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20119
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Methodism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodism
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Methodism
of the Fiji Islands were converted to Methodism in the 1840s and 1850s. Most ethnic Fijians are Methodists today (the others are largely Roman Catholic and further divided into minor denominations such as Baptist, All Nations, Assemblies of God, Christian Mission Fellowship, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Latter Day Saints, Souls to Jesus and a few others), and the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma is an important social force.
### New Zealand.
The Methodist Church of New Zealand was the fourth most frequent religious affiliation chosen by those who declared one in the 2006 national census.
Since the early 1990s, missionaries and Methodist Church members from Malaysia and Singapore established
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Methodism
Churches around major centres in New Zealand. These congregations came together to form The Chinese Methodist Church in New Zealand (CMCNZ) in 2003, and constituted as a Provisional Annual Conference to elect its first president in 2018.
### Samoan Islands.
In 1868, Piula Theological College was established in Lufilufi on the north coast of Upolu island in Samoa and serves as the main headquarters of the Methodist church in the country. The college includes the historic Piula Monastery as well as Piula Cave Pool, a natural spring situated beneath the church by the sea. The Methodist Church is the third largest denomination throughout the Samoan Islands, in both Samoa and American Samoa.
###
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Tonga.
Methodism had a particular resonance with the inhabitants of Tonga. somewhat more than a third of Tongans adhered to the Methodist tradition. Methodism is represented on the island by a number of churches including the Free Church of Tonga and the Free Wesleyan Church, which is the largest church in Tonga. The royal family of the country are prominent members, and the late king was a lay preacher.
# Ecumenical relations.
Many Methodists have been involved in the ecumenical movement, which has sought to unite the fractured denominations of Christianity. Because Methodism grew out of the Church of England, a denomination from which neither of the Wesley brothers seceded, some Methodist
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Methodism
scholars and historians, such as Rupert E. Davies, have regarded their 'movement' more as a preaching order within wider Christian life than as a church, comparing them with the Franciscans, who formed a religious order within the medieval European church and not a separate denomination. Certainly, Methodists have been deeply involved in early examples of church union, especially the United Church of Canada and the Church of South India.
Also, a disproportionate number of Methodists take part in inter-faith dialogue. For example, Wesley Ariarajah, a long-serving director of the World Council of Churches' sub-unit on "Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies" is a Methodist.
In
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Methodism
October 1999, an executive committee of the World Methodist Council resolved to explore the possibility of its member churches becoming associated with the doctrinal agreement which had been reached by the Catholic Church and Lutheran World Federation (LWF). In May 2006, the International Methodist–Catholic Dialogue Commission completed its most recent report, entitled "The Grace Given You in Christ: Catholics and Methodists Reflect Further on the Church," and submitted the text to Methodist and Catholic authorities. In July of the same year, in Seoul, South Korea, the Member Churches of the World Methodist Council (WMC) voted to approve and sign a "Methodist Statement of Association" with the
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Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, the agreement which was reached and officially accepted in 1999 by the Catholic Church and the Lutheran World Federation and which proclaimed that:
"Together we confess: By grace alone, in faith in Christ's saving work and not because of any merit on our part, we are accepted by God and receive the Holy Spirit, who renews our hearts while equipping and calling us to good works... as sinners our new life is solely due to the forgiving and renewing mercy that God imparts as a gift and we receive in faith, and never can merit in any way," affirming "fundamental doctrinal agreement" concerning justification between the Catholic Church, the LWF,
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Methodism
and the World Methodist Council.
This is not to say there is perfect agreement between the three denominational traditions; while Catholics and Methodists believe that salvation involves cooperation between God and man, Lutherans believe that God brings about the salvation of individuals without any cooperation on their part.
Commenting on the ongoing dialogues with Catholic Church leaders, Ken Howcroft, Methodist minister and the Ecumenical Officer for the Methodist Church of Great Britain, noted that "these conversations have been immensely fruitful." Methodists are increasingly recognizing that the 15 centuries prior to the Reformation constitute a shared history with Catholics, and are
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Methodism
gaining new appreciation for neglected aspects of the Catholic tradition. There are, however, important unresolved doctrinal differences separating Roman Catholicism and Methodism, which include "the nature and validity of the ministry of those who preside at the Eucharist, the precise meaning of the Eucharist as the sacramental 'memorial' of Christ's saving death and resurrection, the particular way in which Christ is present in Holy Communion, and the link between eucharistic communion and ecclesial communion.
In the 1960s, the Methodist Church of Great Britain made ecumenical overtures to the Church of England, aimed at denominational union. Formally, these failed when they were rejected
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by the Church of England's General Synod in 1972; conversations and co-operation continued, however, leading in 2003 to the signing of a covenant between the two churches. From the 1970s onward, the Methodist Church also started several Local Ecumenical Projects (LEPs, later renamed Local Ecumenical Partnerships) with local neighbouring denominations, which involved sharing churches, schools and in some cases ministers. In many towns and villages there are United Churches which are sometimes with Anglican or Baptist churches, but most commonly are Methodist and URC, simply because in terms of belief, practice and churchmanship, many Methodists see themselves as closer to the United Reformed
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Church than to other denominations such as the Church of England. In the 1990s and early 21st century, the British Methodist Church was involved in the Scottish Church Initiative for Union, seeking greater unity with the established and Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the United Reformed Church in Scotland.
The Methodist Church of Great Britain is a member of several ecumenical organisations, including the World Council of Churches, the Conference of European Churches, the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe, Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, Churches Together in England, Action of Churches Together in Scotland and Cytûn (Wales).
Methodist
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denominations in the United States have also strengthened ties with other Christian traditions. In April 2005, bishops in the United Methodist Church approved "A Proposal for Interim Eucharistic Sharing." This document was the first step toward full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The ELCA approved this same document in August 2005. At the 2008 General Conference, the United Methodist Church approved full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. The UMC is also in dialogue with the Episcopal Church for full communion by 2012. The two denominations are working on a document called "Confessing Our Faith Together."
# See also.
- List of Methodists
-
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List of Methodist theologians
- Saints in Methodism
- List of Methodist churches
- List of Methodist denominations
# Further reading.
- Abraham, William J. and James E. Kirby, eds. "The Oxford Handbook of Methodist Studies" (2009). 780pp; historiography; excerpt
## World.
- Copplestone, J. Tremayne. "History of Methodist Missions, vol. 4: Twentieth-Century Perspectives" (1973), 1288 pp; comprehensive world coverage for US Methodist missions – online
- Cracknell, Kenneth and White, Susan J. (2005) "An Introduction to World Methodism", Cambridge University Press, .
- Forster, DA and Bentley, W (eds.) (2008)"What are we thinking? Reflections on Church and Society from Southern African
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Methodists." Methodist Publishing House, Cape Town.
- Forster, DA and Bentley, W (eds.) (2008)" Methodism in Southern Africa: A celebration of Wesleyan Mission" AcadSA Publishers, Kempton Park.
