wikipedia_id
stringlengths 2
8
| wikipedia_title
stringlengths 1
243
| url
stringlengths 44
370
| contents
stringlengths 53
2.22k
| id
int64 0
6.14M
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. It also suggested that a North American form known as ""M. jeffersonii"" may be a hybrid between the two species.
By the late Pleistocene, mammoths in continental Eurasia had undergone a major transformation, including a shortening and heightening of the cranium and mandible, increase in molar hypsodonty index, increase in plate number, and thinning of dental enamel. Due to this change in physical appearance, it became customary to group European mammoths separately into distinguishable clusters:
-
| 3,100 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
1. Early Pleistocene – "Mammuthus meridionalis"
- 2. Middle Pleistocene – "Mammuthus trogontherii"
- 3. Late Pleistocene – "Mammuthus primigenius"
There is speculation as to what caused this variation within the three chronospecies. Variations in environment, climate change, and migration surely played roles in the evolutionary process of the mammoths. Take "M. primigenius" for example: Woolly mammoths lived in opened grassland biomes. The cool steppe-tundra of the Northern Hemisphere was the ideal place for mammoths to thrive because of the resources it supplied. With occasional warmings during the ice age, climate would change the landscape, and resources available to the mammoths altered
| 3,101 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
accordingly.
# Etymology and early observations.
The word "mammoth" was first used in Europe during the early 17th century, when referring to "maimanto" tusks discovered in Siberia. John Bell, who was on the Ob River in 1722, said that mammoth tusks were well known in the area. They were called "mammon's horn" and were often found in washed-out river banks. Some local people claimed to have seen a living mammoth, but they only came out at night and always disappeared under water when detected. He bought one and presented it to Hans Sloan who pronounced it an elephant's tooth.
The folklore of some native peoples of Siberia, who would routinely find mammoth bones, and sometimes frozen mammoth
| 3,102 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
bodies, in eroding river banks, had various interesting explanations for these finds. Among the Khanty people of the Irtysh River basin, a belief existed that the mammoth was some kind of a water spirit. According to other Khanty, the mammoth was a creature that lived underground, burrowing its tunnels as it went, and would die if it accidentally came to the surface.
The concept of the mammoth as an underground creature was known to the Chinese, who received some mammoth ivory from the Siberian natives; accordingly, the creature was known in China as "yǐn shǔ" 隐鼠, "the hidden rodent".
Thomas Jefferson, who famously had a keen interest in paleontology, is partially responsible for transforming
| 3,103 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
the word "mammoth" from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size. The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a large wheel of cheese (the "Cheshire Mammoth Cheese") given to Jefferson in 1802.
# Description.
Like their modern relatives, mammoths were quite large. The largest known species reached heights in the region of at the shoulder and weights of up to , while exceptionally large males may have exceeded . However, most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian elephant (which are about 2.5 m to 3 m high at the shoulder, and rarely exceeding 5 tonnes). Both sexes bore tusks.
| 3,104 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
A first, small set appeared at about the age of six months, and these were replaced at about 18 months by the permanent set. Growth of the permanent set was at a rate of about per year.
Based on studies of their close relatives, the modern elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity.
Scientists discovered and studied the remains of a mammoth calf, and found that fat greatly influenced its form, and enabled it to store
| 3,105 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
large amounts of nutrients necessary for survival in temperatures as low as . The fat also allowed the mammoths to increase their muscle mass, allowing the mammoths to fight against enemies and live longer.
# Diet.
Depending on the species or race of mammoth, the diet differed somewhat depending on location, although all mammoths ate similar things. For the Columbian mammoth, "M. columbi", the diet was mainly grazing. American Columbian mammoths fed primarily on cacti leaves, trees, and shrubs. These assumptions were based on mammoth feces and mammoth teeth. Mammoths, like modern day elephants, have hypsodont molars. These features also allowed mammoths to live an expansive life because of
| 3,106 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
the availability of grasses and trees.
For the Mongochen mammoth, its diet consisted of herbs, grasses, larch, and shrubs, and possibly alder. These inferences were made through the observation of mammoth feces, which scientists observed contained non-arboreal pollen and moss spores.
European mammoths had a major diet of C3 carbon fixation plants. This was determined by examining the isotopic data from the European mammoth teeth.
The arctic tundra and steppe where the mammoths lived appears to have been dominated by forbs, not grass. There were richer in protein and easier to digest than grasses and wooden plants, which came to dominate the areas when the climate became wetter and warmer.
| 3,107 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
This could have been a major contributor to why the arctic megafauna went extinct.
The Yamal baby mammoth Lyuba, found in 2007 in the Yamal Peninsula in Western Siberia, suggests that baby mammoths, as do modern baby elephants, ate the dung of adult animals. The evidence to show this is that the dentition (teeth) of the baby mammoth had not yet fully developed to chew grass. Furthermore, there was an abundance of ascospores of coprophilous fungi from the pollen spectrum of the baby's mother. Coprophilous fungi are fungi that grow on animal dung and disperse spores in nearby vegetation, which the baby mammoth would then consume. Spores might have gotten into its stomach while grazing for the
| 3,108 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
first few times. Coprophagy may be an adaptation, serving to populate the infant's gut with the needed microbiome for digestion.
Mammoths alive in the Arctic during the Last Glacial Maximum consumed mainly forbs, such as "Artemisia"; graminoids were only a minor part of their diet.
# Extinction.
The woolly mammoth ("M. primigenius") was the last species of the genus. Most populations of the woolly mammoth in North America and Eurasia, as well as all the Columbian mammoths ("M. columbi") in North America, died out around the time of the last glacial retreat, as part of a mass extinction of megafauna in northern Eurasia and the Americas. Until recently, the last woolly mammoths were generally
| 3,109 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
assumed to have vanished from Europe and southern Siberia about 12,000 years ago, but new findings show some were still present there about 10,000 years ago. Slightly later, the woolly mammoths also disappeared from continental northern Siberia. A small population survived on St. Paul Island, Alaska, up until 3750 BC, and the small mammoths of Wrangel Island survived until 1650 BC. Recent research of sediments in Alaska indicates mammoths survived on the American mainland until 10,000 years ago.
A definitive explanation for their extinction has yet to be agreed upon. The warming trend (Holocene) that occurred 12,000 years ago, accompanied by a glacial retreat and rising sea levels, has been
| 3,110 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
suggested as a contributing factor. Forests replaced open woodlands and grasslands across the continent. The available habitat would have been reduced for some megafaunal species, such as the mammoth. However, such climate changes were nothing new; numerous had occurred previously within the ice age of the last several million years without producing comparable megafaunal extinctions, so climate alone is unlikely to have played a decisive role. The spread of advanced human hunters through northern Eurasia and the Americas around the time of the extinctions, however, was a new development, and thus might have contributed significantly.
