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20153
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Montreal Expos
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Montreal Expos
voted with the other teams to support contracting the Expos in 2001 and relocating them in 2004: "I know if it wasn't for the success of the Expos in those early years there would not be major-league baseball in Toronto. That wasn't an emotional or a baseball vote. It was a business decision." The Blue Jays' failure to stand with their fellow Canadian team offended many Expos fans.
Ten years after the Expos relocated to Washington, a two-game exhibition series between the Toronto Blue Jays and New York Mets was held at the Olympic Stadium to conclude the spring training schedule prior to the season. For the Blue Jays, the series was intended, in part, to increase the team's following in Quebec.
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For others, the goal was to demonstrate that Montreal had an interest in returning to Major League Baseball. Former Expos player Warren Cromartie, who leads the Montreal Baseball Project, was among the organizers. The series was a success: 96,350 fans, frequently chanting "Lets go Expos!" and "We want baseball!" attended the two games. The Blue Jays returned for a two-game series in , against the Cincinnati Reds, which was attended by 96,545 fans. The success of the series' bolstered the Montreal Baseball Project's efforts: retiring commissioner Bud Selig was impressed by the fans in 2014 and said the city would be an "excellent candidate" for a new team. His replacement, Rob Manfred, echoed
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those comments in 2015. Olympic Stadium again hosted two spring training games prior to the beginning of the 2016 season between the Toronto Blue Jays and the Boston Red Sox, with a combined attendance of over 106,000 fans. In 2018, Vladimir Guerrero Jr. of the Blue Jays hit a game-winning home run against the St. Louis Cardinals in an exhibition game to the delight of the Montreal crowd.
# Players.
## National Baseball Hall of Fame.
Nine people who represented the Expos organization have subsequently gone on to gain election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. Gary Carter was inducted in 2003 and was the first player whose Hall of Fame plaque depicted him with an Expos cap.
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The Hall's choice for his plaque logo followed initial statements by Carter that he preferred to be enshrined as a New York Met, with whom he won the 1986 World Series. He accepted the Hall's decision with grace, stating: "The fact I played 11 years in Montreal and the fact that the majority of my statistics and accomplishments were achieved there, it would be wrong, probably, to do it any other way."
Andre Dawson became the second depicted as an Expos player when he was elected in 2010. Although he had played the majority of his 21-year career with Montreal, Dawson also preferred his plaque to display a different logo: when the decision was made, he publicly expressed his disappointment, saying
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it was "a little gut-wrenching" to find out he would not go in as a Chicago Cub. Dawson's reluctance to be enshrined as an Expos player stemmed, in part, from the breakdown of his relationship with the team during MLB's collusion scandal of 1986–87, when he claims the team not only "threw him out" of Montreal, but tried to prevent other teams from signing him as a free agent.
The third player with an Expos logo on his Hall of Fame plaque is Tim Raines, who was inducted in 2017, his final year of eligibility.
On January 24, 2018, the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum announced Vladimir Guerrero as an inductee into the Hall of Fame. Guerrero played eight of his sixteen seasons with the
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Expos, being named to the MLB All-Star Game three times and winning the Silver Slugger Award three times while with the team. Nearly half of his career 2,590 hits were with Montreal (1,215), while having 234 of his 449 home runs and 702 of his 1,496 RBIs with the Expos in 1,004 games. Guerrero announced his Hall of Fame plaque will display him wearing an Angels cap.
For the five other inductees, their time in Montreal played lesser roles in their careers. Manager Dick Williams was a member of the Expos between 1977 and 1981 as part of a 21-year managerial career in which he took three different teams to the World Series. Tony Pérez played three years with the Expos but was primarily known for
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being a member of Cincinnati's "Big Red Machine" teams of the 1970s. Pitchers Pedro Martínez (1994–97) and Randy Johnson (1988–89), who both played in Montreal early in their careers but spent the majority of their playing days elsewhere, were both elected to the Hall in 2015. Frank Robinson managed the team from 2002 to 2006 (spanning the franchise's move to Washington), but was elected based on his accomplishments as a player, including being the first player to win Most Valuable Player honours in both the AL and NL, a triple crown in 1966, and a rookie-record of 38 home runs while winning the NL Rookie of the Year award.
Longtime broadcaster Dave Van Horne was named the recipient of the
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Ford C. Frick Award in 2011. The award is presented by the National Baseball Hall of Fame to honour broadcasters who make "major contributions to baseball".
When the Washington Nationals unveiled their "Ring of Honor" at Nationals Park in 2010, the franchise recognized its roots in Montreal. The ring was created to honour Hall-of-Fame players associated with Washington, D.C., baseball or the Montreal-Washington franchise, later expanded to include anyone who has made a significant contribution to the game of baseball in Washington, D.C. Two Expos players – Gary Carter and Andre Dawson – were named among the inaugural members. Frank Robinson was added to the Ring of Honor in 2015, as was Tim
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Raines in 2017.
## Montreal Expos Hall of Fame.
The team created the Montreal Expos Hall of Fame to celebrate the franchise's 25th season in 1993. Charles Bronfman was inducted as its inaugural member. In a pre-game ceremony on August 14, 1993, a circular patch on the right field wall was unveiled with Bronfman's name, the number 83 (which he used to wear during spring training), and the words "FONDATEUR / FOUNDER". A total of 23 people were honoured by the club.
# Expos records.
The players listed here represent the statistical leaders for the franchise's time in Montreal only. For the record holders of the franchise overall, see List of Washington Nationals team records.
# No-hitters
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and cycles.
Three pitchers in Expos history threw no-hitters. Bill Stoneman threw the first during the team's inaugural 1969 season. He threw a second no-hitter in 1972. Charlie Lea threw the third, nine years later in 1981. A decade after that, on July 28, 1991, Dennis Martínez threw the 13th official perfect game in Major League Baseball history. Two other pitchers threw no-hitters in shortened games which, after a 1992 rule change, were no longer recognized by MLB as official no-hitters. David Palmer pitched a perfect five innings in a rain-shortened game against the St. Louis Cardinals on April 22, 1984. Pascual Pérez threw a five-inning no-hitter on September 24, 1988, against the Philadelphia
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Phillies.
Six batters hit for the cycle in Montreal's history. Tim Foli was the first to do it in 1976, and Vladimir Guerrero was the last to do so, in 2003.
# See also.
- List of Montreal Expos broadcasters
# External links.
- Encore Baseball Montréal (French and English) – Encore Baseball Montréal is a non-profit organization that aims to be the voice of baseball fans in order to maintain interest in baseball in the province of Quebec
- ExposNation.com – Registered Non-profit organisation seeking to promote the Montreal market as a viable baseball market, by creating awareness of a fan base in the region.
- History of the Expos "Sports E-Cyclopedia"
- Major League Baseball Comes to
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Montreal Expos broadcasters
# External links.
- Encore Baseball Montréal (French and English) – Encore Baseball Montréal is a non-profit organization that aims to be the voice of baseball fans in order to maintain interest in baseball in the province of Quebec
- ExposNation.com – Registered Non-profit organisation seeking to promote the Montreal market as a viable baseball market, by creating awareness of a fan base in the region.