- Harmon, Nolan B. (ed.) (2 vol. 1974) "The Encyclopedia of World Methodism", Nashville: Abingdon Press, . 2640pp
- Heitzenrater, Richard P. (1994) "Wesley and the People Called Methodists", Nashville: Abingdon Press,
- Hempton, David (2005) "Methodism: Empire of the Spirit", Yale University Press,
- Wilson, Kenneth. "Methodist Theology". London, T & T Clark International, 2011 (Doing Theology).
- Yrigoyen Jr, Charles, and Susan E. Warrick. "Historical dictionary of Methodism" (2nd ed. Scarecrow
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Press, 2013)
## Great Britain.
- Borgen, Ole E. "John Wesley on the Sacraments: a Theological Study". Grand Rapids, Mich.: Francis Asbury Press, 1985, cop. 1972. 307 p.
- Brooks, Alan (2010) "West End Methodism: The Story of Hinde Street", London: Northway Publications, 400pp.
- Dowson, Jean and Hutchinson, John (2003) "John Wesley: His Life, Times and Legacy" [CD-ROM], Methodist Publishing House, TB214
- Edwards, Maldwyn. "Methodism and England: A study of Methodism in its social and political aspects during the period 1850–1932" (1944)
- Halevy, Elie, and Bernard Semmel. "The Birth of Methodism in England" (1971)
- Hempton, David (1984) "Methodism and Politics in British Society, 1750–1850",
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Stanford University Press,
- Jones, David Ceri et al. "The Elect Methodists: Calvinistic Methodism in England and Wales, 1735–1811" (2012)
- Kent, John (2002) "Wesley and the Wesleyans", Cambridge University Press,
- Madden, Lionel. "Methodism in Wales: A Short History of the Wesley Tradition" (2003)
- Stigant, P. "Wesleyan Methodism and working-class radicalism in the north, 1792–1821." "Northern History" (1971) 6#1 pp: 98–116.
- Thompson, Edward Palmer. "The making of the English working class" (1963) a famous classic stressing the role of Methodism.
- Turner, John Munsey. "John Wesley: The Evangelical Revival and the Rise of Methodism in England" (2003)
- Turner, John M. "Modern Methodism
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in England, 1932–1996" (1997)
- Warner, Wellman J. (1930) "The Wesleyan Movement in the Industrial Revolution", London: Longmans, Green.
## African Americans.
- Campbell, James T. (1995) "Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa", Oxford University Press,
- George, Carol V.R. (1973) "Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Rise of Independent Black Churches, 1760–1840", New York: Oxford University Press, LCCN 73076908
- Montgomery, William G. (1993) "Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865–1900", Louisiana State University Press,
- Walker, Clarence E. (1982) "A Rock in a Weary Land: The African
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Methodist Episcopal Church During the Civil War and Reconstruction", Louisiana State University Press,
- Wills, David W. and Newman, Richard (eds.) (1982) "Black Apostles at Home and Abroad: Afro-American and the Christian Mission from the Revolution to Reconstruction", Boston, MA: G. K. Hall,
## US and Canada.
- Cameron, Richard M. (ed.) (1961) "Methodism and Society in Historical Perspective", 4 vol., New York: Abingdon Press
- Lyerly, Cynthia Lynn (1998) "Methodism and the Southern Mind, 1770–1810", Religion in America Series, Oxford University Press,
- Meyer, Donald (1988) "The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919–1941", Wesleyan University Press,
- Rawlyk, G.A. (1994) "The
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Canada Fire: Radical Evangelicalism in British North America, 1775–1812", Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press,
- Schmidt, Jean Miller (1999) "Grace Sufficient: A History of Women in American Methodism, 1760–1939", Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press
- Semple, Neil (1996) "The Lord's Dominion: The History of Canadian Methodism", Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press,
- Sweet, William Warren (1954) "Methodism in American History", Revision of 1953, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 472 p.
- Wigger, John H. (1998) "Taking Heaven by Storm: Methodism and the Rise of Popular Christianity in America", Oxford University Press, – pp. ix & 269 focus on 1770–1910
## Primary sources.
- Richey, Russell
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E., Rowe, Kenneth E. and Schmidt, Jean Miller (eds.) (2000) "The Methodist Experience in America: a sourcebook", Nashville: Abingdon Press, . 756 p. of original documents
- Sweet, William Warren (ed.) (1946) "Religion on the American Frontier: Vol. 4, The Methodists,1783–1840: A Collection of Source Materials", New York: H. Holt & Co., – 800 p. of documents regarding the American frontier
- The Archive of the Methodist Missionary Society is held at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. http://www.soas.ac.uk/library/archives/
# External links.
- Methodist History Bookmarks
- World Methodist Council (Official Website)
- List of Member Churches
- World Methodist Evangelical
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idt, Jean Miller (eds.) (2000) "The Methodist Experience in America: a sourcebook", Nashville: Abingdon Press, . 756 p. of original documents
- Sweet, William Warren (ed.) (1946) "Religion on the American Frontier: Vol. 4, The Methodists,1783–1840: A Collection of Source Materials", New York: H. Holt & Co., – 800 p. of documents regarding the American frontier
- The Archive of the Methodist Missionary Society is held at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. http://www.soas.ac.uk/library/archives/
# External links.
- Methodist History Bookmarks
- World Methodist Council (Official Website)
- List of Member Churches
- World Methodist Evangelical Institute (Official Website)
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YTV
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YTV
YTV
YTV or ytv may refer to:
- YTV (TV channel), a Canadian youth television station owned by Corus Entertainment
- Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council, a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area
- Yale TV, the broadcast desk of the student newspaper "Yale Daily News"
- Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, a TV station joining Nippon News Network and Nippon Television Network System in Osaka, Japan
- Yorkshire Television, former name of ITV Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Yumurcak TV, a Turkish channel
# See also.
- KYTV (TV), an NBC affiliated television station in Springfield, Missouri
- WYTV, an ABC affiliated television station in Youngstown, Ohio
- WHYY-TV, a PBS
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YTV
el), a Canadian youth television station owned by Corus Entertainment
- Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council, a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area
- Yale TV, the broadcast desk of the student newspaper "Yale Daily News"
- Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, a TV station joining Nippon News Network and Nippon Television Network System in Osaka, Japan
- Yorkshire Television, former name of ITV Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Yumurcak TV, a Turkish channel
# See also.
- KYTV (TV), an NBC affiliated television station in Springfield, Missouri
- WYTV, an ABC affiliated television station in Youngstown, Ohio
- WHYY-TV, a PBS member station in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Miranda Richardson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miranda%20Richardson
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Miranda Richardson
Miranda Richardson
Miranda Jane Richardson (born 3 March 1958) is an English actress. She made her film debut playing Ruth Ellis in "Dance with a Stranger" (1985) and went on to receive Academy Award nominations for "Damage" (1992) and "Tom & Viv" (1994). A seven-time BAFTA Award nominee, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for "Damage". She has also been nominated for seven Golden Globe Awards, winning twice for "Enchanted April" (1992) and the TV film "Fatherland" (1994).
Richardson began her career in 1979 and made her West End debut in the 1981 play "Moving", before being nominated for the 1987 Olivier Award for Best Actress for "A Lie of the Mind". Her television
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credits include "Blackadder" (1986–89), "A Dance to the Music of Time" (1997), "Merlin" (1998), "The Lost Prince" (2003), "Gideon's Daughter" (2006), the sitcom "The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle" (2007), and "Rubicon" (2010). She was nominated for the 2015 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator for "Operation Orangutan".
