wikipedia_id
stringlengths 2
8
| wikipedia_title
stringlengths 1
243
| url
stringlengths 44
370
| contents
stringlengths 53
2.22k
| id
int64 0
6.14M
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.
In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "licence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.
Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British Lord Exmouth, attacked Algiers. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Captain (later Commodore) Stephen Decatur (U.S. Navy) concerning the demands
| 2,000 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians.
Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in Morocco. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.
## French colonization (1830–1962).
Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830. Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830." French losses from 1831–51 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action. The population
| 2,001 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country. The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest. The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostly Kabyles. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles. About 80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles.
From
| 2,002 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and "département" of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, who became known as "colons" and later, as "Pied-Noirs." Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population
| 2,003 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
in both cities.
During the late 19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.
Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy
| 2,004 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) or by lynch mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals.
The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands
| 2,005 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.
The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum.
## The first three decades of independence (1962–1991).
The number of European "Pied-Noirs" who fled
| 2,006 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians.
Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party
| 2,007 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis.
In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialization within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.
The
| 2,008 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.
## Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath.
In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of two rounds of legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned
| 2,009 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
and a High Council of State was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing, the Armed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.
Algeria held elections in 1999, considered biased by international observers
| 2,010 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
and most opposition groups which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Army, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.
Bouteflika was re-elected in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning
| 2,011 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.
In November 2008, the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009.
| 2,012 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.
A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.
| 2,013 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.
On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency.
# Geography.
Algeria is the largest country in Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north, the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria.
| 2,014 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat ( m).
Algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.
The Hoggar Mountains (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located
| 2,015 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.
## Climate and hydrology.
In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years.
Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria
| 2,016 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to .
## Fauna and flora.
The varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid
| 2,017 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
forests in the north-eastern areas.
A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles.
In the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and
| 2,018 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara.
Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.
# Politics.
Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs", known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be Mohamed Mediène, the head of military intelligence. In recent years, many of these
| 2,019 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
generals have died or retired. After the death of General Larbi Belkheir, Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at Sonatrach, and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely.
The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. The next presidential election was planned to be in April 2019, but widespread protests erupted in February 22 against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation
| 2,020 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
on April 3 . Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the army, the Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government.
The Algerian parliament is bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession,
| 2,021 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.
Parliamentary elections were last held in May 2012, and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities. In the elections, the FLN won 221 seats, the military-backed National Rally for Democracy won 70, and the Islamist Green Algeria Alliance won 47.
## Foreign relations.
Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main
| 2,022 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.
In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defense Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.
Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been
| 2,023 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.
## Military.
The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).
Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the
| 2,024 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012. Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).
In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.
## Human rights.
Algeria has been categorized by Freedom House as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled "partly free." In December 2016,
| 2,025 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor" issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled.
Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been
| 2,026 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
deregistered by the government.
Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.
# Administrative divisions.
Algeria is divided into 48 provinces ("wilayas"), 553 districts ("daïras") and 1,541 municipalities ("baladiyahs"). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is usually the largest city.
The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are
# Economy.
Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country
| 2,027 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
by the World Bank. Algeria's currency is the dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.
Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment
| 2,028 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.
A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to
| 2,029 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
human development.
The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion. Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.
In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus.
| 2,030 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.
Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.
In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively. About 14%
| 2,031 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of the labor force are employed in the agricultural sector. Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.
Algeria has not joined the WTO, despite several years of negotiations.
In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt during a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport.
Dubai-based
| 2,032 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
conglomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement to develop a $1.6 billion steel factory in Algeria.
## Hydrocarbons.
Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005,
| 2,033 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Algeria had of proven natural-gas reserves. It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.
Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.
Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless,
| 2,034 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.
The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.
## Research and alternative energy sources.
Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated
| 2,035 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.
## Labour market.
Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.
The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among
| 2,036 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).
## Tourism.
The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.
There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town;
| 2,037 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis; and the Casbah of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range.
## Transport.
The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved.
| 2,038 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia.
# Demographics.
In January 2016 Algeria's population was an estimated 40.4 million, who are mainly Arab-Berber ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.
Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine.
| 2,039 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.
Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi refugee camps, in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.
The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.