- History of the Expos "Sports E-Cyclopedia"
- Major League Baseball Comes to Canada CBC Digital Archives
- Montreal Expos / Washington Nationals Franchise Record at Baseball Reference
| colspan = 3 align = center | National League Eastern Division Champions
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Matilda of Tuscany
Matilda of Tuscany (Italian: "Matilde di Canossa" , Latin: "Matilda", "Mathilda"; 1046 – 24 July 1115) was a powerful feudal Margravine of Tuscany, ruler in northern Italy and the chief Italian supporter of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy; in addition, she was one of the few medieval women to be remembered for her military accomplishments, thanks to which she was able to dominate all the territories north of the Papal States.
In 1076 she came into possession of a substantial territory that included present-day Lombardy, Emilia, the Romagna and Tuscany, and made the castle of Canossa, in the Apennines south of Reggio, the centre of her domains. Between
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6 and 11 May 1111 she was crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at the Castle of Bianello (Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia).
Sometimes called la Gran Contessa ("the Great Countess") or Matilda of Canossa after her ancestral castle of Canossa, Matilda was one of the most important figures of the Italian Middle Ages. She lived in a period of constant battles, intrigues and excommunications, and was able to demonstrate an extraordinary force, even enduring great pain and humiliation, showing an innate leadership ability.
# Childhood.
In a miniature in the early twelfth-century "Vita Mathildis" by the monk Donizo (or, in Italian, Donizone), Matilda is referred
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to as 'Resplendent Matilda' ("Mathildis Lucens"). Since the Latin word "lucens" is similar to "lucensis" (of/from Lucca), this may also be a reference to Matilda's origins. She was descended from the nobleman Sigifred of Lucca,
and was the youngest of the three children of Margrave Boniface III of Tuscany, ruler of a substantial territory in Northern Italy and one of the most powerful vassals of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III. Matilda's mother, Beatrice of Lorraine, was the Emperor's first cousin and closely connected to the imperial household. Renowned for her learning, Matilda was literate in Latin, as well as reputed to speak German and French. The extent of Matilda's education in military
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matters is debated. It has been asserted that she was taught strategy, tactics, riding and wielding weapons, but recent scholarship challenges these claims.
Following the death of their father in 1052, Matilda's brother, Frederick, inherited the family lands and titles under the regency of their mother. Matilda's sister, Beatrice, died the next year, making Matilda heir presumptive to Frederick's personal holdings. In 1054, determined to safeguard the interests of her children as well as her own, her mother married Godfrey the Bearded, a distant kinsman who had been stripped of the Duchy of Upper Lorraine after openly rebelling against Emperor Henry III.
Henry was enraged by Beatrice of Lorraine's
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unauthorised union with his most vigorous adversary and took the opportunity to have her arrested, along with Matilda, when he marched south to attend a synod in Florence on Pentecost in 1055. Frederick's rather suspicious death soon thereafter made Matilda the last member of the House of Canossa. Mother and daughter were taken to Germany, but Godfrey successfully avoided capture. Unable to defeat him, Henry sought a rapproachment. The Emperor's death in October 1056, which brought to throne the underage Henry IV, seems to have accelerated the negotiations. Godfrey was reconciled with the crown and recognized as Margrave of Tuscany in December, while Beatrice and Matilda were released. By the
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time she and her mother returned to Italy, in the company of Pope Victor II, Matilda was formally acknowledged as heir to the greatest territorial lordship in the southern part of the Empire.
Matilda's mother and stepfather became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections during their regency, supporting the Gregorian Reforms. Godfrey's brother Frederick became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II, had been Tuscan bishops. Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas in 1059. Godfrey and Beatrice actively assisted them in dealing with antipopes, while the adolescent Matilda's role remains
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unclear. A contemporary account of her stepfather's 1067 expedition against Prince Richard I of Capua on behalf of the papacy mentions Matilda's participation in the campaign, describing it as the "first service that the most excellent daughter of Boniface offered to the blessed prince of the apostles."
# First marriage.
In 1069, Godfrey the Bearded lay dying in Verdun. Beatrice and Matilda hastened to reach Lorraine, anxious to ensure a smooth transition of power. Matilda was present at her stepfather's deathbed, and on that occasion she is for the first time clearly mentioned as the wife of her stepbrother, Godfrey the Hunchback, to whom she had been betrothed since childhood. The marriage
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proved a failure; the death of their only child (a daughter called Beatrice) shortly after birth in August 1071 and Godfrey's physical deformity may have helped fuel deep animosity between the spouses.
By the end of 1071, Matilda had left her husband and returned to Tuscany. Matilda's bold decision to repudiate her husband came at a cost, but ensured her independence. Beatrice started preparing Matilda for rule by holding court jointly with her and, eventually, encouraging her to issue charters on her own as countess ("comitissa") and duchess ("ducatrix").
Godfrey fiercely protested the separation and demanded that Matilda come back to him, which she repeatedly refused. The Duke descended
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into Italy in 1072, determined to enforce the marriage. He sought the help of both Matilda's mother and her ally, the newly elected Pope Gregory VII, promising military aid to the latter. Matilda's resolution was unshakable, and Godfrey returned to Lorraine alone, losing all hope by 1074. Rather than supporting the Pope as promised, Godfrey turned his attention to imperial affairs. Meanwhile, the conflict later known as the Investiture Controversy was brewing between Gregory and Henry, with both men claiming the right to appoint bishops and abbots within the Empire. Matilda and Godfrey soon found themselves on opposing sides of the dispute, leading to a further detoriation of their difficult
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relationship. German chroniclers, writing of the synod held at Worms in January 1076, even suggested that Godfrey inspired Henry's allegation of a licentious affair between Gregory and Matilda.
# Widowhood.
Matilda became a widow on 26 February 1076. Godfrey the Hunchback was assassinated in Flanders while "answering the call of nature". Having been accused of adultery with the Pope the previous month, Matilda was suspected of ordering her estranged husband's death. She could not have known about the proceedings at the Synod of Worms at the time, however, since the news took three months to reach the Pope himself, and it is more likely that Godfrey was killed at the instigation of an enemy
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nearer to him. Within two months, Beatrice was dead as well. Matilda's power was considerably augmented by these deaths; she was now the undisputed heir of all her parents' allodial lands. Her inheritance would have been threatened had Godfrey survived her mother, but she now enjoyed the privileged status of a widow. It seemed unlikely, however, that Henry would formally invest her with the margraviate.
Between 1076 and 1080, Matilda travelled to Lorraine to lay claim to her husband's estate in Verdun, which he had willed (along with the rest of his patrimony) to his sister Ida's son, Godfrey of Bouillon. Godfrey of Bouillon also disputed her right to Stenay and Mosay, which her mother had
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received as dowry. The quarrel between aunt and nephew over the episcopal county of Verdun was eventually settled by Theoderic, Bishop of Verdun, who enjoyed the right to nominate the counts. He easily found in favor of Margravine Matilda, as such verdict happened to please both Pope Gregory and King Henry. Matilda then proceeded to enfeoff Verdun to her husband's pro-reform cousin, Albert III of Namur. The deep animosity between Matilda and her nephew is thought to have prevented her from travelling to Jerusalem during the First Crusade, led by him in the late 1090s.