Her other films include "Empire of the Sun" (1987), "The Crying Game" (1992), "The Apostle" (1997), "Sleepy Hollow" (1999), "Chicken Run" (2000), "The Hours" (2002), "Spider" (2002), "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" (2005), "The Young Victoria" (2009), "Made in Dagenham" (2010), "Belle" (2013), and "Stronger" (2017).
# Early life.
Richardson was born in Southport,
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Miranda Richardson
England, to Marian Georgina (née Townsend), a housewife, and William Alan Richardson, a marketing executive, and was their second daughter.
# Career.
## Theatre.
Richardson enrolled at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, where she studied alongside Daniel Day-Lewis and Jenny Seagrove, having started out with juvenile performances in "Cinderella" and "Lord Arthur Savile's Crime" at the Southport Dramatic Club.
Richardson has enjoyed a successful and extensive theatre career, first joining Manchester Library Theatre in 1979 as an assistant stage manager, followed by a number of appearances in repertory theatre. Her London stage debut was in "Moving" at the Queen's Theatre in 1981. She found
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Miranda Richardson
recognition in the West End for a series of stage performances, ultimately receiving an Olivier Award nomination for her performance in "A Lie of the Mind", and, in 1996, one critic asserted that she is "the greatest actress of our time in any medium" after she appeared in "Orlando" at the Edinburgh Festival. She returned to the London stage in May 2009 to play the lead role in Wallace Shawn's new play, "Grasses of a Thousand Colours" at the Royal Court Theatre. Richardson has said that she prefers new work rather than the classics because of the history which goes with them.
## Film and television.
In 1985, Richardson made her film debut as Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the United
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Kingdom, in the biographical drama "Dance with a Stranger". Around the same time, Richardson played a comedic Queen Elizabeth I, aka Queenie, in the British television comedy "Blackadder II".
Following "Dance with a Stranger", Richardson turned down numerous parts in which her character was unstable or disreputable, including the Glenn Close role in "Fatal Attraction". In this period, she appeared in "Empire of the Sun" (1987). In an episode of the TV series "The Storyteller" ("The Three Ravens", 1988), she played a witch. Meanwhile, she had returned in guest roles in one episode each in "Blackadder the Third" (1987) and "Blackadder Goes Forth" (1989). She returned to play Queenie in the Christmas
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special "Blackadder's Christmas Carol" (1988) and, later, a special edition for the millennium "".
Her portrayal of a troubled theatre goer in "Secret Friends" (BBC 2, 1990) was described as "a miniature tour de force... Miranda Richardson's finest hour, all in ten minutes" ("The Sunday Times"). Other television roles include Pamela Flitton in "A Dance to the Music of Time" (1997), Miss Gilchrist in "St. Ives" (1998), Bettina the interior decorator in "Absolutely Fabulous", Queen Elspeth, Snow White's stepmother, in "" (2001), and Queen Mary in "The Lost Prince" (2003).
Richardson has appeared in a number of high-profile supporting roles in film, including Vanessa Bell in "The Hours", Lady
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Miranda Richardson
Van Tassel in "Sleepy Hollow" and Patsy Carpenter in "The Evening Star". She also won acclaim for her performances in "The Crying Game" and "Enchanted April", for which she won a Golden Globe. She received Academy Award nominations for her performances in "Damage" and "Tom & Viv".
Her film credits also include "Kansas City" (1996), "The Apostle" (1997) and "Wah-Wah" (2005). In 2002, she performed a triple-role in the thriller "Spider".
Richardson also appeared as Queen Rosalind of Denmark in "The Prince and Me" and as the ballet mistress Madame Giry in the film version of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical "The Phantom Of The Opera" (2004). In 2005, she appeared in the role of Rita Skeeter, the
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Miranda Richardson
toxic "Daily Prophet" journalist in "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire". She also did the voice for Corky in "The Adventures of Bottle Top Bill and His Best Friend Corky" (2005), an Australian animated series for children. In 2006, she appeared in "Gideon's Daughter". She played Mrs. Claus in the film "Fred Claus" (2007).
Richardson appeared in the BBC sitcom, "The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle". She appeared as a guest in "A Taste of My Life".
In 2008, Richardson was cast in a leading role in original AMC pilot, "Rubicon". She plays Katherine Rhumor, a New York socialite who finds herself drawn into the central intrigue of a think tank after the death of her husband.
Additionally, she
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Miranda Richardson
played Labour politician Barbara Castle in the British film "Made in Dagenham".
Richardson was cast as Queen Ulla in "Maleficent", where she was to play the titular character's aunt, but her role was cut from the film during post-production. In 2015, she played Sybil Birling in Helen Edmundson's BBC One adaptation of J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls".
# Personal life.
Richardson has never married. She is interested in falconry.
# Theatre roles.
- "Savage Amusement" (Hazel) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster
- "Stags and Hens" (Linda) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster
- "All My Sons" (Ann) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster
- "Sisterly Feelings" (Brenda) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster
- "Ten Times
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Miranda Richardson
Table" (Phillipa) – Library Theatre, Manchester
- "Whose Life Is It Anyway?" (Kay Sadler) – Library Theatre, Manchester
- "Play It Again, Sam" (Linda Christie) – Library Theatre, Manchester
- "Tom Jones" (Sophie Western) – Library Theatre, Manchester
- "Educating Rita" (Rita) – Haymarket Theatre, Leicester
- "Moving" (Jane Gladwin) – Queen's Theatre (1980/1)
- "The Table of the Two Horseman" (Katie Wyld) – Bristol Theatre Royal (9 March 1983/2 April 1983)
- "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" (Honey) – Bristol Theatre Royal (6 April 1983/30 April 1983)
- "The Maids" (Madame) – Bristol New Vic (27 September 1983/22 October 1983)
- "Insignificance" (The Actress) – Bristol New Vic (25 October
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1983/19 December 1983)
- "Life of Einstein" – The Dukes Theatre, Lancaster (1984)
- "Edmond" (Glenna) – Newcastle (1985)
- "A Lie of the Mind" (Beth) – Royal Court Theatre, West End (1987)
- "The Changeling" (Beatrice-Joanna) – (Lyttelton) National Theatre, West End (1988)
- "Mountain Language" (Young Woman) – (Lyttelton) National Theatre, West End (1988)
- "Etta Jenks" (Etta Jenks) – Royal Court Theatre, West End (1990)
- "The Designated Mourner" (Judy) – Royal National Theatre, West End (1996)
- "Orlando" (Orlando) – 50th Edinburgh International Festival (11/21 August 1996)
- "Aunt Dan and Lemon" (Aunt Dan) – Almeida Theatre, Islington, London (5 May/5 June 1999)
- "The Play What
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Miranda Richardson
r" (Judy) – Royal National Theatre, West End (1996)
- "Orlando" (Orlando) – 50th Edinburgh International Festival (11/21 August 1996)
- "Aunt Dan and Lemon" (Aunt Dan) – Almeida Theatre, Islington, London (5 May/5 June 1999)
- "The Play What I Wrote" (Herself) – Wyndham's Theatre, West End (30 January 2002, 5 May 2002, 2 January 2003)
- "Comic Aid 2005" – (Herself – Asia Tsunami Aid) – Carling Apollo, West End (22 February 2005)
- "One Knight Only" – (Herself – Asia Tsunami Aid) – Theatre Royal, Haymarket, West End (20 March 2005)
- "Grasses of a thousand colours" (Cerise) – Royal Court Theatre (May 2009)
# Filmography.
## Television.
1998 "Merlin" (Hallmark TV special) as Queen Mab
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Supachai Panitchpakdi
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Supachai Panitchpakdi
Supachai Panitchpakdi
Supachai Panitchpakdi (, , ; born 30 May 1946 in Bangkok, Thailand) is a Thai politician and professor. He was Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) from 1 September 2005 to 31 August 2013. Prior to this, he was the Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO) from 1 September 2002 to 1 September 2005. He was succeeded by Pascal Lamy.
