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for the purposes of retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, or incapacitation. In most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence; and in a few, the death penalty may be imposed.
# Etymology.
The modern English word "murder" descends from the Proto-Indo-European "mrtró" which meant "to die". The Middle English "mordre" is a noun from Anglo-Saxon "morðor" and Old French "murdre". Middle English "mordre" is a verb from Anglo-Saxon "myrdrian" and the Middle English noun.
# Definition.
The eighteenth-century English jurist William Blackstone (citing Edward Coke), in his "Commentaries on the Laws of England" set out the common
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law definition of murder, which by this definition occurs
The elements of common law murder are:
- 1. Unlawful
- 2. killing
- 3. through criminal act or omission
- 4. of a human
- 5. by another human
- 6. with malice aforethought.
- Unlawful – This distinguishes murder from killings that are done within the boundaries of law, such as capital punishment, justified self-defence, or the killing of enemy combatants by lawful combatants as well as causing collateral damage to non-combatants during a war.
- Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total and irreversible cessation of blood circulation and respiration. With advances in medical technology courts have
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adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life.
- Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission.
- Of a human – This element presents the issue of when life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being. Life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath.
- By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder. The requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder.
- With malice aforethought – Originally "malice aforethought" carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate and premeditated (prior intent) killing
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of another motivated by ill will. Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice. All that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes "malice".
The four states of mind recognized as constituting "malice" are:
Under state of mind (i), intent to kill, the "deadly weapon rule" applies. Thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive
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inference of intent to kill. In other words, "intent follows the bullet". Examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims.
Under state of mind (iii), an "abandoned and malignant heart", the killing must result from the defendant's conduct involving a reckless indifference to human life and a conscious disregard of an unreasonable risk of death or serious bodily injury. In Australian jurisdictions, the unreasonable risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death (or grievous bodily harm in most states), as opposed to possibility.
Under state of
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mind (iv), the felony-murder doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or kidnapping. Importantly, the underlying felony "cannot" be a lesser included offense such as assault, otherwise all criminal homicides would be murder as all are felonies.
As with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation. Even when the legal distinction between murder and manslaughter is clear, it is not unknown for a jury to find a murder defendant guilty of the lesser offence. The jury might sympathise with the defendant (e.g. in a crime of passion, or in the
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case of a bullied victim who kills their tormentor), and the jury may wish to protect the defendant from a sentence of life imprisonment or execution.
## Degrees of murder.
Many jurisdictions divide murder by degrees. The distinction between first- and second-degree murder exists, for example, in Canadian murder law and U.S. murder law.
The most common division is between first- and second-degree murder. Generally, second-degree murder is common law murder, and first-degree is an aggravated form. The aggravating factors of first-degree murder depend on the jurisdiction, but may include a specific intent to kill, premeditation, or deliberation. In some, murder committed by acts such as strangulation,
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poisoning, or lying in wait are also treated as first-degree murder. A few states in the U.S. further distinguish third-degree murder, but they differ significantly in which kinds of murders they classify as second-degree versus third-degree. For example, Minnesota defines third-degree murder as depraved-heart murder, whereas Florida defines third-degree murder as felony murder (except when the underlying felony is specifically listed in the definition of first-degree murder).
Some jurisdictions also distinguish premeditated murder. This is the crime of wrongfully and intentionally causing the death of another human being (also known as murder) after rationally considering the timing or method
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of doing so, in order to either increase the likelihood of success, or to evade detection or apprehension. State laws in the United States vary as to definitions of "premeditation". In some states, premeditation may be construed as taking place mere seconds before the murder. Premeditated murder is one of the most serious forms of homicide, and is punished more severely than manslaughter or other types of homicide, often with a life sentence without the possibility of parole, or in some countries, the death penalty. In the U.S, federal law () criminalizes premeditated murder, felony murder and second-degree murder committed under situations where federal jurisdiction applies. In Canada, the
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Criminal Code classifies murder as either 1st- or 2nd-degree. The former type of murder is often called premeditated murder, although premeditation is not the only way murder can be classified as first-degree.
## Common law.
According to Blackstone, English common law identified murder as a "public wrong". According to common law, murder is considered to be "malum in se", that is an act which is evil within itself. An act such as murder is wrong or evil by its very nature. And it is the very nature of the act which does not require any specific detailing or definition in the law to consider murder a crime.
Some jurisdictions still take a common law view of murder. In such jurisdictions, what
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is considered to be murder is defined by precedent case law or previous decisions of the courts of law. However, although the common law is by nature flexible and adaptable, in the interests both of certainty and of securing convictions, most common law jurisdictions have codified their criminal law and now have statutory definitions of murder.
## Exclusions.
### General.
Although laws vary by country, there are circumstances of exclusion that are common in many legal systems.
- Killing of enemy combatants who have not surrendered by lawful combatants, in accordance with lawful orders in war, is also generally not considered murder; although illicit killings within a war may constitute murder
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or homicidal war crimes. (see the Laws of war article)
- Self-defense: acting in self-defense or in defense of another person is generally accepted as legal justification for killing a person in situations that would otherwise have been murder. However, a self-defense killing might be considered manslaughter if the killer established control of the situation before the killing took place. In the case of self-defense it is called a "justifiable homicide".
- Unlawful killings without malice or intent are considered manslaughter.
- In many common law countries, provocation is a partial defense to a charge of murder which acts by converting what would otherwise have been murder into manslaughter
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(this is voluntary manslaughter, which is more severe than involuntary manslaughter).
- Accidental killings are considered homicides. Depending on the circumstances, these may or may not be considered criminal offenses; they are often considered manslaughter.
- Suicide does not constitute murder in most societies. Assisting a suicide, however, may be considered murder in some circumstances.
### Specific to certain countries.
- Capital punishment: some countries practice the death penalty. Capital punishment may be ordered by a legitimate court of law as the result of a conviction in a criminal trial with due process for a serious crime. The 47 Member States of the Council of Europe are prohibited
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from using the death penalty.
- Euthanasia, doctor-assisted suicide: the administration of lethal drugs by a doctor to a terminally ill patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, in many jurisdictions it is seen as a special case (see the doctrine of double effect and the case of Dr John Bodkin Adams).
- Killing to prevent the theft of one's property may be legal, depending on the jurisdiction. In 2013, a jury in south Texas acquitted a man who killed a prostitute who attempted to run away with his money.
- Killing an intruder who is found by an owner to be in the owner's home (having entered unlawfully): legal in most US states (see Castle doctrine).
- Killing to prevent specific
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forms of aggravated rape or sexual assault – killing of attacker by the potential victim or by witnesses to the scene; legal in parts of the US and in various other countries.
- In Pakistan, the killing of a woman or girl in specific circumstances (e.g., when she commits adultery and is killed by her husband or other family members, known as honor killing) is not considered murder.
