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USS Wisconsin (BB-64)
shot down another three, but not before one "kamikaze" attack penetrated the CAP and screen to crash on the flight deck of the fleet carrier . On 11 April, the Japanese renewed their "kamikaze" attacks; and only drastic maneuvers and heavy barrages of gunfire saved the task force. Combat air patrols shot down 17 planes, and ships' gunfire shot down 12. The next day, 151 enemy aircraft attacked TF 58, but "Wisconsin", together with other units of the screens for the vital carriers, kept the "kamikaze" pilots at bay and destroyed them before they could reach their targets. Over the days that ensued, Japanese "kamikaze" attacks managed to crash into three carriers—, and —on successive days.
By
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4 June, a typhoon was swirling through the Fleet. "Wisconsin" rode out the storm unscathed, but three cruisers, two carriers, and a destroyer suffered serious damage. Offensive operations were resumed on 8 June with a final aerial assault on Kyūshū. Japanese aerial response was virtually nonexistent; 29 planes were located and destroyed. On that day, one of "Wisconsin"s floatplanes landed and rescued a downed pilot from the carrier .
## Bombardment of Japan.
"Wisconsin" ultimately put into Leyte Gulf and dropped anchor there on 13 June for repairs and replenishment. Three weeks later, on 1 July, the battleship and her escorts sailed once more for Japanese home waters for carrier air strikes
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on the enemy's heartland. Nine days later, carrier planes from TF 38 destroyed 72 enemy aircraft on the ground and smashed industrial sites in the Tokyo area. "Wisconsin" and the other ships made no attempt whatsoever to conceal the location of their armada, due in large part to a weak Japanese response to their presence.
On 16 July, "Wisconsin" fired her guns at the steel mills and oil refineries at Muroran, Hokkaido. Two days later, she wrecked industrial facilities in the Hitachi Miro area, on the coast of Honshū-, northeast of Tokyo itself. During that bombardment, British battleships of the British Pacific Fleet contributed their heavy shellfire. By that point in the war, Allied warships
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such as "Wisconsin" were able to shell the Japanese homeland almost at will.
TF 38's planes subsequently blasted the Japanese naval base at Yokosuka, and put the former fleet flagship "Nagato" out of action, one of the two remaining Japanese battleships. Throughout July and into August, Admiral Halsey's airmen visited destruction upon the Japanese, the last instance being against Tokyo on 13 August. Two days later, the Japanese surrendered, ending World War II.
"Wisconsin", as part of the occupying force, arrived at Tokyo Bay on 5 September, three days after the formal surrender occurred on board the battleship . During "Wisconsin"s brief career in World War II, she had steamed since commissioning;
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had shot down three enemy planes; had claimed assists on four occasions; and had fueled her screening destroyers on some 250 occasions.
## Post World War II (1945–1950).
Shifting subsequently to Okinawa, the battleship embarked homeward-bound GIs on 22 September 1945, as part of Operation Magic Carpet staged to bring soldiers, sailors, and marines home from the far-flung battlefronts of the Pacific. Departing Okinawa on 23 September, "Wisconsin" reached Pearl Harbor on 4 October, remaining there for five days before she pushed on for the west coast on the last leg of her state-side bound voyage. She reached San Francisco on 15 October.
Heading for the east coast of the United States soon
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USS Wisconsin (BB-64)
after the start of the new year, 1946, "Wisconsin" transited the Panama Canal from 11–13 January and reached Hampton Roads, Virginia on 18 January. Following a cruise south to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the battleship entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul. After repairs and alterations that consumed the summer months, "Wisconsin" sailed for South American waters.
Over the weeks that ensued, the battleship visited Valparaíso, Chile, from 1–6 November; Callao, Peru, from 9–13 November; Balboa, Canal Zone, from 16–20 November; and La Guaira, Venezuela, from 22–26 November, before returning to Norfolk on 2 December 1946.
"Wisconsin" spent nearly all of 1947 as a training ship, taking naval
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reservists on two-week cruises throughout the year. Those voyages commenced at Bayonne, New Jersey, and saw visits conducted at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and the Panama Canal Zone. While underway at sea, the ship would perform various drills and exercises before the cruise would end where it had started, at Bayonne. During June and July 1947, "Wisconsin" took United States Naval Academy midshipmen on cruises to northern European waters.
In January 1948, "Wisconsin" reported to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Norfolk for inactivation. Placed out of commission, in reserve on 1 July, "Wisconsin" was assigned to the Norfolk group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.
