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Timothy West
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Timothy West
and actor Lockwood West (1905-1989). He was educated at the John Lyon School, Harrow on the Hill, at Bristol Grammar School, where he was a classmate of Julian Glover, and at Regent Street Polytechnic (now the University of Westminster). He has a sister named Patricia who is 5 years younger than himself.
# Career.
West worked as an office furniture salesman and as a recording technician, before becoming an assistant stage manager at the Wimbledon Theatre in 1956. In 1959, he wrote and produced a short audio play, "This Gun That I Have in My Right Hand Is Loaded", satirising typical mistakes of radio drama, including over-explanatory dialogue and misuse of sound cues.
## Stage.
West played
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repertory seasons in Newquay, Hull, Northampton, Worthing and Salisbury before making his London debut at the Piccadilly Theatre in 1959 in the farce "Caught Napping". He was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company for three seasons: the 1962 Arts Theatre Experimental season ("Nil Carborundum" and "Afore Night Come"), the 1964 'Dirty Plays' season ("Victor", the premiere production of "Marat/Sade" and the revival of "Afore Night Come") and the 1965 season at Stratford and later at the Aldwych Theatre appearing in "The Comedy of Errors", "Timon of Athens", "The Jew of Malta", "Love's Labour's Lost" and Peter Hall's production of "The Government Inspector", in a company which included Paul Scofield,
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Eric Porter, Janet Suzman, Paul Rogers, Ian Richardson, Glenda Jackson and Peter McEnery.
West has played Macbeth twice, Uncle Vanya twice, Solness in "The Master Builder" twice and King Lear four times: in 1971 (aged 36) for Prospect Theatre Company at the Edinburgh Festival; on a worldwide tour in 1991 in Dublin for Second Age; in 2003 for English Touring Theatre, on tour in the UK and at the Old Vic; and in 2016 at the Bristol Old Vic.
## Screen.
Having spent years as a familiar face who never quite became a household name, West's big break came with the major television series, "Edward the Seventh" (1975), in which he played the title role from the age of twenty-three until the King's
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death; his real-life sons, Samuel and Joseph, played the sons of King Edward VII as children. Other screen appearances have included "Nicholas and Alexandra" (1971), "The Day of the Jackal" (1973), "The Thirty Nine Steps" (1978), "Masada" (1981), "Cry Freedom" (1987) and Luc Besson's "" (1999). In Richard Eyre's "Iris" (2001) he plays Maurice and his son Samuel West plays Maurice as a young man.
West starred as patriarch Bradley Hardacre in Granada TV's satirical Northern super-soap "Brass" over three seasons (1982–1990). West appeared in the series Miss Marple in 1985 (in "A Pocket Full of Rye" as the notorious Rex Fortescue), and made a memorable appearance as Professor Furie in "A Very Peculiar
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Practice" in 1986. In 1997, he played Gloucester in the BBC television production of "King Lear", with Ian Holm as Lear. From 2001 to 2003, he played the grumpy and frequently volatile Andrew in the BBC drama series "Bedtime".
At Christmas 2007, he joined "Not Going Out" as Geoffrey Adams. He reprised this role in two episodes of series three; Geoffrey Whitehead played the role in later seasons. In 2011, he appeared alongside John Simm and Jim Broadbent in BBC series "Exile", written by BAFTA-winning Danny Brocklehurst.
In February 2013, West joined the cast of ITV soap "Coronation Street", playing Eric Babbage. He joined the cast of "EastEnders" in 2013, playing Stan Carter from January 2014.
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He filmed his final scenes for "EastEnders" in February 2015.
## Directing.
He was Artistic Director of the Forum Theatre, Billingham in 1973, where he directed "We Bombed in New Haven" by Joseph Heller, "The Oz Obscenity Trial" by David Livingstone and "The National Health" by Peter Nichols. He was co-artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre from 1980–81, where he directed "Trelawny of the 'Wells'" and "The Merchant of Venice". He was Director-in-Residence at the University of Western Australia in 1982.
In 2004, he toured Australia with the Carl Rosa Opera Company as Director of the production of "H.M.S. Pinafore", also singing the role of Sir Joseph Porter. He was replaced in the singing
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role by Dennis Olsen for the Perth and Brisbane performances.
# Personal life.
West was married to actress Jacqueline Boyer from 1956 to 1961 and has a daughter Juliet. In 1963 he married actress Prunella Scales, with whom he has two sons. One, Samuel West, is an actor of note. Their younger son Joseph (Joe) participated in two episodes of Great Canal Journeys filmed in France, where Joe (a teacher and translator) lives with his French wife and their children. After the broadcast of the French canal episodes, Joe was interviewed in several newspapers.
"The Guardian" crossword setter "Biggles" referred to West's 50th wedding anniversary in its prize crossword puzzle (number 26,089) on 26 October
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2013.
West and Scales are patrons of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham, The Kings Theatre in Gloucester and of the Conway Hall Sunday Concerts programme, the longest running series of chamber music concerts in Europe. West is an Ambassador of SOS Children's Villages, an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. He currently supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign which takes place each February.
West is patron of the National Piers Society, a charity dedicated to preserving and promoting seaside piers. He and Prunella Scales are patrons of Avon Navigation Trust, the charity that runs the River Avon from Stratford-upon-Avon
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to Tewkesbury. They both support ANT by attending the Stratford River Festival every year. West supports Cancer Research UK.
West is a supporter of the Talyllyn Railway, the first preserved railway in the world. He has visited on a number of occasions, the last being the summer of 2015 to attend the Railway's 150th anniversary. He is also a keen supporter of the Inland Waterways Association, and since 2014 has featured together with his wife in the "Great Canal Journeys" series for Channel 4.
West was president of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (being succeeded by Benedict Cumberbatch in January 2018) and is President of the Society for Theatre Research. He is also patron of
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London-based drama school, The Associated Studios.
# Honours.
In 1984, he was appointed CBE for his services to drama.
# Selected theatre.
- "King Lear", as Lear, Dir Tom Morris, Bristol Old Vic, 2016
- "The Vote" by James Graham, Donmar Warehouse and More4, 2015
- "The Handyman" by Ronald Harwood, as Romka, Dir Joe Harmston, UK tour, 2012
- "Uncle Vanya", as Sererbryakov, Dir Jeremy Herrin, Chichester Festival Theatre, 2012
- "The Winslow Boy", as Arthur Winslow, Dir Stephen Unwin, Rose Theatre, Kingston and UK tour, 2009
- "Romany Wood", as Narrator, Theatre Severn, Shropshire, 2009
- "The Lover/The Collection", Dir Jamie Lloyd, Comedy Theatre, London, 2008
- Opening of St Pancras
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International, as William Henry Barlow, Tuesday 6 November 2007
- "Coriolanus" as Menenius, Dir Gregory Doran, RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, Newcastle, Spain and USA, 2007
- "A Number" by Caryl Churchill as Salter, with Samuel West as B1/B2/Michael Black, Dir Jonathan Munby, Crucible Theatre Studio, 2006. Revived in 2010 at the Chocolate Factory and 2011 at the Fugard Theatre, Cape Town.