In 1986 Supachai Panitchpakdi was appointed as Thailand's Deputy Minister of Finance, but when parliament was dissolved in 1988 he left politics and became president of Thai Military Bank. In 1992 he returned to politics and became deputy prime minister until 1995, responsible for trade and economics.
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Supachai Panitchpakdi
During the Asian financial crisis in November 1997 he returned to be deputy prime minister and also became minister of commerce.
In September 1999 he was elected to become Director-General of the World Trade Organization, sharing the post with Mike Moore when a decision could not be reached. Taking the second half of the six-year term, he entered office on 1 September 2002.
In March 2005 he was appointed Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) following his term at the WTO, a post he took up in late-2005. He was appointed for a second four-year term in September 2009. Keen to reform and revitalise the organisation, he has established a Panel of Eminent Persons
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to oversee the start of reform of UNCTAD.
Supachai received his master's degree in economics, development planning and his PhD in economic planning and development at the Netherlands School of Economics (now known as Erasmus University) in Rotterdam. In 1973, he completed his doctoral dissertation under supervision of Professor Jan Tinbergen, the first Nobel laureate in economics. In the same year, he went to Cambridge University as a visiting fellow to conduct research on development models.
He published numerous books, including "Educational Growth in Developing Countries" (1974), "Globalization and Trade in the New Millennium" (2001) and "China and the WTO: Changing China, Changing World
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mics (now known as Erasmus University) in Rotterdam. In 1973, he completed his doctoral dissertation under supervision of Professor Jan Tinbergen, the first Nobel laureate in economics. In the same year, he went to Cambridge University as a visiting fellow to conduct research on development models.
He published numerous books, including "Educational Growth in Developing Countries" (1974), "Globalization and Trade in the New Millennium" (2001) and "China and the WTO: Changing China, Changing World Trade" (2002, co-authored with Mark Clifford).
# External links.
- UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Office
- UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Biography
- UNDT judgment UNDT/2012/136
- Biography at WTO
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Garsington
Garsington
Garsington is a village and civil parish about southeast of Oxford in Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 1,689.
The village is known for the flamboyant social life at Garsington Manor when it was the home from 1914 to 1928 of Philip and Ottoline Morrell, and for the Garsington Opera which was staged here from 1989 until 2010.
# Buildings.
## Garsington Manor.
Garsington Manor House was built in the 16th century and remodelled in the 17th century. It is a Grade II* listed building.
It was the home of Lady Ottoline Morrell (1873–1938), doyenne of the Bloomsbury group of writers and artists who used to meet at the manor. By association it has connection
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with the philosopher Bertrand Russell, writers such as Aldous Huxley, W. B. Yeats, Virginia Woolf and D. H. Lawrence and artists like Mark Gertler, Eric Gill and Dora Carrington.
Garsington Manor was bought in 1982 by Leonard Ingrams who established the Garsington Opera, an annual open air opera festival which was staged there each summer from 1989 until 2010. The opera moved to Wormsley Park, Buckinghamshire in 2011.
## Southend Manor House.
The Southend part of the village has its own manor house. It is an early 17th-century double-pile Jacobean building with a front of seven bays. It is a Grade II* listed building.
## Parish church.
The oldest part of the parish church of Saint Mary
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includes the tower, built towards the end of the 12th century in the transitional style between Norman and Early English. The chancel is pure Early English and was built or rebuilt in about 1300. St Mary's has Decorated Gothic north and south aisles, which were added in the 14th century and have four-bay arcades.
St Mary's was restored in 1849 under the direction of the Gothic Revival architect Joseph Clarke. Clarke's alterations included rebuilding the chancel arch to match the north arcade, adding gargoyles to the south aisle and much remodelling of the north aisle. St Mary's is a Grade II* listed building.
Inside, next to the entrance door, is a memorial to Garsington's most illustrious
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inhabitant, Ottoline Morrell, by Eric Gill.
The west tower has a ring of six bells. Richard Keene of Woodstock cast the treble bell in 1696. Abraham II Rudhall of Gloucester cast the second bell in 1720. Henry III Bagley of Chacombe, Northamptonshire cast the third bell in 1733, presumably at his then foundry in Witney. John Rudhall of Gloucester cast the tenor bell in 1788. W&J Taylor cast the fifth bell in 1825, presumably at their then foundry in Oxford. The fourth bell was cast in 1732 but Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry recast it in 1929. The bells were restored in 2013.
Thomas Thwaites of Clerkenwell in London built the turret clock for the tower in 1796 at a cost
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of £172 4s 0d. It is a 30-hour clock and it strikes the hours on the tenor bell. Its dials still have only an hour hand.
St Mary's parish is now part of the Benefice of Garsington, Cuddesdon and Horspath.
The wedding scene in the 2006 film "Amazing Grace" was filmed at the church.
## School.
A parish school was built in Garsington in 1840. It was reorganised as a junior school in 1923. It now occupies more modern premises and is a Church of England primary school.
## Village hall.
The village hall was built in 1911 and given to the village by the lord of the manor, Philip Morrell. For most of the 20th century it served the needs of the villagers and a number of small improvements were
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made over the years. It was renovated to bring it up to modern day standards. The building retains its original appearance as well as adding modern-day facilities.
# Amenities.
Garsington has a public house: the Three Horseshoes. There were two other public houses: the Plough has been converted into a private house; and the Red Lion is in the process of conversion. There are also a hairdressing salon, a garden centre, dog kennels and a cattery.
Garsington Sports and Social Club is in Denton Lane. It has two men's football teams that play in the Oxfordshire Senior Football League and two youth teams that play in the "Oxford Mail" Youth League
Garsington Cricket Club plays in the Oxfordshire
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Denton Lane. It has two men's football teams that play in the Oxfordshire Senior Football League and two youth teams that play in the "Oxford Mail" Youth League
Garsington Cricket Club plays in the Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division Five. The Club also has teams that compete in local darts and Aunt Sally leagues.
The Garsington Society seeks to expand the knowledge of Garsington and its surrounding areas historically and geographically with talks held from time to time. The Society holds an annual barn dance.
Garsington has a Women's Institute.
