) ran for the German presidency against the Social Democrat Hindenburg and Hitler. The famous slogan of the KPD was “A vote for Hindenburg is a vote for Hitler. A vote for Hitler is a vote for war.” After Thälman lost the election, he tried to persuade the leaders of the SPD to organize a general strike to prevent the National Socialists from taking power. Having been refused, Thälman pushed for the overthrow of Hitler’s government. In late February 1933, the Reichstag building caught fire. Claiming that the state was in danger, Hitler persuaded President Hindenburg to grant him emergency powers. The Nazis accused the Communist Party of setting the fire. This gave them an excuse to arrest and silence critical left-wing opponents. Thälman was arrested on March 3, 1933, and spent 11 years in solitary confinement. In August 1944, he was sent to Buchenwald concentration camp. The same month, Hitler ordered that he be killed. On March 5, 1933, the Nazis won 43.9% of the votes in the Reichstag. Using the near majority, Hitler passed the Enabling Act, granting him and his government the power to rule by decree. To solidify his power, Hitler banned the Communist Party and arrested its leaders so they could no longer vote against him. Within a month, Hitler transformed the German government from a democracy to an authoritarian dictatorship. In April 1933, new laws were passed to remove opposition party members from all government departments. In May 1933, all trade unions were banned and reorganized into a Nazi- controlled organization, the German Labor Front or DAF (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). The Social Democratic Party was outlawed as well. By July 1933, all political parties except the Nazis were banned, as Germany became a one-party dictatorship.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.563634	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113268/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Interwar Years and the Rise of Fascism, The Weimar Republic", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113316/overview	Egypt and the Middle East Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 6 A discussion of how, after WWII, the US became increasingly involved in Middle Eastern affairs, particularly concerning Iran, Egypt, and Israel. The US intervened in Iran to prevent potential Soviet influence, supported the creation of Israel, and became involved in various Arab-Israeli conflicts, aiming to maintain stability and limit Soviet presence in the region. Adapted from https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-2/pages/1-introduction and Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA Before World War II, the United States had demonstrated relatively little concern for the Middle East, which fell largely under British control. Following the war, however, problems in the region, some of which stemmed from British policies and actions, threatened to move Arab and Iranian leaders closer to the Soviet Union. This possibility alarmed the United States and led to attempts to forge relationships with Middle Eastern governments. The nations that proved of greatest interest were Iran, Egypt, and the newly formed state of Israel. Iran Iran first became a place of concern to the United States immediately following World War II, when the Soviet Union proved reluctant to end its occupation of the country. Following the war, the United Kingdom had resumed its activities in the region, which largely consisted of drilling for oil. In 1951, Mohammad Mossadegh, an Iranian nationalist, became the country’s prime minister and moved to nationalize the oil fields belonging to British companies. This action led to protests by the United Kingdom and by pro-Western Iranian elites who supported British interests. In 1952, Iran’s monarch, the pro-Western shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, removed Mossadegh from power. He was forced to reinstate him, however, following massive popular protests. Mossadegh’s actions convinced both the United Kingdom and the United States that he favored communism and might ally Iran with the Soviet Union, with which it shared a border. Although it is unlikely he intended to make Iran a satellite state of the Soviet Union, British arguments that this was the case convinced the United States to take action. In August 1953, a coup plotted by the CIA and Iran’s military, which supported the Shah, removed Mossadegh from power again. He was arrested and imprisoned. Israel and Palestine British actions laid the groundwork for another conflict in the Middle East following World War II. In 1917, Britain’s foreign secretary Arthur James Balfour had declared that Britain would support the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Throughout the 1930s, Jewish people from Europe had streamed to the region, and as their numbers increased, so did violence between them and Arabs, who demanded an end to Jewish immigration and the creation of an independent Arab state. Following the end of World War II, as Jewish survivors of the Holocaust sought refuge in Palestine, the British government requested that the United Nations resolve the issue. In 1947, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine visited the region and recommended that it be divided into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The city of Jerusalem, sacred to both groups, was to be placed under an “international trusteeship.” In November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted the committee’s suggestion with the passage of Resolution 181. The UN resolution led to civil war in Palestine. The British withdrew from the region in May, leaving Jewish people and Palestinian Arabs, assisted by Arabs from elsewhere in the Middle East who had organized themselves as the Arab Liberation Army, to battle it out. About 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled Jewish-controlled areas. On May 14, 1948, as the last British forces left the region, David Ben-Gurion, the leader of the Jewish settlement in Palestine, announced the founding of the nation of Israel. Both the United States and the Soviet Union officially recognized the new state. Israel’s Arab neighbors did not, and they proclaimed that Arabs within Israel had a right to self-determination. On the evening of May 14, an air attack on the Israeli city of Tel-Aviv began, and the next day forces from Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Transjordan (now called Jordan) invaded the country. The First Arab-Israeli War lasted ten months, with Israel emerging victorious in March 1949. Not only had it defended its existence, but it had also gained control of much of the territory the 1947 UN committee had recommended reserving for Arab settlement. Hundreds of thousands of Arabs left Palestine—now part of Israel—for neighboring countries. Egypt The better-armed Arab nations’ loss to Israel came as a shock to many in the Arab world. In Egypt, the Free Officers Movement, a group of mostly junior officers from middle-class backgrounds, criticized their government for its failure. One officer, Gamal Abdel Nasser, blamed the defeat on government corruption and quickly rose to prominence. Like others in the movement, Nasser was a nationalist who wished to end the United Kingdom’s influence over its former protectorate of Egypt. On July 23, 1952, he led a group of army officers in a coup that deposed Egypt’s luxury-loving King Farouk and assumed control of the nation. Among Farouk’s flaws had been his reliance on an informal cabinet composed largely of non-Egyptians, one of whom had sold defective rifles to the Egyptian military during the war with Israel. Although they were not the reason for Egypt’s loss, they became a symbol of the weak, corrupt nature of Farouk’s government. The rebellious officers instituted a constitution that made Egypt a secular state and embarked on a program of land reform. Egypt’s new leaders also acted to end British influence in their nation; in separate agreements, the United Kingdom agreed to give up its rule in Sudan and evacuate its forces from the Suez Canal zone by 1956, years before required by an existing treaty. On July 26, 1956, Nasser, who had been elected president of Egypt the month before, nationalized the Suez Canal and immediately closed it to Israeli shipping. On October 29, Israel invaded Egypt, and on November 5, Britain and France did as well, touching off the Suez Crisis. The United Nations passed a resolution calling for a cease-fire, and both the United States and the Soviet Union demanded an immediate end to the invasion. The Soviet Union threatened to send troops to Egypt and to attack London. U.S. president Dwight Eisenhower, anxious not to give the Soviets an excuse to intervene, threatened to impose economic sanctions on France, Israel, and the United Kingdom if they did not comply. All three withdrew, but Israel did so with the guarantee that it would be allowed to use the Straits of Tiran to send shipping through the canal. A UN peacekeeping force was left in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula to guard the border with Israel. The Suez Crisis changed the U.S. role in the Middle East. After having had little involvement in the area, the United States now realized that Soviet involvement there was possible. Wishing to prevent this, in 1957 Eisenhower proclaimed the Eisenhower Doctrine, by which the United States would use its military strength to defend Middle Eastern governments in danger of being overthrown by the forces of “International Communism.” The United States also extended financial and military aid to the governments of friendly countries such as Lebanon. Although relative peace had returned to the region following the end of the Suez Crisis, also called the Second Arab-Israeli War, Palestinian guerrillas continued to strike at Israel from bases in Egypt and Syria. Often their targets were civilians, and tensions remained high. In April 1967, following air battles between Israeli and Syrian pilots, Egypt, under the false belief that Israel was preparing to invade Syria, removed the UN peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and amassed troops there. On May 22, Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, which Israel considered an act of war. On June 5, Israel began the Third Arab-Israeli War by launching a preemptive strike on Egypt, invading the country by land at the same time that it destroyed virtually the entire Egyptian air force. Attempted attacks by Jordan and Syria were fended off, and Israel seized territory from these nations as well as from Egypt. The fighting ended nearly as soon as it had begun, earning the conflict the title of the Six-Day War. Israel had gained control of the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank (of the Jordan River) from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria, greatly enhancing the size of its territory. The Israeli victory in 1967 did not end the conflict, and air attacks, shelling, and guerrilla fighting between Egypt and Israel continued for several years. Following Nasser’s death in 1970, the new president, Anwar Sadat, wished to put a decisive end to the conflict while also reversing the territorial losses suffered by the Arab states in 1967. Although Nasser had moved Egypt more deeply into the Soviet camp over the years, in 1972 Sadat expelled the Soviet advisers. He also began talks with the United States, Israel’s chief ally, with the intent of resolving Arab-Israeli hostilities for good. However, Sadat did not want peace to be made until Egypt had regained control of the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip. On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria, which sought the return of the Golan Heights, launched a surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish religious calendar, when many Israeli soldiers were off duty. The three-week Yom Kippur War once again led to an Israeli victory. A cease-fire imposed by the United Nations began on October 25. Israel had not lost any of the conquered territory. In subsequent years Sadat was forced to engage in more peaceful efforts to seek the return of Egyptian lands which culminated in the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in which Israel traded the Sinai to Egypt for peace. This, in turn, led to Egypt’s estrangement from most other Arab countries and Sadat’s assassination several years later.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.585825	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113316/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, Egypt and the Middle East", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92373/overview	Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Starter Kit Overview This Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit is designed to support educators and librarians begin their OER journey of identifying, evaluating, curating, and authoring/remixing. Getting Started with OER Information Open Educational Resources (OER) refer to any teaching and learning materials that reside in the public domain or have been released under a license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation, and redistribution. Open Educational Practices (OEP) refer to collaborative teaching and learning practices that help educators to advance a culture of sharing and active learning through OER, including: - Collaboration: connect with educators with diverse expertise, brainstorm innovative ideas, contribute resources and best practices, get and give feedback, reflect and share our successes and challenges with our global community. - Curation: identify, evaluate, organize, and share resources that meet our learning objectives. - Design: create high-quality instructional materials by utilizing supports, like authoring templates and planning tools. Think deeply about how we design resources to meet the unique needs of our learners. Reflect and refine resources for continuous improvement. - Leadership: present, train, and share with others to build awareness and advocacy. Practice Which Open Educational Practices are you interested in advancing in your work? Get started with Open Educational Resources and Practices by: - Registering & creating an OER Commons profile. - Joining the Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Best Practices Group. - Exploring group resource folders and join one or more that best matches your subject matter expertise. - Adding discussion posts and resouces to the group you join. - Loading original content using our loading template. Need help registering? Please read the help articles here. How to Create an Account. Identify OER Information Before searching for resources to use in your work, what considerations do you make? - Are there any specific content gap areas in my existing courses? For example, I might have an urgent need for math modeling or STEM literacy resources. - Are there new types of digital materials that I would like to integrate into my existing courses? For example, I might want to offer my students more opportunities to use interactive games and simulations. - Are there innovative teaching and learning strategies that I would like to incorporate into my instructional plan? For example, I might desire to try some kinesthetic learning or guided inquiry activities. - Are there current events and news topic areas that I need resources for? For example, I might be interested in finding the latest resources on climate change or refugees. Practice Type keyword(s) into the Search Bar or use Advanced Search to identify additional search criteria, such as material type, educational level, and more. Once you get your search results, you can further filter them. You can also browse resource collections, groups, and hubs, such as the Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Hub with continuous learning collections for different content areas/practices and audiences, working groups for content areas and specific projects, and more. Share a link to a resource you identified, what you like about it, and how you plan to use it by replying to discussions in subject matter groups. Need help searching? Read the help articles here: How to use Search, Advanced Search, and Filter Evaluate OER Information What makes a resource high-quality? What do you specifically look for in a resource to use in your work? Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Explore the different Evaluation Tools below: - Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Standards - Achieve OER Rubric - Open Textbook Library Review Criteria - Curriculum Review Rubric - Tool for Identifying Bias in Sources - Washington’s Screening for Bias in Instructional Materials Practice Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Share your best practices by posting to the best practices Group Discussion. Curate OER Information Share an example of something you have curated. There are many ways that we thoughtfully collect and organize things that are important to us. Our homes are representations of how we curate collectables, art, books, plants, etc. We also curate articles and photos using social media like twitter, instagram, facebook, and pinterest. 1. What considerations do you make when curating resources to use in your work? Here are some curation considerations from OER Commons' digital librarians: - User-Centered Design: The first step our digital librarians take in curation is to research their intended audience. Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards. What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? - Identify and Select Resources: Next digital librarians select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the OER Commons curation criteria of having open licensing, being up to date and relevant, and high-quality. - Describe and Organize of Resources: Digital librarians put a lot of consideration into how they describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience. They add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search. They create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections. - Share and Promote Resources: Digital Librarians utilize collaborative spaces, like Hubs and Groups to share resources. They also use social media tools, like the twitter; newsletter mailings; and in person and virtual presentations and trainings to promote their collections with a larger audience. 2. Brainstorm your curation plans User-centered Design: Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards? What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? Identify and Select Resources: Select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the your evaluation criteria shared last week Describe and Organize of Resources: How will you describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience? Such as add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search and create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections Share and Promote Resources: What methods will you use to promote your curated resources? Such as social media, blogs, newsletters, listervs, websites, presentations and trainings Practice Submit an open educational resource to share in the OER Commons library: Click Submit a Resource in one of our groups and add the link and descriptive information. If you are sharing original content, use our loading template. Create folders / subfolders and save resources you want to use and share: In group resourses click on New and add the title of the folder. To save resources, click Save on the resource and select the folder you wish to save it to. For inspiration, check out this example of a group curating language learning resources for the Pathways Project at Boise State University. Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate directly on the resource by clicking Add New Tag. OER Authoring & Remixing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.608732	Megan Crossfield	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92373/overview", "title": "Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona Starter Kit", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113248/overview	Introduction and Scientific Racism Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 11, Lesson 1 A discussion of scientific racism, its origins, and how it was used to justify colonialism and imperialism. It explores the role of thinkers such as Linnaeus, Darwin, and Spencer in promoting these ideas, and the devastating consequences of their application, including eugenics and the Holocaust. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, European nations began a massive wave of expansion. Armed with modern technology such as muzzle and breach loading rifles, cannons and artillery, steamboats and railroads, and modern methods of bureaucracy and medical care, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium began to acquire colonies in Africa, Asia and Oceania. European nations justified their imperial expansion with claims of spreading modernity, civilization, and Christianity, but these rationales often concealed their primary motivations of acquiring raw resources, expanding political influence, and securing strategic advantages. Although colonialism did raise the standards of living for some conquered peoples who worked in the military or civil service of various colonial regimes, for most Africans and Asians colonialism offered little improvement and further separated them from the systems of power while denying them the ability to govern their lives as they wished. This chapter examines the rise of imperialism throughout the world and the response of indigenous peoples to this challenge. Scientific Racism Popular from the late 18th through the early 20th centuries, scientific racism used discredited theories to assert that certain groups or “races” of people were biologically and culturally superior to others. In the mid-1700s, Enlightenment thinkers argued that human beings were primarily rational and capable of using science and education to improve their lives and the well-being of their societies. This desire to “rationalize” the world was exported as European Empires covered the globe. In 1735, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) published his magnum opus Systema Naturae, which categorized by species over 10,000 plants and animals. Although describing humans as a species of primate originating in Africa, Linnaeus classified homo sapiens into four varieties—European, African, Asian and American Indian. He depicted white Europeans, such as himself, the most biologically and socially advanced group of humans. Although Linnaeus’s work influenced philosophers like Jean Jacques Rousseau, it also helped imperialists justify the exploitation of non-white peoples. Other intellectuals picked up on Linnaeus’s work with devastating results. In the 1850s, Catholic Monk Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) conducted experiments with peas at the monastery of St. Thomas in Moravia. Mendel selectively bred pea plants, noting that parents passed distinctive traits such as pod length, seed shape and flower color to their offspring. He accordingly calculated the laws of inheritance, including the concepts of dominant and recessive traits. Mendel’s work on inheritance, although foundational to the field of genetics, was later co-opted by those promoting eugenic policies in the early 20th century. Mendel's work paralleled that of British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) who, in his seminal work On the Origin of Species (1859), argued that through the process of “natural selection,” different species which compete with one another pass down to their descendants’ random mutations such as longer legs to run faster or camouflaged fur to hide better. In time, these individuals survived longer and had more children, creating entirely new species that would compete with the old species for resources. Thus, competition could lead to the extinction of the old species a process which Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) dubbed “survival of the fittest.” In the 1880s, Spencer pioneered “Scientific Darwinism,” the belief that in the brutal world of international relations, some cultures, such as white European nations, were more adaptable and thus more deserving of survival than others. Spencer used his ideas to support not only imperialism and colonialism but also the idea of laissez-faire capitalism. He believed that the cutthroat business world of the late 1800s mirrored the natural world. Therefore, nations or empires that prospered at the expense of their weaker neighbors were merely following the “law of the jungle.” Scientific Darwinism influenced businesspeople like Andrew Carnegie (1835- 1919), writers like Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936), and even politicians like Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919). Spotlight On \| PHRENOLOGY In the early 1800s, German doctor Franz Joseph Gall developed the field of phrenology, the belief that the size and shape of the human cranium determined the mental capacity of different ethnicities. Throughout the 19th century, phrenologists like Charlotte Fowler Wells (1814-1901) with her husband, two brothers, and sister-in-law, toured the United States and Europe. Phrenologists were active in popular science texts and helped to create their own professional journals that popularized their “findings.” The “science” of phrenology and the journals that published their work attempted to provide justification for the enslavement of African Americans and the dispossession and control over Native Americans and their land based on the size and shape of human craniums. Phrenologists often intentionally selected the skulls of children or smaller-than-average individuals to artificially buttress their claims. In 1883, Charles Darwin’s cousin Francis Galton (1822- 1911) coined the term “eugenics.” This represented the belief that humanity could be improved through selective breeding. American zoologist Charles Davenport (1866- 1944) founded the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations in 1925, which sought to maintain white racial purity by warning against “intermingling” with other non-white groups. Davenport helped influence the creation of strict immigration laws which favored white asylum seekers from European countries over individuals of African, Asian or Latin American descent. Even progressive social workers like Margaret Sanger (1879-1966) argued that those unable to afford children should use contraceptives or agree to sterilization so as not to create a drain on charitable and social services. In the 1920s and 1930s, fascists like Adolph Hitler (1889-1945) and his followers used scientific racism to justify his Lebensraum policy. In Nazi ideology, the biologically and culturally superior Aryan Germans had a natural right to dispossess and murder millions of Jews, Slavs and other “undesirables” to build a greater Germany across Europe. Although the uncovering of the Holocaust in the later stages of World War II discredited scientific racism throughout the world, the concept continued to exist in reduced forms down to the present.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.628045	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113248/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Second Wave of Imperialism 1700-1900, Introduction and Scientific Racism", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69685/overview	Complete Lecture Slides for OpenStax Astronomy (1e) Overview This resource describes the full set of lecture slides available in this linked Google Drive folder. The slides are based on OpenStax Astronomy and are designed for a 14-week course. Lecture Videos that use these slides will be available as a separate posted resource. Lecture Slides for OpenStax Astronomy (L. Woolsey, CC BY-SA 4.0) I have created a comprehensive set of slides designed for a one-semester non-majors introductory astronomy college course. The material is broken up into seven modules, which are designed to take two weeks each during a regular semester or one week each for accelerated course structures. All of the written content is mine, and I want to make it available to anyone who wants to use it. All of the images in the slides are openly licensed as well, pulling heavily from OpenStax Astronomy but also the wider web of Creative Commons media. This link is a Google Drive folder, which contains the seven modules as: - separate Google Slides files (which you would then copy to use in Google Slides or download as a different file format to work with Powerpoint, Open Office, etc. - PDFs already put together in three formats: - "Slides" which has one slide per page and could be used in lecture or for students to follow along on their own devices. All links are clickable in the PDF. - "Condensed" which is a three by three landscape grid of slides most suitable for efficient printing for students who want to be able to easily reference the full set. - "Notes" which is a portrait orientation with three slides in a column on the left and empty area to take notes on the right; students often use these to take notes during lecture whether on-campus or online. If you have difficulty accessing the material, please contact me directly at laurenwoolsey@grcc.edu. If you use these slides, please credit me (Dr. Lauren Woolsey) and my home institution (Grand Rapids Community College). You are welcome to take the slides and pick and choose what to add into your existing lectures, but please remember to include the attribution appropriately. Finally, there is a full set of recorded lecture videos that I have made with these slides and put on YouTube, I will post them as a separate OER Commons resource. Please note: as of August 2024, I have made a second edition set of videos, slides, and notes available on OER Commons.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.644561	07/15/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69685/overview", "title": "Complete Lecture Slides for OpenStax Astronomy (1e)", "author": "Lauren Woolsey" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107512/overview	2.2.2 Knowedge Check (with solutions) Engage stakeholders. Overview This learning module (Lesson 2 of Unit 2) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on external management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. Stakeholders are anyone who has an interest (or "stake") in your project. Project managers can gain stakeholder buy-in and commitment to the project's success by actively involving them and considering their needs and expectations. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - List various types of stakeholders. - Create stakeholder grid. - Develop stakeholder engagement plan. What is stakeholder management? \| 5-10 minute read Porf. Christianson considers his Project Management Fundamentals textbook a work-in-progress (version 0.5). It is available at OER Commons as PDF download. He also provides a nice companion student workbook also available as a PDF download. For each chapter, the workbook provides a skeletal outline and knowledge checks (with answer keys). In many chapters, there are exercises and examples. It may be provided to students as a whole workbook or subsections may be provided with each chapter. Read section 3 of chapter 2 (Project Management Roles) of Christianson's Project Management Fundamentals text (PDF resource attached). FYI: J. Scott Christianson is a professor at the University of Missouri and has an interesting website about technology (from AI to blockchain to crypto and everything in between). What is stakeholder analysis? \| 3 minute watch Test your knowledge. - Stakeholders can be placed in one of four quadrants on a typical stakeholder grid based upon their level of power/influence and level of interest. In which quadrant do you need to only keep the stakeholders informed? - Upper left - Upper right - Lower right - Lower left 2. T/F: A stakeholder is anyone who is interested in or can influence a project. - True - False 3. Which of the following is NOT an external stakeholder? - Government - Shareholders - Trade associations - Sub-contractors 4. T/F: In addition to plotting all of a project's stakeholders on a grid/register, you should also determine whether they support or oppose the project. - True - False	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.669254	08/07/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107512/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, External Management, Engage stakeholders.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107713/overview	Manage quality. Overview This learning module (Lesson 3 of Unit 4) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on scope management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. Projects need to be executed efficiently and effectively. By planning and monitoring quality, a project manager ensures the customer or end user (or sponsor) gets what they expect. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Define quality and basic principles of its management. - Describe the seven basic quality tools. - Conduct audits and monitor quality. What is quality? \| 1 minute read Quality is the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a product, service, or result fulfills the requirements. Quality includes the ability to satisfy the customer's stated or implied needs. The product, service, or result of a project (referred to here as deliverables) is measured for the quality of both the conformance to accepted criteria and fitness for use. How is quality integrated into project management? \| 2 minute read Read this article on recently developed Project Management principles by Plaky (2023). What elements of quality need managing? \| 5 minute read What are the 7 quality tools for project management \| 4 minute watch How do you monitor quality? \| 8 minute watch Test your knowledge. - T/F: Quality is the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a product, service, or result fulfills the requirements. - True - False - Which of the following identifies the four main components of a quality management process? - Planning, assurance, control, continuous improvement - Planning, doing, checking, recording - Estimating, analyzing, evaluating, ensuring - Analyzing, assuring, recording, closing - Planning, executing, monitoring, closing - T/F: A quality deliverable satisfies customers or stakeholders needs. - True - False - Which of the following is NOT one of the typical criteria for determining quality? - Color - Conformity - Efficiency - Reliability - Sustainability - Uniformity	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.695407	08/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107713/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, Scope Management, Manage quality.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112379/overview	Europe Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 1, Lesson 1 World before the Age of Discovery A discussion of the prelude to the Age of Discovery highlights the economic and intellectual factors that spurred European land expeditions across Eurasia. These expeditions, coupled with the decline of the Mongol Empire and the rise of the Ottomans, set the stage for maritime exploration and the subsequent Columbian Exchange. Europe Prelude to the Age of Discovery adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA The prelude to the Age of Discovery was a series of European land expeditions across Eurasia in the late Middle Ages. These expeditions occurred within the context of late medieval European economic development and growth, along with a budding sense of curiosity about the world fostered by new universities. At the end of the eleventh century the initiation of the Crusades exposed Europeans to new opportunities for trade from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean across Asia, particularly merchants from the Italian city-states. A series of European expeditions crossing Eurasia by land in the late Middle Ages also marked the prelude to the Age of Discovery. Although the Mongols had threatened Europe with pillage and destruction, Mongol states unified much of Eurasia and allowed safe trade routes, including the revitalized Silk Road, and communication lines stretching from the Middle East to China by 1206. A series of Europeans took advantage of these in order to explore eastward. Most were Italians, as trade between Europe and the Middle East was controlled mainly by the Maritime republics. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, dictated an account of journeys throughout Asia from 1271 to 1295. His travels are recorded in Book of the Marvels of the World, (also known as The Travels of Marco Polo, c. 1300), a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China, but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. The book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travelers. Europe As the world approached the 1500s, old institutions and polities gave way to new structures. The decline of the Mongol Empire, which had controlled much of Eurasia for centuries, and the rise of the Islamic Ottoman Empire changed the course of human history. The newly dominant Ottomans began disrupting trade, especially the lucrative spice routes to Asia. In response, Europeans increasingly turned to maritime exploration to find new routes to Asia. In 1492, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean, initiating a five-century interchange between the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe. This “Columbian Exchange” circulated people, diseases, plants, goods and ideas throughout the world. Europe in 1500 was comprised of numerous highly competitive states, many of which still exist today (although their borders and compositions have altered with time). European political and religious leaders during this period sought not merely to expand their kingdoms but to solidify power within their borders. A hierarchical society for most European polities, the monarch was the most powerful person in the realm. The monarch ruled over a class of nobles, people who acted as not only extensions of a monarch’s power but also a check upon it. Nobles and monarchs were special people who had their own rules, had the right to wear certain clothes, and owned most of the land and wealth. Most nobles were expected to serve the monarch, including providing military service when required. Below the nobility were a class of merchants, traders, artisans and craftsmen, some of which could be rather wealthy. Peasants who worked the land of nobles formed the lowest rung of the European social order. Regardless of whether they were sharecroppers who shared their produce with local nobles or serfs tied directly to the land, peasants had little to no freedom of movement. Feudal Society in Medieval Europe The chronic instability of Europe’s stratified and hierarchical social classes often fostered disunity, violence and even rebellion. Monarchs struggled against their nobility for control over the levers of power. One of the most successful in this regard would be the long-ruling self-proclaimed Sun King Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) of France, who successfully controlled and managed his nobility. In contrast, in the 15th century, a bloody conflict between two houses of the Plantagenet dynasty (the Lancastrians and Yorks) turned into a civil war that tore England apart. The civil war would last until 1485 when Henry Tudor (r. 1485-1509), a scion of the House of Lancastrian, won the throne of England at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Early modern monarchs struggled to control not just the minds and bodies but also the souls of their subjects. For most Europeans, the “Church” referred to the Catholic Church seated in Rome. A pillar of European society, the Church’s wealth, power and influence often rivaled that of the monarchs and emperors. For centuries, monarchs attempted to gain religious autonomy from Rome and to find ways to divert religious taxes into their own coffers. Following a split from the Catholic Church in 1054, the Eastern Orthodox Church became the dominant religion, not merely in Central Europe but also parts of Africa and the Middle East. Intense competition on the continent inspired European monarchs to look outside their borders and the known world for ways to tap into the riches of Africa and Asia. The combination of new maritime technologies and a desire to find new trade routes led to a period of naval expansion, which would change the world not only for Europeans but also for the people they encountered.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.713332	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112379/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The World in 1500, Europe", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60663/overview	Mindful Breathing Overview This handout was created for a Write Night when the student health center couldn't make it and we wanted some mindfulness resources. It includes three different techniques I learned in group therapy as a grad student. Mindful Breathing Exercises Exercise 1: The Balloon Exercise Imagine that you have a balloon in your stomach. Breathe in to fill the balloon. Breathe out to let it deflate. If you find your thoughts wandering, refocus on the image of the balloon. Exercise 2: 7/8/11 Breathing Breathe in for 7 seconds. Hold your breath for 8 seconds. Breathe out slowly, so that it takes you 11 seconds to fully exhale. Repeat this cycle two or three times. Exercise 3: Four-Square Breathing Breathe in for 4 seconds. Hold your breath for 4 seconds. Breathe out for 4 seconds. Wait 4 seconds before breathing in again. Repeat for several cycles.