Whether the general mammoth population died out for climatic
| 3,111 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
reasons or due to overhunting by humans is controversial. During the transition from the Late Pleistocene epoch to the Holocene epoch, there was shrinkage of the distribution of the mammoth because progressive warming at the end of the Pleistocene epoch changed the mammoth's environment. The mammoth steppe was a periglacial landscape with rich herb and grass vegetation that disappeared along with the mammoth because of environmental changes in the climate. Mammoths had moved to isolated spots in Eurasia, where they disappeared completely. Also, it is thought that Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic human hunters might have affected the size of the last mammoth populations in Europe. There is evidence
| 3,112 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
to suggest that humans did cause the mammoth extinction, although there is no definitive proof. It was found that humans living south of a mammoth steppe learned to adapt themselves to the harsher climates north of the steppe, where mammoths resided. It was concluded that if humans could survive the harsh north climate of that particular mammoth steppe then it was possible humans could hunt (and eventually extinguish) mammoths everywhere. Another hypothesis suggests mammoths fell victim to an infectious disease.
A combination of climate change and hunting by humans may be a possible explanation for their extinction. "Homo erectus" is known to have consumed mammoth meat as early as 1.8 million
| 3,113 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
years ago, though this may mean only successful scavenging, rather than actual hunting. Later humans show greater evidence for hunting mammoths; mammoth bones at a 50,000-year-old site in South Britain suggest that Neanderthals butchered the animals, while various sites in Eastern Europe dating from 15,000 to 44,000 years old suggest humans (probably "Homo sapiens") built dwellings using mammoth bones (the age of some of the earlier structures suggests that Neanderthals began the practice). However, the American Institute of Biological Sciences notes that bones of dead elephants, left on the ground and subsequently trampled by other elephants, tend to bear marks resembling butchery marks, which
| 3,114 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
have allegedly been misinterpreted as such by archaeologists.
Many hypotheses also seek to explain the regional extinction of mammoths in specific areas. Scientists have speculated that the mammoths of Saint Paul Island, an isolated enclave where mammoths survived until about 8,000 years ago, died out as the island shrank by 80–90% when sea levels rose, eventually making it too small to support a viable population. Similarly, genome sequences of the Wrangel Island mammoths indicate a sharp decline in genetic diversity, though the extent to which this played a role in their extinction is still unclear. Another hypothesis, said to be the cause of mammoth extinction in Siberia, comes from the
| 3,115 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
idea that many may have drowned. While traveling to the Northern River, many of these mammoths broke through the ice and drowned. This also explains bones remains in the Arctic Coast and islands of the New Siberian Group.
Dwarfing occurred with the pygmy mammoth on the outer Channel Islands of California, but at an earlier period. Those animals were very likely killed by early Paleo-Native Americans, and habitat loss caused by a rising sea level that split Santa Rosae into the outer Channel Islands.
## Mammoth-elephant hybrid.
An estimated 150 million mammoths are buried in the frozen Siberian tundra. One proposed scientific use of this preserved genetic material, is to recreate living mammoths.
| 3,116 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
This has long been discussed theoretically but has only recently become the subject of formal effort due to advances in molecular biology techniques and cloning of mammals.
According to one research team, a mammoth cannot be recreated, but they will try to eventually grow in an "artificial womb" a hybrid elephant with some woolly mammoth traits. Comparative genomics shows that the mammoth genome matches 99% of the elephant genome, so some researchers aim to engineer an elephant with some mammoth genes that code for the external appearance and traits of a mammoth. The outcome would be an elephant-mammoth hybrid with no more than 1% mammoth genes. And now separate projects are working on gradually
| 3,117 |
20162
|
Mammoth
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mammoth
|
Mammoth
w in an "artificial womb" a hybrid elephant with some woolly mammoth traits. Comparative genomics shows that the mammoth genome matches 99% of the elephant genome, so some researchers aim to engineer an elephant with some mammoth genes that code for the external appearance and traits of a mammoth. The outcome would be an elephant-mammoth hybrid with no more than 1% mammoth genes. And now separate projects are working on gradually adding mammoth genes to elephant cells "in vitro".
# See also.
- "Genesis 2.0", a documentary
- Ivory trade
- La Brea tar pits
- List of mammoths
- Mammoth Site, Hot Springs
- Niederweningen Mammoth Museum
- Pleistocene Park
- Waco Mammoth National Monument
| 3,118 |
20181
|
Marienburg
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marienburg
|
Marienburg
Marienburg
Marienburg may refer to:
# Historical German names.
- Ordensburg Marienburg (Malbork Castle), the large brick castle built by the Teutonic Knights
- Malbork, Poland, site of the Ordensburg Marienburg, formerly Marienburg (Royal Prussia/Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 1466-1772), Marienburg in Westpreußen and during World War II (1773-1945), Nazi Stalag XX-B (prisoner-of-war camp) for enlisted men
- Alūksne, Latvia
- Feldioara, Romania
# Places.
## Germany.
- Marienburg Castle, Ostalbkreis, a castle in Niederalfingen near Aalen, Germany
- Marienburg Castle, Hanover, a castle in Hanover district, residence of the Prince of Hanover
- Marienburg Castle, Hildesheim, a castle in
| 3,119 |
20181
|
Marienburg
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marienburg
|
Marienburg
Hildesheim, Lower Saxony
- Marienburg Castle, Leutesdorf, Germany, a small baroque castle in Rhineland-Palatinate.
- Köln-Marienburg, a district of Rodenkirchen in the city of Cologne
- Marienburg (Mosel), a former Augustinian monastery built near the ruins of a Roman fortress in Zell an der Mosel near Trier, Germany
- Marienburg, Bishopric of Würzburg, a fortress on the River Main, just opposite Würzburg, was sacked by Gustavus Adolphus in 1631.
## Elsewhere.
- Marienburg, Papua New Guinea - a town in the East Sepik province of Papua New Guinea
- Marienburg, Suriname - a village and former sugar plantation in Suriname
## Fictional places.
- Marienburg (Warhammer), a fictional city
| 3,120 |
20181
|
Marienburg
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marienburg
|
Marienburg
ogne
- Marienburg (Mosel), a former Augustinian monastery built near the ruins of a Roman fortress in Zell an der Mosel near Trier, Germany
- Marienburg, Bishopric of Würzburg, a fortress on the River Main, just opposite Würzburg, was sacked by Gustavus Adolphus in 1631.
## Elsewhere.
- Marienburg, Papua New Guinea - a town in the East Sepik province of Papua New Guinea
- Marienburg, Suriname - a village and former sugar plantation in Suriname
## Fictional places.
- Marienburg (Warhammer), a fictional city in the Warhammer Fantasy world
# See also.
- Siege of Marienburg (disambiguation)
- Treaty of Marienburg
- Marienberg
- Marienborg, summer residence of Denmark's Prime Minister
| 3,121 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
MOO (programming language)
The MOO programming language is a relatively simple programming language used to support the MOO Server. It is dynamically typed and uses a prototype-based object-oriented system, with syntax roughly derived from the Algol school of programming languages.
# History.
Stephen White authored the first MOO Server and language in 1990 using C. Over the course of the year, Pavel Curtis joined the project, releasing the first version of the LambdaMOO Server. LambdaMOO is run and maintained entirely on a volunteer basis, and now has its own SourceForge project. Although the last packaged release was in 2000, development is still active in the project's CVS.
White describes
| 3,122 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
MOO as "a mishmash of c-like operators and ada-like control structures, combined with prototype-style single-inheritance."