# External links.
- Garsington Parish Council
- Garsington Community Plan
- Garsington Village Hall
- Oxford Green Belt Network
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Isaac Todhunter
Isaac Todhunter FRS (23 November 1820 – 1 March 1884), was an English mathematician who is best known today for the books he wrote on mathematics and its history.
# Life and work.
The son of George Todhunter, a Nonconformist minister, and Mary née Hume, he was born at Rye, Sussex. He was educated at Hastings, where his mother had opened a school after the death of his father in 1826. He became an assistant master at a school at Peckham, attending at the same time evening classes at the University College, London where he was influenced by Augustus De Morgan. In 1842 he obtained a mathematical scholarship and graduated as B.A. at London University, where he was awarded the gold
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medal on the M.A. examination. About this time he became mathematical master at a school at Wimbledon.
In 1844 Todhunter entered St John's College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1848, and gained the first Smith's Prize and the Burney Prize; and in 1849 he was elected to a fellowship, and began his life of college lecturer and private tutor. In 1862 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1865 a member of the Mathematical Society of London. In 1871 he gained the Adams Prize and was elected to the council of the Royal Society. He was elected honorary fellow of St John's in 1874, having resigned his fellowship on his marriage in 1864. In 1880 his eyesight began to fail,
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and shortly afterwards he was attacked with paralysis.
He is buried in the Mill Road cemetery, Cambridge.
# Personal life.
Todhunter married 13 August 1864 Louisa Anna Maria, eldest daughter of Captain (afterwards Admiral) George Davies, R.N. (at that time head of the county constabulary force). He died on 1 March 1884, at his residence, 6 Brookside, Cambridge. A mural tablet and medallion portrait were placed in the ante-chapel of his college by his widow, who, with four sons and one daughter, survived him.
He was a sound Latin and Greek scholar, familiar with French, German, Spanish, Italian, and also Russian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. He was well versed in the history of philosophy, and on
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three occasions acted as examiner for the moral sciences tripos.
# Selected writings.
- "Treatise on the Differential Calculus and the Elements of the Integral Calculus" (1852, 6th ed., 1873)
- "Treatise on Analytical Statics" (1853, 4th ed., 1874)
- "Treatise on the Integral Calculus" (1857, 4th ed., 1874)
- "Treatise on Algebra" (1858, 6th ed., 1871)
- "Treatise on differential Calculus"
- "Treatise on Plane Coordinate Geometry" (1858, 3rd ed., 1861)
- "Plane Trigonometry" (1859, 4th ed., 1869)
- "Spherical Trigonometry" (1859)
- "History of the Calculus of Variations" (1861)
- "Theory of Equations" (1861, 2nd ed. 1875)
- "Examples of Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions" (1858,
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3rd ed., 1873)
- "Mechanics for Beginners" (1867)
- "A History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability from the Time of Pascal to that of Laplace" (1865)
- "Researches in the Calculus of Variations" (1871)
- "History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and Figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace" (1873)
- "Elementary Treatise on Laplace's, Lamé's and Bessel's Functions" (1875)
- "A history of the theory of elasticity and of the strength of materials from Galilei to the present time " " Vol I PtI ""Vol II Pt II"
- "Natural Philosophy for Beginners" (1877).
An unfinished work, "The History of the Theory of Elasticity", was edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl Pearson.
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e of the Earth from Newton to Laplace" (1873)
- "Elementary Treatise on Laplace's, Lamé's and Bessel's Functions" (1875)
- "A history of the theory of elasticity and of the strength of materials from Galilei to the present time " " Vol I PtI ""Vol II Pt II"
- "Natural Philosophy for Beginners" (1877).
An unfinished work, "The History of the Theory of Elasticity", was edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl Pearson. A biographical work on William Whewell was published in 1876, in addition to many original papers in scientific journals.
# References.
- Attribution
# Further reading.
- Obituary notices: "Proc. Lond. Math. Soc." (1884) and "Proc. Roy. Soc." 37, p. xxvvii (1884)
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Mecklenburg
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Mecklenburg
Mecklenburg (, Low German: "Mękel(n)borg" ) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar and Güstrow.
The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named "Mikilenburg" (Old Saxon: "big castle", hence its translation into New Latin and ), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language it was known as "Veligrad", which also means "big castle". It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg; for a time the area was divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty.
Linguistically
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Mecklenburgers retain and use many features of Low German vocabulary or phonology.
The adjective for the region is "Mecklenburgian" (); inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians ().
# Geography.
Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the terrain is boggy, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea.
Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the
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exterior of country houses.
Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing for livestock.
# History.
## Early history.
Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins. By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples.
The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer's head (Low German: "Ossenkopp", lit.: 'oxen's head', with "osse" being a synonym for steer and bull in Middle Low German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e. a steers's head as
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a helmet, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy.
From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as "Wends". The 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites.
In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades. From 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans
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and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated in the centuries thereafter. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence. An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called "Zuarin" in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the 'gard' portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word 'grad', meaning city or town.
Since the 12th century, the territory
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remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. During the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg.
## History, 1621–1933.
Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty. In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian
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duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918. Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh. Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e. 1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas. Even as late as the later half of the 19th century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside.
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The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe. The Duke's ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918. From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic.
Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German areas, and later the poorer of the provinces, or "Länder", within a unified Germany. The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany. The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually this failed
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as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent.
## History since 1934.
After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united on 1 January 1934 by the Nazi government. The Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of "General der Infanterie" Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin. Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin; Rostock; Parchim; and Neustrelitz.
After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German "Vorpommern") to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.
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Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population. Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for lots of refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war. The Soviets changed the name from "Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania" to "Mecklenburg" in 1947.
In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating 3 districts ("Bezirke") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg.
During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic
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of Germany.
# Coat of arms of the duchies of Mecklenburg.
The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic Sea, who died in 1160. His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348. On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red. The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years. In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue. 23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was
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ordered. Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855.
Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?) blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz.
According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle.
The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the 17th century. The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull's head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin surmounting green rectangle), Ratzeburg (cross surmounted by crown), Stargard (arm with hand holding
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ring) and Wenden (bull's head). The shield is supported by a bull and a griffin and surmounted by a royal crown.
The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band.
Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria, show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms.
The former Schwerin standard with the white quadrant is now ascribed to the grand dukes of Strelitz.
Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band. And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white
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middle band.
'Berühmte Fahnen' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882–1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval. On sea the yellow band in her flag was of course white.
The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock.
# Economy.
## Tourism.
Mecklenburg faces a huge increase in tourism since German reunification in 1990, particularly with its beaches and seaside resorts at the Baltic Sea ("German Riviera", Warnemünde, Boltenhagen, Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Rerik and others), the
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Mecklenburg Lakeland ("Mecklenburgische Seenplatte") and the Mecklenburg Switzerland ("Mecklenburgische Schweiz") with their pristine nature, the old Hanseatic towns of Rostock, Greifswald, Stralsund and Wismar (the latter two being World Heritage) well known for their medieval Brick Gothic buildings, and the former royal residences of Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz.