# The Korean War (1950–1952).
Her sojourn
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in "mothballs", however, was comparatively brief, due to the North Korean invasion of South Korea in late June 1950. "Wisconsin" was recommissioned on 3 March 1951 with Captain Thomas Burrowes in command. After shakedown training, the revitalized battleship conducted two midshipmen training cruises, taking the officers-to-be to Edinburgh, Scotland; Lisbon, Portugal; Halifax, Nova Scotia; New York City; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before she returned to Norfolk. While leaving New York, "Wisconsin" was accidentally grounded on mud flats in New York Harbor, but was freed on 23 August 1951 with no damage to the ship.
"Wisconsin" departed Norfolk on 25 October, bound for the Pacific. She transited
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the Panama Canal on 29 October and reached Yokosuka, Japan, on 21 November. There, she relieved as flagship for Vice Admiral H. M. Martin, Commander, 7th Fleet.
On 26 November, with Vice Admiral Martin and Rear Admiral F.P. Denebrink, Commander, Service Force, Pacific, embarked, "Wisconsin" departed Yokosuka for Korean waters to support the fast carrier operations of TF 77. She left the company of the carrier force on 2 December and, screened by the destroyer , provided gunfire support for the Republic of Korea (ROK) Corps in the Kasong-Kosong area. After disembarking Admiral Denebrink on 3 December at Kangnung, the battleship resumed station on the Korean "bombline", providing gunfire support
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for the American 1st Marine Division. "Wisconsin"s shelling accounted for a tank, two gun emplacements, and a building. She continued her gunfire support task for the 1st Marine Division and 1st ROK Corps through 6 December, accounting for enemy bunkers, artillery positions, and troop concentrations. On one occasion during that time, the battleship received a request for call-fire support and provided three star-shells for the 1st ROK Corps, illuminating an enemy attack that was consequently repulsed with considerable enemy casualties.
After being relieved on the gunline by the heavy cruiser on 6 December, "Wisconsin" briefly retired from gunfire support duties. She resumed them, however, in
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the Kasong-Kosong area on 11 December screened by the destroyer . The following day, 12 December, saw the helicopter embarkation on "Wisconsin" of Rear Admiral H. R. Thurber, Commander, Battleship Division 2 (BatDiv 2), as part of his inspection trip in the Far East.
"Wisconsin" continued her naval gunfire support duties on the "bombline," shelling enemy bunkers, command posts, artillery positions, and trench systems through 14 December. She departed the "bombline" on that day to render special gunfire support duties in the Kojo area shelling coastal targets in support of United Nations (UN) troops ashore. That same day, "Wisconsin" returned to the Kasong-Kosong area. On 15 December, she disembarked
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Admiral Thurber by helicopter. The next day, "Wisconsin" departed Korean waters, heading for Sasebo to rearm.
Returning to the combat zone on 17 December, "Wisconsin" embarked United States Senator Homer Ferguson of Michigan on 18 December. That day, the battleship supported the 11th ROK invasion with night illumination fire that enabled the ROK troops to repulse a North Korean assault with heavy enemy casualties. Departing the "bombline" on 19 December, the battleship transferred Ferguson by helicopter to the carrier .
On 20 December, "Wisconsin" participated in a coordinated air-surface bombardment of Wonsan to neutralize pre-selected targets in its area. The ship shifted its bombardment
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station to the western end of Wonsan harbor, hitting boats and small craft in the inner swept channel with her 5-inch (127mm) guns during the afternoon and helping forestall attempts to assault the friendly-held islands nearby. "Wisconsin" then made an anti-boat sweep to the north, firing her 5-inch batteries on suspected boat concentrations. She then provided gunfire support to UN troops operating at the "bombline" until 22 December, when she rejoined the carrier task force.
On 28 December, Cardinal Francis Spellman, on a Korean tour over the Christmas holidays, helicoptered aboard the ship to celebrate Mass for the Catholic members of the crew. He left as he came, off Pohang. On New Year's
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Eve day "Wisconsin" put into Yokosuka.
"Wisconsin" departed that port on 8 January 1952 and returned to Korean waters. She reached Pusan the following day and entertained the President of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, and his wife, on 10 January. The couple received full military honors as they came on board, which Rhee reciprocated by awarding Vice Admiral Martin the ROK Order of the Military Merit.