- In the United States, in some states and in federal jurisdiction, a killing by a police officer is excluded from prosecution if the officer believes they are being threatened with deadly force by the victim. This may include such actions by the victim as reaching into a glove compartment or pocket for license
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and registration, if the officer thinks that the victim might be reaching for a gun.
- Space jurisdiction is similar to that of international waters. Therefore, a murder committed in outer space is subject to jurisdiction in the country that owns the space craft in which the killing transpired. In the event the murder occurred on an extraterrestrial planet (e.g. the Moon), no country can own land of any other planet so the killer is bound by the laws of the country in which they originate. This also applies to the ISS per agreement signed by all countries that have worked on the station so all astronauts are covered by extraterratorial jurisdiction.
## Victim.
All jurisdictions require that
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the victim be a natural person; that is, a human being who was still alive before being murdered. In other words, under the law one cannot murder a corpse, a corporation, a non-human animal, or any other non-human organism such as a plant or bacterium.
California's murder statute, Penal Code Section 187, was interpreted by the Supreme Court of California in 1994 as not requiring any proof of the viability of the fetus as a prerequisite to a murder conviction. This holding has two implications. The first is a defendant in California can be convicted of murder for killing a fetus which the mother herself could have terminated without committing a crime. The second, as stated by Justice Stanley
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Mosk in his dissent, is that because women carrying nonviable fetuses may not be visibly pregnant, it may be possible for a defendant to be convicted of intentionally murdering a person they did not know existed.
## Mitigating circumstances.
Some countries allow conditions that "affect the balance of the mind" to be regarded as mitigating circumstances. This means that a person may be found guilty of "manslaughter" on the basis of "diminished responsibility" rather than being found guilty of murder, if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and medication side-effects are examples
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of conditions that may be taken into account when assessing responsibility.
### Insanity.
Mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and dementia, and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability. Usually, sociopathy and other personality disorders are not legally considered insanity, because of the belief they are the result of free will in many societies. In some jurisdictions, following the pre-trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder, the defence of "not guilty by reason of insanity" may be used to get a not guilty verdict. This defence has two elements:
- 1. That the defendant had
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a serious mental illness, disease, or defect.
- 2. That the defendant's mental condition, at the time of the killing, rendered the perpetrator unable to determine right from wrong, or that what they were doing was wrong.
Under New York law, for example:
Under the French Penal Code:
Those who successfully argue a defence based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community, rather than prison. A criminal defendant is often presented with the option of pleading "not guilty by reason of insanity". Thus, a finding of insanity results in a not-guilty verdict, although the defendant is placed in a state
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treatment facility where they could be kept for years or even decades.
### Postpartum depression.
Postpartum depression (also known as post-natal depression) is recognized in some countries as a mitigating factor in cases of infanticide. According to Dr. Susan Friedman, "Two dozen nations have infanticide laws that decrease the penalty for mothers who kill their children of up to one year of age. The United States does not have such a law, but mentally ill mothers may plead not guilty by reason of insanity." In the law of the Republic of Ireland, infanticide was made a separate crime from murder in 1949, applicable for the mother of a baby under one year old where "the balance of her mind
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was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child". Since independence, death sentences for murder in such cases had always been commuted; the new act was intended "to eliminate all the terrible ritual of the black cap and the solemn words of the judge pronouncing sentence of death in those cases ... where it is clear to the Court and to everybody, except perhaps the unfortunate accused, that the sentence will never be carried out." In Russia, murder of a newborn child by the mother has been separate crime since 1996.
### Unintentional.
For a killing to be considered
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murder in nine out of fifty states in the US, there normally needs to be an element of intent. A defendant may argue that they took precautions not to kill, that the death could not have been anticipated, or was unavoidable. As a general rule, manslaughter constitutes reckless killing, but manslaughter also includes criminally negligent (i.e. grossly negligent) homicide. Unintentional killing that results from an involuntary action generally cannot constitute murder. After examining the evidence, a judge or jury (depending on the jurisdiction) would determine whether the killing was intentional or unintentional.
### Diminished capacity.
In those jurisdictions using the Uniform Penal Code,
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such as California, diminished capacity may be a defence. For example, Dan White used this defence to obtain a manslaughter conviction, instead of murder, in the assassination of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk. Afterward, California amended its penal code to provide "As a matter of public policy there shall be no defense of diminished capacity, diminished responsibility, or irresistible impulse in a criminal action..."
## Aggravating circumstances.
Murder with specified aggravating circumstances is often punished more harshly. Depending on the jurisdiction, such circumstances may include:
- Premeditation
- Poisoning
- Murder of a child
- Murder of a police officer, judge,
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firefighter or witness to a crime
- Murder of a pregnant woman
- Crime committed for pay or other reward, such as contract killing
- Exceptional brutality or cruelty
- Methods which are dangerous to the public, e.g. explosion, arson, shooting in a crowd etc.
- Murder for a political cause
- Murder committed in order to conceal another crime or facilitate its commission.
- Hate crimes, which occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their perceived membership in a certain social group.
- Treachery (e.g. "" in German law)
In the United States and Canada, these murders are referred to as first-degree or aggravated murders. Murder, under English criminal law, always carries a
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mandatory life sentence, but is not classified into degrees. Penalties for murder committed under aggravating circumstances are often higher, under English law, than the 15-year minimum non-parole period that otherwise serves as a starting point for a murder committed by an adult.
## Felony murder rule.
A legal doctrine in some common law jurisdictions broadens the crime of murder: when an offender kills in the commission of a dangerous crime, (regardless of intent), he/she is guilty of murder. The felony murder rule is often justified by its supporters as a means of deterring dangerous felonies, but the case of Ryan Holle shows it can be used very widely.
## Year-and-a-day rule.
In some
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common law jurisdictions, a defendant accused of murder is not guilty if the victim survives for longer than one year and one day after the attack. This reflects the likelihood that if the victim dies, other factors will have contributed to the cause of death, breaking the chain of causation; and also means that the responsible person does not have a charge of murder "hanging over their head indefinitely". Subject to any statute of limitations, the accused could still be charged with an offence reflecting the seriousness of the initial assault.
With advances in modern medicine, most countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the facts of the case. This is known as "delayed
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death" and cases where this was applied or was attempted to be applied go back to at least 1966.
In England and Wales, the "year-and-a-day rule" was abolished by the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996. However, if death occurs three years or more after the original attack then prosecution can take place only with the Attorney-General's approval.
In the United States, many jurisdictions have abolished the rule as well. Abolition of the rule has been accomplished by enactment of statutory criminal codes, which had the effect of displacing the common-law definitions of crimes and corresponding defences. In 2001 the Supreme Court of the United States held that retroactive application of
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a state supreme court decision abolishing the year-and-a-day rule did not violate the Ex Post Facto Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution.
