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Frederick Denison Maurice
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Frederick Denison Maurice
of Commons that praised Maurice as a "model Royal Commissioner". Close ended his monograph with these words: "Professor Maurice remained firmly and conscientiously opposed to the Acts to the very last."
Final years
In spite of terminal illness, Maurice continued giving his professorial lectures, trying to know his students personally and completing his "Metaphysical and Moral Philosophy" (2 vols., 1871–1872). He also continued preaching (at Whitehall from November 1871 to January 1872 and two university sermons in November). His final sermon was 11 February 1872 in St Edward's. On 30 March he resigned from St Edward's. Very weak and mentally depressed, on Easter Monday, 1 April 1872, after
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receiving Holy Communion, with great effort he pronounced the blessing, became unconscious and died.
## Conflicting opinions of Maurice's thinking.
In a letter of 2 April 1833 to Richard Chenevix Trench, Maurice lamented the current "spirit" of "conflicting opinions" that "cramps our energies" and "kills our life". In spite of his lamenting "contradictory opinions," that term precisely described reactions to Maurice.
Maurice's writings, lectures, and sermons spawned conflicting opinions. Julius Hare considered him "the greatest mind since Plato", but John Ruskin thought him "by nature puzzle-headed and indeed wrong-headed;" while John Stuart Mill considered that “there was more intellectual
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power wasted in Maurice than in any other of my contemporaries”.
Hugh Walker in a study of Victorian literature found other examples of conflicting opinions.
- Charles Kingsley pronounced Maurice "a great and rare thinker".
- Aubrey Thomas de Vere compared listening to Maurice to "eating pea-soup with a fork".
- Matthew Arnold spoke of Maurice as "always beating the bush with profound emotion, but never starting the hare."
One important literary and theological figure who was favorably impressed by Maurice was Charles Dodgson, also known as Lewis Carroll. Dodgson wrote about attending morning and afternoon services at Vere Street at which Maurice preached both times with the comment, "I
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like his sermons very much". Maurice held the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street from 1860–1869.
M. E. Grant Duff in his diary for 22 April 1855, wrote that he "went, as usual about this time, to hear F.D. Maurice preach at Lincoln's Inn. I suppose I must have heard him, first and last, some thirty or forty times, and never carried away one clear idea, or even the impression that he had more than the faintest conception of what he himself meant."
John Henry Newman described Maurice as a man of "great power" and of "great earnestness". However, Newman found Maurice so "hazy" that he "lost interest in his writings."
In the United States, "The National Quarterly Review and Religious
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Magazine, Volume 38" (January 1879), contained this appreciation of Maurice.
"Mr. Maurice's characteristics are well known and becoming every year more highly appreciated—broad catholicity, keeness of insight, powerful mental grasp, fearlessness of utterance and devoutness of spirit."
Leslie Stephen in The English Utilitarians,Vol 3, John Stuart Mill. 1900., Wrote " Maurice is equally opposed to the sacerdotalism which makes the essence of religion consist in a magical removal of penalties instead of a'regeneration' of the nature. He takes what may be vaguely called the 'subjective' view of religion, and sympathises with Schleiermacher's statement that piety is 'neither a knowing nor a doing,
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but an inclination and determination of the feelings' ".
# Social activism.
"The demand for political and economic righteousness is one of the principal themes of Maurice's theology." Maurice practiced his theology by going "quietly on bearing the chief burthen of some of the most important social movements of the time."
Living in London the "condition of the poor pressed upon him with consuming force." Working men trusted him when they distrusted other clergymen and the church. Working men attended Bible classes and meetings led by Maurice whose theme was "moral edification."
Christian socialism
Maurice was affected by the "revolutionary movements of 1848", especially the march on Parliament,
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but he believed that "Christianity rather than secularist doctrines was the only sound foundation for social reconstruction."
Maurice "disliked competition as fundamentally unchristian, and wished to see it, at the social level, replaced by co-operation, as expressive of Christian brotherhood." In 1849, Maurice joined other Christian socialist in an attempt to mitigate competition by the creation of co-operative societies. He viewed co-operative societies as "a modern application of primitive Christian communism." Twelve cooperative workshops were to be launched in London. However, even with subsidy by Edward Vansittart Neale many turned out to be unprofitable. Nevertheless, the effort effected
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lasting consequences as seen in the following sub-section on the "Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations"
In 1854, there were eight Co-operative Productive Associations in London and fourteen in the Provinces. These included breweries, flour mills, tailors, hat makers, builders, printers, engineers. Others were formed in the following decades. Some of them failed after several years, some lasted a longer time, some were replaced.
Maurice's perception of a need for a moral and social regeneration of society led him into Christian socialism. From 1848 until 1854 (when the movement came to an end), he was a leader of the Christian Socialist Movement. He insisted that "Christianity is
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the only foundation of Socialism, and that a true Socialism is the necessary result of a sound Christianity."
Maurice has been characterized as "the "spiritual" leader" of the Christian socialists because he was more interested in disseminating its theological foundations than "their practical endeavours." Maurice once wrote,Let people call me merely a philosopher, or merely anything else…. My business, because I am a theologian, and have no vocation except for theology, is not to build, but to dig, to show that economics and politics … must have a ground beneath themselves, and that society was not to be made by any arrangements of ours, but is to be regenerated by finding the law and ground
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of its order and harmony, the only secret of its existence, in God.
Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations
Early in 1850 the Christian socialists started a working men’s association for tailors in London, followed by associations for other trades. To promote this movement, a Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations (SPWMA) was founded with Maurice as a founding member and head of its a "central board". At first, the SPWMA's work was merely propagating the idea of associations by publishing tracts. Then it undertook the practical project of establishing the Working Men's College because educated workers were essential for successful co-operative societies. With that ingredient
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more of the associations succeeded; others still failed or were replaced by a later "cooperative movement. The lasting legacy of the Christian socialists was that, in 1852, they influenced the passage of an act in Parliament which gave "a legal status to co-operative bodies" such as working men's associations. The SPWMA "flourished in the years from 1849 to 1853, or thereabouts."
The original mission of the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations was "to diffuse the principles of co-operation as the practical application of Christianity to the purposes of trade and industry." The goal was forming associations by which working men and their families could enjoy "the whole produce of
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their labour."
In testimony from representatives of "Co-operative Societies" during 1892–1893 to the Royal Commission on Labour for the House of Commons, one witness applauded the contribution of Christian socialists to the "present cooperative movement" by their formulating the idea in the 1850s. The witness specifically cited "Maurice, Kingsley, Ludlow, Neale, and Hughes."
# Legacy.
That Maurice left a legacy that would be valued by many was harbingered by responses to his death. "Crowds following his remains to their last resting place, and around the open grave there stood men of widely different creeds, united for the moment by the common sorrow and their deep sense of loss. From pulpit
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and press, from loyal friends and honest opponents, the tribute to the worth of Mr. Maurice was both sincere and generous."
## Personal legacy.
Maurice’s close friends were "deeply impressed with the spirituality of his character". His wife observed that whenever Maurice was awake in the night, he was "always praying." Charles Kingsley called him "the most beautiful human soul whom God has ever allowed me to meet with."
Maurice’s life comprised "contradictory elements".
## Teaching legacy.
As a professor at King's College and at Cambridge, Maurice attracted "a band of earnest students" to whom he gave two things. He taught them from the knowledge he had gained by his comprehensive reading.