"Wisconsin" returned to the "bombline" on 11 January, and over the ensuing days delivered heavy gunfire support for the 1st Marine Division and the 1st ROK Corps. As before, her primary targets were command posts, shelters, bunkers, troop concentrations and mortar positions. As before, she stood
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ready to deliver call-fire support as needed, shelling enemy troops in the open on 14 January at the request of the ROK 1st Corps.
Rearming once more at Sasebo, she shortly joined TF 77 off the coast of Korea and resumed support at the "bombline" on 23 January. Three days later, she shifted again to the Kojo region, to participate in a coordinated air and gun strike. That same day, the battleship returned to the "bombline" and shelled the command post and communications center for the 15th North Korean Division during call-fire missions for the 1st Marine Division.
Returning to Wonsan at the end of January, "Wisconsin" bombarded enemy guns at Hodo Pando before she was rearmed at Sasebo. The
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battleship rejoined TF 77 on 2 February, and the next day blasted railway buildings and marshaling yards at Hodo Pando and Kojo before rejoining TF 77. After replenishment at Yokosuka a few days later, she returned to the Kosong area and resumed gunfire support. During that time, she destroyed railway bridges and a small shipyard while conducting call-fire missions on enemy command posts, bunkers, and personnel shelters, making numerous cuts on enemy trench lines in the process.
On 26 February, "Wisconsin" arrived at Pusan where Vice Admiral Shon, the ROK Chief of Naval Operations; United States Ambassador J.J. Muccio; and Rear Admiral Scott-Montcrief, Royal Navy, Commander, Task Group 95.12
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(TG 95.12), visited the battleship. Departing that South Korean port the following day, "Wisconsin" reached Yokosuka on 2 March, and a week later she shifted to Sasebo to prepare to return to Korean waters.
"Wisconsin" arrived off Songjin, Korea on 15 March and concentrated her gunfire on enemy railway transport. Early that morning, she destroyed a communist troop train trapped outside a destroyed tunnel. That afternoon, she received the first direct hit in her history, when one of four shells from a North Korean 152mm gun battery struck the shield of a starboard 40 mm mount; although little material damage resulted, three men were injured. "Wisconsin" subsequently destroyed that battery with
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a full 16-inch (406 mm) salvo before continuing her mission. After lending a hand to support once more the 1st Marine Division with her heavy rifles, the battleship returned to Japan on 19 March.
Relieved as flagship of the 7th Fleet on 1 April by sister ship , "Wisconsin" departed Yokosuka, bound for the United States. "En route" home, she touched briefly at Guam, where she took part in the successful test of the Navy's largest floating dry-dock on 4–5 April, the first ever to accommodate an . She continued her homeward-bound voyage via Pearl Harbor and arrived at Long Beach, California on 19 April before continuing on for Norfolk.
# Post Korean War (1952–1981).
On 9 June, "Wisconsin" resumed
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her role as a training ship, taking midshipmen to Greenock, Scotland; Brest, France; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before returning to Norfolk. She departed Hampton Roads on 25 August and participated in the NATO exercise Operation Mainbrace, which was held out of Greenock, Scotland. After her return to Norfolk, "Wisconsin" underwent an overhaul in the naval shipyard there. "Wisconsin" remained in the Atlantic fleet throughout 1952 and into 1953, training midshipmen and conducting exercises. After a month of routine maintenance "Wisconsin" departed Norfolk on 9 September 1953, bound for the Far East.
Sailing via the Panama Canal to Japan, "Wisconsin" relieved as 7th Fleet flagship on 12 October.
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During the months that followed, "Wisconsin" visited the Japanese ports of Kobe, Sasebo Navy Yard, Yokosuka, Otaru, and Nagasaki. She spent Christmas at Hong Kong and was ultimately relieved of flagship duties on 1 April 1954 and returned to the United States soon thereafter, reaching Norfolk, via Long Beach and the Panama Canal, on 4 May.
Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 11 June, "Wisconsin" underwent a brief overhaul and commenced a midshipman training cruise on 12 July. After revisiting Greenock, Brest, and Guantánamo Bay, the ship returned to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for repairs. Shortly thereafter, "Wisconsin" participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises as flagship for Commander,
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Second Fleet. Departing Norfolk in January 1955, "Wisconsin" took part in Operation Springboard, during which time she visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Then, upon returning to Norfolk, the battleship conducted another midshipman's cruise that summer, visiting Edinburgh; Copenhagen, Denmark; and Guantánamo Bay before returning to the United States.
