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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
from the south, a Polish battalion threatened the Russian rear, but it was quickly hemmed in by Russian infantry, the Austrian "Karaczay" Dragoons and Cossacks and 230 men were forced to lay down their arms. An alert French staff officer, Pierre Edmé Gautherin brought the divisions of Rusca and Victor to the west bank of the Trebbia where they stopped and drove back Bagration's troops. Rosenberg brought Schveikovsky's division into the fight while Suvorov personally rallied the shaken Russian infantry. The Russians presently gained the upper hand and compelled Rusca to pull back to the east bank of the Trebbia, which his men accomplished while maintaining their ranks. The fighting in the center
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
began when the "Levenehr" Dragoons and "Molchanov" Cossacks clashed with some French horsemen and drove them back. Starting at 5:00 pm, Förster slowly pressed back the right wing of Victor's division. Finally the French evacuated Gragnano and fell back across the Trebbia.
Salme's Advanced Guard, which was posted near Sant' Imento north of the highway, was unchallenged most of the day. At about 2:30 pm, the divisions of Montrichard and Olivier crossed the Trebbia and marched to Salme's support. Seeing these French reinforcements in his front, Melas decided not to release Fröhlich's division. The Third Column commander sent Ott forward at 6:00 pm and the Austrians easily brushed aside Salme's
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
outnumbered unit. Together, Ott and Fröhlich pushed Montrichard and Olivier back beyond the Trebbia by evening. That night in a bizarre operation, Rosenberg took two Russian grenadier battalions across the Trebbia south of Gossolengo. They somehow penetrated the French lines as far as Settima where they routed a French detachment and liberated some prisoners. At 3:00 am, Rosenberg's expedition headed back to the west bank, again without arousing any French sentries. Four squadrons of the "Karaczay" Dragoons mounted a similar expedition but were detected and driven off by musketry. Both groups missed the pointless battle that occurred earlier in the evening. Hearing what they believed to be Moreau's
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
artillery, three French battalions mounted an extemporaneous attack at 9:30 pm, surprising an Austrian battalion. Melas called up reinforcements from his own and Förster's divisions while Prince Liechtenstein charged into the fray with the "Lobkowitz" Dragoons. The artillery of both sides opened up on the melee, causing many friendly fire casualties. After strenuous efforts, the leaders of both sides managed to wind down the senseless fighting by 11:00 pm.
## Trebbia River - 19 June.
Chasteler sent orders for the Allied army to begin the assault at 6:00 am on 19 June. However, the plan was not delivered to Melas until 11:00 am. In the meantime, Melas noticed the presence of strong enemy forces
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
at the north end of the battleline and sent 12 artillery pieces to the west bank of the Trebbia to blast the French positions. Two French battalions crept forward to deal with the threat, but they were discovered and driven off by the murderously effective fire of two masked cannons. Also during the morning, the French set up a battery of 10 to 12 guns and began to hammer Förster's positions. This was apparently to cover a shift to the south by a body of French troops. The delay also affected the Russian forces and Suvorov began issuing orders at 11:00 am. Meanwhile, MacDonald determined to launch an assault, putting his faith in the French soldier's enthusiasm for the attack and his troops'
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
good morale. He still believed his army was outnumbered but he hoped to preempt an Allied assault. In the south Rusca and Victor were directed to attack side-by-side near Casaliggio, supported by an outflanking move by Dombrowski via Rivalta. Montrichard was ordered to cross the Trebbia near Gragnano in the center while Olivier was instructed to crack the Allied line farther north near San Nicolò. On the extreme right flank, Watrin and Salme were told to seize Calendasco and turn the Allied left flank.
Chasteler spotted Dombrowski's outflanking column and directed Bagration's troops against it. Dombrowski's division seized Rivalta and advanced up the Trebbia's west bank as far as the hamlet
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
of Canetto before they ran into the Russians. Accompanied in person by Suvorov, the Russians defeated their mostly Polish opponents with serious losses and forced them to retreat to the east bank. Rusca's initial advance was blunted by the fire of 14 artillery pieces belonging to Schveikovsky's division. Farther north, Victor's division was repulsed by a combination of Schveikovsky's left wing and Förster's division and withdrew to the French-held east bank. But with Bagration's forces pulled to the south by Dombrowski's ill-fated attack, Rusca's men found a gap in the Allied line south of Casaliggio. The French infantry charged across the Trebbia while a horse artillery battery mauled the "Rosenberg"
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
Grenadier Regiment. Suvorov appeared on the scene to rally his Russians. Rosenberg swung the left wing of Schveikovsky's division to face the northern edge of Rusca's breakthrough while Bagration hurried north to hit the southern edge. At the same time, Chasteler borrowed four battalions from Förster and brought them to the scene. The combined attack forced Rusca's division to retire to the east bank. The Russians tried to follow up their success but Rusca's men repelled their attacks and the fighting in the south ended around 7:00 pm.
The assault in the center was delayed because of the tardy arrival of Montrichard's division. Its 5th Light Infantry crossed the river and deployed into line
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
but was hit by a devastating volley from an Austrian grenadier battalion. Montrichard's other units advanced in columns which were out of touch with each other. When Fröhlich's grenadiers and Förster's division counterattacked, Montrichard's division dissolved and its soldiers took to their heels. The grenadier battalion was swamped by fleeing Frenchmen, but it managed to keep its cohesion until some Russian infantry cut their way through to the rescue. Olivier's assault was preceded by a lightning cavalry charge around noon that swept the west bank clear of Austrians. The infantry crossed in the cavalry's wake and soon captured San Nicolò and two guns. Hearing cannon fire, Liechtenstein went
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
forward to check on the situation and found a crowd of Austrian troops running away from Olivier's assault. He immediately went back to his command and led two squadrons each of the "Lobkowitz" and "Levenehr" Dragoons and one squadron of the "Archduke Joseph" Hussars against Olivier's south flank. Having disposed of Montrichard's division earlier, the Allies were free to mass against Olivier's division and eventually throw it back to the Trebbia's east bank. The "Wouwermanns" Grenadier Battalion recaptured two Austrian 12-pound cannons.
Around the same time that Olivier made his attack, Salme's Advanced Guard and Watrin's division, which had previously been in reserve, crossed the Trebbia on
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
the far right flank. Moving in two bodies, the French force brushed aside the Austrian outpost line. The right thrust reached Ca' Pernici on the Po's south bank while the left thrust carried almost to Calendasco. Here Watrin paused because the noises from Olivier's fight were not encouraging. By this time, Melas had Olivier on the run and wished to attack across the Trebbia. Hearing of the Watrin-Salme incursion, the Austrian general was forced to deal with it first. Melas sent Liechtenstein with a task force composed of one squadron of the "Lobkowitz" Dragoons, two squadrons of the "Archduke Joseph" Hussars, 200 Cossacks and nine companies of infantry. Meanwhile, an artillery battery detached
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
from the Mantua siege corps under the command of Colonel Kinsky unlimbered on the north bank of the Po. The Austrian guns proceeded to bombard their enemies, encouraging them in their decision to recross the Trebbia though the Austrians made prisoners of 300 French. The firing ended in the northern sector about 9:00 pm. The French maintained a firm grip on the west bank of the Trebbia, but MacDonald's division commanders were not able to give him any estimate of their remaining strength. In a scene of horror, thousands of dead and wounded soldiers littered the bed of the Trebbia while Piacenza's Austrian garrison blindly fired cannons into the night. Realizing that neither Moreau nor La Poype
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
were coming to his assistance, MacDonald issued the orders to retreat at 10:00 pm. As soon as the engineers bridged the Nure River, the artillery and wagon train were sent across, followed by the infantry starting about midnight.