- "The Old Country" by Alan Bennett, Dir Stephen Unwin, Trafalgar Studios, 2006
- "King Lear", as Lear, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour with English Touring Theatre, 2002
- "The Master Builder", as Solness, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour, 1999
- "King Lear", as Gloucester, Dir Richard Eyre, Greece, Turkey and the National
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Theatre, 1997
- "Henry IV Part One" and "Part Two", as Falstaff, with Samuel West as Hal, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour and the Old Vic Theatre, 1996
- "Twelve Angry Men", Dir Harold Pinter, Bristol Old Vic and Comedy Theatre, 1996
- "Macbeth", as Macbeth, Dir Helena Kaut-Howson, Theatr Clwyd, 1994
- "Death of a Salesman", as Willy Loman, Dir Janet Suzman, Theatr Clwyd, 1993
- "King Lear" as Lear, Dir Alan Stanford, Tivoli Theatre, Dublin, 1992
- "Long Day's Journey into Night", with Prunella Scales, Dir Howard Davies, Bristol Old Vic, UK Tour and the National Theatre, 1991
- "Uncle Vanya", as Vanya, Dir Paul Unwin, Bristol Old Vic, 1990
- "The Master Builder", as Solness, Dir Paul Unwin,
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Bristol Old Vic, 1989
- "When We Are Married", with Prunella Scales, Dir Ronald Eyre, Whitehall Theatre, 1985
- "Masterclass" by David Pownall, as Stalin, Dir Justin Greene, Leicester Haymarket and the Old Vic Theatre, 1984
- "Uncle Vanya", as Vanya, Dir Prunella Scales, Playhouse, Perth, Western Australia, 1982
- "The Merchant of Venice" as Shylock, International tour in association with the British Council and at the Old Vic Theatre, 1980
- "Beecham", by Caryl Brahms and Ned Sherrin, as Thomas Beecham, Apollo Theatre, London, 1980
- "The Homecoming", as Max, Garrick Theatre, Dir Kevin Billington, 1978.
- "Hamlet", as Claudius, with Derek Jacobi as Hamlet, Dir Toby Robertson, Edinburgh
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Festival, International tour and the Old Vic Theatre, 1977
- "Othello", as Iago, Dir Richard Eyre, Nottingham Playhouse, 1976
- "Hedda Gabler", as Judge Brack, Dir Trevor Nunn, with Glenda Jackson, RSC, international tour and Aldwych Theatre, 1975
- "Macbeth", as Macbeth, Gardner Centre, Brighton, Dir John David, 1974
- "Love's Labour's Lost", as Holofernes, Aldwych Theatre, London, McBain/Archer, Prospect Theatre Company, June 1972
- "King Lear" as Lear, Prospect Theatre Company, Dir Toby Robertson, Edinburgh Festival and UK tour, 1971. The production visited Australia in 1972
- "Exiles", Dir Harold Pinter. Mermaid Theatre, 1970
- "Richard II" and "Edward II", as Bolingbroke and Young
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Mortimer, with Ian McKellen as the kings, Prospect Theatre Company, Edinburgh Festival, International tour and Piccadilly Theatre, Dir Richard Cottrell/Toby Robertson, 1969
- "The Tempest", as Prospero, Prospect Productions, Dir Toby Robertson, 1966
- ""Madam", said Dr Johnson", Prospect Productions, Dir Toby Robertson, 1966
- "Marat/Sade", RSC, Dir Peter Brook, 1964
- "Afore Night Come", RSC, Arts Theatre, 1962. Revived at the Aldwych Theatre, 1964
- "Gentle Jack", Theatre Royal, Brighton and the Queen's Theatre, London, 1963
- "Caught Napping", Piccadilly Theatre, 1959
# Selected radio.
Timothy West was a member of the BBC Radio Drama Repertory Company in 1962 and has taken part in
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over 500 radio broadcasts.
- "Cabin Pressure" by John Finnemore, as Gordon Shappey, BBC Radio 4, 2011
- "Seasons" by Gareth Parker, as Harold. Independent drama by the Wireless Theatre Company, 2010
- "The Man on the Heath: Johnson and Boswell Investigate" by David Noakes, as Doctor Johnson, Saturday Play on BBC Radio 4, 2005
- "Lorna Doone" by R.D. Blackmore, as Narrator, 2004
- "Rumpole of the Bailey", as Rumpole, in sixteen 45-minute plays, 2003–2012. In this series his wife in real life played his fictional wife.
- "Hecuba" by Euripides, as Polymestor, 2001
- "Groupie" by Arnold Wesker, 2001
- "Dorothy, a Manager's Wife" by Peter Tinniswood, 2000
- "Death of a Salesman" by Arthur
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Miller, as Willy Loman, 1993
- "The Gibson" by Bruce Bedford, 1992
- "The Expedition of Humphry Clinker" by Tobias Smollett, Classic Serial on BBC Radio 4, 1992
- "Crisp and Even Brightly" by Alick Rowe, as 'Generally well-intentioned King Wenceslas', Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1987
- "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God" by Robert Graves, as Claudius, produced by Glyn Dearman, 1985
- "With a Whimper to the Grave" by Wally K. Daly, as 642, 1984
- "Actors, or Playing for Real" by Lope de Vega, as Emperor Diocletian, BBC Radio 3, 1983
- "Lady Windermere's Fan" by Oscar Wilde, Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1982
- "Operation Lightning Pegasus" by Alick Rowe, as Agammemnon,
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Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1981
- "Sherlock Holmes v. Dracula" by Loren D. Estleman, as Doctor Watson, dramatised and directed by Glyn Dearman, Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1981
- "The Monument" by David Cregan, as Dr. James Short, BBC Radio 3, 1978
- "Where Are They Now?" by Tom Stoppard, as an Old Boy, 1971
- "If You're Glad, I'll be Frank" by Tom Stoppard, as Frank, 1966
- "Macbeth", as the Porter, BBC Third Programme, 1966. Repeated on BBC Radio 4 in 1967 and BBC 7 in 2007
# Audiobooks.
Timothy West has read many unabridged audiobooks, including the complete Barchester Chronicles and the complete Palliser novels by Anthony Trollope, and seven of George MacDonald
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Audiobooks.
Timothy West has read many unabridged audiobooks, including the complete Barchester Chronicles and the complete Palliser novels by Anthony Trollope, and seven of George MacDonald Fraser's "The Flashman Papers" books. He has received four AudioFile Earphones Awards for his narration.
# Books.
- "I'm Here I Think, Where Are You? Letters from a Touring Actor", 1994, .
- "A Moment Towards the End of the Play" (autobiography), 2001, .
- "So You Want To Be an Actor" (with Prunella Scales), 2005, .
- "Great Canal Journeys: A Lifetime of Memories on Britain's Most Beautiful Waterways", 2017, .
# External links.
- LAMDA Biography
- Timothy West at Gavin Barker Associates (agent)
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Battle of St-Dizier
Battle of St-Dizier
The first Battle of St-Dizier was fought on January 26, 1814, and resulted the victory of French under Napoleon Bonaparte against Russians under General Lanskoy. Napoleon and his troops had left Ligny the day before; Lanskoy held St-Dizier with 800 dragoons, and he left the town to join Blücher.
The second battle occurred on March 26, 1814 and resulted the victory of French under Napoleon Bonaparte against Russians under General Ferdinand Wintzingerode. This was Napoleon's penultimate victory. Coming up on the right bank of the Aube River, Napoleon was informed by MacDonald that a large part of the Allied army was advancing on his rear guard. Napoleon chose to present his
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whole army for battle at St Dizier, but MacDonald's information was incorrect; Napoleon found only a body of cavalry under the command of General Wintzingerode, whom Napoleon's troops quickly put to flight.
# Further reading.
- Lamartine, Alphonse de (1872). "The History of the Restoration of the Monarchy in France". Captain Rafter, translator. London: Bell and Daldy.
- Gneisenau, August (1815). "The Life and Campaigns of Field-marshal Prince Blücher of Wahlstatt". J. E. Marston, translator. London: Sherwood.
- Lockhart, J. G. (1830). "The History of Napoleon Buonaparte". New York: Harpers.
- Talleyrand, Charled Maurice (1891). "Memoirs of the Prince de Talleyrand". Raphael de Beaufort,
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; Napoleon found only a body of cavalry under the command of General Wintzingerode, whom Napoleon's troops quickly put to flight.