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More importantly, Maurice instilled in students "the habit of inquiry and research" and a "desire for knowledge and the process of independent thought."
## Written legacy.
Maurice's written legacy includes "nearly 40 volumes", and they hold "a permanent place in the history of thought in his time." His writings are "recognizable as the utterance of a mind profoundly Christian in all its convictions."
By themselves, two of Maurice's books, "The Kingdom of Christ" (1838 and later editions) and "Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy" (2 volumes, 1871–1872), are "remarkable enough to have made their writer famous." But there more reasons for Maurice's fame. In his "life-work" Maurice was "constantly
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teaching, writing, guiding, organizing; training up others to do the same kind of work, but giving them something of his spirit, never simply his views." He drew out "all the best that was in others, never trying to force himself upon them." With his opponents, Maurice tried to find some "common ground" between them. None who knew him personally "could doubt that he was indeed a man of God."
In "The Kingdom of Christ" Maurice viewed the true church as a united body that transcended the "diversities and partialities of its individual members, factions, and sects". The true church had six signs: "baptism, creeds, set forms of worship, the eucharist, an ordained ministry, and the Bible." Maurice's
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ideas were reflected a half-century later by William Reed Huntington and the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral. The modern ecumenical movement also incorporated Maurice's ideas contained in his "The Kingdom of Christ".
## Decline and revival of interest in legacy.
Interest in the vast legacy of writings bequeathed by Maurice declined even before his death. Hugh Walker, a fellow academic, predicted in 1910 that neither of Maurice's major works, his "Theological Essays" (1853) and his "Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy" (1871–1872), will "stand the test of time." However, "this phase of neglect has passed."
"Since World War II there has been a revival of interest in Maurice as a theologian." During
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this period, twenty-three (some only in part) books about Maurice have been published as can be seen in the References section of this article.
Maurice is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer on 1 April as "Frederick Denison Maurice, Priest, 1872" and a brief biography is included in the church's "Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints".
Despite Maurice's dismissal by King's College after the publication of his "Theological Essays", "a chair at King's, the F D Maurice Professorship of Moral and Social Theology, now commemorates his contribution to scholarship at the College."
King's College also established
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"The FD Maurice Lectures" in 1933 in honour of Maurice. Maurice, who was Professor of English Literature and History (1840–1846) and then Professor of Theology (1846–1853)."
# Writings.
Maurice's writings result from diligent work on his part. As a rule he "rose early" and did his socializing with friends at breakfast. He dictated his writings until dinner-time. The manuscripts he dictated were "elaborately corrected and rewritten" before publication.
Maurice's writings hold "a permanent place in the history of thought in his time."
Some of the following were "rewritten and in a measure recast, and the date given is not necessarily that of the first appearance." Most of these writings "were
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first delivered as sermons or lectures."
- "Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister"], a novel in three volumes (1834): Volume 1, "Volume 2", and "Volume 3"
- "Subscription no Bondage, Or The Practical Advantages Afforded by the Thirty-nine Articles as Guides in All the Branches of Academical Education" under the pseudonym Rusticus (1835)
- "The Kingdom of Christ, or Hints to a Quaker, respecting the principles, constitution and ordinances of the Catholic Church" (1838)"Volume 1" "Volume 2"
- "Has the Church or the State power to Educate the Nation?" (1839)
- " Reasons for Not Joining a Party in the Church; a Letter to S Wilberforce " (1841)
- "Three Letters to the Rev W Palmer on the
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Jerusalem Bishopric" (1842)
- "Right and Wrong Methods of Supporting Protestantism: A Letter to Lord Ashley" (1843)
- "Christmas Day and Other Sermons" (1843)
- "The New Statute and Dr Ward: A Letter to a Non-resident Member of Convocation" (1845)
- "Thoughts on the Rule of Conscientious Subscription" (1845)
- "The Epistle to the Hebrews" (1846)
- "The Religions of the World and Their Relation to Christianity" (1847)
- "Letter on the Attempt to Defeat the Nomination of Dr Hampden" (1847)
- "Thoughts on the Duty of a Protestant on the Present Oxford Election" (1847)
- "The Lord's Prayer: Nine Sermons" (1848)
- "Queen's College, London: its Objects and Methods" in "Queen's College, London:
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its Objects and Methods" (1848)
- "Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy" (at first an article in the "Encyclopædia Metropolitana", 1848) Volume 1 "Ancient Philosophy" Volume 2 "The Christian Fathers" Volume 3 "Mediaeval Philosophy" Volume 4 "Modern Philosophy"
- "The Prayer Book, Considered Especially in Reference to the Romish System" (1849)
- "The Church a Family" (1850)
- "Queen's College, London" in reply to the Quarterly Review (1850)
- "The Old Testament: Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons for the Sundays from Septuagesima" (1851)
- "Sermons on the Sabbath Day, on the Character of the Warrior, and on the Interpretation of History" (1853)
- "The Word Eternal and the Punishment of
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the Wicked: A Letter to Dr Jelf " (1853)
- "Theological Essays" (1853)
- "The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament: a series of sermons" (1853)
- "The Unity of the New Testament: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels and of the Epistles of St. James, St. Jude, St. Peter, and St. Paul" in two volumes (1854)Volume 1 "Volume 2"
- "Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Centuries" (1854)
- "The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced From the Scriptures" (1854)
- "The Unity of the New Testament, a Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, and the Epistles of St James, St Jude, St Peter, and St Paul" in two volumes(1854)
- "The Unity of the New Testament", 1st American ed in one
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volume (1879)
- "Learning and Working: six lectures" and "The Religion of Rome: 4 lectures" (1855)
- "The Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament: a series of sermons" (1855)
- "The Gospel of St John: a series of discourses" (1857)
- "The Epistles of St John: a series of lectures on Christian ethics" (1857)
- "The Eucharist: five sermons" (1857)
- "The Indian Crisis: five sermons" (1857)
- "What is Revelation?: a Series of Sermons on the Epiphany" (1859)
- "Sequel to the Enquiry, What is Revelation?" (1860)
- "Address of Congratulation to the Rev. F. D. Maurice, on His Nomination to St. Peter's, Vere Street; with His Reply Thereto" (1860)
- "Lectures on the Apocalypse, or the
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Book of Revelation of St John the Divine" (1861)
- "Dialogues Between a Clergyman and a Layman on Family Worship" (1862)
- "Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence Between a Layman and the Rev. F. D. Mauhice on Some Questions Arising out of the Controversy Respecting the Pentateuch" (1863)
- "The Conflict of Good and Evil in our Day: twelve letters to a missionary" (1864)
- "The Gospel of the Kingdom of Heaven: a course of lectures on the Gospel of St Luke" (1864)
- "The Commandments Considered as Instruments of National Reformation" (1866)
- "Casuistry, Moral Philosophy, and Moral Theology: inaugural lecture at Cambridge" (1866)
- "The Working Men’s College" (1866)
- "The
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Ground and Object of Hope for Mankind: four university sermons" (1867)
- "The Workman and the Franchise: Chapters from English History on the Representation and Education of the People" (1866)
- "The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry" (1868)
- "Social Morality: twenty-one lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge" (1869)
- "The Lord's Prayer, a Manual" (1870).