# Investiture Controversy.
The disagreement between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV culminated in the aftermath of the Synod
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of Worms in February 1076. Gregory declared Henry excommunicated, releasing all his subjects from allegiance to him and providing the perfect reason for rebellion against his rule. Insubordinate southern German princes gathered in Trebur, awaiting the Pope. Matilda's first military endeavor, as well as the first major task altogether as ruler, turned out to be protecting the Pope during his perilous journey north. Gregory could rely on nobody else; as the sole heir to the Attonid patrimony, Matilda controlled all the Apennine passes and nearly all the rest that connected central Italy to the north. The Lombard bishops, who were also excommunicated for taking part in the synod and whose sees
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bordered Matilda's domain, were keen to capture Gregory. Gregory was aware of the danger, and recorded that all his advisors except Matilda counselled him against travelling to Trebur.
Henry had other plans, however. He decided to descend into Italy and intercept Gregory, who was thus delayed. The German dukes held a council by themselves and informed the King that he had to submit to the Pope or be replaced. Henry's predecessors dealt easily with troublesome pontiffs - they simply deposed them, and the excommunicated Lombard bishops rejoiced at this prospect. When Matilda heard about Henry's approach, she urged Gregory to take refuge in the Castle of Canossa, her family's eponymous stronghold.
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Gregory took her advice. It soon became clear that the intention behind Henry's walk to Canossa was to show penance. By 25 January 1077, the King stood barefoot in the snow before the gates of Matilda's castle, accompanied by his mother-in-law, Margravine Adelaide of Susa. He remained there, humbled, until 28 January, when Matilda convinced the Pope to see him. Matilda and Adelaide brokered a deal between the men. Henry was taken back into the Church, with the margravines acting as sponsors and formally swearing to the agreement.
In 1079, Matilda gave the Pope all her domains, in open defiance of Henry IV's claims both as the overlord of some of those domains, and as her close relative. Two
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years later the fortunes of Papacy and Empire turned again: in 1080 Henry IV summoned a council in Brixen, which deposed Gregory VII. The following year the Emperor decided to travel again to Italy to reinstate his overlordship over his territories. He also declared Matilda, on account of her 1079 donation to the Church, forfeit and be banned from the Empire; although this wasn't enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble, for she retained substantial allodial holdings. On 15 October 1080 near Volta Mantovana the Imperial troops (with Guibert of Ravenna as the newly elected Antipope Clement III) defeated the troops loyal to Gregory VII and controlled by Matilda. This was the first serious
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military defeat of Matilda (Battle of Volta Mantovana).
Matilda, however, didn't surrender. While Gregory VII was forced into exile, she, retaining control over all the western passes in the Apennines, could force Henry IV to approach Rome via Ravenna; even with this route open, the Emperor would find it hard to besiege Rome with a hostile territory at his back. In December 1080 the citizens of Lucca, then the capital of Tuscany, had revolted and driven out her ally Bishop Anselm. She is believed to have commissioned the renowned Ponte della Maddalena where the Via Francigena crosses the river Serchio at Borgo a Mozzano just north of Lucca.
Matilda remained Pope Gregory VII's chief intermediary
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for communication with northern Europe even as he lost control of Rome and was holed up in the Castel Sant'Angelo. After Henry caught hold of the Pope's seal, Matilda wrote to supporters in Germany only to trust papal messages that came through her.
Henry IV's control of Rome enabled him to enthrone Antipope Clement III, who, in turn, crowned him Emperor. After this, Henry IV returned to Germany, leaving it to his allies to attempt Matilda's dispossession. These attempts floundered after Matilda (with help of the city of Bologna) defeated them at Sorbara near Modena on 2 July 1084.
Gregory VII died in 1085, and Matilda's forces, with those of Prince Jordan I of Capua (her off and on again
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enemy), took to the field in support of a new pope, Victor III. In 1087, Matilda led an expedition to Rome in an attempt to install Victor, but the strength of the imperial counterattack soon convinced the pope to withdraw from the city.
# Second marriage.
In 1088 Matilda was facing a new attempt at invasion by Henry IV, and decided to pre-empt it by means of a political marriage. In 1089 Matilda (in her early forties) married Welf V, who was probably fifteen to seventeen years old. Welf was heir to the Duchy of Bavaria. He was also a member of the Welf dynasty: the Welfs/Guelphs were important papal supporters from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries in their conflict with the German
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emperors (see Guelphs and Ghibellines). Matilda and Welf's wedding was part of a network of alliances approved by the new pope, Urban II, in order to effectively counter Henry IV.
Cosmas of Prague (writing in the early twelfth century), included a letter in his "Chronica Boemorum", which he claimed that Matilda sent to her future husband, but which is now thought to be spurious:
After this, Matilda sent an army of thousands to the border of Lombardy to escort her bridegroom, welcomed him with honors, and after the marriage (mid-1089), she organized 120 days of wedding festivities, with such splendor that any other medieval ruler's pale in comparison.
Cosmas also reports that for two nights
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after the wedding, Welf V, fearing witchcraft, refused to share the marital bed. The third day, Matilda appeared naked on a table especially prepared on sawhorses, and told him that "everything is in front of you and there is no hidden malice". But the Duke was dumbfounded; Matilda, furious, slapped him and spat in his face, taunting him: "Get out of here, monster, you don't deserve our kingdom, you vile thing, viler than a worm or a rotten seaweed, don't let me see you again, or you'll die a miserable death...". Matilda and her young husband separated a few years later (1095); they had no children.
Later Matilda allied with the two sons of Henry IV, Conrad and Henry, who rebelled against their
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father. This forced Henry to return to Italy, where he chased Matilda into the mountains. He was humbled before Canossa, this time in a military defeat in October 1092, from which his influence in Italy never recovered.
# The final victory against Henry IV.
After several victories, including one against the Saxons, Henry IV prepared in 1090 his third descent to Italy, in order to inflict the final defeat on the Church. His route was the usual one, Brenner and Verona, along the border of Matilda's possessions, which began outside the cities' gates. The opposing armies would meet near Mantua. Matilda secured the loyalty of the townspeople by exempting them from some taxes, such as "teloneo"
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and "ripatico", and with the promise of Lombard franchise, entailing the rights to hunt, fish and cut wood on both banks of the Tartaro river.
The Mantua people stood by Matilda until the so-called "Holy Thursday betrayal", when the townspeople, won over by additional concessions from Henry, who had meanwhile besieged the city, sided with him. In 1092 Matilda escaped to the Reggiano Apennines and her most inexpugnable strongholds. Since the times of Adalbert Atto the power of the Canossa family had been based on a network of castles, fortresses and fortified villages in the Val d'Enza, forming a complex polygonal defense that had always resisted all attack from the Apennines. After several
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bloody battles with mutual defeats, the powerful imperial army was surrounded.
In spite of its fearful power, the Imperial army was defeated by Matilda's liegemen. Among them were small landowners and holders of fortified villages, which remained completely loyal to the Canossas even against the Holy Roman Emperor. Their familiarity with the territory, their quick communications and maneuvering to all the high places of the Val d'Enza gave them victory over Henry's might. It seems that Matilda personally participated, with a handful of chosen faithful men, to the battle, galvanizing the allies with the cry of Just War. The Imperial army was taken as in a vice in the meandering mountain creek.
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The overall import of Henry's rout was more than a military defeat. The Emperor realized it was impossible to penetrate those places, wholly different from the plains of the Po Valley or of Saxe. There he faced not boundaries drawn by the rivers of Central Europe, but steep trails, ravines, inaccessible places protecting Matilda's fortresses, and high tower houses, whence the defenders could unload on anyone approaching missiles of all kinds: spears, arrows, perhaps even boiling oil, javelins, stones.