## Nure River - 20 June.
Suvorov determined to finish with the French so he ordered a new attack at 4:00 am on 20 June. When the Allied forces reached the west bank they found MacDonald's army gone. The French abandoned 7,183 wounded men in Piacenza which suggested that their losses may have been as high as 12,000 when the killed, transportable wounded and captured were counted. The Russians reported 681 killed and 2,073 wounded for a total of 2,754 while the Austrians
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
admitted losing 254 killed, 1,903 wounded and 500 missing for a total of 2,657. Historian Christopher Duffy rounded these figures up to 6,000 Allied casualties. Digby Smith reported similar Allied losses, though he included three Russian generals wounded. From a total of 33,000 French, he estimated losses as 2,000 killed, 7,500 wounded (most of whom became prisoners) plus 7,000 men, seven guns and eight colors captured. Gunther E. Rothenberg gave Allied losses as 5,000 killed and wounded and 500 captured out of 20,000 Russians and 17,000 Austrians. He stated French losses as 9,500 killed and wounded and 7,000 captured out of 33,000. R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy rounded the losses to 10,000
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
French and 7,000 Allied, but asserted that 5,000 French became prisoners during the retreat that followed. French General of Division Alexis Aimé Pierre Cambray was mortally wounded during the battle and died 2 July.
The Austrians advanced into Piacenza where they found the wounded generals Olivier, Rusca and Salme along with the other non-transportable French wounded. Melas secured the town with Fröhlich's division while launching Ott in pursuit. However, Ott was held up at the Nure by a full French division. Farther south at San Giorgio Piacentino the "Karaczay" Dragoons charged the 17th Light Infantry but were rudely repulsed and the French gunners knocked out two of the Austrian cannons.
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
Bagration's Advance Guard came up and Chasteler deployed it for a full-scale attack on San Giorgio. Intense musketry held off the "Bagration" and "Miller" Jägers on the flanks but the combined grenadiers won a foothold in the village. Suvorov was forced to commit part of the divisions of Förster and Schveikovsky before the French regiment was overwhelmed. A total of 1,099 French soldiers surrendered along with six guns and three colors.
# Result.
The "Army of Naples" withdrew southeast toward Parma where 200 wounded soldiers were abandoned. The Allies pursued the French on 21 June, reaching Firenzuola where they rested the next day. Suvorov determined from captured dispatches that MacDonald's
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
mangled army was no longer a threat to northern Italy and marched the Allied army back west on the 23rd, hoping to catch Moreau between himself and Belegarde. Ott with 7,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 15 guns continued the pursuit. MacDonald ordered Montrichard's division to the east where it was used to form some garrisons which were subsequently captured. One battalion of "Warasdiner" Grenz and one squadron of the "Bussy" Mounted Jägers tried to block MacDonald's retreat but were crushed on 24 June at Sassuolo south of Modena. By 28 June the "Army of Naples" was back at Pistoia where it stayed for several days before marching to the west coast in early July. The still ailing MacDonald was shipped
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Battle of Trebbia (1799)
s back at Pistoia where it stayed for several days before marching to the west coast in early July. The still ailing MacDonald was shipped off to France and replaced in command by Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr. The garrisons in south and central Italy were picked off one-by-one by the Allies. Naples surrendered on 15 June, Fort Elmo in Naples harbor on 11 July, Capua on 28 July, Gaeta on 1 August, Rome on 29 September and Ancona on 13 November 1799. Even the French-held fortresses of northern Italy fell rapidly. Turin capitulated on 20 June, Bologna on 3 July, Fort Urbano on 10 July, Alessandria on 22 July and Mantua on 28 July. The next major engagement was the Battle of Novi on 15 August 1799.
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20108
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
Mick Doohan
Michael "Mick" Sydney Doohan, (born 4 June 1965) is an Australian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion, who won five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. Only Giacomo Agostini with eight (seven consecutive) and Valentino Rossi with seven (five consecutive) have won more premier class titles.
# Biography.
Originally from the Gold Coast, near Brisbane, Doohan attended St. Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. He raced in Australian Superbikes in the late 1980s, and also won both races as Superbike World Championship visited Oran Park in as well as the second leg of the Japanese round held earlier in the year. In a break-out season he also won the final
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20108
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
Australian motorcycle Grand Prix to be held in the TT format at Mount Panorama before the race became a round of the World Championship the following year and moved to Phillip Island. He is one of the few 500 cc or MotoGP World Champions to have won a Superbike World Championship race.
He made his Grand Prix debut for Honda on an NSR 500 cc two-stroke motorcycle in 1989. Late in the 1990 season Doohan claimed his first victory at the Hungarian Grand Prix on his way to third in the championship. In 1991, he was paired with his fellow Australian Wayne Gardner on a Honda RVF750 superbike and won the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race. He competed successfully throughout the early 1990s and appeared
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20108
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
to be on his way to winning his first world championship when he was seriously injured in a practice crash before the 1992 Dutch TT. He suffered permanent and serious damage to his right leg due to medical complications and, at one stage, faced amputation of the leg. At the time, Doohan was 65 points in the lead of the championship, but could not compete for eight weeks after the crash. After an arduous recovery, he returned to racing for the final two races but could not prevent Yamaha rider Wayne Rainey from winning his third consecutive title (by four points from Doohan). In 1993 he struggled with the healing of his leg and the ability to race the Honda at elite level, stating later that
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20108
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
in that year it was all he could do to just keep his ride at Honda. It was also during this time he switched to a left thumb-operated rear brake, as his right foot is no longer able to perform this function.
In 1994 however, he won his first 500 cc World Championship. Thereafter, until 1998, he dominated the class, winning five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. In 1997, his most successful year, Doohan won 12 out of 15 races, finished second in another two, and crashed out of the final race of the season at his home GP while leading by more than six seconds. In June 1996, Doohan was inducted as a Member of the Order of Australia for his contribution to the sport of motor racing.
Despite
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
up to eight rivals on non-factory HRC Honda motorcycles Doohan's margin of superiority over them was such that in many races Doohan would build a comfortable lead and then ride well within his limits to cruise to victory. Although pure riding skill clearly played a large part in his success, the ability of his chief race engineer, Jeremy Burgess, to perfect the suspension and geometry of a racing motorcycle may have given him an advantage over his rivals. Between 1994 and 1998 the bike was said not to have had many changes, with Honda engineers reportedly becoming frustrated at Doohan's reluctance to try innovations such as electronic shifting (it was only when Rossi came to Honda in 2000 that
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
Honda engineers had their head with Rossi willing to try more innovations).