The potential effect of fully abolishing the rule can be seen in the case of 74-year-old William Barnes, charged with the murder of a Philadelphia police officer Walter T. Barclay Jr., who he had shot nearly 41 years previously. Barnes had served 16 years in prison for attempting to murder Barkley, but when the policeman died on August 19, 2007, this was alleged to be from complications of the wounds suffered from the shooting – and Barnes was charged with his murder. He was acquitted on May 24, 2010.
# Murder and natural selection.
Martin
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Daly and Margo Wilson of McMaster University have claimed that several aspects of homicides, including the genetic relations or proximity between murderers and their victims, (as in the Cinderella effect), can often be explained by the evolution theory or evolutionary psychology.
# Historical and religious attitudes.
In the Abrahamic religions, the first ever murder was committed by Cain against his brother Abel out of jealousy. In the past, certain types of homicide were lawful and justified. Georg Oesterdiekhoff wrote:
In many such societies the redress was not via a legal system, but by blood revenge, although there might also be a form of payment that could be made instead—such as the
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weregild which in early Germanic society could be paid to the victim's family in lieu of their right of revenge.
One of the oldest-known prohibitions against murder appears in the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu written sometime between 2100 and 2050 BC. The code states, "If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed."
In Judeo-Christian traditions, the prohibition against murder is one of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses in (Exodus: 20v13) and (Deuteronomy 5v17). The Vulgate and subsequent early English translations of the Bible used the term "secretly killeth his neighbour" or "smiteth his neighbour secretly" rather than "murder" for the Latin "clam percusserit proximum". Later
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editions such as Young's Literal Translation and the World English Bible have translated the Latin "occides" simply as "murder" rather than the alternatives of "kill", "assassinate", "fall upon", or "slay".
In Islam according to the Qur'an, one of the greatest sins is to kill a human being who has committed no fault. "For that cause We decreed for the Children of Israel that whosoever killeth a human being for other than manslaughter or corruption in the earth, it shall be as if he had killed all mankind, and whoso saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he had saved the life of all mankind." "And those who cry not unto any other god along with Allah, nor take the life which Allah hath forbidden
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save in (course of) justice, nor commit adultery – and whoso doeth this shall pay the penalty."
The term "assassin" derives from Hashshashin, a militant Ismaili Shi'ite sect, active from the 8th to 14th centuries. This mystic secret society killed members of the Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuq and Crusader elite for political and religious reasons. The Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death and destruction. According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The Aztecs believed that without regular offerings of blood the sun god Huitzilopochtli would withdraw his support for them and destroy the world as they knew it. According
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to Ross Hassig, author of "Aztec Warfare", "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan.
Southern slave codes did make willful killing of a slave illegal in most cases. For example, the 1860 Mississippi case of "Oliver v. State" charged the defendant with murdering his own slave. In 1811, the wealthy white planter Arthur Hodge was hanged for murdering several of his slaves on his plantation in the British West Indies.
In Corsica, vendetta was a social code that required Corsicans to kill anyone who wronged their family honor. Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica.
# Incidence.
The
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World Health Organization reported in October 2002 that a person is murdered every 60 seconds. An estimated 520,000 people were murdered in 2000 around the globe. Another study estimated the worldwide murder rate at 456,300 in 2010 with a 35% increase since 1990. Two-fifths of them were young people between the ages of 10 and 29 who were killed by other young people. Because murder is the least likely crime to go unreported, statistics of murder are seen as a bellwether of overall crime rates.
Murder rates vary greatly among countries and societies around the world. In the Western world, murder rates in most countries have declined significantly during the 20th century and are now between 1
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and 4 cases per 100,000 people per year. Latin America and the Caribbean, the region with the highest murder rate in the world, experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.
## Murder rates by country.
Murder rates in jurisdictions such as Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Iceland, Sweden, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and Germany are among the lowest in the world, around 0.3–1 cases per 100,000 people per year; the rate of the United States is among the highest of developed countries, around 4.5 in 2014, with rates in larger cities sometimes over 40 per 100,000. The top ten highest murder rates are in Honduras (91.6 per 100,000), El Salvador, Ivory Coast, Venezuela, Belize, Jamaica,
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U.S. Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Saint Kitts and Nevis and Zambia. (UNODC, 2011 – ).
The following absolute murder counts per-country are not comparable because they are not adjusted by each country's total population. Nonetheless, they are included here for reference, with 2010 used as the base year (they may or may not include justifiable homicide, depending on the jurisdiction). There were 52,260 murders in Brazil, consecutively elevating the record set in 2009. Over half a million people were shot to death in Brazil between 1979 and 2003. 33,335 murder cases were registered across India, about 19,000 murders committed in Russia, approximately 17,000 murders in Colombia (the murder rate was
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38 per 100,000 people, in 2008 murders went down to 15,000), approximately 16,000 murders in South Africa, approximately 15,000 murders in the United States, approximately 26,000 murders in Mexico, approximately 13,000 murders in Venezuela, approximately 4,000 murders in El Salvador, approximately 1,400 murders in Jamaica, approximately 550 murders in Canada and approximately 470 murders in Trinidad and Tobago. Pakistan reported 12,580 murders.
In the United States, 666,160 people were killed between 1960 and 1996. Approximately 90% of murders in the US are committed by males. Between 1976 and 2005, 23.5% of all murder victims and 64.8% of victims murdered by intimate partners were female.
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For women in the US, homicide is the leading cause of death in the workplace.
In the US, murder is the leading cause of death for African American males aged 15 to 34. Between 1976 and 2008, African Americans were victims of 329,825 homicides. In 2006, Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Report indicated that nearly half of the 14,990 murder victims that year were Black (7421). In the year 2007, there were 3,221 black victims and 3,587 white victims of non-negligent homicides. While 2,905 of the black victims were killed by a black offender, 2,918 of the white victims were killed by white offenders. There were 566 white victims of black offenders and 245 black victims of
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white offenders. The "white" category in the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) includes non-black Hispanics. In London in 2006, 75% of the victims of gun crime and 79% of the suspects were "from the African/Caribbean community".
Murder demographics are affected by the improvement of trauma care, which has resulted in reduced lethality of violent assaults – thus the murder rate may not necessarily indicate the overall level of social violence.
Workplace homicide, which tripled during the 1980s, is the fastest growing category of murder in America.
Development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opponents of capital punishment and gun control. Using
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properly filtered data, it is possible to make the case for or against either of these issues. For example, one could look at murder rates in the United States from 1950 to 2000, and notice that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in the late 1960s. This fact has been used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and, as such, it is morally justified. Capital punishment opponents frequently counter that the United States has much higher murder rates than Canada and most European Union countries, although all those countries have abolished the death penalty. Overall, the global pattern is too complex, and on average,
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the influence of both these factors may not be significant and could be more social, economic, and cultural.