# Further reading.
- Lamartine, Alphonse de (1872). "The History of the Restoration of the Monarchy in France". Captain Rafter, translator. London: Bell and Daldy.
- Gneisenau, August (1815). "The Life and Campaigns of Field-marshal Prince Blücher of Wahlstatt". J. E. Marston, translator. London: Sherwood.
- Lockhart, J. G. (1830). "The History of Napoleon Buonaparte". New York: Harpers.
- Talleyrand, Charled Maurice (1891). "Memoirs of the Prince de Talleyrand". Raphael de Beaufort, trans. Five volumes. New York: Putnam.
# External links.
- Gazetteer Entry
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Stokesay Castle
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Stokesay Castle
Stokesay Castle
Stokesay Castle is one of the finest surviving fortified manor houses in England, and situated at Stokesay in Shropshire. It was largely built in its present form in the late 13th century by Laurence de Ludlow, on the earlier castle (some of which still survives) founded by its original owners the de Lacy family, from whom it passed to their de Verdun heirs, who retained feudal overlordship of Stokesay until at least 1317. Laurence 'of' Ludlow was one of the leading wool merchants in England, who intended it to form a secure private house and generate income as a commercial estate. Laurence's descendants continued to own the castle until the 16th century, when it passed through
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various private owners. By the time of the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1641, Stokesay was owned by William Craven, the first Earl of Craven and a supporter of King Charles I. After the Royalist war effort collapsed in 1645, Parliamentary forces besieged the castle in June and quickly forced its garrison to surrender. Parliament ordered the property to be slighted, but only minor damage was done to the walls, allowing Stokesay to continue to be used as a house by the Baldwyn family until the end of the 17th century.
In the 18th century the Baldwyns rented the castle out for a range of agricultural and manufacturing purposes. It fell into disrepair, and the antiquarian John Britton noted
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during his visit in 1813 that it had been "abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin". Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s and 1850s by William Craven, the second Earl of Craven. In 1869 the Craven estate, now heavily in debt, was sold to the wealthy industrialist John Derby Allcroft who paid for another round of extensive restoration during the 1870s. Both of these owners attempted to limit any alterations to the existing buildings during their conservation work, which was unusual for this period. The castle became a popular location for tourists and artists, and was formally opened to paying visitors in 1908.
Allcroft's descendants fell into financial difficulties during
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the early 20th century, however, and it became increasingly difficult for them to cover the costs of maintaining Stokesay. In 1986 Jewell Magnus-Allcroft finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992. English Heritage carried out extensive restoration of the castle in the late 1980s. In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010.
Architecturally, Stokesay Castle is "one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England", according to historian Henry Summerson. The castle comprises a walled, moated enclosure,
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with an entrance way through a 17th-century timber and plaster gatehouse. Inside, the courtyard faces a stone hall and solar block, protected by two stone towers. The hall features a 13th-century wooden-beamed ceiling, and 17th-century carved figures ornament the gatehouse and the solar. The castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification, but its style was intended to echo the much larger castles being built by Edward I in North Wales. Originally designed as a prestigious, secure, comfortable home, the castle has changed very little since the 13th century, and is a rare, surviving example of a near complete set of medieval buildings. English Heritage has minimised the amount
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of interpretative material displayed at the property and kept the castle largely unfurnished.
# History.
## 13th–15th centuries.
Stokesay Castle was largely built in its present form during the 1280s and 1290s in the village of Stokesay by Laurence of Ludlow, a very wealthy wool merchant. Stokesay took its name from the Anglo-Saxon word "stoches", meaning cattle farm, and the surname of the de Says family, who had held the land from the beginning of the 12th century onwards.
Stokesay was originally owned by the de Lacy family, who had built the first Ludlow Castle within their manor of Stanton Lacy. In Domesday Book, "Roger de Laci" is recorded as holding "Stoches" of the King in capite.
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The manor was later held under the de Lacys by members of the de Say family, whose name attached to 'Stoke' created the name - Stokesay - by which it is still known today. In 1241, the then lord of Stokesay, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, died. His son Gilbert had predeceased him, so his extensive estates were divided among Walter's granddaughters. One of these, Margery, had married Sir John de Verdun of Alton Castle in Staffordshire, son of the heiress Roesia de Verdun and Theobald le Botiller. Margery's share of her grandfather's estates included Stokesay and a moiety of nearby Ludlow, which thereafter were held by the de Verduns. On 1st September 1270, to raise money to pay for going on the
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Eighth Crusade with Prince Edward, John de Verdun conveyed a tenancy of his manor of Stokesay to Philip de Whichecote for a term of 3 years, which was later extended for the term of Philip's life, when it would revert to John de Verdun. However, John died in 1274 and Stokesay was inherited by his son Theobald I de Verdun. The Inquisition Post Mortem following John's death revealed that the de Verduns' feofee at Stokesay at the time was Reginald de Grey. In the feodaries of 1284, Laurence de Ludlow is said to "hold the Vill of Stokesay for one knight's-fee under John de Grey, which John held it under Theobald de Verdun, who held of the King".
It appears that in 1317, Stokesay was still being
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held by the Ludlows under the de Verduns. This is shown by the Inquest Post Mortem of Theobald II de Verdun (son of Theobald I de Verdun), taken in March of that year, which "gives the Heirs of Sir William de Lodlowe as holding of the deceased a knight's-fee in Southstoke" ('north Stoke' was one of the de Verdun's other manors in Shropshire, Stoke-on-Tern). It was only sometime after this date that Stokesay finally passed entirely into the possession of the Ludlow family.
By chance there may have been earlier connections between Laurence de Ludlow and the de Verduns, which may add to the context within which he become their tenant. Laurence de Ludlow's wife was Agnes de Audley, daughter of
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James de Audley, Justicier of Ireland and Sheriff of Staffordshire & Shropshire. James de Audley's family had been tenants and close associates of the de Verdons of Alton. James's father, Henry de Audley had married Petronilla de Gresley, one of the de Stafford family - her great great grandfather was Robert de Stafford. Petronilla's sister Hawise de Gresley had married Henry de Verdun, son of Bertram III de Verdun. This means that Laurence de Ludlow was related by marriage to cousins of his feudal lord Theobald de Verdun. Laurence's mother-in-law Ela de Audley was the daughter of William II Longespée, whose father William I Longespée, Earl of Salisbury was the illegitimate son of Henry II by
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Ida de Tosny, who became the wife of Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk. John de Verdun's grandfather, Nicholas de Verdun had been brought up at the court of Ida and Roger Bigod.
Laurence bought the tenancy of Stokesay from Philip de Whichecote in 1281, possibly for around £266, which he could easily have afforded, as he had made a fortune from the wool trade. Laurence exported wool from the Welsh Marches, travelling across Europe to negotiate sales, and maintaining offices in Shrewsbury and London. He had become the most important wool merchant in England, helping to set government trade policies and lending money to the major nobility. Stokesay Castle would form a secure personal home for Laurence,
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well-positioned close to his other business operations in the region. It was also intended to be used as a commercial estate, as it was worth around £26 a year, with of agricultural land, of meadows, an expanse of woodland, along with watermills and a dovecot.
Work began on the castle at some point after 1285, and Laurence moved into his new property in the early 1290s. The castle was, as Nigel Pounds describes it, "both pretentious and comfortable", initially comprising living accommodation and a tower to the north. In 1291 Laurence received permission from the King to fortify his castle - a document called a licence to crenellate - and he may have used this authority to construct the southern
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tower, which had a particularly martial appearance and was added onto the castle shortly afterwards.