One notable trait of Doohan's post-crash riding style was the use of a thumb-operated rear brake developed during 1993 owing to the reduced range of motion in his ankle. This was operated by a "nudge" bar similar to a personal water craft throttle, but mounted on the left handlebar. In 1999 Doohan had another accident, this time in a very wet qualifying session for the Spanish Grand Prix. He again broke his leg in several places and subsequently announced his retirement. Jeremy Burgess, Doohan's chief engineer for his entire career, later became Valentino Rossi's chief engineer. After Doohan retired he went to work
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
as a roving adviser to Honda's Grand Prix race effort. At the conclusion of the 2004 season, Doohan and Honda parted company.
In June 2011, Doohan made an appearance at the Isle of Man TT. Doohan completed a parade lap, and was most enamored by the thrill and spectacle of the Snaefell Mountain Course. He then went on to pay tribute to his former Honda racing teammate, Joey Dunlop.
# Court case.
On 8 August 2006, Doohan appeared in Darwin Magistrates Court to face charges over a weekend fracas at a strip club. He was fined $2,500 after pleading guilty to assaulting a bouncer and failing to leave a licensed premise. No conviction was recorded.
# Marriage.
Doohan married Selina Sines, his
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
partner of eleven years, on Tuesday 21 March 2006, on Hamilton Island; the couple have two children, including racing driver and Red Bull junior Jack Doohan.
# Formula One.
After his success in Grand Prix motorcycle racing he got a chance to test a Formula One race car, the Williams FW19, at Circuit de Catalunya (in Spain) in April 1998. He found the car difficult to drive and crashed against a guard rail.
# Doohan's Motocoaster.
Doohan helped design an Intamin Motorbike Launch Roller Coaster, named Mick Doohan's Motocoaster. The ride is located at Dreamworld on the Gold Coast, Queensland.
# Honours.
Doohan was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1996 and received an Australian
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Mick Doohan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mick%20Doohan
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Mick Doohan
Doohan's Motocoaster.
Doohan helped design an Intamin Motorbike Launch Roller Coaster, named Mick Doohan's Motocoaster. The ride is located at Dreamworld on the Gold Coast, Queensland.
# Honours.
Doohan was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1996 and received an Australian Sports Medal in 2000. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2009. The first turn at Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit is named after him.
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Mick Doohan was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a "sports legend".
# See also.
- Daijiro Kato
- Nicky Hayden
- Motorcycle sport
# External links.
- "The Age" article on Doohan
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20113
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
Mobile Suit Gundam
In 1981, the series was re-edited for theatrical release and split into three movies. The characters were designed by Yoshikazu Yasuhiko, and Kunio Okawara was responsible for the mechanical designs, including the eponymous giant robot, the RX-78-2 Gundam. The first movie was released on February 22, 1981. Tomino himself also wrote a trilogy of novels that retell the events of the series. Two manga adaptations of the series have also been written by two manga artists.
Despite initial low ratings that caused the series' cancellation, the popularity of "Gundam" saw a boost from the introduction of Bandai's Gunpla models in 1980 and from reruns and the theatrical release of
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
the anime, leading to the creation of a prolific and lucrative media and toy franchise. The series is famous for revolutionizing the giant robot genre due to the handling of mobile suits as weapons of war as well as the portrayal of their pilots as ordinary soldiers, as opposed to the previous style of portraying hero pilots and their giant super hero robots.
# Plot.
Set in a fictional universe in the year 2179 (Universal Century year 0079 according to the Gundam Calendar), the Principality of Zeon has declared independence from the Earth Federation, and subsequently launched a war of independence called the One Year War. The conflict has directly affected every continent on Earth, also nearly
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
every space colony and lunar settlement. Zeon, though smaller, has the tactical upper hand through their use of a new type of humanoid weapons called mobile suits. After half of all humanity perishes in the conflict, the war settled into a bitter stalemate lasting over 8 months.
The story begins with a newly deployed Federation warship, the "White Base", arriving at the secret research base located at the Side 7 colony to pick up the Federation's newest weapon. However, they are closely followed by Zeon forces. A Zeon reconnaissance team member disobeys mission orders and attacks the colony, killing most of the Federation crew and civilians in the process. Out of desperation, young Amuro Ray
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
accidentally finds the Federation's new prototype arsenal—the RX-78 Gundam, and manages to beat back Zeon forces. Scrambling everything they can, the "White Base" sets out with her newly formed crew of civilian recruits and refugees in her journey to survive.
On their journey, the White Base members often encounter the Zeon Lieutenant Commander Char Aznable. Although Char antagonizes Amuro in battle, he takes advantage of their position as Federation members to have them kill members from Zeon's Zabi family as part of his revenge scheme. Amuro also meets ensign Lalah Sune with whom he falls in love, but accidentally kills when facing Char. When the Federation Forces invade the Fortress of A
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
Baoa Qu to defeat the Zeon forces, Amuro engages on a final one-on-one duel against Char due to both blaming the other for Lalah's death. Having realized he forgot his true enemy, Char stops fighting to kill the last surviving Zabi member, Kycilia Zabi. Amuro then reunites with his comrades as the war reaches its end.
# Production.
The "Mobile Suits" of the show were inspired by the powered armor from the novel "Starship Troopers" from 1959. Mobile suits were conceptualized as human-like robots which would not only appeal to children. Yoshiyuki Tomino's original plot for the anime was considerably much more grim, with Amuro dying halfway through the series, and the crew of the White Base having
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
to ally with Char (who is given a red Gundam), but finally having to battle him after he takes control of the Principality of Zeon. The original concept found expression in a series of novels written by Tomino soon after the show's conclusion, and elements of the storyline weaved themselves into "Zeta Gundam" and "Char's Counterattack".
In previous series Tomino worked in, villains were alien agents. "Mobile Suit Gundam" was the first of his work which featured humans as antagonists. The director commented he wanted to tell a story about war. He aimed to expose thoroughly starting with Japanese aggression in Manchuria in 1939. Tomino did not allow for changes to history and wanted to use the
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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Mobile Suit Gundam
story to make viewers confront the tragic realities of war. The director was unwilling to discuss the message of his work, expecting the viewers to reach their own conclusion. Additionally, he commented he "packed his frustrations" when making "Gundam".