Despite the immense improvements in forensics in the past few decades, the fraction of murders solved has decreased in the United States, from 90% in 1960 to 61% in 2007. Solved murder rates in major U.S. cities varied in 2007 from 36% in Boston, Massachusetts to 76% in San Jose, California. Major factors affecting the arrest rate include witness cooperation and the number of people assigned to investigate the case.
## History of murder rates.
According to scholar Pieter Spierenburg homicide rates per 100,000 in Europe have fallen over the centuries, from 35 per 100,000 in medieval
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times, to 20 in 1500 AD, 5 in 1700, to below two per 100,000 in 1900.
In the United States, murder rates have been higher and have fluctuated. They fell below 2 per 100,000 by 1900, rose during the first half of the century, dropped in the years following World War II, and bottomed out at 4.0 in 1957 before rising again. The rate stayed in 9 to 10 range most of the period from 1972 to 1994, before falling to 5 in present times. The increase since 1957 would have been even greater if not for the significant improvements in medical techniques and emergency response times, which mean that more and more attempted homicide victims survive. According to one estimate, if the lethality levels of criminal
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assaults of 1964 still applied in 1993, the country would have seen the murder rate of around 26 per 100,000, almost triple the actually observed rate of 9.5 per 100,000.
A similar, but less pronounced pattern has been seen in major European countries as well. The murder rate in the United Kingdom fell to 1 per 100,000 by the beginning of the 20th century and as low as 0.62 per 100,000 in 1960, and was at 1.28 per 100,000 . The murder rate in France (excluding Corsica) bottomed out after World War II at less than 0.4 per 100,000, quadrupling to 1.6 per 100,000 since then.
The specific factors driving this dynamics in murder rates are complex and not universally agreed upon. Much of the raise
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in the U.S. murder rate during the first half of the 20th century is generally thought to be attributed to gang violence associated with Prohibition. Since most murders are committed by young males, the near simultaneous low in the murder rates of major developed countries circa 1960 can be attributed to low birth rates during the Great Depression and World War II. Causes of further moves are more controversial. Some of the more exotic factors claimed to affect murder rates include the availability of abortion and the likelihood of chronic exposure to lead during childhood (due to the use of leaded paint in houses and tetraethyllead as a gasoline additive in internal combustion engines).
#
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Use of the term.
In many countries, in news reports, journalists are typically careful not to call a killing a murder until the perpetrator is convicted of such. After arrest, journalists write that the person was "arrested on suspicion of murder". When a prosecutor files charges, the accused is referred to as an "accused murderer".
# See also.
## Lists related to murder.
- Lists of murders
- List of types of killing
## Topics related to murder.
- Culpable homicide
- Depraved-heart murder
- Double murder
- Execution-style murder
- Letting die
- Mass murder
- Misdemeanor murder
- Murder conviction without a body
- Seven laws of Noah
- Stigmatized property
- Thrill killing
-
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Capital Murder
- Assassination, a form of murder where the victim is prominent person such as a head of state or head of government.
## Murder laws by country.
- Australia
- Brazil
- Canada
- China
- Cuba
- Denmark
- England and Wales
- Finland
- France
- Germany
- Hong Kong
- India
- Israel
- Italy
- Netherlands
- Northern Ireland
- Norway
- Peru
- Portugal
- Romania
- Russia
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- United States
# Bibliography.
- Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder
- Sir Edward Coke Co. Inst., Pt. III, ch.7, p. 50
# External links.
- Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence
- The Seville Statement
- Atlas of United
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vernment.
## Murder laws by country.
- Australia
- Brazil
- Canada
- China
- Cuba
- Denmark
- England and Wales
- Finland
- France
- Germany
- Hong Kong
- India
- Israel
- Italy
- Netherlands
- Northern Ireland
- Norway
- Peru
- Portugal
- Romania
- Russia
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- United States
# Bibliography.
- Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder
- Sir Edward Coke Co. Inst., Pt. III, ch.7, p. 50
# External links.
- Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence
- The Seville Statement
- Atlas of United States Mortality – U.S. Centers for Disease Control
- Cezanne's depiction of "The Murder" – National Museums Liverpool
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Solar maximum
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Solar maximum
Solar maximum or solar max is a regular period of greatest Sun activity during the 11-year solar cycle. During solar maximum, large numbers of sunspots appear, and the solar irradiance output grows by about 0.07%. The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate, and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns.
At solar maximum, the Sun's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles. On average, the solar cycle takes about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next, with duration observed varying from 9 to 14
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years.
Large solar flares often occur during a maximum. For example, the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii.
# Predictions.
Predictions of a future maximum's timing and strength are very difficult; predictions vary widely. There was a solar maximum in 2000. In 2006 NASA initially expected a solar maximum in 2010 or 2011, and thought that it could be the strongest since 1958. However, the solar maximum was not declared to have occurred until 2014, and even then was ranked among the weakest on record.
Italian engineer Carlo Santagata suggested a parallelism between the masses (planets) orbiting
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the Sun and electric charges of equivalent magnitude. Then the magnetic induction of each orbiting mass (electric charge) on the Sun would add up during certain periods thus creating Solar maximums or would cancel out during other periods thus causing Solar minimums.
# Film.
IMAX documentary about solar maximum called "Solarmax".
# Grand solar minima and maxima.
Grand solar maxima occur when several solar cycles exhibit greater than average activity for decades or centuries. Solar cycles still occur during these grand solar maximum periods but the intensity of those cycles is greater. Grand solar maxima have shown some correlation with global and regional climate changes.
The idea of a
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s but the intensity of those cycles is greater. Grand solar maxima have shown some correlation with global and regional climate changes.
The idea of a Modern Maximum has now been thrown into question with the release of a paper at the International Astronomical Union General Assembly in August 2015.
A list of historical Grand minima of solar activity includes also Grand minima ca. 690 AD, 360 BC, 770 BC, 1390 BC, 2860 BC, 3340 BC, 3500 BC, 3630 BC, 3940 BC, 4230 BC, 4330 BC, 5260 BC, 5460 BC, 5620 BC, 5710 BC, 5990 BC, 6220 BC, 6400 BC, 7040 BC, 7310 BC, 7520 BC, 8220 BC, 9170 BC.
# See also.
- Solar wind
- Solar variation
- Solar minimum
- List of solar cycles – table of solar cycles
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Peter Anthony Motteux
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Peter Anthony Motteux
Peter Anthony Motteux (25 February 1663 – 18 February 1718), born Pierre Antoine Motteux (), was an English author, playwright, and translator. Motteux was a significant figure in the evolution of English journalism in his era, as the publisher and editor of "The Gentleman's Journal", "the first English magazine," from 1692 to 1694.