# Notable Mecklenburgers.
- Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prussian army leader
- Michael Buddrus (born 1957), historian
- Jan Ullrich, cyclist
- Gottlob Frege, logician
- Siegfried Marcus, automobile pioneer
- Heinrich Schliemann, classical archaeologist
- Johannes Gillhoff, teacher, author of book on Mecklenburg
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emigrants to the US
- Fritz Reuter, poet and novelist
- Ludwig Jacoby, (1813–1874), born in Altstrelitz, an author and Methodist clergyman, commissioned as a missionary to St. Louis, Missouri, by the founder of the German Methodist Church in America, William Nast (1807–1899). Jacoby founded the first Methodist Church West of the Mississippi River, originally known as Bethel Church, now known as Memorial United Methodist Church, in St. Louis in 1841.
- Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, (1744–1818), wife of George III of the United Kingdom and grandmother of Queen Victoria. Charlotte, North Carolina, USA and the county in which it lies were named in her honour, as was Charlottesville, Virginia,
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ethodist Church West of the Mississippi River, originally known as Bethel Church, now known as Memorial United Methodist Church, in St. Louis in 1841.
- Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, (1744–1818), wife of George III of the United Kingdom and grandmother of Queen Victoria. Charlotte, North Carolina, USA and the county in which it lies were named in her honour, as was Charlottesville, Virginia, US.
# See also.
- Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- List of Dukes and Grand Dukes of Mecklenburg
- Mecklenburg County, North Carolina
- Mecklenburg County, Virginia
# External links.
- Government portal of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
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Liane Haid
Juliane "Liane" Haid (16 August 1895 – 28 November 2000) was an Austrian actress who has often been referred to as Austria's first movie star.
# Biography.
Born in Vienna, Haid trained both as a dancer and singer and became the epitome of the "Süßes Wiener Mädel" ("Sweet Viennese Girl") and a popular pin-up throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Her first motion picture was a propaganda film made during the First World War, "Mit Herz und Hand fürs Vaterland" (1916). She worked for UFA and, as a trained singer, easily made the transition to the sound era, appearing in comedy films alongside German stars such as Willi Forst, Bruno Kastner, Georg Alexander, Theo Lingen, and Heinz Rühmann.
Having
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refused several offers from Hollywood, she left Germany for Switzerland in 1942 "because of the regime, because everything was bombed, and because all the good directors had left". She married Carl Spycher and also ended her film career.
Her notable films include "Lady Hamilton" (1921; her breakthrough role); "Lucrezia Borgia" (1922); "The Csardas Princess" (1927, based on the operetta by Emmerich Kálmán); and the talkies "The Song Is Ended" (1930) and "Ungeküsst soll man nicht schlafen gehn" (1936). She made her last film appearance in 1953.
The sister of the actress Grit Haid, who died in Schwarzwald, Germany, in 1938, aged 38.
# Filmography.
- "With Heart and Hand for the Fatherland"
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(1915)
- "Summer Idyll" (1916)
- "With God for Emperor and Empire" (1916)
- "The Vagabonds" (1916)
- "The Tragedy of Castle Rottersheim" (1916)
- "On the Heights" (1916)
- "Lebenswogen" (1917)
- "The Black Hand" (1917)
- "The Stain of Shame" (1917)
- "The Spendthrift" (1917)
- "Double Suicide" (1918)
- "Rigoletto" (1918)
- "So fallen die Lose des Lebens" (1918)
- "The Ancestress" (1919)
- "The Master of Life" (1920)
- "Let the Little Ones Come to Me" (1920)
- "Durch Wahrheit zum Narren" (1920)
- "Freut Euch des Lebens" (1920)
- "The Dancing Death" (1920)
- "The Voice of Conscience" (1920)
- "Der Leiermann" (1920)
- "Eva, The Sin" (1920)
- "Verschneit" (1920)
- "Doctor
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Ruhland" (1920)
- "Light of His Life" (1921)
- "The Woman in White" (1921)
- "The Films of Princess Fantoche" (1921)
- "The Story of a Maid" (1921)
- "Lady Hamilton" (1921)
- "Money in the Streets" (1922)
- "Lucrezia Borgia" (1922)
- "Explosion" (1923)
- "The Slipper Hero" (1923)
- "Southern Love" (1924)
- "The Island of Dreams" (1925)
- "Fire of Love" (1925)
- "I Love You" (1925)
- "The White Horse Inn" (1926)
- "The Brothers Schellenberg" (1926)
- "The Uncle from the Provinces" (1926)
- "The Son of Hannibal" (1926)
- "When I Came Back" (1926)
- "The White Slave" (1927)
- "The Dashing Archduke" (1927)
- "The Golden Abyss" (1927)
- "The Dollar Princess and her Six Admirers"
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(1927)
- "The Csardas Princess" (1927)
- "The Last Waltz" (1927)
- "The Women's War" (1928)
- "The Lady in Black" (1928)
- "Two Red Roses" (1928)
- "Vienna, City of My Dreams" (1928)
- "Spy of Madame Pompadour" (1928)
- "Ship in Distress" (1929)
- "Play Around a Man" (1929)
- "Black Forest Girl" (1929)
- "The Great Longing" (1930)
- "The Song Is Ended" (1930)
- "Twice Married" (1930)
- "The Immortal Vagabond" (1930)
- "My Cousin from Warsaw" (1931)
- "Kaiserliebchen" (1931)
- "Zirkus Leben" (1931)
- "The Opera Ball" (1931)
- "The Men Around Lucy" (1931)
- "Grock" (1931)
- "I Do Not Want to Know Who You Are" (1932)
- "The Prince of Arcadia" (1932)
- "Der Diamant des Zaren"
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(1932)
- "Madame Makes Her Exit" (1932)
- "Madame Wants No Children" (1933)
- "A Woman Like You" (1933)
- "Typhoon" (1933)
- "The Star of Valencia" (1933)
- "The Castle in the South" (1933)
- "Keine Angst vor Liebe" (1933)
- "Ihre Durchlaucht, die Verkäuferin" (1933)
- "Tell Me Who You Are" (1933)
- "Roman einer Nacht" (1933)
- "An Evening Visit" (1934)
- "Bei der blonden Kathrein" (1934)
- "Die Fahrt in die Jugend" (1935)
- "Dance Music" (1935)
- "Whom the Gods Love" (1936)
- "Wer zuletzt küßt..." (1936)
- "Peter in the Snow" (1937)
- "Die unvollkommene Liebe" (1940)
- "Die fünf Karnickel" (1953)
# See also.
- List of centenarians
# External links.
- Photographs of Liane
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- "Madame Makes Her Exit" (1932)
- "Madame Wants No Children" (1933)
- "A Woman Like You" (1933)
- "Typhoon" (1933)
- "The Star of Valencia" (1933)
- "The Castle in the South" (1933)
- "Keine Angst vor Liebe" (1933)
- "Ihre Durchlaucht, die Verkäuferin" (1933)
- "Tell Me Who You Are" (1933)
- "Roman einer Nacht" (1933)
- "An Evening Visit" (1934)
- "Bei der blonden Kathrein" (1934)
- "Die Fahrt in die Jugend" (1935)
- "Dance Music" (1935)
- "Whom the Gods Love" (1936)
- "Wer zuletzt küßt..." (1936)
- "Peter in the Snow" (1937)
- "Die unvollkommene Liebe" (1940)
- "Die fünf Karnickel" (1953)
# See also.
- List of centenarians
# External links.
- Photographs of Liane Haid
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Afghan Armed Forces
The Afghan Armed Forces are the military forces of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. They consist of the Afghan National Army and the Afghan Air Force. The President of Afghanistan is the Commander-in-Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces, which is administratively controlled through the Ministry of Defense. The National Military Command Center in Kabul serves as the headquarters of the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Armed Forces currently has approximately 200,000 active duty soldiers and airmen, which are expected to reach 260,000 soldiers and airmen in the coming year.