- "The Friendship of Books and Other Lectures", ed. T. Hughes (1873)
- "Sermons Peached in Country Churches" (1873)
- "Faith and Action from the Writings of F.D. Maurice" (1886)
- "The Acts of the Apostles: A Course of Sermons" (1894) Preached at St Peter, Vere Street.
# See also.
- Frederick Barton Maurice
# External
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e Franchise: Chapters from English History on the Representation and Education of the People" (1866)
- "The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry" (1868)
- "Social Morality: twenty-one lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge" (1869)
- "The Lord's Prayer, a Manual" (1870).
- "The Friendship of Books and Other Lectures", ed. T. Hughes (1873)
- "Sermons Peached in Country Churches" (1873)
- "Faith and Action from the Writings of F.D. Maurice" (1886)
- "The Acts of the Apostles: A Course of Sermons" (1894) Preached at St Peter, Vere Street.
# See also.
- Frederick Barton Maurice
# External links.
- "Frederick Denison Maurice"
- "MAURICE, Professor Frederick Denison (1805–1872)"
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William Adams (sailor, born 1564)
William Adams (24 September 1564 – 16 May 1620), known in Japanese as Miura Anjin (三浦按針: "the pilot of Miura"), was an English navigator who, in 1600, was the first of his nation to reach Japan during a five-ship expedition for the Dutch East India Company. Of the few survivors of the only ship that reached Japan, Adams and his second mate Jan Joosten were not allowed to leave the country while Jacob Quaeckernaeck and Melchior van Santvoort were to go back to the Dutch Republic to invite them to trade. Adams and Joosten settled in Japan and became two of the first ever (and very few) Western samurai.
Soon after Adams's arrival in Japan, he became a key advisor
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to the "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu. Adams directed construction for the "shōgun" of the first Western-style ships in the country. He was later key to Japan's approving the establishment of trading factories by the Netherlands and England. He was also highly involved in Japan's Red Seal Asian trade, chartering and serving as captain of four expeditions to Southeast Asia. He died in Japan at age 55. He has been recognised as one of the most influential foreigners in Japan during this period.
# Early life.
Adams was born in Gillingham, Kent, England. When Adams was twelve his father died, and he was apprenticed to shipyard owner Master Nicholas Diggins at Limehouse for the seafaring life. He spent
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the next twelve years learning shipbuilding, astronomy, and navigation before entering the Royal Navy.
With England at war with Spain, Adams served in the Royal Navy under Sir Francis Drake. He saw naval service against the Spanish Armada in 1588 as master of the "Richarde Dyffylde", a resupply ship. In the same year he is recorded to have married Mary Hyn in the parish church of St Dunstan's, Stepney. Soon after Adams became a pilot for the Barbary Company. During this service, Jesuit sources claim he took part in an expedition to the Arctic that lasted about two years, in search of a Northeast Passage along the coast of Siberia to the Far East. The veracity of this claim is somewhat suspect,
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because he never referred to such an expedition in his autobiographical letter written from Japan; its wording implies that the 1598 voyage was his first involvement with the Dutch. The Jesuit source may have misattributed to Adams a claim by one of the Dutch members of Mahu's crew who had been on Rijp's ship during the voyage that discovered Spitsbergen.
# Expedition to the Far East.
Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, Adams, then 34 years old, shipped as pilot major with a five-ship fleet dispatched from the isle of Texel to the Far East in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants (a "voorcompagnie," predecessor of the Dutch East India Company). His brother Thomas accompanied him. The
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Dutch were allied with England and as well as fellow Protestants, they too were also at war with Spain fighting for their independence.
The Adams brothers set sail from Rotterdam in June 1598 on the "Hoope" and joined with the rest of the fleet on 24 June. The fleet consisted of:
- the "Hoope" ("Hope"), under Jacques Mahu (d. 1598), expedition leader, succeeded by Simon de Cordes (d. 1599), and finally, Jan Huidekoper;
- the "Liefde" ("Love" or "Charity"), under Simon de Cordes, 2nd in command, succeeded by Gerrit van Beuningen and finally under Jacob Kwakernaak;
- the "Geloof" ("Faith"), under Gerrit van Beuningen, and in the end, Sebald de Weert;
- the "Trouw" ("Loyalty"), under Jurriaan
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van Boekhout (d. 1599), and finally, Baltazar de Cordes; and
- the "Blijde Boodschap" ("Good Tiding" or "The Gospel"), under Sebald de Weert, and later, Dirck Gerritz.
The fleet's original mission was to sail for the west coast of South America, where they would sell their cargo for silver, and to head for Japan only if the first mission failed. In that case, they were supposed to obtain silver in Japan to buy spices in the Moluccas (the Spice Islands), before heading back to Europe.
The vessels, ships ranging from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the coast of Guinea, West Africa where the adventurers attacked the island of Annobón for supplies. They sailed on west for
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the Straits of Magellan. Scattered by stress of weather and after several disasters in the South Atlantic, only three ships of the five made it through the Magellan Straits. (The "Blijde Boodschap" was adrift after being disabled in bad weather and was captured by a Spanish ship. The "Geloof" returned to Rotterdam in July 1600 with 36 men surviving of the original 109 crew.)
During the voyage, Adams changed ships to the "Liefde" (originally named "Erasmus" and adorned by a wooden carving of Erasmus on her stern). The statue was preserved in a Buddhist temple in Sano-shi, Tochigi-ken. The "Liefde" waited for the other ships at Floreana Island off the Ecuadorean coast. However, only the "Hoope"
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had arrived by the spring of 1599. The captains of both vessels, together with Adams' brother Thomas and twenty other men, lost their lives in a violent encounter with natives. The "Trouw" later reached Tidore (Indonesia). The crew were killed by the Portuguese in January 1601.
In fear of the Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to leave Ecuador and sail across the Pacific. It was late November 1599 when the two ships sailed westwardly for Japan. On their way, the two ships made landfall in "certain islands" (possibly the islands of Hawaii) where eight sailors deserted the ships. Later during the voyage, a typhoon claimed the "Hoope" with all hands, in late February 1600.
# Arrival in
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Japan.
In April 1600, after more than nineteen months at sea, a crew of twenty-three sick and dying men (out of the 100 who started the voyage) brought the "Liefde" to anchor off the island of Kyūshū, Japan. Its cargo consisted of eleven chests of trade goods: coarse woolen cloth, glass beads, mirrors, and spectacles; and metal tools and weapons: nails, iron, hammers, nineteen bronze cannon; 5,000 cannonballs; 500 muskets, 300 chain-shot, and three chests filled with coats of mail.
When the nine surviving crew members were strong enough to stand, they made landfall on 19 April off Bungo (present-day Usuki, Ōita Prefecture). They were met by Japanese locals and Portuguese Jesuit missionary
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priests claiming that Adams' ship was a pirate vessel and that the crew should be executed as pirates. The ship was seized and the sickly crew were imprisoned at Osaka Castle on orders by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the "daimyō" of Edo and future "shōgun." The nineteen bronze cannon of the "Liefde" were unloaded and, according to Spanish accounts, later used at the decisive Battle of Sekigahara on 21 October 1600.
Adams met Ieyasu in Osaka three times between May and June 1600. He was questioned by Ieyasu, then a guardian of the young son of the "Taikō" Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ruler who had just died. Adams' knowledge of ships, shipbuilding and nautical smattering of mathematics appealed to Ieyasu.