# Life.
A native of Rouen, he was a French Huguenot who came to England in 1685 after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. At first he lived with his godfather, Paul Dominique, and made his living as an auctioneer; by 1706 he maintained a shop in Leadenhall Street, selling imports from China, Japan, and India, and (in his own words) "silks,
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lace, linens, pictures, and other goods." He also held a position with the Post Office in the first decade of the 18th century.
His death in a bawdy house was thought to be suspicious, and caused a good deal of legal disturbance." Five people were tried for his murder, but were acquitted. He was survived by his widow Priscilla, two sons and a daughter.
# Translations.
Motteux is perhaps best known for completing Sir Thomas Urquhart's translation of Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel". Books I and II of Urquhart's translation of Rabelais had been published in 1653; Motteux (with outside help) revised these, completed Urquart's translation of Book III, and translated Book IV and the possibly-spurious
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Book V. The entire work was published in 1693 and 1694 (reprinted in 1708; revised by John Ozell in 1737).
While Urquhart's original version of Rabelais has sometimes been acclaimed as a masterpiece in itself, critics have had reservations about Motteux's continuation. In part, Motteux suffered for frankly rendering the vulgarity of Rabelais, to a generation of readers less prepared to tolerate it than Urquhart's had been.
Motteux produced an important translation of Cervantes' "Don Quixote"; this 4-volume 1700-03 edition (3rd edition in 1712) was credited as "translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux." Very popular in its own era, Motteux's version of the work
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has been condemned by later, more rigorous translators, for:
- adopting a frivolous style, compared to the mock-serious and ironic tone of the original;
- turning Don Quixote and Sancho Panza into buffoons;
- casting the work in a "Franco-Cockney" rather than a Spanish ambience.
Motteux translated other works as well, one example being "The Present State of the Empire of Morocco" (1695) by François Pidou de Saint-Olon.
# Dramas.
Motteux wrote a series of plays and musical librettos that were produced during the 1690s and early 18th century, including:
- "The Loves of Mars and Venus" (1695)
- "Love's a Jest" (1696)
- "She Ventures and He Wins" (1696)
- "The Novelty, or Every Act a Play"
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(1697)
- "Beauty in Distress" (1698)
- "Britain's Happiness" (1704)
- "The Amorous Miser, or the Younger the Wiser" (1705)
- "Thomyris, Queen of Scythia" (1707)
- "Love's Triumph" (1708)
— among others. As its subtitle indicates, "The Novelty" was an anthology of five short plays in different genres, comedy, tragedy, pastoral, masque, and farce.
Motteux worked in the English stage genre then called "opera," which were semi-operas somewhat comparable to modern musicals; works like "The Rape of Europa by Jupiter" (1694), "Acis and Galatea" (1701), and "Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus" (1705), the first two with music by John Eccles, and the third with music by Thomas Clayton. His final works are
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translations and adaptations of opera libretti from the Italian.
As was typical of Restoration drama, Motteux's plays often adapted earlier works; and his plays in turn were adapted by others into new forms. His semi-opera "The Island Princess, or the Generous Portuguese" (1699) was an adaptation of John Fletcher's play "The Island Princess", with music by Daniel Purcell. After his death, the comic subplot of "Acis and Galatea" was transformed into "a comic mask" called "Roger and Joan, or the Country Wedding" (1739). Much later, David Garrick adapted "The Novelty" into a farce titled "The Lying Varlet", published in 1823.
# Journalism.
Motteux edited "The Gentleman's Journal, or the Monthly
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Miscellany" from its initial issue, dated January 1692, to its last of November 1694; evidence suggests he wrote most of the prose in each issue as well. (The plan was for monthly issues, though some were late, and some were missed.) Motteux may have been influenced by "Le Mercure Galant", a French periodical of the 1670s devoted to Court news and gossip — though Motteux's "Journal" was more ambitious. The "Journal" published "News, History, Philosophy, Poetry, Musick, Translations, &c." It covered a wider range of topics than other periodicals of its era like "The Athenian Gazette", giving it some claim as the first "general interest" magazine in English. Motteux reviewed plays by John Dryden
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(a personal friend) and William Congreve among others; he published verse by the poets of the era, including Matthew Prior and Charles Sedley; he covered the musical career of Henry Purcell and printed several of his songs. The "Journal" even featured a "Lovers' Gazette," foreshadowing the advice-to-the-lovelorn columns of later generations of popular journalism.
Though its existence was relatively brief in historical terms, the "Journal" provided a precedent for later publications of the same type, notably "The Gentleman's Magazine" and "The London Magazine". One curiosity of the "Journal" is that the title page of its first issue bore the motto "E pluribus unum", apparently the earliest use
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of what would later become the motto of the United States of America. Motteux used the phrase in the sense of "one chosen among many," rather than its common later connotation. (Classicists have attempted to trace possible sources for the motto, ranging from Vergil to Aristotle to Horace to Cicero to St. Augustine.)
Motteux published early arguments in favor of the equality of the sexes; he re-titled the October 1693 issue of the "Journal" "The Lady's Journal," and devoted it to articles by and about women.
# References.
- Arnold, Howard Payson. "Historical Side-Lights". New York, Harper & Brothers, 1899.
- Baldwin, Neil. "The American Revelation." New York, St. Martin's Griffin, 2006.
-
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Cervantes, Miguel de. "The History of Don Quixote De La Mancha". Translated by John Ormsby. Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica Press, 1952.
- Cunningham, Robert Newton. "Peter Anthony Motteux: A Biographical and Critical Study." Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1933.
- Gillespie, Stuart, and David Hopkins, eds. "The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English." Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Jackson, Mason. "The Pictorial Press: Its Origin and Progress." London, Hurst and Blackett, 1885.
- MacDonald, Hugh. "John Dryden: A Bibliography of Early Editions and of Drydeniana." Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1939; reprinted Kessinger, 2006.
- Owen, Susan J. "A Companion to Restoration Drama."
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Critical Study." Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1933.
- Gillespie, Stuart, and David Hopkins, eds. "The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English." Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Jackson, Mason. "The Pictorial Press: Its Origin and Progress." London, Hurst and Blackett, 1885.
- MacDonald, Hugh. "John Dryden: A Bibliography of Early Editions and of Drydeniana." Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1939; reprinted Kessinger, 2006.
- Owen, Susan J. "A Companion to Restoration Drama." London, Blackwell, 2001.
- Van Laun, Henri. "Life," in: "Motteux's Don Quixote", edited by John Gibson Lockhart; 4 Volumes, reprinted London, J. M. Dent, 1880.
# External links.
- Three Motteux plays online.
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Hey Arnold!
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Hey Arnold!