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.731598	12/12/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60663/overview", "title": "Mindful Breathing", "author": "Sophie Forrester" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101752/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact. Link to my OER item https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101746/overview?section=2	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.748067	03/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101752/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "John Hansen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82875/overview	How to be Critical when Reflecting on Your Teaching - UCD - CTAG OER_Pedagogy of Hope Conscientization Guide Section 1 Activity 1_ Identity Charts Protocol Final SEL Integration Approach SEL Integration Approach SEL-Integration-Approach-Teacher-Self-Check-Tool_vF2 SEL-Integration-Approach-Teacher-Self-Check-Tool_vF2 six elements of a pedagogy of hope Some Critical Thinking on Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy and Its Educational Implications The Whole Teacher: Practicing Self Care A Pedagogy of Hope Overview This course has been created by Tiffany D. Pogue with support from Branch Alliance for Educator Diversity to provide an introduction to learners on A Pedagogy of Hope (PoH). By the end of the course's completion, learners will be able to discuss the development of a PoH, describe the basic characteristics of the pedagogy, use it to plan a lesson, and reflect critically upon their experiences. Introduction to the Course Introduction to the unit: This goal of this course is to introduce learners to A Pedagogy of Hope. The course is intended to supplement an existing course or professional development workshop. Audience: The intended audience of this course is adults, instructors and educators who work with adults, particularly in higher education with specific attention given to teacher education. Length of course: This resource has been designed to supplement a teacher education pedagogy course. Unit-level outcomes: Upon completion of this course, learners will be able to - identify the role of Paulo Freire in the creation of A Pedagogy of Hope text and approach to teaching and learning; - describe the characteristics of A Pedagogy of Hope (as a strategy) to shape a lesson and associated assessments; - explore how Social Emotional Learning (SEL) strategies can be employed to enhance their work with A Pedagogy of Hope; - reflect on how their plans for implementing A Pedagogy of Hope may shape their educational practices; and - reflect on the role of their own agency as well as that of the broader community in shaping students' approaches to teaching and learning. Technology requirements: Students will need access to this module via computer, smart phone, or tablet as well as internet access to successfully complete the lesson. Because there are videos embedded in this course, you may also need speakers and/or transcription service. (From EFL Lesson Plan Template: https://www.oercommons.org/authoring/52181-efl-lesson-plan-template/view) Unit 1: Understanding A Pedagogy of Hope From its Roots Up The Birth of A Pedagogy Paulo Freire image credit: By Slobodan Dimitrov - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5326164 Brazilian educator Paulo Freire originally introduced his text Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1968. Brazil, like many other countries of the period, was in a period of social and political tension. Shaped by that context, Freire opined that hope was a human, ontological need. He believed that societal troubles could not be addressed without first believing that one was capable of addressing them. As such, his Pedagogy of Hope (PoH) sought to provide solutions to some of the issues he identified in his critical work Pedagogy of the Oppressed. According to Freire, upon his completion of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, he was moved to write what he thought was the next logical step in the work: Pedagogy of Hope: Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Published in 1992, PoH was a consideration of the same themes as his earlier works with a lens toward hope. According to Freire, it was important to him that his work was one of tolerance and empowerment full of possibility. What he offered in the book A Pedagogy of Hope was a pedagogical approach that centered dialogic education, community, critical reflection, agency, and democracy. As a pedagogical approach, Freire emphasized A PoH as a critical approach to teaching based on a need for hope and a desire to confront forces of domination that were disruptive to people. Freire’s work was felt in many places experiencing political change including, but not limited to, his native Brazil, Cuba, and Guinea-Bissau. Interestingly, his pedagogical approach had lasting effects on the literacy rates of these modern nation-states. Consider watching Seeing Through Paulo’s Glasses: Political Clarity, Courage, and Humility here. As can be seen in this interview, Freire focused primarily on the relationships between education, literacy, and the broader society as a means of exchange that was community-oriented and collaboratively driven. In his PoH, Freire proposed that teaching should happen in a critical fashion. He stressed the importance of a mutual exchange of ideas rather than the traditional banking of model of education that situated the student as a relatively powerless vessel waiting to receive information from a teacher. In his estimation, education was about collaborative problem-solving. In keeping with his ideology that even teachers had to be students in the teacher-learner relationship, Freire answered criticisms against his earlier work (Pedagogy of the Oppressed) for what had been identified as sexist language. He did not defend his earlier work, but instead admited that such language is in misalignment with efforts towards democratization. This emphasis on language is a critical element of PoH that was also argued by scholar bell hooks. In hooks’ Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, she takes up Freire’s emphasis on language by stating silences, parts of speech, languages, and dialects are all important pieces of a struggle for liberation. To that end, teachers working through a PoH must remain vigilant in their reflections and observations of language use, tolerance, and acceptance. In addition to the work carried forth by bell hooks (1994; ), others have helped extend more contemporary understandings of PoH including, but not limited to, Diversi and Moreira (2016), Stranger (2018),Webb (2013), and others. Together, these scholars have helped us understand the PoH as having the following characteristics: - An unapologetic emphasis on democratization of schooling; - Dialogic educational practices; - Critical reflection and analysis of the broader society; - Community engaged learning; - Egalitarian approaches to teaching and learning where there is no hierarchy of power; - A conscious, deliberate use of language as a tool for inclusion; and - The belief that hope (and belief) are nothing without action—that is praxis. As Giroux and Flippakou (2020) have asserted, the current world circumstances warrant a resurrection of “the social imagination in order to affirm a politics of hope…” (p. 1). Hope, in this way, “is educational” and is undertaken to “dream of a radical democratic society” (p. 2). You can read their article in full here. Unit 1 Assessment Unit 1 Assessment Assessment options to address Unit Objectives: Be prepared to discuss Paulo Freire's motivation for creating a Pedagogy of Hope. Be prepared to list and identify on a map at least two countries within which Freire's work on litearcy was implemented. Unit 2: Applying A Pedagogy of the Oppressed and A Pedagogy of Hope To Shape a Lesson and Associated Assessment Introduction to Unit 2 When theorized by Paulo Freire, a PoH necessarily includes conscientization—that is the need to be continually reflective by reflecting on questions like: - Why am I or my students using the language we are using? Why? - What definition of these concepts am I using? Why? - For, or against whom am I working? Why? This unit is designed to help you think about how to use a PoH approach in planning your lessons with conscientization. The following video provides more information on this important element of a PoH. As explained, PoH approach requires teachers to be thoughtful and sincere in their approach to their own behaviors as well as the thought processes and possible hegemony driving those behaviors as a first step in planning instruction. You can read more about Freire’s critical approach to pedagogy here. PoH lesson planning, as point out above, includes consideration of several elements: societal context, relevance of the content to students' lived experiences, deliberate attention on language and its use, support of dialogue and collaboration, and critical reflection. Because you are likely already familiar with creating lesson plans, we've simply included a document to assist you by thinking critically about what your lesson needs to include. You will find that document under the Unit 2 Activities tab. Once you begin to use a PoH approach to teaching and learning, you may desire to use it beyond the classroom as well. To see how PoH has been used in other educational settings beyond the classroom by reading the articles listed here: In the next section, you will complete one or more activities to help support your lesson planning. Unit 2 Activities Unit 2 Activities Activity 1 Before we begin this activity, please locate a standard for which you will plan a lesson. Once you’ve found that lesson, use the PoH Conscientization Guide to reflect before beginning the remainder of your planning process. Once you have a completely planned lesson move to create at least one accompanying assessment. Use the same guide to help you think deeply about the assessment, its design, and its language. Activity 2 Once you have generated a lesson and associated assessment, review the materials on Social Emotional Learning (SEL). Feel free to add SEL elements to your lesson to support your students’ and your own well-being. Unit 2 Assessment Unit 2 Assessment As a point of assessment, consider the SEL strategies shared and choose one or more to incorporate into your designed lesson. Be prepared to share and discuss why the selected strategies are appropriate for the lesson. Create a presentation that can be used to explain the use of SEL to support a PoH in practice. Unit 3: Self-Work and Reflection About this Unit While Unit 2 placed its emphasis on how conscientization (sometimes called critical pedagogy) helps us understand power and structural supports and uses of power. It is not enough without teachers reflecting upon the teaching and learning process often. In this section, we will complete activities to support that collaborative and individual reflection. The following article will explain how this kind of critical reflection can work. How to be Critical when Reflecting on Your Teaching Thinking about Our Roles Some of us may feel uncomfortable knowing that the PoH demands that we think critically about the world around us and our roles in it. Nonetheless, scholars associated with the PoH all agree on one point: teaching is political. The video below helps us think about reflection and practice. Self Care for Teachers To address the discomfort we may feel, it is important that we use some of the SEL strategies covered in Unit 2 to address ourselves and to help us understand our feelings around our work. The article below can be used to help you think about how you can address your discomforts and engage in self-care. The activities listed in the next section are designed to support your reflective process. Unit 3 Activities Unit 3 Activities Activity 1: SCALE has developed a reflection activity that is a good starting point for this unit. You can visit the worksheet associated with the video. Use this worksheet to reflect on who you are. Activity 2: Once you have completed the worksheet, find a buddy to share your answers with. After chatting with them, you may wish to journal about the process using the following prompts: - Did I learn anything about myself from this activity? If so, what did I learn? - How did it feel to reflect on my identity in this way? - How might my identity impact the way I understand the course content? - In what ways might my feelings impact how I choose (or not) to implement the PoH approach in my teaching and/or learning? - What resources exist within the community to support my implementation of a PoH? Unit 3 Assessment Unit 3 Assessment 1. Create a journal entry detailing your experience with this course and how useful you believe a Pedagogy of Hope to be for your current teaching/learning context. You can input your answer here. 2. Revist your lesson plan from Unit 2 and schedule a discussion with someone else to share it with for peer feedback. Be prepared to describe why you made the decision you did.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.821142	06/28/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82875/overview", "title": "A Pedagogy of Hope", "author": "Tiffany Pogue" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82733/overview	Exploring Pedagogical Models In Practice Overview This is a unit developed for the Branch Aliance for Educator Diversity Summer Institute to be used as OER/instructional materials for Teacher Education classes. This unit emphasizes the varied types of pedagogical models candidates will need in their proverbial "toolboxes" as they prepare to enter the classroom. Introduction to the Course In class each week, students should be broken into mixed specialization groups (Multiple Subject, Single Subject, Special Education) where they learn about the specific pedagogical model (through articles, videos, chapters, professor lecture and other resources - and these specific modules). They can then create short, (15 minute), lessons where they USE one of the models (each class should generally have enough people that instructors can create small groups to assign to each topic/model for the evening), to teach content of their choice, using that model. They then create and implement sample lessons for the class for feedback from the class and course instructor aligning with standards. Here in California, we use the CA TPEs (Teacher Performance Expectations) (4.3, 4.4, 4.8) and (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.8) the two sets of standards focus on lesson planning (TPE 4) and engaging and supporting ALL students (TPE 1) respectively. They are given a "sample" class to plan for, as well as case study students who they must differentiate for. This is done specifically to allow them to plan lessons that emphasize engaging and supporting all students in learning in order to practice incorporating UDL (Universal Design for Learning), as well as differentiation - based on specific k-12 student needs. Certain weeks candidates have students with specific individualized needs. Each week, our teacher candidates learn how to differentiate for different types of student differences and needs in their mini-lesson designs. Likewise, the course also emphasizes twice exceptionality. (For instance, one week the course has a gifted learner as the case study student, it notes that the learner also has dyslexia and qualifies for other services and as such there is intersectionality there. The course further covers diversity from a different lens each week by reading articles and interacting with other material on gender, ethnicity, LGBTQ+, Socio-Economic Status, Ability Levels, Achievement gaps, etc...) Candidates receive points for each module as follows: 1 point for demonstrating/using the weekly Pedagogical model correctly. 1 point for providing UDL/differentiation for the sample class/case study students well. 1 point for clearly teaching/conveying the content they chose. This process occurs each week with different pedagogical models until the end of the course and so by the end of the course the number of pedagogical models taught will have grown exponentially and the candidates tool boxes will have been filled fairly significantly. Again, this course emphasizes planning and specifically aligns to the California Standards for the Teaching Profession 4 and 1 emphasizing specific Teacher Performance Expectations in standards 4 (Planning instruction) and Teacher Performance Expectations in standard 1 (Engaging and supporting all students in learning). This course explores pedagogy as the combination of teachers' professional knowledge, skills, and abilities, which are directed to create effective learning opportunities and outcomes for all students in a range of contexts and is typically taught in 8 weeks/8 modules. Teacher candidates explore pedagogical methods and specific models for meeting individual student needs, utilizing both universal and individualized strategies. Attention is given to culturally responsive teaching practices for learners with diverse cultural and ethnic identities, as well as differentiation practices for students with various learning needs. Candidates analyze the relationship between curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment. Audience: The intended audience of this course is teacher candidates within a graduate level K-12 teacher education credentialing program; made up of Mixed Specialization, (Multiple Subject, Single Subject, and Special Education) Candidates. Length of course: This resource has been designed to supplement 3 weeks of an 8 week course. Student Learning outcomes: While engaging with this unit, learners will: Interact with various pedagogical models in practice; including exploratory, inquiry based, problem solving, questioning, collaborative and cooperative learning - based models. Design and teach short lessons using the models. Provide UDL based instruction and Differentiated instruction for a sample class and case study student when designing their short lessons, in order to practice meeting the diverse learning needs of their varied student populations. Prior to jumping in be sure to review the Art and How to's of Lesson Planning. The following video is a great review to remind you: Reference - Note: From 'Open Education Summit: Social Justice Transforming Pedagogy', by ForsytheGuilia, @eCampusOntario, [Infographic] from Flickr.(https://www.flickr.com/photos/gforsythe/albums/72157681979452395). - US Department of State, FhI360 World Learning SIT Graduate Institute. (2017). Elements of a Good Lesson Plan. YouTube. https://youtu.be/1BqR7wUje_4 © 2017 by World Learning. “Elements of a Good Lesson Plan” was created for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. Unit 1 Exploratory Pedagogical Models The sample class and differentiation student are found in section three of the unit and should be done as homework. Likewise, Unit 2 for next week has an article listed as "FLIPPED" classroom modality reading. You may want to assign it now as a reading: That article is found here and is on Questioning: https://academicjournals.org/journal/ERR/article-full-text/A09F37161683 . Reference for next week's article: Dapay, B., Bay, E., Aslansoy, C., Tiryaki, B., Ãtetin, N., & Duman, C. (2016). An analysis of teachers' questioning strategies. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(22), 2065-2078. Copyright © 2021 Author's retain the copyright of this article. https://academicjournals.org/journal/ERR/article-full-text/A09F37161683 This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Objectives: - Candidates will interact with and use exploratory pedagogical models (Inquiry, discovery learning, 5E method, WebQuest, problem-based learning) methods and strategies in designing instruction. This will be measured through weekly pedagogical model presentations in class. - Candidates will use appropriate technology and internet sources to facilitate and enhance instruction as measured through the design and implementation of a flipped modality classroom lesson plan. Candidates will incorporate accessibility options within resources used in their flipped lesson in order to meet the needs of all students accessing the materials. - Candidates will explore the flipped classroom pedagogical model this week as part of their technology assignment for the course. This week Candidates interact with pedagogical models that focus on exploration. These models include discovery learning, inquiry, project-based learning and WebQuests. You will complete a small group teaching presentation using one of the pedagogical models. You will also discuss Culturally Responsive Teaching in connection with meeting the needs of the varied learners in your inclusive classrooms. Finally, you will be introduced to the flipped classroom pedagogical model for your upcoming technology assignments due week five of our course. Steps: - Candidates will first jigsaw read and discuss the article provided by Tanase (2020) on Culturally Responsive Pedagogy in groups of four or five (dependent on class size) (Is Good Teaching Culturally Responsive?), to gain a better understanding of why it is so important that we provide for the needs of every student by intentionally teaching with diversity in mind. - Candidates will next complete the following WebQuest in the same groups of four or five – where each group has been assigned one of the specific Exploratory pedagogical models. - When candidates have finished interacting with the pedagogical models in the WebQuest, they will create their own short (10-15 minute) lessons, and each group will teach another group within the class – remembering to incorporate elements of Universal Design for Learning as they would for the provided “sample class” of diverse learners. They will also have thought through differentiated instructional strategies for specific students found in the “sample class” provided (See Section 3 for sample class), and will be ready to discuss how they will differentiate for individual students after their lesson (in a short journal submitted to the course instructor). This should be assigned as homework. - Candidates will then begin preparing for Unit 2 while also learning about material for the course technology assignment, as they engage in material on the Flipped Classroom Pedagogical Model. Watch and discuss the following resource together as a class: Then go over the “Flipped Classroom Lesson Plan Template”, and note that there will be some “pre-reading and videos” for the class to explore before we do unit two next week on Questioning Pedagogical Models. This functions both as practice with “flipping our own class”, and as a way for you all to start getting information on the next unit’s pedagogical models. References: - Tanase, M. (2020). Is good teaching culturally responsive?. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(3), 187-202. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2020063333 This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - GorillaPhysics [GorillaPhysics]. (2020, November, 19). How to flip class: Flipped classroom video instruction. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/QA658Z96wsU. License Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed) Unit 1 Activities Instructors - The "Sample Class" provided should be used every week and remain unchanged; however, the "One of the Learners" for differentiation - should be assigned based on week. So for Unit 1: please use Duane as noted, for Unit 2 use Luis, and for Unit 3, please use Guenavive. If you would like to change this - do so at your discretion of course. Anyone else, feel free to adapt as you feel it is needed. Also, don't forget to create a flipgrid for your class if you plan on using flipgrid - or to let them know how to use screencastify or the other modalities etc... for the activities., If you plan on having them submit a paper, make a place for submission. Activities: Activity 1: As noted earlier, after teaching your mini-lesson complete a reflective journal on how you would differentiate for one of the learners in the "sample class" provided. Also discuss how your group provided elements of Universal Design for Learning within the lesson that you designed and taught in class. Your journal may be done in any of the following formats: (Your instructor will inform you where you will submit your response). FlipGrid Digital Journal (paper via Word, Pages, Notes etc...) Blog (Blogger) Screencast. (Screencast-omatic, Screencastify) - Activity 2: After watching the introduction to the flipped classroom pedagogical video in class and discussing the flipped classroom modality; at home you will peruse the flipped classroom resource from the OER commons below: - https://www.oercommons.org/courses/flipped-through-design-flipping-the-classroom-through-instrucitonal-design/view - Make your own flipped classroom lesson plan for your week five technology assignment. Using the following TEMPLATE. Consider using OER resources from the OER commons or creating resources that can be shared from a creative commons perspective, and sharing your flipped classroom lesson plan for other teachers around the world to utilize free of copyright and charge as well. Unit 1 Assessment Remember, if using the Google form quiz for this week to please click on the "Make a copy" button and set it up so that you have your own version to share with students. Otherwise all of their emailed quiz responses will go to me (the person who created this module) and you will not be able to get their responses. Also, don't forget to let them know where to submit their flipped classroom infographics. Assessments to address this week's outcomes Reminder of Objectives: Objective 1: Candidates will interact with and use exploratory pedagogical models (Inquiry, discovery learning, 5E method, WebQuest, problem-based learning) methods and strategies in designing instruction. - Objective 2: Candidates will explore the flipped classroom pedagogical model this week as part of their technology assignment for the course. Test your Knowledge on the Exploratory Pedagogical Models - Assessment 1 - Complete the Quiz Test your knowledge on the flipped classroom pedagogical model - Assessment 2 - Create a short graphic representation (pictorial infographic) showing at least three easy ways to "flip" the classroom. Unit 2 Questioning Pedagogical Models Please prepare the classroom ahead of time. Your students will need laptops or phones or tablets and you will need posters or pre-set up stations with the links and information already up so that you do not waste time at each station. I would also recommend you have a timer set up so that each group only takes 10 minutes or so at each station tops before transitioning to the next station. Then when they are building their lessons they should have about 30 minutes to do so and then it will be the dinner break and they will share their lessons one group to another group most likely depending on class size. (Smaller classes can do full class presentations), after the dinner break. Please use Luis for your differentiation student this week - from the Sample class Unit 2: Objective/s - Candidates will explore and use questioning pedagogical models - (QAR, Socratic seminar, Fish bowl, as well as DOK, Bloom’s Taxonomy and Leveled Questioning, and Guided Questioning) methods and strategies in designing instruction. This will be measured through weekly pedagogical model presentations in class. This week, Candidates interact with pedagogical models that emphasize utilizing Strategic Questioning techniques in the classroom. In order to understand the full purpose and need for this week’s unit, Candidates should engage in the FLIPPED pedagogical modality and read the following article by Dos, et. al (2021), An Analysis of Teachers’ Questioning Strategies, on their own at home, prior to jumping into the unit. Once they are actually in the face to face or synchronous class session, they can then follow the steps below: Steps: 1. Candidates will go to https://www.oercommons.org/courses/questioning-techniques-research-based-strategies-for-teachers/view where they will explore and discuss the resource together in small groups, (including the two short two-three minute videos). Then the class will come back together as a whole to discuss the information including the the various types of questioning, wait-time, strategies, etc…. 2. Next watch the following video on Chat Stations as a full class, so that everyone understands the next activity and how it will work. 3. Then break the class into 5 small groups of four or five (depending on class size), and have them go to each of the following stations pre-set up around the room. Station activities should take approximately 10-12 minutes each. At each station, candidates should take notes and learn about each model. - QAR (Question Answer Relationship) https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/question_answer_relationsh - Socratic Seminar. https://youtu.be/56dkvo2ZLyw (1:49 example) as well as https://askatechteacher.com/is-the-socratic-method-right-for-your-class/ - Fish Bowl - https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies/fishbowl - Depth of Knowledge, Bloom’s Taxonomy and Leveled Questioning. https://www.oercommons.org/courses/b-f-depth-of-knowledge-module/view (pay attention in particular to page 2 of the module (video is 4:52), and page 4 of the module. Then leave the module and look at https://www.edutopia.org/blog/webbs-depth-knowledge-increase-rigor-gerald-aungst to understand DOK better. You would use DOK and Bloom’s to ask varied levels of questions of your students in a variety of activities and situations. - Guiding Questions (Why, What if, How) for Research. (9:18) https://youtu.be/oG30093g7eA 4. Now that all candidates have had a chance to learn about every Questioning model, assign a different model to each group (If a group prefers a specific model and no one else would like it, let them choose it, and perhaps draw lots if groups would like to choose the same model…, or simply assign randomly). Have each group create their weekly pedagogical model presentation (10-15 minutes). They must design a short lesson USING the chosen model. They must design the lesson with the “sample class” in mind, and plan instruction in ways that incorporate Universal Design for Learning practices for that “sample class”, into their instructional practices. Finally, they should also consider thoroughly the weekly assigned “differentiation student” from the “sample class” and how they plan on meeting that students’ needs. They should be ready to explain how they will meet that students’ individual needs in some sort of reflective journaling activity as homework. References: Dapay, B., Bay, E., Aslansoy, C., Tiryaki, B., Ãtetin, N., & Duman, C. (2016). An analysis of teachers' questioning strategies. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(22), 2065-2078. Copyright © 2021 Author's retain the copyright of this article. https://academicjournals.org/journal/ERR/article-full-text/A09F37161683 This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Note: From 'Questions' [Infographic] from http://whs-blogs.co.uk/teaching/learning-gem-22-1on1-questioning/ Note: From 'Educational Postcard "Our goal as teacher should be....[Photograph], by WhytockKen, 2016, Flickr, (https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenwhytock/14586801998). CC-BY-SA.20. Unit 2 Activities Instructors - The "Sample Class" provided should be used every week and remain unchanged; however, the "One of the Learners" for differentiation - should be assigned based on week. So for Unit 1: please use Duane as noted, for Unit 2 use Luis, and for Unit 3, please use Guenavive. Activity 1: Given the focus on questioning this week, as well as both the introduction to DOK and review of Bloom's Taxonomy, write three questions you yourself have about the various models we have learned tonight, at three different levels of questioning. You may choose to focus on the verb (Blooms), or instead focus on the skill (DOK). Activity 2: Similarly to previous weeks, after teaching your mini-lesson, for homework, complete a reflective journal on how you would differentiate for one of the learners in the "sample class" provided. Also discuss how your group provided elements of Universal Design for Learning within the lesson that you designed and taught in class. Your journal may be done in any of the following formats: (Your instructor will inform you where to submit your response) FlipGrid Digital Journal (paper via Word, Pages, Notes etc...) Blog (Blogger) Screencast. (Screencast-omatic, Screencastify) Unit 2 Assessment Remember, if using the Google form quiz for this week to please click on the "Make a copy" button and set it up so that you have your own version to share with students. Otherwise all of their emailed quiz responses will go to me (the person who created this module) and you will not be able to get their responses. Also, don't forget to let them know where to submit their slides or infographics. Assessments to address this week's outcomes Reminder of Objective/s: - Candidates will explore and use questioning pedagogical models - (QAR, Socratic seminar, fish bowl, Bloom's, DOK and Leveled Questioning, and guided questioning) methods and strategies in designing instruction. Test your Knowledge on the Questioning Pedagogical Models learned this week- - Assessment 1 - Complete the Quiz Test your Knowledge on your full understanding of increasing critical thinking with your students utilizing Webb's Depth of Knowledge in the classroom. - Assessment 2 - Create a google slide or Canva infographic (at Canva.com) where you take the activities we completed this week in class (including the following: Discussion of the OER questioning techniques resource together in small groups, The CHAT Station activity where you learned about each new questioning pedagogical model; designing your actual lesson plans, Teaching your actual lesson plans, journaling regarding your sample class UDL and sample differentiation student, development of your own DOK or Blooms based questions) and you place them at a DOK level 1, 2, 3, 4 and explain why you believe they belong at that level. Unit 3 Peer Interaction Pedagogical Models A brief lecture at the beginning of class from a direct instruction perspective, regarding the difference between cognitive constructivism, and social constructivism will not go amiss and will supplement the video and discussion well. I chose the jigsaw cooperative learning actiivity to learn about the different cooperative learning activities on purpose... it seemed a reasonable method of going about it. Try to plan your grouping ahead of time so you can be intentional in your grouping. Use Guenavive for the differentiation this time. Unit 3: Peer Interaction Pedagogical Models Objective/s - Candidates will explore and use peer interaction models - (cooperative and collaborative learning, Kagan strategies, etc...) methods and strategies in designing instruction. This week candidates will explore peer interaction pedagogical models like collaborative learning and cooperative learning. As per usual, small group teaching presentations using one of the models will be completed in class. In order to fully understand the purpose behind the use of peer interaction models this week, as well as the philosophical underpinnings surrounding the peer interaction models, the class should recall the Cognitive Constructivist educational philosophy developed by Bruner (Cognitivism) and added to by Piaget (Equilibrium/Disequilibrium/Accommodation/Equilibrium), and discussed briefly as underpinning exploratory models in Unit 1, and questioning models in Unit 2. To help in that recall process, please watch this brief video as a whole class and discuss how teachers provide scaffolding and intentional new “experiences” in classrooms to allow for accommodation of new schema in alignment with constructivist theory in both exploratory and questioning pedagogical models. Now that you have a reminder of the traditional cognitive constructivist theory, consider that this week we will be looking at peer interaction pedagogical models, which are also connected to constructivism, but instead of cognitive constructivism, they are more directly influenced by Social Constructivism which was inspired by the ideas of Lev Vygotsky. Specifically, we will look at collaborative learning models, and a more specific type of collaboration, called cooperative learning. Take a few minutes to skim the following site and discuss as a class, to get a better idea of what is meant by both “collaborative, and cooperative learning”. Steps: Break your class into 5 groups. Assign each group to one of the following topics: - Jigsaw - - Kagan Strategies – Numbered Heads together and Think Pair Share or Mix Pair Share - Student Group Learning Games (Such as Silent Card Shuffle), - Reciprocal Learning (Sometimes called Reciprocal Teaching) - Ability grouping, group monitoring, and intentional grouping in cooperative learning Each group should learn about one of the following cooperative learning or collaborative learning strategies. (Become experts). After everyone has had time to become experts in their strategy (approximately 10-15 minutes), Form FIVE new groups by sending one person from each group to five new groups. (So one person from group 1, a person from group 2, a person from group 3, a person from group 4, and a person from group 5 are all together to form an entirely new group, for instance.) The new groups take turns teaching all group members about what they have learned, so that every class member is exposed to all of the various cooperative and collaborative learning strategies Now that all candidates have had a chance to learn about the peer interaction models we have covered this week, assign a different model to each group (If a group prefers a specific model and no one else would like it, let them choose it, and perhaps draw lots if groups would like to choose the same model…, or simply assign randomly). Have each group create their weekly pedagogical model presentation (10-15 minutes). They must design a short lesson USING the chosen model. They must design the lesson with the “sample class” in mind, and plan instruction in ways that incorporate Universal Design for Learning practices for that “sample class”, into their instructional practices. Finally, they should also consider thoroughly the weekly assigned “differentiation student” from the “sample class” and how they plan on meeting that students’ needs. They should be ready to explain how they will meet that students’ individual needs in some sort of reflective journaling activity as homework. References - Educational Broadcast Corporation (2004) Collaborative and Cooperative Learning.https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html - Haiken, Michele (2021). 5 Ways to gamify your classroom. International Standards for Technology in Education. https://www.iste.org/explore/In-the-classroom/5-ways-to-gamify-your-classroom. - Hope, Wilson. (2020, March, 14). Cognitive Constructivism. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/T8GMHIwdgg8. CC Reuse allowed. - Note: From 'Zone of Proximal Developement', by DCOETZEE, 2016, Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zone_of_proximal_development.svg). This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. - Zakaria, Juliana (2016). Teaching reading comprehension by using reciprocal teaching approach. English Education Journal, 7(2), 260-271. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Unit 3 Activities Note that the sample differentiation student this week, Guenavive, is what is called a twice exceptional student. This means that she has two exceptionalities. She is both gifted and an English Learner. The intersectionality involved in this aspect of Guenavive's personal experience and funds of knowledge, lends itself well to the social constructivist perspective we are discussing this week, especially in terms of the intentional grouping done in cooperative instruction and as such, this is something you should intentionally discuss and bring up with your teacher candidates in this week's class discussion so that they can discuss it in their own reflective journaling. It is specifically why the activities for this week emphasize funds of knowledge and the hope is, that the class will also get a good view of other ways to group besides ability grouping in activities this week. Activity 1: Consider intentionality in grouping. How can you use students FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE when make cooperative grouping decisions? What considerations in terms of student areas of strength and student areas of need do you consider when creating cooperative groups? Consider the students you have in the "sample class" - especially the three differentiation students, Duane, Luis, and Guenavive - Complete a funds of knowledge inventory matrix similar to the one done on the page you explored in this activity for those three students. Submit as directed by your course instructor. Activity 2: As done in previous class sessions, after teaching your mini-lesson complete a reflective journal on how you would differentiate for one of the learners in the "sample class" provided. Also discuss how your group provided elements of Universal Design for Learning within the lesson that you designed and taught in class. Your journal may be done in any of the following formats: (Your instructor will inform you where you will submit your response). FlipGrid Digital Journal (paper via Word, Pages, Notes etc...) Blog (Blogger) Screencast. (Screencast-omatic, Screencastify) Unit 3 Assessment Make sure to approve materials prior to allowing candidates to submit to the OER commons. Of course they must be approved... but it is best to vett student work. Also, Student final self assessment - feel free to adapt the questions based on if you have adapted any of the activities. Assessments to address this week's outcomes Reminder of Objective/s: Candidates will explore and use peer interaction models - (cooperative and collaborative learning, Kagan strategies, etc...) methods and strategies in designing instruction. Test your Knowledge on the Peer Interaction Pedagogical Models learned this week - Working in a group of five, create a resource of some sort (mini lesson, full lesson, short blog, infographic, etc...) to share in the OER commons using one of the models or about one of the peer interaction models. Self Assessment on FULL UNIT: Complete a final self assessment in the form of your choice - (Flipgrid, paper, screencast, podcast, etc...) Describe what you feel you have learned through the process of completing these three modules. Have you grown in your own understanding of pedagogical models in the last three weeks? Have you grown in your undestanding of constructivism? Have you grown in your understanding of differentiation/UDL/meeting the needs of all students? Etc... How? Help us improve this template! [PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN THE COMMENTS OF THIS OER] Please answer the following questions and POST THEM IN THE COMMENTS SECTION OF THE ORIGINAL TEMPLATE OER. Reflection questions for template continous improvement: 1. What worked well for you when using this template? 2. What did not work well when using this template? 3. What changes would you make to this template the next time you use it? 4. Would you recommend this template to other educators? Why? Why not?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.895807	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82733/overview", "title": "Exploring Pedagogical Models In Practice", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113332/overview	Globalization, Contemporary Trends, and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 16, Lesson 7 A discussion of globalization highlights both its benefits and drawbacks, noting the spread of Western culture and values alongside economic growth, but also the resulting anti-globalization movements and concerns about sovereignty and exploitation. The rise of computers and the internet is explored as a major technological advancement that has revolutionized communication and the global economy. Economic Globalization In the 20th and 21st centuries, globalization has often resulted in the imposition of the values and culture of the United States and Western Europe on the rest of the world. Since the end of World War II in 1945, the world has experienced unparalleled economic and population growth. The world's population jumped from 2.5 billion people in 1950 to 7.5 billion people in 2020. The economies of the world have become increasingly integrated into a global economic system, as large corporations such a McDonald's and Walt Disney operate their businesses in multiple countries worldwide. The Consumer Revolution, which began in the United States in the 1920s, has spread around the world, resulting in the creation of a global popular culture based on consumers' demands for various goods (i.e., clothing, music, video games). However, the uneven spread of globalization’s benefits caused an anti-globalization movement to rise by the end of the 20th century. Proponents of economic growth, expansion, and development generally view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to the well-being of human society, but not everybody affected by globalization believes there are benefits to its spread. Polarization about globalization increased dramatically after the establishment of the World Trade Organization in 1995; this event and subsequent protests led to a larger scale anti-globalization movement. Many individuals within the anti-globalization movement have witnessed unrest within their home communities and the world at large and questioned the basis for continuing this trend. For example, while the forces of globalization have led to the spread of Western-style democracy, this has been accompanied by an increase in inter-ethnic tension, xenophobia, and violence as free market economic policies combine with democratic processes of universal suffrage as well as an escalation in militarization to impose democratic principles as a means to resolve conflicts. Moreover, many claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities shapes the political policies of countries, crowding out the moral claims of poor and working classes, as well as environmental concerns. For example, globalization allows corporations to outsource manufacturing and service jobs from high-cost locations to low-cost locations, where workers are paid less and receive less benefits. Globalization requires a country to give up some sovereignty for the sake of executing Western ideals. As a result, sovereignty is safest with those whose views and ideals are being implemented (the U.S. and Western European nations). In the name of free markets and with the promise of an improved standard of living, countries give up their political and social powers to international organizations. Thus, globalization carries the potential to raise the power of international organizations at the expense of local state institutions, which must in turn diminish in influence. Technological Change The rise of computers is another major development that has significantly impacted the world economy, particularly since the 1980s. Originally, these devices stemmed from the need for faster and more efficient ways to perform calculations, leading to the creation of electronic counting machines like cash registers. International Business Machines (IBM) emerged as a leader in this field during the 1920s in the United States. The invention of the first true computer in 1951 by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania marked a turning point. These early computers were large, cumbersome machines primarily used by governments and big businesses. However, the landscape shifted dramatically in 1977 with the introduction of the first Apple personal computer by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Over the next few decades, personal computers (PCs) became smaller, faster, and more affordable, with a vastly increased capacity to store and transmit information. This accessibility revolutionized how we work, communicate, and access information, fundamentally reshaping the global economy. The development of the internet further amplified the impact of computers. The U.S. Department of Defense initiated a research project in the 1960s to create a decentralized a communication network that could withstand a nuclear attack. This project led to the development of the ARPANET, which laid the groundwork for what we now know as the Internet. By 2007 consumers could transmit and receive information through a PC via the World Wide Web (the internet) or through a phone. The World Wide Web was invented by the English computer scientist Timothy John Berners-Lee in 1989. And in 2007 Steve Jobs introduced the first “smartphone” that combined the functions of a PC and a phone and could fit into a person's pocket or purse: the Apple iPhone. The development of PCs and the World Wide Web has created a whole new industry, which is centered at “Silicon Valley” near San Francisco in the United States. This new industry has resulted in the creation of a host of new businesses and jobs. Computers have also improved efficiency and productivity in the world economy since they facilitate the transmission of information. Some historians have maintained that computers have inaugurated a new “Information Age,” which will transform the world economy. Since the advent of the PC, much of the world has experienced unparalleled, extended periods of uninterrupted economic growth (1983 – 1990, 1991 – 2000, 2001 – 2007). Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (AI)—off-shoots of computer advancements—could impact society and the economy to the same extent as the introduction of the steam engine and the factory system in 18th century Europe. Since the computers are a relatively new development in human history, their historical impact is still unclear and to be determined over time. Cultural Change Like radio and television which preceded it, the Internet has been the means for rapidly spreading ideas and information around the world. In particular, Western ideas about religion, sexuality, and gender have circulated to countries with more traditional cultural values. This, in turn, sparked a rejection of Western culture and an embracing of tradition. For example, in India, the current, fastest growing political party—the Bharatiya Janata Party—is committed to preserving traditional Hindu values and beliefs in Indian society. Meanwhile, in Muslim countries, many people have rejected western, secular values and have espoused a return to a lifestyle based on the traditional teachings of Islam. At the same time, social applications on the Internet have been used to connect participants in protest movements. One example is the Arab Spring. In the 2010s, much of the Arab world experienced political and social unrest. Across North Africa and into the Middle East, people rioted against economic downturns and corrupt governments. The Arab Spring saw the removal of several heads of state. Beginning in Tunisia, the movement spread, often violently, across Libya, Egypt, Bahrain, Syria, and Yemen. Smaller insurrections occurred throughout the Arab world. Out of these social and political movements, several large-scale conflicts erupted such as the Egypt Crisis, the Libyan Civil War, and the Syrian Civil War. In several cases, the heads of state used extreme military force to suppress the rioters. Egypt was an ideal country for the Arab Spring to take hold because it was a discontented country on the road to revolution. It was the most populous country in North Africa, and its president, Hosni Mubarak, had governed since 1981. Mubarak had stripped Egypt of many of its progressive measures. In place of the liberalizing government of Anwar Sadat, Mubarak had instituted a government that was militaristic and autocratic. Revolution came in January 2011. Thousands of Egyptians filed into Cairo’s Tahrir Square to protest Mubarak’s government. Initially, President Mubarak resisted the protesters and promised constitutional reform. Doubting his promise, the protesters increased in their demands. Violent clashes erupted between groups who supported President Mubarak, and those who supported the opposition. Within four weeks, Mubarak resigned, and the military took power in Egypt. SUMMARY The 30 years since the end of the Cold War brought about unprecedented change throughout the world. The fall of the Soviet Union ushered in the political and economic unification of Europe and the expansion of NATO. As the last remaining superpower, the United States enjoyed a preeminent position of power and influence in world affairs. However, trends toward globalism and a “new world order” soon ran into trouble. The Persian Gulf War, Balkan conflict, 9-11 attacks, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War proved that the post-Cold War world was anything but a peaceful place. Although the United States and Western Europe remained key players in world affairs, they faced new challenges in an increasingly powerful China, a resurgent Russia, and the outbreak of conflict in places such as Georgia and Ukraine.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.919461	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113332/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Modern World, Globalization, Contemporary Trends, and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113328/overview	Tiananmen Massacre Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 16, Lesson 3 A discussion of the Tiananmen Square Massacre highlights the Chinese government's response to pro-democracy demonstrations in 1989, including the violent crackdown and its lasting impact on Chinese society and international relations. Events took a different turn in China. The collapse of the Soviet Union created tremendous demands for political, economic and social change among ordinary Chinese citizens. Uncertain of what to do, the Chinese government of Deng Xiaoping made minor concessions and played for time. However, throughout spring 1989, thousands of demonstrators congregated in Tiananmen Park in Beijing, where Mao Zedong had proclaimed the existence of the PRC exactly four decades before. Building makeshift monuments to freedom and marching with placards, hundreds of demonstrators camped overnight in the park. Chinese officials negotiated with the protesters while building up police and military forces surrounding Tiananmen. When talks stalled, Deng ordered the military to disperse the crowd on June 4. Even to this day, it is estimated that hundreds, possibly thousands, of demonstrators died in the ensuing conflict. Although the United States and other Western countries imposed economic and cultural sanctions on China, East-West relations were restored by the time of the Clinton Administration in 1993. As a result of the Tiananmen Massacre, the CCP sent a message that although it would continue to liberalize economically, it would tolerate no social liberalization or threats to its power. Although official accounts vary, it is estimated that 50,000-100,000 demonstrators gathered in Tiananmen Square from April-June, 1989. Students from all over China represented the largest number of protesters. Following the Chinese government’s crackdown on June 4, many students were imprisoned or forced to flee the country. Few images of the Tiananmen Square Massacre are as iconic as that of “Tank Man,” a lone demonstrator who faced down four Chinese tanks on June 5, 1989. Dressed in a white shirt and black trousers, the man refused to back down. The tank drivers remained in place, unwilling to spark an international incident. To this day, the identity of Tank Man remains unknown. However, he has become a symbol of resistance to the heavy hand of the PRC government and a reminder of protesters who were killed or imprisoned due to their participation in the demonstrations.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.935873	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113328/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Modern World, Tiananmen Massacre", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102102/overview	OER Item Sharing Template - YC Library Resources Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. OER Library Help at Yavapai College The material for this OER is a powerpoint made to highlight the Library at Yavapai College and how it can support and serve Fauclty in using and creating OER for low cost courses to benefit students. Slide Deck My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? I have discovered "remix" and believe it will be a wonderful way to show faculty how to find mulitple sources and ideas for thier classes. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I am designing it for myslef mostly. As a librarian I will most likely not be creating OER, but I will be reviewing resources and suggesting them to faculty. Knowing what is required and how to do it will better help me serve fauclty members. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? TELS - They are a wonderful department at YC that help faculty in creating courses. They are knowldgeable about CANVAS, tech stuff, and instructional design. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. Other resources describing best practices for OER librarians and academic research lesson plans. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? Faculty outlines, objectives, and course outcomes to help in finiding OER materials for thier courses. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? None at this time Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? Summer - to be prepared and ready to present to new faculty OER Item Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact. In looking for OER material I have realized there is a lot of material that is out here and the quality of the material is quite high. I think it can be overwhelming at times and that the best way for me to support our faculty is to find ways to use hubs to put possible material resources in a smaller space that will make thier jobs a little more fluid. I also came to the conculsion that building a relationship with the different schools within the college are extremely important and while our college needs a OER vision statement, what OER looks like might be very different in one school vs. another. Even within a school the way OER is set up and published may look different between classes (ie - Classic Literature vs. Modern Literature). I have also realized that we as a library have an important role in matintaining a collection that supports OER classes to ensure that extra costs and fees for students remain low.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.951991	03/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102102/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template - YC Library Resources", "author": "Carrie Meakins Farnsworth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108914/overview	Sports Parents Worksheet Overview This is a discussion for the class on a very true aspect of sports and how parents view their children within sports. Sports Parents Worksheet Watch the video below on helicopter parents. Then copy the questions below into a word processing program such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs. Answer the questions with more than three sentences each (see the rubric below for more information about grading). Explore the Web and locate at least three examples of parents or guardians acting in a manner that most would view as inappropriate with regard to youth sport. - Identify the three resources you located, including the Web address, the date you accessed the information, and the title of the article or the portion of the Web site where you located your information. - Give a brief summary of what took place in each of the examples you located. - Give your opinion as to why you think the parents or guardians “snapped” or responded in such an inappropriate manner. - Give your opinion as to why parents care so much about their children’s sports that they act in this fashion. You should make reference to the text, particularly chapter 4, to help support your ideas. - Locate at least one program (on either the national or the local level) that has been designed to help parents be better spectators and be less emotionally charged when their child is participating in sport. Give the title of the program, give the name of the resource you used to locate this information (if it is a Web site, please include the Web address and the date you accessed the site), and describe what the program does to make parent involvement in youth sport more positive.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.965541	09/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108914/overview", "title": "Sports Parents Worksheet", "author": "Juan Lopez-Gomez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116293/overview	Short activity to review functions of CSF Overview Short activity to review functions of CSF Short activity to review functions of CSF This is a short activity to review the main functions of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.982284	05/23/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116293/overview", "title": "Short activity to review functions of CSF", "author": "Katherine Schroeder" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94362/overview	Genetics Problems Overview This document contains eight genetic problems with multiple parts. These include crosses in which only one character are studied, crosses in which two characters are studied, crosses with multiple alleles, and crosses that are sex-linked. Genetics problems The genetic scenarios are based on articles (provided in the endnotes). Please review to ensure that the information for the scenarios are accurate. Genetic problems	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:47.999123	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94362/overview", "title": "Genetics Problems", "author": "Zoology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55202/overview	Conversion Factors Raised to a Power Conversion Factors in Chemistry Overview This video sequence gives the basics of how to use conversion factors in chemistry. Section 1 This video sequence gives the basics of how to use conversion factors in chemistry.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.016087	06/07/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55202/overview", "title": "Conversion Factors in Chemistry", "author": "Joshua Lang" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93659/overview	Glycolysis Pathway Overview This illustration depicts the 10 stages of glycolysis. Glycolysis Pathway This illustration depicts the 10 stages of glycolysis. This illustration depicts the 10 stages of glycolysis. This illustration depicts the 10 stages of glycolysis.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.031799	Ecology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93659/overview", "title": "Glycolysis Pathway", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105196/overview	Process Based Authentic Assessment Overview Process-Based Authentic Assessment is an innovative approach to evaluating student learning that focuses on the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, rather than just the final product. Unlike traditional assessments that primarily measure the end result, process-based authentic assessment emphasizes the journey students take to achieve their learning goals. This assessment method recognizes that learning is a dynamic and iterative process, involving critical thinking, problem-solving, and reflection. It aims to provide a more comprehensive and accurate picture of students' abilities, as it takes into account their efforts, strategies, and growth throughout the learning process. Process-based authentic assessment often involves real-world tasks and authentic contexts, enabling students to apply their knowledge and skills in meaningful ways. It encourages active engagement, collaboration, and self-directed learning, fostering deeper understanding and higher-order thinking skills. In this assessment approach, teachers assess students' progress and performance based on multiple criteria, such as their ability to analyze information, think critically, communicate effectively, and demonstrate creativity. The assessment criteria are aligned with the learning objectives and emphasize the process of learning, allowing teachers to provide timely and constructive feedback to guide students' improvement. Ed 227 Assessment in Learning 2 with Emphasis in Trainer Methodology I & II Process-Based Authentic Assessment is an innovative approach to evaluating student learning that focuses on the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, rather than just the final product. Unlike traditional assessments that primarily measure the end result, process-based authentic assessment emphasizes the journey students take to achieve their learning goals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.049544	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105196/overview", "title": "Process Based Authentic Assessment", "author": "Kent Rodriguez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92871/overview	Claims, Reasons, Evidence - "I'm a Survivor" Hero of the Zombie Apocalypse Overview This is a scaffolded group/collaborative activity within a unit of study on persuasive writing. Students would have already learned what claims, reasons, and evidence are in a previous lesson before participating in this activity. As a group of 4-5 students work together, they will decide which resources would be best to survive a zombie apocalypse. They would then need to compose statements of claim and reasoning for those items and complete some research as well. There is an option to allow students to create posters to present to the class as their final assignment. English Composition - Persuasive Writing (Claims, Reasons, Evidence) Objectives: To help students better understand the difference between claims, reasons, and evidence in persuasion. This assignment gives students the opportunity to work together to solve a problem and put together a "Zombie Apocalypse Survival Plan," which could persuade others to join them/agree with them. Materials: Students should be placed into groups. The materials they would need depend upon how the instructor wishes to present the assignment. The basic materials needed would be paper and pencil, along with the attached handout. However, to create large posters for presenting their claims, reasons, and evidence, you could also include large poster or post-it paper and markers in various colors. Step-by Step: - Before starting this activity, you should have gone over the basics of what claims, reasons, and evidence are and how they are used in persuasive writing. - Divide students into groups of 4-5 each. - Pass out the attached handout to each group. - Read the handout out loud together as a class. The instructor can either choose to read it aloud themself or have students volunteer to read. - Be sure to instruct students to follow the instructions set forth on the handout. - First, they must figure out together which items they will be keeping and discussing the reasons why these items are necessary. (approx. 5-10 min) - Next, they must write a claim and a reason for each item they've selected. (5-10 min) - Finally, they must find evidence that supports their claim and reason. For this, you can opt to allow students to use their phone or device in the classroom to find sources. Also, you could opt to complete this assignment in a computer lab (another fun option is to pair this activity with a lesson in information literacy as well). (10-15 min) - OPTIONAL: If you have students create a poster to present to the class, then be sure to provide them with enough time to create this poster as a group. (10-15 min) - Finish off with allowing each group to present their claims, reasons, and evidence for each item they selected. (time varies)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.068852	Game	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92871/overview", "title": "Claims, Reasons, Evidence - \"I'm a Survivor\" Hero of the Zombie Apocalypse", "author": "Speaking and Listening" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121921/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview This was the draft planning document that I created... How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? The OER Series has provided insight into the practical benefits of open educational resources (OER). I've observed how they can reduce costs for students, increase accessibility, and promote innovation in teaching by enabling faculty to tailor materials to their specific class as needed. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I'm designing this OER item for community college students. Their learning needs include materials that are clear, concise, and directly applicable to real-world scenarios. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? Instructional designers can help shape the OER item by ensuring it meets best practices in educational design, accessibility, and OER requirements. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. OER testbook. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? I need to develop my own lecture notes to better meet students' needs. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? Reviewing research on effective OER design, especially studies on active learning and accessibility, would guide the design. This research could include examples of successful OER implementations, interactive design elements, and methods for making content accessible to all learners. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? I'm currently developing four math courses for OER, with a goal to complete them by the end of August 2025. OER Item MAT112 - Intermediate Algebra Course Description A review of the fundamental skills of arithmetic and algebra, using techniques for handling algebraic expressions and solving linear equations/inequalities, with an emphasis on developing problem-solving strategies when solving applications. MAT112 - Intermediate Algebra Course Outcomes Current version: By successfully completing this course, students will be able to: Simplify Polynomials by Factoring. Solve Applications by Factoring. Solve and Graph both Quadratic Equations and Inequalities. Simplify Rational Expressions. Solve Rational Equations and their Applications. Simplify Rational Exponents and Roots. Solve and Graph Radical Equations. Define and Interpret Complex Numbers. Simplify and Solve Exponential and Logarithmic Functions. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact. Developing this OER item has brought about several valuable insights and shifts in my own teaching approach. Student-Centered Design: Creating OER has deepened my focus on student-centered learning. I've become more intentional about remixing materials that directly address students' needs for clarity, accessibility, and real-world application. Collaborate with Colleagues: Engaging in OER development has encouraged greater collaboration with colleagues who are also invested in developing open resources. Student Engagement and Accessibility: The customized materials resonate better with the students' needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.094295	11/14/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121921/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Shirley Xie" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109503/overview	Adam - OER Item (Statistics Problems/Project) Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: The location (here) of countless OER resources to get ideas from when creating/remixing my own. My next steps are to outline the context for which I want to build a supportive OER. My Audience: For now, online, community college-level, mostly business and nursing students of statistics. From past experience, they need a lot of scaffolding and prefer short-winded explanations and visuals. My Team: Linda Neff, Kate Kozak, and maybe some of my other colleagues. Within my project, none of them have an official role, but I'll look to them as advisors/supervisors. Existing Resources: This one seems like a great starting place! New Resources: ... I don't know what this means. Supports Needed: Yeah, I have tons of research to do still. But first! Complete this webinar and work on the OER Training with my college, including: Introduction to OER · Considerations for Using or Creating OER · Copyright and Open Licensing · Creative Commons Licenses · Evaluating OER · Finding Open Content · Repositories and Search Tools · Ancillary Resources · OER in Print · Teaching with OER · Open Pedagogy · Considerations for Using Open Pedagogy · Centering Diversity and Inclusion · Planning and Completing Your Project · Tools and Techniques for Creating OER · Accessibility and Usability Our Timeline: No short-term deliverables yet since I haven't created a timetable. The hard deadline for the final product is August 2024, but ideally May 2024 for my (expected) summer class. OER Item [Title image: Photo by Chris Liverani on Unsplash.] MAT 160/BUS 232 (Intro Stats) Project Attached: Grant plan timeline Learning outcomes: - (ILO) Critical & Creative Thinking: Students will use a variety of inquiry methods, resources, and reasoning skills to think critically and creatively. - (ILO) Communication Skills: Through various modes of expression, students will be able to express and exchange ideas to increase knowledge and foster understanding. - (ILO) Ethical and Civic Values: Students will demonstrate a better understanding of themselves and others to clarify individual and societal responsibilities, needs, and values. - (ILO) Core Skills: Students will become more adaptable and seek new information to solve problems. They will make academic, major life, and career choices based on an assessment of their interests, values, skills, and abilities. They will acquire the employability skills necessary to be effective in their career. - (AGEC) Promote intellectual exchange as an essential part of the learning process. - (AGEC: Math) Analyze polynomial, exponential and logarithmic functions. - (AGEC: Math) Employ the concepts of mathematical modeling in a variety of application problems. - (AGEC: Math) Develop critical thinking skills through situational analysis and problem solving. - (CLO) Use statistical methods to collect, organize, analyze and interpret numerical data; - (CLO) create and interpret graphs of data; - (CLO) calculate and use measures of central tendency and variability; - (CLO) calculate probabilities for events or combinations of events; - (CLO) predict the outcomes of an event; - (CLO) explain and use the Central Limit Theorem; - (CLO) estimate population parameters for one and two populations; - (CLO) recognize a variety of probability distributions; - (CLO) interpret confidence intervals; - (CLO) test hypotheses; - (CLO) determine and interpret linear regression, correlation, and coefficient of determination; - (CLO) solve application situations using a variety of statistical methods; - (CLO) use technology to solve a variety of statistical applications; - (CLO) interpret case studies; and - (CLO) discuss ethical issues in statistics. Reflection I plan to publish a lot more of my content as OER even if I'm insecure about it since people might find it valuable! I need to start finding a way to curate my old stuff into at least reasonably shareable stuff. But first! I need to prep for spring (leaving breadcrumbs for myself) and get going on this OER grant. I found a cool full course which is probably a good starting place for making my own, but also makes me feel uneasy about starting from scratch instead of just scaffolding from theirs. Alas!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.116961	10/20/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109503/overview", "title": "Adam - OER Item (Statistics Problems/Project)", "author": "Adam Leighton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26294/overview	Introduction: The Texas State Legislature Overview This chapter explores the law-making branch of Texas government–the Texas State Legislature. Introduction: The Texas State Legislature Chapter Introduction: The Texas State Legislature This chapter explores the law-making branch of Texas government–the Texas State Legislature. Structure At the end of this module, students will be able to: - Understand the structure of the Texas State Legislature Learning Objectives At the end of this section you’ll be able to: - Understand the structure of the Texas State Legislature Article 3 of the Texas Constitution describes the legislative department (branch) of Texas. The Texas Legislature is a bicameral (two branches or chambers) system with the Texas Senate being the upper house, and the Texas House of Representatives the lower house. There are a total of 181 members of the Texas Legislature: 31 Senators, and 150 members of the House. Duties and Role At the end of this module, students will be able to: - Understand the duties and role of the Texas State Legislature Learning Objectives At the end of this section you’ll be able to: - Understand the duties and role of the Texas State Legislature The Texas State Legislature meets at the Capitol in Austin. It is a powerful arm of the Texas government not only because of its power of the purse to control and direct the activities of state government and the strong constitutional connections between it and the Lieutenant Governor of Texas, but also due to Texas’s plural executive. The duties of the Legislature include consideration of proposed laws and resolutions, consideration of proposed constitutional amendments for submission to the voters, and appropriation of all funds for the operation of state government. All bills for raising revenue considered by the Legislature must originate in the House of Representatives. The House alone can bring impeachment charges against a statewide officer, impeachment charges are tried by the Senate. The Legislature is the constitutional successor of the Congress of the Republic of Texas since Texas’s 1845 entrance into the Union. The Legislature held its first regular session from February 16 to May 13, 1846.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.133850	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26294/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch, Introduction: The Texas State Legislature", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26304/overview	Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications Overview Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications Gubernatorial Elections Gubernatorial Elections The state’s first constitution in 1845 established the office of governor, to serve for two years, but no more than four years out of every six (essentially a limit of no more than two consecutive terms). The 1861 secessionist constitution set the term start date at the first Monday in the November following the election. The 1866 constitution, adopted just after the American Civil War, increased terms to 4 years, but no more than 8 years out of every 12, and moved the start date to the first Thursday after the organization of the legislature, or “as soon thereafter as practicable”. The Reconstruction constitution of 1869 removed the limit on terms, Texas remains one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term limit. The present constitution of 1876 shortened terms back to two years, but a 1972 amendment increased it again to four years. Texas elects governors in the midterm elections, that is, even years that are not presidential election years. For Texas 2018, 2022, 2026, 2030, and 2034 are all gubernatorial election years. Legally, the gubernatorial inauguration is always set for the “on the first Tuesday after the organization of the Legislature, or as soon thereafter as practicable.” If two candidates tie for the most votes or if an election is contested, a joint session of the legislature shall cast ballots to resolve the issue. The 48th and current governor is Republican Greg Abbott. He assumed office on January 20, 2015, succeeding Rick Perry (R). Perry was the longest-serving governor in state history with a tenure lasting from 2000 to 2015. Abbott previously served as the Attorney General of Texas from 2002 to 2015. Qualifications Qualifications Article IV, Section 4 of the Texas Constitution sets the following qualifications for Governor: - Must be at least 30 years old; - Be a resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election; - Must be a U.S. citizen.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.149973	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26304/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Executive Branch, Gubernatorial Elections and Qualifications", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26299/overview	Organization and Leadership Overview Organization and leadership of the Texas State Legislature. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand how the Texas State Legislature is organized - Understand the Committee structure - Understand the presiding officers of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the roles played by the presiding officers By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand how the Texas State Legislature is organized - Understand the Committee structure - Understand the presiding officers of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the roles played by the presiding officers Organization Organization Although members are elected on partisan ballots, both houses of the Legislature are officially organized on a nonpartisan basis, with members of both parties serving in leadership positions such as committee chairmanships. As of 2018, a majority of the members of each chamber are members of the Republican Party. Committees Committees A committee is a group of legislators appointed by the presiding officer of the house or the senate to which proposed legislation is referred or a specific task is assigned. The size of the legislature and the volume of work confronting it each session make lengthy deliberation on all proposed measures by the entire membership a difficult task. For this reason, the basic business in both chambers is conducted according to the committee system. Committees to consider introduced bills and advise on their disposition are created in the rules of procedure of the respective chambers. Although nearly all bills are referred to a committee, a large number of bills are never reported out of committee. Thus, committee action is a crucial step in the process by which a bill becomes law. The presiding officers (the Speaker of the House and the Lieutenant Governor) have substantial power over the committee process. The Lieutenant Governor appoints all chairs and members of Senate committees, and refers all bills to committee. The lieutenant governor also schedules most bills for consideration on the Senate floor. Bills that are local or uncontested are scheduled by the Senate Administration Committee. The speaker appoints chairs and members of all House committees and refers all bills to a committee. Bills are scheduled for consideration on the House floor by the Calendars Committee. Types of Committees Types of Committees There are six types of Committees in the Texas State Legislature: - Standing: Peramanent--existing from one regular session to the next - Substantive: Work on legislation, rather than process (rules), calendars, or administration - Procedural: Work on the chamber process (rules), calendars or administration - Special (aka Ad Hoc): Temporary - Interim: Work between regular sessions - Conference (aka Joint): Comprised of members from the house and senate Committees of the Texas State Legislature Committees There are a total of 55 standing committees in the Texas State Legislature. There is 1 joint standing committee. The Texas Senate has 18 standing committees. The Texas House has 36 standing committees. These are the Committees of the Texas House of Representative and the Texas Senate: House - Agriculture and Livestock Committee, Texas House - Appropriations Committee, Texas House - Border & Intergovernmental Affairs Committee, Texas House - Business & Industry Committee, Texas House - Calendars Committee, Texas House - Corrections Committee, Texas House - County Affairs Committee, Texas House - Criminal Jurisprudence Committee, Texas House - Culture, Recreation, & Tourism Committee, Texas House - Defense & Veterans' Affairs Committee, Texas House - Elections Committee, Texas House - Economic & Small Business Development Committee, Texas House - Energy Resources Committee, Texas House - Environmental Regulation Committee, Texas House - General Investigating & Ethics Committee, Texas House - Government Efficiency & Reform Committee, Texas House - Higher Education Committee, Texas House - Homeland Security & Public Safety Committee, Texas House - House Administration Committee, Texas House - Human Services Committee, Texas House - Insurance Committee, Texas House - Judiciary & Civil Jurisprudence Committee, Texas House - Land & Resource Management Committee, Texas House - Licensing & Administrative Procedures Committee, Texas House - Local & Consent Calendars Committee, Texas House - Natural Resources Committee, Texas House - Pensions, Investments & Financial Services Committee, Texas House - Public Education Committee, Texas House - Public Health Committee, Texas House - Redistricting Committee, Texas House - Rules & Resolutions Committee, Texas House - State Affairs Committee, Texas House - Technology Committee, Texas House of Representatives - Transportation Committee, Texas House - Urban Affairs Committee, Texas House - Ways & Means Committee, Texas House Senate - Administration Committee - Agriculture & Rural Affairs Committee - Business & Commerce Committee - Criminal Justice Committee - Economic Development Committee - Education Committee - Finance Committee - Government Organization Committee - Health & Human Services Committee - Higher Education Committee - Intergovernmental Relations Committee - International Relations and Trade Committee - Jurisprudence Committee - Natural Resources Committee - Nominations Committee - State Affairs Committee - Transportation & Homeland Security Committee - Veteran Affairs & Military Installations Committee Presiding Officers Presiding officers The presiding officeres have wide latitude in choosing committee membership in their respective chambers and have a large impact on lawmaking in the state. Texas Senate Leadership: The Lieutenant Governor As presiding officer of the Senate, the lieutenant governor is officially called the President of the Senate. The lieutenant governor is elected by a statewide popular vote to serve a four year term of office. The lieutenant governor is not a member of the Senate, and votes only in case of a tie. The lieutenant governor appoints all chairs and members of Senate committees, and refers all bills to committee. The lieutenant governor also schedules most bills for consideration on the Senate floor. The current Lieutenant Governor is Dan Patrick. Texas House of Representatives Leadership: The Speaker of the House The speaker of the House is the presiding officer, elected by a majority of House members. The speaker appoints chairs and members of all House committees and refers all bills to a committee. The current Speaker of the House is Joe Strauss.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.176482	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26299/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch, Organization and Leadership", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26316/overview	Texas’ Budgetary Processes and Expenditures Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand Texas’ Budgetary Processes - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand Texas’ Budgetary Processes - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money Texas Budgetary Processes Texas Budgetary Processes Texas Budgetary Process The budget process for Texas is outlined below[1] : - Request for Funds. On even-numbered years all government agencies submit a strategic plan requesting funds to the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor’s Office of Budget, Planning, and Policy (GOBPP). The strategic plans’ request for funds must adhere to Texas’s mission statement provided by the Governor and the LBB. The instructions and forms to submit the request for funds are prepared by the LBB. - Analysis of Requests. The requests for funds and strategic plans are then reviewed by the LBB and the GOBPP. The LBB is made up of ten members from the Texas Senate and Texas House and Co-Chaired by the Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House. The GOBPP is an agency in the Executive Branch that answers to the Governor. - Budget proposals sent to the Legislature. The LBB and Governor then submit their budget proposals to the Texas Legislature. The Texas Legislature then reviews the proposals through the Senate and House Finance Committees. After both chambers approve an appropriations bill, then the bill is sent to each respective chamber for a vote. - Comptroller verifies. Once the Texas Legislature has approved the appropriations bill, then the Texas State Comptroller must certify that enough tax revenue will be generated to fund the budget. The Texas Constitution mandates a balanced budget (Article 3, Section 49). If the Comptroller cannot certify the appropriations bill, then the Texas Legislature has the option to vote on allowing the state to go into debt by a 4/5ths vote from each chamber. - Governor. Once the Comptroller certifies the appropriations bill, then the Governor is allowed to sign the bill into law. The Governor of Texas also has the power of line-item veto, where only parts of the budget are rejected. Texas Budget Expenditures Texas Budget Expenditures - Understand Texas’ Budget Expenditures–Where Texas Spends Its Money The state of Texas spends over half of their budget on Health and Human Services & Education. 36.8% of the state’s budget is spent on Health and Human Services, and 36.7 was spent on Education. Health and Human Services include Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Medicaid, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Department of Aging and Disability Services. Education is split into two categories: Public education, and Higher education.[2]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.194115	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26316/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas Revenue and Budget, Texas’ Budgetary Processes and Expenditures", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26315/overview	Texas Revenue Overview Texas Revenue Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Explain the different types of taxes - Be familiar with the various revenue sources for Texas - Explain the budgetary process of Texas - Explain the budget expenditures of Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the different types of taxes - Be familiar with the various revenue sources for Texas - Explain the budgetary process of Texas - Explain the budget expenditures of Texas Taxation Taxation Types of taxes Any government relies on a variety of taxes in order to make revenue to spend on public services. There are different types of taxes: - Income tax– taxes collected from an individual’s income (There is no state income tax in Texas); - General sales tax– based on taxes collected from retail prices of items; - Excise tax– taxes collected on specific products such as tobacco and gasoline; - Ad valorem tax– taxes based according to the value of the property. The federal government’s number one tax source for revenue is income tax- The 16th Amendment of the United States Constitution authorized an income tax. The state of Texas’ main revenue source are from sales tax. Article 8 of the Texas Constitution describes the “Taxation and Revenue” specifics. Local governments heavily rely on property taxes as their main source of tax revenue.[1] Other Revenue Sources There are also other tax revenue sources that the state of Texas receives from various sources such as: - Federal grants in aid– these types of funds come from the federal government to aid state or local governments, and sometimes require matching monies from the receiving government and/or are to be used for a specific use. - Borrowing– The Texas Constitution does allow for the state or local governments to borrow funds through bonds. There are two types of bonds: - General-obligation bonds: Bonds repaid from taxes, usually approved by taxpayers through vote; - Revenue bonds: Typically paid through the revenue made from the projects created by the bond i.e. sports facilities, public college dorms.[2] - Economic Stabilization Fund– The “Rainy Day Fund” is a type of savings account for the state of Texas. Since 1990, any surplus from previous budget cycles, and collections from oil and gas production are deposited into this account- the Texas Constitution limits the balance of the Rainy Day Fund to no more than 10% of the general revenue deposited during the preceding budget cycle. At the end of fiscal year 2016, Texas’ Rainy Day Fund was approximately $9.7 billion dollars. The Texas Constitution authorizes the Legislature to utilize monies from the Rainy Day Fund for a budget deficit, projected revenue shortfall, or any other purpose they choose. “Appropriations for the first two circumstances require approval by three-fifths of the Legislature, while a general-purpose appropriation needs a two-thirds majority for passage. The Legislature has made seven appropriations totaling $10.6 billion from the ESF since its inception, most recently in 2013. All were approved by two-thirds votes. The purposes for these appropriations have included water projects, disaster relief, public education, economic development, and health and human services. Only one appropriation—$3.2 billion in 2011, representing 34 percent of the fund balance at that time—was made to cover a budget gap (for fiscal 2011).”[3] Texas Revenue Texas Revenue The tax revenue of Texas for 2016-2017 biennium [4] The estimated total state revenue for the 2016-2017 biennium is $214 billion dollars. The percentage breakdown for certain line items is: 34% will come from federal funds; 28% will be derived from sales taxes; 8% from licenses, fees, fines and penalties; 2.4% from cigarette, tobacco, and alcohol taxes; and 1.8% from the lottery. - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/ ↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/ ↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/economy/fiscal-notes/2016/september/rainy-day.php ↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/transparency/revenue/ ↵ CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Texas Budget and Revenue. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.213124	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26315/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas Revenue and Budget, Texas Revenue", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90493/overview	Lesson 3 Section 10 The Second New Deal (1935-1936) Lesson 3 Section 11 Equal Rights and the New Deal Lesson 3 Section 12 The End of the New Deal (1937-1939) Lesson 3 Section 13 The Legacy of the New Deal Lesson 3 Section 2 The Origins of the Great Depressions Lesson 3 Section 3 Herbert Hoover and the Politics of the Depression Lesson 3 Section 4 The Lived Experience of the Great Depression Lesson 3 Section 5 Migration and the Great Depression Lesson 3 Section 6 The Bonus Army Lesson 3 Section 7 Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the “First” New Deal Lesson 3 Section 8 The New Deal in the South Lesson 3 Section 9 Voices of Protest The Great Depression Overview Link to student view Unit 2 Lesson 3 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90493/overview Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 2 Lesson 3 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Ch-23.