In November 1294 Laurence was drowned at sea off the south of England, and his son, William, may have finished some of the final work on Stokesay. His descendants, who took the Ludlow surname, continued to control Stokesay Castle until the end of the 15th century, when it passed into the Vernon family by marriage.
## 16th–17th centuries.
Stokesay Castle was passed by Thomas Vernon to his grandson Henry Vernon in 1563. The family had hopes of becoming members of the peerage and, possibly as a consequence, the property began to be regularly called a "castle" for the first time during this period.
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Henry divided his time between London and Stokesay, probably staying in the north tower. Henry stood surety for an associate's debts and when they defaulted, he was pursued for this money, resulting in a period of imprisonment in Fleet Prison; by 1598 he sold the castle for £6,000 to pay off his own substantial debts. The new owner, Sir George Mainwaring, sold the property on again in 1620, via a consortium of investors, to the wealthy widow and former Mayoress of London, Dame Elizabeth Craven for £13,500. The estates around Stokesay were now valuable, bringing in over £300 a year in income.
Elizabeth's son, William, spent little time at Stokesay and by the 1640s had leased it out to Charles
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Baldwyn, and his son Samuel. He rebuilt the gatehouse during 1640 and 1641, however, at a cost of around £533. In 1643 the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament. A Royalist supporter, William spent the war years at Elizabeth Stuart's court at the Hague, and gave large sums of money to the King's war effort. William installed a garrison in the castle, where the Baldwins were also strong Royalists, and, as the conflict progressed, the county of Shropshire became increasingly Royalist in sympathies. Despite this, by late 1644 bands of vigilante clubmen had risen up in Shropshire, complaining about the activities of Royalist forces in the region, and
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demanding, among other things, the removal of the garrison from Stokesay Castle.
By early 1645 the war had turned decisively against the King, and in February, Parliamentary forces seized the county town of Shrewsbury. This exposed the rest of the region to attack, and in June a force of 800 Parliamentary soldiers pushed south towards Ludlow, attacking Stokesay en route. The Royalist garrison, led by Captain Daurett, was heavily outnumbered and it would have been impossible for them to effectively defend the new gatehouse, which was essentially ornamental. Nonetheless, both sides complied with the protocols of warfare at the time, resulting in a bloodless victory for the Parliamentary force:
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the besiegers demanded that the garrison surrender, the garrison refused, the attackers demanded a surrender for a second time, and this time the garrison were able to give up the castle with dignity.
Shortly afterwards on 9 June, a Royalist force led by Sir Michael Woodhouse attempted to recapture the castle, now garrisoned by Parliament. The counter-attack was unsuccessful, ending in the rout of the Royalist forces in a skirmish at the nearby village of Wistanstow.
Unlike many castles in England which were deliberately seriously damaged, or slighted, to put them beyond military use, Stokesay escaped substantial harm after the war. Parliament sequestrated the property from William and ordered
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the slighting of the castle in 1647, but only pulled down the castle's curtain wall, leaving the rest of the complex intact. Samuel returned in 1649 to continue to rent the castle during the years of the Commonwealth, and put in wood panelling and new windows into parts of the property. With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, William's lands were returned to him, and the Baldwyns continued to lease Stokesay Castle from him.
## 18th–19th centuries.
During the 18th century, Stokesay Castle continued to be leased by the Baldwyn family, although they sublet the property to a range of tenants; after this point it ceased to be used as a domestic dwelling. Two wood and plaster buildings,
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built against the side of the hall, were demolished around 1800, and by the early 19th century the castle was being used for storing grain and manufacturing, including barrel-making, coining and a smithy.
The castle began to deteriorate, and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been "abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin: the glass is destroyed, the ceilings and floors are falling, and the rains streams through the opening roof on the damp and mouldering walls". The smithy in the basement of the south tower resulted in a fire in 1830, which caused considerable damage to the castle, gutting the south tower. Extensive decay in the bases of the
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cruck tresses in the castle's roof posed a particular threat to the hall, as the decaying roof began to push the walls apart.
Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s by William Craven, the Earl of Craven. This was a deliberate attempt at conserving the existing building, rather than rebuilding it, and was a very unusual approach at this time. By 1845, stone buttresses and pillars had been added to support parts of the hall and its roof. Research by Thomas Turner was published in 1851, outlining the history of the castle. Frances Stackhouse Acton, a local landowner, took a particular interest in the castle, and in 1853 convinced William to carry out further repair work on the castle, under
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her supervision, at a cost of £103.
In 1869 the Craven estate, in size but by now heavily mortgaged, were purchased by John Derby Allcroft for £215,000. Allcroft was the head of Dents, a major glove manufacturer, through which he had become extremely wealthy. The estate included Stokesay Castle, where from around 1875 onwards Allcroft undertook extensive restoration work over several years. Stokesay was in serious need of repairs: the visiting writer Henry James noted in 1877 that the property was in "a state of extreme decay".
Allcroft attempted what the archaeologist Gill Chitty has described as a "simple and unaffected" programme of work, which generally attempted to avoid excessive intervention.
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He may have been influenced by the contemporary writings of the local vicar, the Reverend James La Touche, who took a somewhat romanticised approach to the analysis of the castle's history and architecture. The castle had become a popular sight for tourists and artists by the 1870s and the gatehouse was fitted out to form a house for a caretaker to oversee the property. Following the work, the castle was in good condition once again by the late 1880s.
## 20th–21st centuries.
Further repairs to Stokesay Castle were required in 1902, carried out by Allcroft's heir, Herbert, with help from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. The Allcroft family faced increasing financial difficulty
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in the 20th century and the castle was formally opened for visitors in 1908, with much of the revenue reinvested in the property, but funds for repairs remained in short supply. By the 1930s the Allcroft estate was in serious financial difficulties, and the payment of two sets of death duties in 1946 and 1950 added to the family's problems.
Despite receiving considerable numbers of visitors - over 16,000 in 1955 - it was becoming increasingly impractical to maintain the castle, and calls were made for the State to take over the property. For several decades the owners, Philip and Jewell Magnus-Allcroft, declined these proposals and continued to run the castle privately. In 1986 Jewell finally
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agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992.
The castle was passed to English Heritage largely unfurnished, with minimal interpretative material in place, and it needed fresh restoration. There were various options for taking forward the work, including restoring the castle to resemble a particular period in its history; using interactive approaches such as "living history" to communicate the context to visitors; or using the site to demonstrate restoration techniques appropriate to different periods. These were rejected in favour of a policy of minimising any physical intervention during the restoration
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and preserving the building in the condition it was passed to English Heritage, including its unfurnished interior. The archaeologist Gill Chitty has described this as encouraging visitors to undergo a "personal discovery of a sense of historical relationship and event" around the castle. Against this background, an extensive programme of restoration work was carried out between August 1986 and December 1989.
In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated by English Heritage as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010. British Airways, in conjunction with English Heritage, named their last Boeing 757 aircraft "Stokesay Castle" in 2010 for its final month of flying.
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The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument.
# Architecture.
## Structure.
Stokesay Castle was built on a patch of slightly rising ground in the basin of the River Onny. It took the form of a solar block and hall attached to a northern and southern tower; this combination of hall and tower was not uncommon in England in the 13th century, particularly in northern England. A crenellated curtain wall, destroyed in the 17th century, enclosed a courtyard, with a gatehouse - probably originally constructed from stone, rebuilt in timber and plaster around 1640 - controlling the entrance. The wall would have reached high measured from the base of
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the moat. The courtyard, around by , contained additional buildings during the castle's history, probably including a kitchen, bakehouse and storerooms, which were pulled down around 1800.