Hey Arnold! is an American animated children's television series created by Craig Bartlett that aired on Nickelodeon from October 7, 1996, to June 8, 2004. The show centers on a fourth grader named Arnold, who lives with his grandparents in an inner-city boarding house. Episodes center on his experiences navigating big city life while dealing with the problems he and his friends encounter.
Bartlett's idea for the show is based on a minor character named Arnold whom he created while working on "Pee-wee's Playhouse". The executives enjoyed the character, and Bartlett completed the cast by drawing inspiration from people he grew up with in Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington.
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Bartlett created the pilot episode in his living room in 1994 and official production began in 1995. The animators worked to transform Arnold from clay animation to cel animation, leading to the series premiere. The show finished production in 2001 after 5 seasons and 100 episodes. A feature film based on the series, "", was released in 2002. All five seasons have been released on DVD.
A television film continuation of the series, "", was green-lit. It picks up from where the series ended and resolved unanswered plot lines of the story. The film premiered on November 24, 2017, on Nickelodeon.
# Premise.
## Characters.
"Hey Arnold!" stars nine-year-old Arnold (voiced by Toran Caudell; Phillip
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Van Dyke; Spencer Klein; Alex D. Linz and Mason Vale Cotton) and his neighborhood friends: Gerald (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith and Benjamin Flores Jr.), a street-smart character who generally serves as the leader of the group, and Helga (Francesca Marie Smith), a girl who bullies Arnold in order to hide the fact that she is in love with him. Bartlett drew inspiration from people he grew up with when creating the characters for the show.
Arnold lives with his eccentric but loving paternal grandparents, Phil (Dan Castellaneta) and Gertrude (Tress MacNeille), proprietors of the Sunset Arms boarding house, in the fictional city of Hillwood. In each episode, he often helps a schoolmate or boarding
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home tenant in solving a personal problem or encounters a predicament of his own. Many episodes involve urban legends usually told by Gerald, such as superheroes or headless horsemen.
Other characters include students and faculty at P.S. 118, Arnold's school, and citizens of Hillwood. Certain episodes focus on the lives of supporting characters, such as the tenants of the boarding house that Arnold's grandparents own.
## Setting.
"Hey Arnold!" takes place in the fictional American city of Hillwood. While its geographic location is never revealed outright, Bartlett described the city as "an amalgam of large northern cities I have loved, including Seattle (my hometown), Portland (where I went
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to art school) and Brooklyn (the bridge, the brownstones, the subway)". Bartlett, having grown up in Seattle, based many of the show's events on his own experience growing up in the city. Evan Levine of the "Houston Chronicle" commented on the series, "backdrop of dark streets, nighttime adventures and rundown buildings, all seen from a child's point of view".
# Production.
Animator Craig Bartlett graduated from Anacortes High School and obtained a degree in communications from The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. During high school and college, he studied painting and sculpture at the Museum Art School in Portland, and his first job after college was at Will Vinton Productions,
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a claymation studio. Originally, Bartlett intended to become a painter "in the 19th-century sense", but he became interested in animation during a trip to Italy.
In 1987, while working on "Pee-wee's Playhouse", he created claymation cutaways about a character named Penny and her friend Arnold, and made three "Arnold" shorts: "Arnold Escapes from Church" (1988), "The Arnold Waltz" (1990) and "Arnold Rides His Chair" (1991) which years later, were given the nickname "Clay Arnold ". Six years later, Bartlett teamed up with five writers from "Rugrats" to develop animation projects for Nickelodeon. These meetings were generally difficult and the writers became frustrated; Bartlett recalled: "Our
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ideas were OK, but such a large and motley group couldn't get far at pitch meetings. Network execs got migraines just counting us coming in the door." As a last resort, Bartlett played the "Penny" tapes, intending to highlight the Penny character. However, the executives were more impressed by Arnold, despite him being a minor character.
After the meeting, the group began developing Arnold, creating his personality and evolving him from claymation to cel animation. Bartlett stated: "We did a lot of talking about who Arnold is. We came up with a reluctant hero who keeps finding himself responsible for solving something, making the right choices, doing the right thing." After creating ideas for
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Arnold, Bartlett began work on the supporting characters, drawing influence from his childhood: "A lot of the characters are an amalgam of people I knew when I was a kid. The girls in "Hey Arnold!" are girls that either liked or didn't like me when I was in school."
In 1994, Bartlett created the pilot episode of "Hey Arnold!" in his living room, and showed it to producers at Nickelodeon. A year later, the network decided to begin work on the series. As mentioned earlier, the character was previously featured in a trilogy of clay animation shorts from 1988 to 1991: "Arnold Escapes from Church" (1988), "The Arnold Waltz" (1990), and "Arnold Rides a Chair" (1991), the latter having been aired
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as a filler short on "Sesame Street" in 1991. The 10-minute pilot episode, titled "Arnold", was shown in theaters in 1996 before Nickelodeon's first feature-length film, its adaptation of "Harriet the Spy".
Apart from the animation style, Nick's Arnold wears a sweater, with his plaid shirt untucked (resembling a kilt). Only Arnold's cap remains unchanged from his original clay-animation wardrobe. "Arnold" comic strips also appeared in "Simpsons Illustrated" magazine, by Matt Groening, the creator of "The Simpsons", who is also Craig Bartlett's brother-in-law.
Production of "Hey Arnold!" wrapped on December 7, 2001. A dispute over a second planned "Hey Arnold!" movie, "", then resulted in Bartlett
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leaving Nickelodeon. The last season's episodes were released over four years, beginning in 2000. The series aired its final episode, unannounced, on June 8, 2004.
# Films.
## 2002 feature film.
In this 2002 feature film, Arnold, Helga and Gerald set out on a quest to save their old neighborhood from a greedy developer who plans on converting it into a huge shopping mall. This film was directed by Tuck Tucker, and featured guest voice talents of Jennifer Jason Leigh, Paul Sorvino and Christopher Lloyd.
In 1998, Nickelodeon gave Craig Bartlett the chance to develop a feature adaptation of the series. As work on the fifth season was completing, Bartlett and company engaged in the production
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of "Arnold Saves the Neighborhood", which would eventually become "". The "Neighborhood" project was originally made for television and home video, but executives at Paramount Pictures decided to release it theatrically after successful test screenings. According to animation historian Jerry Beck (in his "Animated Movie Guide"), the decision was buoyed by the financial success of the first two "Rugrats" movies, "The Rugrats Movie" and "".