# Features.
The language has explicit exception handling control flow, as well as traditional looping constructs. A verb and property hierarchy provides default values to prototype objects, with over-riding values lower in the hierarchy. This hierarchy of objects is maintained through delegation to an object's "parent" property, resulting in a form of single inheritance. Special security-related attributes of objects, verbs, and properties include ownership, and read, write and execute flags. MOO programs are byte-code compiled, with implicit decompilation when editing,
| 3,123 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
providing a canonical form of programs.
MOO programs are orthogonally persistent through periodic checkpoints. Objects are identified by a unique integer identifier. Unused program data is eliminated through automatic garbage collection (implemented by reference counting). However, MOO objects themselves are not garbage collected and are manually deleted by their owners or superusers (aka wizards) through a process called 'recycling.'
MOO is explicitly a multi-user system and programs (verbs) are contributed by any number of connected users. A distinction is made between the 'driver' (runtime) and 'core' (programs written in the MOO language.) The vast majority of the functionality of a running
| 3,124 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
MOO is handled 'in-core.'
The runtime supports multi-tasking using a retribution based time slicing method. Verbs run with exclusive access to the database, so no explicit locking is necessary to maintain synchronization. Simple TCP/IP messaging (telnet compatible) is used to communicate with client sockets, each of which is identified with a 'player' in the Virtual reality representation system.
The language supports weak references to objects by number, and to properties and verbs through strings. Built-in functions to retrieve lists of properties and verbs exist, giving the language runtime facilities for reflection. The server also contains support for wildcard verb matching, so the same
| 3,125 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
code can easily be used to handle multiple commands with similar names and functions.
Available sequence types in MOO are lists and strings. Both support random access, as well as head and tail operations similar to those available in Lisp. All operations on lists and strings are non-destructive, and all non-object datatypes are immutable. Built-in functions and libraries allow lists to also be used as associative arrays and ordered and unordered sets.
# Syntax.
## Control Structures.
MOO has a very basic set of control structures, with for-in-list being the only "fancy" feature.
# Example Programs.
The classic Hello World Program can be written in MOO as:
A more interesting example:
#
| 3,126 |
20178
|
MOO (programming language)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOO%20(programming%20language)
|
MOO (programming language)
and strings. Both support random access, as well as head and tail operations similar to those available in Lisp. All operations on lists and strings are non-destructive, and all non-object datatypes are immutable. Built-in functions and libraries allow lists to also be used as associative arrays and ordered and unordered sets.
# Syntax.
## Control Structures.
MOO has a very basic set of control structures, with for-in-list being the only "fancy" feature.
# Example Programs.
The classic Hello World Program can be written in MOO as:
A more interesting example:
# See also.
- MOO (game system)
- LPC (programming language)
- Pike (programming language)
- Linden Scripting Language (LSL)
| 3,127 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Manx language
Manx (native name or , pronounced or or ), also known as Manx Gaelic, and also historically spelled Manks, is a member of the Goidelic (Gaelic) language branch of the Celtic languages of the Indo-European language family, that was spoken as a first language by the Manx people on the Isle of Man until the death of the last native speaker, Ned Maddrell, in 1974. Despite this, the language has never fallen completely out of use, with a minority having some knowledge of it; in addition, Manx still has a role as an important part of the island's culture and heritage. Manx has been the subject of language revival efforts with estimates, in 2015, of around 1,800 people with varying levels
| 3,128 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
of second language conversational ability. Since the late 20th century, Manx has become more visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts and a bilingual primary school. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was well-recorded; for example, the Bible had been translated into Manx, and audio recordings had been made of native speakers.
# Names of the language.
## In Manx.
In Manx, the language is called "Gaelg" or "Gailck" (pronounced "gilk" or "gilg" or "gelg" with hard Gs), a word which shares the same etymology as the word "Gaelic", borrowed from Northern Irish. The sister languages of Irish and Scottish Gaelic use "Gaeilge" (dialect variants Gaoluinn,
| 3,129 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Gaedhlag, Gaelge and Gaelic) and "Gàidhlig", respectively, for their languages. As with Irish and Scottish, the form with the definite article is frequently used in Manx, e.g. "y Ghaelg" or "y Ghailck" (Irish "an Ghaeilge", Scottish "a' Ghàidhlig").
To distinguish it from the two other forms of Gaelic, the phrases "Gaelg"/"Gailck Vannin" (Gaelic of Mann) and "Gaelg"/"Gailck Vanninnagh" (Manx Gaelic) also are used. In addition, the nickname "Çhengey ny Mayrey" (the mother tongue/tongue of the mother, lit. the mother's tongue) is occasionally used.
## In English.
The language is usually referred to in English as "Manx". The term "Manx Gaelic" is often used, for example when discussing the relationship
| 3,130 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or to avoid confusion with Anglo-Manx, the form of English spoken on the island. Scottish Gaelic is often referred to in English as simply "Gaelic", but this is less common with Manx and Irish.
A feature of Anglo-Manx deriving from Gaelic is the use of the definite article, e.g. "the Manx", "the Gaelic", in ways not generally seen in standard English.
The word "Manx" is frequently spelled "Manks" in historical sources, particularly those written by natives of the island; the word means "Mannish", and originates from the Old Norse "Mannisk". The name of the island, Man, is frequently spelled "Mann". It is sometimes accompanied
| 3,131 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
by a footnote explaining that it is a two-syllable word, with the stress on the first syllable, "MAN-en". The island is named after the Irish god Manannán mac Lir, thus "Ellan Vannin" (Irish "Oileán Mhannanáin") 'Mannanán's Island'.
# History.
Manx is a Goidelic language, closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. On the whole it is partially mutually intelligible with these, and native speakers of one find it easy to gain passive, and even spoken, competency in the other two.
The earliest known language of the Isle of Man was a form of Brythonic (like modern Welsh, Cornish and Breton). However, the basis of the modern Manx language is Primitive Irish (like modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic).
| 3,132 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
The island lends its name to "Manannán", the Brythonic and Gaelic sea god who is said in myth to have once ruled the island. Primitive Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from the Isle of Man.
On the Isle of Man, the transition from Manx Brythonic to Old Irish (or Manx Gaelic) may have been gradual and appears to have occurred after speakers of Primitive
| 3,133 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Irish settled on the Isle of Man, in large numbers, from about the 5th century AD. Their influence is evident in a change of language in Ogham inscriptions on Man.
It is possible that Old Irish did not survive the conquest and domination of the island by Norse-speaking Vikings, so that modern Manx language may represent a later, revived form (derived from Middle Irish). During the 8th century AD, the Isle of Man, like the people in coastal areas of Scotland and Ireland, was significantly influenced by Norse speakers. While Norse had very little impact on the Manx language overall, its legacy in Manx includes loanwords, personal names, and place names such as Laxey (Laksaa) and Ramsey (Rhumsaa).
By
| 3,134 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
the 10th century, Middle Irish had emerged and was spoken throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
During the later Middle Ages, the Isle of Man fell increasingly under the influence of England, and from then on the English language has been the chief external factor in the development of Manx. Beginning in 1405, Manx experienced even more English influence under the rule of Sir John Stanley. As contact between Manx speakers and Gaelic speakers from Scotland and Ireland declined, the language diverged further from its related neighbours.