The castle was surrounded by a moat, between and across, although it is uncertain whether this was originally a dry moat, as it is in the 21st century, or water-filled from the pond and nearby stream. The spoil from digging out the moat was used to raise the height of the courtyard. Beyond the moat were a lake and ponds that were probably intended to be viewed from the south tower. The parish church of St John the Baptist, of Norman origins but largely rebuilt in the middle of the 17th century, lies just
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alongside the castle.
Stokesay Castle forms what archaeologist Gill Chitty describes as "a comparatively complete ensemble" of medieval buildings, and their survival, almost unchanged, is extremely unusual. Historian Henry Summerson considers it "one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England".
## Buildings.
The gatehouse is a two-storied, 17th century building with exposed timber and plasterwork, constructed in a distinctively local Shropshire style. It features elaborate wooden carvings on the exterior and interior doorways, including angels, the biblical characters of Adam, Eve and the serpent from the Garden of Eden, as well as dragons and other nude figures. It
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was designed as essentially an ornamental building, with little defensive value.
The south tower forms an unequal pentagon in shape, and has three storeys with thick walls. The walls were built to contain the stairs and garderobes, the unevenly positioned empty spaces weakening the structure, and this meant that two large buttresses had to be added to the tower during its construction to support the walls. The current floors are Victorian in origin, having been built after the fire of 1830, but the tower remains unglazed, as in the 13th century, with shutters at the windows providing protection in winter. The basement was originally only accessible from the first floor, and would have provided
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a secure area for storage, in addition to also containing a well. The first floor, which formed the original entrance to the tower, contains a 17th-century fireplace, reusing the original 13th-century chimney. The second floor has been subdivided in the past, but has been restored to form a single chamber, as it would have been when first built.
The roof of the south tower provides views of the surrounding landscape; in the 13th-century protective wooden mantlets would have been fitted into the gaps of the merlons along the battlements, and during the English Civil War it was equipped with additional wooden defences to protect the garrison.
The hall and solar block are adjacent to the south
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tower, and were designed to be symmetrical when seen from the courtyard, although the addition of the additional stone buttresses in the 19th century has altered this appearance. The hall is long and wide, with has three large, wooden 13th-century arches supporting the roof, unusually, given its size, using lateral wooden collars, but no vertical king-posts. The roof's cruck joists now rest on 19th-century stone supports, but would have originally reached down to the ground. The roof is considered by the historian Henry Summerson to be a "rare survival for the period". In the medieval period a wooden screen would have cut off the north end, providing a more secluded dining area.
The solar block
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has two storeys and a cellar, and would have probably acted as the living space for Laurence of Ludlow when he first moved into the castle. The solar room itself is on the first floor, and is reached by external steps. The wood panelling and carved wooden fireplace are of 17th-century origin, probably from around 1640. This woodwork would have originally been brightly painted, and included spy-holes so that the hall could be observed from the solar.
The three-storey north tower is reached by a 13th-century staircase in the hall, which leads onto the first floor. The first floor was divided into two separate rooms shortly after the construction of the tower, and contain various decorative tiles,
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probably from Laurence's house in Ludlow. The walls of the second floor are mostly half-timbered, jettying out above the stone walls beneath them; the tower has its original 13th-century fireplace, although the wooden roof is 19th-century, modeled on the 13th-century original, and the windows are 17th-century insertions. The details and the carpenters' personal marks on the woodwork show that the hall, solar and north tower were all constructed under the direction of the same carpenter in the late 1280s and early 1290s.
## Interpretation.
Stokesay Castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification. As long ago as 1787, the antiquarian Francis Grose observed that it was "a castellated
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mansion rather than a castle of strength", and more recently the historian Nigel Pounds has described the castle as forming "a lightly fortified home", providing security but not intended to resist a military attack. The historian Henry Summerson describes its military features as "superficial", and Oliver Creighton characterises Stokesay as being more of a "picturesque residence" than a fortification.
Among its weaknesses were the positioning of its gatehouse, on the wrong side of the castle, facing away from the road, and the huge windows in the hall, reaching down to the ground and making access relatively easy to any intruder. Indeed, this vulnerability may have been intentional. Its builder
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Laurence was a newly-moneyed member of the upper class, and he may not have wanted to erect a fortification that would have threatened the established Marcher Lords in the region.
Nonetheless, Stokesay Castle was intended to have a dramatic, military appearance, echoing the castles then being built by Edward I in North Wales. Visitors would have approached the castle across a causeway, with an excellent view of the south tower, potentially framed by and reflected in the water-filled moat. The south tower was probably intended to resemble the gatehouses of contemporary castles such as Caernarfon and Denbigh, and would probably have originally shared the former's "banded" stonework. Cordingley
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bly intended to resemble the gatehouses of contemporary castles such as Caernarfon and Denbigh, and would probably have originally shared the former's "banded" stonework. Cordingley describes the south tower as "adding prestige rather than security". Visitors would then have passed by the impressive outside of the main hall block, before entering the castle itself, which Robert Liddiard notes might have been an "anticlimax from the point of view of the medieval visitor".
# See also.
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in England
- Listed buildings in Craven Arms
- Stokesay Court, built by John Derby Allcroft
# External links.
- English Heritage visitor information
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Battle of Toulouse
Battle of Toulouse may refer to:
- Battle of Toulouse (439) between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire
- Battle of Toulouse (458) between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire
- Battle of Toulouse (844) during the Carolingian civil war
- Battle of Toulouse (1814) during the Napoleonic Wars
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Yao Wenyuan
Yao Wenyuan (January 12, 1931 – December 23, 2005) was a Chinese literary critic, a politician, and a member of the Gang of Four during China's Cultural Revolution.
# Biography.
Yao Wenyuan was born in Zhuji, Zhejiang, to an intellectual family. His father, Yao Pengzi (姚蓬子) was a writer, translator and art critic.
He began his career in Shanghai as a literary critic, where he became known for his sharp attacks against colleagues, such as in June 1957 against the newspaper "Wenhuibao". Since that time, he began to closely collaborate with leftist Shanghai politicians, including the head of the city's Propaganda Department, Zhang Chunqiao. His article "On the New Historical Beijing
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Opera 'Hai Rui Dismissed from Office'", published in "Wenhuibao" on November 10, 1965, launched the Cultural Revolution.
The article was about a popular opera by Wu Han, who was deputy mayor of Beijing. Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing feared the play could be counter-revolutionary because parallels could be drawn between the characters in the play and officials in the communist government. In the play, Hai Rui, a government official, speaks for the peasants against the imperial government, criticizing officials for hypocritically oppressing the masses while pretending to be virtuous men. Hai Rui is dismissed because of this. Yao claimed it was a coded attack on Mao for dismissing in 1959 then-minister
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of defense Peng Dehuai, a critic of Mao’s disastrous Great Leap Forward.
Confused by this unexpected attack, Beijing's party leadership tried to protect Wu Han, providing Mao the pretext for a full-scale "struggle" against them in the following year. Yao was soon promoted to the Cultural Revolution Group.
Yao Wenyuan was an ideal candidate for the criticism for such an opera because of his consistent socialist background. In April 1969 he joined the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, working on official propaganda. A member of "Proletarian writers for purity" he was the editor of "Liberation Daily" Shanghai's main newspaper. He joined the state's efforts to
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paper. He joined the state's efforts to rid China's writers union of the famous writer Hu Feng.
In October 1976, he was arrested for his participation in the Cultural Revolution and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. He was released on October 23, 1996, and spent the remainder of his life writing a book and studying Chinese history. He lived in his hometown of Shanghai and became the last surviving member of the Gang of Four after Zhang Chunqiao died in April 2005. According to China's official Xinhua news agency, he died of diabetes on December 23, 2005, aged 74.