Tomino met mechanical designer Kunio Okawara when he first worked in two television series from Sunrise. Tomino liked Okawara's work and asked him to collaborate with him in his upcoming project. Originally, the anime would be called "Gunboy" but it was renamed "Mobile Suit Gundam". The "White Base", the mothership of the protagonist crew members, is designed with a 3 plane view method by Kunio Okawara, however, it is not specially designed
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Mobile Suit Gundam
for the anime series Gundam, it was actually a salvaged design from the anime "Invincible Steel Man Daitarn 3". The idea of having a space carrier from Tomino is partly inspired by the earlier science fiction anime "Space Battleship Yamato", in which he claimed to be a fan of. It was intended to be in a more realistic black color, but was changed to white by the order of Sunrise, similar to the color change of the main mecha Gundam was changed from a grayish white to white, red, blue and yellow. Director Tomino showed great disgust in the color change, also noticing the unrealistic non-aerodynamic design of it after the show was on air, said in an interview that such design would never appear
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Mobile Suit Gundam
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in the real world, since it would be a sitting duck from fighter aircraft. Tomino still held a grudge 10 years after the show aired and stated in an interview in "Newtype" 1989 April issue that the imaginary enemies of Gundam are Sunrise, sponsors and television stations.
Tomino compares the machines with religious history in Japan, most notably the worship of Buddha statues located in temples. The relationship between the pilot and the mobile suit has also been compared with the Formula One drivers who rely on machines to achieve a goal. In order to give the mechas fast movements, most of the fights were situated in space where there was no gravity. This led to the creation of space colonies
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as a common setting. In order to explain how could such a young man as Amuro pilot the Gundam, the team came up with the idea of making him a Newtype.
# Media.
## Anime.
In February 1980, "Mobile Suit Gundam" was aired in Italy, the first country to broadcast the show outside Japan. "Mobile Suit Gundam" was also later aired by the anime satellite television network, Animax, across Japan, with the series continuing to be aired on the network currently, and later its respective networks worldwide, including Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and other regions.
Hoping to capitalize on the success of "Gundam Wing" from the previous year, Bandai Entertainment released a heavily edited and
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English-dubbed version of "Mobile Suit Gundam", premiering on Cartoon Network's Toonami weekday afternoon after-school action programming block across the United States on Monday, July 23, 2001. The series did not do as well as "Wing" but the ratings were high enough for the whole series to be aired and to spawn an enormous toy line. Due to the September 11th attacks, Cartoon Network, like many other American TV stations, began pulling, and editing, war-themed content and violent programming, resulting in the cancellation of the series. However, the series finale was shown as part of Toonami's "New Year's Eve-il" special on December 31, 2001 and the unaired episodes were aired in reruns during
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2002.
On Saturday, June 8, 2002, the series was given another chance by Cartoon Network on their late-night Adult Swim block, but it was again pulled before completing its run because of low ratings.
On May 30, 2006, Bandai Entertainment re-released the English dub of the TV series in a 10 volume DVD set. There was no Japanese audio track included, apparently because Yoshiyuki Tomino felt that the original mono mix was in too poor of a condition to use. However, in 2007 the original series was released on DVD in Japan, which sold over 100,000 copies within a month's time from December 21, 2007 to January 21, 2008.
At the 2010 New York Comic Con/New York Anime Festival, Bandai Entertainment
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announced that they would re-release "Mobile Suit Gundam" with both the original Japanese audio and the English dub. Only one episode out of the 43 episode will not be dubbed, at the request of Yoshiyuki Tomino. Bandai released Gundam in two sets in the summer of 2011. The first set was released on September 13, 2011.
Following the closure in 2012 of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out of print. At their New York Comic-Con 2014 panel, Sunrise announced their plans to re-release all of the Gundam series on home video in North America, starting with the original series. They will be distributed via Right Stuf Inc.. They will release the series on Blu-ray and DVD in October 2015.
On
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July 25, 2015, UK anime distributor Anime Limited announced they will release Mobile Suit Gundam in cooperation with Sunrise for the first time in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray.
In both American TV showings and on the international DVD and Blu-ray release, episode 15 ("Cucruz Doan's Island") was cut out. According to Yoshiyuki Tomino, the removal was made at his request, with the episode becoming a "lost episode" of sorts, never being dubbed. The episode remained on the Japanese DVD and Blu-ray releases.
## Novel.
In 1979, before the end of the anime, Yoshiyuki Tomino himself created the first novelizations of the original Gundam anime series. The novels, issued as a series of three books, allowed
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him to depict his story in a more sophisticated, adult, and detailed fashion. Along with this adaptation came several major changes to the story. For example, Amuro is already a member of the Federation military at the time of the initial Zeon attack on Side 7, and the main characters in the Federation serve on the "White Base"-class ships "Pegasus" and "Pegasus II" rather than the "Pegasus"-class "White Base". Additionally, the war continues well into the year UC 0080 in the novels, whereas it concludes at the beginning of that year in the anime series. In the novel Amuro Ray is killed in the final attack against the Zeonic stronghold of A Baoa Qu when his RX-78-3 is pierced through the torso
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by a Rick Dom's beam bazooka. This occurs as Char's unit attempts to warn him about Gihren's intention to destroy the fortress and take the Federation's offensive fleet along with it. Char and the crew of "Pegasus II" ("White Base"), along with handpicked men under Kycilia Zabi's command, make a deep penetrating attack against the Side 3 and together kill Gihren Zabi, after which Kycilia is killed by Char. Tomino later lamented that had he known that anime ending would be different and that another series would be made, he would not have killed off Amuro in the novels.
The three novels were translated into English by Frederik Schodt and published by Del Rey Books in September 1990. At the time,
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there were no officially recognized romanizations of character and mecha names, and a variety of different spellings were being used in the English-language fan community. In the original three novels, therefore, Mr. Schodt wrote the name "Char" as "Sha." "Sha" is a transliteration of the Japanese pronunciation, although Mr. Tomino later publicly confirmed at Anime Expo New York 2002 that the name was originally based on the French name Charles Aznavour, a popular French-language singer. (The 2004 edition of the English translation revealed that Schodt felt that the "Char" rendering "seemed too close" to Aznavour's name.) He also rendered "Zaku" as "Zak," and (after consulting with Mr. Tomino)
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"Jion" as "Zeon," instead of "Zion," which was in use in some circles. Some North American fans, already attached to particular spellings, took great umbrage at Schodt's renditions, forgetting that in the original Japanese most character and mecha names are written in "katakana", and that there were, therefore, no "official spellings." Many years later, when the Gundam series was finally licensed in North America, the rights holders came up with a unified list of "official spellings" for English-language material, and some of these spellings include Schodt's renditions, as well as the renditions to which certain North American fans were attached.
In 2004, Frederik Schodt revised his original
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translation of the books, which had been out of print for nearly a decade. What had been a three volume set in the 1990 Del Rey edition was re-released by Stone Bridge Press as one single volume of 476 pages (with a vastly improved cover design), titled "Mobile Suit Gundam: Awakening, Escalation, Confrontation". Since the rights holders in Japan by this time had created a unified (although still evolving) list of romanized character and mecha names, Schodt was able to use it, and Amuro's rival in the novel thus became "Char" and not "Sha"; the popular Zeon Mobile Suit, similarly, became "Zaku," and not "Zak".
## Compilation movies.
Following the success of the "Mobile Suit Gundam" TV series,
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in 1981 Tomino reworked the footage into three separate compilation movies. The first two movies, "Mobile Suit Gundam" and "Mobile Suit Gundam: Soldiers of Sorrow", were released in 1981. The third movie, "Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space", was released in 1982.