In the 17th century, some university students left the Isle of Man to attend school in England. At the same time, teaching in English was required
| 3,135 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
in schools founded by governor Isaac Barrow. Barrow also promoted the use of English in churches; he considered that it was a superior language for reading the Bible; however, because the majority of ministers were monolingual Manx speakers, his views had little practical impact.
Thomas Wilson began his tenure as Bishop of Mann in 1698 and was succeeded by Mark Hildesley. Both men held positive views of Manx; Wilson was the first person to publish a book in Manx, a translation of "The Principles and Duties of Christianity" ("Coyrie Sodjey"), and Hildesley successfully promoted the use of Manx as the language of instruction in schools. The New Testament was first published in Manx in 1767. In
| 3,136 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
the late 18th century, nearly every school was teaching in English. This decline continued into the 19th century, as English gradually became the primary language spoken on the Isle of Man.
In 1848, J. G. Cumming wrote, "there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English." Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of the population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%. Since the language was used by so few people, it had low linguistic "prestige", and parents tended to not teach Manx to their children, thinking
| 3,137 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
it would be useless to them compared with English.
# Revival.
Following the decline in the use of Manx during the nineteenth century, (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the twentieth century, only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on December 27, 1974), but by then a scholarly revival had begun and a few people had started teaching it in schools. The Manx Language Unit was formed in 1992, consisting of three members and headed by Manx Language Officer Brian Stowell, a language enthusiast and fluent speaker, "which was put in charge of all aspects of Manx language teaching and accreditation in schools." This led to an
| 3,138 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
increased interest in studying the Manx language and encouraged a renewed sense of ethnic identity. The revival of Manx has been aided by the recording work done in the twentieth century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera. Also important in preserving the Manx language was work conducted by the late Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of the Manx language. The Manx Language Strategy was released in 2017, outlining a five-year plan for the language's continued revitalisation. Culture Vannin employs a Manx Language Development Officer (Manx: "Yn Greinneyder") to
| 3,139 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
encourage and facilitate the use of the language.
In 2009, UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger declared Manx an extinct language, despite the presence of hundreds of speakers on the Isle of Man. Since then, UNESCO's classification of the language has changed to "critically endangered".
In the 2011 census, 1,823 out of 80,398 Isle of Man residents, or 2.27% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx, an increase of 134 people from the 2001 census. These were spread roughly uniformly over the island: in Douglas 566 people professed an ability to speak, read or write Manx; 179 in Peel, 146 in Onchan, and 149 in Ramsey.
Traditional Manx given names are once again becoming
| 3,140 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
common on the island, especially "Moirrey" and "Voirrey" (Mary, properly pronounced similarly to the Scottish "Moira", but often mispronounced as "Moiree/Voiree" when used as a given name by non-Manx speakers), "Illiam" (William), "Orry" (from the Manx king Godred Crovan of Norse origin), "Breeshey" (also "Breesha") (Bridget), "Aalish" (also "Ealish") (Alice), "Juan" (Jack), "Ean" (Ian), "Joney" (John), "Fenella" (Fionnuala), "Pherick" (Patrick) and "Freya" (from the Norse goddess) remain popular.
# Literature.
Because Manx has never had a large number of speakers, it has never been practical to produce large amounts of written literature. However, a body of oral literature did exist. The
| 3,141 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
"Fianna" tales and others like them are known, including the Manx ballad "Fin as Oshin", commemorating Finn MacCool and Ossian. With the coming of Protestantism, Manx spoken tales slowly disappeared, while a tradition of "carvals" - religious songs or carols - developed with religious sanction.
As far as is known, there was no distinctively Manx written literature before the Reformation. By that time, any presumed literary link with Ireland and Scotland, such as through Irish-trained priests, had been lost. The first published literature in Manx was "The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Coyrie Sodjey)", translated by Bishop of Man Thomas Wilson.
The Book of Common Prayer was translated
| 3,142 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
by John Phillips, the Welsh-born Bishop of Sodor and Man (1605–33). The early Manx script has some similarities with orthographical systems found occasionally in Scotland and in Ireland for the transliteration of Gaelic, such as the Book of the Dean of Lismore, as well as some extensive texts based on English and Scottish English orthographical practices of the time. Little secular Manx literature has been preserved.
The New Testament was first published in 1767. When the Anglican church authorities started to produce written literature in the Manx language in the 18th century, the system developed by John Philips was further "anglicised"; the one feature retained from Welsh orthography was
| 3,143 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
the use of to represent schwa (e.g. "horse" and "help" as well as (e.g. "knowledge"), though it is also used to represent , as in English (e.g. "John" (vocative), "fish").
Other works produced in the 18th and 19th century include catechisms, hymn books and religious tracts. A translation of "Paradise Lost" was made in 1796.
A considerable amount of secular literature has been produced in the 20th and 21st centuries as part of the language revival. In 2006, the first full-length novel in Manx, "Dunveryssyn yn Tooder-Folley" ("The Vampire Murders") was published by Brian Stowell, after being serialised in the press. There is an increasing amount of literature available in the language, and recent
| 3,144 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
publications include Manx versions of the "Gruffalo" and "Gruffalo's Child".
# Official recognition.
Manx is not officially recognised by any national or regional government, although its contribution to Manx culture and tradition is acknowledged by some governmental and non-governmental bodies. For example:
The Standing Orders of the House of Keys provide that: "The proceedings of the House shall be in English; but if a Member at any point pronounces a customary term or sentence in Manx Gaelic or any other language, the Speaker may call upon the Member for a translation." An example was at the sitting on 12 February 2019, when an MHK used the expression "boghtnid", stated to mean "nonsense".
Manx
| 3,145 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony and Manx words are used in official Tynwald publications.
For the purpose of strengthening its contribution to local culture and community, Manx is recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and in the framework of the British-Irish Council.
Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools. The lessons are optional and instruction is provided by the Department of Education's Manx Language Team which teach up to A Level standard.
The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh, a primary school at St John's, has 67 children, as of September 2016, who receive nearly all of their education through the medium
| 3,146 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
of the language. Children who have attended the school have the opportunity to receive some of their secondary education through the language at Queen Elizabeth II High School in Peel.
The playgroup organisation Mooinjer Veggey, which operates the , runs a series of preschool groups that introduce the language.
# Learning the language.
There are an increasing number of resources available for those wanting to learn the language. The Manx Language Development Officer for Culture Vannin manages the Learnmanx.com website which has a wide variety of resources. These include mobile apps a new podcast in Manx, the 1000 words-in-Manx challenge and the Video-a-day in Manx series.
The most recent
| 3,147 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
development on the adult language front is the creation of a new on-line course, Say Something in Manx which has been created in conjunction with the Say Something in Welsh
It is hoped that this will be the main way on-line learners will access the language from now on.
2016 also saw the launch of a new dictionary for learners published by Culture Vannin
## Media.
Two weekly programmes in Manx are available on medium wave on Manx Radio: "Traa dy liooar" on Monday and "Jamys Jeheiney" on Friday. The news in Manx is available on-line from Manx Radio, who have three other weekly programmes that use the language: "Clare ny Gael"; "Shiaght Laa" and "Moghrey Jedoonee".