Coming
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before the king, he viewed me well, and seemed to be wonderfully favourable. He made many signs unto me, some of which I understood, and some I did not. In the end, there came one that could speak Portuguese. By him, the king demanded of me of what land I was, and what moved us to come to his land, being so far off. I showed unto him the name of our country, and that our land had long sought out the East Indies, and desired friendship with all kings and potentates in way of merchandise, having in our land diverse commodities, which these lands had not… Then he asked whether our country had wars? I answered him yea, with the Spaniards and Portugals, being in peace with all other nations. Further,
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he asked me, in what I did believe? I said, in God, that made heaven and earth. He asked me diverse other questions of things of religions, and many other things: As what way we came to the country. Having a chart of the whole world, I showed him, through the Strait of Magellan. At which he wondered, and thought me to lie. Thus, from one thing to another, I abode with him till mid-night. (from William Adams' letter to his wife)
Adams wrote that Ieyasu denied the Jesuits' request for execution on the ground that:
we as yet had not done to him nor to none of his land any harm or damage; therefore against Reason or Justice to put us to death. If our country had wars the one with the other, that
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was no cause that he should put us to death; with which they were out of heart that their cruel pretence failed them. For which God be forever praised. (William Adams' letter to his wife)
Ieyasu ordered the crew to sail the "Liefde" from Bungo to Edo where, rotten and beyond repair, she sank.
# Japan's first western-style sailing ships.
In 1604, Tokugawa ordered Adams and his companions to help Mukai Shōgen, who was commander-in-chief of the navy of Uraga, to build Japan's first Western-style ship. The sailing ship was built at the harbour of Itō on the east coast of the Izu Peninsula, with carpenters from the harbour supplying the manpower for the construction of an 80-ton vessel. It was
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used to survey the Japanese coast. The "shōgun" ordered a larger ship of 120 tons to be built the following year; it was slightly smaller than the "Liefde", which was 150 tons. According to Adams, Tokugawa "came aboard to see it, and the sight whereof gave him great content". In 1610, the 120-ton ship (later named "San Buena Ventura") was lent to shipwrecked Spanish sailors. They sailed it to New Spain, accompanied by a mission of twenty-two Japanese led by Tanaka Shōsuke.
Following the construction, Tokugawa invited Adams to visit his palace whenever he liked and "that always I must come in his presence."
Other survivors of the "Liefde" were also rewarded with favours, and were allowed to
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pursue foreign trade. Most of the survivors left Japan in 1605 with the help of the "daimyō" of Hirado. Although Adams did not receive permission to leave Japan until 1613, Melchior van Santvoort and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn engaged in trade between Japan and Southeast Asia and reportedly made a fortune. Both of them were reported by Dutch traders as being in Ayutthaya in early 1613, sailing richly cargoed "junks."
In 1609 Adams contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain.
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Adams is also recorded as having chartered Red Seal Ships during his later travels to Southeast Asia. (The "Ikoku Tokai Goshuinjō" has a reference to Miura Anjin receiving a "shuinjō", a document bearing a red Shogunal seal authorising the holder to engage in foreign trade, in 1614.)
# Western samurai.
Taking a liking to Adams, the "shōgun" appointed him as a diplomatic and trade advisor, bestowing great privileges upon him. Ultimately, Adams became his personal advisor on all things related to Western powers and civilization. After a few years, Adams replaced the Jesuit Padre João Rodrigues as the Shogun's official interpreter. Padre Valentim Carvalho wrote: "After he had learned the language,
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he had access to Ieyasu and entered the palace at any time"; he also described him as "a great engineer and mathematician".
Adams had a wife and children in England, but Ieyasu forbade the Englishman to leave Japan. He was presented with two swords representing the authority of a Samurai. The Shogun decreed that William Adams the pilot was dead and that Miura Anjin (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. According to the "shōgun", this action "freed" Adams to serve the Shogunate permanently, effectively making Adams' wife in England a widow. (Adams managed to send regular support payments to her after 1613 via the English and Dutch companies.) Adams also was given the title of "hatamoto" (bannerman),
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a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the "shōgun"s court.
Adams was given generous revenues: "For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the emperor has given me a living" ("Letters"). He was granted a fief in Hemi (Jpn: 逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, "with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants" ("Letters"). His estate was valued at 250 "koku" (a measure of the yearly income of the land in rice, with one koku defined as the quantity of rice sufficient to feed one person for one year). He finally wrote "God hath provided for me after my great misery" ("Letters"), by which he meant the disaster-ridden
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voyage that had initially brought him to Japan.
Adams's estate was located next to the harbour of Uraga, the traditional point of entrance to Edo Bay. There he was recorded as dealing with the cargoes of foreign ships. John Saris related that when he visited Edo in 1613, Adams had resale rights for the cargo of a Spanish ship at anchor in Uraga Bay.
Adams' position gave him the means to marry Oyuki (お雪), the adopted daughter of Magome Kageyu. He was a highway official who was in charge of a packhorse exchange on one of the grand imperial roads that led out of Edo (roughly present-day Tokyo). Although Magome was important, Oyuki was not of noble birth, nor high social standing. Adams may have
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married from affection rather than for social reasons. Adams and Oyuki had a son Joseph and a daughter Susanna. Adams was constantly traveling for work. Initially, he tried to organise an expedition in search of the Arctic passage that had eluded him previously.
Adams had a high regard for Japan, its people, and its civilisation:
The people of this Land of Japan are good of nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war: their justice is severely executed without any partiality upon transgressors of the law. They are governed in great civility. I mean, not a land better governed in the world by civil policy. The people be very superstitious in their religion, and are of diverse opinions.
#
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Establishment of the Dutch East India Company in Japan.
In 1604 Ieyasu sent the "Liefde"'s captain, Jacob Quaeckernaeck, and the treasurer, Melchior van Santvoort, on a "shōgun"-licensed Red Seal Ship to Patani in Southeast Asia. He ordered them to contact the Dutch East India Company trading factory, which had just been established in 1602, in order to bring more western trade to Japan and break the Portuguese monopoly. In 1605, Adams obtained a letter of authorization from Ieyasu formally inviting the Dutch to trade with Japan.
Hampered by conflicts with the Portuguese and limited resources in Asia, the Dutch were not able to send ships to Japan until 1609. Two Dutch ships, commanded by
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Jacques Specx, "De Griffioen" (the "Griffin", 19 cannons) and "Roode Leeuw met Pijlen" (the "Red lion with arrows", 400 tons, 26 cannons), were sent from Holland and reached Japan on 2 July 1609. The men of this Dutch expeditionary fleet established a trading base or "factory" on Hirado Island. Two Dutch envoys, Puyck and van den Broek, were the official bearers of a letter from Prince Maurice of Nassau to the court of Edo. Adams negotiated on behalf of these emissaries. The Dutch obtained free trading rights throughout Japan and to establish a trading factory there. (By contrast, the Portuguese were allowed to sell their goods only in Nagasaki at fixed, negotiated prices.)
The Hollandes be
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now settled (in Japan) and I have got them that privilege as the Spaniards and Portingals could never get in this 50 or 60 years in Japan.