## Ethnic groups.
Indigenous
| 2,040 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Berbers as well as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.
Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking
| 2,041 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria.
During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) European population who became known as "Pied-Noirs". They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.
## Languages.
Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian
| 2,042 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber.
Berber has been recognized as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make Berber an official language alongside Arabic.
Although French has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia
| 2,043 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French (which is why it has no official status), in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French and television programs have reinforced use of the language.
Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber
| 2,044 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
by 27–30%.
## Religion.
Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010. There are about 150,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia.
Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun.
## Cities.
Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities:
# Culture.
Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent
| 2,045 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.
Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are
| 2,046 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.
Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.
## Art.
Algerian painters, like or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country,
| 2,047 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.
## Literature.
The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuleius wrote "The Golden Ass", the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo,
| 2,048 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others.
Albert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.
Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.
As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there
| 2,049 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
is the publication of novels as the "Algerian trilogy" of Mohammed Dib, or even "Nedjma" of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.
In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.
Currently,
| 2,050 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, "the swallows of Kabul" and "the attack" of Yasmina Khadra, "the oath of barbarians" of Boualem Sansal, "memory of the flesh" of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar "nowhere in my father's House".
## Music.
Chaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed
| 2,051 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer.
Folk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally,
| 2,052 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind.
Modern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap, a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.
## Cinema.
The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.
The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development
| 2,053 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.
According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. "Days of Glory" (2006) and "Outside the Law" (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European
| 2,054 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.
Algeria won the Palme d'Or for "Chronicle of the Years of Fire" (1975), two Oscars for "Z" (1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie "The Battle of Algiers".
## Sports.
Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chess variant). Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) and rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.
The first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of Amsterdam in the Marathon. The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956
| 2,055 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida, and Taoufik Makhloufi, all specialized in middle-distance running.
Football is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including Lakhdar Belloumi, Rachid Mekhloufi, Hassen Lalmas, Rabah Madjer, Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane. The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club ES Sétif or JS Kabylia.
| 2,056 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
The Algerian Football Federation is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.
## Cuisine.
Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present.
Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among
| 2,057 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
the dishes known, couscous, chorba, rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka, mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. Merguez sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices.
Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French
| 2,058 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha.
# Health.
In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved
| 2,059 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.
Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database
| 2,060 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
in 1905 during French rule.
# Education.
Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.
Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new
| 2,061 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.
Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.
Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10
| 2,062 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%.
Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.
Even if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy,
| 2,063 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.
# See also.
- Index of Algeria-related articles
- Outline of Algeria
# Bibliography.
- Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). "Modern Algeria – A History from 1830 to the Present". Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. .
- Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). "Algeria
| 2,064 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
in Transition – Reforms and Development Prospects". Routledge. .
- Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). "The Making of Contemporary Algeria – Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
- Fanon, Frantz (1966; 2005 paperback). "The Wretched of the Earth". Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, .
- Horne, Alistair (1977). "A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962". Viking Adult. , (2006 reprint)
- Laouisset, Djamel (2009). "A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry". New York City: Nova Publishers. .
- Roberts, Hugh (2003). "The Battlefield – Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity". London: Verso Books. .
- Ruedy, John
| 2,065 |
358
|
Algeria
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria
|
Algeria
hn (1992). "Modern Algeria – The Origins and Development of a Nation". Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
- Stora, Benjamin (2001). "Algeria, 1830–2000 – A Short History". Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. .
- Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military – Algeria 1962–2008". "Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim Civilisation". Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. .
# External links.
- People's Democratic Republic of Algeria "Official government website" /
- Portal of the First Ministry "Portal of the First Ministry" /
- Algeria profile from the BBC News
- Key Development Forecasts for Algeria from International Futures
- EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria
| 2,066 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
Battle of Tourcoing
The Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794) saw a Republican French army directed by General Joseph Souham defend against an attack by an Austrian, British, and Hanoverian Coalition army under Austrian Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. The French army was temporarily led by Souham in the absence of its normal commander Jean-Charles Pichegru. Threatened with encirclement, Souham and division commanders Jean Victor Marie Moreau and Jacques Philippe Bonnaud improvised a counterattack which defeated the Coalition's widely separated and badly coordinated columns. The War of the First Coalition action was fought near the town of Tourcoing,
| 2,067 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
just north of Lille in northeastern France.