The "Isle of Man Examiner"
| 3,148 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
has a monthly bilingual column in Manx.
The first film to be made in Manx – the 22-minute-long "Ny Kirree fo Niaghtey" (The Sheep [plural] Under the Snow) – premiered in 1983 and was entered for the 5th Celtic Film and Television Festival in Cardiff in 1984. It was directed by Shorys Y Creayrie (George Broderick) for Foillan Films of Laxey, and is about the background to an early 18th-century folk song. In 2013, a short film, Solace in Wicca, was produced with financial assistance from Culture Vannin, CinemaNX and Isle of Man Film. A series of short cartoons about the life of Cuchulain which were produced by BBC Northern Ireland are available as are a series of cartoons on Manx mythology. Most
| 3,149 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
significant is a 13-part DVD series Manx translation of the award-winning series "Friends and Heroes".
## Signage.
Bilingual road, street, village and town boundary signs are common throughout the Isle of Man. All other road signs are in English only.
Business signage in Manx is gradually being introduced but is not mandated by law.
## The Manx Bible.
The Bible was first produced in Manx by a group of Anglican clergymen on the island. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in 1748. The four Gospels were produced in 1763 and Conaant Noa nyn Jiarn as Saualtagh Yeesey Creest (the New Testament of our Lord & Saviour Jesus Christ) in 1767 by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge
| 3,150 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
(SPCK). In 1772 the Old Testament was translated from Hebrew and printed, together with the Books of Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) from the Apocrypha. Yn Vible Casherick (The Holy Bible) of the Old and New Testaments was published as one book by the SPCK in 1775. The bicentenary was celebrated on the Isle of Man in 1975 and included a set of stamps from the Isle of Man Post Office.
This 1775 edition effectively fixed the modern orthography of Manx Gaelic, which has changed little since. Jenner claims that some bowdlerisation had occurred in the translation, e.g. the occupation of Rahab the prostitute is rendered as "ben-oast", a hostess or female inn-keeper.
There was a translation
| 3,151 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
of the Psalmyn Ghavid (Psalms of David) in metre in Manx by the Rev John Clague, vicar of Rushen, which was printed with the Book of Common Prayer of 1768. Bishop Hildesley required that these Metrical Psalms were to be sung in churches. These were reprinted by the Manx Language Society in 1905.
The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) published the Conaant Noa (New Testament) in 1810 and reprinted it in 1824. Yn Vible Casherick (the Holy Bible) of the Old Testament and New Testament (without the two books of the Apocrypha) was first printed as a whole in 1819. BFBS last printed anything on paper in Manx in 1936 when it reprinted Noo Ean (the Gospel of St John); this was reprinted by Yn
| 3,152 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Çheshaght Ghailckagh (The Manx Gaelic Society) in 1968. The Manx Bible was republished by Shearwater Press in July 1979 as Bible Chasherick yn Lught Thie (Manx Family Bible), which was a reproduction of the BFBS 1819 Bible.
Since 2014 the BFBS 1936 Manx Gospel of John has been available online on YouVersion and Bibles.org.
## Church.
Manx was used in some churches into the late 19th century. Although church services in Manx were once fairly common, they occur infrequently now. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh, the Manx Language Society, hold an annual Christmas Service at locations around the island.
# Classification and dialects.
Manx is one of the three descendants of Old Irish (via Middle Irish
| 3,153 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
and early Modern Gaelic), and is closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with Irish and Scottish Gaelic (in some cases only with dialects of these) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two attested dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and Southern Manx. A third dialect may have existed in-between, around Douglas.
Manx shares with Scottish Gaelic the partial loss of contrastive palatalisation of labial consonants; thus while in Irish the velarised consonants contrast phonemically with palatalised , in Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the phonemic contrast has been lost to some extent. A consequence of this phonemic
| 3,154 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final (spelled "-(a)ibh", "-(a)imh" in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with ("-(e)abh", "-(e)amh") in Manx; both have become , spelled "-oo" or "-u(e)". Examples include ("to stand"; Irish ), ("religion"; Irish ), ("fainting"; Early Modern Irish , lit. "in clouds"), and ("on you (plural)"; Irish ).
Medial and final *bh and *mh have become and in general in Manx, thus "shiu" 'you PL', Scottish and Irish Gaelic "sibh" ("siph" in Northern Irish, "sib" in South Connacht Irish; Lewis Gàidhlig has the variant "siù", besides the more general "sibh"), -bh in final consonant clusters, e.g. Manx "sharroo" 'bitter', Scottish "searbh" , Northern and Western Irish
| 3,155 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
"searbh" , Southern Irish "searbh" , between vowels, e.g. Manx "awin" 'river' , Scottish "abhainn" , Irish "abhainn" , word-finally in monosyllables, e.g. Manx "laaue" 'hand', Scottish "làmh" , Northern Irish , Western Irish "lámh" , Southern Irish , at the end of stressed syllables (see further below), as in "sourey" 'summer', Scotland and Ireland "samhradh", Scottish , Northern Irish , Western and Southern Irish . In all this Manx is most like Northern Irish. Rare retentions of the older pronunciation of "bh" include "Divlyn", "Divlin" 'Dublin', Middle Irish "Duibhlinn" , also written "Duibhlinn" in Modern Irish and Scots Gaelic.
Moreover, similarly to Munster Irish, historical "bh" and "mh"
| 3,156 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
(nasalised ) tend to be lost in the middle or at the end of a word in Manx, either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as u resulting in diphthongisation with the preceding vowel. For example, Manx ("winter") and ("mountains") correspond to Irish and (Southern Irish dialect spelling and pronunciation "gíre" () and "sléte" ()). Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs before velarised consonants (spelled "ao" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to in many words, as in ("carpenter") and ("narrow") (spelled and in Irish and Scottish, and pronounced virtually the same in Munster).
Like western and northern dialects of Irish (cf. Irish phonology) and
| 3,157 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical consonant clusters to . For example, Middle Irish ("mockery") and ("women") have become and respectively in Manx. The affrication of to is also common to Manx, northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.
Also like northern and western dialects of Irish, as well as like southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran, Kintyre), the unstressed word-final syllable of Middle Irish (spelled "-(a)idh" and "-(a)igh") has developed to in Manx, where it is spelled "-ee", as in ("buy"; cf. Irish ) and ("apparatus"; cf. Gaelic ).
Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that rather than appears in
| 3,158 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
unstressed syllables before (in Manx spelling, "agh"), for example ("straight") (Irish ), ("to remember") (Gaelic ).
Like southern and western varieties of Irish and northern varieties of Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants. For example, ("children") , ("brown") , ("butter") correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic , , and respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in western and southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye, thus western Irish , Southern Irish/Northern Scottish , , ),
| 3,159 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
but short vowels and 'long' consonants in northern Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, , and .
Another similarity with southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed , spelled "-(e)adh" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. In nouns (including verbal nouns), this became in Manx, as it did in southern Irish, e.g. ("war") , ("to praise") ; cf. Irish and , pronounced and in southern Irish. In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) became in Manx, as in southern Irish, e.g. ("would praise"), cf. Irish , pronounced in southern Irish.
Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the northern and the southern
| 3,160 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
parts of the island. Northern Manx is reflected by speakers from towns and villages from Maughold in the northeast of the island to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx is used by speakers from the Sheading of Rushen. It is possible that written Manx represents a 'midlands' dialect of Douglas and surrounding areas.
In Southern Manx, older "á" and in some cases "ó" have become . In Northern Manx the same happens, but "á" sometimes remains as well. For example, ("day", cf. Irish ) is in the south but or in the north. Old "ó" is always in both dialects, e.g. ("young", cf. Irish ) is in both dialects. In many words before "rt", "rd" and "rg", and in one or two other words "á", lengthened "a" and
| 3,161 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
"ó" have become /œ:/, as in "paayrt" 'part' /pœ:rt/, "ard" 'high' /œ:rd/, "jiarg" 'red' /dʒœ:rg/, "argid" 'money, silver' /œ:rgid/ and "aarey" 'gold GEN' /œ:rə/.
In Northern Manx, older "(e)a" before "nn" in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong. For example, ("head", cf. Irish ) is in the north but in the south.
Words with "ua" and in some cases "ao" in Irish and Scottish are spelled with "eay" in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound is , while in Southern Manx it is , , or . For example, ("wind", cf. Irish ) is in the north and in the south, while ("coal", cf. Irish ) is in the north and , , or in the south.
In both the north
| 3,162 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
and the south, there is a tendency to insert a short sound before a word-final in monosyllabic words, as in for ("whole") and for ("woman"). This phenomenon is known as pre-occlusion. In Southern Manx, however, there is pre-occlusion of before and of before , as in for ("walking") and for ("ship"). These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the north. Preocclusion of before , on the other hand, is more common in the north, as in ("heavy"), which is in the north but or in the south. This feature is also found in Cornish.
Southern Manx tends to lose word-initial before , while Northern Manx usually preserves it, e.g. ("glen") is in the north and in the south, and ("knee") is
| 3,163 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
in the north and in the south.
# Phrases.
Some simple conversational words and phrases:
# Orthography.
The Manx orthography is unlike that of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, both of which use similar spelling systems derived from written Early Modern Irish, which was language of the educated Gaelic elite of both Ireland and Scotland (where it was called Classical Gaelic) until the mid-19th century. In general, these orthographies retain spelling and derivation from older Gaelic, which means that there is not in a one-to-one system. Both systems use only 18 letters to represent around 50 phonemes. While Manx in effect uses the English spelling system, except for and , the 24 letters used in its
| 3,164 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
orthography likewise do not cover a similar range of phonemes, and therefore many digraphs and trigraphs are used.
The Manx orthography was developed by people who were unaware of traditional Gaelic orthography, as they had learned literacy in Welsh and English (the initial development in the 16th century), then only English (later developments). Therefore, the orthography is based on early Modern English pronunciation, and to a small extent Welsh, rather than from a pan-Gaelic point of view. The result is an inconsistent and only partially phonemic spelling system, in a similar way as spelling in English. T. F. O'Rahilly expressed the opinion that Gaelic in the Isle of Man was saddled with
| 3,165 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
an inadequate spelling which is neither traditional nor phonetic; if the traditional Gaelic orthography had been preserved, the close kinship that exists between Manx Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic would be obvious to all at first sight.
There is no evidence of Gaelic script having been used on the island.
## Cedilla.
Manx uses relatively few diacritics, but a cedilla is often (but not exclusively) used to differentiate between the two pronunciations of "ch":
- "Çhiarn" (), meaning "lord", is pronounced with the palato-alveolar affricate , as in the English "church"
- "Chamoo" (), meaning "nor" or "neither", is pronounced with the velar fricative , as in the Scottish pronunciation of the word
| 3,166 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
"loch" (), a sound which is commonly represented by "gh" at the ends of words in Manx (as it often is in the English of Ireland).
## Examples.
The following examples are taken from Broderick 1984–86, 1:178–79 and 1:350–53. The first example is from a speaker of Northern Manx, the second from Ned Maddrell, a speaker of Southern Manx.
### Gaelic versions of the Lord's Prayer.
The Lord's Prayer has been translated into all the Goidelic tongues. Although the wordings are not completely cognate, they demonstrate the different orthographies.
# Phonology.
## Consonants.
The consonant phonemes of Manx are as follows:
The voiceless plosives are pronounced with aspiration. The dental, postalveolar
| 3,167 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
and palato-velar plosives are affricated to in many contexts.
Manx has an optional process of lenition of plosives between vowels, whereby voiced plosives and voiceless fricatives become voiced fricatives and voiceless plosives become either voiced plosives or voiced fricatives. This process introduces the allophones to the series of voiced fricatives in Manx. The voiced fricative may be further lenited to , and may disappear altogether. Examples include:
- Voiceless plosive to voiced plosive
- : "flag, rag"
- : "sin"
- Voiceless plosive to voiced fricative
- : "cup"
- : "boat"
- : "tooth"
- Voiced plosive to voiced fricative
- : "horse"
- : "face"
- : "prayer"
- : "stick"
-
| 3,168 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
: "born"
- Voiceless fricative to voiced fricative
- or : "married"
- : "stand"
- : "easy"
- : "beginning"
- : "live"
- ∅: "past"
Another optional process of Manx phonology is pre-occlusion, the insertion of a very short plosive consonant before a sonorant consonant. In Manx, this applies to stressed monosyllabic words (i.e. words one syllable long). The inserted consonant is homorganic with the following sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. Examples include:
- : "heavy"
- : "head"
- : "birds"
- : "ship"
- : "walking"
The trill is realised as a one- or two-contact flap at the
| 3,169 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
beginning of syllable, and as a stronger trill when preceded by another consonant in the same syllable. At the end of a syllable, can be pronounced either as a strong trill or, more frequently, as a weak fricative , which may vocalise to a nonsyllabic or disappear altogether. This vocalisation may be due to the influence of Manx English, which is itself a non-rhotic accent. Examples of the pronunciation of include:
- "snare"
- "bread"
- "big"
## Vowels.
The vowel phonemes of Manx are as follows:
The status of and as separate phonemes is debatable, but is suggested by the allophony of certain words such as "is", "women", and so on. An alternative analysis is that Manx has the following
| 3,170 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
system, where the vowels and have allophones ranging from through to . As with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there is a large amount of vowel allophony, such as that of . This depends mainly on the 'broad' and 'slender' status of the neighbouring consonants:
When stressed, is realised as .
Manx has a relatively large number of diphthongs, all of them falling:
## Stress.
Stress generally falls on the first syllable of a word in Manx, but in many cases, stress is attracted to a long vowel in the second syllable. Examples include:
- "sprite"
- "busy"
- "royal"
- "advantage"
# Morphology.
## Initial consonant mutations.
Like all modern Celtic languages, Manx shows initial consonant mutations,
| 3,171 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment. Manx has two mutations: lenition and eclipsis, found on nouns and verbs in a variety of environments; adjectives can undergo lenition but not eclipsis. In the late spoken language of the 20th century the system was breaking down, with speakers frequently failing to use mutation in environments where it was called for, and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for.