Upon completion of a major overhaul at the New York Naval Shipyard, "Wisconsin" headed south for refresher training in the Caribbean Sea, later taking part in another Springboard exercise. During that cruise, she again visited Port-au-Prince and added Tampico, Mexico, and Cartagena, Colombia, to her list of ports of call. She returned to Norfolk on
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the last day of March 1955 for local operations. On 19 October, while operating in the East River in New York Harbor, "Wisconsin" was accidentally grounded. However, the ship was freed in about an hour without any serious damage.
Throughout April 1956 and into May, "Wisconsin" operated locally off the Virginia Capes. On 6 May, the battleship collided with the destroyer in a heavy fog; "Wisconsin" put into Norfolk with extensive damage to her bow, and one week later entered dry dock at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. A novel experiment sped her repairs and enabled the ship to carry out her scheduled midshipman training cruise that summer. A 120-ton, 68 foot (21 m) section of the bow of "Wisconsin"'s
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incomplete sister ship was transported by barge, in one section, from Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Corporation of Newport News, Virginia, across Hampton Roads to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. Working around the clock, "Wisconsin"s ship's force and shipyard personnel completed the operation which grafted on the new bow in 16 days. On 28 June 1956, the ship was ready for sea.
"Wisconsin" resumed her midshipman training on 9 July 1956. That autumn, "Wisconsin" participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises off the coast of the Carolinas, returning to port on 8 November 1956. Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard a week later, the battleship underwent major repairs that were not finished until 2
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January 1957.
After local operations off the Virginia capes on 3–4 January 1957 and from 9–11 January, "Wisconsin" departed Norfolk on 16 January, reporting to Commander, Fleet Training Group, at Naval Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. "Wisconsin" served as Admiral Henry Crommelin's flagship during the ensuing shore bombardment practices and other exercises held off the isle of Culebra, Puerto Rico, from 2–4 February. Sailing for Norfolk upon completion of the training period, the battleship arrived on 7 February and resumed local operations off Norfolk. On 27 March, "Wisconsin" sailed for the Mediterranean Sea, reaching Gibraltar on 6 April, she pushed on that day to rendezvous with TF 60 in the
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Aegean Sea before reporting to Turkey for the NATO Exercise Red Pivot.
Departing Xeros Bay on 14 April, she arrived at Naples four days later, "Wisconsin" conducted exercises in the eastern Mediterranean. In the course of those operational training evolutions, she rescued a pilot and crewman who survived the crash of a plane from the aircraft carrier . "Wisconsin" reached Valencia, Spain, on 10 May and, three days later, entertained prominent civilian and military officials of the city.
Departing Valencia on 17 April, "Wisconsin" reached Norfolk on 27 May. En route, she was called upon to sink a Boeing KC-97F-55-BO Stratofreighter, "51-0258", which had ditched in the Atlantic on 9 May, 550 km
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(343.8 mls) SE of the Azores Islands following a double engine failure, and subsequently floated for ten days.
On 27 May, Rear Admiral L.S. Parks relieved Rear Admiral Crommelin as Commander, BatDiv 2. Departing Norfolk on 19 June, the battleship, over the ensuing weeks, conducted a midshipman training cruise through the Panama Canal to South American waters, and reached Valparaiso on 3 July. Eight days later, the battleship headed back to the Panama Canal and the Atlantic.
After exercises at Guantánamo Bay and off Culebra, "Wisconsin" reached Norfolk on 5 August and conducted local operations that lasted into September. She then participated in NATO exercises which took her across the North
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Atlantic to the British Isles.
"Wisconsin"s days as an active fleet unit were numbered, and she prepared to make her last cruise. On 4 November, she departed Norfolk with a large group of prominent guests on board. Reaching New York City on 6 November, the battleship disembarked her guests and, on 8 November, headed for Bayonne, New Jersey, to commence a pre-inactivation overhaul. She was placed out of commission at Bayonne on 8 March 1958, and joined the United States Navy reserve fleet (better known as the "Mothball Fleet") there, leaving the United States Navy without an active battleship for the first time since 1895. Subsequently, taken to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, "Wisconsin" remained
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there with her sister ship "Iowa" into the 1980s. While berthed in the Philadelphia Naval Yard, an electrical fire damaged the ship and left her as the "Iowa"-class battleship in the worst material condition prior to her 1980s reactivation.
