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Maidenhead
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Maidenhead
in a diamond shape; co-ed Sixth Form)
- Herries School (co-ed 3-11)
- Highfield School (boys 2-4; girls 2–11)
- St Piran's School (co-ed 3–11)
Redroofs School for the Performing Arts (co-ed 9-18 full time and all ages for weekly classes)
# Twin towns.
Maidenhead is twinned with:
- Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, France (since 1957)
- Bad Godesberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (since 1960)
- Frascati, Lazio, Italy (since 1972)
- Kortrijk (Courtrai) West Flanders, Belgium (since 1981)
Each year youths from the four towns and Berlin-Steglitz (twinned with Bad Godesberg) compete against one another in sports such as volleyball, football, athletics and swimming in the Twin Towns Sports
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Competition, hosted in turn by each of the five towns. In Maidenhead town centre there are roads named after three of the twin towns (Bad Godesberg Way, Frascati Way and St Cloud Way). Local schools often participate in student exchanges with pupils being exchanged between schools within the twinned towns.
# Notable people and businesses.
A number of notable figures can be counted amongst Maidenhead's current and former residents. The actress Diana Dors (1931–1984) resided for much of her life in the town, in several properties, while the broadcaster Richard Dimbleby (1913–1965) lived for sometime on Boulter's Island. Maidenhead's riverside location has also drawn many celebrities, including
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Maidenhead
former broadcaster Michael Parkinson (b. 1935). The Spice Girls shared a house in Maidenhead for a year preceding their rise to stardom. In her 1988 LWT special, "An Audience with Victoria Wood", Victoria Wood said: "The celebrities have flocked [to the studio]. I know that Maidenhead and Barnes are like ghost towns this evening."
Author Hugh Lofting (1886–1947), creator of "Doctor Dolittle", was born in Maidenhead.
Essayist and novelist Nick Hornby (b. 1957) was educated at Maidenhead Grammar School (now Desborough School), as were children's television presenter and radio show host Toby Anstis (b. 1968), author and broadcaster John O'Farrell (b. 1962), athlete Mark Richardson (b. 1972) and
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Maidenhead
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Maidenhead
well known "Dragon" Peter Jones (b. 1966).
The film director brothers Roy (1913–2001) and John Boulting(1913–1985) were born in Bray village on the outskirts of Maidenhead in November 1913.
Professional footballer Andy King grew up in Maidenhead, and attended Furze Platt Senior School. He plays for Leicester City and helped them win the Premier League title in 2016.
Pinkneys Green in the town was home to Sir Nicholas Winton (1909–2015), whose heroic efforts rescued 669 Jewish children from Czechoslovakia just before the outbreak of World War II. There is a statue of him at Maidenhead Railway Station.
Arthur and Ron Hacker formed the company Hacker Radio Ltd in Maidenhead in 1959, producers
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Maidenhead
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Maidenhead
cker formed the company Hacker Radio Ltd in Maidenhead in 1959, producers of fine transistor radios that for a time in the 1970s brandished the Royal Warrant of Appointment
The town was also home to Colonel Sir Walter de Frece (1870–1935) and Lady Matilda de Frece, better known as Vesta Tilley (1864–1952).
Former disabled London Marathon competitor Patrick Sheehy lived in the town for just over 3 years.
Edd China (born 1971), an English TV presenter, mechanic, motor specialist and inventor lives and works here.
Mary Ann Browne (1812–1845) was a British poet and writer of musical scores.
# External links.
- The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead
- Local community and forum website
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Figurehead (object)
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Figurehead (object)
Figurehead (object)
A figurehead is a carved wooden decoration found at the bow of ships, generally of a design related to the name or role of a ship. They were predominant between the 16th and 20th centuries, and modern ships' badges fulfill a similar role.
# History.
Although earlier ships had often had some form of bow ornamentation (e.g. the eyes painted on the bows of Greek and Phoenician galleys, the Roman practice of putting carvings of their deities on the bows of their galleys, and the Viking ships of ca. A.D. 800–1100), the general practice was introduced with the galleons of the 16th century, as the figurehead as such could not come to be until ships had an actual stemhead structure
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on which to place it. The menacing appearance of toothy and bug-eyed figureheads on Viking ships also had the protective function of warding off evil spirits. The Egyptians placed figures of holy birds on the prow while the Phoenicians used horses representing speed. The Ancient Greeks used boars' heads to symbolise acute vision and ferocity while Roman boats often mounted a carving of a centurion representing valour in battle. In northern Europe, serpents, bulls, dolphins and dragons were customary and by the 13th Century, the swan was used representing grace and mobility.
In Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, it was once believed that spirits/faeries called Kaboutermannekes (gnomes, little
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men, faeries) dwelt in the figureheads. The spirit guarded the ship from sickness, rocks, storms, and dangerous winds. If the ship sank, the Kaboutermannekes guided the sailors' souls to the Land of the Dead. To sink without a Kaboutermanneke condemned the sailor's soul to haunt the sea forever, so Dutch sailors believed. A similar belief was found in early Scandinavia/Vikings.
During the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries the carved subjects of figureheads varied from representations of saints to patriotic emblems such as the unicorns or lions popular on English ships. When the ship was named after a royal or naval personage the head and bust of the individual might be shown.
As with
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the stern ornamentation, the purpose of the figurehead was often to indicate the name of the ship in a non-literate society (albeit in a sometimes very convoluted manner); and always, in the case of naval ships, to demonstrate the wealth and might of the owner. At the height of the Baroque period, some ships boasted gigantic figureheads, weighing several tons and sometimes twinned on both sides of the bowsprit.
A large figurehead, being carved from massive wood and perched on the very foremost tip of the hull, adversely affected the sailing qualities of the ship. This, and cost considerations, led to figureheads being made dramatically smaller during the 18th century, and in some cases they
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were abolished altogether around 1800. After the Napoleonic wars they made something of a comeback, but were then often in the form of a small waist-up bust rather than the oversized full figures previously used. The clipper ships of the 1850s and 1860s customarily had full figureheads, but these were relatively small and light. During their final stage of common usage figureheads ranged in length from about 18 inches (45 centimetres) to 9 feet (2.7 metres).
## Decline in use.
Figureheads as such died out with the military sailing ship. In addition the vogue for ram bows meant that there was no obvious place to mount one on battleships. An exception was HMS "Rodney" which was the last British
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battleship to carry a figurehead. Smaller ships of the Royal Navy continued to carry them. The last example may well have been the sloop HMS "Cadmus" launched in 1903. Early steamships sometimes had gilt scroll-work and coats-of-arms at their bows. This practice lasted up until about World War I. The 1910 German liner SS "Imperator" originally sported a large bronze figurehead of an eagle (the Imperial German symbol) standing on a globe. The few extra feet of length added by the figurehead made the "Imperator" the longest ship in the world at the time of her launch.
It is still common practise for warships to carry ships' badges, large plaques mounted on the superstructure with a unique design
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ships' badges, large plaques mounted on the superstructure with a unique design relating to the ship's name or role. For example, Type 42 Destroyers of the Royal Navy, which are named after British cities, carry badges depicting the coat of arms of their namesake.
On smaller vessels, the billethead might be substituted. This was a smaller, nonfigural carving, most often a curl of foliage.
# See also.
- Hood ornament
- Winged victory
# External links.
- The Figurehead Archive
- Telegraph Gallery (17 images)
- History Trust of South Australia
- Figureheads
- The Mariners' Museum Figurehead Collection
- Figureheads from the Vestfold Museums's (Norwegian) collections on DigitalMuseum
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USS O-12 (SS-73)
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USS O-12 (SS-73)
USS O-12 (SS-73)
USS "O-12" (SS-73) was an O-class submarine of the United States Navy. These later O-boats, "O-11" through "O-16", were designed by Lake Torpedo Boat to different specifications than the earlier Electric Boat designs. They performed poorly as compared to the Electric Boat units, and are sometimes considered a separate class. The ship was launched in 1917 and entered service with the Navy in 1918 in the Panama Canal Zone.
Taken out of service by the US Navy in 1924, the submarine was leased for use in Artic exploration in 1930 sponsored by William Randolph Hearst. Renamed Nautilus, the submarine suffered significant damage while exploring the Arctic in 1931 and having recorded
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USS O-12 (SS-73)
significant data while there, Hearst considered the venture a failure. Having returned to Norway to repair the damage, the submarine was returned to the United States Navy there, and they had the submarine towed down a fjord and scuttled in November 1931.