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Hard times had hit the United States before, but never had an economic crisis lasted so long or inflicted as much harm as the slump that followed the 1929 crash. After nearly a decade of supposed prosperity, the economy crashed to a halt. People suddenly stopped borrowing and buying. Industries built on debt-fueled purchases sold fewer goods. Retailers lowered prices and, when that did not attract enough buyers to turn profits, they laid off workers to lower labor costs. With so many people out of work and without income, shops sold even less, dropped their prices lower still, and then shed still more workers, creating a vicious downward cycle. Four years after the crash, the Great Depression reached its lowest point: nearly one in four Americans who wanted a job could not find one and, of those who could, more than half had to settle for part-time work. Farmers could not make enough money from their crops to make harvesting worthwhile. Food rotted in the fields of a starving nation. The needy drew down whatever savings they had, turned to their families, and sought out charities for public assistance. Soon they all were depleted. Unemployed workers and cash-strapped farmers could not defaulted on their debts, including their mortgages. Already over-extended banks, deprived of income, took savings accounts down with them when they closed. Fear-stricken observers went to their own banks and demanded their deposits. Banks that otherwise might have endured the crisis fell prey to panic, and shut down as well. With so little being bought and sold, and so little lent and spent, with even bankers unable to lay their hands on money, the nation’s economy ground nearly to a halt. None of the remedies adopted by the president or the Congress succeeded—not higher tariffs, nor restriction of immigration, nor sticking to sound money, nor expressions of confidence in the resilience of the American people. Whatever good these measures achieved, it was not enough. In the 1932 presidential election, the incumbent president, Herbert Hoover, a Republican, promised that he would stand firm against those who, he said, would destroy the U.S. Constitution to restore the economy. Chief among these supposedly dangerous experimenters was the Democratic presidential nominee, New York governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, who began his campaign by pledging a New Deal for the American people. The voters chose Roosevelt in a landslide, inaugurating a rapid and enduring transformation in the U.S. government. Even though the New Deal never achieved as much as its proponents hoped or its opponents feared, it did more than any other peacetime program to change how Americans saw their country. Notes Title image In this famous 1936 photograph by Dorothea Lange, a destitute, thirty-two-year-old mother of seven captures the agonies of the Great Depression. Library of Congress. The Origins of the Great Depression On Thursday, October 24, 1929, stock market prices suddenly plummeted. Ten billion dollars in investments (roughly equivalent to about $100 billion today) disappeared in a matter of hours. Panicked selling set in, stock values sank to sudden lows, and stunned investors crowded the New York Stock Exchange demanding answers. Leading bankers met privately at the offices of J. P. Morgan and raised millions in personal and institutional contributions to halt the slide. They marched across the street and ceremoniously bought stocks at inflated prices. The market temporarily stabilized but fears spread over the weekend and the following week frightened investors dumped their portfolios to avoid further losses. On October 29, Black Tuesday, the stock market began its long precipitous fall. Stock values evaporated. Shares of U.S. Steel dropped from $262 to $22. General Motors stock fell from $73 a share to $8. Four fifths of J. D. Rockefeller’s fortune—the greatest in American history—vanished. Although the crash stunned the nation, it exposed the deeper, underlying problems with the American economy in the 1920s. The stock market’s popularity grew throughout the decade, but only 2.5 percent of Americans had brokerage accounts; the overwhelming majority of Americans had no direct personal stake in Wall Street. The stock market’s collapse, no matter how dramatic, did not by itself depress the American economy. Instead, the crash exposed a great number of factors that, when combined with the financial panic, sank the American economy into the greatest of all economic crises. Rising inequality, declining demand, rural collapse, overextended investors, and the bursting of speculative bubbles all conspired to plunge the nation into the Great Depression. Despite resistance by Progressives, the vast gap between rich and poor accelerated throughout the early twentieth century. In the aggregate, Americans were better off in 1929 than in 1920. Per capita income had risen 10 percent for all Americans, but 75 percent for the nation’s wealthiest citizens.1 The return of conservative politics in the 1920s reinforced federal fiscal policies that exacerbated the divide: low corporate and personal taxes, easy credit, and depressed interest rates overwhelmingly favored wealthy investors who, flush with cash, spent their money on luxury goods and speculative investments in the rapidly rising stock market. The pro-business policies of the 1920s were designed for an American economy built on the production and consumption of durable goods. Yet by the late 1920s, much of the market was saturated. The boom of automobile manufacturing, the great driver of the American economy in the 1920s, slowed as fewer and fewer Americans with the means to purchase a car had not already done so. More and more, the well-to-do had no need for the new automobiles, radios, and other consumer goods that fueled gross domestic product (GDP) growth in the 1920s. When products failed to sell, inventories piled up, manufacturers scaled back production, and companies fired workers, stripping potential consumers of cash, blunting demand for consumer goods, and replicating the downward economic cycle. The situation was only compounded by increased automation and rising efficiency in American factories. Despite impressive overall growth throughout the 1920s, unemployment hovered around 7 percent throughout the decade, suppressing purchasing power for a great swath of potential consumers.2 For American farmers, meanwhile, hard times began long before the markets crashed. In 1920 and 1921, after several years of larger-than-average profits, farm prices in the South and West continued their long decline, plummeting as production climbed and domestic and international demand for cotton, foodstuffs, and other agricultural products stalled. Widespread soil exhaustion on western farms only compounded the problem. Farmers found themselves unable to make payments on loans taken out during the good years, and banks in agricultural areas tightened credit in response. By 1929, farm families were overextended, in no shape to make up for declining consumption, and in a precarious economic position even before the Depression wrecked the global economy.3 Despite serious foundational problems in the industrial and agricultural economy, most Americans in 1929 and 1930 still believed the economy would bounce back. In 1930, amid one of the Depression’s many false hopes, President Herbert Hoover reassured an audience that “the depression is over.”4 But the president was not simply guilty of false optimism. Hoover made many mistakes. During his 1928 election campaign, Hoover promoted higher tariffs as a means for encouraging domestic consumption and protecting American farmers from foreign competition. Spurred by the ongoing agricultural depression, Hoover signed into law the highest tariff in American history, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930, just as global markets began to crumble. Other countries responded in kind, tariff walls rose across the globe, and international trade ground to a halt. Between 1929 and 1932, international trade dropped from $36 billion to only $12 billion. American exports fell by 78 percent. Combined with overproduction and declining domestic consumption, the tariff exacerbated the world’s economic collapse.5 But beyond structural flaws, speculative bubbles, and destructive protectionism, the final contributing element of the Great Depression was a quintessentially human one: panic. The frantic reaction to the market’s fall aggravated the economy’s other many failings. More economic policies backfired. The Federal Reserve overcorrected in their response to speculation by raising interest rates and tightening credit. Across the country, banks denied loans and called in debts. Their patrons, afraid that reactionary policies meant further financial trouble, rushed to withdraw money before institutions could close their doors, ensuring their fate. Such bank runs were not uncommon in the 1920s, but in 1930, with the economy worsening and panic from the crash accelerating, 1,352 banks failed. In 1932, nearly 2,300 banks collapsed, taking personal deposits, savings, and credit with them.6 The Great Depression was the confluence of many problems, most of which had begun during a time of unprecedented economic growth. Fiscal policies of the Republican “business presidents” undoubtedly widened the gap between rich and poor and fostered a standoff over international trade, but such policies were widely popular and, for much of the decade, widely seen as a source of the decade’s explosive growth. With fortunes to be won and standards of living to maintain, few Americans had the foresight or wherewithal to repudiate an age of easy credit, rampant consumerism, and wild speculation. Instead, as the Depression worked its way across the United States, Americans hoped to weather the economic storm as best they could, hoping for some relief from the ever-mounting economic collapse that was strangling so many lives. Notes - George Donelson Moss, The Rise of Modern America: A History of the American People, 1890–1945 (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1995), 185–186. - Ibid., 186. - Robert S. McElvaine, The Great Depression: America, 1921–1940 (New York: Random House, 1984), 36. - John Steele Gordon, An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2004), 320. - Moss, Rise of Modern America, 186–187. - David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 65, 68. Herbert Hoover and the Politics of the Depression As the Depression spread, public blame settled on President Herbert Hoover and the conservative politics of the Republican Party. In 1928, having won the presidency in a landslide, Hoover had no reason to believe that his presidency would be any different than that of his predecessor, Calvin Coolidge, whose time in office was marked by relative government inaction, seemingly rampant prosperity, and high approval ratings.1 Hoover entered office on a wave of popular support, but by October 1929 the economic collapse had overwhelmed his presidency. Like all too many Americans, Hoover and his advisors assumed—or perhaps simply hoped—that the sharp financial and economic decline was a temporary downturn, another “bust” of the inevitable boom-bust cycles that stretched back through America’s commercial history. “Any lack of confidence in the economic future and the basic strength of business in the United States is simply foolish,” he said in November.2 And yet the crisis grew. Unemployment commenced a slow, sickening rise. New-car registrations dropped by almost a quarter within a few months.3 Consumer spending on durable goods dropped by a fifth in 1930.4 When suffering Americans looked to Hoover for help, Hoover could only answer with volunteerism. He asked business leaders to promise to maintain investments and employment and encouraged state and local charities to assist those in need. Hoover established the President’s Organization for Unemployment Relief, or POUR, to help organize the efforts of private agencies. While POUR urged charitable giving, charitable relief organizations were overwhelmed by the growing needs of the many multiplying unemployed, underfed, and unhoused Americans. By mid-1932, for instance, a quarter of all of New York’s private charities closed: they had simply run out of money. In Atlanta, solvent relief charities could only provide $1.30 per week to needy families. The size and scope of the Depression overpowered the radically insufficient capacity of private volunteer organizations to mediate the crisis.5 Although Hoover is sometimes categorized as a “business president” in line with his Republican predecessors, he also embraced a kind of business progressivism, a system of voluntary action called associationalism that assumed Americans could maintain a web of voluntary cooperative organizations dedicated to providing economic assistance and services to those in need. Businesses, the thinking went, would willingly limit harmful practice for the greater economic good. To Hoover, direct government aid would discourage a healthy work ethic while associationalism would encourage the self-control and self-initiative that fueled economic growth. But when the Depression exposed the incapacity of such strategies to produce an economic recovery, Hoover proved insufficiently flexible to recognize the limits of his ideology.6 “We cannot legislate ourselves out of a world economic depression,” he told Congress in 1931.7 Hoover resisted direct action. As the crisis deepened, even bankers and businessmen and the president’s own advisors and appointees all pleaded with him to use the government’s power to fight the Depression. But his conservative ideology wouldn’t allow him to. He believed in limited government as a matter of principle. Senator Robert Wagner of New York said in 1931 that the president’s policy was “to do nothing and when the pressure becomes irresistible to do as little as possible.”8 By 1932, with the economy long since stagnant and a reelection campaign looming, Hoover, hoping to stimulate American industry, created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to provide emergency loans to banks, building-and-loan societies, railroads, and other private industries. It was radical in its use of direct government aid and out of character for the normally laissez-faire Hoover, but it also bypassed needy Americans to bolster industrial and financial interests. New York congressman Fiorello LaGuardia, who later served as mayor of New York City, captured public sentiment when he denounced the RFC as a “millionaire’s dole.”9 Notes - Richard Norton Smith, An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). - Herbert Hoover, “The President’s News Conference of November 15, 1929,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Herbert Hoover, 1929 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974), 280. - Christina D. Romer, “The Great Crash and the Onset of the Great Depression,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 105, no. 3(1990), 606. - Peter Fearon, Origins and Nature of the Great Slump, 1929–1932 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), 34. - Ibid. - Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 70–103. - William E. Leuchtenburg, The American President from Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 135. - “Wagner Puts Party in Progressive Role,” New York Times, May 15, 1931, 2. - Ibid., 76. The Lived Experience of the Great Depression In 1934 a woman from Humboldt County, California, wrote to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt seeking a job for her husband, a surveyor, who had been out of work for nearly two years. The pair had survived on the meager income she received from working at the county courthouse. “My salary could keep us going,” she explained, “but—I am to have a baby.” The family needed temporary help, and, she explained, “after that I can go back to work and we can work out our own salvation. But to have this baby come to a home full of worry and despair, with no money for the things it needs, is not fair. It needs and deserves a happy start in life.”1 As the United States slid ever deeper into the Great Depression, such tragic scenes played out time and time again. Individuals, families, and communities faced the painful, frightening, and often bewildering collapse of the economic institutions on which they depended. The more fortunate were spared the worst effects, and a few even profited from it, but by the end of 1932, the crisis had become so deep and so widespread that most Americans had suffered directly. Markets crashed through no fault of their own. Workers were plunged into poverty because of impersonal forces for which they shared no responsibility. With rampant unemployment and declining wages, Americans slashed expenses. The fortunate could survive by simply deferring vacations and regular consumer purchases. Middle- and working-class Americans might rely on disappearing credit at neighborhood stores, default on utility bills, or skip meals. Those who could borrowed from relatives or took in boarders in homes or “doubled up” in tenements. But such resources couldn’t withstand the unending relentlessness of the economic crisis. As one New York City official explained in 1932, When the breadwinner is out of a job he usually exhausts his savings if he has any.… He borrows from his friends and from his relatives until they can stand the burden no longer. He gets credit from the corner grocery store and the butcher shop, and the landlord forgoes collecting the rent until interest and taxes have to be paid and something has to be done. All of these resources are finally exhausted over a period of time, and it becomes necessary for these people, who have never before been in want, to go on assistance.2 But public assistance and private charities were quickly exhausted by the scope of the crisis. As one Detroit city official put it in 1932, Many essential public services have been reduced beyond the minimum point absolutely essential to the health and safety of the city.… The salaries of city employees have been twice reduced … and hundreds of faithful employees … have been furloughed. Thus has the city borrowed from its own future welfare to keep its unemployed on the barest subsistence levels.… A wage work plan which had supported 11,000 families collapsed last month because the city was unable to find funds to pay these unemployed—men who wished to earn their own support. For the coming year, Detroit can see no possibility of preventing wide-spread hunger and slow starvation through its own unaided resources.3 These most desperate Americans, the chronically unemployed, encamped on public or marginal lands in “Hoovervilles,” spontaneous shantytowns that dotted America’s cities, depending on bread lines and street-corner peddling. One doctor recalled that “every day … someone would faint on a streetcar. They’d bring him in, and they wouldn’t ask any questions.… they knew what it was. Hunger.”4 The emotional and psychological shocks of unemployment and underemployment only added to the shocking material depravities of the Depression. Social workers and charity officials, for instance, often found the unemployed suffering from feelings of futility, anger, bitterness, confusion, and loss of pride.5 “A man is not a man without work,” one of the jobless told an interviewer.6 The ideal of the “male breadwinner” was always a fiction for poor Americans, and, during the crisis, women and young children entered the labor force, as they always had. But, in such a labor crisis, many employers, subscribing to traditional notions of male bread-winning, were less likely to hire married women and more likely to dismiss those they already employed.7 As one politician remarked at the time, the woman worker was “the first orphan in the storm.”8 American suppositions about family structure meant that women suffered disproportionately from the Depression. Since the start of the twentieth century, single women had become an increasing share of the workforce, but married women, Americans were likely to believe, took a job because they wanted to and not because they needed it. Once the Depression came, employers were therefore less likely to hire married women and more likely to dismiss those they already employed.9 Women on their own and without regular work suffered a greater threat of sexual violence than their male counterparts; accounts of such women suggest they depended on each other for protection.10 The Great Depression was particularly tough for nonwhite Americans. “The Negro was born in depression,” one Black pensioner told interviewer Studs Terkel. “It didn’t mean too much to him. The Great American Depression . . . only became official when it hit the white man.” ((Studs Terkel,Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression(New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), 81-82.)) Black workers were generally the last hired when businesses expanded production and the first fired when businesses experienced downturns. As a National Urban League study found, “So general is this practice that one is warranted in suspecting that it has been adopted as a method of relieving unemployment of whites without regard to the consequences upon Negroes.”11 In 1932, with the national unemployment average hovering around 25 percent, Black unemployment reached as high as 50 percent, while even Black workers who kept their jobs saw their already low wages cut dramatically.12 Notes - Mrs. M. H. A. to Eleanor Roosevelt, June 14, 1934, in Robert S. McElvaine, ed., Down and Out in the Great Depression: Letters from the Forgotten Man (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 54–55. - Lester V. Chandler, America’s Greatest Depression, 1929–1941 (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 41. - Chandler, America’s Greatest Depression, 44. - Studs Terkel, Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression (New York: New Press, 2000), 20–21. - See especially Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 5). - Mirra Komarovsky, The Unemployed Man and His Family (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 133. - Claudia Dale Goldin, Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of American Women, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 34. - William H. Chafe, The Paradox of Change: American Women in the 20th Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 71. - Claudia Dale Goldin, Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of American Women, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 34. - William H. Chafe, The Paradox of Change: American Women in the 20th Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 71. - William A. Sundstrom, “Last Hired, First Fired? Unemployment and Urban Black Workers During the Great Depression,” Journal of American History, 65, no. 1 (1978), 70–71. - Anthony J. Badger, The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1989), 15–23. Migration and the Great Depression On the Great Plains, environmental catastrophe deepened America’s longstanding agricultural crisis and magnified the tragedy of the Depression. Beginning in 1932, severe droughts hit from Texas to the Dakotas and lasted until at least 1936. The droughts compounded years of agricultural mismanagement. To grow their crops, Plains farmers had plowed up natural ground cover that had taken ages to form over the surface of the dry Plains states. Relatively wet decades had protected them, but, during the early 1930s, without rain, the exposed fertile topsoil turned to dust, and without sod or windbreaks such as trees, rolling winds churned the dust into massive storms that blotted out the sky, choked settlers and livestock, and rained dirt not only across the region but as far east as Washington, D.C., New England, and ships on the Atlantic Ocean. The Dust Bowl, as the region became known, exposed all-too-late the need for conservation. The region’s farmers, already hit by years of foreclosures and declining commodity prices, were decimated.1 For many in Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Arkansas who were “baked out, blown out, and broke,” their only hope was to travel west to California, whose rains still brought bountiful harvests and—potentially—jobs for farmworkers. It was an exodus. Oklahoma lost 440,000 people, or a full 18.4 percent of its 1930 population, to outmigration.2 Dorothea Lange’s Migrant Mother became one of the most enduring images of the Dust Bowl and the ensuing westward exodus. Lange, a photographer for the Farm Security Administration, captured the image at a migrant farmworker camp in Nipomo, California, in 1936. In the photograph a young mother stares out with a worried, weary expression. She was a migrant, having left her home in Oklahoma to follow the crops to the Golden State. She took part in what many in the mid-1930s were beginning to recognize as a vast migration of families out of the southwestern Plains states. In the image she cradles an infant and supports two older children, who cling to her. Lange’s photo encapsulated the nation’s struggle. The subject of the photograph seemed used to hard work but down on her luck, and uncertain about what the future might hold. The Okies, as such westward migrants were disparagingly called by their new neighbors, were the most visible group who were on the move during the Depression, lured by news and rumors of jobs in far-flung regions of the country. Men from all over the country, some abandoning families, hitched rides, hopped freight cars, or otherwise made their way around the country. By 1932, sociologists were estimating that millions of men were on the roads and rails traveling the country.3 Popular magazines and newspapers were filled with stories of homeless boys and the veterans-turned-migrants of the Bonus Army commandeering boxcars. Popular culture, such as William Wellman’s 1933 film, Wild Boys of the Road, and, most famously, John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, published in 1939 and turned into a hit movie a year later, captured the Depression’s dislocated populations. These years witnessed the first significant reversal in the flow of people between rural and urban areas. Thousands of city dwellers fled the jobless cities and moved to the country looking for work. As relief efforts floundered, many state and local officials threw up barriers to migration, making it difficult for newcomers to receive relief or find work. Some state legislatures made it a crime to bring poor migrants into the state and allowed local officials to deport migrants to neighboring states. In the winter of 1935–1936, California, Florida, and Colorado established “border blockades” to block poor migrants from their states and reduce competition with local residents for jobs. A billboard outside Tulsa, Oklahoma, informed potential migrants that there were “NO JOBS in California” and warned them to “KEEP Out.”4 Sympathy for migrants, however, accelerated late in the Depression with the publication of John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. The Joad family’s struggles drew attention to the plight of Depression-era migrants and, just a month after the nationwide release of the film version, Congress created the Select Committee to Investigate the Interstate Migration of Destitute Citizens. Starting in 1940, the committee held widely publicized hearings. But it was too late. Within a year of its founding, defense industries were already gearing up in the wake of the outbreak of World War II, and the “problem” of migration suddenly became a lack of migrants needed to fill war industries. Such relief was nowhere to be found in the 1930s. Americans meanwhile feared foreign workers willing to work for even lower wages. The Saturday Evening Post warned that foreign immigrants, who were “compelled to accept employment on any terms and conditions offered,” would exacerbate the economic crisis.5 On September 8, 1930, the Hoover administration issued a press release on the administration of immigration laws “under existing conditions of unemployment.” Hoover instructed consular officers to scrutinize carefully the visa applications of those “likely to become public charges” and suggested that this might include denying visas to most, if not all, alien laborers and artisans. The crisis itself had stifled foreign immigration, but such restrictive and exclusionary actions in the first years of the Depression intensified its effects. The number of European visas issued fell roughly 60 percent while deportations dramatically increased. Between 1930 and 1932, fifty-four thousand people were deported. An additional forty-four thousand deportable aliens left “voluntarily.”6 Exclusionary measures hit Mexican immigrants particularly hard. The State Department made a concerted effort to reduce immigration from Mexico as early as 1929, and Hoover’s executive actions arrived the following year. Officials in the Southwest led a coordinated effort to push out Mexican immigrants. In Los Angeles, the Citizens Committee on Coordination of Unemployment Relief began working closely with federal officials in early 1931 to conduct deportation raids, while the Los Angeles County Department of Charities began a simultaneous drive to repatriate Mexicans and Mexican Americans on relief, negotiating a charity rate with the railroads to return Mexicans “voluntarily” to their mother country. According to the federal census, from 1930 to 1940 the Mexican-born population living in Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas fell from 616,998 to 377,433. Franklin Roosevelt did not indulge anti-immigrant sentiment as willingly as Hoover had. Under the New Deal, the Immigration and Naturalization Service halted some of the Hoover administration’s most divisive practices, but with jobs suddenly scarce, hostile attitudes intensified, and official policies less than welcoming, immigration plummeted and deportations rose. Over the course of the Depression, more people left the United States than entered it.7 Notes - Robert S. McElvaine, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Depression (New York: Macmillan, 2004), 320. - Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 48. - James R. McGovern, And a Time For Hope: Americans in the Great Depression, (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000), 10. - James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 22. - Cybelle Fox, Three Worlds of Relief (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 126. - Ibid., 127. - Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (New York: Sage, 2006), 269. The Bonus Army In the summer of 1932, more than fifteen-thousand unemployed veterans and their families converged on Washington, D.C. to petition for a bill authorizing immediate payment of cash bonuses to veterans of World War I that were originally scheduled to be paid out in 1945. Given the economic hardships facing the country, the bonus came to symbolize government relief for the most deserving recipients. The veterans in D.C. erected a tent city across the Potomac River in Anacostia Flats, a “Hooverville” in the spirit of the camps of homeless and unemployed Americans then appearing in American cities. Calling themselves the Bonus Expeditionary Force, or the Bonus Army, they drilled and marched and demonstrated for their bonuses. “While there were billions for bankers, there was nothing for the poor,” they complained. Concerned with what immediate payment would do to the federal budget, Hoover opposed the bill, which was eventually voted down by the Senate. While most of the “Bonus Army” left Washington in defeat, many stayed to press their case. Hoover called the remaining veterans “insurrectionists” and ordered them to leave. When thousands failed to heed the vacation order, General Douglas MacArthur, accompanied by local police, infantry, cavalry, tanks, and a machine gun squadron, stormed the tent city and routed the Bonus Army. Troops chased down men and women, tear-gassed children, and torched the shantytown.1 Two marchers were shot and killed and a baby was killed by tear gas. The national media reported on the raid, newsreels showed footage, and Americans recoiled at Hoover’s insensitivity toward suffering Americans. His overall unwillingness to address widespread economic problems and his repeated platitudes about returning prosperity condemned his presidency. Hoover of course was not responsible for the Depression, not personally. But neither he nor his advisors conceived of the enormity of the crisis, a crisis his conservative ideology could neither accommodate nor address. Americans had so far found little relief from Washington. But they were still looking for it. Notes - Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (New York: Sage, 2006), 269. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the “First” New Deal The early years of the Depression were catastrophic. The crisis, far from relenting, deepened each year. Unemployment peaked at 25 percent in 1932. With no end in sight, and with private firms crippled and charities overwhelmed by the crisis, Americans looked to their government as the last barrier against starvation, hopelessness, and perpetual poverty. Few presidential elections in modern American history have been more consequential than that of 1932. The United States was struggling through the third year of the Depression, and exasperated voters overthrew Hoover in a landslide for the Democratic governor of New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt came from a privileged background in New York’s Hudson River Valley (his distant cousin, Theodore Roosevelt, became president while Franklin was at Harvard) and embarked on a slow but steady ascent through state and national politics. In 1913, he was appointed assistant secretary of the navy, a position he held during the defense emergency of World War I. In the course of his rise, in the summer of 1921, Roosevelt suffered a sudden bout of lower-body pain and paralysis. He was diagnosed with polio. The disease left him a paraplegic, but, encouraged and assisted by his wife, Eleanor, Roosevelt sought therapeutic treatment and maintained sufficient political connections to reenter politics. In 1928, Roosevelt won election as governor of New York. He oversaw the rise of the Depression and drew from the tradition of American progressivism to address the economic crisis. He explained to the state assembly in 1931, the crisis demanded a government response “not as a matter of charity, but as a matter of social duty.” As governor he established the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA), supplying public work jobs at the prevailing wage and in-kind aid—food, shelter, and clothes—to those unable to afford it. Soon the TERA was providing work and relief to ten percent of the state’s families.1 Roosevelt relied on many like-minded advisors. Frances Perkins, for example, the commissioner of the state’s labor department, successfully advocated pioneering legislation that enhanced workplace safety and reduced the use of child labor in factories. Perkins later accompanied Roosevelt to Washington and served as the nation’s first female secretary of labor.2 On July 1, 1932, Roosevelt, the newly designated presidential nominee of the Democratic Party, delivered the first and one of the most famous on-site acceptance speeches in American presidential history. In it, he said, “I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people.” Newspaper editors seized on the phrase “new deal,” and it entered the American political lexicon as shorthand for Roosevelt’s program to address the Great Depression.3 Roosevelt proposed jobs programs, public work projects, higher wages, shorter hours, old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, farm subsidies, banking regulations, and lower tariffs. Hoover warned that such a program represented “the total abandonment of every principle upon which this government and the American system is founded.” He warned that it reeked of European communism, and that “the so called new deals would destroy the very foundations of the American system of life.”4 Americans didn’t buy it. Roosevelt crushed Hoover in November. He won more counties than any previous candidate in American history. He spent the months between his election and inauguration–the twentieth amendment, ratified in 1933, would subsequently the inauguration from March 4 to January 20–traveling, planning, and assembling a team of advisors, the famous Brain Trust of academics and experts, to help him formulate a plan of attack. On March 4, 1933, in his first inaugural address, Roosevelt famously declared, “This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance.”5 Roosevelt’s reassuring words would have rung hollow if he had not taken swift action against the economic crisis. In his first days in office, Roosevelt and his advisors prepared, submitted, and secured congressional enactment of numerous laws designed to arrest the worst of the Great Depression. His administration threw the federal government headlong into the fight against the Depression.Roosevelt immediately looked to stabilize the collapsing banking system. Two out of every five banks open in 1929 had been shuttered and some Federal Reserve banks were on the verge of insolvency.6 Roosevelt declared a national “bank holiday” closing American banks and set to work pushing the Emergency Banking Act swiftly through Congress. On March 12, the night before select banks reopened under stricter federal guidelines, Roosevelt appeared on the radio in the first of his Fireside Chats. The addresses, which the president continued delivering through four terms, were informal, even personal. Roosevelt used his airtime to explain New Deal legislation, to encourage confidence in government action, and to mobilize the American people’s support. In the first chat, Roosevelt described the new banking safeguards and asked the public to place their trust and their savings in banks. Americans responded and deposits outpaced withdrawals across the country. The act was a major success. In June, Congress passed the Glass-Steagall Banking Act, which instituted a federal deposit insurance system through the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and barred the mixing of commercial and investment banking.7 Stabilizing the banks was only a first step. In the remainder of his First Hundred Days, Roosevelt and his congressional allies focused especially on relief for suffering Americans.8 Congress debated, amended, and passed what Roosevelt proposed. As one historian noted, the president “directed the entire operation like a seasoned field general.”9 And despite some questions over the constitutionality of many of his actions, Americans and their congressional representatives conceded that the crisis demanded swift and immediate action. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed young men on conservation and reforestation projects; the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided direct cash assistance to state relief agencies struggling to care for the unemployed;10 the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) built a series of hydroelectric dams along the Tennessee River as part of a comprehensive program to economically develop a chronically depressed region;11 and several agencies helped home and farm owners refinance their mortgages. And Roosevelt wasn’t done. The heart of Roosevelt’s early recovery program consisted of two massive efforts to stabilize and coordinate the American economy: the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The AAA, created in May 1933, aimed to raise the prices of agricultural commodities (and hence farmers’ income) by offering cash incentives to voluntarily limit farm production (decreasing supply, thereby raising prices).12 The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), which created the NRA in June 1933, suspended antitrust laws to allow businesses to establish “codes” that would coordinate prices, regulate production levels, and establish conditions of employment to curtail “cutthroat competition.” In exchange for these exemptions, businesses agreed to provide reasonable wages and hours, end child labor, and allow workers the right to unionize. Participating businesses earned the right to display a placard with the NRA’s Blue Eagle, showing their cooperation in the effort to combat the Great Depression.13 The programs of the First Hundred Days stabilized the American economy and ushered in a robust though imperfect recovery. GDP climbed once more, but even as output increased, unemployment remained stubbornly high. Though the unemployment rate dipped from its high in 1933, when Roosevelt was inaugurated, vast numbers remained out of work. If the economy could not put people back to work, the New Deal would try. The Civil Works Administration (CWA) and, later, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) put unemployed men and women to work on projects designed and proposed by local governments. The Public Works Administration (PWA) provided grants-in-aid to local governments for large infrastructure projects, such as bridges, tunnels, schoolhouses, libraries, and America’s first federal public housing projects. Together, they provided not only tangible projects of immense public good but employment for millions. The New Deal was reshaping much of the nation.14 Notes - Eric Rauchway, Why the New Deal Matters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021), 144–146. - Biographies of Roosevelt include Kenneth C. Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny: 1882–1928 (New York: Rand, 1972); and Jean Edward Smith, FDR (New York: Random House, 2007). - Outstanding general treatments of the New Deal include Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956–1960); William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (New York: Harper and Row, 1963); Anthony J. Badger, The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940 (New York: Hill and Wang), 1989; and Kennedy, Freedom from Fear. On Roosevelt, see especially James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1956); Frank B. Friedel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 4 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1952–1973); Patrick J. Maney, The Roosevelt Presence: A Biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York: Twayne, 1992); Alan Brinkley, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); and Eric Rauchway, Why the New Deal Matters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021). - Eric Rauchway, “The New Deal Was on the Ballot in 1932,” Modern American History 2, no. 2 (2019), 202–203. - Franklin D. Roosevelt: “Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1933. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14473. - Eric Rauchway, Winter War: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the First Clash over the New Deal (New York: Basic Books, 2018), 140. - Michael E. Parrish, Securities Regulation and the New Deal (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970). - See especially Anthony J. Badger, FDR: The First Hundred Days (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008). - Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal). - Neil Maher, Nature’s New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Roots of the American Environmental Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). - Thomas K. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, 1933–1939 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971). - Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly: A Study in Economic Ambivalence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969); Gavin Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1986), 217. - Theodore Saloutos, The American Farmer and the New Deal (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1982). - Bonnie Fox Schwartz, The Civil Works Administration, 1933–1934: The Business of Emergency Employment in the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984); Edwin Amenta, Bold Relief: Institutional Politics and the Origins of Modern American Social Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998); Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Mason B. Williams, City of Ambition: FDR, La Guardia, and the Making of Modern New York (New York: Norton, 2013). The New Deal in the South For more information on the WPA in Tennessee, Tennessee Encyclopedia, Works Progress Administration https://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/works-progress-administration/ The impact of initial New Deal legislation was readily apparent in the South, a region of perpetual poverty especially plagued by the Depression. In 1929 the average per capita income in the American Southeast was $365, the lowest in the nation. Southern farmers averaged $183 per year at a time when farmers on the West Coast made more than four times that.1 Moreover, they were trapped into the production of cotton and corn, crops that depleted the soil and returned ever-diminishing profits. Despite the ceaseless efforts of civic boosters, what little industry the South had remained low-wage, low-skilled, and primarily extractive. Southern workers made significantly less than their national counterparts: 75 percent of nonsouthern textile workers, 60 percent of iron and steel workers, and a paltry 45 percent of lumber workers. At the time of the crash, southerners were already underpaid, underfed, and undereducated.2 Major New Deal programs were designed with the South in mind. FDR hoped that by drastically decreasing the amount of land devoted to cotton, the AAA would arrest its long-plummeting price decline. Farmers plowed up existing crops and left fields fallow, and the market price did rise. But in an agricultural world of landowners and landless farmworkers (such as tenants and sharecroppers), the benefits of the AAA bypassed the southerners who needed them most. The government relied on landowners and local organizations to distribute money fairly to those most affected by production limits, but many owners simply kicked tenants and croppers off their land, kept the subsidy checks for keeping those acres fallow, and reinvested the profits in mechanical farming equipment that further suppressed the demand for labor. Instead of making farming profitable again, the AAA pushed landless southern farmworkers off the land.3 But Roosevelt’s assault on southern poverty took many forms. Southern industrial practices attracted much attention. The NRA encouraged higher wages and better conditions. It began to suppress the rampant use of child labor in southern mills and, for the first time, provided federal protection for unionized workers all across the country. Those gains were eventually solidified in the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act, which set a national minimum wage of $0.25/hour (eventually rising to $0.40/hour). The minimum wage disproportionately affected low-paid southern workers and brought southern wages within the reach of northern wages.4 The president’s support for unionization further impacted the South. Southern industrialists had proven themselves ardent foes of unionization, particularly in the infamous southern textile mills. In 1934, when workers at textile mills across the southern Piedmont struck over low wages and long hours, owners turned to local and state authorities to quash workers’ groups, even as they recruited thousands of strikebreakers from the many displaced farmers swelling industrial centers looking for work. But in 1935 the National Labor Relations Act, also known as the Wagner Act, guaranteed the rights of most workers to unionize and bargain collectively. And so unionized workers, backed by the support of the federal government and determined to enforce the reforms of the New Deal, pushed for higher wages, shorter hours, and better conditions. With growing success, union members came to see Roosevelt as a protector of workers’ rights. Or, as one union leader put it, an “agent of God.”5 Perhaps the most successful New Deal program in the South was the TVA, an ambitious program to use hydroelectric power, agricultural and industrial reform, flood control, economic development, education, and healthcare to radically remake the impoverished watershed region of the Tennessee River. Though the area of focus was limited, Roosevelt’s TVA sought to “make a different type of citizen” out of the area’s penniless residents.6 The TVA built a series of hydroelectric dams to control flooding and distribute electricity to the otherwise nonelectrified areas at government-subsidized rates. Agents of the TVA met with residents and offered training and general education classes to improve agricultural practices and exploit new job opportunities. The TVA encapsulates Roosevelt’s vision for uplifting the South and integrating it into the larger national economy.7 Roosevelt initially courted conservative southern Democrats to ensure the legislative success of the New Deal, all but guaranteeing that the racial and economic inequalities of the region remained intact, but by the end of his second term, he had won the support of enough non-southern voters that he felt confident confronting some of the region’s most glaring inequalities. Nowhere was this more apparent than in his endorsement of a report, formulated by a group of progressive southern New Dealers, titled “A Report on Economic Conditions in the South.” The pamphlet denounced the hardships wrought by the southern economy—in his introductory letter to the report, Roosevelt called the region “the Nation’s No. 1 economic problem”—and blasted reactionary southern anti–New Dealers. He suggested that the New Deal could save the South and thereby spur a nationwide recovery. The report was among the first broadsides in Roosevelt’s coming reelection campaign that addressed the inequalities that continued to mark southern and national life.8 Notes - Howard Odum, Southern Regions of the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936), quoted in David L. Carlton and Peter Coclanis, eds., Confronting Southern Poverty in the Great Depression: The Report on Economic Conditions of the South with Related Documents (Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s, 1996), 118–119. - Wright, Old South, New South, 217. - Ibid., 227–228. - Ibid., 216–220. - William Leuchtenberg, The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2005), 74. - “Press Conference #160,” November 23, 1934, 214, in Roosevelt, Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Volumes 3–4, 1934 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972). - McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight). - Carlton and Coclanis, Confronting Southern Poverty, 42. Voices of Protest For more information about the American Liberty League, Florida Atlantic University Digital Library, The Truth about the Liberty League http://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A4846 Despite the unprecedented actions taken in his first year in office, Roosevelt’s initial relief programs could often be quite conservative. He had usually been careful to work within the bounds of presidential authority and congressional cooperation. And, unlike Europe, where several nations had turned toward state-run economies, and even fascism and socialism, Roosevelt’s New Deal demonstrated a clear reluctance to radically tinker with the nation’s foundational economic and social structures. Many high-profile critics attacked Roosevelt for not going far enough, and, beginning in 1934, Roosevelt and his advisors were forced to respond. Senator Huey Long, a flamboyant Democrat from Louisiana, was perhaps the most important “voice of protest.” Long’s populist rhetoric appealed to those who saw deeply rooted but easily addressed injustice in the nation’s economic system. Long proposed a Share Our Wealth program in which the federal government would confiscate the assets of the extremely wealthy and redistribute them to the less well-off through guaranteed minimum incomes. “How many men ever went to a barbecue and would let one man take off the table what’s intended for nine-tenths of the people to eat?” he asked. Over twenty-seven thousand Share the Wealth clubs sprang up across the nation as Long traveled the country explaining his program to crowds of impoverished and unemployed Americans. Long envisioned the movement as a stepping-stone to the presidency, but his crusade ended in late 1935 when he was assassinated on the floor of the Louisiana state capitol. Even in death, however, Long convinced Roosevelt to more stridently attack the Depression and American inequality. But Huey Long was not alone in his critique of Roosevelt. Francis Townsend, a former doctor and public health official from California, promoted a plan for old-age pensions which, he argued, would provide economic security for the elderly (who disproportionately suffered poverty) and encourage recovery by allowing older workers to retire from the workforce. Reverend Charles Coughlin, meanwhile, a priest and radio personality from the suburbs of Detroit, Michigan, gained a following by making vitriolic, anti-Semitic attacks on Roosevelt for cooperating with banks and financiers and proposing a new system of “social justice” through a more state-driven economy instead. Like Long, both Townsend and Coughlin built substantial public followings. If many Americans urged Roosevelt to go further in addressing the economic crisis, the president faced even greater opposition from conservative politicians and business leaders. By late 1934, complaints increased from business-friendly Republicans about Roosevelt’s willingness to regulate industry and use federal spending for public works and employment programs. The American Liberty League was an American political organization formed in 1934. Its membership consisted primarily of wealthy business elites and prominent political figures, who were for the most part conservatives opposed to the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The group emphasized private property and individual liberties. It was highly active in spreading its message for two years. Following the landslide re-election of Roosevelt in 1936, it sharply reduced its activities. It disbanded entirely in 1940.1 In the South, Democrats who had originally supported the president grew more hostile toward programs that challenged the region’s political, economic, and social status quo. Yet the greatest opposition came from the Supreme Court, filled with conservative appointments made during the long years of Republican presidents. By early 1935 the Court was reviewing programs of the New Deal. On May 27, a day Roosevelt’s supporters called Black Monday, the justices struck down one of the president’s signature reforms: in a case revolving around poultry processing, the Court unanimously declared the NRA unconstitutional. In early 1936, the AAA fell.2 Notes - "American Liberty League." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 29 July, 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Liberty_League - William E. Leuchtenburg, The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, State and Party in America’s New Deal (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995); Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America, 1920–1935 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). The “Second” New Deal (1935-1936) The New Deal enjoyed broad popularity. Democrats gained seats in the 1934 midterm elections, securing massive majorities in both the House and Senate. Bolstered by these gains, facing reelection in 1936, and confronting rising opposition from both the left and the right, Roosevelt rededicated himself to bold programs and more aggressive approaches, a set of legislation often termed the Second New Deal. In included a nearly five-billion dollar appropriation that in 1935 established the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a permanent version of the CWA, which would ultimately employ millions of Americans on public works projects. It would employ “the maximum number of persons in the shortest time possible,” Roosevelt said.1 Americans employed by the WPA paved more than half-a-million miles of roads, constructed thousands of bridges, built schools and post offices, and even painted murals and recorded oral histories. Not only did the program build much of America’s physical infrastructure, it came closer than any New Deal program to providing the federal jobs guarantee Roosevelt had promised in 1932. Also in 1935, hoping to reconstitute some of the protections afforded workers in the now-defunct NRA, Roosevelt worked with Congress to pass the National Labor Relations Act (known as the Wagner Act for its chief sponsor, New York senator Robert Wagner), offering federal legal protection, for the first time, for workers to organize unions. The labor protections extended by Roosevelt’s New Deal were revolutionary. In northern industrial cities, workers responded to worsening conditions by banding together and demanding support for workers’ rights. In 1935, the head of the United Mine Workers, John L. Lewis, took the lead in forming a new national workers’ organization, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), breaking with the more conservative, craft-oriented AFL. The CIO won a major victory in 1937 when affiliated members in the United Automobile Workers (UAW) struck for recognition and better pay and hours at a General Motors (GM) plant in Flint, Michigan. Launching a “sit-down” strike, the workers remained in the building until management agreed to negotiate. GM recognized the UAW and granted a pay increase. GM’s recognition gave the UAW new legitimacy and unionization spread rapidly across the auto industry. Across the country, unions and workers took advantage of the New Deal’s protections to organize and win major concessions from employers. Three years after the NLRA, Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act, creating the modern minimum wage. The Second New Deal also oversaw the restoration of a highly progressive federal income tax, mandated new reporting requirements for publicly traded companies, refinanced long-term home mortgages for struggling homeowners, and attempted rural reconstruction projects to bring farm incomes in line with urban ones.2 Perhaps the signature piece of Roosevelt’s Second New Deal, however, was the Social Security Act. It provided for old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, and economic aid, based on means, to assist both the elderly and dependent children. The president was careful to mitigate some of the criticism from what was, at the time, in the American context, a revolutionary concept. He specifically insisted that social security be financed from payroll, not the federal government; “No dole,” Roosevelt said repeatedly, “mustn’t have a dole.”3 He thereby helped separate social security from the stigma of being an undeserved “welfare” entitlement. While such a strategy saved the program from suspicions, social security became the centerpiece of the modern American social welfare state. It was the culmination of a long progressive push for government-sponsored social welfare, an answer to the calls of Roosevelt’s opponents on the Left for reform, a response to the intractable poverty among America’s neediest groups, and a recognition that the government would now assume some responsibility for the economic well-being of its citizens. ((W. Andrew Achenbaum, Old Age in the New Land (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Edwin E. Witte, The Development of the Social Security Act (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963).)) Nevertheless, the act excluded large swaths of the American population. Its pension program excluded domestic workers and farm workers, for instance, a policy that disproportionately affected African Americans. Roosevelt recognized that social security’s programs would need expansion and improvement. “This law,” he said, “represents a cornerstone in a structure which is being built but is by no means complete.”4 Notes - Alexander J. Field, A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 40. - Mark H. Leff, The Limits of Symbolic Reform: The New Deal and Taxation, 1933–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Sarah T. Phillips, This Land, This Nation: Conservation, Rural America, and the New Deal (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007). - Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 267. - Gareth Davies and Martha Derthick, “Race and Social Welfare Policy: The Social Security Act of 1935,” Political Science Quarterly 112, no. 2 (Summer 1997), 217–235. Equal Rights and the New Deal For more information about the WPA Sewing Rooms, The Living New Deal, TAG Archives: WPA Women, https://livingnewdeal.org/tag/wpa-women/ Black Americans faced discrimination everywhere but suffered especially severe legal inequality in the Jim Crow South. In 1931, for instance, a group of nine young men riding the rails between Chattanooga and Memphis, Tennessee, were pulled from the train near Scottsboro, Alabama, and charged with assaulting two white women. Despite clear evidence that the assault had not occurred, and despite one of the women later recanting, the young men endured a series of sham trials in which all but one were sentenced to death. Only the communist-oriented International Legal Defense (ILD) came to the aid of the “Scottsboro Boys,” who soon became a national symbol of continuing racial prejudice in America and a rallying point for civil rights–minded Americans. In appeals, the ILD successfully challenged the boys’ sentencing, and the death sentences were either commuted or reversed, although the last of the accused did not receive parole until 1946.1 Despite a concerted effort to appoint Black advisors to some New Deal programs, Franklin Roosevelt did little to specifically address the particular difficulties Black communities faced. To do so openly would provoke southern Democrats and put his New Deal coalition—–the uneasy alliance of national liberals, urban laborers, farm workers, and southern whites—at risk. Roosevelt not only rejected such proposals as abolishing the poll tax and declaring lynching a federal crime, he refused to specifically target African American needs in any of his larger relief and reform packages. As he explained to the national secretary of the NAACP, “I just can’t take that risk.”2 In fact, many of the programs of the New Deal had made hard times more difficult. When the codes of the NRA set new pay scales, they usually took into account regional differentiation and historical data. In the South, where African Americans had long suffered unequal pay, the new codes simply perpetuated that inequality. The codes also exempted those involved in farm work and domestic labor, the occupations of a majority of southern Black men and women. The AAA was equally problematic as owners displaced Black tenants and sharecroppers, many of whom were forced to return to their farms as low-paid day labor or to migrate to cities looking for wage work.3 Perhaps the most notorious failure of the New Deal to aid African Americans came with the passage of the Social Security Act. Southern politicians chafed at the prospect of African Americans benefiting from federally sponsored social welfare, afraid that economic security would allow Black southerners to escape the cycle of poverty that kept them tied to the land as cheap, exploitable farm laborers. The Jackson (Mississippi) Daily News callously warned that “The average Mississippian can’t imagine himself chipping in to pay pensions for able-bodied Negroes to sit around in idleness . . . while cotton and corn crops are crying for workers.” Roosevelt agreed to remove domestic workers and farm laborers from the provisions of the bill, excluding many African Americans, already laboring under the strictures of legal racial discrimination, from the benefits of an expanding economic safety net.4 Women, too, failed to receive the full benefits of New Deal programs. On one hand, Roosevelt included women in key positions within his administration, including the first female cabinet secretary, Frances Perkins, and a prominently placed African American advisor in the National Youth Administration, Mary McLeod Bethune. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was a key advisor to the president and became a major voice for economic and racial justice. But many New Deal programs were built on the assumption that men would serve as breadwinners and women as mothers, homemakers, and consumers. "Work programs for women came under the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Some women were placed in clerical jobs or worked as librarians, others went to work canning, gardening, and sewing."5 New Deal programs aimed to help both but usually by forcing such gendered assumptions, making it difficult for women to attain economic autonomy. New Deal social welfare programs tended to funnel women into means-tested, state-administered relief programs while reserving entitlement benefits for male workers, creating a kind of two-tiered social welfare state. And so, despite great advances, the New Deal failed to challenge core inequalities that continued to mark life in the United States.6 Notes - Dan T. Carter, Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1969). - Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 201. - Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005). - George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1967), 491. - Susan Allen Kline, "We Patch Anything":WPA Sewing Rooms in Fort Worth, Texas." The Living New Deal, 27 May 2013, https://livingnewdeal.org/tag/wpa-women/. Accessed 29 March, 2022. - Alice Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890–1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994). The End of the New Deal (1937-1939) By 1936, Roosevelt and his New Deal won record popularity. In November, Roosevelt annihilated his Republican challenger, Governor Alf Landon of Kansas, who lost in every state save Maine and Vermont. The Great Depression had certainly not ended, but it appeared to be retreating, and Roosevelt, now safely reelected, appeared ready to take advantage of both his popularity and the improving economic climate to press for even more dramatic changes. But conservative barriers continued to limit the power of his popular support. The Supreme Court, for instance, continued to gut many of his programs. In 1937, concerned that the Court might overthrow social security in an upcoming case, Roosevelt called for legislation allowing him to expand the Court by appointing a new, younger justice for every sitting member over age seventy. Roosevelt argued that the measure would speed up the Court’s ability to handle a growing backlog of cases; however, his “court-packing scheme,” as opponents termed it, was clearly designed to allow the president to appoint up to six friendly, pro–New Deal justices to drown the influence of old-time conservatives on the Court. Roosevelt’s “scheme” riled opposition and did not become law, but the chastened Court thereafter upheld social security and other pieces of New Deal legislation. Moreover, Roosevelt was slowly able to appoint more amenable justices as conservatives died or retired. Still, the court-packing scheme damaged the Roosevelt administration emboldened New Deal opponents.1 Compounding his problems, Roosevelt and his advisors made a costly economic misstep. Believing the United States had turned a corner, Roosevelt cut spending in 1937. The American economy plunged nearly to the depths of 1932–1933. Roosevelt reversed course and, adopting the approach popularized by the English economist John Maynard Keynes, hoped that countercyclical, compensatory spending would pull the country out of the recession, even at the expense of a growing budget deficit. It was perhaps too late. The Roosevelt Recession of 1937 became fodder for critics. Combined with the court-packing scheme, the recession allowed for significant gains by a conservative coalition of southern Democrats and Midwestern Republicans in the 1938 midterm elections. By 1939, Roosevelt struggled to build congressional support for new reforms, let alone maintain existing agencies. Moreover, the growing threat of war in Europe stole the public’s attention and increasingly dominated Roosevelt’s interests. The New Deal slowly receded into the background, outshined by war.2 Notes - William E. Leuchtenburg, “The Origins of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s ‘Court-Packing’ Plan,” The Supreme Court Review (1966), 347–400. - Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Knopf, 1995). The Legacy of the New Deal By the end of the 1930s, Roosevelt and his Democratic Congresses had presided over a transformation of the American government and a realignment in American party politics. Before World War I, the American national state, though powerful, had been a “government out of sight.” After the New Deal, Americans came to see the federal government as a potential ally in their daily struggles, whether finding work, securing a decent wage, getting a fair price for agricultural products, or organizing a union. Voter turnout in presidential elections jumped in 1932 and again in 1936, with most of these newly mobilized voters forming a durable piece of the Democratic Party that would remain loyal well into the 1960s. Even as affluence returned with the American intervention in World War II, memories of the Depression continued to shape the outlook of two generations of Americans.1 Survivors of the Great Depression, one man would recall in the late 1960s, “are still riding with the ghost—the ghost of those days when things came hard.”2 Historians debate when the New Deal ended. Some identify the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 as the last major New Deal measure. Others see wartime measures such as price and rent control and the G.I. Bill (which afforded New Deal–style social benefits to veterans) as species of New Deal legislation. Still others conceive of a “New Deal order,” a constellation of “ideas, public policies, and political alliances,” which, though changing, guided American politics from Roosevelt’s Hundred Days forward to Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society—and perhaps even beyond. Indeed, the New Deal’s legacy still remains, and its battle lines still shape American politics. Notes - Cohen, Making a New Deal; Kristi Andersen, The Creation of a Democratic Majority, 1928–1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Caroline Bird, The Invisible Scar (New York: McKay, 1966). - Quoted in Terkel, Hard Times, 34. Primary Sources 1. Herbert Hoover on the New Deal (1932) Americans elected a string of conservative Republicans to the presidency during the boom years of the 1920s. When the economy crashed in 1929, however, and the nation descended deeper into the Great Depression, voters abandoned the Republican Party and conservative politicians struggled to in office. In this speech on the eve of the 1932 election, Herbert Hoover warned against Franklin Roosevelt’s proposed New Deal. 2. Huey P. Long, “Every Man a King” and “Share our Wealth” (1934) Amid the economic indignities of the Great Depression, Huey P. Long of Louisiana championed an aggressive program of public spending and wealth redistribution. Critics denounced Long, who served as both governor and a senator from Louisiana, as a corrupt demagogue, but “the Kingfish” appealed to impoverished Louisianans and Americans wracked by joblessness and resentful of American economic inequality. He was assassinated before he could mount his independent bid for the White House in 1936. In the following extracts from two of his most famous speeches, Long outlines his political program. 3. Franklin Roosevelt’s Re-Nomination Acceptance Speech (1936) In July 27, 1936, President Franklin Roosevelt accepted his re-nomination as the Democratic Party’s presidential choice. In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt laid out his understanding of what “freedom” and “tyranny” meant in an industrial democracy. 4. Second Inaugural Address of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1937) After winning a landslide victory in his 1936 quest for a second presidential term, President Franklin Roosevelt championed again the ambitious goals of his New Deal economic programs and their relationship to American democracy. 5. Lester Hunter, “I’d Rather Not Be on Relief” (1938) Lester Hunter left the Dust Bowl for the fields of California and wrote this poem, later turned into a song by migrant workers in California’s Farm Security Administration camps. The “C.I.O.” in the final line refers to the Congress of Industrial Unions, a powerful new industrial union founded in 1935. 6. Bertha McCall on America’s “Moving People” (1940) Bertha McCall, general director of the National Travelers Aid Association, acquired a special knowledge of the massive displacement of individuals and families during the Great Depression. In 1940, McCall testified before the House of Representatives’ Select Committee to Investigate the Interstate Migration of Destitute Citizens on the nature of America’s internal migrants. 7. Dorothy West, “Amateur Night in Harlem” (1938) Amateur night at the Apollo Theater attracted not only Harlem’s African American population but a national radio audience. In this account, written through the New Deal’s Federal Writers’ Project, Dorothy West describes an amateur night at the theater in November 1938 and reflects on the relationship between entertainment, race, and American life. 8. Family Walking on Highway (1936) During her assignment as a photographer for the Works Progress Administration (WPA), Dorothea Lange documented the movement of migrant families forced from their homes by drought and economic depression. This family was in the process of traveling 124 miles by foot, across Oklahoma, because the father was unable to receive relief or WPA work of his own due to an illness. This short newsreel clip made by British film company Pathé shows the federal government’s response to the thousands of WWI veterans who organized in Washington DC during the summer of 1932 to form what was called a “Bonus Army.” At the demand of attorney general, the marchers were violently removed from government property. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Matthew Downs and Eric Rauchway, with content contributed by Dana Cochran, Matthew Downs, Benjamin Helwege, Elisa Minoff, Eric Rauchway, Caitlin Verboon, and Mason Williams. Recommended citation: Dana Cochran et al., “The Great Depression,” Matthew Downs, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Balderrama, Francisco E., and Raymond Rodríguez. Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, rev. ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006. - Brinkley, Alan. The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War. New York: Knopf, 1995. - ———. Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression. New York: Knopf, 1982. - Cohen, Lizabeth. Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. - Cowie, Jefferson, and Nick Salvatore. “The Long Exception: Rethinking the Place of the New Deal in American History.” International Labor and Working-Class History 74 (Fall 2008): 1–32. - Dickstein, Morris. Dancing in the Dark: A Cultural History of the Great Depression. New York: Norton, 2009. - Fraser, Steve, and Gary Gerstle, eds. The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989. - Gilmore, Glenda E. Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950. New York: Norton, 2009. - Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America 1920–1935. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. - Gordon, Linda. Dorothea Lange: A Life Beyond Limits. New York: Norton, 2009. - ———. Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare 1890–1935. New York: Free Press, 1994. - Greene, Alison Collis. No Depression in Heaven: The Great Depression, the New Deal, and the Transformation of Religion in the Delta. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. - Katznelson, Ira. Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time. New York: Norton, 2013. - Kelly, Robin D. G. Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990. - Kennedy, David. Freedom from Fear: America in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. - Kessler-Harris, Alice. In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. - Leach, William. Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture. New York: Pantheon Books, 1993. - Leuchtenburg, William. Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940. New York: Harper and Row, 1963. - Pells, Richard. Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Social Thought in the Depression Years. New York: Harper and Row, 1973. - Phillips, Kimberly L. Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-1945. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1999. - Phillips–Fein, Kim. Invisible Hands: The Businessmen’s Crusade Against the New Deal. New York: Norton, 2010 - Sitkoff, Harvard. A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. - Sullivan, Patricia. Days of Hope: Race and Democracy in the New Deal Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. - Tani, Karen. States of Dependency: Welfare, Rights, and American Governance, 1935–1972. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016. - Wright, Gavin. Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War. Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1986.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.306781	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90493/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Crisis at Home and Abroad, The Great Depression", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90500/overview	Lesson 5 Section 2 American Politics before September 11, 2001 Lesson 5 Section 3 September 11 and the War on Terror Lesson 5 Section 4 The End of the Bush Years Lesson 5 Section 5 The Great Recession Lesson 5 Section 6 The Obama Years Lesson 5 Section 7 Stagnation Lesson 5 Section 8 American Carnage Lesson 5 Section 9 The Pandemic The Recent Past Overview Link to student view Unit 3 Lesson 5 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90500/overview Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 3 Lesson 5 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Quiz-30.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction The U.S. Capitol was stormed on January 6, 2021. Thousands of right-wing protestors, fueled by an onslaught of lies and fabrications and conspiracy theories surrounding the November 2020 elections, rallied that morning in front of the White House to “Stop the Steal.” Repeating the familiar litany of easily disproven and debunked lies and distortions, the sitting president of the United States then urged them to march on the Capitol and stop the certification of the November electoral vote. “You’ll never take back our country with weakness,” he said. “Fight like hell,” he said. “If you don’t fight like hell, you’re not going to have a country anymore.”1 And so they did. They marched on the capitol, armed themselves with metal pipes, baseball bats, hockey sticks, pepper spray, stun guns, and flag poles, and attacked the police officers barricading the building. “It was like something from a medieval battle,” Capitol Police Officer Aquilino Gonell recalled.2 The mob pulled D.C. Metropolitan Police Officer Michael Fanone into the crowd, beat him with flagpoles, and tasered him. “Kill him with his own gun,” Fanone remembered the mob shouting just before he lost consciousness. “I can still hear those words in my head today,” he testified six months later.3 The mob breached the barriers and poured into the building, marking perhaps the greatest domestic assault on the American federal government since the Civil War. But the events of January 6 were rooted in history. Revolutionary technological change, unprecedented global flows of goods and people and capital, an amorphous decades-long War on Terror, accelerating inequality, growing diversity, a changing climate, political stalemate: our present is not an island of circumstance but a product of history. Time marches forever on. The present becomes the past, but, as William Faulkner famously put it, “The past is never dead. It’s not even past.” ((William Faulker, Requiem for a Nun (New York: Random House, 1954), 73.)) The last several decades of American history have culminated in the present, an era of innovation and advancement but also of stark partisan division, racial and ethnic tension, protests, gender divides, uneven economic growth, widening inequalities, military interventions, bouts of mass violence, and pervasive anxieties about the present and future of the United States. Through boom and bust, national tragedy, foreign wars, and the maturation of a new generation, a new chapter of American history is busy being written. Notes Title image Supporters of defeated U.S. President Donald Trump cheer the breaching of the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021. 1. https://apnews.com/article/ap-fact-check-donald-trump-capitol-siege-violence-elections-507f4febbadecb84e1637e55999ac0ea. 2. https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2021/01/14/dc-police-capitol-riot/. 3. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/27/us/jan-6-inquiry.html. American Politics before September 11, 2001 The conservative Reagan Revolution lingered over the presidential election of 1988. At stake was the legacy of a newly empowered conservative movement, a movement that would move forward with Reagan’s vice president, George H. W. Bush, who triumphed over Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis with a promise to continue the conservative work that had commenced in the 1980s. The son of a U.S. senator from Connecticut, George H. W. Bush was a World War II veteran, president of a successful oil company, chair of the Republican National Committee, director of the CIA, and member of the House of Representatives from Texas. After failing to best Reagan in the 1980 Republican primaries, he was elected as his vice president in 1980 and again in 1984. In 1988, Michael Dukakis, a proud liberal from Massachusetts, challenged Bush for the White House. Dukakis ran a weak campaign. Bush, a Connecticut aristocrat who had never been fully embraced by movement conservatism, particularly the newly animated religious right, nevertheless hammered Dukakis with moral and cultural issues. Bush said Dukakis had blocked recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in Massachusetts schools and that he was a “card-carrying member” of the ACLU. Bush meanwhile dispatched his eldest son, George W. Bush, as his ambassador to the religious right.1 Bush also infamously released a political ad featuring the face of Willie Horton, a Black Massachusetts man and convicted murderer who raped a woman after being released through a prison furlough program during Dukakis’s tenure as governor. “By the time we’re finished,” Bush’s campaign manager, Lee Atwater, said, “they’re going to wonder whether Willie Horton is Dukakis’ running mate.”2 Liberals attacked conservatives for perpetuating the ugly “code word” politics of the old Southern Strategy—the underhanded appeal to white racial resentments perfected by Richard Nixon in the aftermath of civil rights legislation.3 Buoyed by such attacks, Bush won a large victory and entered the White House. Bush’s election signaled Americans’ continued embrace of Reagan’s conservative program and further evidenced the utter disarray of the Democratic Party. American liberalism, so stunningly triumphant in the 1960s, was now in full retreat. It was still, as one historian put it, the “Age of Reagan.”4 The Soviet Union collapsed during Bush’s tenure. Devastated by a stagnant economy, mired in a costly and disastrous war in Afghanistan, confronted with dissident factions in Eastern Europe, and rocked by internal dissent, the Soviet Union crumbled. Soviet leader and reformer Mikhail Gorbachev loosened the Soviet Union’s tight personal restraints and censorship (glasnost) and liberalized the Soviet political machinery (perestroika). Eastern Bloc nations turned against their communist organizations and declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Gorbachev let them go. Soon, the Soviet Union unraveled. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned his office, declaring that the Soviet Union no longer existed. At the Kremlin—Russia’s center of government—the new tricolor flag of the Russian Federation was raised.5 The dissolution of the Soviet Union left the United States as the world’s only remaining superpower. Global capitalism seemed triumphant. Observers wondered if some final stage of history had been reached, if the old battles had ended and a new global consensus built around peace and open markets would reign forever. “What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such,” wrote Francis Fukuyama in his much-talked-about 1989 essay, “The End of History?”6 Assets in Eastern Europe were privatized and auctioned off as newly independent nations introduced market economies. New markets were rising in Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe. India, for instance, began liberalizing its economic laws and opening itself up to international investment in 1991. China’s economic reforms, advanced by Chairman Deng Xiaoping and his handpicked successors, accelerated as privatization and foreign investment proceeded. The post–Cold War world was not without international conflicts, however. When Iraq invaded the small but oil-rich nation of Kuwait in 1990, Congress granted President Bush approval to intervene. The United States laid the groundwork for intervention (Operation Desert Shield) in August and commenced combat operations (Operation Desert Storm) in January 1991. With the memories of Vietnam still fresh, many Americans were hesitant to support military action that could expand into a protracted war or long-term commitment of troops. But the Gulf War was a swift victory for the United States. New technologies—including laser-guided precision bombing—amazed Americans, who could now watch twenty-four-hour live coverage of the war on the Cable News Network (CNN). The Iraqi army disintegrated after only a hundred hours of ground combat. President Bush and his advisors opted not to pursue the war into Baghdad and risk an occupation and insurgency. And so the war was won. Many wondered if the “ghosts of Vietnam” had been exorcised.7 Bush won enormous popular support. Gallup polls showed a job approval rating as high as 89 percent in the weeks after the end of the war.8 President Bush’s popularity seemed to suggest an easy reelection in 1992, but Bush had still not won over the New Right, the aggressively conservative wing of the Republican Party, despite his attacks on Dukakis, his embrace of the flag and the pledge, and his promise, “Read my lips: no new taxes.” He faced a primary challenge from political commentator Patrick Buchanan, a former Reagan and Nixon White House advisor, who cast Bush as a moderate, as an unworthy steward of the conservative movement who was unwilling to fight for conservative Americans in the nation’s ongoing culture war. Buchanan did not defeat Bush in the Republican primaries, but he inflicted enough damage to weaken his candidacy.9 Still thinking that Bush would be unbeatable in 1992, many prominent Democrats passed on a chance to run, and the Democratic Party nominated a relative unknown, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton. Dogged by charges of marital infidelity and draft dodging during the Vietnam War, Clinton was a consummate politician with enormous charisma and a skilled political team. He framed himself as a New Democrat, a centrist open to free trade, tax cuts, and welfare reform. Twenty-two years younger than Bush, he was the first baby boomer to make a serious run at the presidency. Clinton presented the campaign as a generational choice. During the campaign he appeared on MTV, played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show, and told voters that he could offer the United States a new way forward. Bush ran on his experience and against Clinton’s moral failings. The GOP convention in Houston that summer featured speeches from Pat Buchanan and religious leader Pat Robertson decrying the moral decay plaguing American life. Clinton was denounced as a social liberal who would weaken the American family through both his policies and his individual moral character. But Clinton was able to convince voters that his moderated southern brand of liberalism would be more effective than the moderate conservatism of George Bush. Bush’s candidacy, of course, was perhaps most damaged by a sudden economic recession. As Clinton’s political team reminded the country, “It’s the economy, stupid.” Clinton won the election, but the Reagan Revolution still reigned. Clinton and his running mate, Tennessee senator Albert Gore Jr., both moderate southerners, promised a path away from the old liberalism of the 1970s and 1980s (and the landslide electoral defeats of the 1980s). They were Democrats, but conservative Democrats, so-called New Democrats. In his first term, Clinton set out an ambitious agenda that included an economic stimulus package, universal health insurance, a continuation of the Middle East peace talks initiated by Bush’s secretary of state James A. Baker III, welfare reform, and a completion of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to abolish trade barriers between the United States, Mexico, and Canada. His moves to reform welfare, open trade, and deregulate financial markets were particular hallmarks of Clinton’s Third Way, a new Democratic embrace of heretofore conservative policies.10 With NAFTA, Clinton reversed decades of Democratic opposition to free trade and opened the nation’s northern and southern borders to the free flow of capital and goods. Critics, particularly in the Midwest’s Rust Belt, blasted the agreement for opening American workers to competition by low-paid foreign workers. Many American factories relocated and set up shops—maquilas—in northern Mexico that took advantage of Mexico’s low wages. Thousands of Mexicans rushed to the maquilas. Thousands more continued on past the border. If NAFTA opened American borders to goods and services, people still navigated strict legal barriers to immigration. Policy makers believed that free trade would create jobs and wealth that would incentivize Mexican workers to stay home, and yet multitudes continued to leave for opportunities in el norte. The 1990s proved that prohibiting illegal migration was, if not impossible, exceedingly difficult. Poverty, political corruption, violence, and hopes for a better life in the United States—or simply higher wages—continued to lure immigrants across the border. Between 1990 and 2010, the proportion of foreign-born individuals in the United States grew from 7.9 percent to 12.9 percent, and the number of undocumented immigrants tripled from 3.5 million to 11.2. While large numbers continued to migrate to traditional immigrant destinations—California, Texas, New York, Florida, New Jersey, and Illinois—the 1990s also witnessed unprecedented migration to the American South. Among the fastest-growing immigrant destination states were Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Georgia, and North Carolina, all of which had immigration growth rates in excess of 100 percent during the decade.11 In response to the continued influx of immigrants and the vocal complaints of anti-immigration activists, policy makers responded with such initiatives as Operation Gatekeeper and Hold the Line, which attempted to make crossing the border more prohibitive. The new strategy “funneled” immigrants to dangerous and remote crossing areas. Immigration officials hoped the brutal natural landscape would serve as a natural deterrent. It wouldn’t. By 2017, hundreds of immigrants died each year of drowning, exposure, and dehydration.12 Clinton, meanwhile, sought to carve out a middle ground in his domestic agenda. In his first weeks in office, Clinton reviewed Department of Defense policies restricting homosexuals from serving in the armed forces. He pushed through a compromise plan, Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell, that removed any questions about sexual orientation in induction interviews but also required that gay military personnel keep their sexual orientation private. The policy alienated many. Social conservatives were outraged and his credentials as a conservative southerner suffered, while many liberals recoiled at continued antigay discrimination. In his first term, Clinton also put forward universal healthcare as a major policy goal, and first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton played a major role in the initiative. But the push for a national healthcare law collapsed on itself. Conservatives revolted, the healthcare industry flooded the airwaves with attack ads, Clinton struggled with congressional Democrats, and voters bristled. A national healthcare system was again repulsed. The midterm elections of 1994 were a disaster for the Democrats, who lost the House of Representatives for the first time since 1952. Congressional Republicans, led by Georgia congressman Newt Gingrich and Texas congressman Dick Armey, offered a policy agenda they called the Contract with America. Republican candidates from around the nation gathered on the steps of the Capitol to pledge their commitment to a conservative legislative blueprint to be enacted if the GOP won control of the House. The strategy worked. Social conservatives were mobilized by an energized group of religious activists, especially the Christian Coalition, led by Pat Robertson and Ralph Reed. Robertson was a television minister and entrepreneur whose 1988 long shot run for the Republican presidential nomination brought him a massive mailing list and a network of religiously motivated voters around the country. From that mailing list, the Christian Coalition organized around the country, seeking to influence politics on the local and national level. In 1996 the generational contest played out again when the Republicans nominated another aging war hero, Senator Bob Dole of Kansas, but Clinton again won the election, becoming the first Democrat to serve back-to-back terms since Franklin Roosevelt. He was aided in part by the amelioration of conservatives by his signing of welfare reform legislation, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, which decreased welfare benefits, restricted eligibility, and turned over many responsibilities to states. Clinton said it would “break the cycle of dependency.”13 Clinton presided over a booming economy fueled by emergent computing technologies. Personal computers had skyrocketed in sales, and the Internet became a mass phenomenon. Communication and commerce were never again the same. The tech boom was driven by business, and the 1990s saw robust innovation and entrepreneurship. Investors scrambled to find the next Microsoft or Apple, suddenly massive computing companies. But it was the Internet that sparked a bonanza. The dot-com boom fueled enormous economic growth and substantial financial speculation to find the next Google or Amazon. Republicans, defeated at the polls in 1996 and 1998, looked for other ways to undermine Clinton’s presidency. Political polarization seemed unprecedented and a sensation-starved, post-Watergate media demanded scandal. The Republican Congress spent millions on investigations hoping to uncover some shred of damning evidence to sink Clinton’s presidency, whether it be real estate deals, White House staffing, or adultery. Rumors of sexual misconduct had always swirled around Clinton. The press, which had historically turned a blind eye to such private matters, saturated the media with Clinton’s sex scandals. Congressional investigations targeted the allegations and Clinton denied having “sexual relations” with Monica Lewinsky before a grand jury and in a statement to the American public. Republicans used the testimony to allege perjury. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted to impeach the president. It was a wildly unpopular step. Two thirds of Americans disapproved, and a majority told Gallup pollsters that Republicans had abused their constitutional authority. Clinton’s approval rating, meanwhile, jumped to 78 percent.14 In February 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate by a vote that mostly fell along party lines. The 2000 election pitted Vice President Albert Gore Jr. against George W. Bush, the twice-elected Texas governor and son of the former president. Gore, wary of Clinton’s recent impeachment despite Clinton’s enduring approval ratings, distanced himself from the president and eight years of relative prosperity. Instead, he ran as a pragmatic, moderate liberal. Bush, too, ran as a moderate, claiming to represent a compassionate conservatism and a new faith-based politics. Bush was an outspoken evangelical. In a presidential debate, he declared Jesus Christ his favorite political philosopher. He promised to bring church leaders into government, and his campaign appealed to churches and clergy to get out the vote. Moreover, he promised to bring honor, dignity, and integrity to the Oval Office, a clear reference to Clinton. Utterly lacking the political charisma that had propelled Clinton, Gore withered under Bush’s attacks. Instead of trumpeting the Clinton presidency, Gore found himself answering the media’s questions about whether he was sufficiently an alpha male and whether he had invented the Internet. Few elections have been as close and contentious as the 2000 election, which ended in a deadlock. Gore had won the popular vote by 500,000 votes, but the Electoral College hinged on a contested Florida election. On election night the media called Florida for Gore, but then Bush made late gains and news organizations reversed themselves by declaring the state for Bush—and Bush the probable president-elect. Gore conceded privately to Bush, then backpedaled as the counts edged back toward Gore yet again. When the nation awoke the next day, it was unclear who had been elected president. The close Florida vote triggered an automatic recount. Lawyers descended on Florida. The Gore campaign called for manual recounts in several counties. Local election boards, Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris, and the Florida Supreme Court all weighed in until the U.S. Supreme Court stepped in and, in an unprecedented 5–4 decision in Bush v. Gore, ruled that the recount had to end. Bush was awarded Florida by a margin of 537 votes, enough to win him the state and give him a majority in the Electoral College. He had won the presidency. In his first months in office, Bush fought to push forward enormous tax cuts skewed toward America’s highest earners. The bursting of the dot-com bubble weighed down the economy. Old political and cultural fights continued to be fought. And then the towers fell. Notes - Bill Minutaglio, First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty (New York: Random House, 1999), 210–224. - Roger Simon, “How a Murderer and Rapist Became the Bush Campaign’s Most Valuable Player,” Baltimore Sun, November 11, 1990. - See especially Dan T. Carter, From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994 (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1996), 72–80. - Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: HarperCollins, 2008). - James F. Clarity, “End of the Soviet Union,” New York Times, December 26, 1991. - Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest (Summer 1989). - William Thomas Allison, The Gulf War, 1990–91 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 145, 165. - Charles W. Dunn, The Presidency in the Twenty-first Century (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011), 152. - Robert M. Collins, Transforming America: Politics and Culture During the Reagan Years (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 171, 172. - For Clinton’s presidency and the broader politics of the 1990s, see James T. Patterson, Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); and Wilentz, Age of Reagan. - Patterson, Restless Giant, 298–299. - United Nations International Organization for Migration, “Migrant Deaths Remain High Despite Sharp Fall in US-Mexico Border Crossings in 2017,” press release, February 6, 2018. https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/02/1002101. - Carolyn Skorneck, “Final Welfare Bill Written,” Washington Post, July 30, 1996, A1. - Frank Newport, “Clinton Receives Record High Job Approval Rating,” Gallup, December 24, 1998. http://news.gallup.com/poll/4111/clinton-receives-record-high-job-approval-rating-after-impeachment-vot.aspx). September 11 and the War on Terror On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen operatives of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked four passenger planes on the East Coast. American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT). United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower at 9:03. American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the western façade of the Pentagon at 9:37. At 9:59, the South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. At 10:03, United Airlines Flight 93 crashed in a field outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania, brought down by passengers who had received news of the earlier hijackings. At 10:28, the North Tower collapsed. In less than two hours, nearly three thousand Americans had been killed. The attacks stunned Americans. Late that night, Bush addressed the nation and assured the country that “the search is under way for those who are behind these evil acts.” At Ground Zero three days later, Bush thanked first responders for their work. A worker said he couldn’t hear him. “I can hear you,” Bush shouted back, “The rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon.” American intelligence agencies quickly identified the radical Islamic militant group al-Qaeda, led by the wealthy Saudi Osama bin Laden, as the perpetrators of the attack. Sheltered in Afghanistan by the Taliban, the country’s Islamic government, al-Qaeda was responsible for a 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and a string of attacks at U.S. embassies and military bases across the world. Bin Laden’s Islamic radicalism and his anti-American aggression attracted supporters across the region and, by 2001, al-Qaeda was active in over sixty countries. Although in his presidential campaign Bush had denounced foreign nation-building, he populated his administration with neoconservatives, firm believers in the expansion of American democracy and American interests abroad. Bush advanced what was sometimes called the Bush Doctrine, a policy in which the United States would have the right to unilaterally and preemptively make war on any regime or terrorist organization that posed a threat to the United States or to U.S. citizens. It would lead the United States into protracted conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq and entangle the United States in nations across the world. Journalist Dexter Filkins called it a Forever War, a perpetual conflict waged against an amorphous and undefeatable enemy.1 The geopolitical realities of the twenty-first-century world were forever transformed. The United States, of course, had a history in Afghanistan. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 to quell an insurrection that threatened to topple Kabul’s communist government, the United States financed and armed anti-Soviet insurgents, the Mujahideen. In 1981, the Reagan administration authorized the CIA to provide the Mujahideen with weapons and training to strengthen the insurgency. An independent wealthy young Saudi, Osama bin Laden, also fought with and funded the Mujahideen. And they began to win. Afghanistan bled the Soviet Union dry. The costs of the war, coupled with growing instability at home, convinced the Soviets to withdraw from Afghanistan in 1989.2 Osama bin Laden relocated al-Qaeda to Afghanistan after the country fell to the Taliban in 1996. Under Bill Clinton, the United States launched cruise missiles at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan in retaliation for al-Qaeda bombings on American embassies in Africa. After September 11, with a broad authorization of military force, Bush administration officials made plans for military action against al-Qaeda and the Taliban. What would become the longest war in American history began with the launching of Operation Enduring Freedom in October 2001. Air and missile strikes hit targets across Afghanistan. U.S. Special Forces joined with fighters in the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Major Afghan cities fell in quick succession. The capital, Kabul, fell on November 13. Bin Laden and al-Qaeda operatives retreated into the rugged mountains along the border of Pakistan in eastern Afghanistan. The American occupation of Afghanistan continued. As American troops struggled to contain the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Bush administration set its sights on Iraq. After the conclusion of the Gulf War in 1991, American officials established economic sanctions, weapons inspections, and no-fly zones. By mid-1991, American warplanes were routinely patrolling Iraqi skies and coming under periodic fire from Iraqi missile batteries. The overall cost to the United States of maintaining the two no-fly zones over Iraq was roughly $1 billion a year. Related military activities in the region added almost another $500 million to the annual bill. On the ground in Iraq, meanwhile, Iraqi authorities clashed with UN weapons inspectors. Iraq had suspended its program for weapons of mass destruction, but Saddam Hussein fostered ambiguity about the weapons in the minds of regional leaders to forestall any possible attacks against Iraq. In 1998, a standoff between Hussein and the United Nations over weapons inspections led President Bill Clinton to launch punitive strikes aimed at debilitating what was thought to be a developed chemical weapons program. Attacks began on December 16, 1998. More than two hundred cruise missiles fired from U.S. Navy warships and Air Force B-52 bombers flew into Iraq, targeting suspected chemical weapons storage facilities, missile batteries, and command centers. Airstrikes continued for three more days, unleashing in total 415 cruise missiles and 600 bombs against 97 targets. The number of bombs dropped was nearly double the number used in the 1991 conflict. The United States and Iraq remained at odds throughout the 1990s and early 2000, when Bush administration officials began championing “regime change.” The administration publicly denounced Saddam Hussein’s regime and its alleged weapons of mass destruction. Deceptively tying Saddam Hussein to international terrorists—a majority of Americans linked Hussein to the 9/11 attacks.3 The administration’s push for war was in full swing. Protests broke out across the country and all over the world, but majorities of Americans supported military action. On October 16, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq resolution, giving Bush the power to make war in Iraq. Iraq began cooperating with UN weapons inspectors in late 2002, but the Bush administration pressed on. On February 6, 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell, who had risen to public prominence as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of State during the Persian Gulf War in 1991, presented allegations of a robust Iraqi weapons program to the UN. Protests continued. The first American bombs hit Baghdad on March 20, 2003. Several hundred thousand troops moved into Iraq and Hussein’s regime quickly collapsed. Baghdad fell on April 9. On May 1, 2003, aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, beneath a banner reading Mission Accomplished, George W. Bush announced that “major combat operations in Iraq have ended.”4 No evidence of weapons of mass destruction were ever found. And combat operations had not ended, not really. The Iraqi insurgency had begun, and the United States would spend the next ten years struggling to contain it. Efforts by various intelligence gathering agencies led to the capture of Saddam Hussein, hidden in an underground compartment near his hometown, on December 13, 2003. The new Iraqi government found him guilty of crimes against humanity and he was hanged on December 30, 2006. Notes - Dexter Filkins, The Forever War (New York: Vintage Books, 2009). - See, for instance, Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 (New York: Knopf, 2006). - https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/09/06/hussein-link-to-911-lingers-in-many-minds/7cd31079-21d1-42cf-8651-b67e93350fde/.)) —the Bush administration began pushing for a “pre-emptive” war in the fall of 2002. The administration alleged that Hussein was trying to acquire uranium and that it had aluminum tubes used for nuclear centrifuges. Public opinion was divided. George W. Bush said in October, “Facing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof—the smoking gun—that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud.” ((Thomas R. Mockaitis, The Iraq War: A Documentary and Reference Guide (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 26. - Judy Keen, “Bush to Troops: Mission Accomplished,” USA Today, June 5, 2003. The End of the Bush Years The War on Terror was a centerpiece in the race for the White House in 2004. The Democratic ticket, headed by Massachusetts senator John F. Kerry, a Vietnam War hero who entered the public consciousness for his subsequent testimony against it, attacked Bush for the ongoing inability to contain the Iraqi insurgency or to find weapons of mass destruction, the revelation and photographic evidence that American soldiers had abused prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison outside Baghdad, and the inability to find Osama bin Laden. Moreover, many enemy combatants who had been captured in Iraq and Afghanistan were “detained” indefinitely at a military prison in Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. “Gitmo” became infamous for its harsh treatment, indefinite detentions, and torture of prisoners. Bush defended the War on Terror, and his allies attacked critics for failing to “support the troops.” Moreover, Kerry had voted for the war—he had to attack the very thing that he had authorized. Bush won a close but clear victory. The second Bush term saw the continued deterioration of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, but Bush’s presidency would take a bigger hit from his perceived failure to respond to the domestic tragedy that followed Hurricane Katrina’s devastating hit on the Gulf Coast. Katrina had been a category 5 hurricane. It was, the New Orleans Times-Picayune reported, “the storm we always feared.”1 New Orleans suffered a direct hit, the levees broke, and the bulk of the city flooded. Thousands of refugees flocked to the Superdome, where supplies and medical treatment and evacuation were slow to come. Individuals died in the heat. Bodies wasted away. Americans saw poor Black Americans abandoned. Katrina became a symbol of a broken administrative system, a devastated coastline, and irreparable social structures that allowed escape and recovery for some and not for others. Critics charged that Bush had staffed his administration with incompetent supporters and had further ignored the displaced poor and Black residents of New Orleans.2 Immigration, meanwhile, had become an increasingly potent political issue. The Clinton administration had overseen the implementation of several anti-immigration policies on the U.S.-Mexico border, but hunger and poverty were stronger incentives than border enforcement policies were deterrents. Illegal immigration continued, often at great human cost, but nevertheless fanned widespread anti-immigration sentiment among many American conservatives. But George W. Bush used the issue to win re-election and Republicans used it in the 2006 mid-terms, passing legislation—with bipartisan support—that provided for a border “fence.” 700 miles of towering steel barriers sliced through border towns and deserts. Many immigrants and their supporters tried to fight back. The spring and summer of 2006 saw waves of protests across the country. Hundreds of thousands marched in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles, and tens of thousands marched in smaller cities around the country. Legal change, however, went nowhere. Moderate conservatives feared upsetting business interests’ demand for cheap, exploitable labor and alienating large voting blocs by stifling immigration, and moderate liberals feared upsetting anti-immigrant groups by pushing too hard for liberalization of immigration laws. The fence was built and the border was tightened. Afghanistan and Iraq, meanwhile, continued to deteriorate. In 2006, the Taliban reemerged, as the Afghan government proved both highly corrupt and incapable of providing social services or security for its citizens. Iraq only descended further into chaos as insurgents battled against American troops and groups such as Abu Musab al-Zarqawi’s al-Qaeda in Iraq bombed civilians and released video recordings of beheadings. In 2007, twenty-seven thousand additional U.S. forces deployed to Iraq under the command of General David Petraeus. The effort, “the surge,” employed more sophisticated anti-insurgency strategies and, combined with Sunni efforts, pacified many of Iraq’s cities and provided cover for the withdrawal of American forces. On December 4, 2008, the Iraqi government approved the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, and U.S. combat forces withdrew from Iraqi cities before June 30, 2009. The last U.S. combat forces left Iraq on December 18, 2011. Violence and instability continued to rock the country. Notes - Bruce Nolan, “Katrina: The Storm We’ve Always Feared,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, August 30, 2005. - Douglas Brinkley, The Great Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast (New York: HarperCollins, 2006). The Great Recession The Great Recession began, as most American economic catastrophes began, with the bursting of a speculative bubble. Throughout the 1990s and into the new millennium, home prices continued to climb, and financial services firms looked to cash in on what seemed to be a safe but lucrative investment. After the dot-com bubble burst, investors searched for a secure investment rooted in clear value, rather than in trendy technological speculation. What could be more secure than real estate? But mortgage companies began writing increasingly risky loans and then bundling them together and selling them over and over again, sometimes so quickly that it became difficult to determine exactly who owned what. Decades of financial deregulation had rolled back Depression-era restraints and again allowed risky business practices to dominate the world of American finance. It was a bipartisan agenda. In the 1990s, for instance, Bill Clinton signed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, repealing provisions of the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act separating commercial and investment banks, and the Commodity Futures Modernization Act, which exempted credit-default swaps—perhaps the key financial mechanism behind the crash—from regulation. Mortgages had been so heavily leveraged that when American homeowners began to default on their loans, the whole system collapsed. Major financial services firms such as Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers disappeared almost overnight. In order to prevent the crisis from spreading, the federal government poured billions of dollars into the industry, propping up hobbled banks. Massive giveaways to bankers created shock waves of resentment throughout the rest of the country. On the right, conservative members of the Tea Party decried the cronyism of an Obama administration filled with former Wall Street executives. The same energies also motivated the Occupy Wall Street movement, as mostly young left-leaning New Yorkers protested an American economy that seemed overwhelmingly tilted toward “the one percent.”1 The Great Recession only magnified already rising income and wealth inequalities. According to the chief investment officer at JPMorgan Chase, the largest bank in the United States, “profit margins have reached levels not seen in decades,” and “reductions in wages and benefits explain the majority of the net improvement.”2 A study from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) found that since the late 1970s, after-tax benefits of the wealthiest 1 percent grew by over 300 percent. The “average” American’s after-tax benefits had grown 35 percent. Economic trends have disproportionately and objectively benefited the wealthiest Americans. Still, despite political rhetoric, American frustration failed to generate anything like the social unrest of the early twentieth century. A weakened labor movement and a strong conservative bloc continue to stymie serious attempts at reversing or even slowing economic inequalities. Occupy Wall Street managed to generate a fair number of headlines and shift public discussion away from budget cuts and toward inequality, but its membership amounted to only a fraction of the far more influential and money-driven Tea Party. Its presence on the public stage was fleeting. The Great Recession, however, was not. While American banks quickly recovered and recaptured their steady profits, and the American stock market climbed again to new heights, American workers continued to lag. Job growth was slow and unemployment rates would remain stubbornly high for years. Wages froze, meanwhile, and well-paying full-time jobs that were lost were too often replaced by low-paying, part-time work. A generation of workers coming of age within the crisis, moreover, had been savaged by the economic collapse. Unemployment among young Americans hovered for years at rates nearly double the national average. Notes - On the Great Recession, see Joseph Stiglitz, Freefall: America, Free Markets, and the Sinking of the World Economy (New York: Norton, 2010); and Michael Lewis, The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine (New York: Norton: 2010). - Harold Meyerson, “Corporate America’s Chokehold on Wages,” Washington Post, July 19, 2011. The Obama Years By the 2008 election, with Iraq still in chaos, Democrats were ready to embrace the antiwar position and sought a candidate who had consistently opposed military action in Iraq. Senator Barack Obama had only been a member of the Illinois state senate when Congress debated the war actions, but he had publicly denounced the war, predicting the sectarian violence that would ensue, and remained critical of the invasion through his 2004 campaign for the U.S. Senate. He began running for president almost immediately after arriving in Washington. A former law professor and community activist, Obama became the first African American candidate to ever capture the nomination of a major political party.1 During the election, Obama won the support of an increasingly antiwar electorate. When an already fragile economy finally collapsed in 2007 and 2008, Bush’s policies were widely blamed. Obama’s opponent, Republican senator John McCain, was tied to those policies and struggled to fight off the nation’s desire for a new political direction. Obama won a convincing victory in the fall and became the nation’s first African American president. President Obama’s first term was marked by domestic affairs, especially his efforts to combat the Great Recession and to pass a national healthcare law. Obama came into office as the economy continued to deteriorate. He continued the bank bailout begun under his predecessor and launched a limited economic stimulus plan to provide government spending to reignite the economy. Despite Obama’s dominant electoral victory, national politics fractured, and a conservative Republican firewall quickly arose against the Obama administration. The Tea Party became a catch-all term for a diffuse movement of fiercely conservative and politically frustrated American voters. Typically whiter, older, and richer than the average American, flush with support from wealthy backers, and clothed with the iconography of the Founding Fathers, Tea Party activists registered their deep suspicions of the federal government.2 Tea Party protests dominated the public eye in 2009 and activists steered the Republican Party far to the right, capturing primary elections all across the country. Obama’s most substantive legislative achievement proved to be a national healthcare law, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). Presidents since Theodore Roosevelt had striven to pass national healthcare reform and failed. Obama’s plan forsook liberal models of a national healthcare system and instead adopted a heretofore conservative model of subsidized private care (similar plans had been put forward by Republicans Richard Nixon, Newt Gingrich, and Obama’s 2012 opponent, Mitt Romney). Beset by conservative protests, Obama’s healthcare reform narrowly passed through Congress. It abolished pre-existing conditions as a cause for denying care, scrapped junk plans, provided for state-run healthcare exchanges (allowing individuals without healthcare to pool their purchasing power), offered states funds to subsidize an expansion of Medicaid, and required all Americans to provide proof of a health insurance plan that measured up to government-established standards (those who did not purchase a plan would pay a penalty tax, and those who could not afford insurance would be eligible for federal subsidies). The number of uninsured Americans remained stubbornly high, however, and conservatives spent most of the next decade attacking the bill. Meanwhile, in 2009, President Barack Obama deployed seventeen thousand additional troops to Afghanistan as part of a counterinsurgency campaign that aimed to “disrupt, dismantle, and defeat” al-Qaeda and the Taliban. Meanwhile, U.S. Special Forces and CIA drones targeted al-Qaeda and Taliban leaders. In May 2011, U.S. Navy Sea, Air and Land Forces (SEALs) conducted a raid deep into Pakistan that led to the killing of Osama bin Laden. The United States and NATO began a phased withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2011, with an aim of removing all combat troops by 2014. Although weak militarily, the Taliban remained politically influential in south and eastern Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda remained active in Pakistan but shifted its bases to Yemen and the Horn of Africa. As of December 2013, the war in Afghanistan had claimed the lives of 3,397 U.S. service members. Notes - Thomas J. Sugrue, Not Even Past: Barack Obama and the Burden of Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012). - Kate Zernike and Megan Thee-Brenan, “Poll Finds Tea Party Backers Wealthier and More Educated,” New York Times, April 14, 2010; Jill Lepore, The Whites of Their Eyes: The Tea Party’s Revolution and the Battle over American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). Stagnation In 2012, Barack Obama won a second term by defeating Republican Mitt Romney, the former governor of Massachusetts. However, Obama’s inability to control Congress and the ascendancy of Tea Party Republicans stunted the passage of meaningful legislation. Obama was a lame duck before he ever won reelection, and gridlocked government came to represent an acute sense that much of American life—whether in politics, economics, or race relations—had grown stagnant. The economy continued its halfhearted recovery from the Great Recession. The Obama administration campaigned on little to specifically address the crisis and, faced with congressional intransigence, accomplished even less. While corporate profits climbed and stock markets soared, wages stagnated and employment sagged for years after the Great Recession. By 2016, the statistically average American worker had not received a raise in almost forty years. The average worker in January 1973 earned $4.03 an hour. Adjusted for inflation, that wage was about two dollars per hour more than the average American earned in 2014. Working Americans were losing ground. Moreover, most income gains in the economy had been largely captured by a small number of wealthy earners. Between 2009 and 2013, 85 percent of all new income in the United States went to the top 1 percent of the population.1 But if money no longer flowed to American workers, it saturated American politics. In 2000, George W. Bush raised a record $172 million for his campaign. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first presidential candidate to decline public funds (removing any applicable caps to his total fund-raising) and raised nearly three quarters of a billion dollars for his campaign. The average House seat, meanwhile, cost about $1.6 million, and the average Senate Seat over $10 million.2 The Supreme Court, meanwhile, removed barriers to outside political spending. In 2002, Senators John McCain and Russ Feingold had crossed party lines to pass the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, bolstering campaign finance laws passed in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal in the 1970s. But political organizations—particularly PACs—exploited loopholes to raise large sums of money and, in 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in Citizens United v. FEC that no limits could be placed on political spending by corporations, unions, and nonprofits. Money flowed even deeper into politics. The influence of money in politics only heightened partisan gridlock, further blocking bipartisan progress on particular political issues. Climate change, for instance, has failed to transcend partisan barriers. In the 1970s and 1980s, experts substantiated the theory of anthropogenic (human-caused) global warming. Eventually, the most influential of these panels, the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in 1995 that there was a “discernible human influence on global climate.”3 This conclusion, though stated conservatively, was by that point essentially a scientific consensus. By 2007, the IPCC considered the evidence “unequivocal” and warned that “unmitigated climate change would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt.”4 Climate change became a permanent and major topic of public discussion and policy in the twenty-first century. Fueled by popular coverage, most notably, perhaps, the documentary An Inconvenient Truth, based on Al Gore’s book and presentations of the same name, addressing climate change became a plank of the American left and a point of denial for the American right. American public opinion and political action still lagged far behind the scientific consensus on the dangers of global warming. Conservative politicians, conservative think tanks, and energy companies waged war to sow questions in the minds of Americans, who remain divided on the question, and so many others. Much of the resistance to addressing climate change is economic. As Americans looked over their shoulder at China, many refused to sacrifice immediate economic growth for long-term environmental security. Twenty-first-century relations with China remained characterized by contradictions and interdependence. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, China reinvigorated its efforts to modernize its country. By liberating and subsidizing much of its economy and drawing enormous foreign investments, China has posted massive growth rates during the last several decades. Enormous cities rise by the day. In 2000, China had a GDP around an eighth the size of U.S. GDP. Based on growth rates and trends, analysts suggest that China’s economy will bypass that of the United States soon. American concerns about China’s political system have persisted, but money sometimes matters more to Americans. China has become one of the country’s leading trade partners. Cultural exchange has increased, and more and more Americans visit China each year, with many settling down to work and study. Notes - Kerry Close, “The 1% Pocketed 85% of Post-Recession Income Growth,” Time, June 16, 2016. http://time.com/money/4371332/income-inequality-recession/. See also Justin Wolfers, “The Gains from the Economic Recovery Are Still Limited to the Top One Percent,” New York Times, January 27, 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/28/upshot/gains-from-economic-recovery-still-limited-to-top-one-percent.html. - Julia Queen and Christian Hilland, “2008 Presidential Campaign Financial Activity Summarized: Receipts Nearly Double 2004 Total,” Federal Election Commission, June 8, 2009. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2009/20090608PresStat.shtml; Andre Tartar and Eric Benson, “The Forever Campaign,” New York Magazine (October 14, 2012). http://nymag.com/news/politics/elections-2012/timeline-2012-10/. - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014). - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Global and Sectoral Aspects (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014). American Carnage By 2016, American voters were fed up. In that year’s presidential race, Republicans spurned their political establishment and nominated a real estate developer and celebrity billionaire, Donald Trump, who, decrying the tyranny of political correctness and promising to Make America Great Again, promised to build a wall to keep out Mexican immigrants and bar Muslim immigrants. The Democrats, meanwhile, flirted with the candidacy of Senator Bernie Sanders, a self-described democratic socialist from Vermont, before ultimately nominating Hillary Clinton, who, after eight years as first lady in the 1990s, had served eight years in the Senate and four more as secretary of state. Voters despaired: Trump and Clinton were the most unpopular nominees in modern American history. Majorities of Americans viewed each candidate unfavorably and majorities in both parties said, early in the election season, that they were motivated more by voting against their rival candidate than for their own.1 With incomes frozen, politics gridlocked, race relations tense, and headlines full of violence, such frustrations only channeled a larger sense of stagnation, which upset traditional political allegiances. In the end, despite winning nearly three million more votes nationwide, Clinton failed to carry key Midwestern states where frustrated white, working-class voters abandoned the Democratic Party—a Republican president hadn’t carried Wisconsin, Michigan, or Pennsylvania, for instance, since the 1980s—and swung their support to the Republicans. Donald Trump won the presidency. Political divisions only deepened after the election. A nation already deeply split by income, culture, race, geography, and ideology continued to come apart. Trump’s presidency consumed national attention. Traditional print media and the consumers and producers of social media could not help but throw themselves at the ins and outs of Trump’s norm-smashing first years while seemingly refracting every major event through the prism of the Trump presidency. Robert Mueller’s investigation of Russian election-meddling and the alleged collusion of campaign officials in that effort produced countless headlines. Meanwhile, new policies enflamed widening cultural divisions. Border apprehensions and deportations reached record levels under the Obama administration, but Trump pushed even farther. He pushed for a massive wall along the border to supplement the fence built under the Bush administration. He began ordering the deportation of so-called Dreamers—students who were born elsewhere but grew up in the United States—and immigration officials separated refugee-status-seeking parents and children at the border. Trump’s border policies heartened his base and aggravated his opponents. But while Trump enflamed America’s enduring culture war, his narrowly passed 2017 tax cut continued the redistribution of American wealth toward corporations and wealthy individuals. The tax cut exploded the federal deficit and further exacerbated America’s widening economic inequality. New policies, meanwhile, enflamed widening cultural divisions. Border apprehensions and deportations reached record levels under the Obama administration, but Trump pushed even farther. He pushed for a massive wall along the border to supplement the fence built under the Bush administration. He began ordering the deportation of so-called Dreamers—students who were born elsewhere but grew up in the United States—and immigration officials separated refugee-status-seeking parents and children at the border. Trump’s border policies heartened his base and aggravated his opponents.. In his inaugural address, Donald Trump promised to end what he called “American carnage”—a nation ravaged, he said, by illegal immigrants, crime, and foreign economic competition. But, under his presidency, the nation only spiraled deeper into cultural and racial divisions, domestic unrest, and growing anxiety about the nation’s future. Trump represented an aggressive, pugilistic anti-liberalism, and, as president, never missing an opportunity to fuel on the fires of right-wing rage. Refusing to settle for the careful statement or defer to bureaucrats, Trump smashed many of the norms of the presidency and raged on his personal Twitter account. And he refused to be governed by the truth. Few Americans, especially after the Johnson and Nixon administrations, believed that presidents never lied. But perhaps no president ever lied so boldly or so often as Donald Trump, who made, according to one accounting, an untrue statement every day for the first forty days of his presidency.2 By the latter years of his presidency, only about a third of Americans counted him as trustworthy.3 And that compulsive dishonesty led directly to January 6, 2021. In November 2020, Joseph R. Biden, a longtime senator from Delaware and former Vice President under Barack Obama, running alongside Kamala Harris, a California senator who would become the nation’s first female vice president, convincingly defeated Donald Trump at the polls: Biden won the popular vote by a margin of four percent and the electoral vote by a margin of 74 votes, marking the first time an incumbent president had been defeated in over thirty years. But Trump refused to concede the election. He said it had been stolen. He said votes had been manufactured. He said it was all rigged. The claims were easily debunked, but it didn’t seem to matter: months after the election, somewhere between one-half and two-thirds of self-identified Republicans judged the election stolen.4 So when, on the afternoon of January 6, 2021, the president again articulated a litany of lies about the election and told the crowd of angry conspiracy-minded protestors to march to the Capitol and “fight like hell,” they did. Thousands of Trump’s followers converged on the Capitol. Roughly one in seven of the more than 500 rioters later arrested were affiliated with extremist groups organized around conspiracy theories, white supremacy, and the right-wing militia movement.5 They waved American and Confederate flags, displayed conspiracy theory slogans and white supremacist icons, carried Christian iconography, and, above all, bore flags, hats, shirts, and other emblazoned with the name of Donald Trump.6 Arming themselves for hand-to-hand combat, they pushed past barriers and battled barricaded police officers. The Capitol attackers injured about 150 of them.7 Officers suffered concussions, burns, bruises, stab wounds, and broken bones.8 One suffered a non-fatal heart attack after being shocked repeatedly by a stun gun. Capitol Police Officer Brian D. Sicknick was killed, either by repeated attacks with a fire extinguisher or from mace or bear spray. Four other officers later died by suicide. As the rioters breached the building, officers inside the House chamber moved furniture to barricade the doors as House members huddled together on the floor, waiting for a breach. Ashli Babbitt, a thirty-five-year-old Air Force veteran consumed by social-media conspiracy theories, and wearing a Trump flag around her neck, was shot and killed by a Capitol Police officer when she attempted to storm the chamber. The House Chamber held, but attackers breached the Senate Chamber on the opposite end of the building. Lawmakers had already been evacuated. The rioters held the Capitol for several hours before the National Guard cleared it that evening. Congress, refusing to back down, stayed that evening to certify the results of the election. And yet, despite everything that had happened the day, the president’s unfounded claims of election fraud kept their grip on on Republican lawmakers. Eleven Republican senators and 150 of the House’s 212 Republicans lodged objections to the certification. And a little more than a month later, they refused to convict Donald Trump during his quickly organized second impeachment trial, this time for “incitement of insurrection.” Notes - Philip Bump, “A Quarter of Americans Dislike Both Major-Party Presidential Candidates,” Washington Post, July 14, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/07/14/a-quarter-of-americans-dislike-both-major-party-presidential-candidates/?tid=a_inl; Aaron Zitner and Julia Wolfe, “Trump and Clinton’s Popularity Problem,” Wall Street Journal, May 24, 