Each of the three movies is largely composed of old footage from the TV series, however Tomino felt that some things could be changed for the better. Tomino removed several aspects of the show which he felt were still too super robot-esque for the real robot series he intended "Gundam" to be, such as the Gundam Hammer weapon. The G-Armor upgrade parts were also completely removed and replaced in the narrative by the more realistic
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Core Booster support fighters, and Hayato receives a RX-77 Guncannon at Jaburo to replace the disadvantaged RX-75 Guntank. The third movie also includes a substantial amount of new footage expanding on the battles of Solomon and A Baoa Qu.
The first "Gundam" film, upon release on 22 February 1981, drew a large crowd of 15,000 people at its premiere, leading to concerns from police and media that it could lead to social unrest from a riotous crowd. The event is considered a turning point in the history of anime, referred to as "the day that anime changed" according to "Asahi Shinbun" newspaper. The first film grossed , and "Gundam II" grossed . "Mobile Suit Gundam III: Encounters in Space" was
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1982's fourth highest-grossing Japanese film, with a distribution income of and a total box office gross of . Collectively, the trilogy grossed at the Japanese box office.
In 1998, the three compilation movies were first released directly to VHS subtitled into English as part of Bandai's AnimeVillage releases, which makes them among the first "Gundam" works released in English. The movies were released again in North America on May 7, 2002 in DVD format, available separately or in a boxed set. These are also available only with re-done Japanese audio with English subtitles, the DVDs identical to the 20th anniversary release of the movie compilation in Japan. The original Japanese voice cast
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members rerecorded their lines with the exception of those who were deceased. The 20th anniversary release was digitally remastered and many of the sound effects were replaced, most notably the futuristic gun sounds being replaced by louder machine gun sound effects. Also, the music soundtrack, while not remixed was rearranged and in some cases removed from some scenes. The vocal songs are rearranged also, especially in the closing credits of the second and third movies.
Bandai Visual has announced the re-release of the "Mobile Suit Gundam" movies on DVD from new HD masters and with the original, theatrical, mono audio mix. This boxed set was released in Japan on December 21, 2007. On May 18,
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2010, Bandai Entertainment re-released the 20th anniversary version of the trilogy under their Anime Legends label. As with the TV series, the movies will be re-released in North America under Sunrise themselves with distribution from Right Stuf Inc.
The trilogy of films were distributed on DVD in the United Kingdom by Beez Entertainment in 2005 in Japanese and with a selection of subtitle tracks including English. Anime Ltd. has since acquired the UK license and has released a limited edition Blu-ray box set of the movie trilogy (limited to 500 units) as an exclusive, sold only on their AllTheAnime.com store. It was released on March, 27th 2017, in Japanese with English subtitles only.
##
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Manga.
There have been two manga series based on "Mobile Suit Gundam". The first one is "Mobile Suit Gundam 0079" by Kazuhisa Kondo. It was published in "Dengeki Comics" from 1985 to 1986 in a total of twelve "tankōbon" volumes. Viz Media later published its first nine volumes between 2000 and 2003. The second manga is "" by anime character designer Yoshikazu Yasuhiko. It was published from June 2001 to June 2011 in Kadokawa Shoten's "Gundam Ace" magazine and collected in a total of 23 "tankōbon" volumes. The series was first released in English by Viz media but was dropped before it was completed; it was then released by Vertical Publishing from March 2013 to December 2015.
Besides adaptations,
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there is a popular parody yonkoma manga titled "Mobile Suit Gundam-san", which was written and drawn by Hideki Ohwada and serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's "Gundam Ace" magazine since 2001. This manga was adapted into an anime in 2014. Ohwada also created a spinoff manga, , which follows Yoshiyuki Tomino and the Sunrise staff as they work to make the television series and the compilation movies. This series was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's "Gundam Ace" magazine from 2009 to 2011 and compiled in the "Gundam-san" tankōbon starting in Volume 5. The manga was also collected in two tankōbon volumes released in January 24, 2014.
## Video games.
There have been many video games based on or with
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mobile suits from the original "Gundam" series. Of these, the following have been released in North America:
- "Gundam Battle Assault, Gundam Battle Assault 2"
- ""
- ""
- ""
- "" ("Mobile Suit Gundam: Target in Sight" in Japan and Australia)
- "" ("Mobile Suit Gundam: True Odyssey" in Japan)
- ", , " ("Gundam Musou" in Japan)
- "" (PlayStation 3 only)
Games that have been unreleased in countries outside Japan include:
- "Mobile Suit Gundam (1993 arcade game)"
- "Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirits of Zeon ~Dual Stars of Carnage~"
- "Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirit of Zeon ~Memory of Soldier~"
- "Quiz Mobile Suit Gundam: Monsenshi"
- ""
- "Mobile Suit Gundam: Climax UC"
- "Mobile Suit Gundam:
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The One Year War"
- "" (also referred to as "Ace Pilot")
- Gundam Battle (series)
- SD Gundam G-Generation (series)
- ""
- ""
# Reception.
"Gundam" was not popular when it first aired, and in fact came close to being cancelled. The series was originally set to run for 52 episodes but was cut down to 39 by the show's sponsors, which included Clover (the original toymakers for the series). However, the staff was able to negotiate a one-month extension to end the series with 43 episodes. When Bandai bought the copyrights to build plastic models for the show's mecha, which was a relatively new market compared to the old Chogokin series Clover was making, things changed completely. With the
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introduction of their line of Gundam models, the popularity of the show began to soar. The models sold very well, the show began to do very well in reruns and its theatrical compilation was a huge success. Audiences were expecting another Super Robot TV show, and instead found "Gundam", the first work of anime in an entirely new genre: the Real Robot genre. The Anime ranked #2 on "Wizard's Anime" Magazine on their "Top 50 Anime released in North America", and is regarded as changing the concept of Japanese robot anime and the turning point of history in Japan.
Despite being released in 1979, the original "Gundam" series is still remembered and recognized within the anime fan community. The
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series revolutionized mecha anime, introducing the new Real Robot genre, and over the years became synonymous with the entire genre for many. As a result, for example, parodies of mecha genre commonly feature homages to "Mobile Suit Gundam", thanks to its immediate recognizability.
The series was the first winner of the "Animage" Anime Grand Prix prize, in 1979 and the first half of 1980. In the top 100 anime from "Animage", "Gundam" was twenty-fourth. The magazine "Wizard" listed the series as the second best anime of all time. By the end of 2007, each episode of the original TV series averaged a sales figure of 80,928 copies, including all of the different formats it was published in (VHS,
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LD, DVD, etc.). The first DVD box set sold over 100,000 copies in the first month of release, from December 21, 2007 to January 21, 2008. As part of the 30th Anniversary of the Gundam series, the company officially announced a project on March 11, 2009 called "Real-G", a plan to build a 1:1 real size scale Gundam in Japan. It was completed in July 2009 and displayed in a Tokyo park then taken down later. The 18-meter tall statue was reconstructed in Shizuoka Prefecture and was taken down in March 2011. In August 2011 it was dismantled only to reopen in Odaiba, Tokyo on April 19, 2012. It stood Odaiba along with a gift shop called "Gundam Front Tokyo" until it was dismantled in March 2016.