# Service history.
The submarine's keel was laid down on 6 March 1916 by the Lake Torpedo Boat Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut. "O-12" was launched on 29 September 1917, sponsored by Mrs. Homer S. Cummings, and commissioned on 18 October 1918 with Lieutenant Commander J.E. Austin in command. "O-12" spent much of her career as a unit of Submarine Division 1, based at Coco Solo, Panama Canal Zone. In 1921, she was awarded a Battle Efficiency
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Pennant and trophy for gunnery (gun and torpedo). She decommissioned on 17 June 1924 after just five and a half years of service, and was placed in reserve at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.
## "Nautilus" Arctic Expedition.
Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 July 1930, ex-"O-12" transferred to the United States Shipping Board for conversion by the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was leased at the rate of one dollar per year to Lake and Danenhower, Inc., of Bridgeport, Connecticut, for use on Hubert Wilkins's and Lincoln Ellsworth's Arctic Expedition of geophysical investigation. The lease required that she either be returned to the Navy for disposal, or scuttled in at least of water.
On
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USS O-12 (SS-73)
24 March 1931, she was re-christened "Nautilus". As Prohibition prevented the use of an alcoholic beverage, she was baptised not with the traditional champagne but rather with a bucket of ice cubes. Great French writer Jules Verne's grandson was present at the event, under the French flag, along of course with Sir Hubert's new-wed wife, actress Suzanne Bennett.
Simon Lake equipped "Nautilus" with several clever devices for under-ice operations. One was a mechanical probe, much like a trolley pole, that would scrape along the bottom of the ice cap to indicate how much clearance the submarine had below the ice. Others included drills supposedly capable of cutting through of ice to reach fresh
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USS O-12 (SS-73)
air. The vessel's torpedo chamber was converted into a moon pool, when its water-tight door was closed, pressure was equalized, so a trap door could be opened, allowing the lowering of scientific instruments. These innovations were tested only cursorily before the boat put to sea.
"Nautilus" with her crew of 20 men was commanded by Captain Sloan Danenhower, son of John Wilson Danenhower, who served aboard during her Arctic expedition. "Nautilus", on 4 June 1931, began the crossing from New York City, United States, to Plymouth, England, the first leg of the voyage that was planned to take them up the coasts of the North Sea to Spitsbergen and conclude with a dramatic rendezvous at the North
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Pole with the German airship "Graf Zeppelin". On that first leg, however, "Nautilus" encountered a violent storm. Both engines failed, leaving the boat adrift. She was rescued and initially towed into Cork Harbour in Southern Ireland on 22 June where her batteries were re-charged, before being towed to England by where she was repaired.
On 5 August, very late in the year to begin an Arctic expedition, "Nautilus" began making her way through the English Channel and along the Norwegian coast. Another storm again damaged the boat, carrying away her bridge and giving her a permanent list, but after a stop in Tromsø on 11 August, she successfully reached Spitsbergen, and Wilkins allowed but a single
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day for repairs.
The crew carried out the planned scientific experiments as they pushed on northward, but thick pack ice hindered their progress. The boat was ill-equipped to deal with the extreme cold, lacking insulation and heaters. The fresh water system froze and the hull developed slow leaks.
After ten days, "Nautilus" reached 82°N, the farthest north any vessel had reached under its own power, and preparations began to dive and proceed under the ice. However, the boat refused to respond; the stern planes had been carried away at some unknown earlier time. Without them, the submarine could not control its depth while submerged, and the expedition had to be aborted.
On 31 August, under
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financial pressure from newspaperman William Randolph Hearst, who had initially promised to pay for the expedition but who indicated by telegraph that Wilkins would not be paid if he did not continue, Wilkins ordered the submarine onward. Captain Danenhower ordered "Nautilus" trimmed down by the bow, and deliberately rammed an ice floe in an attempt to force the boat under. The manoeuvre worked in that "Nautilus" submerged, and became the first submarine to operate under the polar ice cap. However, her unconventional method of diving caused significant damage to her upper works. She was out of radio contact for days, was presumed lost, and rescue efforts were planned. In fact, she had actually
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travelled only a short distance under the ice before resurfacing through a polynya, but her radios had been badly damaged, requiring days to repair.