The Coalition battle plan drawn up by Karl Mack von Leiberich launched six columns that attempted to envelop a part of the French army holding an awkward bulge at Menen (Menin) and Kortrijk (Courtrai). The French were able to hold off François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt's northern column as the southern columns of Franz Joseph, Count Kinsky and Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen made slow progress. Meanwhile, Souham concentrated his main strength on the three center columns against the overall command of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany and inflicted a costly setback on the Coalition's Habsburg Austrian, British and
| 2,068 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
Hanoverian troops. The action is sometimes referred to as the Battle of Turcoine, a gesture towards the English pronunciation of the town.
# Summary.
Under the temporary leadership of Souham, Maj-Gen Charles Pichegru's Army of the North ("Armée du Nord") encountered an Austro-British-German force at Tourcoing. Despite a slight advantage in numbers, the 74,000 Allied troops under Saxe-Coburg were out-led and out-fought by Souham's 70,000 French troops. (However, one authority gives the French total as 82,000.)
Souham devised a strategic pincer movement consisting of his division attacking southwards from Kortrijk (Courtrai) and Maj-Gen Bonnaud's division northeastwards from Lille, thus catching
| 2,069 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
the separated allied columns of Georg Wilhelm von dem Bussche, Rudolf Ritter von Otto and the Duke of York between them. Meanwhile, part of Moreau's command held off the assault of the Count of Clerfayt from the north. It was a sprawling engagement fought out over many square miles of countryside just west of the Scheldt River in Flanders. Together with Maj-Gen Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's victory at the Battle of Fleurus on 16 June, Tourcoing marked the start of the evacuation of the allied forces from Flanders and French supremacy in Western Europe.
# Forces.
The Army of the North included the divisions of Souham (28,000), Moreau (22,000), Jacques Philippe Bonnaud (20,000) and Osten (10,000).
| 2,070 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
Saxe-Coburg's army consisted of three Austrian columns commanded by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (18½ battalions, 6 squadrons), the François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt and Franz Joseph, Count Kinsky. Von dem Bussche commanded the Hanoverians (5 bns, 8 sqdns). The Duke of York led the British (8 bns, 6 sqdns), Hessen-Darmstadt (3 bns, 4 sqdns) and Hessen-Kassel (4 bns, 8 sqdns) contingents.
# Background.
The Army of the North had thrust eastward so that the divisions of Souham and Moreau, which formed the left (north) flank, stood on the south bank of the Lys River between Courtrai and Aalbeke. Bonnaud held the center with units at Lannoy, Tressin and Sainghin.
| 2,071 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
In addition, Compère's brigade held Tourcoing and Thierry's brigade held Mouscron. Osten's division defended Pont-à-Marcq on the right (south) flank. These dispositions straddle the current French-Belgian border.
Saxe-Coburg's chief-of-staff, General Karl Mack von Leiberich proposed enveloping and annihilating the 50,000-strong mass formed by Souham and Moreau. Clerfayt's detached corps was to march along the north bank of the Lys from Tielt through Menin. At Werwick, Clerfayt would force a crossing to the south bank, placing him well behind the French left flank. The Duke of York's three columns would advance to the northwest from Tournai toward Tourcoing. This force would pin the divisions
| 2,072 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
of Souham and Moreau against the Lys. To the south, Archduke Charles and Kinsky would brush Osten and Bonnaud aside and wheel northwest, linking with Clerfayt and trapping the French left flank. The movement began on 16 May.
# Battle.
On 17 May, Clerfayt found his crossing resisted by Brig-Gen Dominique Vandamme, who had a brigade of Moreau's division. The Duke of York's right column under Bussche captured Mouscron, but it was driven out again and mauled by a French brigade. The center column led by Otto seized Tourcoing. With the British Guards brigade under Henry Fox leading the attack, the Duke of York's left column under Ralph Abercromby, stormed into Lannoy, Willems and Mouvaux. Kinsky's
| 2,073 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
column crossed the Marque River at Bouvines but made little progress beyond there. Archduke Charles' column got a late start and barely made it to Pont-à-Marcq. Only the columns of Abercromby and Otto had reached their assigned positions by evening.