# Reactivation (1986–1990).
As part of President Ronald Reagan's Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to create a "600-ship Navy," "Wisconsin" was reactivated 1 August 1986, a Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) crew established, and the ship moved under tow to the Avondale Shipyard in New Orleans, Louisiana, to commence pre-recommissioning workups. The battleship was then towed from the Avondale Shipyard and arrived at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi
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on 2 January 1987 to receive weapons system upgrades for her modernization. During the modernization, "Wisconsin" had all of her remaining 20 mm Oerlikon and 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns removed, due to their ineffectiveness against modern jet fighters and enemy anti-ship missiles; additionally, the two gun mounts located at mid-ship and in the aft on the port and starboard side of the battleship were removed.
Over the next several months, the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available. Among the new weapon systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles, eight Armored Box Launcher (ABL) mounts for 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles,
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and a quartet of the United States Navy's Phalanx Close in Weapon System (CIWS) 20mm Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti-ship missiles and enemy aircraft. "Wisconsin" also received eight RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, which are remotely controlled drones that replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine guns. Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles, and improved electronic warfare capabilities. Armed as such, "Wisconsin" was formally recommissioned on 22 October 1988 in Pascagoula, Mississippi under the command of Captain Jerry M. Blesch, USN. Assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet, she
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was subsequently homeported at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, where she became the centerpiece of her own surface action group (SAG), also referred to as a battleship battle group (BBBG).
During the renovation, pieces of the teak deck were removed and made into commemorative pieces, but they were not marked with an edition number indicating how many were actually created. A brass plaque with the ships name appears on the left and an inscription reading:
"Wisconsin" spent the first part of 1989 conducting training exercises in the Atlantic Ocean and off the coast of Puerto Rico before returning to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for a post recommissioning shakedown that lasted the rest of
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the year. In mid-1990 the battleship participated in a fleet exercise.
# Gulf War (January/February 1991).
On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In the middle of the month, President George H. W. Bush, in keeping with the Carter Doctrine, sent the first of several hundred thousand troops, along with a strong force of naval support to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf area to support a multi-national force in a standoff with Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. On 7 August, "Wisconsin" and her battle group were ordered to deploy in defense of Kuwait for Operation Desert Shield, and they arrived in the Persian Gulf on 23 August. On 15 January 1991, Operation Desert Storm commenced operations, and
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"Wisconsin" found herself serving alongside her sister "Missouri", just as she had done in Korea forty years previously. Both "Wisconsin" and "Missouri" launched Tomahawk Missile attacks against Iraq; they were among the first ships to fire cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War. "Wisconsin" served as the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and firing a total of 24 of her own TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. "Wisconsin" also assumed the responsibility of the local anti-surface warfare coordinator for the Northern Persian Gulf Surface Action Group.
"Wisconsin",
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escorted by , relieved "Missouri" on 6 February, then answered her first combat call for gunfire support since March 1952. The most recently recommissioned battleship sent 11 shells across of space to destroy an Iraqi artillery battery in southern Kuwait during a mission called in by USMC OV-10 Bronco aircraft. Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) as a spotter in combat for the first time, "Wisconsin" pounded an Iraqi communications compound on 7 February. Her main guns lobbed 24 shells on Iraqi artillery sites, missile facilities, and electronic warfare sites along the coast. That evening she targeted naval sites with her guns, firing 50 rounds which severely damaged or sunk 15 Iraqi boats,
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and destroyed several piers at the Khawr al-Mufattah marina. In response to calls for fire support from US and coalition forces, "Wisconsin"s turrets boomed again on 9 February, blasting bunkers and artillery sites, and shelling Iraqi troop positions near Khafji after the Iraqis were ousted from the city by Saudi and Qatari armor. On 21 February, one of "Wisconsin"s UAVs observed several trucks resupplying an Iraqi command post; in response, "Wisconsin" trained her guns on the complex, leveling or heavily damaging 10 of the buildings. "Wisconsin" and "Missouri" alternated positions on the gun line, using their guns to destroy enemy targets and soften defenses along the Kuwait coastline for a
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possible amphibious assault.