# Publications.
- Yao Wen-yuan: "On the Social Basis Of The Lin Piao Antiparty Clique." Foreign Languages Press, Peking 1975.
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Zhang Chunqiao
Zhang Chunqiao
Zhang Chunqiao (; 1 February 1917 – 21 April 2005) was a prominent Chinese political theorist, writer, and politician. He came to the national spotlight during the late stages of the Cultural Revolution, and was a member of the ultra-Maoist group dubbed the "Gang of Four".
# Biography.
Born in Juye County, Shandong, Zhang worked as a writer in Shanghai in the 1930s and became closely associated with the city. After the Yan'an conference in 1938, he joined the Communist Party of China. With the creation of the People's Republic of China, he became a prominent journalist in Shanghai in charge of the "Liberation Daily" newspaper. He met Jiang Qing in Shanghai and helped to launch
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Zhang Chunqiao
the Cultural Revolution.
Zhang first came to prominence as the result of his October 1958 "Jiefang" ("Liberation") magazine entitled “Destroy the Ideas of Bourgeois Legal Ownership.” Mao Zedong ordered the reproduction of the article in "People’s Daily", and personally wrote an accompanying “Editor’s Note” giving the article his own mild approval. He was seen as one of Mao Zedong's full supporters as Mao became involved in an ideological struggle with rival leader Liu Shaoqi.
In November 1966, at the outset of the Cultural Revolution, Zhang arrived in Shanghai representing the Central Cultural Revolution Group to stop Cao Diqiu's attempt to disperse workers in Anting. He signed the Five-point
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Petition of workers and then organized the Shanghai Commune along with Wang Hongwen and Yao Wenyuan in February 1967, essentially overthrowing the local government and party organization and becoming chairman of the city's Revolutionary Committee, which combined both the former posts of mayor and party secretary, until the latter post was restored in 1971. Zhang also initially served as one of the leaders of the Cultural Revolution Group, in charge of carrying out the Cultural Revolution around China. He spent much of the Cultural Revolution shuttling between Beijing and Shanghai.
In April 1969 he joined the Politburo of the Communist Party of China and in 1973 he was promoted to the Politburo
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Standing Committee, a council of top Communist leaders. In January 1975 Zhang became the second-ranked Vice Premier and he wrote "On Exercising All-Round Dictatorship Over the Bourgeoisie" to promote the movement of studying the theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat; Deng Xiaoping was the first-ranked Vice Premier at the time, but Deng was out of office again in 1976.
He was arrested along with the other members of the Gang of Four in October 1976, as part of a conspiracy by Ye Jianying, Li Xiannian and newly anointed party leader Hua Guofeng. Zhang was sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve, together with Jiang Qing, in 1984, but his sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment,
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was arrested along with the other members of the Gang of Four in October 1976, as part of a conspiracy by Ye Jianying, Li Xiannian and newly anointed party leader Hua Guofeng. Zhang was sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve, together with Jiang Qing, in 1984, but his sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment, and in December 1997 the sentence was further reduced to eighteen years.
In 1998, Zhang was released from prison to undergo medical treatment. He then lived in obscurity in Shanghai for the remainder of his life. Zhang died from pancreatic cancer in April 2005.
# References.
- Zhang Chunqiao Reference Archive
- "On Exercising All-Round Dictatorship over the Bourgeoisie"
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Wang Hongwen
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Wang Hongwen
Wang Hongwen
Wang Hongwen (December, 1935 – August 3, 1992) was a Chinese labour activist and politician who spent most of his career in Shanghai. He was an important political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). He was the youngest member of the far-left political clique called the "Gang of Four." During the Cultural Revolution, Wang rose from a member of the working class to become one of the foremost members of national leadership of the Communist Party of China.
At the pinnacle of his power he was the second Vice-Chairman of the CCP, and ranked third in the Communist Party's hierarchy. Following Mao's death in 1976, Wang was arrested and charged with "counterrevolutionary activity,"
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then sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981.
# Biography.
Wang was born in a village in the outskirts of Changchun, Jilin province. In the early 1950s he took part in the Korean War. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1953. After the war, he was sent to Shanghai to work in Shanghai No. 17 Cotton Textile Mill as the head of its security guards regiment, where he met Zhang Chunqiao and became involved in a Red Guards group. He organized the Shanghai Commune in January 1967, and was catapulted to national prominence as a daring rebel leader.
At the 9th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Wang was elected a member of the Central Committee. Following the Lin Biao incident,
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Wang Hongwen
Wang was put in charge of the investigation into the case in the Shanghai area, reporting directly to Mao. At the 10th National Congress of the CCP in 1973, Wang Hongwen was elevated to second ranking Vice Chairman in the Central Committee, and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, making him the third-highest-ranking member of the CCP, behind Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai. All signs pointed to Wang being trained as Mao's successor.
Wang was rumored to be slated to become Premier after then-Premier Zhou Enlai's death in January 1976. However, Hua Guofeng, a more moderate figure, was chosen to succeed Zhou instead. Wang was an important player during and after the death
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Wang Hongwen
of Mao, and served as the masters of ceremonies for his funeral service on national radio on September 18, 1976. He was arrested in what was essentially a coup planned by Hua and General Ye Jianying for his participation in the Gang of Four during the Cultural Revolution in October 1976. Wang was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981. He died of liver cancer in a Beijing hospital on August 3, 1992 at the age of 56.
Wang was one of the youngest members of the Politburo Standing Committee in the post-revolution Communist Party, having joined the body at a mere 37 years of age. In fact, he was the same age as some standing committee members who took office even after the turn of the
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Wang Hongwen
ptember 18, 1976. He was arrested in what was essentially a coup planned by Hua and General Ye Jianying for his participation in the Gang of Four during the Cultural Revolution in October 1976. Wang was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981. He died of liver cancer in a Beijing hospital on August 3, 1992 at the age of 56.
Wang was one of the youngest members of the Politburo Standing Committee in the post-revolution Communist Party, having joined the body at a mere 37 years of age. In fact, he was the same age as some standing committee members who took office even after the turn of the century, such as Luo Gan (served on the PSC between 2002 and 2007), who was also born in 1935.
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Battle of the Chernaya
The Battle of the Chernaya (also Tchernaïa; Russian: Сражение у Черной речки, Сражение у реки Черной, literally: Battle of the Black River) was a battle by the Chornaya River fought during the Crimean War on August 16, 1855. The battle was fought between Russian troops and a coalition of French, Sardinian and Ottoman troops. The Chornaya River is on the outskirts of Sevastopol. The battle ended in a Russian retreat and a victory for the French, Sardinians and Turks.
# Planning.
The battle was planned as an offensive by the Russians with the aim of forcing the Allied forces (French, British, Sardinian, and Ottoman) to retreat and abandon their siege of Sevastopol. Czar
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Alexander II had ordered his commander in chief in the Crimea, Prince Michael Gorchakov to attack the besieging forces before they were reinforced further. The Czar hoped that by gaining a victory, he could force a more favorable resolution to the conflict. Gorchakov didn’t think that an attack would be successful but believed the greatest chance of success to be near the French and Sardinian positions on the Chornaya River. The Czar ordered the hesitating Gorchakov to hold a war council to plan the attack. The attack was planned for the morning of August 16 in the hope to surprise the French and Sardinians as they had just celebrated the Feast day of the Emperor (France) and Assumption Day
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(Sardinians). The Russians hoped that because of these feasts the enemy would be tired and less attentive to the Russians.
# The battle.
58,000 Russian troops in two army corps under Prince Michael Gorchakov fought against 28,000 French and Sardinian troops under French General Aimable Pélissier and Italian General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora. Although the British correspondents were amazed at the courageousness and impetuosity of their attack, the assault of the Russian army was handicapped by poor organization and lack of experienced soldiers which, due to Sevastopol, forced their corps to consist mostly of militia.