After obtaining this trading right through an edict of Tokugawa Ieyasu on 24 August 1609, the Dutch inaugurated a trading factory in Hirado on 20 September 1609. The Dutch preserved their "trade pass" (Dutch: "Handelspas") in Hirado and then Dejima as a guarantee of their trading rights during the following two centuries that they operated in Japan.
# Establishment of an English trading factory.
In 1611, Adams learned of an English settlement in Banten, Indonesia. He wrote asking them to convey news of him to his family and friends in England. He invited
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them to engage in trade with Japan which "the Hollanders have here an Indies of money."
In 1613, the English captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship "Clove," intending to establish a trading factory for the British East India Company. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) already had a major post at Hirado.
Saris criticized Adams for his praise of Japan and adoption of Japanese customs:
He persists in giving "admirable and affectionated commendations of Japan. It is generally thought amongst us that he is a naturalized Japaner." (John Saris)
In Hirado, Adams refused to stay in English quarters, residing instead with a local Japanese magistrate. The English noted that he wore Japanese
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dress and spoke Japanese fluently. Adams estimated the cargo of the "Clove" was of little value, essentially broadcloth, tin and cloves (acquired in the Spice Islands), saying that "such things as he had brought were not very vendible".
Adams traveled with Saris to Suruga, where they met with Ieyasu at his principal residence in September. The Englishmen continued to Kamakura where they visited the noted Kamakura Great Buddha. (Sailors etched their names of the Daibutsu, made in 1252.) They continued to Edo, where they met Ieyasu's son Hidetada, who was nominally "shōgun", although Ieyasu retained most of the decision-making powers. During that meeting, Hidetada gave Saris two varnished suits
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of armour for King James I. As of 2015, one of these suits of armour is housed in the Tower of London, the other is on display in the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds. The suits were made by Iwai Yozaemon of Nanbu. They were part of a series of presentation armours of ancient 15th-century Dō-maru style.
On their return, the English party visited Tokugawa again. He conferred trading privileges to the English by a Red Seal permit, giving them "free license to abide, buy, sell and barter" in Japan. The English party returned to Hirado on 9 October 1613.
At this meeting, Adams asked for and obtained Tokugawa's authorisation to return to his home country. But, he finally declined Saris' offer to take
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him back to England: "I answered him I had spent in this country many years, through which I was poor... [and] desirous to get something before my return". His true reasons seem to lie rather with his profound antipathy for Saris: "The reason I would not go with him was for diverse injuries done against me, which were things to me very strange and unlooked for." (William Adams letters)
Adams accepted employment with the newly founded Hirado trading factory, signing a contract on 24November 1613, with the East India Company for the yearly salary of 100 English Pounds. This was more than double the regular salary of 40 Pounds earned by the other factors at Hirado. Adams had a lead role, under
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Richard Cocks and together with six other compatriots (Tempest Peacock, Richard Wickham, William Eaton, Walter Carwarden, Edmund Sayers and William Nealson), in organising this new English settlement.
Adams had advised Saris against the choice of Hirado, which was small and far away from the major markets in Osaka and Edo; he had recommended selection of Uraga near Edo for a post, but Saris wanted to keep an eye on the Dutch activities.
During the ten-year operations of the East Indian Company (1613 and 1623), only three English ships after the "Clove" brought cargoes directly from London to Japan. They were invariably described as having poor value on the Japanese market. The only trade which
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helped support the factory was that organised between Japan and South-East Asia; this was chiefly Adams selling Chinese goods for Japanese silver:
Were it not for hope of trade into China, or procuring some benefit from Siam, Pattania and Cochin China, it were no staying in Japon, yet it is certen here is silver enough & may be carried out at pleasure, but then we must bring them commodities to their liking. (Richard Cocks' diary, 1617)
# Religious rivalries.
The Portuguese and other Catholic religious orders in Japan considered Adams a rival as an English Protestant. After Adams' power had grown, the Jesuits tried to convert him, then offered to secretly bear him away from Japan on a Portuguese
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ship. The Jesuits' willingness to disobey the order by Ieyasu prohibiting Adams from leaving Japan showed that they feared his growing influence. Catholic priests asserted that he was trying to discredit them. In 1614, Carvalho complained of Adams and other merchants in his annual letter to the Pope, saying that "by false accusation [Adams and others] have rendered our preachers such objects of suspicion that he [Ieyasu] fears and readily believes that they are rather spies than sowers of the Holy Faith in his kingdom."
Ieyasu, influenced by Adams' counsels and disturbed by unrest caused by the numerous Catholic converts, expelled the Portuguese Jesuits from Japan in 1614. He demanded that
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Japanese Catholics abandon their faith. Adams apparently warned Ieyasu against Spanish approaches as well.
# Character.
After fifteen years spent in Japan, Adams had a difficult time establishing relations with the English arrivals. He initially shunned the company of the newly arrived English sailors in 1613 and could not get on good terms with Saris. But Richard Cocks, the head of the Hirado factory, came to appreciate Adams' character and what he had acquired of Japanese self-control. In a letter to the East India Company Cocks wrote:
# Participation in Asian trade.
Adams later engaged in various exploratory and commercial ventures. He tried to organise an expedition to the legendary
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Northwest Passage from Asia, which would have greatly reduced the sailing distance between Japan and Europe. Ieyasu asked him if "our countrimen could not find the northwest passage" and Adams contacted the East India Company to organise manpower and supplies. The expedition never got underway.
In his later years, Adams worked for the English East Indian Company. He made a number of trading voyages to Siam in 1616 and Cochinchina in 1617 and 1618, sometimes for the English East India Company, sometimes for his own account. He is recorded in Japanese records as the owner of a Red Seal Ship of 500 tons.
Given the few ships that the Company sent from England and the poor trading value of their
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cargoes (broadcloth, knives, looking glasses, Indian cotton, etc.), Adams was influential in gaining trading certificates from the "shōgun" to allow the Company to participate in the Red Seal system. It made a total of seven junk voyages to Southeast Asia with mixed profit results. Four were led by William Adams as captain. Adams renamed a ship he acquired in 1617 as "Gift of God;" he sailed it on his expedition that year to Cochinchina. The expeditions he led are described more fully below.
## 1614 Siam expedition.
In 1614, Adams wanted to organise a trade expedition to Siam to bolster the Company factory's activities and cash situation. He bought and upgraded a 200-ton Japanese junk for
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the Company, renaming her as "Sea Adventure"; and hired about 120 Japanese sailors and merchants, as well as several Chinese traders, an Italian and a Castilian (Spanish) trader. The heavily laden ship left in November 1614, during the typhoon season. The merchants Richard Wickham and Edmund Sayers of the English factory's staff also joined the voyage.
The expedition was to purchase raw silk, Chinese goods, sappan wood, deer skins and ray skins (the latter used for the handles of Japanese swords). The ship carried £1250 in silver and £175 of merchandise (Indian cottons, Japanese weapons and lacquerware). The party encountered a typhoon near the Ryukyu Islands (modern Okinawa) and had to stop
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there to repair from 27 December 1614 until May 1615. It returned to Japan in June 1615 without having completed any trade.
## 1615 Siam expedition.
Adams left Hirado in November 1615 for Ayutthaya in Siam on the refitted "Sea Adventure," intent on obtaining sappanwood for resale in Japan. His cargo was chiefly silver (£600) and the Japanese and Indian goods unsold from the previous voyage.