Most
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of the series' critical response has been owed to the setting and characters. John Oppliger observes that the characters of Amuro Ray, to whom the young Japanese of that time could easily relate, and Char Aznable, who was "simply [...] fascinating", made a major contribution to the series' popularity. He also concludes that "in many respects First Gundam stands for the nostalgic identifying values of everything that anime itself represents". The series has been praised by Anime News Network for the way it portrays war with Amuro facing traumatic moments as a result of killing enemy soldiers in his becoming of a soldier. The series is also notable for having humans from a different race as antagonists
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rather than evil creatures. However, the animation has been noted to have notoriously aged when compared with series seen in the 2000s.
Mecha anime creator Shoji Kawamori attended Keio University in the same years as "Macross" screenwriter Hiroshi Ōnogi and character designer Haruhiko Mikimoto, where they had a "Mobile Suit Gundam" fan club called "Gunsight One", a name they would use years later as the call sign of the bridge of the SDF-1 spaceship from their first "Macross" anime television series. In fact, "The Super Dimension Fortress Macross" mecha anime series was inspired by Gundam in several aspects during its early development. Guillermo Del Toro has cited the series as an influence
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on "Pacific Rim".
American musician Richie Kotzen, former guitarist from Poison and Mr. Big, released an album called "Ai Senshi ZxR" in 2006 in Japan. The album consisted of covered music from the Gundam series and original songs. American musician Andrew W.K. also released an album called "Gundam Rock" on September 9, 2009, in Japan. The album consists of covered music from the Gundam series to celebrate its 30th Anniversary.
## Background research.
The background research of "Mobile Suit Gundam" is well praised in its field. The positions in which the colonies (sides) are located in orbit are called Lagrangian points, and are real world solutions to the three body problem. The colonies
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(sides) are based on the O'Neill cylinder design for space habitats. The Gundam franchise was a major contributing factor to the fame of the O'Neil cylinder in Japan.
## Gundam-themed rides.
"Gundam the Ride: A Baoa Qu" was an amusement park attraction at the Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park located in Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan. It was a dark ride for the park. Gundam the Ride, which opened to the public on July 20, 2000, was based on "Mobile Suit Gundam". Set during the final chaotic Battle of A Baoa Qu, Gundam the Ride places its riders in an Escape Launch Shuttle about to leave the battleship "Suruga".
The animation of Gundam the Ride used mostly computer graphics, however, all human
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characters were hand-drawn cel animation, similar to the style current "Gundam" video games are done in. All of the character designs for Gundam the Ride were done by Haruhiko Mikimoto. The ride's characters make a cameo appearance in the video game "Encounters in Space" while the player (playing as Amuro Ray in his Gundam) is making his way through the "Dolos".
The ride closed on January 8, 2007 and replaced with "Gundam Crisis Attraction" The main feature of this attraction is a full size 1:1 Gundam model, lying flat inside the venue. Instead of sitting in a movable cockpit and watching a CG movie, it requires participants to carry handheld devices throughout the attraction to find certain
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ing his way through the "Dolos".
The ride closed on January 8, 2007 and replaced with "Gundam Crisis Attraction" The main feature of this attraction is a full size 1:1 Gundam model, lying flat inside the venue. Instead of sitting in a movable cockpit and watching a CG movie, it requires participants to carry handheld devices throughout the attraction to find certain pieces of information, similar to a scavenger hunt, in order to activate the Gundam. The interior of the attraction is a mock-up of a Federation ship, and employees remain in-character inside of the ride.
# See also.
- Bildungsroman
- Gundam
- Gundam model
- Gundam (mobile suit)
# External links.
- Official Website: Anime
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Mancala
Mancala is one of the oldest known games to still be widely played today. "Mancala" is a generic name for a family of two-player turn-based strategy board games played with small stones, beans, or seeds and rows of holes or pits in the earth, a board or other playing surface. The objective is usually to capture all or some set of the opponent's pieces. Versions of the game date back to the 7th century, and evidence suggests the game existed in ancient Egypt.
# Names and variants.
The name is a classification or type of game, rather than any specific game. Some of the most popular mancala games (with regard to distribution area, the numbers of players and tournaments, and publications)
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are:
- Ali Guli Mane or Pallanguzhi, played in Southern India.
- It is also called Omanu Guntalu in Telugu, played in rural areas of Telangana, India.
- Bao la Kiswahili – played in most of East Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Comoros, Malawi, as well as some areas of DR Congo and Burundi.
- Gebeta (Tigrigna: ገበጣ) - Ethiopian and Eritrea, especially in Tigrai.
- Kalah – North American variation, the most popular variant in the Western world.
- Oware ("awalé, awélé") – Ashanti, but played world-wide with close variants played throughout western Africa and in the Caribbean.
- Ayo or oware - played in West Africa, by the Yorubas in Western Nigeria.
- Toguz korgool or Toguz kumalak – played
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in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
A notable subtype of mancala are the Southeast Asian mancalas like the Malaysian "congkak", Indonesians "congklak" or "dakon", and Filipino "sungka", among others. They differ from other mancala types in that the player's store is included in the placing of the seeds. The most common type has seven holes for each player, in addition to the player store holes. This version has identical rules throughout its range. But there are also numerous variations with the number of holes and rules by region. Sometimes more than one version can be played in a single locality.
Although more than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, some names denote the same game,
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while some names are used for more than one game. Almost 200 modern invented versions have also been described.
# History.
Evidence of the game was uncovered in Israel in the city of Gedera in an excavated Roman bathhouse where pottery boards and rock cuts were unearthed dating back to between the 2nd and 3rd century AD. Among other early evidence of the game are fragments of a pottery board and several rock cuts found in Aksumite areas in Matara (in Eritrea) and Yeha (in Ethiopia), which are dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century AD; the game may have been mentioned by Giyorgis of Segla in his 14th century Ge'ez text "Mysteries of Heaven and Earth", where he refers to
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a game called qarqis, a term used in Ge'ez to refer to both Gebet'a (mancala) and "Sant'araz" (modern "sent'erazh", Ethiopian chess).
The similarity of some aspects of the game to agricultural activity and the absence of a need for specialized equipment present the intriguing possibility that it could date to the beginnings of civilization itself; however, there is little verifiable evidence that the game is older than about 1300 years. Some purported evidence comes from the Kurna temple graffiti in Egypt, as reported by Parker in 1909 and Murray in his "A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess". However, accurate dating of this graffiti seems to be unavailable, and what designs have been
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found by modern scholars generally resemble games common to the Roman world, rather than anything like Mancala.
Some historians believe that Mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in Jordan that dates around 6000 BCE. The game might have been played by ancient Nabataeans and could have been an ancient version of the modern Mancala game.