2016. http://graphics.wsj.com/elections/2016/donald-trump-and-hillary-clintons-popularity-problem/. - https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/23/opinion/trumps-lies.html. - https://news.gallup.com/poll/312737/americans-views-trump-character-firmly-established.aspx. - See, for instance, https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2021-04/topline_write_up_reuters_ipsos_trump_coattails_poll_-_april_02_2021.pdf. - https://www.cbsnews.com/news/capitol-riot-arrests-latest-2021-07-27/. - https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/video/extremist-signs-symbols-capitol-riot.html. - https://www.cbsnews.com/news/capitol-police-injuries-riot/; https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/11/us/politics/capitol-riot-police-officer-injuries.html. - https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/11/us/politics/capitol-riot-police-officer-injuries.html. The Pandemic In the winter of 2019 and 2020, a new respiratory virus emerged in Wuhan, China. It was a coronavirus, named after its spiky, crown-like appearance under a microscope. Other coronaviruses had been identified and contained in previous years, but, by December, Chinese doctors were treating dozens of cases, and, by January, hundreds. Wuhan shut down to contain the outbreak but the virus escaped. By January, the United States confirmed its first case. Deaths were reported in the Philippines and in France. Outbreaks struck Italy and Iran. And American case counts grew. Countries began locking down. Air travel slowed. The virus was highly contagious and could be spread before the onset of symptoms. Many who had the virus were asymptomatic—they didn’t exhibit any symptoms at all. But others, especially the elderly and those with “co-morbidities,” were devastated. The virus attacked their airways, suffocating them. Doctors didn’t know what they were battling. They struggled to procure oxygen and respirators and incubated the worst cases with what they had. But the deaths piled up. The virus hit New York City in the spring. The city was devastated. Hospitals overflowed as doctors struggled to treat a disease they barely understood. By April, thousands of patients were dying every day. The city couldn’t keep up with the bodies. Dozens of “mobile morgues” were set up to house bodies which wouldn’t be processed for months.1 With medical-grade masks in short supply, Americans made their own homemade cloth masks. Many right-wing Americans notably refused to wear them at all, further exposing workers and family members to the virus. Failing to contain the outbreak, the country shut down. Flights stopped. Schools and restaurants closed. White-collar workers transitioned to working from home when offices shut down. But others weren’t so lucky. By April, 10 million Americans had lost their jobs.2 But shutdowns were scattered and incomplete. States were left to fend for themselves, setting their own policies and competing with one another to acquire scarce personal protective equipment (PPE). Many workers couldn’t stay home. Hourly workers, lacking paid sick leave, often had to choose between a paycheck and reporting to work having been exposed or even when presenting symptoms. Mask-wearing, meanwhile, was politicized. By May, 100,000 Americans were dead. A new wave of cases hit the South in July and August, overwhelming hospitals across much of the region. But the worst came in the winter, when the outbreak went fully national. Hundreds of thousands tested positive for the virus every day and nearly three-thousand Americans died every day throughout January and much of February. The outbreak retreated in the spring, and pharmaceutical labs, flush with federal dollars, released new, cutting-edge vaccines. By late spring, Americans were getting vaccinated by the millions. The virus looked like it could be defeated. But many Americans, variously swayed by conspiracy theories peddled on social media or simply politically radicalized into associating vaccinations with anti-Trump politics, refused them. By late summer, barely a majority of those eligible for vaccines were fully vaccinated. And so the pandemic continued on. More contagious strains spread and the virus continued churning through the population, sending the unvaccinated to hospitals and to early deaths. By the end of the summer of 2021, according to official counts, over 600,000 Americans had died from Covid-19. Notes - https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/nyregion/coronavirus-new-york-bodies.html. - https://www.nytimes.com/article/coronavirus-timeline.html. New Horizons Americans looked anxiously to the future, and yet also, often, to a new generation busy discovering, perhaps, that change was not impossible. Much public commentary in the early twenty-first century concerned “Millennials” and “Generation Z,” the generations that came of age during the new millennium. Commentators, demographers, and political prognosticators continued to ask what the new generation will bring. Time’s May 20, 2013, cover, for instance, read Millennials Are Lazy, Entitled Narcissists Who Still Live with Their Parents: Why They’ll Save Us All. Pollsters focused on features that distinguish millennials from older Americans: millennials, the pollsters said, were more diverse, more liberal, less religious, and wracked by economic insecurity. “They are,” as one Pew report read, “relatively unattached to organized politics and religion, linked by social media, burdened by debt, distrustful of people, in no rush to marry—and optimistic about the future.”1 Millennial attitudes toward homosexuality and gay marriage reflected one of the most dramatic changes in the popular attitudes of recent years. After decades of advocacy, American attitudes shifted rapidly. In 2006, a majority of Americans still told Gallup pollsters that “gay or lesbian relations” was “morally wrong.”2 But prejudice against homosexuality plummeted and greater public acceptance of coming out opened the culture–in 2001, 73 percent of Americans said they knew someone who was gay, lesbian, or bisexual; in 1983, only 24 percent did. Gay characters—and in particular, gay characters with depth and complexity—could be found across the cultural landscape. Attitudes shifted such that, by the 2010s, polls registered majority support for the legalization of gay marriage. A writer for the Wall Street Journal called it “one of the fastest-moving changes in social attitudes of this generation.”3 Such change was, in many respects, a generational one: on average, younger Americans supported gay marriage in higher numbers than older Americans. The Obama administration, meanwhile, moved tentatively. Refusing to push for national interventions on the gay marriage front, Obama did, however, direct a review of Defense Department policies that repealed the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy in 2011. Without the support of national politicians, gay marriage was left to the courts. Beginning in Massachusetts in 2003, state courts had begun slowly ruling against gay marriage bans. Then, in June 2015, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in Obergefell v. Hodges that same-sex marriage was a constitutional right. Nearly two thirds of Americans supported the position.4 While liberal social attitudes marked the younger generation, perhaps nothing defined young Americans more than the embrace of technology. The Internet in particular, liberated from desktop modems, shaped more of daily life than ever before. The release of the Apple iPhone in 2007 popularized the concept of smartphones for millions of consumers and, by 2011, about a third of Americans owned a mobile computing device. Four years later, two thirds did.5 Together with the advent of social media, Americans used their smartphones and their desktops to stay in touch with old acquaintances, chat with friends, share photos, and interpret the world—as newspaper and magazine subscriptions dwindled, Americans increasingly turned to their social media networks for news and information.6 Ambitious new online media companies, hungry for clicks and the ad revenue they represented, churned out provocatively titled, easy-to-digest stories that could be linked and tweeted and shared widely among like-minded online communities,7 but even traditional media companies, forced to downsize their newsrooms to accommodate shrinking revenues, fought to adapt to their new online consumers. The ability of individuals to share stories through social media apps revolutionized the media landscape—smartphone technology and the democratization of media reshaped political debates and introduced new political questions. The easy accessibility of video capturing and the ability for stories to go viral outside traditional media, for instance, brought new attention to the tense and often violent relations between municipal police officers and African Americans. The 2014 death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, sparked protests and focused the issue. It perhaps became a testament to the power of social media platforms such as Twitter that a hashtag, #blacklivesmatter, became a rallying cry for protesters and counterhashtags, #alllivesmatter and #policelivesmatter, for critics.8 But a relentless number of videos documenting the deaths of Black men at the hands of police officers continued to circulated across social media networks. The deaths of Eric Garner, twelve-year-old Tamir Rice, Philando Castile, and were captured on cell phone cameras and went viral. So too did the stories of Breonna Taylor and Botham Jean. “Say their names,” a popular chant at Black Lives Matters marches went. And then George Floyd was murdered. On May 25, 2020, a teenager, Darnella Frazier, filmed Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin with his knee on the neck of George Floyd. “I can’t breath,” Floyd said. Despite his pleas, and those of bystanders, Chauvin kept his knee on Floyd’s neck for nine minutes. Floyd’s body had long gone limp. The horrific footage shocked much of the country. Despite state and local lockdowns to slow the spread of Covid-19, spontaneous demonstrations broke out across the country. Protests erupted not only in major cities but in small towns and rural communities. The demonstrations dwarfed, in raw numbers, any comparable protest in American history. Taken together, as many as 25-million Americans may have participated in racial justice demonstrations that summer.9 And yet, despite the marches, no great national policy changes quickly followed. The “system” resisted calls to address “systemic racism.” Localities made efforts, of course. Criminal justice reformers won elections as district attorneys. Police departments mandated their officers carry body cameras. As cries of “defund the police” sounded among left-wing Americans, some cities experimented with alternative emergency services that emphasized mediation and mental health. Meanwhile, at a symbolic level, Democratic-leaning towns and cities in the South pulled down their Confederate iconography. But the intractable racial injustices embedded deeply within American life had not been uprooted and racial disparities in wealth, education, health, and other measures persevered, as they already had, in the United States, for hundreds of years. As the Black Lives Matter movement captured national attention, another social media phenomenon, the #MeToo movement, began as the magnification of and outrage toward the past sexual crimes of notable male celebrities before injecting a greater intolerance toward those accused of sexual harassment and violence into much of the rest of American society. The sudden zero tolerance reflected the new political energies of many American women, sparked in large part by the candidacy and presidency of Donald Trump. The day after Trump’s inauguration, between five hundred thousand and one million people descended on Washington, D.C., for the Women’s March, and millions more demonstrated in cities and towns around the country to show a broadly defined commitment toward the rights of women and others in the face of the Trump presidency. As issues of race and gender captured much public discussion, immigration continued on as a potent political issue. Even as anti-immigrant initiatives like California’s Proposition 187 (1994) and Arizona’s SB1070 (2010) reflected the anxieties of many white Americans, younger Americans proved far more comfortable with immigration and diversity (which makes sense, given that they are the most diverse American generation in living memory). Since Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society liberalized immigration laws in the 1960s, the demographics of the United States have been transformed. In 2012, nearly one quarter of all Americans were immigrants or the sons and daughters of immigrants. Half came from Latin America. The ongoing Hispanicization of the United States and the ever-shrinking proportion of non-Hispanic whites have been the most talked about trends among demographic observers. By 2013, 17 percent of the nation was Hispanic. In 2014, Latinos surpassed non-Latino whites to become the largest ethnic group in California. In Texas, the image of a white cowboy hardly captures the demographics of a minority-majority state in which Hispanic Texans will soon become the largest ethnic group. For the nearly 1.5 million people of Texas’s Rio Grande Valley, for instance, where most residents speak Spanish at home, a full three fourths of the population is bilingual.10 Political commentators often wonder what political transformations these populations will bring about when they come of age and begin voting in larger numbers. Notes - Paul Taylor, The Next America: Boomers, Millennials, and the Looming Generational Showdown (New York: Public Affairs, 2014). - “Gay and Lesbian Rights,” Gallup, December 5–7, 2003. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1651/gay-lesbian-rights.aspx. - Janet Hook, “Support for Gay Marriage Hits All-Time High,” Wall Street Journal, March 9, 2015. - Ibid. - Monica Anders, “Technology Device Ownership: 2015,” Pew Research Center, October 29, 2015. http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/02/22/smartphone-ownership-and-internet-usage-continues-to-climb-in-emerging-economies/. - Monica Anderson and Andrea Caumont, “How Social Media Is Reshaping News,” Pew Research Center, September 24, 2014. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/09/24/how-social-media-is-reshaping-news/. - See, for instance, Nicholas G. Carr’s 2010 The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, a 2011 Pulitzer Prize finalist. - Bijan Stephen, “Social Media Helps Black Lives Matter Fight the Power,” Wired (November 2015). http://www.wired.com/2015/10/how-black-lives-matter-uses-social-media-to-fight-the-power/. - https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html. - U.S. Census Bureau, 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/16_1YR/S1601/0500000US48061\|0500000US48215. Conclusion The collapse of the Soviet Union brought neither global peace nor stability, and the attacks of September 11, 2001, plunged the United States into interminable conflicts around the world. At home, economic recession, a slow recovery, stagnant wage growth, and general pessimism infected American life as contentious politics and cultural divisions poisoned social harmony, leading directly to the January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol. And yet the stream of history changes its course. Trends shift, things change, and events turn. New generations bring with them new perspectives, and they share new ideas. Our world is not foreordained. It is the product of history, the ever-evolving culmination of a longer and broader story, of a larger history, of a raw, distinctive, American Yawp. Primary Sources 1. Bill Clinton on Free Trade and Financial Deregulation (1993-2000) During his time in office, Bill Clinton passed the North American Free Trade Act (NAFTA) in 1993, allowing for the free movement of goods between Mexico, the United States, and Canada, signed legislation repealing the Glass-Steagall Act, a major plank of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal banking regulation, and deregulated the trading of derivatives, including credit default swaps, a complicated financial instrument that would play a key role in the 2007-2008 economic crash. In the following signing statements, Clinton offers his support of free trade and deregulation. 2. 9/11 Commission Report, “Reflecting On A Generational Challenge” (2004) On July 22, 2004, the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States—or, the 9/11 Commission—delivered a 500-plus-page report that investigated the origins of the 9/11 attacks and America’s response and offered policy prescriptions for a post-9/11 world. 3. George W. Bush on the Post-9/11 World (2002) In his 2002 State of the Union Address, George W. Bush proclaimed that the attacks of September 11 signaled a new, dangerous world that demanded American interventions. Bush identified an “Axis of Evil” and provided a justification for a broad “war on terror.” 4. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) In 2015, the Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that prohibitions against same-sex marriage were unconstitutional. Gay marriage had been a divisive issue in American politics for well over a decade. Many states passed referendums and constitutional amendments barring same-sex marriages and, in 1996, Bill Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act, defining marriage at the federal level as between a man and a woman. In 2003, the Massachusetts Supreme Court struck down Massachusetts’ state’s prohibition, making it the first state to legally marry same-sex couples. More followed and public opinion began to turn. Although President Obama still refused to support it, by 2011 a majority of Americans believed same-sex marriages should be legally recognized. Four years later, the Supreme Court issued its Obergefell decision. The majority opinion, written by Justice Anthony Kennedy, considered the relationship between history and shifting notions of liberty and injustice. 5. Pedro Lopez on His Mother’s Deportation (2008/2015) Pedro Lopez immigrated to Postville, Iowa, with his family as a young child. On May 12, 2008, Pedro Lopez’s mother, an undocumented immigrant from Mexico, was arrested, jailed, and deported to Mexico. Pedro was 13. Here, he describes the experience. 6. Chelsea Manning Petitions for a Pardon (2013) Chelsea Manning, a U.S. Army intelligence analyst, was convicted in 2013 for violating the Espionage Act by leaking classified documents revealing the killing of civilians, the torture of prisoners, and other nefarious actions committed by the United States in the War on Terror. After being sentenced to thirty-five years in federal prison, she delivered a statement, through her attorney, explaining her actions and requesting a pardon from President Barack Obama. Manning’s sentence was commuted in 2017. 7. Emily Doe, Victim Impact Statement (2015) On January 18, 2015, Stanford University student Brock Turner sexually assaulted an unconscious woman outside of a university fraternity house. At his sentencing on June 2, 2016, his unnamed victim (“Emily Doe”) read a 7,000-word victim impact statement describing the effect of the assault on her life. [Note: Chanel Miller identified herself publicly as Emily Doe in September 2019.] A worker stands in front of rubble from the World Trade Center at Ground Zero in Lower Manhattan several weeks after the September 11 attacks. 9. Barack Obama and a Young Boy (2009) In 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American elected to the presidency. In this official White House photo from May, 2009, 5-year-old Jacob Philadelphia said, “I want to know if my hair is just like yours.” Reference Material This chapter was edited by Michael Hammond, with content contributions by Eladio Bobadilla, Andrew Chadwick, Zach Fredman, Leif Fredrickson, Michael Hammond, Richara Hayward, Joseph Locke, Mark Kukis, Shaul Mitelpunkt, Michelle Reeves, Elizabeth Skilton, Bill Speer, and Ben Wright. Recommended citation: Eladio Bobadilla et al., “The Recent Past,” Michael Hammond, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: New Press, 2012. - Canaday, Margot. The Straight State: Sexuality and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011. - Carter, Dan T. From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994. Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1996. - Cowie, Jefferson. Capital Moves: RCA’s 70-Year Quest for Cheap Labor. New York: New Press, 2001. - Ehrenreich, Barbara. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America. New York: Metropolitan, 2001. - Evans, Sara. Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century’s End. New York: Free Press, 2003. - Gardner, Lloyd C. The Long Road to Baghdad: A History of U.S. Foreign Policy from the 1970s to the Present. New York: Free Press, 2008. - Hinton, Elizabeth. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016. - Hollinger, David. Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism. New York: Basic Books, 1995. - Hunter, James D. Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America. New York: Basic Books, 1992. - Meyerowitz, Joanne. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. - Mittelstadt, Jennifer. The Rise of the Military Welfare State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. - Moreton, Bethany. To Serve God and Walmart: The Making of Christian Free Enterprise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. - Nadasen, Premilla. Welfare Warriors: The Welfare Rights Movement in the United States. New York: Routledge, 2005. - Osnos, Evan. Age of Ambition: Chasing Fortune, Truth and Faith in the New China. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014. - Packer, George. The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013. - Patterson, James T. Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. - Piketty, Thomas. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Translated from the French by Arthur Goldhammer. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2013. - Ricks, Thomas E. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. New York: Penguin, 2006. - Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001. - Stiglitz, Joseph. Freefall: America, Free Markets, and the Sinking of the World Economy. New York: Norton, 2010. - Taylor, Paul. The Next America: Boomers, Millennials, and the Looming Generational Showdown. New York: Public Affairs, 2014. - Wilentz, Sean. The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008. New York: HarperCollins, 2008. - Williams, Daniel K. God’s Own Party: The Making of the Christian Right. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. - Wright, Lawrence. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Knopf, 2006.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.400125	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90500/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Times of Change, The Recent Past", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113229/overview	Independence Movements in South America and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 7, Lesson 4 A discussion of revolutions in South America during the 18th and 19th centuries, focusing on the Mexican War for Independence and the efforts of Simon Bolivar to liberate several South American countries from Spanish rule including the Battle of Ayacucho, the last major battle of the Spanish American War for Independence. Although inspired by similar Enlightenment trends, Latin American revolutionaries differed considerably from their Anglo-American counterparts. By the 1760s, the thirteen British North American colonies featured a decentralized imperial government, considerable regional political autonomy, a sizeable middling sort of attorneys, printers and other professionals, a preoccupation with private property, written contracts and the exclusion of most Native Americans from colonial society. However, the colonies of Nueva España sported top-down imperial governance, a ruling gentry of landholders, soldiers and church officials, an emphasis on personal relationships and multicultural societies that included large numbers of Native Americans and African Americans. From the 1500s to the 1700s, Spanish colonial governments remained deeply conservative. Dominated by large landholders, merchants, royal bureaucrats and church officials, colonial leaders became accustomed to a certain amount of autonomy within the empire. When Philip V (1683-1746) of the House of Bourbon became the Spanish King in 1700, he began to streamline colonial governments and centralize royal authority under his leadership. Latin American elites bitterly resented what they considered an attempt to rein in their autonomy. By the late 1700s, South American revolutionary leaders like Simon Bolívar and José de San Martín became inspired by the Enlightenment philosophy of John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Encouraged by the success of the American, French and Haitian revolutions, Spanish colonial leaders formed junta- style governments that declared their independence from Spain in the 1810s and 1820s. However, while Bolívar and San Martín promised liberal reforms to attract peasants to their cause, many of the newly freed countries of Latin America, such as Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina and Bolivia, retained traditional political and social orders. Among other things, this created a political environment in which civil wars and coups became commonplace. Mexico The Mexican War for Independence began on September 16, 1810, when Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811) urged his parishioners in the province of Dolores, many of whom were Native Americans, to rebel against the Spanish Imperial government. Over 60,000 peasants heeded Hidalgo’s “Grito de Dolores” (“Cry of Dolores”) and marched upon Mexico City. Spanish officials responded by capturing and executing Hidalgo. However, his successor, Father José María Morelos (1765-1815), routed Spanish forces across the Mexican countryside. Morelos was ultimately captured and executed by Spanish royalist forces in 1815. Augustin de Iturbide (1783-1824), a creole military officer who had previously fought for the Spanish Crown, later joined the independence movement in 1820. By 1821, Iturbide had consolidated all of Mexico under his rule. The success of Mexican revolutionary armies also helped inspire independence movements in Central America. In 1823, the provinces of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica reconstituted themselves as the Federal Republic of Central America, although by 1840, they had emerged as independent nations. Spotlight On \| MEXICAN CONSTITUTION In 1824, Mexican officials gathered together in Mexico City to create the nation’s first written Constitution. Modeled on the U.S. Constitution and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the Mexican Constitution called for a federal government with a separation of powers, a system of checks and balances, and provincial assemblies with considerable autonomy. However, the Mexican Constitution differed from its American counterpart in several ways. First, rather than providing a separation of church and state, the Mexican Constitution declared Roman Catholicism to be the official state religion of the country. Second, the Mexican Constitution abolished slavery and provided equal rights for all minorities. Texas revolutionaries cited the suspension of the Mexican Constitution in 1836 as a key reason for declaring their independence from Mexico. Venezuela and Chile The outbreak of the Mexican War for Independence paralleled similar developments in South America. An attempt by Napoleon Bonaparte to install his brother on the Spanish throne led to a power struggle. Unwilling to submit to a French ruler, local elites and revolutionaries in South America created several juntas to govern the colonies. When Madrid attempted to reassume its control over its American colonies in 1808, several juntas declared their independence. In 1811, wealthy creole Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) launched a bloody eleven-year independence movement in Venezuela. To promote support for his revolutionary movement, Bolívar offered full political rights to poor Venezuelans and ended slavery. In 1819, he and a small army conducted a daring journey across the Andes Mountains, catching Spanish forces by surprise and capturing the capital of Bogota. Bolívar’s war for independence inspired revolutionaries to the south. In 1816, Spanish military officer turned revolutionary José de San Martín (1778-1850) liberated Argentina. The following year he and his soldiers pushed Spanish forces out of Chile. In 1821, Bolívar and San Martín met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they planned a campaign against Spanish forces entrenched in the Peruvian Andes. No one knows how the two men reached an agreement, but San Martín left his army for Bolívar to command. Soon after, San Martín sailed for Europe, dying almost forgotten on French soil in 1850. Bolívar followed the Spaniards into the heights of the Andes. His forces defeated the Spanish army at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, which was the war’s last major battle for independence. Spotlight On \| BATTLE OF AYACUCHO The Battle of Ayacucho, fought on December 9, 1824, represented the final major battle in the Spanish American War for Independence. In 1821, a revolutionary army led by Simón Bolívar invaded Spanish-occupied Peru. Three years later, a large Spanish army of 9,000 soldiers remained embedded in the Peruvian Andes. Leading an army of 6,000 soldiers representing provinces stretching from Colombia to Argentina, General Antonio José de Sucre (1795-1830) launched a devastating cavalry charge against extensive Spanish artillery. Capturing the Peruvian Viceroy and his officers, Sucre’s victory represented the defeat of Spain’s last large army in South America. Brazil adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA In Brazil, independence took a different turn. When Napoleon’s armies entered Portugal in 1807, the royal family escaped to Brazil, its largest colony. For the next 14 years, it would be the center of the Portuguese empire. In 1821, the Portuguese king returned to Portugal and left his eldest son, Pedro to rule Brazil as a regent. However, growing calls for independence emerged among the Brazilian population. Faced with increasing pressure from Brazilian elites and popular movements, and recognizing the growing sentiment for independence, Pedro declared Brazilian independence in 1822. This decision followed a period of complex negotiations and political maneuvering involving Brazilian elites, the Portuguese court, and various factions within Brazilian society. In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, Pedro I became the king of Portugal. In 1831, unable to manage both Brazil and the Portuguese throne (which his brother had usurped), Pedro I abdicated the Brazilian throne in favor of his young son, who then became Emperor Pedro II. Under the young Pedro II's rule, Brazil went from the verge of disintegration to becoming an emerging international power. Pedro II brought peace and stability to the country, and Brazil was victorious in several major conflicts during his reign. The Brazilian economy prospered, leading to increased European immigration and the gradual abolition of slavery. The arts, literature, and culture also flourished, with Brazilian adaptations of European styles. Despite his lack of desire to maintain the monarchy, Pedro II's reign was marked by continuous internal peace and economic growth. Even after he was suddenly overthrown in a coup, some saw him as a model for the new Brazilian republic. SUMMARY The impact of the American, French and Haitian Revolutions and the independence movements in South America and what they meant then and mean to us today are still widely debated. One aspect about these revolutions is certain: they still influence much of how humanity views and understands the world and continue to shape our conceptions of liberty, equality and freedom. The Haitian Revolution interfered with Napoleon’s plan to establish a French Empire across the Atlantic world. The Louisiana Purchase extended slavery in the United States. It also blocked slave holding empires such as France and Britain from expansion, moving them closer to the abolition of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The French abolished the slave trade in 1815, followed by the abolition of slavery in 1845. The British abolished the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in 1833. In Latin America, this period of revolutions was marked by violence and turmoil. Inspired by the America, French and Haitian Revolutions, rebellions against the Spanish and Portuguese led to the establishment of independent nations. Following these revolutions, each of the new countries would have to establish a new framework for governance as they attempted to create a new prosperous and independent nation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.427558	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113229/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Challenging the Old Order - The Age of Revolutions and Independence Movements, Independence Movements in South America and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113232/overview	Industrialization in the United States and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 8, Lesson 3 A discussion of the Industrial Revolution in the United States, including key inventions and inventors, the impact on society, and the rise of industrial giants. It also details the challenges faced by workers and their attempts to organize.Includes excerpts from Harriet Hanson Robinson's autobiography about Lowell Mill Girls. In 1783, the United States emerged from the American Revolution as an overwhelmingly rural nation. Yet in just a century, the nation would become one of the world’s most advanced industrial nations. After World War II, the United States became the strongest and most productive in world history, a distinction it continues to hold. British law that restricted trade and manufacturing in certain industries hindered American subjects from creating their own factories during the colonial period. A few daring merchants experimented with “putting out” or “cottage industry” systems whereby they hired different groups of artisans to make machine parts (such as gun barrels, gun stocks, ramrods, bullets, shot and powder). Other craftsmen would then combine these parts into a final product. American merchants and industrialists borrowed copiously from European precedents throughout the 19th century while making their own innovations. In the 1780s, New England mechanic and industrialist Samuel Slater (1768-1835) toured British cotton spinning factories, memorized their technological layout and management systems, and then used this knowledge to open his own water-powered spinning mills in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. In 1803, Slater created a firearms factory that used interchangeable parts to produce cheap, easily repairable muskets in significant quantities. The availability of abundant waterways, coal deposits, state governments willing to grant patents and charters of incorporation to aspiring inventors, and a well-educated labor force quickly allowed the American Northeast to emerge as the center for industrialization in the U.S. The burgeoning factory systime in New England, New York and New Jersey created a demand for cheaper and faster ways of bringing goods to market. In 1807, Robert Fulton (1765-1815) piloted his North River Steamboat, the first functional steamboat in America, on its maiden voyage from New York City to Albany. Although powered by a British Boulton and Watt steam engine, the North River Steamboat proved that two-way travel along America’s coasts and rivers was now not merely possible but also cost-effective. This innovation revolutionized inland transportation, facilitating the westward expansion of the nation and laying the groundwork for a robust domestic market. The widespread adoption of steamboats connected burgeoning industrial centers with growing agricultural regions, fostering a vibrant national economy that would eventually serve as a foundation for American global trade. In 1837, Yale-trained Massachusetts inventor and artist Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872) obtained a patent for his “American Recording Electro-Magnetic Telegraph.” Morse’s invention provided an inexpensive single-wire method of carrying electromagnetic current over extended distances. He also created an alphabet based on long and short telegraph signals. In time this “Morse Code” would become the international language of the telegraph, allowing for the reliable, instantaneous transmission of news and information across the nation. Borrowing from British precedents, New England industrialist Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) created the first textile mill in Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814. To pesuade skeptical New England patriarchs to embrace industrialization, Lowell suggested that young women between the ages of 15-35 staff his factories, a move that would later be chronicled in Harriet Hanson Robinson's 1825 autobiography of Early Factory Labor in Lowell Mill. One of Lowell’s factory employees was a young inventor and mechanic named Elias Howe (1819-1867). Following the Panic of 1837 (a financial crisis that led to a depression), Howe began to experiment with creating a mechanical sewing machine. In 1846, he secured a patent for a lockstitch sewing machine that used a steam-powered shuttle to feed garments into an automatic needle and thread processor. Faced with competition from other industrialists like Isaac Singer (1811-1875), Howe defended his invention in court. By the American Civil War, the sewing machine had transformed the clothing industry across the United States, allowing for the creation of mass-produced, high-quality garments which allowed working class and middling-sort Americans to adopt the refined tastes of the nation’s elites. Spotlight On \| LOWELL MILL GIRL SYSTEM Francis Cabot Lowell’s plan to use young women from New England farming families to staff his textile mills proved a bold experiment in the 1830s. Dominated by large, religiously conservative landowning families, Massachusetts political leaders remained wary of industrialization. They acknowledged Britain’s rapid industrial success but lamented the damage such success had wrought among Britain’s poor working classes. However, Lowell argued that by hiring young women to work in his factories for a set number of years, he would provide his young charges with not just wages but job skills, work experience, educational opportunities, room and board, proper chaperoning and religious instruction. A portion of their salaries would be sent home, helping to sustain their family’s farms. They would return home poised to become hard-working, sensible wives and mothers. In this regard, industrialization would support rather than endanger traditional New England family values. However, in reality, Lowell women worked long hours in dangerous conditions. To be specific, many did gain crucial workplace skills and a sense of working-class solidarity. For instance, Lowell women participated in one of the first labor strikes for higher wages. However, Lowell factory managers replaced them with poor Irish and German factory laborers. By training such immigrants to perform simple industrial tasks, factory owners could easily replace troublesome or rebellious workers. Furthermore, unlike the Lowell girl system, factory owners felt no compulsion to house, feed or educate their immigrant labor forces. The U.S. Civil War represented a watershed moment in the history of American industrialization. By the 1860s, 90% of America’s industrial and financial centers existed in the northern states. Thousands of new factories sprang up overnight to meet the federal government’s incessant demand for weapons, uniforms, telegraphs and warships. The north’s industrial output played a crucial role in the eventual northern victory as Union forces outpaced the ability of the south to manufacture or import its wartime material. Following the outbreak of peace in 1865, many of these factories were recalibrated for civilian use. In 1869, corporate leaders of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads and government officials gathered in Promontory Point, Utah, to drive a golden spike into a rail line. The act symbolized the uniting of the first transcontinental railroad, which allowed for the rapid settlement of the American west. By building railroad lines through tribal lands and shooting buffalo from railroad cars, Anglo-American settlers brought thousands of Native Americans to the edge of starvation. They accelerated the displacements of dozens of tribes onto reservation land. Throughout the Gilded Age, a new class of American entrepreneurs emerged on the scene. In 1872, Scottish- born industrialist Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) witnessed “Bessemer steal” production in England. Pioneered by British inventor Henry Bessemer (1813- 1898), the “Bessemer process” called for the injection of oxygen into molten metal to burn off impurities and thus create high-quality steel. In 1892, Carnegie started the U.S. Steel Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and soon came to dominate the fledgling American steel industry. He pioneered vertical development, buying up mines for extracting ore, mills for processing it, and railroads to distribute final goods to markets. One of America’s first billionaires, Carnegie championed the cause of self-improvement. He funded the creation of lending libraries across the United States (many of which remain in operation today). He poured funds into institutions of higher learning, such as Carnegie- Mellon University Spotlight On \| ANDREW CARNEGIE Born into a poor Scottish weaving family, Andrew Carnegie migrated with his family to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as a young boy in the 1840s. Using the newly emerging telegraph industry, Carnegie learned morse code and became a successful telegraph operator. Investing in railroad and bridge companies, he multiplied his fortune many times during the Civil War. A firm believer in self-cultivation, Carnegie gave generously to foundations, schools and churches. Most significantly, he funded a series of first-rate libraries in poor urban neighborhoods and small rural towns across the nation. Boasting an impressive array of not just technical or business manuals, these libraries also sported great works of literature and history. Carnegie and his supporters argued that the goal of these libraries was not just to allow men and women to prepare for professional careers but to make them refined citizens of a national culture that rewarded risk-taking and self-improvement. Oil magnate John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) proved an interesting contrast to Carnegie. Originally a commission merchant and salesman, Rockefeller created an oil refining business in the 1860s. Buying out several competitors, Rockefeller established the Standard Oil Company in 1870. By the 1890s, critics charged that Rockefeller and his lieutenants were engaging in horizontal expansion, strongarming smaller oil companies into selling out to U.S. Steel to cut down on competition and keep oil prices high. Rockefeller also successfully provided financial support to Congressmen who passed laws providing U.S. Steel with tax breaks, free land, and tariffs to discourage foreign competition. However, like Carnegie, Rockefeller became a leading philanthropist late in life. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) changed the world with his invention of the telephone. Bell initially sought to create a machine that would help his young wife, Mabel Hubbard, and other hearing-impaired Americans distinguish between sounds. Quickly realizing his invention’s commercial application, Graham obtained a patent for his “acoustic telegraph” in 1876. In time the telephone would revolutionize the transmission of knowledge across the world. While Bell experimented with transmitting sound, his contemporary Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) poured his time and energy into illuminating the world. In 1880, he created the first practical, long-lasting electrical lightbulb at his Menlo Park laboratory in New Jersey. The lightbulb allowed for the nighttime illumination of large American cities, reducing the need for dangerous gaslight systems and allowing ordinary Americans to partake in nighttime jobs, shopping, education and recreation. Edison also helped establish the first motion picture industry, perfected early phonographs, and experimented with dynamos. The World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 showcased American technological advancements in steel manufacturing, oil production, steam power and electricity. More importantly, the Exposition signaled America’s rise as one of the world’s leading industrial powers. The Industrial Revolution wrought tremendous changes for businesspeople, factory owners and the millions of blue-collar Americans working in the industrial sector. In some ways, ordinary Americans benefitted from high- paying jobs which allowed them to pursue professional educations, move up the corporate ladder, purchase homes in newly created suburbs, pursue refinement, send their children to good schools, and devote freshly acquired leisure time to following sports and going on vacations. However, industrialization significantly altered the nature of work. Traditional artisans were often displaced by low-skilled assembly line workers who could be easily hired and fired. The repetitive and monotonous nature of factory labor took a significant toll on workers' physical and mental health. Factory environments were frequently hazardous, with inadequate safety measures leading to high rates of injuries, exposure to harmful dust and fumes, and increased risk of respiratory illnesses. Child labor was a particularly egregious example of this exploitation, with young children subjected to long hours and dangerous conditions. Furthermore, the influx of workers into rapidly growing industrial cities led to overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions, contributing to the spread of disease and exacerbating social problems. The constant threat of job loss, coupled with low wages and poor living conditions, pushed many working-class families into poverty and desperation, leading to increased rates of alcoholism, drug addiction, and social unrest. Not surprisingly, the 1870s witnessed the first large- scale labor strikes in American history. Borrowing from European labor union techniques, American organizations such as the Knights of Labor, the American Federation of Labor, the Congress of Industrial Workers, and the National Grange led strikes for shorter hours, better wages and benefits. In the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Homestead Strike of 1892 and the Pullman Strike of 1894, state and federal officials intervened on the side of business owners to crush striking workers and restore industrial production. SUMMARY The Industrial Revolution radically altered society. It accelerated a host of processes and developments, including urbanization. It took advantage of new ways to harness energy and increased the productive abilities of humankind. The Industrial Revolution was not simply a physical revolution but a social and intellectual one. It has massively altered how we understand and approach work, capital and the individual. The Industrial Revolution provided the countries that best employed the new technological and productive capabilities with considerable advantage and buttressed attempts, especially by the West, to expand their global reach and control. Primary Source \| Lowell Mill Harriet Hanson Robinson: Lowell Mill Girls (1883) [Abridged] In what follows, I shall confine myself to a description of factory life in Lowell, Massachusetts, from 1832 to 1848, since, with that phase of Early Factory Labor in New England, I am the most familiar-because I was a part of it. At the time the Lowell cotton mills were started the caste of the factory girl was the lowest among the employments of women. In England and in France, particularly, great injustice had been done to her real character. She was represented as subjected to influences that must destroy her purity and selfrespect. In the eyes of her overseer she was but a brute, a slave, to be beaten, pinched and pushed about. It was to overcome this prejudice that such high wages had been offered to women that they might be induced to become millgirls, in spite of the opprobrium that still clung to this degrading occupation.... The early millgirls were of different ages. Some were not over ten years old; a few were in middle life, but the majority were between the ages of sixteen and twentyfive. The very young girls were called "doffers." They "doffed," or took off, the full bobbins from the spinningframes, and replaced them with empty ones. These mites worked about fifteen minutes every hour and the rest of the time was their own. When the overseer was kind they were allowed to read, knit, or go outside the millyard to play. They were paid two dollars a week. The working hours of all the girls extended from five o'clock in the morning until seven in the evening, with one halfhour each, for breakfast and dinner. Even the doffers were forced to be on duty nearly fourteen hours a day. This was the greatest hardship in the lives of these children. Several years later a tenhour law was passed, but not until long after some of these little doffers were old enough to appear before the legislative committee on the subject, and plead, by their presence, for a reduction of the hours of labor. The most prevailing incentive to labor was to secure the means of education for some male member of the family. To make a gentleman of a brother or a son, to give him a college education, was the dominant thought in the minds of a great many of the better class of millgirls. I have known more than one to give every cent of her wages, month after month, to her brother, that he might get the education necessary to enter some profession. I have known a mother to work years in this way for her boy. I have known women to educate young men by their earnings, who were not sons or relatives. There are many men now living who were helped to an education by the wages of the early millgirls. It is well to digress here a little, and speak of the influence the possession of money had on the characters of some of these women. We can hardly realize what a change the cotton factory made in the status of the working women. Hitherto woman had always been a money saving rather than a money earning, member of the community. Her labor could command but small return. If she worked out as servant, or "help," her wages were from 50 cents to $1 .00 a week; or, if she went from house to house by the day to spin and weave, or do tailoress work, she could get but 75 cents a week and her meals. As teacher, her services were not in demand, and the arts, the professions, and even the trades and industries, were nearly all closed to her. From Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/robinson-lowell.asp	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.454269	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113232/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Remaking the World - The Industrial Revolution, Workers, and a New Economic Order, Industrialization in the United States and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113246/overview	Mughals and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 10, Lesson 4 A discussion of the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of the British Raj in India highlights the challenges of creating an efficient and industrialized state. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Mughal Empire confronted a series of challenges. The cost of ruling such a large empire had drained the treasury, and the Mughals no longer had the military power to defend all their territory. The rise of new groups, including the Sikhs, Rajput and the Maratha Confederacy, posed new challenges to the Mughal state. By mid-century, the Mughals had lost important territories to the Sikhs, Rajputs, and Marathas. They also suffered invasions, including Nadir Shah's in 1739, the British victory in Bengal at the Battle of Plassey (1757), and increasing French encroachment in the Southeast. After the Battle of Plassey, the British used their technological and military superiority to increase their presence in and control over India. The Mughals were a declining force, and in 1857, they were defeated by the British. Bahadur Shah Zafar (r. 1837-1857) would be the last leader of the Mughal Empire, which had been established in 1526. The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred all East India Company land directly to the British Crown, establishing what is known as the British Raj. In 1876, Queen Victoria (1819-1901) assumed the title as the Empress of India. Although the British attempted reforms in India, most ordinary Indians saw little benefit from British rule. British attempts at reform engendered oppressive taxes and under-investment. Colonialism and colonial rule sought to benefit the colonizer, and while colonial people could benefit, the aim was to strengthen the British Empire, most often to the detriment of colonized people. This inspired many Indians to join the movement for Indian independence, which developed in the late 19th century and gained increased momentum after the First World War. Spotlight On \| KOH-I-NOOR DIAMOND From the Persian meaning “Mountain of Light,” the Koh-I-Noor diamond is virtually unmatched in its beauty and size. A part of the British Crown Jewels, Queen Victoria acquired the diamond after the British conquered the Punjab during the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849). Displayed at the Great Exhibition, a massive international exhibition held in England in 1851, some felt that although the size of the diamond was undoubtedly impressive, its appearance, especially its shape, was a disappointment. The following year, Prince Albert decided to have the diamond recut. The cutting took over a month, shaving some 80 carats off the diamond, reducing its size to 105.6 carats. After the upheaval and violence of 1857-1858, Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901), became increasingly uncomfortable with Britain’s role in India and the diamond itself. Despite these concerns, Victoria continued to wear the diamond. In 1902, the diamond was added to the crown of Queen Consort Alexandria (1844-1925). The complicated chain of ownership, and how the British acquired it, means that many nations, including India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, have claimed ownership over the diamond, and asked it to be returned. SUMMARY This chapter has identified the challenges of creating an efficient and industrialized state. It demonstrated how various nations had to confront both external and internal challenges. While some nations responded to these threats and successfully modernized, others did not. Modernization along Western lines was a difficult and risky undertaking as it threatened to fundamentally alter a state, undermining both traditional social relations and the ruling elite.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.471967	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113246/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Managing Modernity in Asia 1700-1900, Mughals and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26314/overview	Fiscal Policy Overview Fiscal Policy Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to - Define fiscal policy By the end of this section, you will be able to - Define fiscal policy Fiscal Policy Fiscal Policy In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection (mainly taxes) and expenditure (spending) to influence the economy. The Texas Constitution requires that Texas operate under a balanced budget–Texas may spend not more than it collects. It may not deficit spend as national government does.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.486787	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26314/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas Revenue and Budget, Fiscal Policy", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26307/overview	Sources and Hierarchy of Law Overview Sources of Law Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to - Distinguish between the various the sources of law - Understand the hierarchy of the various sources of law By the end of this section, you will be able to - Distinguish between the various the sources of law - Understand the hierarchy of the various sources of law Sources of Law Sources of Law Constitutional Law - National Constitution - Texas Constitution Statutory Law - National Laws (laws passed by Congress) - Texas State Statutes Administrative Regulations - National regulations - Texas State administrative code Court precedents Local codes and ordinances Hierarchy of law Hierarchy of law The hierarchy of law in our system is relatively simple: Constitutional Law overrules statutory law which in turn overrules administrative regulations which finally overrules local codes and ordinances.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.504035	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26307/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Sources and Hierarchy of Law", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26308/overview	Types of Law and Jurisdiction Overview Types of Law and Jurisdiction Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the different types of law - Discuss the different types of jurisdiction By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the different types of law - Discuss the different types of jurisdiction Types of Law Types of Law There are two basic types of law in any legal system- Civil and Criminal. Below is a table differentiating the two: Types Of Jurisdiction Types Of Jurisdiction Every court system has jurisdiction over certain cases, from enforcing traffic laws to hearing capital murder charges. There are three types of jurisdictions: - Original Jurisdiction– the court that gets to hear the case first. For example, Municipal courts typically have original jurisdiction over traffic offenses the occur within city limits. - Appellate Jurisdiction– the power for a higher court to review a lower courts decision. For example, the Texas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over the District Courts (See the hierarchy of Texas Court Structure in this Unit). - Exclusive Jurisdiction– only that court can hear a specific case. For example, only the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Court can hear appeals for death penalty sentences. CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.520717	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26308/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Types of Law and Jurisdiction", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113267/overview	Introduction and the Rise of Fascism Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 13, Lesson 1 A discussion of the aftermath of World War I, focusing on the failure of Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles to secure lasting peace. This failure, exacerbated by economic hardship, led to the rise of Fascism in Europe, notably in Italy under Mussolini and the early stages of Hitler's rise in Germany. On December 13, 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) arrived in Paris to streets thronged with cheering crowds. Over the past 18 months, Wilson had provided manpower and supplies crucial to the victory of Entente forces in World War I. His Food Administration had likewise provided millions of tons of food for the starving populations of Britain and France. The first president ever to travel abroad to negotiate a peace treaty, Wilson had journeyed to Paris to participate in the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference. Encouraged by such a warm reception from ordinary Parisians, Wilson believed that if the conference delegates would follow his “Fourteen Points,” that future world wars could be prevented. Spotlight On \| WILSON’S FOURTEEN POINTS Woodrow Wilson’s proposed “Fourteen Points” represented a combination of progressive political thought, laissez-faire economics and old-fashioned power politics. They included open treaties, freedom of the seas, equal trade, a decrease in armaments among all nations, and an adjustment of the colonial claims of different countries. Wilson also insisted on the evacuation of all Central Powers forces from Russia, the restoration of the Belgium government, the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, a readjustment of Italy’s border with Austria, national self-determination for the ethnic minorities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, national self- determination for the peoples of the Balkans, and the creation of Turkey and Poland as independent nations. Lastly, Wilson suggested the creation of a League of Nations to maintain world peace and prevent future wars. The European delegates at the Paris Peace Conference were amazed at the boldness of Wilson’s proposal. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau reportedly stated, “God gave us the Ten Commandments, and we broke them. Wilson gives us the Fourteen Points. We shall see.” A product of American progressivism, Wilson failed to understand neither the deep-seated rivalries that had triggered World War I nor the anger and despair many Europeans grappled with in the wake of four years of bloody warfare. For Prime Ministers George Clemenceau of France (1841-1929), David Lloyd- George from Great Britain (1863-1945), and Vittorio Orlando of Italy (1860-1952), there was no question that the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty upon the defeated Triple Alliance would be harsh. In the final version of the treaty, Germany was forced to reduce its military to the size of a police force, give up territory in the east to Poland and in the west to France, plus its overseas colonies. Section 233 of the document likewise laid the moral blame for the war entirely at Germany’s feet. Most controversial, a Reparations Committee set up by the Entente powers determined in 1921 that Germany would pay $31.5 billion (in U.S. dollars) in war reparations. As none of the Triple Alliance powers had representation at Versailles and were forced to accept either the treaty or military occupation, the war’s end left Germans embittered. They scornfully referred to the treaty as the Diktat (dictated peace) and repeatedly sought ways to work around it. One of the few Fourteen Points that the leaders of Britain and France did not object to was the final one, namely that “[a] general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” The delegates at the Versailles Conference established the Covenant of the League of Nations as part of the Versailles Peace Treaty signed in 1919. Consisting of a National Assembly, Executive Council and Secretariat, the League sought to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. Spotlight On \| U.S.A. RESISTS LEAGUE OF NATIONS 1919 Although Wilson received the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts, a Republican-controlled Senate led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924) blocked U.S. entry into the organization. Lodge was primarily angry because the Republican Party had been afforded no representation in the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. Furious at this blow to his plans, Wilson embarked on a national speaking tour to drum up support for American entry into the league. Suffering a stroke in Pueblo, Colorado in September 1919, Wilson would have diminished health for the remainder of his presidency. THE RISE OF FASCISM The United States, which did not sign the Versailles Peace Treaty, agreed to loan money to Germany to finance its reparation payments. However, the postwar Weimar government of Germany faced consistent economic stagnation and inflated currency throughout the 1920s. In 1929, the Great Depression undermined economies and governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Desperate Europeans began turning to radical political figures who promised solutions to their problems. In 1922, Italians elected journalist and World War I veteran Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) as Prime Minister. Spotlight On \| BENITO MUSSOLINI Born into a working-class family in Romagna, Italy in 1883, Benito Mussolini was named after Mexican revolutionary Benito Juárez (1806-1872). After serving two years in the Italian military, Mussolini became a journalist. Well-versed in the works of leftist European intellectuals, he became a leading Italian socialist. When the First World War broke out, Mussolini broke with socialism and became a corporal in the Italian army. In 1919, he founded the first Italian fascist party. Three years later, Mussolini and 20,000 fascist followers marched on Rome to demand the resignation of Italian Prime Minister Luigi Facta (1861-1930). Appointed as the new prime minister, Mussolini set out to remake Italian society in his image. A master of propaganda, Mussolini projected the image of a strong leader who dressed in military costumes, surrounded himself with his armed Black Shirt followers, and used parades and radio broadcast speeches to enhance his reputation. Taking on the moniker of El Duce (or leader), Mussolini dismantled Italy’s constitution to create a police state under his control. In doing so, Mussolini created the first fascist state in Europe. Fascism differed from traditional authoritarianism in that fascist leaders were often democratically elected, exalted nationalism above any other consideration, created cults of personality surrounding their leaders and concentrated political power in the hands of dictators and their followers. Germans watched events in Italy with much interest. In 1923, Adolph Hitler (1889-1945), a veteran of World War I and National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi) leader, launched an armed coup against the Weimar Government. Defeated and thrown into prison, Hitler wrote a biography entitled, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). In this work, Hitler discussed his service as a corporal in the German Army during World War I, his disillusionment with the Kaiser’s surrender, and his brushes with poverty in the 1920s. Throughout his work, Hitler railed against Jews, whom he blamed for the rise of international communism and Germany’s defeat in the Great War. He also stressed that Germans had a “national destiny” in gaining lebensraum (or living room) in Eastern Europe.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.539046	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113267/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Interwar Years and the Rise of Fascism, Introduction and the Rise of Fascism", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113325/overview	The Beginning of the End and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 15 A discussion of the end of the Cold War, focusing on the United States' relations with China and the Soviet Union, touching on the impact of US presidents and their policies on the Cold War. The End of the Cold War For the rest of the 1970s, the United States remained preoccupied with domestic issues such as the decline of the steel belt, drastic increases in oil prices, stagflation, the Iranian hostage crisis, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The one diplomatic breakthrough during this period was the improvement of diplomatic relations between the United States and the People’s Republic of China. Following the success of Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the United States refused to recognize Mao Zedong’s regime. Chinese intervention in the Korean War and support for Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Cong forces in the Vietnam War likewise hobbled efforts at dialogue. In 1969, Sino-Soviet relations began to deteriorate. This was caused, in part, by a border dispute which, in 1969, led to Soviet and Chinese troops engaging in a brief shooting war over the ownership of Zhenbao Island on the Ussuri River near Manchuria. In the meantime, the Nixon administration’s desire for Chinese support for aiding America’s exit from Vietnam provided an opportunity for a thaw in Sino-U.S. relations. After several meetings between Chinese officials and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, President Richard Nixon made a highly advertised goodwill trip to Beijing in 1972, meeting with Chinese Party Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai (1898-1976). During the trip, the parties discussed the possibility of diplomatic recognition and closer economic and cultural ties between China and the United States. When Mao died four years later, moderate reformer Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997) came to power. In 1978, President Jimmy Carter (b. 1924) and Deng established diplomatic relations. To reassure America’s Taiwanese allies, Congress passed the Taiwan Relations Act of 1979, which required the U.S. to defend Taiwan in case of invasion. The election of conservative Republican Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) in 1980 brought about a resurgence in Cold War tensions. Dismissing the Soviet Union as an “evil empire,” Reagan drastically increased military spending, provided additional military and economic aid to allies in the third world, and began a massive military build-up of both conventional and nuclear forces. SUMMARY The Cold War was a unique kind of conflict. Deeply ideological, the Cold War pitted supporters of democratic government, capitalism and individualism against proponents of one-party political systems, socialist economic planning and the collective good. On another level, the war represented a struggle between the world’s two most powerful nations. Although the Cold War did explode into real conflict— Korea and Vietnam for instance – it was largely a war carried out in the shadows, involving boycotts, propaganda and national reputations.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.555071	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113325/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, The Beginning of the End and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113255/overview	Japan as a World Power and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 11, Lesson 8 A discussion of the rise of Japan as an imperial power in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Through successful wars against China and Russia, Japan expanded its territory and influence in East Asia, ultimately annexing Korea in 1910. One of the repercussions of the Meiji Restoration was that Japan became more imperialistic in its outlook. The Meiji government in Japan built a strong military to expand its influence in Asia; however, Meiji leaders believed that national security depended not only on a strong defense, but also on territorial expansion. This led to friction with China, especially over Taiwan and Korea. In 1894, Japan and China went to war largely over Korea in what is known as the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). The war allowed both sides to test their modernizing efforts. The Japanese proved victorious and forced China to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki to accept Korean independence and cede the Liaodong peninsula and Taiwan to Japan. China also had to open three ports to Japan and pay a large indemnity in silver. The First Sino-Japanese War proved that Japan’s modernizing efforts had worked and suggested that the Chinese approach to modernization had failed. By the end of the 19th century, Japan had started to become a regional power. Immediately after the terms of the treaty became public, Russia—with its own imperialistic interests and sphere of influence in China—expressed concern about the Japanese acquisition of the Liaodong Peninsula and the possible impact of the terms of the treaty on the stability of China. This led to a tense standoff between the two nations. Russia persuaded France and Germany to apply diplomatic pressure on Japan to return the Liaodong peninsula territory to China. To counter Russia's influence, Japan signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty with Britain. The British recognized Japanese interests in Korea and Manchuria and assured Japan they would remain neutral in case of a Russo-Japanese war but would become more actively involved if another power entered the war as a Russian ally. In response to this alliance, Russia sought to form alliances with western powers. In 1902, a mutual pact was signed between France and Russia. In 1904, the tension between Russia and Japan escalated into a full-out war. The nature of the Anglo-Japanese alliance meant that, although France and Russia had strong economic ties, France was unable to come to Russia’s aid as this would mean war with Britain. The Russo-Japanese War broke out with Japanese surprise attacks on Russian warships. With tremendous loss of life on both sides, the Japanese won a series of land battles and then decisively defeated Russia’s Baltic Sea Fleet (renamed the Second Pacific Squadron) at the Battle of Tsushima Strait in 1905. Japanese and Russian representatives negotiated the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth marked by terms favorable to Japanese imperial interests in northeast Asia and had significant implications for the balance of power in the region. Japan gained control of the Liaodong Peninsula, Southern Manchuria, and the territory on the disputed Sakhalin Island. This marked a significant shift in the geopolitical landscape of East Asia. Although Japan had forced China to recognize Korean independence after the First Sino-Japanese War, in 1910 Japan annexed Korea for itself. The annexation of Korea was a major turning point in Japan's imperial history. It not only expanded Japan's territory and influence but also marked a shift in its foreign policy. From a nation that had once supported Korean independence, Japan had become a colonial power. This annexation would have lasting consequences for both Japan and Korea, and it would continue to shape the region's politics and history for decades to come. SUMMARY By 1900, most of Africa and Asia lay under the direct or indirect control of an imperialist power. In just a few centuries, the divided nations of Western Europe had become powerful empires with modern militaries, governments and economies. While Britain reigned over the largest number of territories, other nations like France, Germany and Italy held sizable empires. Although designed to enrich the home countries, imperialism had the effect of spreading European politics, science, technology, economic beliefs, religion and even popular sports across much of the developing world. This era also witnessed the origins of local independence movements, which in time would lead to nationalist movements across the world and would also set into motion geographical disputes that would, in turn, pave the way for the First and Second World Wars of the 20th century.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.571896	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113255/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Second Wave of Imperialism 1700-1900, Japan as a World Power and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113308/overview	War in the Pacific and the Big Three Conferences Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 10 A discussion of the War in the Pacific highlights key battles and the involvement of the United States, Australia, and China, and a summary of the Big Three Conferences, where leaders from Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union met to strategize and shape the postwar world. War In The Pacific In April 1942, the United States launched a risky bombing raid against Japan. Led by Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle (1896-1993), 16 Mitchell bombers launched from the USS Hornet dropped bombs on Tokyo and other targets throughout the island of Honshu. Forced to abandon their aircraft in China, Japanese forces captured many of the U.S. pilots involved in the raid. The following month, American and Australian forces defeated a Japanese invasion fleet off the coast of New Guinea. In June, U.S. Admiral Chester Nimitz (1885-1966) led a fleet of three aircraft carriers, seven heavy cruisers and 15 destroyers against a large Japanese fleet led by Admiral Yamamoto. U.S. forces forestalled future Japanese raids on Hawaii by sinking four Japanese aircraft carriers. At the grueling Battle of Guadalcanal, fought from August 1942 to February 1943, 60,000 U.S. marines and sailors defeated 36,000 entrenched Japanese defenders determined to fight to the death (less than a 1,000 of the Japanese soldiers surrendered). By securing Guadalcanal’s airfield, the United States could now conduct direct bombing of the Japanese home islands. While the United States engaged in an “island hopping campaign” across the Pacific, Chinese forces under the command of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek (1887- 1975) continued to tie down half a million Japanese troops. Isolated by Japanese armies that controlled the eastern Coast of China and large areas of Burma and French Indochina, Chiang’s forces, headquartered in Chongqing, relied on Allied supplies flown in by air over the “hump” of the Himalaya Mountains from British-controlled India for survival. Chiang also contended with a growing Chinese communist movement led by former schoolteacher turned revolutionary Mao Zedong (1893-1976). In fact, Chiang considered wiping out his communist rivals as more important than fighting the Japanese. Although treated as an equal by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the 1943 Cairo Conference, Chiang was, in reality, relegated to the status of a junior partner in the overall Allied war effort. Big Three Conferences While German and Russian forces engaged in bloody combat along the Eastern Front and Chinese and American forces battled the Japanese in Asia and the Pacific, the leaders of the three strongest Allied powers— Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union— held a series of conferences to plan war strategy as well as determine the map of the postwar world. In November 1943, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin met in Tehran, Iran. In addition to discussing the date for a cross-channel invasion from Britain and the willingness of the United States to supply military aid to the USSR, the three leaders issued the Tehran Declaration, which called for Poland and other Eastern European countries to enjoy the right of self-determination once the war was over. At the subsequent Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin agreed to divide control of Germany and Austria between their nations and France, establish a coalition government in Poland, and lend their support to creating a United Nations. At the third and final conference, held in Potsdam, Germany, in July and August 1945, Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), Clement Attlee (1883-1967) and Joseph Stalin demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan, planned to divide Germany and Berlin, discussed the donation of American money to rebuild Europe, and promised to hold free and fair elections in Eastern Europe.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.588197	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113308/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, War in the Pacific and the Big Three Conferences", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113306/overview	Battle of Stalingrad and the D-Day Campaign Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 8 A discussion of the Battle of Stalingrad and the D-Day Campaign highlights the brutal fighting and losses on both the German and Russian sides, which ultimately turned the tide of the war in Russia's favor. and the Allied forces' contributions to the war effort. Battle Of Stalingrad In the meantime, as German forces advanced deeper into Russian territory, they faced increasingly stiff resistance plus exposure from the brutal Russian winter. German armies failed to take either Leningrad or Moscow. Over the opposition of his generals, Hitler ordered an all-out assault on the city of Stalingrad. Beginning in August 1942, General Friedrich von Paulus (1890-1957) led a combined army of 270,000 soldiers armed with 500 Panzers and 600 Junker and Stuka bombers against 187,000 Russian defenders armed with 400 outdated T-34 tanks and only 200 IL-2 monoplanes and Yakovlev single-engine fighters. For six months, German and Russian forces waged a bloody campaign for the city involving block-by-block fighting, carpet bombing, sniper attacks, psychological warfare and starvation. With Allied military aid and their brutal “not one step backward policy,” Russian forces regained control of the city at the loss of over a million casualties. With their own losses at nearly a million men, the Germans were forced to retreat. Operation Barbarossa was a defeat, and Germany now lay open to invasion. Spotlight On \| LIBERATION OF STALINGRAD Following the launch of Operation Barbarossa, Stalingrad and the oil fields it defended remained a tempting military target. Throughout summer 1942, General Friedrich von Paulus (1890-1957) and the German 6th Army advanced deep into Ukraine. By October, German Junker bombers had pummeled much of Stalingrad into dust, although Russian forces clung desperately to the city’s western edge. Ordering Russian troops to hold Stalingrad at all costs, Stalin had fresh reinforcements constantly ferried into the city across the Volga River. Raw Russian recruits, many unarmed, were forced by their officers to advance on German forces under pain of death if they retreated. While Russian snipers such as Vasily Zaitsev (1915- 1991) pinned down German troops inside the city, Soviet Marshall Georgi Zhukov (1896-1974) surrounded Paulus’s army with two large Soviet forces. Although Hitler insisted that his troops fight to the death, Paulus surrendered his remaining 91,000 soldiers to Russian forces on February 2, 1943. While Russian forces carried out the vast majority of fighting against the Axis powers, Great Britain and American troops launched a campaign to defeat German and Italian forces in Africa and thus defend the Suez Canal. British forces under General Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976) decisively defeated German General Erwin Rommel’s Afrika corps at the Battle of El Alamein in November. Having secured North Africa, British and American forces launched a successful invasion of Sicily in July 1943. In September, Allied forces landed at Salerno. Following heavy losses to entrenched German and Italian forces, Allied divisions captured Naples, Monte Cassino, and Rome. Mussolini’s fascist government collapsed, and the new regime held the former dictator prisoner. Although rescued by German commandos, he was recaptured and executed in April 1945. D-Day Campaign After the Italian campaign reached a stalemate in late 1943, Allied commanders prepared plans to launch a cross-channel invasion from Britain. On June 6, 1944, 156,000 British, American, Canadian, Polish and French troops under Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890- 1969) stormed the beaches of Normandy, France. Despite high casualties and 10,000 Allied losses by the end of the day, the Allied forces had secured a beachhead and opened a second front in the war. Allied forces made rapid strides across northern France using their own combinations of massive ariel bombardments and rapid tank attacks. In late December 1944, German forces pushed back Allied troops at the bloody “Battle of the Bulge.” Although Axis forces were almost spent, the Allies enjoyed constant infusions of new soldiers and material and were soon on the offensive again. On August 25, 1945, Allied forces liberated Paris, with German forces agreeing to leave without destroying the city. Fighting would further intensify as British and American armies advanced toward the German border. Spotlight On \| US HOMEFRONT DURING WWII Back home, the Second World War took its toll on virtually all aspects of American society. Factories were recalibrated to churn out weapons, ammunition, tanks, planes, ships and uniforms. The federal government contracted with large agricultural corporations and small family farms to procure food for the troops. As millions of men enlisted in the military, women, African Americans, Latinos and Asian Americans found employment in America’s burgeoning wartime industrial sector. Iconic figures such as “Rosie the Riveter” became popular symbols of wartime production. Taking advantage of wartime labor conditions, labor organizer A. Philip Randolph (1889-1979) planned a “March on Washington” to occur in 1941. On the personal appeal of President Roosevelt, who reminded Randolph of the need to defeat fascism abroad before dealing with civil rights at home, Randolph called off the march. In return, Roosevelt supported the creation of the Fair Employment Relations Act, which called for an end to job discrimination. Randolph’s plan for a March on Washington would come to fruition during the civil rights movement of the 1960s. While British and American forces pushed eastward, the Red Army invaded East Prussia. Russian forces advanced upon Berlin by taking the German city of Konigsberg in April 1945. For two weeks, two million Soviet and Allied forces fought Berlin’s defenders, many of whom were Hitler Youth or elderly civilians with little military training. On April 30, Adolf Hitler, his wife Eva Braun (1912-1945), and a few of his commanders committed suicide in their command bunker. Two days later, Russian forces raised the flag of the Soviet Union over the burned-out remains of the German Reichstag building. The remaining German troops surrendered. The war in Europe was now over.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.607032	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113306/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, Battle of Stalingrad and the D-Day Campaign", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105184/overview	Portfolio Assessment Overview As we embark on this journey into the world of portfolio assessment, we invite you to discover the power it holds to revolutionize learning and evaluation. Through its multifaceted approach, longitudinal perspective, promotion of transferable skills, and integration of technology, portfolio assessment has emerged as a catalyst for student-centered education. Join us as we explore its principles, benefits, challenges, and best practices, and unlock the potential for deeper, more meaningful learning experiences. Ed 227 Assessment in Learning 2 with Emphasis in Trainer Methodology I & II Portfolio assessment goes beyond the confines of conventional assessment methods, such as quizzes and standardized exams, by providing a holistic view of students' capabilities. It enables individuals to assemble a collection of their best work, demonstrating proficiency across various disciplines and allowing for self-expression. Through this multifaceted approach, learners gain a greater sense of ownership and agency in their education, fostering intrinsic motivation and cultivating lifelong learning skills. Moreover, portfolio assessment promotes the cultivation of transferable skills essential for success in the real world. By engaging in the curation and reflection on their work, students develop critical thinking, communication, and self-evaluation skills—qualities highly valued by employers and higher education institutions alike. Through the process of selecting and organizing artifacts, students become active participants in shaping their educational narrative, allowing them to highlight their unique strengths and abilities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.624816	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105184/overview", "title": "Portfolio Assessment", "author": "Kent Rodriguez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69695/overview	Complete Lecture Videos for OpenStax Astronomy (1e) Overview This resource describes the full set of lecture videos available at this YouTube channel. The videos are based on OpenStax Astronomy and are designed for a 14-week course. Lecture Slides that are used in these videos will be available as a separate posted resource. Lecture Videos for OpenStax Astronomy (L. Woolsey, CC BY-SA 4.0) I have created a comprehensive set of lecture videos designed for a one-semester non-majors introductory astronomy college course. The material is broken up into seven modules, which are designed to take two weeks each during a regular semester or one week each for accelerated course structures. Images used in the lecture videos come from OpenStax Astronomy and the wider web of Creative Commons media. The playlists for each Module can be found at my YouTube channel linked here. This link is a Google Drive spreadsheet, which lists the YouTube URLs for all 61 videos that I have created, and includes information about: - Module number (which correspond with slide sets also available in OER Commons) - OpenStax chapters/sections covered (so that you can connect useful videos into whatever sequence you use) - Type of video (some of the videos in this list I created but do not use the lecture slides) - Length of video (they range from 7 minutes to 29 minutes) If you have difficulty accessing the material, please contact me directly at laurenwoolsey@grcc.edu. If you use these slides, please credit me (Dr. Lauren Woolsey) and my home institution (Grand Rapids Community College). You are welcome to link to or embed these videos in your Learning Management System. There is a separate OER Commons resource that contains information about the lecture slides and how to access them. Please note: as of August 2024, I have made a second edition set of videos, slides, and notes available on OER Commons.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.643107	Lauren Woolsey	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69695/overview", "title": "Complete Lecture Videos for OpenStax Astronomy (1e)", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89640/overview	Communication as meaning creation Overview Encoding Communication is an openly licesed image from Wikimedia commons liceensed under CC BY-SA 3.0. It focuses on the process of communication as promotion of undersatanding through shared symbols, context, and feedback. There is an indirect pointer to possible barrriers to effective communication (noise) emanating from various sources. Communication as meaning creation Communication is a complex process that involves many elements. The major goal of any communicative action is to promote understanding. For this to happen, there needs to be an exchange of messages either through verbal or non-verbal means. It is important, too, that those in the communication event have common symbols or other means to promote meaning creation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:48.656257	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89640/overview", "title": "Communication as meaning creation", "author": "Activity/Lab" }

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