He bought vast quantities of the high-profit products. His partners obtained two ships in Siam in order to transport everything back to Japan. Adams sailed the "Sea Adventure" to Japan with 143 tonnes of sappanwood and 3700 deer skins, returning to Hirado in 47 days. (The return trip took from 5 June and
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22 July 1616). Sayers, on a hired Chinese junk, reached Hirado in October 1616 with 44 tons of sappanwood. The third ship, a Japanese junk, brought 4,560 deer skins to Nagasaki, arriving in June 1617 after the monsoon.
Less than a week before Adams' return, Ieyasu had died. Adams accompanied Cocks and Eaton to court to offer Company presents to the new ruler, Hidetada. Although Ieyasu's death seems to have weakened Adams' political influence, Hidetada agreed to maintain the English trading privileges. He also issued a new Red Seal permit (Shuinjō) to Adams, which allowed him to continue trade activities overseas under the "shōgun"s protection. His position as "hatamoto" was also renewed.
On
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this occasion, Adams and Cocks also visited the Japanese Admiral Mukai Shōgen Tadakatsu, who lived near Adams' estate. They discussed plans for a possible invasion of the Catholic Philippines.
## 1617 Cochinchina expedition.
In March 1617, Adams set sail for Cochinchina, having purchased the junk Sayers had brought from Siam and renamed it the "Gift of God". He intended to find two English factors, Tempest Peacock and Walter Carwarden, who had departed from Hirado two years before to explore commercial opportunities on the first voyage to South East Asia by the Hirado English Factory. Adams learned in Cochinchina that Peacock had been plied with drink, and killed for his silver. Carwarden,
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who was waiting in a boat downstream, realised that Peacock had been killed and hastily tried to reach his ship. His boat overturned and he drowned.
Adams sold a small cargo of broadcloth, Indian piece goods and ivory in Cochinchina for the modest amount of £351.
## 1618 Cochinchina expedition.
In 1618, Adams is recorded as having organised his last Red Seal trade expedition to Cochinchina and Tonkin (modern Vietnam), the last expedition of the English Hirado Factory to Southeast Asia. The ship, a chartered Chinese junk, left Hirado on 11 March 1618 but met with bad weather that forced it to stop at Ōshima in the northern Ryukyus. The ship sailed back to Hirado in May.
Those expeditions
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to Southeast Asia helped the English factory survive for some time—during that period, sappanwood resold in Japan with a 200% profit—until the factory fell into bankruptcy due to high expenditures.
# Death and family legacy.
Adams died at Hirado, north of Nagasaki, on 16 May 1620, at the age of 55. He was buried in Nagasaki-ken, where his grave marker may still be seen. In 2019 Japanese archaeologists announced the discovery of bones at the site believed to be those of Adams. His gravesite is next to a memorial to Saint Francis Xavier. In his will, he left his townhouse in Edo, his fief in Hemi, and 500 British pounds to be divided evenly between his family in England and his family in Japan.
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Cocks wrote: "I cannot but be sorrowfull for the loss of such a man as Capt William Adams, he having been in such favour with two Emperors of Japan as never any Christian in these part of the world." (Cocks's diary)
Cocks remained in contact with Adams' Japanese family, sending gifts; in March 1622, he offered silks to Joseph and Susanna. On the Christmas after Adams's death, Cocks gave Joseph his father's sword and dagger. Cocks records that Hidetada transferred the lordship from William Adams to his son Joseph Adams with the attendant rights to the estate at Hemi: He (Hidetada) has confirmed the lordship to his son, which the other emperor (Ieyasu) gave to the father. (Cocks's diary) Adams'
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son kept the title of Miura Anjin, and was a successful trader until Japan closed against foreign trading in 1635; he disappeared from historical records at that time.
Cocks administered Adams's trading rights (the shuinjō) for the benefit of Adams's children, Joseph and Susanna. He carried this out conscientiously. In 1623, three years after Adams's death, the unprofitable English trading factory was dissolved by the East India Company. The Dutch traded on Adams's children's behalf via the Red Seal ships.
By 1629, only two of Adams's shipmates from 1600 survived in Japan. Melchior van Santvoort and Vincent Romeyn lived privately in Nagasaki.
# Honors for Adams.
- A town in Edo (modern Tokyo),
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Anjin-chō (in modern-day Nihonbashi) was named for Adams, who had a house there. He is annually celebrated on 15 June.
- A village and a railroad station in his fiefdom, Anjinzuka (安針塚, "Burial mound of the Pilot") in modern Yokosuka, were named for him.
- In the city of Itō, Shizuoka, the Miura Anjin Festival is held annually on 10 August. On the seafront at Itō is a monument to Adams. Next to it is a plaque inscribed with Edmund Blunden's poem, "To the Citizens of Ito", which commemorates Adams' achievement.
- Adams' birth town, Gillingham, has held a Will Adams Festival every September since 2000. Since the late 20th century, both Itō and Yokosuka have become sister cities of Gillingham.
-
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A monument to Adams was installed in Watling Street, Gillingham (Kent), opposite Darland Avenue. The monument was unveiled 11 May 1934 by his excellency Tsuneo Matsudaira GCVO, Japanese ambassador to the Court of St James.
- A roundabout named Will Adams Roundabout with a Japanese theme just along from the Gillingham monument to Adams with two roads named after the Gillingham sister cities "Ito Way" and "Yokosuka Way"
# Representation in other media.
- James Clavell based his best-selling novel "Shōgun" (1975) on Adams' life, changing the name of his protagonist to "John Blackthorne". This was adapted as a popular TV mini-series, "Shōgun" (1980). It was also adapted as a Broadway production,
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"" (1990), and the video game "James Clavell's Shōgun" (1989).
There were numerous earlier works of fiction based on Adams.
- William Dalton wrote "Will Adams, The First Englishman in Japan: A Romantic Biography" (London, 1861). Dalton had never been to Japan and his book reflects romanticised Victorian British notions of the "exotic" Asia.
- Richard Blaker's "The Needlewatcher" (London, 1932) is the least romantic of the novels; he consciously attempted to de-mythologize Adams and write a careful historical work of fiction.
- James Scherer's "Pilot and Shōgun" dramatises a series of incidents based on Adams' life.
- American Robert Lund wrote "Daishi-san" (New York, 1960).
- Christopher
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Nicole's "Lord of the Golden Fan" (1973) portrays Adams as sexually frustrated in England and freed by living in Japan, where he has numerous encounters. The work is considered light pornography.
- In 2002, Giles Milton's historical biography "Samurai William" (2002) is based on historical sources, especially Richard Cocks's diary.
- The 2002 alternate history novel "Ruled Britannia" by Harry Turtledove features a brief appearance by Adams, piloting cargo and passengers between England and Ostend, both of which are puppet states of the Habsburg Empire in this timeline.
- In the second season of "Heroes", a story set in samurai-era Japan features an Englishman who seems to be based on Adams.
-
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A book series called "Young Samurai" is about a young English boy who is ship wrecked in Japan, and is trained as a samurai.
- Adams also serves as the template for the protagonist in the PlayStation 4 and PC video game "Nioh" (2017), but with supernatural and historical fiction elements.
- In a 1995 interview, Ted Koplar of World Event Productions admitted "Denver the Last Dinosaur" was an allegory for the life and times of Adams.