After Matilda's victory several cities, such as Milan, Cremona, Lodi and Piacenza, sided with her to free themselves of Imperial rule. In 1093 the Emperor's eldest son, Conrad, supported by the
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Matilda of Tuscany
Pope, Matilda and a group of Lombard cities, was crowned King of Italy. Matilda freed and even gave refuge to Henry IV's wife, Eupraxia of Kiev, who, at the urging of Pope Urban II, made a public confession before the church Council of Piacenza. She accused her husband of imprisoning her in Verona after forcing her to participate in orgies, and, according to some later accounts, of attempting a black mass on her naked body. Thanks to these scandals and division within the Imperial family, the prestige and power of Henry IV was increasingly weakened.
In 1095, Henry attempted to reverse his fortunes by seizing Matilda's castle of Nogara, but the countess's arrival at the head of an army forced
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Matilda of Tuscany
him to retreat. In 1097, Henry withdrew from Italy altogether, after which Matilda reigned virtually unchallenged, although she did continue to launch military operations to restore her authority and regain control of the towns that had remained loyal to the emperor. With the assistance of the French armies heading off to the First Crusade, she was finally able to restore Urban to Rome. She ordered or led successful expeditions against Ferrara (1101), Parma (1104), Prato (1107) and Mantua (1114).
# Vice-Queen of Italy.
Henry IV died now defeated in 1106; and after the deposition and death of Conrad (1101), his second son and new Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V, began to turn the fight against
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Matilda of Tuscany
the Church and Italy. This time the attitude of Matilda against the imperial house had to change and she accepted the will of the Emperor. In 1111, on his way back to Germany, Henry V met her at the Castle of Bianello, near Reggio Emilia. Matilda confirmed him the inheritance rights over the fiefs that Henry IV disputed her, thus ending a fight that had lasted over twenty years. Henry V gave Matilda a new title: between 6 and 11 May 1111, the Emperor crowned Matilda as Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy. This episode was the decisive step towards the Concordat of Worms.
# Foundation of churches.
By legend Matilda of Canossa is said to have founded one hundred churches. Documents and local
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Matilda of Tuscany
legend identify well over one hundred churches, monasteries, hospices, and bridges built or restored between the Alps and Rome by Matilda and her mother, Beatrice. Today, churches and monasteries in the regions of Lombardy, Reggio Emilia, Tuscany, and even the Veneto attribute their foundation to her. Built originally with hospices for travelers attached, these churches created a network that united the supporters of the Gregorian reform of the Roman Church which Matilda supported. This network also provided protection for pilgrims, merchants and travelers assisting the Renaissance in culture that occurred in the centuries after Matilda's death.
Most of these churches continue today to be vital
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Matilda of Tuscany
centers of their communities. They include rural churches located along the Po and Arno rivers, and their tributaries; churches built along the Apennine mountain passes which Matilda's family controlled and those along the ancient highways of the via Emilia, the via Cassia, the via Aurelia and the via Francigena. Among these are monuments listed by UNESCO as among the heritage of our world, including churches in Florence, Ferrara, Lucca, Mantua, Modena, Pisa, Verona and Volterra. Her cultural legacy is enormous throughout Northern Italy.
Some churches traditionally said to have been founded by Matilda include:
- Sant'Andrea Apostolo of Vitriola, at Montefiorino (Modena).
- Sant'Anselmo, Pieve
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Matilda of Tuscany
di Coriano (Province of Mantua).
- San Giovanni Decollato, at Pescarolo ed Uniti (Cremona).
- Santa Maria Assunta, at Monteveglio (Bologna).
- San Martino in Barisano, near Forlì.
- San Zeno, at Cerea (Verona).
It seems that even the foundation of the Church of San Salvaro in Legnago (Verona) was made by Matilda.
# Death.
Matilda's death from gout in 1115 at Bondeno di Roncore marked the end of an era in Italian politics. It is widely reported that she bequeathed her allodial property to the Pope. Unaccountably, however, this donation was never officially recognized in Rome and no record exists of it. Henry V had promised some of the cities in her territory that he would appoint no successor
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Matilda of Tuscany
after he deposed her. In her place the leading citizens of these cities took control, and the era of the city-states in northern Italy began.
Matilda was at first buried in the Abbey of San Benedetto in Polirone, located in the town of San Benedetto Po; then, in 1633, at the behest of Pope Urban VIII, her body was moved to Rome and placed in Castel Sant'Angelo. Finally, in 1645 her remains were definitely deposited in the Vatican, where they now lie in St. Peter's Basilica. She is one of only six women who have the honor of being buried in the Basilica, the others being Queen Christina of Sweden, Maria Clementina Sobieska (wife of James Francis Edward Stuart), St. Petronilla, Queen Charlotte
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Matilda of Tuscany
of Cyprus and Agnesina Colonna Caetani.
A memorial tomb for Matilda, commissioned by Pope Urban VIII and designed by Gianlorenzo Bernini, marks her burial place in St Peter's and is often called the "Honor and Glory of Italy".
After her death, an aura of legend came to surround Matilda. Church historians gave her the character of a semi-nun, solely dedicated to contemplation and faith. Some argue, instead, that she was a woman of strong passions of both spiritual and carnal nature (indicated by her supposed affairs with Popes Gregory VII and Urban II).
# Legacy.
She has been posited by some critics as the origin of the mysterious "Matilda" who appears to Dante gathering flowers in the earthly
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Matilda of Tuscany
g flowers in the earthly paradise in Dante's "Purgatorio".
The story of Matilda and Henry IV is the main plot device in Luigi Pirandello's play "Enrico IV". She is the main historical character in Kathleen McGowan's novel "The Book of Love" (Simon & Schuster, 2009).
# See also.
- House of Canossa
- March of Tuscany
- Terre Matildiche
# Sources.
- A. Creber, ‘Women at Canossa. The Role of Elite Women in the Reconciliation between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV of Germany (January 1077),’ "Storicamente" 13 (2017), article no. 13, pp. 1–44.
# External links.
- "Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine", contains several letters to and from Matilda.
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Charles William King
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Charles William King
Charles William King
Charles William King (5 September 1818 – 25 March 1888) was a British Victorian writer and collector of gems.
# Early life.
King was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1836. He graduated in 1840, and obtained a fellowship in 1842. He was a senior fellow at the time of his death in London.
# Gem expert.
He spent much time in Italy, where he laid the foundation of his collection of engraved gems and gemstones, which, having been increased by subsequent purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his failing eyesight, and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
He was recognized universally as
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Charles William King
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Charles William King
one of the greatest authorities in this department of art. His chief works on the subject are:
- "Antique Gems, their Origin, Uses and Value" (1860), a complete and exhaustive treatise;
- "The Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and of the Precious Metals" (1865);
- "Early Christian Numismatics" (1873);
- "The Handbook of Engraved Gems" (2nd ed., 1885);
- "The Gnostics and their Remains" (2nd ed. by J Jacobs, 1887, which led to an animated correspondence in the "Athenaeum").
# Classicist.
King took holy orders, but never held any cure.
He was thoroughly familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially those of Pausanias and Pliny the Elder, which bore upon the subject
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Charles William King
t never held any cure.