In the corpus of the late spoken language, there is also one example of the eclipsis (nasalisation) of : the sentence ("I have found the lamb"), where "ng" is pronounced . However,
| 3,172 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
probably this was a mis-transcription; the verbal noun in this case is not "get, fetch", but rather "find".
## Nouns.
Manx nouns fall into one of two genders, masculine or feminine. Nouns are inflected for number. The plural is formed in a variety of ways, most commonly by addition of the suffix , but also by vowel change, changing to or or by adding other endings. There is usually no inflection for case, except in a minority of nouns that have a distinct genitive singular form, which is formed in various ways. (Most common is the addition of the suffix "-ey" to feminine nouns.) Historical genitive singulars are often encountered in compounds even when they are no longer productive forms;
| 3,173 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
for example "cowhouse" uses the old genitive of "cattle". There are also traces of a dative singular in set phrases such as "on foot", contrasting with nominative and genitive (cf. "footwear", "football, soccer, rugby").
## Adjectives.
Certain adjectives have plural as well as singular forms (through the addition "-ey" ), although the use of the singular adjective with a plural noun is usual. Most adjectives end in "-agh" and form their comparative/superlative form by replacing this with "-ee" , e.g. "atçhimagh" "terrible" becomes "atçhimee", giving "ny s'atçhimee" "more terrible" and "s'atçhimee" "most terrible". As in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the comparative-superlative is commonly marked
| 3,174 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
by the copula verb "s" ("is") in the present, and "by" in the past; the superlative is often shown by the word "nys" /nis/, from Middle Irish "ní as" "thing that is" (cf. Irish "níos", past "ní ba"). A number of adjectives form their comparative/superlative irregularly:
The comparative/superlative can also be formed using "more" with the positive form e.g. = .
## Pronouns.
In common with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, in addition to its regular personal pronouns, Manx has also a series used for emphasis. Under certain phonological circumstances, these can be used as unemphatic pronouns, e.g. "you were not" is as sounds too similar to "they/he/she was not".
Notice the only difference between
| 3,175 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
the masculine and feminine third person singular possessive pronouns is the initial sound change, namely lenition and h-prefixing, they cause, e.g. "her laptop", "his laptop", "e ooh" "his egg", "e hooh" "her egg".
An alternative to using the possessive pronouns is to precede a noun with the definite article and follow it with the inflected form of "at" to show the person, e.g. "my house" (literally "the house at me") instead of "my house". This is especially useful in the plural, where all persons share one possessive pronoun, e.g. "their house", as opposed to "our/your/their house".
1. Causes lenition.
2. Causes eclipsis.
## Verbs.
Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means
| 3,176 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs "to be" or "to do" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite, and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx. Examples:
The future and conditional tenses (and in some irregular verbs, the preterite) make a distinction between "independent" and "dependent" forms. Independent forms are used when the verb is not preceded by any particle; dependent forms are used when a particle (e.g. "not") does precede the verb. For example, "you will lose" is with the independent form ("will lose"),
| 3,177 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
while "you will not lose" is with the dependent form (which has undergone eclipsis to after ). Similarly "they went" is with the independent form ("went"), while "they did not go" is with the dependent form . This contrast is inherited from Old Irish, which shows such pairs as ("(s)he carries") vs. ("(s)he does not carry"), and is found in Scottish Gaelic as well, e.g. ("will take") vs. ("will not take"). In Modern Irish, the distinction is found only in irregular verbs (e.g. ("saw") vs. ("did not see").
The fully inflected forms of the regular verb "to throw" are as follows. In addition to the forms below, a past participle may be formed using : "thrown".
1. First person singular, making
| 3,178 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
2. First person plural, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
3. Used with all other persons, meaning an accompanying subject must be stated, e.g. "he will throw", "they will throw"
There are a few peculiarities when a verb begins with a vowel, i.e. the addition of in the preterite and in the future and conditional dependent. Below is the conjugation of "to grow".
1. may also be spelt when pronounced i.e. before a slender vowel, e.g. "ate" can be either or .
These peculiarties extend to verbs begins with f, e.g. "to leave".
1. Again, may also be spelt where appropriate.
A number of verbs are irregular in their inflection.
1.
| 3,179 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Future relative:
2. Future relative:
The most common and most irregular verb in Manx is "to be", often used as an auxiliary verb. In addition to the usual inflected tenses, also has a present tense. The full conjugation of "to be" is as follows.
## Adverbs.
Manx adverbs can be formed from adjectives by means of the word ( Middle Irish "go" "with, until"), e.g. "good", "well" (CF. Irish "maith", "go maith", Gaelic "math", "gu maith"); "cheerful", "cheerfully". This is not used when preceded by such words as "too" and "very" or followed by "enough", e.g. "very good, very well", "cheerful(ly) enough". The prepositional phrase for "home(wards)" is formed with "to" and the noun "place, town,
| 3,180 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
homestead" to give , Cf. Irish "abhaile", older "do bhaile", whereas the noun "house, home" can be used unchanged to convey the same meaning.
The language has a number of adverbs corresponding to English "up" and "down", the meaning of which depend upon such things as motion or lack thereof and starting point in relation to the speaker.
Examples of practical usage are "There's a man down the street" and "I'm going down the street", "Climb up (towards me)" and "Climb up (away from me)".
## Prepositions.
Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has so-called inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object, as the following common prepositions show.
| 3,181 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
Note the sometimes identical form of the uninflected preposition and its third person singular masculine inflected form.
In addition to the above "simple" prepositions, Manx has a number of prepositional phrases based on a noun; being based on nouns, the possessive personal pronouns are used to refer to what would in English be pronominal prepositional objects. This also happens in English phrases such as "for my sake".
Alternative conjugation patterns are sometimes found with these more complex prepositions using inflected prepositions, e.g. for "concerning me", "for our sake" instead of "for our/your/their sake".
# Syntax.
Like most Insular Celtic languages, Manx uses verb–subject–object
| 3,182 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
word order: the inflected verb of a sentence precedes the subject, which itself precedes the direct object. However, as noted above, most finite verbs are formed periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb in conjunction with the verbal noun. In this case, only the auxiliary verb precedes the subject, while the verbal noun comes after the subject. The auxiliary verb may be a modal verb rather than a form of ("be") or ("do"). Particles like the negative ("not") precede the inflected verb. Examples:
When the auxiliary verb is a form of ("do"), the direct object precedes the verbal noun and is connected to it with the particle :
As in Irish (cf. Irish syntax#The forms meaning "to be"), there are
| 3,183 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
two ways of expressing "to be" in Manx: with the substantive verb , and with the copula. The substantive verb is used when the predicate is an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase. Examples:
Where the predicate is a noun, it must be converted to a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition ("in") + possessive pronoun (agreeing with the subject) in order for the substantive verb to be grammatical:
Otherwise, the copula is used when the predicate is a noun. The copula itself takes the form or in the present tense, but it is often omitted in affirmative statements:
In questions and negative sentences, the present tense of the copula is :
# Vocabulary.
Manx vocabulary is predominantly
| 3,184 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
of Goidelic origin, derived from Old Irish and closely related to words in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. However, Manx itself, as well as the languages from which it is derived, borrowed words from other languages as well, especially Latin, Old Norse, French (particularly Anglo-Norman), and English (both Middle English and Modern English).