## Depiction.
According to Professor Derek Massarella of Chuo University:
There is however one genuine contemporary image. "It is a derivative drawing of William Adams, which appears to be based in a sketch attributed to Dorothy Burmingham (from a description
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given by Malchior von Santvoot). The original drawing is to be found at the Rotterdam Maritime Museum [whose specialist Marcel Kroon considers it to be from Adams' time]. A copy is preserved at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford."
# See also.
- Anglo-Japanese relations
- Jan Joosten – known in Japanese as "Yan Yōsuten", was a Dutch colleague of Adams, and the only known Dutch samurai. The Yaesu neighbourhood in Chūō, Tokyo was named for him.
- Henry Schnell – known in Japanese as "Hiramatsu Buhei", was a Prussian arms dealer, who served the Aizu domain as a military instructor and procurer of weapons.
- Eugène Collache – French Navy officer, who fought for the "shōgun" during the
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Boshin War (1868–1869).
- Jules Brunet (1838–1911) – French officer who fought for the "shōgun" in the Boshin War
- Ernest Mason Satow (1843–1929) – British scholar, diplomat and Japanologist
- Hendrick Hamel (1630–1692) – first European to live in the Joseon-dynasty era in Korea (1666) and write about it
- Yasuke (b. c. 1556) – a black (African) retainer briefly in the service of the Japanese warlord Nobunaga Oda
- List of foreign-born samurai in Japan
- List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868
# Notes.
## References.
- "England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan", by C. W. Hillary (1905)
- "Letters written by the English Residents in Japan", ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing
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Adams's Letters reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850)
- "Diary of Richard Cocks", with preface by N. Murakami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883)
- Hildreth, Richard, "Japan as it was and is" (1855)
- John Harris, "Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca" (1764), i. 856
- "Voyage of John Saris", edited by Sir Ernest M. Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900)
- "Asiatic Society of Japan Transactions", xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four formerly unpublished letters of Adams are printed;
- "Collection of State Papers; East Indies, China and Japan." The MS. of his logs written during his voyages to Siam and China is in
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the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
- "Samurai William: The Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan", by Giles Milton (UK 2002: )
- "William Adams and Early English Enterprise in Japan", by Anthony Farrington and Derek Massarella
- "Adams the Pilot: The Life and Times of Captain William Adams: 1564–1620", by William Corr, Curzon Press, 1995
- "The English Factory in Japan 1613–1623", ed. by Anthony Farrington, British Library, 1991. (Includes all of William Adams' extant letters, as well as his will.)
- "A World Elsewhere. Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries", by Derek Massarella, Yale University Press, 1990.
- "Recollections of Japan", Hendrik Doeff,
## Hardcopy.
-
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d Seventeenth Centuries", by Derek Massarella, Yale University Press, 1990.
- "Recollections of Japan", Hendrik Doeff,
## Hardcopy.
- "The Needle-Watcher: The Will Adams Story, British Samurai" by Richard Blaker
- "Servant of the Shogun" by Richard Tames. Paul Norbury Publications, Tenterden, Kent, England..
- "Samurai William: The Englishman Who Opened Japan," by Giles Milton; ; December 2003
## External links.
- Williams Adams- Blue Eyed Samurai, Meeting Anjin
- "Learning from Shogun. Japanese history and Western fantasy"
- William Adams and Early English enterprise in Japan
- William Adams – The First Englishman In Japan, full text online, Internet Archive
- Will Adams Memorial
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Astronomical object
Astronomical object
An astronomical object or celestial object is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms "object" and "body" are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial "object" is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures.
Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified
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as both body and object: It is a "body" when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an "object" when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail.
# Galaxy and larger.
The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe.
The universe has a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction
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with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.
# Within a galaxy.
The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are
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determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surrounds newly formed stars.
The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then
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its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.
# Categories by location.
The table below lists the general categories of bodies and objects by their location or structure.
# See also.
- List of light sources
- List of Solar System objects
- List of Solar System objects by size
- Lists of astronomical objects
# External links.
- Monthly skymaps
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e it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.
# Categories by location.
The table below lists the general categories of bodies and objects by their location or structure.
# See also.
- List of light sources
- List of Solar System objects
- List of Solar System objects by size
- Lists of astronomical objects
# External links.
- Monthly skymaps for every location on Earth
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Emanationism
Emanationism
Emanationism is an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems. Emanation, from the Latin "emanare" meaning "to flow from" or "to pour forth or out of", is the mode by which all things are derived from the first reality, or principle. All things are derived from the first reality or perfect God by steps of degradation to lesser degrees of the first reality or God, and at every step the emanating beings are less pure, less perfect, less divine. Emanationism is a transcendent principle from which everything is derived, and is opposed to both creationism (wherein the universe is created by a sentient God who is separate from creation) and materialism
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(which posits no underlying subjective and/or ontological nature behind phenomena being immanent).
# Origins.
Emanationism is a cosmological theory which asserts that all things "flow" from an underlying principle or reality, usually called the Absolute or Godhead. Any teachings which involve emanation are usually in opposition to creation ex nihilo as emanation advocates that everything has always existed and has not been "created" from nothing.
Kleinham (2007) writes:
Underlying the worldview of traditional cosmology is the idea that the universe is an emanation of a unitary divine principle. Although this idea has been blended with the revealed creationist doctrines of the major monotheistic
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religions, orthodox theologians have generally regarded it with suspicion. They have relegated it to the shadowy spheres of mysticism, pantheism, and the occult, which have always been at odds with orthodoxy. The traditional view is summed in the doctrine of emanation formulated by Plotinus.
The primary classical exponent of emanationism was the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus, wherein his work, the "Enneads", all things phenomenal and otherwise were an emanation ( "aporrhoe" (Ennead ΙΙ.3.2) or ἀπόρροια "aporrhoia" (II.3.11)) from the One (ἕν, "hen"). In 5.1.6, emanationism is compared to a diffusion from the One, of which there are three primary hypostases, the One, the Intellect (νοῦς, "nous"),
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and the Soul (ψυχή, "psyche").
Another advocate of emanationism was Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake for his nontrinitarian cosmology.
# Occultism.
Emanationism is a common teaching found in occult and esoteric writings. According to Owen (2005):
Theosophy draws on Neoplatonic emanationism, in particular the concept of separation from and return to the Absolute, and reworks the Eastern concepts of karma and reincarnation to provide an evolutionary theory of both humankind and the universe.
Theosophy teaches that human beings and all organisms including animals and all matter "flow" from a pure spiritual formation in the absolute to a material one over time to become materialised
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but later will return to the absolute after the cosmic cycle of life.
As Morgan summarises: "The Secret Doctrine laid out an emanationist view of the development of the physical universe, a process of ebb and flow in which spirit gradually unfolded itself in matter, attaining consciousness, and returning to spirit in a higher and more realised form." According to the emanationist cosmology of Madame Blavatsky all monads emerge from divine unity at the beginning of a cosmic cycle and return to this source at its close.
Blavatsky in her book "The Key to Theosophy" (1889) wrote that: "We believe in a universal divine principle, the root of all, from which all proceeds, and within which all shall
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be at the end of the great cycle of being."