## 2017 television film.
In an interview with Arun Mehta, Craig Bartlett announced that he was working with Nickelodeon on a "Hey Arnold!" revival. In September 2015, Nickelodeon president Russell Hicks announced that the company was considering revivals
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for a number of their older shows, including "Hey Arnold!". According to an announcement by "The Independent", a "Hey Arnold!" revival is "very much on the cards". On November 23, 2015, Nickelodeon announced that a TV movie is in the works and will pick up right where the series left off. The film will also answer unanswered questions about the fate of Arnold's parents. On March 1, 2016, it was announced that the TV film, "The Jungle Movie", would be divided into two parts and would air in 2017. On March 6, 2016, voice actress Nika Futterman confirmed on Twitter that she and her character Olga Pataki would appear in the two-hour film. In June 2016, it was confirmed that the TV film would be
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titled "The Jungle Movie", and that 19 of the original voice actors from the series would lend their voices in the film. New cast-members included Mason Vale Cotton as Arnold; Benjamin "Lil' P-Nut" Flores as Gerald; Gavin Lewis as Eugene; Jet Jurgensmeyer as Stinky; Aiden Lewandowski as Sid; Laya Hayes as Nadine; Nicolas Cantu as Curly; Wally Wingert as Oskar; Stephen Stanton as Pigeon Man; and Alfred Molina as the villain Lasombra. The film debuted on November 24, 2017, on Nickelodeon.
# Broadcast.
Apart from Nickelodeon in the United States, "Hey Arnold!" premiered on October 30, 1996, in the United Kingdom, originally on CITV. In 2002, Nicktoons Network began broadcasting the show, and
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aired reruns of all "Hey Arnold!" episodes until May 30, 2008, when the show was taken off its nightly schedule. The show aired in reruns on the now-defunct "Nick on CBS" programming block for two years, from September 14, 2002, to September 4, 2004. On September 5, 2011, the Canadian Nickelodeon channel began airing reruns of "Hey Arnold!". In September 2011, TeenNick brought "Hey Arnold!" reruns to "The '90s Are All That" programming block (which has been rebranded "NickRewind") where it continues to air today.
# Home media.
Nickelodeon released all five seasons on DVD in Region 1 via Amazon.com through its CreateSpace Manufacture-on-demand program in 2008 and 2009. Season 1 was released
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Hey Arnold!
on August 21, 2008, Season 2 on August 29, 2008, Season 3 on December 8, 2009, Season 4 on November 27, 2009, and Season 5 on December 4, 2009.
On May 9, 2011, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. They subsequently released Season 1 in a 4-disc set on August 9, 2011. Season 2, Part 1 was released in a 2-disc set on March 20, 2012, followed by Season 2, Part 2 in a 2-disc set on July 24, 2012. Season 3 was released in a 3-disc set on January 29, 2013, as a "Shout Select" title. On May 14, 2013, Season 4 was released in a 2-disc set as a Shout exclusive followed by Season 5 released in a 3-disc set on October 15, 2013, also as a Shout exclusive making the
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Hey Arnold!
entire series available on DVD. On August 19, 2014, the complete series was released in a 16-disc set through Shout! Factory as a Walmart exclusive. On November 20, 2018, Paramount Home Media Distribution released "Hey Arnold!: The Ultimate Collection" DVD containing all of the previously released episodes and movies now packaged into one set.
In Australia, all five seasons have been released by Beyond Home Entertainment under licence from Nickelodeon. A 16-disc collector's edition was released on September 1, 2016, containing all five seasons.
♦ – Shout! Factory select title sold exclusively through Shout's online store.
# External links.
- on Nick
- "Hey Arnold! at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.
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Hey Arnold!
complete series was released in a 16-disc set through Shout! Factory as a Walmart exclusive. On November 20, 2018, Paramount Home Media Distribution released "Hey Arnold!: The Ultimate Collection" DVD containing all of the previously released episodes and movies now packaged into one set.
In Australia, all five seasons have been released by Beyond Home Entertainment under licence from Nickelodeon. A 16-disc collector's edition was released on September 1, 2016, containing all five seasons.
♦ – Shout! Factory select title sold exclusively through Shout's online store.
# External links.
- on Nick
- "Hey Arnold! at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck (March 16, 1766? – April 30, 1875) was a French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer. He was a man of talent and accomplishment, but his love of self-promotion and refusal to let the truth get in the way of a good story leave some aspects of his life in mystery.
At various times Waldeck said that he was born in Paris, Prague, or Vienna, and at other times claimed to be a German, Austrian and British citizen. He often claimed the title of Count and occasionally that of Duke or Baron, but these cannot be verified.
Waldeck said he had traveled to South Africa at age 19 and thereafter had begun a career in exploration. He claimed
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
to have returned to France and studied art as a student of Jacques-Louis David. He said he had traveled to Egypt with Napoleon's expedition. None of this has been independently verified; indeed most of Waldeck's autobiography before about 1820 (including his given birthdate) is undocumented and his name is absent from records of various early expeditions he claimed to have been on.
Waldeck is remembered primarily for two actions. The first is republishing the notorious set of pornographic prints titled "I Modi". The second is the exploration of Mexico and the publication of many examples of Maya and Aztec sculpture. Unfortunately, errors in his illustrations fostered misconceptions about Mesoamerican
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
civilizations and contributed to Mayanism.
He was active up until his death, at the claimed age of 109 years 45 days. He supposedly died of a heart attack while eying a beautiful woman near the "Champs-Élysées" in Paris.
# I Modi.
The "I Modi" prints are highly pornographic and accompanied sonnets by Pietro Aretino. The original prints were published by the engraver Marcantonio Raimondi in the 16th century allegedly from paintings by Giulio Romano. The publication caused a furor in Rome, and Pope Clement VII ordered that all copies be destroyed. As such, there is no known original printing of "I Modi" in existence. What has survived is a series of fragments in the British Museum, two copies
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
of a single print, and a woodcut copy from the 16th century. Waldeck claimed to have found a set of tracings of the "I Modi" prints in a convent near Palenque in Mexico. His story is dubious because there is no such convent. However, we know that he saw the fragments now in the British Museum because the fragments can be matched to his drawings.
# Mexican illustrations.
Waldeck's first contact with the art of ancient Mesoamerica was when he was hired by the publisher Henry Berthoud to prepare some plates for an 1822 book entitled "Description of the Ruins of an Ancient City". This book was an English translation of the 1787 report on Palenque by Antonio del Río which had been commissioned
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
for Charles III of Spain and then sat unpublished in the National Archives of Spain. Waldeck's engravings were much more beautiful and artistic than the original drawings he worked from, and gave the monuments a decidedly Egyptian look, in line with his patron's views that the ancient Mesoamerican Native Americans were the Lost Tribes of Israel.
In 1825, he was hired as a hydraulic engineer by an English mining company and went to Mexico. He did not last long at this job, and after his failure he explored the Pre-Columbian ruins of the country, living in the ruined Palenque between May 1832 and July 1833. After that, in 1834, he was hired by Lord Kingsborough to travel to Uxmal and make drawings
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
and architectural reconstructions. Some of these were "fanciful in the extreme."