On the night of 23 February, "Missouri" and "Wisconsin" turned their big guns on Kuwait's Faylaka Island to support the US-led coalition ground offensive to free Kuwait from the Iraqi occupation forces. The two ships were to conduct a diversionary assault aimed at convincing the Iraqi forces arrayed along the shores of Faylaka Island that Coalition forces were preparing to launch an amphibious invasion. As part of this attack, "Missouri" and "Wisconsin" were directed to shell known Iraqi defensive positions on the island. Shortly after "Missouri" completed her shelling of Faylaka Island, "Wisconsin", while still over the horizon (and thus out of visual range of
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the Iraqi forces) launched her RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle to spot for her guns. As "Wisconsin"s drone approached Faylaka Island, the pilot of the drone was instructed to fly the vehicle low over Iraqi positions so that the soldiers would know that they were once again being targeted by a battleship. Iraqi troops on the ground heard the Pioneer's distinctive buzzing sound, and having witnessed the effects of "Missouri"s artillery strike on their trench line, the Iraqi troops decided to signal their willingness to surrender by waving makeshift white flags, an action dutifully noted aboard "Wisconsin". Amused at this sudden development, the men assigned to the drone's aircrew called "Wisconsin"s
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commanding officer, Captain David S. Bill III, and asked, "Sir, they want to surrender, what should I do with them?" This surrender to "Wisconsin"s Pioneer has since become one of the most remembered moments of the Gulf War; the incident was also the first-ever surrender of enemy troops to an unmanned aircraft controlled by a ship. "Wisconsin" drone also carried out a number of reconnaissance missions on occupied Kuwait before the coalition's ground offensive.
The next day, "Wisconsin" answered two separate call fire support missions for coalition forces by suppressing Iraqi troops barricaded in a pair of bunkers. After witnessing the effects of "Wisconsin"s strike against the Iraqi positions
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an elated Saudi marine commander commented over the radio, "I wish we had a battleship in our navy."
Both "Wisconsin" and "Missouri" passed the million-pound mark of ordnance delivered on Iraqi targets by the time president George H. W. Bush ended hostilities on 28 February. With one last salvo from her big guns, "Wisconsin" fired the last naval gunfire support mission of the war, and thus was the final battleship in world history to see action. "Wisconsin" remained in the Persian Gulf after the cease-fire took effect, and returned home on 28 March 1991. During the eight months "Wisconsin" spent in the Persian Gulf, she had flown 348 UAV hours, recorded 661 safe helicopter landings, steamed
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, fired 319 rounds, 881 rounds, 5,200 20 mm Phalanx CIWS rounds., and launched 24 Tomahawk cruise missiles. Since all four remaining battleships were decommissioned and stricken following the Gulf War, this was the last time that United States battleships actively participated in a war.
# Museum ship (1992–present).
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the absence of a perceived threat to the United States came drastic cuts in the defense budget. The high cost of maintaining and operating battleships as part of the United States Navy's active fleet became uneconomical; as a result, "Wisconsin" was decommissioned on 30 September 1991 after 14 total years of active service,
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and joined the Reserve Fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) on 12 January 1995, then on 15 October 1996, she was moved to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and on 12 February 1998, she was restored to the Naval Vessel Register. On 7 December 2000, the battleship was towed from Portsmouth, Virginia and berthed adjacent to Nauticus, The National Maritime Center in Norfolk. On 16 April 2001 the battleship's weather decks were opened to the public by the Hampton Roads Naval Museum, a U.S. Navy museum charged with "Wisconsin"s interpretation and public visitation. The ship was still owned by the Navy and was considered part of the mothball fleet.
"Wisconsin"
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was named (along with ) as one of two US Navy battleships to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 as shore bombardment vessels. However, "Wisconsin" was then over 60 years old and would have required extensive modernization to return to the fleet since most of her technology dated back to World War II, and the missile and electronic warfare equipment added to the battleship during her 1988–89 modernization were considered obsolete. Furthermore, during the 1991 Gulf War, she was said to be hindered by Iraqi naval mines, and reports on the Internet suggest that the majority of the shore bombardments were successfully
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carried out by US s and their guns. In addition, the cost of modernizing the battleships was estimated to be around $500 million for reactivation and $1.5 billion for a full modernization program.
On 17 March 2006, the Secretary of the Navy exercised his authority to strike "Iowa" and "Wisconsin" from the NVR, which cleared the way for both ships to be donated for use as museums; however, the United States Congress remained "deeply concerned" over the loss of naval surface gunfire support that the battleships provided, and noted that "...navy efforts to improve upon, much less replace, this capability have been highly problematic." Partially as a consequence, Congress passed , the National
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Defense Authorization Act 2006, requiring that the battleships be kept and maintained in a state of readiness should they ever be needed again. Congress had ordered that the following measures be implemented to ensure that "Wisconsin" could be returned to active duty if needed:
- 1. She must not be altered in any way that would impair her military utility;
- 2. The battleship must be preserved in her present condition through the continued use of cathodic protection, dehumidification systems, and any other preservation methods as needed;
- 3. Spare parts and unique equipment such as the gun barrels and projectiles be preserved in adequate numbers to support "Wisconsin", if reactivated;
-
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4. The Navy must prepare plans for the rapid reactivation of "Wisconsin" should she be returned to the Navy in the event of a national emergency.