He was thoroughly familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially those of Pausanias and Pliny the Elder, which bore upon the subject in which he was most interested; but he had little taste for the minutiae of verbal criticism.
In 1869, he brought out an edition of "Horace", illustrated from antique gems. He also translated Plutarch's "Moralia" (1882) and the theosophical works of the Emperor Julian (1888), for Bohn's Classical Library.
# External links.
- "The Gnostics and their Remains" - online text of the book
- Catalogue of the engraved gems collected between the years 1845 and 1877 by C.W. King: manuscript fully digitized and available online
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Fenton Hort
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Fenton Hort
Fenton Hort
Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828–1892) was an Irish-born theologian and editor, with Brooke Foss Westcott of a critical edition of "The New Testament in the Original Greek".
# Life.
He was born on 23 April 1828 in Dublin, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort, Archbishop of Tuam in the eighteenth century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby School to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson, B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in the classical "tripos". In 1851 he also took the recently established triposes in moral science and natural science, and in 1852 he became
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Fenton Hort
fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the "Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology", and plunged eagerly into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest principles of the evangelical movement, but at Rugby, under the influence of Thomas Arnold and Archibald Campbell Tait, and through his acquaintance with Frederick Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley, he finally moved towards liberalism.
In 1857 he was married, and accepted the college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen years. During his time there he took part in discussions on university reform, continued
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Fenton Hort
his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he delivered the Hulsean Lectures before the university. Their title was "The Way, the Truth, and the Life", but they were not prepared for publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.. In 1873 he became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. In 1878 he was made Hulsean Professor of Divinity and in 1887 Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity.
Hort died on 30 November 1892 in Cambridge. He is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge.
#
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Fenton Hort
Works.
In 1881 he published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text of the New Testament based on their text critical work. The Revision Committee had largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis for their translation of the New Testament. Its appearance created a sensation among scholars, and it was attacked in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament. The introduction was the work of Hort. His first principle was, "Knowledge of Documents should precede Final Judgments upon Readings".
Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is "The Christian Ecclesia"
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Fenton Hort
(1897). Other publications are: "Judaistic Christianity" (1894); "Village Sermons" (two series); "Cambridge and other Sermons"; "Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians" (1895); "The Ante-Nicene Fathers" (1895); and two "Dissertations", (1876) on the reading of a Greek word in John i.18, and on "The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century." All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials. His "Life and Letters" was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart, in two volumes published in 1896: "Volume 1", "Volume 2".
# Other.
Hort was a member of the Cambridge Apostles and is credited with writing the oath of secrecy taken by new members, in or around
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Fenton Hort
ing of a Greek word in John i.18, and on "The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century." All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials. His "Life and Letters" was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart, in two volumes published in 1896: "Volume 1", "Volume 2".
# Other.
Hort was a member of the Cambridge Apostles and is credited with writing the oath of secrecy taken by new members, in or around 1851.
# See also.
- Conflation of Readings
- "Textus Receptus"
# External links.
- "The Way, the Truth, the Life: Hulsean Lectures for 1871" (first printed 1893)
- Greek Text of Hort's "The New Testament in the Original Greek", Vol. 1 with variants
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John E. B. Mayor
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John E. B. Mayor
John E. B. Mayor
John Eyton Bickersteth Mayor, FBA (28 January 1825 – 1910) was an English classical scholar and vegetarian activist.
# Life.
Mayor was born at Baddegama, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He went to England to be educated at Shrewsbury School and St John's College, Cambridge.
From 1863 to 1867 Mayor was librarian of the University of Cambridge, and in 1872 succeeded H. A. J. Munro in the professorship of Latin, which he held for 28 years. His best-known work, an edition of the thirteen Satires of Juvenal, is notable for an extraordinary wealth of illustrative quotations. His "Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature" (1875), based on Emil Hübner's "Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die
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John E. B. Mayor
römische Litteraturgeschichte", was a valuable aid to the student, and his edition of Cicero's "Second Philippic" became widely used.
He also edited the English works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1876); Thomas Baker's "History of St John's College, Cambridge" (1869); Richard of Cirencester's "Speculum historiale de gestis regum Angliae 447–1066" (1863–69); Roger Ascham's "Schoolmaster" (new ed., 1883); the "Latin Heptateuch" (1889); and the "Journal of Philology".
According to the "Enciklopedio de Esperanto", Mayor learned Esperanto in 1907, and gave a historic speech against Esperanto reformists at the World Congress of Esperanto held at Cambridge.
His life and work are idiosyncratically
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John E. B. Mayor
Roger Ascham's "Schoolmaster" (new ed., 1883); the "Latin Heptateuch" (1889); and the "Journal of Philology".
According to the "Enciklopedio de Esperanto", Mayor learned Esperanto in 1907, and gave a historic speech against Esperanto reformists at the World Congress of Esperanto held at Cambridge.
His life and work are idiosyncratically and somewhat unsympathetically described in "Juvenal's Mayor: The Professor Who Lived on 2d. a Day" by J. G. W. Henderson.
He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge.
Mayor succeeded Francis William Newman as President of the Vegetarian Society in 1883.
# References.
- The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
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Brak
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Brak
Brak
Brak may refer to:
- Brak (title) (or Braque), former title for the kings of Waalo, part of present-day Senegal, West Africa
- Brak (character), a character on 1966 Hanna-Barbera cartoon "Space Ghost"
- "The Brak Show", a 2000 animated series
- Brak, a barbarian character in a series of 1960s novels by John Jakes
- Brak, a supporting character in the 1950s classic science fiction film, "This Island Earth"
- Brak, Libya, a city in Libya
- Syd Brak, South African illustrator
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Iotapa
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Iotapa
Iotapa
Iotapa may refer to:
# People.
A number of relatives, part of the Royal Family of Commagene:
- (1) Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (born in 43 BC), daughter of King Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, Queen consort of King Mithridates III of Commagene
- (2) Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (born around 20 BC), a daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married her King brother Antiochus III
- (3) Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (born around 20 BC), another daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married Syrian king Sampsiceramus II of Emesa
- (4) Iotapa (daughter
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Iotapa
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Iotapa
of Sampsiceramus II) (who lived in the 1st century), daughter of King Sampsiceramus II of Emesa and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (3), who married the Herodian Prince Aristobulus Minor
- (5) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (from before 17 to about 52), daughter of King Antiochus III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (2), who married her brother King Antiochus IV of Commagene
- (6) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (born around 45), daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (5), who married Gaius Julius Alexander, son of Herodian prince Gaius Julius Tigranes, later crowned Queen of Cetis, a
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Iotapa
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Iotapa
) (2), who married her brother King Antiochus IV of Commagene
- (6) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (born around 45), daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (5), who married Gaius Julius Alexander, son of Herodian prince Gaius Julius Tigranes, later crowned Queen of Cetis, a small region in Cilicia
- (7) Julia Iotapa (Cilician Princess) (born around 80), daughter of King Gaius Julius Alexander and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (6) of Cetis, who married Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, Galatian Roman Senator from Anatolia
# Places.
- Iotapa in Isauria, a town of ancient Cilicia
# See also.
- Euttob (given name)
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
Benjamin Hall Kennedy
Benjamin Hall Kennedy (6 November 1804 – 6 April 1889) was an English scholar and schoolmaster, known for his work in the teaching of the Latin language. He was an active supporter of Newnham College and Girton College as Cambridge University colleges for women.