On 18 May, Souham determined to hurl 40,000 men at the Duke of York's three columns, while holding Kinsky, Charles and Clerfayt off with secondary forces. During the night, Clerfayt managed to cross to the south bank of the Lys. His 21,000 men drove back Vandamme's 12,000, but he was unable to advance south beyond Linselles. Shaken by his defeat the day before, Bussche retreated to the Scheldt River. In the south, Charles and Kinsky remained almost
| 2,074 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
completely inert, despite Mack's frantic orders for them to march to Lannoy. Instead, Charles became obsessed with protecting his left flank and rear from French incursions.
At dawn, Brig-Gen Étienne MacDonald's brigade of Souham's division rushed and recaptured Tourcoing from Otto. Malbrancq's brigade Posted between Roncq and Blanc-four, just south of roncq attacked Mouvaux from the north while Bonnaud applied pressure from the west . At first, Otto held firm on a line south of Tourcoing, but he was slowly driven back. At 11:30 am, the command of Abercromby, now isolated and under very heavy attack, nevertheless extricated itself and retreated from Mouvaux toward the southeast, Fox's Guards
| 2,075 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
brigade distinguishing itself during the withdrawal. This ended the battle. The Duke of York, separated from his command, narrowly avoided capture and was obliged to wade a deep brook to escape. Souham immediately faced his tired troops about and prepared to attack Clerfayt. That general, realizing he was now alone, recrossed to the north bank of the Lys and retreated to the northeast.
# Results.
The French suffered 3,000 casualties and lost 7 cannon. There was no pursuit of the defeated Allied main body. The Allies lost 4,000 killed and wounded, with 1,500 men and 60 guns captured. The 1st Hanoverian Infantry Regiment was nearly destroyed. The reasons for the Allied defeat were simple. There
| 2,076 |
157752
|
Battle of Tourcoing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing
|
Battle of Tourcoing
3,000 casualties and lost 7 cannon. There was no pursuit of the defeated Allied main body. The Allies lost 4,000 killed and wounded, with 1,500 men and 60 guns captured. The 1st Hanoverian Infantry Regiment was nearly destroyed. The reasons for the Allied defeat were simple. There was poor staff work, very little cooperation and a failure to bring all their troops into action. Of his 74,000 Allied soldiers, Saxe-Coburg only committed 48,000 to battle.
# References.
- Black, Jeremy. "Britain as a Military Power, 1688–1815." Routledge (UK).
- Smith, Digby. "The Napoleonic Wars Data Book." London: Greenhill, 1998.
- Belloc, Hilaire. "Tourcoing" Project Gutenberg eBook
- Napoleon-series.org
| 2,077 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
Battle of Vimeiro
In the Battle of Vimeiro (sometimes shown as or "Vimiera" or "Vimeira" in contemporary British texts) on 21 August 1808, the British under General Arthur Wellesley (who later became the Duke of Wellington) defeated the French under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro (), near Lisbon, Portugal during the Peninsular War. This battle put an end to the first French invasion of Portugal.
Four days after the Battle of Roliça, Wellesley's army was attacked by a French army under General Junot near the village of Vimeiro. The battle began as a battle of manoeuvre, with French troops attempting to outflank the British left, but Wellesley was able to redeploy
| 2,078 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
his army to face the assault. Meanwhile, Junot sent in two central columns but these were forced back by sustained volleys from troops in line. Soon afterwards, the flanking attack was beaten off and Junot retreated towards Torres Vedras having lost 2,000 men and 13 cannon, compared to 700 Anglo-Portuguese losses. No pursuit was attempted because Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard and then Sir Hew Dalrymple (one having arrived during the battle, the second soon after).
# Prelude.
After Roliça, Wellesley had established a position near Vimeiro. By holding the village, plus some ridges to the west, the British commander covered a beachhead at Maceira Bay a little further to the west.
| 2,079 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
Since most of his reinforcements had arrived by 20 August, Wellesley planned to advance south on Lisbon. Eight independent infantry brigades under Rowland Hill, Ronald Craufurd Ferguson, Miles Nightingall, Barnard Foord Bowes, Catlin Craufurd, Henry Fane, Robert Anstruther and Wroth Acland formed the core of Wellesley's forces. Rounding out his force were 17 cannons, 240 light cavalry led by C. D. Taylor and about 2,000 Portuguese troops under Nicholas Trant, giving a total of 20,000 men.