In the cover of the morning fog, the Russians advanced on Traktirburg with
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47,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 270 cannon under command of General Pavel Liprandi on the left and General N. A. Read on the right. The two generals had been ordered by Gorchakov not to cross the river until given explicit orders. Annoyed that things weren’t happening fast enough, Gorchakov sent a note to his generals with the words ""Let's start it."" By this, Gorchakov only meant that the Russians should start to deploy their forces. Unfortunately his generals interpreted his words as his order to attack and they acted accordingly, although reserve forces were still en route to the battlefield. The attacking Russians immediately met stiff resistance from the French and Sardinians. Read's
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forces crossed the river near Traktirburg but without cavalry and artillery support, they were easily stopped by the French on the Fedyukhin Heights (Федюхины высоты). Read then ordered his reserve formation, the 5th Infantry Division, to attack the Heights but instead of launching a coordinated assault, he fed them piecemeal in to the fray. Going in regiment by regiment, the assaulting reserve troops accomplished nothing. Seeing this Gorchakov ordered Read to deploy the entire division against the French. This forced the French back up the hill but the Russians could not capture the Heights. In the following retreat General Read was killed. Upon the death of Read, Gorchakov took personal command
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of the right and ordered 8 battalions of Liprandi's left wing to reinforce the right wing. These forces came under fire from the Sardinians and were driven back. At 10 o’clock in the morning, Gorchakov concluded that the situation was hopeless and ordered a general retreat.
The bravery of Sardinian troops and the French soldiers of the 50th, 82nd, 95th, 97th of the line; the 19th Foot Chasseurs; and the 2nd and 3rd Zouaves was especially noted. The Italian troops' valiant effort at the battle was a contributing factor to their inclusion at the negotiation tables at the end of the war; It was there that the Kingdom of Sardinia began looking for the aide of other European nations in the Unification
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of Italy.
# Tolstoy.
Russian Count Leo Tolstoy was a participant in the Battle of the Chernaya River. He witnessed as the Russians crossed the river and started up the hillside in the morning sunlight. Tolstoy saw Russian soldiers being killed in clusters as shells exploded around them. Before the morning was over, the Russians were forced to retreat. They left thousands of their dead comrades behind. Tolstoy was depressed and angered by the slaughter. He believed much of it was due to incompetent generals and staff. Tolstoy vented his anger by composing a , an approximate translation of which reads:
"The toppest brass
Sat down to meet
And pondered long;
Topographers
Lined paper black
But
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due to incompetent generals and staff. Tolstoy vented his anger by composing a , an approximate translation of which reads:
"The toppest brass
Sat down to meet
And pondered long;
Topographers
Lined paper black
But all forgot
The deep ravine
They had to cross!"
This humorous song soon gained widespread popularity among the Russian soldiers, and is the only piece of verse Tolstoy is known to have written.
The stanza from Tolstoy's song "Гладко вписано в бумаге, Да забыли про овраги" ("It was smoothly written into the papers / But it was forgotten about the ravines") entered as a catch phrase, in a slightly modified form "Гладко было на бумаге... " ("It was smooth on the paper, ...").
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Local councils of Malta
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Local councils of Malta
Local councils of Malta
Since June 30, 1993, Malta has been subdivided into 68 localities, governed by local councils, , meaning municipalities or borough. These form the most basic form of local government and there are no intermediate levels between it and the national level. The levels of the 6 districts (5 on the main island) and of the 3 regions (2 on the main island) serve statistical purposes.
According to the Local Councils Act (Chapter 363 of the Laws of Malta), Art. 3:
(1) Every locality shall have a Council which shall have all such functions as are granted to it by this Act
(5) Each locality shall be referred to by the name as designated in the Second Schedule and any reference
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to that locality shall be by the name so designated.
# List of Maltese local communities councils.
These local community committees are going to operate from the beginning of July 2010, the Maltese Elections of Committees for Communities 2010 was held on Saturday March 27, in these hamlets:
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Bubaqra in Iż-Żurrieq
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Fleur-de-Lys in Birkirkara
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Kappara in San Ġwann
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Madliena in Is-Swieqi
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Marsalforn in Iż-Żebbuġ
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Paceville in San Ġiljan
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Santa Luċija, Għawdex in Ta' Kerċem
-
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Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tax-Xlendi in Il-Munxar
In June 2010 were held also the elections for the local community committees, in these hamlets:
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Gwardmanġa in Tal-Pietà, Malta
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tas-Swatar in Birkirkara and L-Imsida
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Baħrija in Ir-Rabat, Malta
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq in In-Naxxar
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' San Pietru in Ħaż-Żabbar
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Burmarrad u l-Wardija in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Tal-Virtù in Ir-Rabat
- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Ħal Farruġ in Ħal Luqa
All elections in these hamlets took place on the same
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day in the 2014 hamlet elections.
## Other recognised hamlets without a local community committee.
- Albert Town in Il-Marsa, Malta
- Bengħisa in Birżebbuġa
- Il-Bidnija in Il-Mosta/L-Imġarr
- Bir id-Deheb in Iż-Żejtun/Ħal Għaxaq
- Il-Blata l-Bajda in Il-Ħamrun/Il-Marsa, Malta
- Tal-Blata l-Għolja in Il-Mosta
- Buġibba in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Bulebel iż-Żgħir in Ħaż-Żabbar
- Il-Buskett in Dingli/Is-Siġġiewi
- Ġebel San Martin in Iż-Żejtun
- L-Għadira in Il-Mellieħa
- Tal-Ibraġ in Is-Swieqi
- Il-Magħtab in In-Naxxar
- Il-Manikata in Il-Mellieħa
- Il-Pwales in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Il-Qajjenza in Birżebbuġa
- Il-Qawra in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Tar-Rabbat in Il-Ħamrun
- Salina in
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In-Naxxar
- San Martin in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Santa Margerita in Mosta
- Santa Maria Estate in Il-Mellieħa
- Ta' Ganza in Iż-Żejtun
- Ta' Giorni in San Ġiljan
- Ta' Kassja in Gozo
- Ta' Taħt iċ-Ċint in Iż-Żurrieq
- Tal-Barmil in Gozo
- Tal-Bebbux in Iż-Żurrieq
- Tal-Ħawli in Il-Birgu
- Tal-Millieri in Ħal Għaxaq
- Tal-Plier in Ħaż-Żabbar
- Tal-Qattus (Birkirkara) in Birkirkara
- Tal-Qattus (Għaxaq) in Ħal Għaxaq
- Tas-Salib in Il-Mellieħa
- Ta' Żwejt in San Ġwann
- Victoria Gardens in Is-Swieqi
- Wied iż-Żurrieq in Il-Qrendi
- Ix-Xemxija in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Ix-Xwieki in Ħal Għargħur
- Iż-Żebbiegħ in L-Imġarr
- Ta' Żokkrija in Il-Mosta
# See also.
- 2005 Maltese local
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jt in San Ġwann
- Victoria Gardens in Is-Swieqi
- Wied iż-Żurrieq in Il-Qrendi
- Ix-Xemxija in San Pawl il-Baħar
- Ix-Xwieki in Ħal Għargħur
- Iż-Żebbiegħ in L-Imġarr
- Ta' Żokkrija in Il-Mosta
# See also.
- 2005 Maltese local council elections
- 2006 Maltese local council elections
- 2007 Maltese local council elections
- 2008 Maltese local council elections
- 2009 Maltese local council elections
- Maltese local council elections, 2010
- 2012 Maltese local council elections
- 2015 Maltese local council elections
- List of cities in Malta
- List of mayors of Malta
# External links.
- Local Councils Act and amendments
- CityMayors.com article
- Local Councils' Association
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Battle of Seneffe
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Battle of Seneffe
The Battle of Seneffe took place on 11 August 1674, during the 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War near Seneffe in present-day Belgium. It was fought by a French army commanded by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and a combined Dutch-Imperial-Spanish force led by William of Orange. While a clear French victory, both sides suffered heavy losses and it had little impact on the outcome of the war in the Low Countries.