The scientific crew continued their experiments, and their findings became the first paper published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. On 20 September, "Nautilus" returned to Spitsbergen carrying invaluable data and with all crew alive. Hearst, however, considered the expedition a failure and carried out his threat, refusing to pay for the expedition.
## Fate.
Following the expedition, "O-12" was returned to the Navy Department. On 30 November 1931 she was towed three miles down the "Byfjorden" (a Norwegian fjord just outside Bergen)
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arried out his threat, refusing to pay for the expedition.
## Fate.
Following the expedition, "O-12" was returned to the Navy Department. On 30 November 1931 she was towed three miles down the "Byfjorden" (a Norwegian fjord just outside Bergen) and scuttled in of water. In 1981 Norwegian divers found her wreck.
In 1959, was the first submarine to surface at the North Pole and the second submarine (after in 1958) to reach the North Pole. Her crew conducted a tribute to Sir George Hubert Wilkins and scattered his ashes over the North Pole.
In 2010 the research submersible "JAGO" dove to try to locate and inspect "Nautilus".
# External links.
- "Nautilus" (Submarine) Photograph Collection
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Maria (given name)
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Maria (given name)
Maria (given name)
Maria is a feminine given name. It is given in many languages influenced by Latin Christianity.
It has its origin as the feminine form of the Roman name Marius (see Maria (gens)), and, after Christianity religion has spread across the Roman empire, it became the Latinised form of the name of Miriam: Mary, mother of Jesus.
"Maria" (Μαρία) is a form of the name used in the New Testament, standing alongside "Mariam" Μαριάμ.
It reflects the Syro-Aramaic name "Maryam", which is in turn derived from the Biblical Hebrew name "Miriam".
As a result of their similarity and syncretism, the Latin original name Maria and the Hebrew-derived Maria combined to form a single name.
The
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name is also sometimes used as a male (middle) name. This was historically the case in many Central European countries and still is the case in countries with strong Catholic traditions, where it signified patronage of the Virgin Mary (French-speakers often did the same with Marie).
Besides Maria, Mother of Jesus (see Blessed Virgin Mary or Virgin Mary), there are three other women named Maria in the New Testament: Maria Magdalena and Maria Salomé, disciples of Jesus and Maria Betânia, sister of Lazarus. In Quranic tradition, the name is rendered "Maryam", but Arabic reflects the Christian given name as "Mārya" مارية or "Māryā" ماريا "Mārya al-Qibiṭiyya", a Coptic Egyptian woman who was a bondmaid
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to prophet Muhammad .
# Variants and usage.
"Maria" was a frequently given name in southern Europe even in the medieval period.
In addition to the simple name, there arose a tradition of naming girls after specific titles of Mary, feast days associated with Mary and specific Marian apparitions (such as "Maria de los Dolores", "Maria del Pilar", "Maria del Carmen" etc., whence the derived given names of "Dolores", "Pilar", "Carmen" etc.). By contrast, in northern Europe the name only rose to popularity after the Reformation.
Because the name is so frequent in Christian tradition, a tradition of giving compound names has developed, with a number of such compounds themselves becoming very popular.
Examples
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Maria (given name)
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include Anna+Maria (Anne-Marie, Marianne, etc.)
Maria+Luisa (French Marie-Louise,)
Margarita+Maria (English Margaret Mary, French Marguerite Marie etc.),
Maria+Antonia (Italian Maria Antonia, French Marie-Antoinette etc.)
Maria+Helena (Italian Maria Elena, Spanish María Elena),
Maria+Teresa,
among numerous others.
As a feminine given name, Maria ranked 109th in the United States as of 2015, down from rank 31 held during 1973–1975.
Spelling variants of "Maria" include: Mária (Hungarian, Slovakian), María (Galician, Spanish), Máire and Muire (Irish), Marya, Marija (transliterated from Cyrillic), Maria (Polish). Due to a very strong devotion of Irish and Polish Catholics to the Blessed
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Virgin Mary, a special exception is made for two other forms of her name — Muire and Maryja — no one else may take that name similar to the way the name Jesus is not used in most languages. The English form "Mary" is derived via French "Marie".
A great number of hypocoristic forms are in use in numerous languages.