Junot organised his 14,000-man force into two infantry divisions and a cavalry division under Pierre Margaron. Henri François Delaborde's infantry division contained two brigades under Antoine François Brenier
| 2,080 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
and Jean Guillaume Barthélemy Thomières, while Louis Henri Loison's division included two brigades commanded by Jean-Baptiste Solignac and Hugues Charlot. In addition, François Étienne de Kellermann commanded a 2,100-man reserve made up of four converged grenadier battalions. These units were created by taking the grenadier company from each of Junot's infantry battalions. The French took 23 cannons into battle with them.
Wellesley placed Anstruther's and Fane's brigades in front of Vimeiro, with Acland's men in support. At first, his five remaining brigades held only the western ridge. Junot planned to send Thomières, Solignac and Charlot's infantry brigades to capture Vimeiro, while Brenier's
| 2,081 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
4,300-man brigade and some dragoons swung in a wide flanking manoeuvre to seize an empty ridge to the northeast of the village. Wellesley detected Brenier's move and switched Nightingall, Ferguson and Bowes to the northeastern ridge. Once Junot realised that British troops occupied the ridge, he sent Solignac's brigade to the right to assist Brenier's attack. The French commander decided to launch his attack on the town immediately, instead of waiting for his flanking move to develop.
# Battle.
All the preliminary moves and countermoves caused a series of uncoordinated French attacks. First, Thomières' 2,100-man brigade approached the British position. Supported by three cannons and screened
| 2,082 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
by skirmishers, the brigade was formed into a column of companies.
The first company of 120 men formed in a three-deep line would have a front rank 40 men wide. All the other companies formed behind the first company, making the entire brigade about 40 files wide and 48 ranks deep. According to French doctrine, as soon as the enemy main position was found, the companies would peel off to the right or left to form a firing line many companies wide and only three files deep. On the other hand, French commanders often pressed home attacks while in column, depending entirely upon their skirmishers and artillery to provide the necessary fire support.
To counter the French skirmishers, Fane detached
| 2,083 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
four companies of riflemen (60th Regiment of Foot & 95th Rifles). These outnumbered and outfought the French skirmishers, who fell back to the sides of the brigade column. Without their skirmishers in front of them, the French column blundered into the 945 men of the 50th Regiment. At , the British, formed into a two-deep line, opened fire. Several companies of the 50th began wheeling inward toward both flanks of the hapless French column. Unable to properly deploy into firing line and unwilling to face the deadly enfilade fire, the French infantry suddenly bolted to the rear, leaving their three cannons to be captured.
Soon after, a similar fate overtook Charlot's brigade. In a very narrow
| 2,084 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
column, it struck one battalion of Anstruther's brigade, which had been hidden behind a crest. Before they could deploy, the French were taken in flank by a second battalion. Unable to effectively reply to the devastating British volley fire, Charlot's men soon ran away. Seeing the battle going against him, Junot committed his grenadier reserve to the attack. The first two battalions attacked the same area as the previous units and were thrown back. Kellermann swung the final two grenadier battalions wide to the right and succeeded in breaking into Vimeiro. But, counterattacked by units from Anstruther and Acland, these Frenchmen also fell back. Colonel Taylor's 20th Light Dragoons pounced on
| 2,085 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
Kellermann's retreating grenadiers and routed them. Excited by their easy success, the British horsemen charged out of control. They soon came up against Margaron's French cavalry division and were routed in their turn. Taylor was killed and the British horsemen lost about one man in four.
As Brenier's men had gotten lost in the hills, Solignac attacked the northeast ridge. This brigade changed tactics deploying in an attack formation with three battalions abreast. Even so, each battalion formed a column one company wide and eight companies deep. If the French intended to form into line once the enemy position was detected, they waited too long. They marched into the kill zone of Nightingall
| 2,086 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
and Ferguson's brigades before they could deploy. Smashed by British volleys, Solignac's men fled.