Seneffe was one of three battles in the Spanish Netherlands during the Franco-Dutch War and the only one unconnected to a siege, the dominant form of warfare in the late 17th century; Cassel in 1677 was an attempt to relieve Saint-Omer, while Saint-Denis in 1678 was
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fought to prevent the fall of Mons.
# Background.
In the 1667–1668 War of Devolution, France captured most of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté but relinquished the bulk of these gains in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle with the Triple Alliance of the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. Angered by what he viewed as ingratitude for previous French support, Louis XIV decided to attack the Dutch; he weakened his opponents by paying Sweden to remain neutral, and signing an alliance with England in the 1670 Treaty of Dover.
In May 1672, French forces invaded the Dutch Republic and initially seemed to have achieved an overwhelming victory but by late July, the Dutch position had stabilised.
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Concern at French gains led to the August 1673 Treaty of the Hague between the Republic, Brandenburg-Prussia, Emperor Leopold and Charles II of Spain; in early 1674, Denmark joined the Alliance, while England and the Dutch made peace in the Treaty of Westminster.
Forced into another war of attrition and with new fronts opening in Spain, Sicily and the Rhineland, French troops withdrew from the Dutch Republic by the end of 1673, retaining only Grave and Maastricht. Louis now focused on retaking Spanish possessions gained in 1667–1668 but returned at Aix-La-Chappelle, a decision simplified by Spain's entry into the war.
In early May, the French took the offensive in Franche-Comté, while Condé's
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army in the Spanish Netherlands remained on the defensive. The Allies besieged Grave in early July, which was too distant to have any realistic chance of being relieved by the French; with the advantage of superior numbers and aware of Louis' plans to capture Mons, the main Allied field army sought to take the initiative by invading French Flanders.
# The battle.
The Spanish Netherlands was a compact area 160 kilometres wide, its highest point being only 100 metres above sea level; until the advent of railways in the 19th century, goods and supplies were largely transported by water and the region's commercial wealth was due to the large numbers of canals and rivers. Campaigning in this theatre
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Battle of Seneffe
largely focused on controlling access points to rivers such as the Lys, the Sambre and Meuse, while the flat terrain made possession of any high ground extremely advantageous.
A Dutch-Spanish force under William of Orange and Count Monterrey, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, spent June and July unsuccessfully attempting to bring Condé to battle. On 23 July, they were joined near Nivelles by an Imperial army led by a French Huguenot exile, the Comte de Souches, increasing their numbers to about 62,000. After the conclusion of operations in Franche-Comté, many of the troops used there were sent to join Condé, including his son the duc d'Enghien. By early August, his army of 44,200 was entrenched
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along the line of the Piéton river which joined the Sambre at Charleroi, then occupied by the French.
Concluding these positions were too strong to be attacked from the direction of Nivelles, on 9 August the Allied army established a line between the villages of Arquennes to Roux, on the French left. They hoped to tempt Condé into an attack but he simply shifted his troops and the next day, William proposed moving around Seneffe and into the French rear. This was supported by the Spanish, since it would cut Condé's supply lines and isolate the French garrison in Charleroi (see Map).
At 4:00 am on 11 August, the Allied army set out split into three columns, each marching parallel to the French
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positions. The vanguard was commanded by the Comte de Souches, the rear by the Marquis d'Assentar, who had just replaced Monterrey as the senior Spanish officer, with William and the bulk of the infantry in the centre. The formation was dictated by the poor roads and resulted in gaps between the columns; recognising this vulnerability, a screening force of 6,000 cavalry under Prince Vaudémont was placed on the extreme left, passing close to Seneffe which the Allied troops would have to pass in order to move behind the French.
Hearing the Allies were on the move, at 5:30 am Condé rode out to observe their dispositions and quickly perceived their intentions. The terrain they were crossing was
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largely marshy and broken up by numerous hedges, walls and woods, with limited exit points; gambling these factors would negate their superior numbers, Condé decided to attack. He sent 400 light cavalry under Saint Clar to skirmish with the Allied vanguard and slow down their march, while also despatching a cavalry brigade under the Marquis de Rannes to seize the high ground north of Seneffe.
Around 10:00 am, de Rannes came into contact with Vaudémont, who asked William for infantry support; he was sent three battalions, which he placed near the bridge over the Zenne or Senne river that flowed through Seneffe, with his cavalry just behind. Despite gout so severe he was unable to wear boots,
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Condé himself led the elite Maison du Roi cavalry across the Zenne above Seneffe and scattered Vaudémont's cavalry. Simultaneous assaults by de Rannes and Luxembourg overwhelmed the infantry, who were all either killed or taken prisoner.
By midday, Condé had inflicted significant losses on the Allies and gained a clear, if minor victory. Instead of withdrawing, he continued and the battle became a series of confused and costly firefights, lasting until early evening. After Vaudémont was driven out of Seneffe, William halted his march and formed a defensive line centred on the nearby Priory of St Nicolas, with the Marquis d'Assentar based in the hamlet of Fayt-la-Manage on his left. The Allied
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horse was once again driven from the field but the French were exhausted; the Dutch infantry remained intact, while the ground in front of their position was in any case unsuitable for cavalry.
Against the advice of his senior officers, Condé committed his troops to a series of bloody frontal assaults, leading one himself, in which he was unhorsed and had to be rescued by his son, the Duc d'Enghien. Luxembourg destroyed much of the Dutch baggage train and despite heavy losses, the French finally over-ran the Allied positions at St Nicolas in the early evening. The two armies remained facing each other for the rest of the night and the next day, William made for Mons to re-equip while the French
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returned to their original positions on the Piéton.
Casualties on all sides had been enormous, although the Imperial troops in the vanguard saw little combat, apart from minor skirmishing with Saint Clar's cavalry and William later accused de Souches of deliberately refusing to support him. While estimates vary, the consensus is that French losses were between 7,000 to 10,000 killed, wounded or captured, those of the Allies being a wider range of 8,000 – 15,000.
# Aftermath.
Their losses shocked the French, one contemporary writing 'we have lost so much by this victory that without the Te Deum and captured flags at Notre Dame, we would believe we had lost the battle.' The battle had little
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impact on the war; on 31 August, a large convoy arrived in the Allied camp outside Mons, bringing supplies, a month's pay in advance for the survivors and five new Dutch regiments. This made up for the losses suffered at Seneffe and William proposed they resume the proposed invasion of France.
Neither de Souches or Monterrey agreed to this and so the Allies compromised by besieging Oudenarde. Operations started on 16 September and Condé began marching to its relief on 19th; the Dutch and Spanish redoubled efforts to breach the walls before his arrival but without advising his allies, de Souches sent the Imperial artillery off to Ghent. His troops could not fight a battle without artillery and
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since the Dutch and Spanish could not face the French on their own, they were forced into a hasty retreat.
After strong protests from the Dutch States General, de Souches was relieved of his command but this did little to solve the reality of diverging objectives in the Low Countries. De Souches' desire to minimise his own losses was driven by Imperial strategy, which was to prevent the French reinforcing Turenne in the Rhineland; the Spanish wanted to recover their losses in the Spanish Netherlands, a secondary objective for the Dutch, who now focused on retaking Grave and Maastricht. On 9 October, William assumed command of the siege operations at Grave, which surrendered on 28th.
Condé
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