Maryam and Miriam have numerous variants, such as
Georgian Mariami (Georgian)
Mariamma, biblical Mariamme, Mariamne
Məryəm (Azerbaijani)
Meryem (Kurdish, Turkish)
Myriam (French)
The spelling in Semitic abjads is "mrym": Aramaic ܡܪܝܡ, Hebrew מרים, Arabic مريم.
Cyrillic has Марыя (Marýja) (Belarusian), Мария (Maríja) (Russian, Bulgarian).
Georgian uses მარიამ (Mariam), მარია
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(Maria); Armenian: Մարիամ.
Chinese has adopted the spelling 瑪麗 (simplified 玛丽, pinyin Mǎlì).
The variant Mariah (usually pronounced /məˈraɪə/) was rarely given in the United States prior to the 1990s, when it bounced in popularity, from rank 562 in 1989 to rank 62 in 1998, in imitation of the name of singer Mariah Carey (whose "Vision of Love" topped the charts in 1990).
## Masculine name.
"Maria" is used as a part of masculine given names in Roman Catholic tradition.
# People named Maria.
## Female.
- Maria of Russia (several people)
- Maria al-Qibtiyya
- María Conchita Alonso (born 1957), American singer/songwriter and actress
- Maria Ahtisa Manalo, Miss International Philippines
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2018
- María Azambuya (1944 – 2011), Uruguayan actress and theatre director
- Maria Bamford (born 1970), American stand-up comedian, actress, and voice actress
- Maria Beig (1920 – 2018), German author
- Maria Bello (born 1967), American actress and writer
- María Belón (born 1966), Spanish physician and motivational speaker
- Maria Brink (born 1977), American singer and songwriter
- Maria Beasley, American inventor
- Maria Callas (1923 – 1977), Greek-American soprano
- Maria Cole (1922 – 2012), American jazz singer
- Maria Christina (several people)
- Maria Dallas, New Zealand singer
- Maria Edgeworth (1768 – 1849), Anglo-Irish writer of adults' and children's literature
- Maria
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Louise Eve (1848-?), American poet
- Maria Harfanti (born 1992), Miss World Indonesia 2015
- María Holly (born 1932), widow of rock and roll pioneer Buddy Holly
- Maria James (1793–1868), Welsh-born American poet
- Maria Jane Jewsbury (1800–1833), English writer, poet, literary reviewer
- María José (several people)
- Maria Kanellis (born 1982), American professional wrestler
- Maria Kekkonen, Finnish erotic actress
- Maria Brace Kimball (1852–1933), American educator, elocutionist, writer
- Maria Lauterbach (1987-2007), American murder victim
- Maria White Lowell (1821-1853), American poet, abolitionist
- Maria Mandl (1912–1948), Austrian Nazi SS commandant of the female camp at
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Auschwitz concentration camp executed for war crimes
- Maria Mazina (born 1964), Russian Olympic champion épée fencer
- Maria Montessori, Italian educator
- Maria Ozawa (born 1986), Japanese actress
- Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Parma (born 1934)
- Maria Palmer (1917 – 1981), Austrian-born American actress
- Maria Rahajeng (born 1991), Miss World Indonesia 2014
- Maria Rasputin (1898 – 1977), memoirist
- Maria Reynolds (1768 – 1828), wife of James Reynolds
- María Elena Salinas, American broadcast journalist, news anchor, and author
- Maria Selena (born 1990), Indonesian beauty pageant titleholder who won Puteri Indonesia 2011
- Maria Sharapova (born 1987), Russian professional
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tennis player
- Maria Shriver (born 1955), American journalist and activist
- Maria Theresa (several people)
- María Valverde (born 1987), Spanish actress
- Maria Eulália Vares, Brazilian mathematical statistician and probability theorist
## Fictional characters.
- Maria (West Side Story), the main female protagonist from the musical "West Side Story", which is based on Romeo and Juliet
- Maria Jackson, a character from "The Sarah Jane Adventures"
- Maria Robotnik, a character in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" video game series
- Mary, a character from item number "Mera Naam Mary Hai" from film Brothers, portrayed by Kareena Kapoor.