Samael Aun Weor had taught emanationism from his studies with the Kabbalah and Gnosticism. He mapped out a complex esoteric cosmology with matter flowing from different planes of existence all existing in the absolute. As Dawson (2007) comments:
As with esoteric thought in general, Weor holds that the universe originated in the ordering activity of the absolute upon chaotic primordial matter, giving rise to (emanating) the subsequent planes of the created order (Pleroma).
# See also.
- "Anathem"
- "Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion"
- Panentheism
- Aeon (Gnosticism)
- Emanation in the Eastern Orthodox Church
# External links.
-
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all existing in the absolute. As Dawson (2007) comments:
As with esoteric thought in general, Weor holds that the universe originated in the ordering activity of the absolute upon chaotic primordial matter, giving rise to (emanating) the subsequent planes of the created order (Pleroma).
# See also.
- "Anathem"
- "Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion"
- Panentheism
- Aeon (Gnosticism)
- Emanation in the Eastern Orthodox Church
# External links.
- Neoplatonism and Emanationism Many articles on Emanationism
- Emanation and Ascent in Hermetic Kabbalah 1.4 Mbyte PDF - Colin Low 2004. Presentation and notes on emanation and the roots of Hermetic Kabbalah
- Emanationism
- Enneads
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Morris Motors
Morris Motors Limited was a British privately owned motor vehicle manufacturing company formed in 1919 to take over the assets of William Morris's WRM Motors Limited and continue production of the same vehicles. By 1926 its production represented 42 per cent of British car manufacture—a remarkable expansion rate attributed to William Morris's practice of buying in major as well as minor components and assembling them in his own factory. Self-financing through his enormous profits Morris did borrow some money from the public in 1926 and later shared some of Morris Motors' ownership with the public in 1936 when the new capital was used by Morris Motors to buy many of his other privately
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held businesses.
Though it merged into larger organisations in 1952, the Morris name remained in use until 1984, when British Leyland's Austin Rover Group decided to concentrate on the more popular Austin brand.
Until 2014 Morris Oxford vehicles (based on the 1954-59 Oxford) were manufactured with periodic enhancements in India by Hindustan Motors.
Part of Morris's manufacturing complex at Cowley, Oxford is now BMW Group's Plant Oxford, factory of the MINI marque.
The Morris trademark is currently owned by the China-based automotive company SAIC after being transferred from bankrupt subsidiary Nanjing Automotive.
# History.
## Early history.
WRM Motors Ltd began in 1912 when bicycle manufacturer
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William Morris moved on from the sale, hire, and repair of cars to car manufacturing. He planned a new light car assembled from bought-in components. In this way he was able to retain ownership by keeping within the bounds of his own capital resources.
A factory was opened in 1913 at former Oxford Military College at Cowley, Oxford, United Kingdom where Morris's first car, the 2-seat Morris Oxford "Bullnose" was assembled. Nearly all the major components were bought in.
In 1914 a coupé and van were added to the line-up, but the Bullnose chassis was too short and the 1018 cc engine too small to make a much-needed 4-seat version of the car. White and Poppe, who made the engine, were unable to
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supply the volume of units that Morris required, so Morris turned to Continental of Detroit, Michigan for the supply of a 1548 cc engine. Gearboxes and axles were also sourced in the US.
In spite of the outbreak of the First World War the orders were maintained and, from mid-1915 a new larger car, the 2-seat and 4-seat Morris Cowley was introduced.
## Inter-war years.
After the war the Continental engine was no longer available so Morris arranged for Hotchkiss of France to make a near copy in their Coventry factory. This was used to power new versions of the basic Cowley and more up-market Morris Oxford cars.
With a reputation for producing high-quality cars and a policy of cutting prices,
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Morris's business continued to grow and increase its share of the British market overtaking Ford to become in 1924 the UK's biggest car manufacturer, holding a 51% share of the home market and remaining enormously profitable.
Possessed of a very large cash income Morris had a policy of personally buying up suppliers' businesses. For example, in 1923 he bought Hotchkiss's Coventry business which later became Morris Engines branch. He also brought in F G Woollard which became Morris Commercial Cars to lead the re-organization of their engine production from batch to flow, thus increasing output from less than 300 units per week to 1200. By 1924 the factory was making 2000 units a week with only
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a small increase in work space and labour force.
Cecil Kimber, head of Morris's own original 1909-founded Morris Garage sales hire and repair operation in Oxford, began building sporting versions of Morris cars in 1924 labelling them MG. They were so successful a separate MG factory was soon established south of Oxford in Abingdon, Oxfordshire.
Having admired Budd's all-steel bodies Morris founded The Pressed Steel Company of Great Britain Limited in 1926 as a joint venture with Edward G Budd Manufacturing Company - Budd International of Philadelphia, USA. Pressed Steel's factory was located over the road from Morris's factory at Cowley and supplied Morris and many other motor manufacturers.
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Morris withdrew from the venture in mid-1930. Budd sold their share to British interests at the beginning of 1936.
The small car market was entered in 1928 with the Leonard Lord-designed Morris Minor, using an 847 cc engine from Morris's newly acquired Wolseley Motors. Lord had been sent there to modernise the works and Wolseley's products. The Minor was to provide the base for the MG Midgets. This timely spread into the small car market helped Morris through the economic depression of the 1930s. At the 1934 London Motor Show the Minor was replaced by the Morris Eight, a direct response to the Ford Model Y and, though Leonard Lord's handiwork, heavily based on it.
In 1932 W R Morris appointed
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Lord Managing Director of Morris Motors Limited and Lord swept through the Morris works, updating the production methods, introducing a proper moving assembly line and creating Europe's largest integrated car plant. But Morris and Lord fell out, and after 15 years Lord left in 1936—threatening to "take Cowley apart brick by brick". Lord moved to Austin and they were to meet again in BMC—Morris, as Lord Nuffield, its first chairman. Lord succeeded him.
As of 1 July 1935 Morris Motors acquired from W R Morris, now Lord Nuffield, in exchange for a further issue of ordinary shares to him, the car manufacturing businesses of Wolseley Motors Limited and The MG Car Company Limited. A separate private
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company, Wolseley Aero Engines Limited, was then formed to continue the development of his aviation interests. In 1936 Lord Nuffield sold Morris Commercial Cars Limited, his commercial vehicle enterprise, to Morris Motors.
- Car production in Britain 1919-1938 (per cent)
In 1938 William Morris, Baron Nuffield was raised to Viscount Nuffield. The same year he transferred his newly acquired Riley car business to Morris Motors Limited for £100.
## Iron Lung.
Visiting London in 1938 during a polio epidemic Lord Nuffield saw a Both Iron Lung in use. He commissioned an improved design which could be produced using the techniques of car assembly and arranged production of approximately 1700 machines
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Morris Motors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morris%20Motors
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Morris Motors
at the Cowley works, which he donated to hospitals throughout all parts of Britain and the British Empire.
Both-Nuffield respirators were able to be produced by the thousand at about one-thirteenth the cost of the American design.
# Significant subsidiaries.
## Second World War.
In the summer of 1938 Morris agreed to build equip and manage at government expense a huge new factory at Castle Bromwich specifically to manufacture Supermarine Spitfires. Nuffield's management failed, no Spitfires were delivered and from 1941 the plant had to be run by Vickers. After a major air raid damaged the Morris Bodies factory, the premises switched to the production of jerry cans, producing millions of
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