Brenier's brigade, marching to the sound of battle, came on four battalions abreast. At first they enjoyed success when they surprised and defeated two British battalions. These units had let down their guard after overpowering Solignac. Victorious, the French pressed on in column, but soon ran into the 29th Regiment in line and were stopped. The 29th was joined by the other two units, who had quickly rallied. Together, the volley fire of the three British battalions soon routed Brenier's men. Though Wellesley urged him to pursue, Burrard declined to interfere with the subsequent French retreat.
#
| 2,087 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
Aftermath.
In hindsight, Junot faced very long odds with only 14,000 Frenchmen against 18,000 British and Portuguese led by Wellesley. Junot correctly launched his heaviest attack on the weakest point in the British position, the unoccupied northeastern ridge. However, his attacks suffered by being badly coordinated. Wellesley reacted quickly to counter Junot's flanking move. His forces overcame the French skirmishers by using superior numbers of their own skirmishers. Two of Wellesley's brigades never got into action, but the rest were used economically to defeat each French attack.
After the comprehensive French defeat, Junot offered complete capitulation. Nevertheless, Dalrymple gave the
| 2,088 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
French far more generous terms than they could have hoped for. Under the terms of the "Convention of Sintra", the defeated army was transported back to France by the British navy, complete with its guns and equipment and the loot it had taken from Portugal. The Convention of Sintra caused a massive outcry in Britain and, following an official enquiry, both Dalrymple and Burrard were blamed. Wellesley, who had opposed the agreement, was exonerated.
Nevertheless, the dispatch of so many troops to Portugal had ensured that there would be a considerable delay before operations could commence in Spain. There were also serious problems with the Spaniards: inherent in the sudden Spanish interest in
| 2,089 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
British troops, for example, lay the desire not just to receive assistance but also to obtain command over them. Equally a desire was beginning to emerge amongst the British to further their influence in Spain and to impose their own political solutions. With the British army in the hands of an officer who was not only highly ambitious but deeply frustrated, at odds with the ministry, notoriously suspicious of the government's representatives abroad, and possessed of a prickly disposition, trouble was certain, and all the more so given the thunderbolt that was being prepared across the river Ebro.
# Bibliography.
- Weller, Jac, "Wellington in the Peninsula", London: Nicholas Vane, 1969.
-
| 2,090 |
157765
|
Battle of Vimeiro
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro
|
Battle of Vimeiro
ut also to obtain command over them. Equally a desire was beginning to emerge amongst the British to further their influence in Spain and to impose their own political solutions. With the British army in the hands of an officer who was not only highly ambitious but deeply frustrated, at odds with the ministry, notoriously suspicious of the government's representatives abroad, and possessed of a prickly disposition, trouble was certain, and all the more so given the thunderbolt that was being prepared across the river Ebro.
# Bibliography.
- Weller, Jac, "Wellington in the Peninsula", London: Nicholas Vane, 1969.
- Zimmermann, Dick, "The Battle of Vimeiro," Wargamer's Digest, October 1983.
| 2,091 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
Battle of Tudela
The Battle of Tudela (23 November 1808) saw an Imperial French army led by Marshal Jean Lannes attack a Spanish army under General Castaños. The battle resulted in the complete victory of the Imperial forces over their adversaries. The combat occurred near Tudela in Navarre, Spain during the Peninsular War, part of a wider conflict known as the Napoleonic Wars.
Spanish casualties were estimated to be about 4,000 dead and 3,000 prisoners out of a total force of 33,000. The French and Poles lost no more than 600 dead and wounded out of a total of 30,000. This is one of the battles whose name was engraved on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.
# Background.
The Dos de Mayo Uprising
| 2,092 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
of 2 May 1808, followed by extensive uprisings throughout Spain, forced the French to pull back from their occupation of Spain to the Ebro River. There was an opportunity for the Spanish to finally expel the French altogether but this was missed due to their failure to appoint a Supreme Commander leaving the individual Spanish forces to operate independently.