## Male.
- Gian Maria Visconti (1388–1412)
- Filippo
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aria Visconti (1388–1412)
- Filippo Maria Visconti (1392–1447)
- Giovanni Maria Nanino (1543/4–1607)
- Giovanni Maria Trabaci (c. 1575–1647)
- Edward Maria Wingfield (1550–1631)
- Antonio Maria Vassallo (c. 1620–64/73)
- Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826)
- Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926)
- Erich Maria Remarque (1898–1970)
- José María Mariano Escrivá y Albás, more commonly known as Saint Josemaría (1902–75)
- Carlo Maria Giulini (1914–2005), Italian conductor
- Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen, head of the deposed Royal Saxon branch of the House of Wettin (d. 2012)
- Klaus Maria Brandauer (1943-)
# See also.
- Maria (disambiguation)
- Hurricane Maria
- Mariah (disambiguation)
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Mesopotamia
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Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders.
The Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.
Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the
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control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with western parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the Sassanid Persians. The division of Mesopotamia between Roman (Byzantine from AD 395) and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra.
Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic
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Revolution from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture".
# Etymology.
The regional toponym "Mesopotamia" (, "[land] between rivers"; "bilād ar-rāfidayn"; "miyān rudān"; "Beth Nahrain" "land of rivers") comes from the ancient Greek root words μέσος ("mesos") "middle" and ποταμός ("potamos") "river" and translates to "(Land) between two/the rivers". It is used throughout the Greek Septuagint (c. 250 BC) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent "Naharaim".
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An even earlier Greek usage of the name "Mesopotamia" is evident from "The Anabasis of Alexander", which was written in the late 2nd century AD, but specifically refers to sources from the time of Alexander the Great. In the "Anabasis", Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria.
The Aramaic term "biritum/birit narim" corresponded to a similar geographical concept. Later, the term Mesopotamia was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros
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Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia.
A further distinction is usually made between Northern or Upper Mesopotamia and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the "Jazira", is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.
In modern academic usage, the term "Mesopotamia" often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like "Syria", "Jazira", and "Iraq" being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued
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that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.
# Geography.
Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Taurus Mountains. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme
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south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf.
The arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted
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the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.
Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times, and has added to
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the cultural mix.
Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power
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into tribal or smaller regional units. These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.
# History.
The pre-history of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script in the Uruk IV period (c. 4th millennium BC), and the documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the mid-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire prehistory ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC, or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, from which point the
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region came to be known as Iraq. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed and socially complex states.
The region was one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yellow River in China. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur and Babylon, as well as major territorial states such as the city of Eridu, the Akkadian kingdoms, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon
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of Akkad (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Ashur-uballit II and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire).
Scientists analysed DNA from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's Turkey and Iraq.
## Periodization.
- Pre- and protohistory
- Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC)
- Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800)
- Jarmo (7500-5000 BC)
- Hassuna (~6000 BC–? BC), Samarra (~5700–4900 BC) and Halaf cultures (~6000–5300 BC) cultures
- Ubaid
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period (~5900–4400 BC)
- Uruk period (~4400–3100 BC)
- Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC)
- Early Bronze Age
- Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC)
- Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC)
- Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC)
- Early Assyrian kingdom (24th to 18th century BC)
- Middle Bronze Age
- Early Babylonia (19th to 18th century BC)
- First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century BC)
- Minoan eruption (c. 1620 BC)
- Late Bronze Age
- Old Assyrian period (16th to 11th century BC)
- Middle Assyrian period (c. 1365–1076 BC)
- Kassites in Babylon, (c. 1595–1155 BC)
- Late Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th century BC)
- Iron Age
- Syro-Hittite states (11th to 7th century BC)
-
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Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th century BC)
- Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century BC)
- Classical antiquity
- Persian Babylonia, Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th century BC)
- Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)
- Parthian Babylonia (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)
- Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)
- Adiabene (1st to 2nd century AD)
- Hatra (1st to 2nd century AD)
- Roman Mesopotamia (2nd to 7th centuries AD), Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)
- Late Antiquity
- Palmyrene Empire (3nd century AD)
- Asōristān (3rd to 7th century AD)
- Euphratensis (mid-4th century AD to 7th century AD)
- Muslim conquest (mid-7th century AD)
# Language and writing.
The earliest
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language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate. Along with Sumerian, Semitic languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia. Subartuan a language of the Zagros, perhaps related to the Hurro-Urartuan language family is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts. Akkadian came to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Old Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration
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language of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Empire: the official lect is called Imperial Aramaic. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.
Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the É, a temple dedicated to the goddess
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Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.
The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.
During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerian and the Akkadian language users, which included
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widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.
## Literature.
Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian
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Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary
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were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.
Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sîn-lēqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.
# Science and technology.
## Mathematics.
Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute
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hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on the seven-day week. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if pi were fixed at 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent
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discovery in which a tablet used pi as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.
## Astronomy.
From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations
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of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.
The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing
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an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy.
The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have
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supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).
Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.
## Medicine.
The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date
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back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the "Diagnostic Handbook" written by the "ummânū", or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).
Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the "Diagnostic Handbook" introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical
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observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's "Diagnostic Handbook" was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's
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recovery.
Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his "Diagnostic Handbook". These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.
## Technology.
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as
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well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.
According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times. Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.
# Religion and philosophy.
Ancient Mesopotamian religion was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They
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also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the pantheon. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods.
## Philosophy.
The
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numerous civilizations of the area influenced the Abrahamic religions, especially the Hebrew Bible; its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the Book of Genesis.
Giorgio Buccellati believes that the origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs. Babylonian reason and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.
The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic
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and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy. In particular, the Babylonian text "Dialogue of Pessimism" contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the Sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of dialectic, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the Socratic method. The Ionian philosopher Thales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.
# Culture.
## Festivals.
Ancient
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Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:
- 1. The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)
- 2. The phase of the annual agricultural cycle
- 3. Equinoxes and solstices
- 4. The local mythos and its divine Patrons
- 5. The success of the reigning Monarch
- 6. The Akitu, or New Year Festival (First full moon after spring equinox)
- 7. Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)
## Music.
Some songs were written for the gods
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but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events.
The Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is
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on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.)
## Games.
Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling
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feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. They also played "majore", a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ur".
## Family life.
Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the ""en"", or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female
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goddesses, a man. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time
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in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce.
## Burials.
Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered
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to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.
# Economy and agriculture.
Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC. Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking. It was comparable in some ways to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach.
In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word Ensi was used
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to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.
The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of
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the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials). With irrigation, the food supply in Mesopotamia was comparable to the Canadian prairies.
The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use
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of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slave). Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined
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so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.
# Government.
The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the
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others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.
## Kings.
The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended
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from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “shepherd”, as kings had to look after their people.
## Power.
When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus, and Arpad. They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors also had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control
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of a large empire. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.
## Warfare.
With the end of the Uruk phase, walled cities grew and many isolated Ubaid villages were abandoned indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king Lugalbanda was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between
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other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC but was not common until about 2500 BC. An Early Dynastic II king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against Humbaba guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later Stele of the Vultures at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the neighbouring rival city of Umma is
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the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre. From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.
## Laws.
City-states of Mesopotamia
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created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of Urukagina and Lipit Ishtar have been found. The most renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi (created c. 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves
# Art.
The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated
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and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also painted.
The Protoliterate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed
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priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a "Ram in a Thicket", the "Copper Bull" and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.
From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of
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moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not. The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BC, and may also be moulded. Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them; the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type, and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one.
The conquest of
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the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the
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heads effectively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views seem complete). Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.
# Architecture.
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
Brick
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is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil)
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and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the
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Iron Age.
# References.
- Frankfort, Henri, "The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient", Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),
# Further reading.
- "Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien", Brepols, 1996 .
- Benoit, Agnès; 2003. "Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien", Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre.
- Bottéro, Jean; 1987. "Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux", Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », .
- Bottéro, Jean; 1995. "Mesopotamia: writing, reasoning and the gods". Trans. by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop, University of Chicago Press.
- Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. "Geschichte Mesopotamiens.
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Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen", München,
- Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. "Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris." München 2005 (4. Aufl.),
- Joannès, Francis; 2001. "Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne", Robert Laffont.
- Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. "Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris", Stuttgart,
- Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. "The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 B.C". 2 Vols. Routledge: London and New York.
- Liverani, Mario; 1991. "Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia". Editori Laterza: Roma.
- Matthews, Roger; 2005. "The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC",
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Turnhout 2005,
- Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. "Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization". The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.