Although the games existed in pockets in Europe—it is recorded as being played as early as the 17th century by merchants in England—it has never gained much popularity in most regions, except in the Baltic area, where once it was a very popular game ("Bohnenspiel"), and Bosnia, where it is called Ban-Ban and still
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played today. Mancala has also been found in Serbia and in Greece ("Mandoli", Cyclades). Two Mancala tables from the early 18th century are to be found in Weikersheim Castle in southern Germany.
The United States has a larger mancala-playing population. A traditional mancala game called Warra was still played in Louisiana in the early 20th century, and a commercial version called Kalah became popular in the 1940s. In Cape Verde, mancala is known as "ouril". It is played in the Islands and was brought to the United States by Cape Verdean immigrants. It is played to this day in Cape Verdean communities in New England.
Recent studies of Mancala rules have given insight into the distribution of
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Mancala. This distribution has been linked to migration routes, which may go back several hundred years. There is evidence that the game was played in Egypt more than one thousand years B.C. It spread from Egypt through other parts of Africa, probably with traders moving up and down the Nile.. Excavations in Lebanon uncovered Phoenician mancala pieces dated from the 6th century B.C. Dated sixth century B.C., the statue was discovered lying on her stomach on a marble floor covering a drainage channel from the Roman period (second century AD). Two rows of five holes etched into the back revealed that "it was also used to support a board game called Mancala, derived from the Arabic word naqala,
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meaning literally move," said the lead archaeologist, thus referring to the explanations provided by Irving Finkel, an expert on ancient games in the British Museum.
# Etymology.
The word "mancala" (منقلة) comes from the Arabic word "naqala" (نقلة) meaning literally "to move". No one game exists with the name "mancala"; the name is a classification or type of game. This word is used in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, but is not consistently applied to any one game, and has been used for backgammon in the ancient near east. Mancala is a game that first appeared in Africa, and later, the ancient near east.
# General gameplay.
Most mancala games share a common general game play. Players begin by
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placing a certain number of seeds, prescribed for the particular game, in each of the pits on the game board. A player may count their stones to plot the game. A turn consists of removing all seeds from a pit, "sowing" the seeds (placing one in each of the following pits in sequence) and capturing based on the state of board. The object of the game is to plant the most seeds in the bank. This leads to the English phrase "count and capture" sometimes used to describe the gameplay. Although the details differ greatly, this general sequence applies to all games.
If playing in capture mode, once a player ends his/her turn in an empty pit on his/her own side, he/she captures the opponent's pieces
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directly across. Once captured, the player gets to put the seeds in his/her own bank. After capturing, the opponent forfeits a turn.
## Equipment.
Equipment is typically a board, constructed of various materials, with a series of holes arranged in rows, usually two or four. The materials include clay and other shape-able materials. Some games are more often played with holes dug in the earth, or carved in stone. The holes may be referred to as "depressions", "pits", or "houses". Sometimes, large holes on the ends of the board, called "stores", are used for holding the pieces.
Playing pieces are seeds, beans, stones, cowry shells, half-marbles or other small undifferentiated counters that
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are placed in and transferred about the holes during play.
Board configurations vary among different games but also within variations of a given game; for example Endodoi is played on boards from 2×6 to 2×10. The largest are Tchouba (Mozambique) with a board of 160 (4×40) holes requiring 320 seeds; and En Gehé (Tanzania), played on longer rows with up to 50 pits (a total of 2×50=100) and using 400 seeds. The most minimalistic variants are Nano-Wari and Micro-Wari, created by the Bulgarian ethnologue Assia Popova. The Nano-Wari board has eight seeds in just two pits; Micro-Wari has a total of four seeds in four pits.
With a two-rank board, players usually are considered to control their respective
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sides of the board, although moves often are made into the opponent's side. With a four-rank board, players control an inner row and an outer row, and a player's seeds will remain in these closest two rows unless the opponent captured them.
## Objective.
The objective of most two- and three-row mancala games is to capture more stones than the opponent; in four-row games, one usually seeks to leave the opponent with no legal move or sometimes to capture all counters in their front row.
At the beginning of a player's turn, they select a hole with seeds that will be sown around the board. This selection is often limited to holes on the current player's side of the board, as well as holes with
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a certain minimum number of seeds.
In a process known as "sowing", all the seeds from a hole are dropped one-by-one into subsequent holes in a motion wrapping around the board. Sowing is an apt name for this activity, since not only are many games traditionally played with seeds, but placing seeds one at a time in different holes reflects the physical act of sowing. If the sowing action stops after dropping the last seed, the game is considered a "single lap" game.
"Multiple laps" or "relay sowing" is a frequent feature of mancala games, although not universal. When relay sowing, if the last seed during sowing lands in an occupied hole, all the contents of that hole, including the last sown
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seed, are immediately re-sown from the hole. The process usually will continue until sowing ends in an empty hole. Another common way to receive "multiple laps" is when the final seed sown lands in your designated hole.
Many games from the Indian subcontinent use "pussa kanawa laps". These are like standard multilaps, but instead of continuing the movement with the contents of the last hole filled, a player continues with the next hole. A pussakanawa lap move will then end when a lap ends just prior to an empty hole.
If a player ends his stone with a point move he gets a "free turn".
## Capturing.
Depending on the last hole sown in a lap, a player may "capture" stones from the board. The
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exact requirements for capture, as well as what is done with captured stones, vary considerably among games. Typically, a capture requires sowing to end in a hole with a certain number of stones, ending across the board from stones in specific configurations, or landing in an empty hole adjacent to an opponent's hole that contains one or more pieces.
Another common way of capturing is to capture the stones that reach a certain number of seeds at any moment.
Also, several games include the notion of capturing holes, and thus all seeds sown on a captured hole belong at the end of the game to the player who captured it.
# Psychology.
Like other board games, mancala games have led to psychological
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cala games have led to psychological studies. Retschitzki has studied the cognitive processes used by awalé players. Some of Restchitzki's results on memory and problem solving have recently been simulated by Fernand Gobet with the CHREST computer model. De Voogt has studied the psychology of Bao playing.
# See also.
- List of mancala games
- Computer Olympiad: computer-to-computer contests playing Awari
# Further reading.
- Deledicq, A. & A. Popova (1977). Wari et solo. Le jeu de calcul Africain. Paris: Cedic.
- Murray, H.J.R. (1952). "A History of Board-Games other than Chess". Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
- Voogt, A.J. de (1997). Mancala Board Games. British Museum Press: London.
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Apollo
Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , "Apollōn" ( ); ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The national divinity of the Greeks, Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the sun and light, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the "kouros" (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo is considered to be the most Greek of all gods. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as "Apulu".
As the patron of
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Delphi ("Pythian Apollo"), Apollo is an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle.
Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Yet Apollo is also a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague with his arrows.
Apollo is the god of archery and the invention of archery is credited to him and his sister Artemis. He has a golden and a silver bow, and a quiver of golden arrows.