# Biography.
He was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (1772–1851), of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled in Staffordshire. Rann was a scholar and man of letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. Benjamin was educated at Shrewsbury School, and St John's College, Cambridge. He took frequent part in Cambridge Union debates and became president in 1825. In
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
1824 he was elected a member of the Cambridge Conversazione Society, better known as the Cambridge Apostles, and was a winner of a Browne medal. He was elected Fellow and lecturer in Classics at St John's College in 1828 and took Holy Orders the following year. In 1830, he became an assistant master at Harrow.
In 1836, he, his wife and his first child Charlotte Amy May Kennedy returned to Shrewsbury when he became headmaster. While they were there Charlotte was joined by Marion, Julia, Edith and Arthur.
In 1841 he became prebendary of Lichfield, and after leaving Shrewsbury he was rector of West Felton, Shropshire, from 1866 to 1868. He remained as headmaster of Shrewsbury School until 1866,
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
the 30 years being marked by successes for his pupils, chiefly in Classics. When he retired, a large collection was made, and this was used on new school buildings and on founding a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first holders of the Kennedy Professor of Latin chair were both former pupils of Kennedy, H. A. J. Munro and J. E. B. Mayor.
In 1867, Kennedy was elected Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge and canon of Ely Cathedral, serving in both posts until his death.
From 1870 to 1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the New Testament. In 1870 he also became a member of the University Council.
He supported the access of women to a university education, and took
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
a prominent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges. When Mary Paley and Amy Bulley were among the first women to take tripos examinations they did it in the Kennedy's drawing room. Paley described him as excitable, but he would sometimes doze whilst nominally invigilating. He was nicknamed "the purple boy". In politics, he had liberal sympathies. He died near Torquay and is buried in Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge.
# Writings.
Kennedy wrote a number of classical and theological works, but he is most famous today for his primer of Latin grammar. This began as the "Elementary Latin Primer" (1843), which became the "Public School Latin Primer" (1866), the "Public School Latin
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
Grammar" (1871), and finally the "Revised Latin Primer" (1888). The latter was further revised by J. F. Mountford in 1930 and is still widely used today. The medieval way of writing Latin noun tables, starting with the nominative and then proceeding to the genitive was used in England prior to Kennedy's Primer and is still widely used in America (e.g. in the Wheelock's Latin course). Kennedy changed the order of writing the noun endings so that the nominative was always followed by the accusative, in order to bring out the similarities between these cases in many nouns more effectively. Kennedy's Primer was so widely used and was so influential that this led to a permanent change in the way
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
that Latin is taught in the UK. Modern books such as the "Cambridge Latin Course" still follow this approach.
In 1913, there was a problem with the copyright on the "Revised Latin Primer" which had been published in 1888. His daughter Marion Kennedy, a Latin scholar, revealed that the book was written by herself, her sister Julia and two of her father's former students, G. H. Hallam and T. E. Page. It is unlikely that Kennedy had any hand in the revision of 1888, and the "Shorter Latin Primer" of the same year. The BBC Radio 4 programme in December 2018 "Amo, Amas, Amusical", presented by Professor Mary Beard, explained the background to the primer and the sisters‘ significant part in writing
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
it, as well as the resistance to women‘s higher education at Cambridge and elsewhere during their lifetime.
Other works are:
- "The Psalter in English Verse" (1860)
- "Elementary Greek Grammar" (1862)
- Sophocles, "Oedipus Tyrannus" (2nd ed., 1885)
- Aristophanes, "Birds" (1874)
- Aeschylus, "Agamemnon", with introduction, metrical translation and notes (2nd ed., 1882)
- A commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1881)
- Plato, "Theaetetus", English translation (1881)
He contributed largely to the collection known as "Sabrinae Corolla" (D. S. Colman, Shrewsbury, c. 1950), and published a collection of verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of "Between Whiles" (2nd ed., 1882), with
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Benjamin Hall Kennedy
many autobiographical details.
# Family.
His brother Charles Rann Kennedy was a barrister and wrote original works as well as translating and editing classical works. His younger brother The Rev. William James Kennedy (1814-1891) was a prominent educator, and the father of Lord Justice Sir William Rann Kennedy (1846–1915), a distinguished Cambridge scholar.
# References.
- This work in turn cites:
- Sandys, "A History of Classical Scholarship" (Vol. III, Cambridge, 1908)
- Page, Thomas E. "Benjamin Hall Kennedy". Article in the "Dictionary of National Biography", 1885-1900, Volume 30
- Stray, Christopher. "Marion Grace Kennedy". Article in the "Dictionary of National Biography", 2004.
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Garsington Manor
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Garsington Manor
Garsington Manor
Garsington Manor, in the village of Garsington, near Oxford, England, is a Tudor building, known as the former home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, the Bloomsbury Group socialite. The house is currently owned by the family of Leonard Ingrams and from 1989 to 2010 was the setting for an annual summer opera season, the Garsington Opera, which relocated to Wormsley Park, the home of Mark Getty near Stokenchurch in Buckinghamshire, in 2011.
The manor house was built on land once owned by the son of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer, and at one time had the name "Chaucers". Lady Ottoline and her husband, Philip Morrell, bought the manor house in 1914, at which time it was in a state of disrepair,
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having been in use as a farmhouse.
They completely restored the house in the 1920s, working with the architect Philip Tilden, and creating landscaped Italian-style gardens. The parterre has 24 square beds with Irish yews at the corners; the Italian garden has a large ornamental pool enclosed by yew hedges and set about with statues; beyond, is a wild garden, with lime-tree avenues, shrubs, a stream and pond.
Garsington became a haven for the Morrells’ friends, including D. H. Lawrence, Siegfried Sassoon, Edward Sackville-West, William Smith, Lord David Cecil, John Cournos, Lytton Strachey, Aldous Huxley, Mark Gertler, Bertrand Russell and Virginia Woolf. In 1916, they invited conscientious
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objectors, including Clive Bell and other members of the Bloomsbury Group, to come and work on the home farm for the duration of World War I, as civilian Work of National Importance recognised as an alternative to military service . Aldous Huxley spent some time here before he wrote "Crome Yellow", a book which contains a ridiculous character obviously intended as a caricature of Lady Ottoline Morrell; she never forgave him. "In Confidence" a short story by Katherine Mansfield portrays the "wits of Garsington" some four years in advance of "Crome Yellow", and wittier than Huxley according to Mansfield's biographer Antony Alpers. Published in The New Age of 24 May 1917, it was not reprinted until
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ew Age of 24 May 1917, it was not reprinted until 1984 in Alper's collection of her short stories. Five young gentlemen are having a drawing-room argument, observed by Isobel and Marigold: "Aren't men extraordinary" says Marigold.
The Morrells moved out in 1928. The house was then owned by Sir John Wheeler-Bennett until it was sold in 1981 to Leonard and Rosalind Ingrams and their family.
# External links.
- Information from the University of York
- " The Pool at Garsington" Mark Gertler's 1918 painting of Garsington Manor and its ornamental pool. Government Art Collection, UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport.
- Description of Garsington Manor and its gardens at Garsington Opera.
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Color constancy
Color constancy is an example of subjective constancy and a feature of the human color perception system which ensures that the perceived color of objects remains relatively constant under varying illumination conditions. A green apple for instance looks green to us at midday, when the main illumination is white sunlight, and also at sunset, when the main illumination is red. This helps us identify objects.