- Pollock, Susan; 1999." Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was". Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
- Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. "Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history". Routledge: London and New York.
- Roux, Georges; 1964. "Ancient Iraq", Penguin Books.
- Silver, Morris; 2007. "Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi", Antiguo Oriente 5: 89–112.
- Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. "A Companion to the Ancient Near East".
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Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005.
- Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. "A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000–323 BC". Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
# External links.
- Ancient Mesopotamia – timeline, definition, and articles at Ancient History Encyclopedia
- Mesopotamia – introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum
- By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, 1920 "(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)"
- A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell,
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clopedia
- Mesopotamia – introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum
- By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, 1920 "(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)"
- A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 "(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format)"
- Mesopotamian Archaeology, by Percy S.P. Pillow, 1912 "(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format)"
- Mesopotamia, 1920
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John Blackwood (publisher)
John Blackwood (publisher)
John Blackwood FRSE (1818–1879) was a Scottish publisher, sixth son of William Blackwood. John succeeded his father as editor of the business in 1834, on William's death. Four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861. Five of William Blackwood's seven sons played a role in the running of the company, William Blackwood and Sons.
# Life.
He was born at 2 Salisbury Road in south Edinburgh on 7 December 1818.
Educated at the High School and University of Edinburgh, he early displayed literary tastes, which procured for him the nickname of 'the little editor.'
At the close of his college career he spent
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three years in continental travel.
Soon after his return, his father having meanwhile died and been succeeded by two of his elder brothers, he entered, in 1839, to learn business, the house of a then eminent London publishing firm.
In 1840, he was entrusted with the superintendence of the branch which his brother's Edinburgh house was establishing in London.
He occupied this position for six years, during which his office in Pall Mall became a literary rendezvous, among his visitors being Lockhart of the 'Quarterly Review,' Delane of the 'Times,' and Thackeray, with the last two of whom he formed an intimate friendship.
One of his functions was to procure recruits for 'Blackwood's Magazine,'
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then edited by his eldest brother, and to him was due the connection formed with it by the first Lord Lytton, who began in 1842 to contribute to it his translation of the poems and ballads of Schiller.
In 1845, he returned to Edinburgh on the death of his eldest brother, whom he succeeded in the editorship of 'Blackwood's Magazine.'
In 1852, by the death of another elder brother, he became virtual head of the publishing business also, and he retained both positions until his death. As an editor he was critical and suggestive, as well as appreciative.
As a publisher he preferred quality to the production of quantity ; in both capacities he displayed hereditary acumen and liberality.
He quickly
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discerned the genius of George Eliot, forthwith accepting and publishing in his magazine the first instalment of her earliest fiction the 'Scenes of Clerical Life,' which had been sent to him without the name of the author, for whom thus early he predicted a great career as a novelist.
This commencement of a business connection was soon followed by a personal acquaintance between author and publisher, which ripened into intimacy.
In her husband's biography of George Eliot there are many indications of her readiness to accept Blackwood's friendly criticisms and suggestions, and of her grateful regard for him.
On hearing of the probably fatal termination of his last illness she wrote :
All
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her books, after the 'Scenes of Clerical Life,' were, with one exception, first published by his firm.
Although Blackwood was a staunch conservative and the conductor of the chief monthly organ of conservatism, he always welcomed, whether as editor or publisher, what he considered to be literary ability, without regard to the political or religious opinions of its possessors.
A genial and convivial host and companion, he delighted to dispense, at his house in Edinburgh, and his country house, Strathtyrum, near St. Andrews, a liberal hospitality to authors with whom he had formed a business connection.
To his magazine he contributed directly only occasional obituary notices of prominent contributors.
In
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later life his Edinburgh address was 3 Randolph Crescent on the southern edge of the Moray Estate.
He died at Strathtyrum House near St Andrews on 29 October 1879. He is buried on a small west-facing section of wall on the southern edge of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. A secondary memorial to John is within his father's family vault in Old Calton Burial Ground.
The Blackwood family still live to this day in Ayrshire, Scotland around the Doon Valley Area and other parts of Ayrshire.
# References.
- Attribution
# Further reading.
- Porter, Mary Blackwood (Mrs. Gerald Porter), "Annals of a Publishing House: John Blackwood, by his Daughter Mrs. Gerald Porter". Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood
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