As the god of "Mousike" (art of Muses), Apollo presided over all music, songs, dance and poetry. He is the inventor of string-music, and the frequent companion of the Muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. The
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lyre is a common attribute of Apollo.
As the protector of young, Apollo ("kourotrophos") is concerned with the health and education of children. He presides over their passage into adulthood.
Apollo is an important pastoral deity. He is the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases and pests were his primary duties.
Apollo encouraged founding new towns and establishment of civil constitution, and is associated with dominion over colonists. He is also the giver of laws, and his oracles were consulted before setting laws in a city.
Apollo is the god who affords help and wards off evil. He delivered men from epidemics. Various epithets call him the
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"averter of evil". As the patron of seafarers, he is also the god of foreigners, the protector of fugitives and refugees.
In Hellenistic times, especially during the 5th century BCE, as "Apollo Helios" he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun. In Latin texts, however, there was no conflation of Apollo with Sol among the classical Latin poets until 1st century AD. Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 5th century CE.
# Etymology.
Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , "Apollōn" ( ); Doric: , "Apellōn"; Arcadocypriot: , "Apeilōn"; Aeolic: , "Aploun"; )
The name "Apollo"—unlike the related older name "Paean"—is
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generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form "]pe-rjo-[" (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.
The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, "Apellon" (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month "Apellaios" (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai ().
According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word "apella" (), which originally meant "wall," "fence for
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animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square." Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the "ecclesia" (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun "apellai" and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *"Apalun".
Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb ("apollymi"), "to destroy". Plato in "Cratylus" connects the name with ("apolysis"), "redemption", with ("apolousis"), "purification", and with ("[h]aploun"), "simple", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with ("aeiballon"), "ever-shooting".
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Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ("apella"), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation ("sekos"), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the ancient Macedonian language ("pella") means "stone," and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia) and ("Pellēnē"/"Pallene").
A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form "Apaliunas" ("") is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) "Aplu", a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian "Aplu Enlil" meaning
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simply "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.
The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus ("mouse Apollo") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).
The Hittite testimony reflects an early form "", which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric . The name of the Lydian god "Qλdãns" /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect an earlier /kʷalyán-/
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before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change *y "" d. Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric "Ἀπέλjων" and Hittite "Apaliunas".
A Luwian etymology suggested for "Apaliunas" makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".
## Greco-Roman epithets.
Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus ( ; , "Phoibos" ), literally "bright". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth,
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only a few occur in Latin literature.
### Sun.
- Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, "Aiglētēs"), from , "light of the sun"
- Helius ( ; , "Helios"), literally "sun"
- Lyceus ( ; , "Lykeios", from Proto-Greek *) "light". The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf ().
- Phanaeus ( ; , "Phanaios"), literally "giving or bringing light"
- Phoebus ( ; , "Phoibos"), literally "bright", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans
- Sol (Roman) (), "sun" in Latin
### Wolf.
- Lycegenes ( ; , "Lukēgenēs"), literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia"
- Lycoctonus ( ; ,
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"Lykoktonos"), from , "wolf", and , "to kill"
### Origin and birth.
Apollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.
- Cynthius ( ; , "Kunthios"), literally "Cynthian"
- Cynthogenes ( ; , "Kynthogenēs"), literally "born of Cynthus"
- Delius ( ; Δήλιος, "Delios"), literally "Delian"
- Didymaeus ( ; , "Didymaios") from δίδυμος, "twin") as Artemis' twin
### Place of worship.
Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.
- Acraephius ( ; , "Akraiphios", literally "Acraephian") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , "Akraiphiaios"), "Acraephian", from the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus.
- Actiacus ( ; , "Aktiakos"), literally "Actian", after Actium
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()
- Delphinius ( ; , "Delphinios"), literally "Delphic", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the "Homeric Hymns" associated this with dolphins.
- Epactaeus, meaning "god worshipped on the coast", in Samos.
- Pythius ( ; , "Puthios", from Πυθώ, "Pythō"), from the region around Delphi
- Smintheus ( ; , "Smintheus"), "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe" near the Troad town of Hamaxitus
### Healing and disease.
- Acesius ( ; , "Akesios"), from , "healing". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.
- Acestor ( ; , "Akestōr"), literally "healer"
- Culicarius (Roman) ( ), from Latin "culicārius", "of midges"
- Iatrus (
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; , "Iātros"), literally "physician"
- Medicus (Roman) ( ), "physician" in Latin. A temple was dedicated to "Apollo Medicus" at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.
- Paean ( ; , "Paiān"),physician, healer
- Parnopius ( ; , "Parnopios"), from , "locust"
### Founder and protector.
- Agyieus ( ; , "Aguīeus"), from , "street", for his role in protecting roads and homes
- Alexicacus ( ; , "Alexikakos"), literally "warding off evil"
- Apotropaeus ( ; , "Apotropaios"), from , "to avert"
- Archegetes ( ; , "Arkhēgetēs"), literally "founder"
- Averruncus (Roman) ( ; from Latin "āverruncare"), "to avert"
- Clarius ( ; , "Klārios"), from Doric , "allotted lot"
- Epicurius ( ; , "Epikourios"),
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from , "to aid"
- Genetor ( ; , "Genetōr"), literally "ancestor"
- Nomius ( ; , "Nomios"), literally "pastoral"
- Nymphegetes ( ; , "Numphēgetēs"), from , "Nymph", and , "leader", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life
### Prophecy and truth.
- Coelispex (Roman) ( ), from Latin "coelum", "sky", and "specere" "to look at"
- Iatromantis ( ; , "Iātromantis",) from , "physician", and , "prophet", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy
- Leschenorius ( ; , "Leskhēnorios"), from , "converser"
- Loxias ( ; , "Loxias"), from , "to say", historically associated with , "ambiguous"
- Manticus ( ; , "Mantikos"), literally "prophetic"
### Music and arts.
-
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Musagetes ( ; Doric , "Mousāgetās"), from , "Muse", and "leader"
- Musegetes ( ; , "Mousēgetēs"), as the preceding
### Archery.
- Aphetor ( ; , "Aphētōr"), from , "to let loose"
- Aphetorus ( ; , "Aphētoros"), as the preceding
- Arcitenens (Roman) ( ), literally "bow-carrying"
- Argyrotoxus ( ; , "Argyrotoxos"), literally "with silver bow"
- Hecaërgus ( ; , "Hekaergos"), literally "far-shooting"
- Hecebolus ( ; , "Hekēbolos"), "far-shooting"
- Ismenius ( ; , "Ismēnios"), literally "of Ismenus", after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow
### Amazons.
- Amazonius (), Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that near Pyrrhichus there was a sanctuary
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of Apollo, called Amazonius () with image of the god said to have been dedicated by the Amazons.
## Celtic epithets and cult titles.
Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.
- Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.
- Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.
-
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Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.
- Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.
- Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.
- Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.
- Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing,
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especially of the eyes.
- Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).
# Origins.
The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In classical Greece he
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was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component."
From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of "symbols and omina" (σημεῖα καὶ τέρατα : "sēmeia kai terata"), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and
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