These Spanish forces consisted of the army of General Joaquín Blake on the North coast, the army of General Francisco Javier Castaños around Tudela and the army of General José Rebolledo de Palafox around Zaragoza. Blake was active in attacking the French but his offensive near Bilbao was defeated at Pancorbo on 31 October 1808.
Napoleon’s
| 2,093 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
strategy was to make a strong attack towards Burgos splitting off the army of Blake from the others and to outflank them by then swinging both north and south. It was in his interest that the Spanish maintain their exposed advanced positions. The French armies facing them were therefore ordered not to attack. So from October to 21 November 1808, Marshal Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey’s III Corps remained static in front of Castaños's army.
The Spanish armies were however in a constant state of movement to no effect. For much of the time Castaños was ill leaving Palafox to direct operations. Palafox seems to have been indecisive on what course of action to take.
# Battlefield.
The battlefield
| 2,094 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
was the area between Tudela and the neighbouring hills on the left. The Spanish front was deployed on the hills of Santa Barbara, Tudela, Torre Monreal, Santa Quiteria the top of Cabezoe Maya (the hill where the retreat of San Juan de Calchetas was), and the villages of Urzante (now disappeared), Murchante, and Cascante. Separating the Spanish and the French was the Queiles River, a tributary of the Ebro.
The French advanced from the Cierzo hills that were in front of the Spanish lines towards the Spanish troops.
# Chronology of the battle.
## Preliminaries.
On 21 November 1808 Castaños was around Calahorra on the Ebro between Logrono and Tudela. On this day the French III Corps crossed
| 2,095 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
the Ebro at Logrono and headed east towards Calahorra while at the same time Marshal Michel Ney with the VI Corps reached the Upper Douro Valley and headed towards Tudela.
These movements threatened Castaños with entrapment between these two armies. To avoid this Castaños withdrew to Tudela. He decided to defend a line long stretching west from Tudela along the Ebro, then along the Queiles River to Cascante and finally to Tarazona at the foot of the Moncayo Massif.
Castaños had insufficient men to hold a line of this length so he asked General Juan O'Neylle, who had two divisions at Caparroso on the east bank of the Ebro, for help. As O’Neylle was under the command of Palafox he refused to
| 2,096 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
move without an order from Palafox. This did not arrive until noon on 22 November 1808. O’Neylle moved promptly to the east bank of the Ebro opposite Tudela but decided not to cross the river until the next day.
By nightfall on 22 November 1808 Castaños had almost 45,000 soldiers in the vicinity of Tudela but very few of them actually in position. Castaños placed General Manuel la Peña’s 4th Division of 8,000 men, mostly Andalusians who had participated in the Battle of Bailén, at Cascante and General Grimarest at the head of three divisions totaling 13,000 to 14,000 soldiers at Tarazona. General Roca's division was on the east bank of the Ebro plus the two divisions from Aragon of O’Neylle
| 2,097 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
and Felipe Augusto de Saint-Marcq.
Most of the fighting in the battle of Tudela would involve only the three divisions of Roca, O’Neylle, and Saint-Marcq – totaling about 23,000 infantry.
For the French only the III Corps was involved in the Battle of Tudela. Prior to 22 November 1808 this force had been commanded by Marshal Moncey. However, Napoleon transferred command to Marshal Jean Lannes when the advance began. This corps was just under 34,000 men consisting of four infantry divisions and three cavalry regiments. To this was added General of Division Joseph Lagrange’s infantry division and General of Brigade Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais’s cavalry brigade from Ney's corps.
On the
| 2,098 |
157764
|
Battle of Tudela
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tudela
|
Battle of Tudela
night of 22 November the French Army camped at Alfaro – 17 kilometres up the Ebro from Tudela.
## The battle.
On the morning of 23 November 1808 Lagrange's infantry and two cavalry brigades were sent towards Cascante. The rest of the force was sent along the Ebro towards Tudela.
At this time O’Neylle was trying to get his three divisions across the Ebro. Roca's was across first and reached its position on the right of the Spanish line just as the French attacked.
Saint-Marcq's division was second across and also took up position before the attack.
By the time O’Neylle's own division was crossing it had to fight French skirmishers who were at the top of the Cabezo Malla ridge.
The initial
| 2,099 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.