# Color vision.
Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using
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two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.
# Object illuminance.
The phenomenon of color constancy occurs when the source of illumination is not directly known. It is for this reason that color constancy takes a greater effect on days with sun and clear sky as opposed to days that are overcast. Even when the sun is visible, color constancy may affect color perception. This is due to an ignorance
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of all possible sources of illumination. Although an object may reflect multiple sources of light into the eye, color constancy causes objective identities to remain constant.
D. H. Foster (2011) states, "in the natural environment, the source itself may not be well defined in that the illumination at a particular point in a scene is usually a complex mixture of direct and indirect [light] distributed over a range of incident angles, in turn modified by local occlusion and mutual reflection, all of which may vary with time and position." The wide spectrum of possible illuminances in the natural environment and the limited ability of the human eye to perceive color means that color constancy
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plays a functional role in daily perception. Color constancy allows for humans to interact with the world in a consistent or veridical manner and it allows for one to more effectively make judgements on the time of day.
# Physiological basis.
The physiological basis for color constancy is thought to involve specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex that compute local ratios of cone activity, which is the same calculation that Land's retinex algorithm uses to achieve color constancy. These specialized cells are called "double-opponent cells" because they compute both color opponency and spatial opponency. Double-opponent cells were first described by Nigel Daw in the goldfish retina.
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There was considerable debate about the existence of these cells in the primate visual system; their existence was eventually proven using reverse-correlation receptive field mapping and special stimuli that selectively activate single cone classes at a time, so-called "cone-isolating" stimuli.
Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then "discounted" in order to
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obtain the object's "true color" or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color.
## Neural mechanism.
There are two possible mechanisms for color constancy. The first mechanism is unconscious inference. The second view holds this phenomenon to be caused by sensory adaptation. Research suggests color constancy to be related changes in retinal cells as well as cortical areas related to vision. This phenomenon is most likely attributed to changes in various levels of the visual system.
### Cone adaptation.
Cones, specialized cells within the retina, will adjust relative to light levels within the local environment.
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This occurs at the level of individual neurons. However, this adaptation is incomplete. Chromatic adaptation is also regulated by processes within the brain. Research in monkeys suggest that changes in chromatic sensitivity is correlated to activity in parvocellular lateral geniculate neurons. Color constancy may be both attributed to localized changes in individual retinal cells or to higher level neural processes within the brain.
# Metamerism.
Metamerism, the perceiving of colors within two separate scenes, can help to inform research regarding color constancy. Research suggests that when competing chromatic stimuli are presented, spatial comparisons must be completed early in the visual
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system. For example, when subjects are presented stimuli in a dichoptic fashion, an array of colors and a void color, such as grey, and are told to focus on a specific color of the array, the void color appears different than when perceived in a binocular fashion. This means that color judgements, as they relate to spatial comparisons, must be completed at or prior to the V1 monocular neurons. If spatial comparisons occur later in the visual system such as in cortical area V4, the brain would be able to perceive both the color and void color as though they were seen in a binocular fashion.
# Retinex theory.
The "Land effect" refers to the capacity to see full color (if muted) images solely
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by looking at a photo with red and gray wavelengths. The effect was discovered by Edwin H. Land, who was attempting to reconstruct James Clerk Maxwell's early experiments in full-colored images. Land realized that, even when there were no green or blue wavelengths present in an image, the visual system would still perceive them as green or blue by discounting the red illumination. Land described this effect in a 1959 article in "Scientific American." In 1977, Land wrote another "Scientific American" article that formulated his "retinex theory" to explain the Land effect. The word "retinex" is a portmanteau formed from "retina" and "cortex", suggesting that both the eye and the brain are involved
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in the processing. Land, with John McCann, also developed a computer program designed to imitate the retinex processes taking place in human physiology.
The effect can be experimentally demonstrated as follows. A display called a "Mondrian" (after Piet Mondrian whose paintings are similar) consisting of numerous colored patches is shown to a person. The display is illuminated by three white lights, one projected through a red filter, one projected through a green filter, and one projected through a blue filter. The person is asked to adjust the intensity of the lights so that a particular patch in the display appears white. The experimenter then measures the intensities of red, green, and blue
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light reflected from this white-appearing patch. Then the experimenter asks the person to identify the color of a neighboring patch, which, for example, appears green. Then the experimenter adjusts the lights so that the intensities of red, blue, and green light reflected from the green patch are the same as were originally measured from the white patch. The person shows color constancy in that the green patch continues to appear green, the white patch continues to appear white, and all the remaining patches continue to have their original colors.
Color constancy is a desirable feature of computer vision, and many algorithms have been developed for this purpose. These include several retinex
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algorithms. These algorithms receive as input the red/green/blue values of each pixel of the image and attempt to estimate the reflectances of each point. One such algorithm operates as follows: the maximal red value "r" of all pixels is determined, and also the maximal green value "g" and the maximal blue value "b". Assuming that the scene contains objects which reflect all red light, and (other) objects which reflect all green light and still others which reflect all blue light, one can then deduce that the illuminating light source is described by ("r", "g", "b"). For each pixel with values ("r", "g", "b") its reflectance is estimated as ("r"/"r", "g"/"g", "b"/"b"). The original retinex algorithm
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proposed by Land and McCann uses a localized version of this principle.
Although retinex models are still widely used in computer vision, actual human color perception has been shown to be more complex.
# See also.
- Chromatic adaptation
- Memory color effect
- Shadow and highlight enhancement
- Trichromacy
- Tetrachromacy
# References.
## Retinex.
Here "Reprinted in McCann" refers to McCann, M., ed. 1993. "Edwin H. Land's Essays." Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology.
- (1964) "The retinex" "Am. Sci." 52(2): 247–64. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 53–60. Based on acceptance address for William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement, Cleveland, Ohio, December
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30, 1963.
- with L.C. Farney and M.M. Morse. (1971) "Solubilization by incipient development" "Photogr. Sci. Eng." 15(1):4–20. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 157–73. Based on lecture in Boston, June 13, 1968.
- with J.J. McCann. (1971) "Lightness and retinex theory" "J. Opt. Soc. Am." 61(1):1–11. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 73–84. Based on the Ives Medal lecture, October 13, 1967.
- (1974) "The retinex theory of colour vision" "Proc. R. Inst. Gt. Brit." 47:23–58. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 95–112. Based on Friday evening discourse, November 2, 1973.
- (1977) "The retinex theory of color vision" "Sci. Am." 237:108-28. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 125–42.
- with H.G.
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Rogers and V.K. Walworth. (1977) "One-step photography" In "Neblette's Handbook of Photography and Reprography, Materials, Processes and Systems," 7th ed., J. M. Sturge, ed., pp. 259–330. New York: Reinhold. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 205–63.
- (1978) "Our 'polar partnership' with the world around us: Discoveries about our mechanisms of perception are dissolving the imagined partition between mind and matter" "Harv. Mag." 80:23–25. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 151–54.
- with D.H. Hubel, M.S. Livingstone, S.H. Perry, and M.M. Burns. (1983) "Colour-generating interactions across the corpus callosum" "Nature" 303(5918):616-18. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 155–58.
- (1983) "Recent
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eprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 155–58.
- (1983) "Recent advances in retinex theory and some implications for cortical computations: Color vision and the natural images" "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A." 80:5136–69. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 159–66.