The current Afghan military originates in 1709 when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed
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by the Durrani Empire. The Afghan military fought many wars with the Safavid dynasty and Maratha Empire from the 18th to the 19th century. It was re-organized by the British in 1880, when the country was ruled by Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. It was modernized during King Amanullah Khan's rule in the early 20th century, and upgraded during King Zahir Shah's forty-year rule. From 1978 to 1992, the Soviet-backed Afghan Armed Force fought with multi-national mujahideen groups who were being backed by the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan. After President Najibullah's resignation in 1992 and the end of Soviet support, the military dissolved into portions controlled by different warlord factions
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and the mujahideen took control over the government. This era was followed by the rise of the Pakistan-backed Taliban regime, who established a military force on the basis of Islamic sharia law.
After the removal of the Taliban and the formation of the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in late 2001 and 2002, respectively, the Afghan Armed Forces was gradually rebuilt by NATO forces in the country, primarily by the United States Armed Forces. Despite early problems with recruitment and training, it is becoming effective in fighting against the Taliban insurgency. As of 2014, it is becoming able to operate independently from the NATO International Security Assistance Force. As a major
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non-NATO ally of the United States, Afghanistan continues to receive billions of dollars in military assistance.
# History.
Afghans have served in the militaries of the Ghaznavids (963–1187), Ghurids (1148–1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206–1527), Mughals (1526–1858) and the Persian army. The current Afghan military traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotaki dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722.
When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, his Afghan army fought a number of wars in the Punjab region of Hindustan during the 18th to the 19th century. One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle
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of Panipat in which the Afghans invaded and decisively defeated the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Afghans then engaged in wars with the Punjabi Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh, which included the Battle of Jamrud in which Hari Singh Nalwa was killed by Prince Akbar Khan. During the First Anglo-Afghan War, British India invaded Afghanistan in 1838 but withdraw in 1842. During the three years a number of battles took place in different parts of Afghanistan.
The first organized army of Afghanistan (in the modern sense) was established after the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1880 when the nation was ruled by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan. Traditionally, Afghan governments relied on three military institutions: the
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regular army, tribal levies, and community militias. The regular army was sustained by the state and commanded by government leaders. The tribal or regional levies - irregular forces - had part-time soldiers provided by tribal or regional chieftains. The chiefs received tax breaks, land ownership, cash payments, or other privileges in return. The community militia included all available able-bodied members of the community, mobilized to fight, probably only in exceptional circumstances, for common causes under community leaders. Combining these three institutions created a formidable force whose components supplemented each other's strengths and minimized their weaknesses.
After the Third Anglo-Afghan
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War ended, the reforming King Amanullah did not see the need for a large army, instead deciding to rely on Afghanistan's historical martial qualities. This resulted in neglect, cutbacks, recruitment problems, and finally an army unable to quell the 1929 up-rising that cost him his throne. However, under his reign, the Afghan Air Force was formed in 1924. The Afghan Armed Forces were expanded during King Zahir Shah's reign, reaching a strength of 70,000 in 1933.
Following World War II, Afghanistan briefly received continued military support from the British government under the Lancaster Plan from 1945 to 1947, until the partition of India realigned British priorities in the region. Afghanistan
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declined to join the 1955 United States-sponsored Baghdad Pact; this rebuff did not stop the United States from continuing its low-level aid program, but it was reluctant to provide Afghanistan with military assistance, so Daoud turned to the Soviet Union and its allies for military aid, and in 1955 he received approximately US$25 million of military aid. In addition, the Soviet bloc also began construction of military airfields in Bagram, Mazar-e-Sharif, and Shindand. By the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military. The Afghan Armed Forces reached a strength of 98,000 (90,000 soldiers and 8,000 airmen)
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by this period.
After the exile of King Zahir Shah in 1973, President Daud Khan forged stronger ties with the Soviets by signing two highly controversial military aid packages for his nation in 1973 and 1975. For three years, the Afghan Armed Forces and police officers received advanced Soviet weapons, as well as training by the KGB and Soviet Armed Forces. Due to problems with local political parties in his country, President Daud Khan decided to distance himself from the Soviets in 1976. He made Afghanistan's ties closer to the Greater Middle East and the United States instead.
From 1977 to 1978, the Afghan Armed Forces conducted joint military training with the Egyptian Armed Forces. In
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April 1978 there was a coup, known as the Saur Revolution, orchestrated by members of the government loyal to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). This led to a full-scale Soviet invasion in December 1979, led by the 40th Army and the Airborne Forces. In 1981 the total strength of the Army was around 85,000 troops according to The New York Times. The Army had around 35-40,000 soldiers, who was mostly conscripts, the Air Force had around 7,000 airmen and if put together all military personnel in 1984, the total strength of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 87,000 in 1984. Throughout the 1980s, the Afghan Armed Forces was heavily involved in fighting against the multi-national
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Mujahiddin rebel groups who were largely backed by the United States and trained by the Pakistani Armed Forces. The rebel groups were fighting to force the Soviet Union to withdraw from Afghanistan as well as to remove the Soviet-backed government of President Mohammad Najibullah. Due to large number of defectors, the Afghan Armed Forces in 1985 was reduced to around 47,000. The Air Force had over 150 combat aircraft with about 7,000 officers who were supported by an estimated 5,000 Cuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force and Czechoslovak Air Force advisers.
Weapons supplies were made available to the Mujahideen through numerous countries; the United States purchased all of Israel's captured
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Soviet weapons clandestinely, and then funnelled the weapons to the Mujahideen, while Egypt upgraded their own Army's weapons, and sent the older weapons to the militants, Turkey sold their World War II stockpiles to the warlords, and the British and Swiss provided Blowpipe missiles and Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns respectively, after they were found to be poor models for their own forces. China provided the most relevant weapons, likely due to their own experience with guerrilla warfare, and kept meticulous record of all the shipments.
Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahiddin. For several years the Afghan
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Armed Forces had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul. By 1992 the Army fragmented into regional militias under local warlords because of the fall of the Soviet Union which stopped supplying the Afghan Armed Forces and later in 1992 when the Afghan government lost power and the country went into a state of anarchy.
After the fall of Najibullah's regime in 1992, private militias were formed and the nation began to witness a Civil War between the various
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warlords, including Ahmad Shah Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Abdul Rashid Dostum, Abdul Ali Mazari, Ismail Khan, and many others. They received logistics support from foreign powers including Russia, Pakistan, India, Iran, China, France, Canada and the United States. When the Taliban took power in 1996, the warlords fled Kabul to the north or neighboring countries. With the backing and support of Pakistan, the Taliban began creating a new military force purely based on Islam's Sharia law.