The following table shows a selection of nouns from the Swadesh list and indicates their pronunciations and etymologies.
See Celtic Swadesh lists for the complete list in all the Celtic languages.
## Loanwords.
Foreign loanwords are primarily Norse and English, with a smaller number coming from French. Some examples of Norse loanwords are "garey" ("garden",
| 3,185 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
from "garðr", "enclosure") and "sker" meaning a sea rock (from "sker", compare with "skjær" and "sker"). Examples of French loanwords are "danjeyr" ("danger", from "danger") and "vondeish" ("advantage", from "avantage").
English loanwords were common in late (pre-revival) Manx, e.g. "boy" ("boy"), "badjer" ("badger"), rather than the more usual Gaelic "guilley" and "brock". Henry Jenner, on asking someone what he was doing, was told "Ta mee smokal pipe" ("I am smoking a pipe"), and that "[he] certainly considered that he was talking Manx, and not English, in saying it." In more recent years, there has been a reaction against such borrowing, resulting in coinages for technical vocabulary. Despite
| 3,186 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
this, calques exist in Manx, not necessarily obvious to its speakers.
Some religious terms come ultimately from Latin, Greek and Hebrew, e.g. "casherick" (holy), from the Latin "consecrātus"; "mooinjer" (people) from the Latin "monasterium" (originally a monastery; "agglish" (church) from the Greek "ἐκκλησία" ("ekklesia", literally meaning assembly) and "abb" (abbot) from the Hebrew "אבא" ("abba", meaning "father"). These did not necessarily come directly into Manx, but via Old Irish. In more recent times, "ulpan" has been borrowed from modern Hebrew. Many Irish and English loanwords also have a classical origin, e.g. "çhellveeish" (Irish "teilefís") and "çhellvane" meaning television and telephone
| 3,187 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
respectively. Foreign language words (usually known via English) are used occasionally especially for ethnic food, e.g. chorizo, spaghetti.
To fill gaps in recorded Manx vocabulary, revivalists have referred to modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic for words and inspiration.
Going in the other direction, Manx Gaelic has influenced Manx English (Anglo-Manx). Common words and phrases in Anglo-Manx originating in the language include "tholtan" (the "th" is pronounced as a "t") meaning a ruined farmhouse, "quaaltagh" meaning a first-foot, "keeill" meaning a church (especially an old one), "cammag", "traa-dy-liooar" meaning "time enough", and Tynwald ("tinvaal"), which is ultimately of Norse origin,
| 3,188 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
but comes via Manx. It is suggested that the House of Keys takes its name from "Kiare as Feed" (four and twenty), which is the number of its sitting members.
# See also.
- Cornish, another revived Celtic language.
- Irish language revival
- List of Celtic-language media
- List of revived languages
- List of television channels in Celtic languages
# External links.
- Percentage of resident population with a knowledge of Manx Gaelic
- A bit of Manx Gaelic history
- Manx language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot
- Information about the language
- isle-of-man.com language section
- Manx dictionaries via Multidict
- Online Manx Lessons with MP3 recordings
- Bilingual Bible in
| 3,189 |
20143
|
Manx language
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language
|
Manx language
ee also.
- Cornish, another revived Celtic language.
- Irish language revival
- List of Celtic-language media
- List of revived languages
- List of television channels in Celtic languages
# External links.
- Percentage of resident population with a knowledge of Manx Gaelic
- A bit of Manx Gaelic history
- Manx language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot
- Information about the language
- isle-of-man.com language section
- Manx dictionaries via Multidict
- Online Manx Lessons with MP3 recordings
- Bilingual Bible in Manx and English by the Manx Language Project
- Manx: Bringing a language back from the dead
- Media article about the Manx revival
- Manx free online course
| 3,190 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
Mariner 4
Mariner 4 (together with Mariner 3 known as Mariner–Mars 1964) was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth. Launched on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world, largely changed the scientific community's view of life on Mars. Other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements
| 3,191 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
in interplanetary space in the vicinity of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration. On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated.
# Spacecraft and subsystems.
The Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame, 127 cm across a diagonal and 45.7 cm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end-to-end span of 6.88 meters, including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends. A 116.8 cm diameter high-gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a seven-foot, four inch
| 3,192 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
(223.5 cm) tall mast next to the high-gain antenna. The overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 meters. The octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system, and attitude control gas supplies and regulators.
The scientific instruments included:
- A helium magnetometer, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna, to measure the magnitude and other characteristics of the interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields.
- An ionization chamber/Geiger counter, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna nearer the body of the spacecraft, to measure the charged-particle intensity and distribution in interplanetary space
| 3,193 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
and in the vicinity of Mars.
- A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the solar direction, to measure the intensity and direction of low-energy particles.
- A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in anti-solar direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons and alpha particles.
- A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, to measure the very low energy charged particle flux from the Sun.
- A cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction
| 3,194 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
of cosmic dust.
- A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of Mars. This subsystem consisted of 4 parts, a Cassegrain telescope with a 1.05° by 1.05° field of view, a shutter and red/green filter assembly with 0.08s and 0.20s exposure times, a slow scan vidicon tube which translated the optical image into an electrical video signal, and the electronic systems required to convert the analogue signal into a digital bitstream for transmission.
The electric power for the instruments and the radio transmitter of Mariner 4 was supplied by 28,224 solar cells contained in the four 176 x 90 cm solar panels, which
| 3,195 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
could provide 310 watts at the distance of Mars. A rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with thrust, installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure. The space probe's attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 square meter (seven ft²), were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, depending on the time in its spaceflight.
| 3,196 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
Mariner 4 was the first space probe that needed a star for a navigational reference object, since earlier missions, which remained near either the Earth, the Moon, or the planet Venus, had sighted onto either the bright face of the home planet or the brightly lit target. During this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto. Another bright source at a wide angle away from the Sun was needed and Canopus filled this requirement. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a reference point in many following missions.
The telecommunications equipment on Mariner 4 consisted of dual S-band transmitters (with either a seven-watt triode cavity amplifier or a ten watt traveling-wave tube
| 3,197 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
amplifier) and a single radio receiver which together could send and receive data via the low- and high-gain antennas at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bits per second. Data could also be stored onto a magnetic tape recorder with a capacity of 5.24 million bits for later transmission. All electronic operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of 29 direct command words or three quantitative word commands for mid-course maneuvers. The central computer and sequencer operated stored time-sequence commands using a 38.4 kHz synchronization frequency as a time reference. Temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies, plus
| 3,198 |
20175
|
Mariner 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204
|
Mariner 4
multilayer insulating blankets, polished aluminum shields, and surface treatments. Other measurements that could be made included:
- Radio occultation
- Celestial mechanics based on precision tracking
# Mission profile.
## Launch.
After Mariner 3 was a total loss due to failure of the payload shroud to jettison, JPL engineers suggested that there had been a malfunction caused during separation of the metal fairing exterior from the fiberglass inner lining due to pressure differences between the inner and outer part of the shroud and that this could have caused the spring-loaded separation mechanism to become tangled and fail to detach properly.
Testing at JPL confirmed this failure mode
| 3,199 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.