In 1838, Waldeck published "Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan pendant les années 1834 et 1836" (Paris), a volume of illustrations of Mérida, Yucatán and Maya ruins, including those at Uxmal. Dedicated to Lord Kingsborough, this book provided what Waldeck believed was further support for connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt. His illustration of the Pyramid of the Magician at Uxmal, for example, makes it look similar Egyptian pyramids. In 1839, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.
Waldeck's illustrations of Palenque were chosen to accompany "Monuments
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
anciens du Mexique (Palenque, et autres ruines de l'ancienne civilisation du Mexique)" (1866) by Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg. However, just as his earlier illustrations had implied connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt, the ones included with Brasseur de Bourbourg's text invoked the Classical antiquity of ancient Greece and Rome. His illustrations of panels of Maya script in the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque included clear depictions of heads of elephants (now known to be erroneous embellishments). This fueled speculation about contact between the ancient Maya and Asia and the role of the mythical lost continent of Atlantis as a common link between ancient civilizations
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
of the Old and New Worlds.
Waldeck published numerous lithographs of what he had come across. His last set of prints was published in 1866 when he celebrated his centennial.
# Further reading.
- Baudez, C. F., 1993: Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, peintre: le premier explorateur des ruines mayas. Hazan, Paris.
- Brasseur de Bourbourg, É. C., 1866: Monuments anciens de Mexique: Palenqué et autres ruines de l'anc. civilisation du Mexique, Paris. (Illustrated by Waldeck.)
- Brunhouse, Robert L., 1973: In Search of the Maya: The First Archaeologists. University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque. (One chapter on Waldeck.)
- Cline, Howard F., 1947: The Apocryphal Early Career of J. F. de Waldeck, Pioneer
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
Americanist. Acta Americana. Tome V, pp. 278–299.
- Del Rio, A., 1822: Report of Antonio Del Rio to Don Jose Estacheria, Brigadier, Governor and Commandant General of the Kingdom of Guatemala, Etc. In Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near Palenque, in the kingdom of Guatemala, pp. 1–21. H. Berthoud and Suttaby Evance and Fox, London. (Illustrated by Waldeck.)
- Lawner, L., 1988: I Modi: the sixteen pleasures: an erotic album of the Italian Renaissance:Giulio Romano, Marcantonio Raimondi, Pietro Aretino, and Count Jean-Frederic-Maximilien de Waldeck. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.
- Le Fur, Y., 2006: D'un regard l'autre: histoire des regards européens sur l'Afrique,
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
l'Amérique et l'Océanie. Musée du quai Branly, Paris. (Exhibition catalog that includes paintings by Waldeck.)
- Parsons, L. A. and Jay I. Kislak Foundation., 1993: Columbus to Catherwood, 1494-1844 : 350 years of historic book graphics depicting the islands, Indians, and archaeology of the West Indies, Florida, and Mexico. Kislak bibliographic series ; publication 1. Jay I. Kislak Foundation Inc., Miami Lakes, Fla. (Includes book illustrations by Waldeck.)
- Smith, Mary Rebecca Darby., 1878: Recollections of two distinguished persons : la Marquise de Boissy and the Count de Waldeck. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1878. (Memoir of encounters with Waldeck. Book digitized at Internet Archive.)
-
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Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
llustrations by Waldeck.)
- Smith, Mary Rebecca Darby., 1878: Recollections of two distinguished persons : la Marquise de Boissy and the Count de Waldeck. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1878. (Memoir of encounters with Waldeck. Book digitized at Internet Archive.)
- Thompson, John Eric, 1927: The Elephant Heads in the Waldeck Manuscripts. Scientific Monthly, No. 25, pp. 392–398. New York.
# External links.
- Waldeck on emuseum.mnsu.edu
- Reed College web site including all the images of Uxmal in Waldeck's 1838 "Voyage pittoresque et archeólogique"
- Waldeck's erotic drawings at the British Museum
- "Brief Encounters with Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck" at the Public Domain Review
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Marcus Aurelius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius
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Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius ( or ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 8 March 161 to 17 March 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers traditionally known as the Five Good Emperors, and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He was also consul in 140, 145, and 161.
The son of the praetor Marcus Annius Verus (III) and the wealthy heiress Domitia Lucilla, Marcus was raised by his grandfather, Marcus Annius Verus (II), after his father died. Educated at home, he later credited his maternal step-great-grandfather Lucius Catilius Severus – who helped Marcus' grandfather to raise him – for his education.
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Marcus Aurelius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius
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Marcus Aurelius
In 138, Emperor Hadrian's first adopted son and heir, Lucius Aelius, died. Hadrian chose as his new heir Marcus' uncle, Antoninus Pius, who adopted Marcus and the son of Aelius, Lucius Commodus. Antoninus took the throne that year and Marcus, now his heir, studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He kept in close correspondence with Fronto for many years afterwards. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. Antoninus died following an illness in 161.
The reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, his co-ruler until 169, was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire
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Marcus Aurelius
and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars. However, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. Marcus modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. Persecution of Christians is believed to have increased during his reign. The Antonine Plague that broke out in 165 or 166 devastated the population of the Roman Empire. It caused the deaths of five million people, a quarter of those it affected.
Marcus never adopted an heir unlike some of his predecessors; his children included Lucilla (who married Lucius Verus) and his successor Commodus, the only survivor
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Marcus Aurelius
among at least six sons, whose succession has become a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. "Meditations", the writings of 'the philosopher' – as contemporary biographers such as Cassius Dio called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death.
# Sources.
The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources,
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Marcus Aurelius
the biographies contained in the "Historia Augusta", claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD. The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate. For Marcus' life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.
A body of correspondence between Marcus' tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials
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Marcus Aurelius
survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166. Marcus' own "Meditations" offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs. The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective. Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides
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Marcus Aurelius
on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the "Digest" and "Codex Justinianeus" on Marcus' legal work. Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.
# Early life and career.
## Name.
Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus, but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age, or at the time of his marriage. He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, at birth or at some point in his youth, or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius
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Marcus Aurelius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius
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Marcus Aurelius
Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death; Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors "On Weights and Measures", calls him "Marcus Aurelius Verus".
## Family origins.
Marcus was of Italic and Iberian origins, being the son of Domitia Lucilla (also known as Domitia Calvilla) and Marcus Annius Verus (III). His father traced his legendary pedigree to Numa Pompilius (second King of Rome) and Domitia traced hers to Mallenius, prince of the Messapians. Domitia was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and Domitia Lucilla and had inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters)
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Marcus Aurelius
from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the "Horti Domitia Calvillae" (or "Lucillae"), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome. Marcus himself was born and raised in the "Horti" and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.
Marcus' paternal family originated in Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica. The family rose to prominence in the late 1st century AD. Marcus' great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the "Historia Augusta") ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was
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