- (1986) "An alternative technique for the computation of the designator in the retinex theory of color vision" "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A." 83:3078–80.
# External links.
- Color constancy – McCann
- Color constancy – Illuminant Estimation
- Retinex Image Processing
- Retinex implemented via a partial differential equation and Fourier transform, with code and on-line demonstration
- BBC Horizon 21x08 Colourful notions 1985
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Bustard
Bustards, including floricans and korhaans, are large, terrestrial birds living mainly in dry grassland areas and on the steppes of the Old World. They range in length from . They make up the family Otididae (formerly known as Otidae). Bustards are omnivorous and opportunistic, eating leaves, buds, seeds, fruit, small vertebrates, and invertebrates.
# Description.
Bustards are all fairly large with the two largest species, the kori bustard ("Ardeotis kori") and the great bustard ("Otis tarda"), being frequently cited as the world's heaviest flying birds. In both the largest species, large males exceed a weight of , weight around on average and can attain a total length of . The smallest
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species is the little brown bustard ("Eupodotis humilis"), which is around long and weighs around on average. In most bustards, males are substantially larger than females, often about 30% longer and sometimes more than twice the weight. They are among the most sexually dimorphic groups of birds. In only the floricans is the sexual dimorphism reverse, with the adult female being slightly larger and heavier than the male.
The wings have 10 primaries and 16–24 secondary feathers. There are 18–20 feathers in the tail. The plumage is predominantly cryptic.
# Behaviour and ecology.
Bustards are omnivorous, feeding principally on seeds and invertebrates. They make their nests on the ground, making
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their eggs and offspring often very vulnerable to predation. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. Most prefer to run or walk over flying. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips, and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays, such as inflating throat sacs or elevating elaborate feathered crests. The female lays three to five dark, speckled eggs in a scrape in the ground, and incubates them alone.
# Taxonomy.
The family Otididae was introduced (as Otidia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Extinct species from the Paleofile.com website.
Family Otididae
- Genus †"Gryzaja"
- †"Gryzaja odessana"
-
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Genus †"Ioriotis"
- †"Ioriotis gabunii"
- Genus †"Miootis"
- †"Miootis compactus"
- Genus †"Pleotis"
- †"Pleotis liui"
- Subfamily Lissotinae
- Genus "Lissotis"
- Hartlaub's bustard, "Lissotis hartlaubii"
- Black-bellied bustard, "Lissotis melanogaster"
- "L. m. notophila"
- "L. m. melanogaster"
- Subfamily Neotinae
- Genus "Neotis"
- Nubian bustard, "Neotis nuba"
- Ludwig's bustard, "Neotis ludwigii"
- Denham's bustard), "Neotis denhami"
- "N. d. denhami" (Denham's bustard)
- "N. d. jacksoni" (Jackson's Bustard bustard)
- "N. d. stanleyi" (Stanley bustard)
- Heuglin's bustard, "Neotis heuglinii"
- Genus "Ardeotis"
- Arabian bustard, "Ardeotis arabs"
- "A. a. lynesi" (Moroccan
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bustard)
- "A. a. stieberi" (great Arabian bustard)
- "A. a. arabs"
- "A. a. butleri" (Sudan bustard)
- Australian bustard, "Ardeotis australis"
- Great Indian bustard, "Ardeotis nigriceps"
- Kori bustard, "Ardeotis kori"
- "A. k. struthiunculus" (Northern Kori bustard)
- "A. k. kori" (Southern Kori bustard)
- Subfamily Otidinae
- Genus "Tetrax"
- †"T. paratetrax"
- Little bustard, "Tetrax tetrax"
- Genus "Otis"
- †"O. bessarabicus"
- †"O. hellenica"
- Great bustard, "Otis tarda"
- "O. t. tarda" (Western great bustard)
- "O. t. dybowskii" (Eastern great bustard)
- Genus "Chlamydotis"
- †"C. affinis"
- †"C. mesetaria"
- Macqueen's bustard, "Chlamydotis macqueenii"
- Houbara
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bustard, "Chlamydotis undulata"
- "C. u. fuertaventurae" (Canary Islands houbara bustard)
- "C. u. undulata" (North African houbara bustard)
- Genus "Houbaropsis"
- Bengal florican, "Houbaropsis bengalensis"
- "H. b. bengalensis"
- "H. b. blandini"
- Genus "Sypheotides"
- Lesser florican, "Sypheotides indicus"
- Genus "Lophotis"
- Red-crested korhaan, "Lophotis ruficrista"
- Savile's bustard, "Lophotis savilei"
- Buff-crested bustard, "Lophotis gindiana"
- Genus "Eupodotis"
- Little brown bustard, "Eupodotis humilis"
- Karoo korhaan, "Eupodotis vigorsii"
- "E. v. namaqua"
- "E. v. vigorsii"
- Rüppell's korhaan, "Eupodotis rueppellii"
- "E. r. fitzsimonsi"
- "E. r. rueppellii"
-
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Blue korhaan, "Eupodotis caerulescens"
- White-bellied bustard, "Eupodotis senegalensis"
- "E. s. barrowii" (Barrow's/southern white-bellied Bustard)
- "E. s. canicollis" (Somali white-bellied knorhaan)
- "E. s. erlangeri"
- "E. s. mackenziei"
- "E. s. senegalensis" (Senegal bustard)
- Genus "Afrotis"
- Southern black korhaan, "Afrotis afra"
- Northern black korhaan, "Afrotis afraoides"
- "A. a. etoschae"
- "A. a. damarensis"
- "A. a. afraoides"
# Status and conservation.
Bustards are gregarious outside the breeding season, but are very wary and difficult to approach in the open habitats they prefer.
Most species are declining or endangered through habitat loss and hunting, even
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where they are nominally protected.
## United Kingdom.
The last bustard in Britain died in approximately 1832, but the bird is being reintroduced through batches of chicks imported from Russia.
In 2009, two great bustard chicks were hatched in Britain for the first time in more than 170 years. Reintroduced bustards also hatched chicks in 2010.
# Floricans.
Some Indian bustards are also called Floricans. The origin of the name is unclear. Thomas C. Jerdon writes in "The Birds of India (1862)
The Hobson-Jobson dictionary however casts doubt on this theory stating that
# References.
- Bota, Gerard, et al. "Ecology and conservation of Steppe-Land birds". International Symposium on Ecology
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duced through batches of chicks imported from Russia.
In 2009, two great bustard chicks were hatched in Britain for the first time in more than 170 years. Reintroduced bustards also hatched chicks in 2010.
# Floricans.
Some Indian bustards are also called Floricans. The origin of the name is unclear. Thomas C. Jerdon writes in "The Birds of India (1862)
The Hobson-Jobson dictionary however casts doubt on this theory stating that
# References.
- Bota, Gerard, et al. "Ecology and conservation of Steppe-Land birds". International Symposium on Ecology and Conservation of Steppe-land birds. Lynx Edicions 2005. 343 pages. .
# External links.
- Bustard videos on the Internet Bird Collection
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Methodism
Methodism
Methodism, also known as the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their practice and belief from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother Charles Wesley were also significant early leaders in the movement. It originated as a revival movement within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate denomination after Wesley's death. The movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond because of vigorous missionary work, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.
Wesleyan theology, which is upheld by the Methodist Churches,
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