The Taliban maintained a military during their period of control. The Taliban Army possessed over 400 T-54/55 and T-62 tanks and more than 200 Armoured personnel carriers.
The Afghan Air Force under the Taliban
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maintained five supersonic MIG-21MFs and 10 Sukhoi-22 fighter-bombers. In 1995, during the 1995 Airstan incident, a Taliban fighter plane captured a Russian transport. They also held six Mil Mi-8 helicopters, five Mi-35s, five L-39Cs, six An-12s, 25 An-26s, a dozen An-24/32s, an IL-18, and a Yakovlev.
## Current organization.
After the formation of the Karzai administration in late 2001, the Afghan Armed Forces was gradually reestablished by the United States and its allies. Initially, a new land force, the Afghan National Army (ANA), was created, along with an air arm, the Afghan National Army Air Corps, as an integral part of the Army. The ANA Air Corps later split off to become an independent
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branch, the Afghan Air Force (AAF). Commandos and Special Forces were also trained and formed as a part of the Afghan National Army. Training was managed initially by the U.S. Office of Military Cooperation, followed by other U.S. organisations and then Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan, and is now being run by the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan.
The Afghan Air Force was relatively capable before and during the 1980s but by late 2001, the number of operational aircraft available was minimal. The United States and its allies quickly eliminated the remaining strength and ability of the Taliban to operate aircraft in the opening stages of their invasion. With the occupation of
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airbases by American forces it became clear how destitute the Air Force had become since the withdrawal of the Soviet Union. Most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more. Many others were relocated to neighboring countries for storage purposes or sold cheaply. The AAF was reduced to a very small force while the country was torn by civil war. It is currently being rebuilt and modernized by the NATO-led multinational Combined Air Power Transition Force of the international Combined Security Transition Command - Afghanistan (CSTC-A).
There has been significant progress toward revitalization of the Afghan Armed Forces in the last decade, with two service branches established.
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The ANA and AAF are under the Afghan Ministry of Defense, which forms the basic military force. By 2006, more than 60,000 former militiamen from around the country have been disarmed. Most heavy weapons from Panjshir, Balkh, Nangarhar and other areas were seized by the Afghan government. In 2007, it was reported that the DDR programmes had dismantled 274 paramilitary organizations, reintegrated over 62,000 militia members into civilian life, and recovered more than 84,000 weapons, including heavy weapons. But "The New York Times" reported in October 2007 this information in the context of a reported rise in the number of hoarded weapons in the face of what has been seen as a growing Taliban
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threat, even in the north of the country.
The ANA Commando Battalion was established in 2007. The Afghan National Development Strategy of 2008 explained that the aim of DIAG (Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups) was to ban all illegal armed groups in all provinces of the country. Approximately 2,000 such groups have been identified and most of them have surrendered to the Afghan government or joined the nation's military.
The NATO-trained Afghan National Army is organized into 31 Kandaks, or Battalions, 28 of which are considered combat ready. Seven regional corps headquarters exist. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan was built to provide future officers, it is modeled after the
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United States Military Academy and United States Air Force Academy. The Afghan Defense University (ADU) is located in Kabul province and consists of a headquarters building, classrooms, dining facility, library, and medical clinic. In addition to this, an $80 million central command center was built next to the Hamid Karzai International Airport. In 2012, Afghanistan became a Major non-NATO ally of the United States.
Sizable numbers of Afghan officers are sent to be trained in India either at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, the National Defence Academy near Pune or the Officers Training Academy in Chennai. The Indian Military Academy which has been in existence since 1932, provides
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a 4-year degree to army officers, while the National Defence Academy is a tri-service college provides a 3-year degree after which officers undergo a 1-year specialization in their respective service colleges. The Officers Training Academy on the other hand provides a 49-week course to Graduate officer candidates. In 2014 the number of Afghan officers in training in India was nearly 1,100. A Total of 1,200 Afghan officers have been trained up to 2013.
The total manpower of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 164,000 in May 2011. By September 2014 it has reached 195,000. Its Air Force has about 100 refurbished aircraft, which includes A-29 Super Tucano attack aircraft, Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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and Pilatus PC-12s military transport aircraft, as well as Mil Mi-17 and Mi-24 helicopters. It also includes trainers such as Aero L-39 Albatros and Cessna 182. The manpower of the Afghan Air Force is around 3600 airmen, including 450 pilots. It also has small number of female pilots.
# Organization and leadership.
- Defense Minister, General Asadullah Khalid
- Defense Ministry Spokesman, Major General Dawlat Waziri
- Chief of Staff of the General Staff (CoGS), Lieutenant General Murad Ali Murad
- Vice Chief of the General Staff (VCoGS),
- Deputy Chief of the General Staff (DoGS), Lieutenant General Mohammad Ikram
- Afghan Air Force Commander, Lieutenant General Mohammad Dawran
- Command
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Sergeant Major of the ANA, Sergeant Major Roshan Safi
- General Staff Chief of Personnel (GSG1), Lieutenant General Murad Ali Murad
- General Staff Chief of Intelligence (GSG2), Major General Abdul Khaliq Faryad
- General Staff Chief of Operations (GSG3), Major General Afzal Aman
- General Staff Chief of Logistics (GSG4), Lieutenant General Azizuddin Farahee
- General Staff Chief of Plans (GSG5), Major General Jan Kahn
- General Staff Chief of Communications (GSG6), Major General Mehrab Ali
- General Staff Chief of Doctrine & Training (GSG7), Major General Kushiwal
- General Staff Chief of Engineering (GSEng), Major General Muslim Amid
- General Staff Inspector General, Major General
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Jalandar Shah
- Surgeon General, Lieutenant General Dr. Abdul Qayum Tutakhail
- 201st Selab ("Flood") Corps Commander, Major General Mohammad Rahim Wardak
- 203rd Tandar ("Thunder") Corps Commander, Major General Abdul Khaleq
- 205th Atal ("Hero") Corps Commander, Major General Sher Mohammad Zazai
- 207th Zafar ("Victory") Corps Commander, Major General Jalandar Shah Behnam
- 209th Shaheen ("Falcon") Corps Commander, Major General Murad Ali
- 215th Maiwand Corps Commander, Major Gen. Sayed Malouk
- Afghan National Army Training Command, Major General Aminullah Karim
- ANA Special Operations Command
- ANA Recruiting Command, Lieutenant General Mohammad Eshaq Noori
- Headquarters Security
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and Support Brigade, Brigadier General Sadiq
- Command and General Staff College, Major General Rizak
- National Military Academy of Afghanistan, Major General Mohammad Sharef
- Kabul Military Training Centre, Brigadier General Mohammad Amin Wardak
# Bases and equipment.
Large numbers of military bases are found all cross the country, including major ones in Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Balkh, Nangarhar, Khost, Paktia, Paktika, Maidan Wardak, Ghazni, Farah, and many other provinces. Some of these were built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) while others by ISAF and Afghans. It was reported in 2010 that there were at least 700 military bases inside Afghanistan but more were
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