These four conditions closely mirror the original three conditions that the Nation Defense Authorization Act of 1996 laid out for the maintenance of "Wisconsin" while she was in the Mothball Fleet. It was unlikely that these conditions would impede a plan to turn "Wisconsin" into a permanent museum ship at her berth in Norfolk.
On 14 December 2009 the US Navy officially transferred "Wisconsin" to the city of Norfolk, ending the requirement for the ship to be preserved for possible recall to active duty. The US Navy had paid the city of Norfolk $2.8 million
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between 2000 and 2009 to maintain the ship. A formal ceremony transferring the ship to the city of Norfolk took place on 16 April 2010. "Wisconsin" was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 28 March 2012.
# Awards.
"Wisconsin" earned five battle stars for her World War II service, and one for the Korean War. The ship also received the Combat Action Ribbon and Navy Unit Commendation for actions in the Korean War and Operation Desert Storm in 1991. She also received over a dozen more awards for World War II, the Korean War and Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm.
# See also.
- List of broadsides of major World War II ships
- List of museum ships
- U.S. Navy museums (and
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other battleship museums)
# References.
## Further reading.
- Paul Chan, Ian and McAuley, Rob. "The Battleships". Channel 4 Books, London
- Naval Historical Foundation. "The Navy". Hugh Lauter Levin Associates.
- The Floating Drydock. "United States Naval Vessels", ONI 222-US, Kresgeville, PA 18333.
- Polmar, Norman. "The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet." 2001 Naval Institute Press. .
# External links.
- Nauticus, Norfolk, VA
- NAVSOURCE Photo Gallery: Numerous photographs of USS "Wisconsin"
- Hampton Roads Naval Museum
- Operation Desert Storm Timeline
- Maritimequest USS Wisconsin BB-64 Photo Gallery
- USS Wisconsin Photo Gallery and Facts
-
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val Institute Press. .
# External links.
- Nauticus, Norfolk, VA
- NAVSOURCE Photo Gallery: Numerous photographs of USS "Wisconsin"
- Hampton Roads Naval Museum
- Operation Desert Storm Timeline
- Maritimequest USS Wisconsin BB-64 Photo Gallery
- USS Wisconsin Photo Gallery and Facts
- USS Wisconsin Association
- 1995 US General Accounting Office report on the US Navy’s Naval Surface Fire Support program
- 2005 US Government Accountability Office Report: Issues Related to Navy Battleships
- Satellite image of the USS Wisconsin
- 1956 Booklet of General Plans for the U.S.S. "Wisconsin" (BB-64), Iowa Class, hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections
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Suffering
Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. The opposite of suffering is pleasure or happiness.
Suffering is often categorized as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved.
Suffering
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occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, often dramatically. As a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. These aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors, its remedies, management, and uses.
# Terminology.
The word "suffering" is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain, but more often it refers to mental pain, or more often yet it refers to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling, emotion or sensation. The word "pain" usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym
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of "suffering". The words "pain" and "suffering" are often used both together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. Or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in "pain is physical, suffering is mental", or "pain is inevitable, suffering is optional". Or they may be used to define each other, as in "pain is physical suffering", or "suffering is severe physical or mental pain".
Qualifiers, such as "physical", "mental", "emotional", and "psychological", are often used to refer to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, "mental pain (or suffering)" may be used in relationship with "physical pain (or suffering)" for distinguishing
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between two wide categories of pain or suffering. A first caveat concerning such a distinction is that it uses "physical pain" in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger, hunger, vestibular suffering, nausea, sleep deprivation, and itching. A second caveat is that the terms "physical" or "mental" should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as a matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects.
The word
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"unpleasantness", which some people use as a synonym of "suffering" or "pain" in the broad sense, may be used to refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with the sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: "Pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation." Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to "suffering" include "distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness".
# Philosophy.
Hedonism, as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain.
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Many hedonists, in accordance with Epicurus and contrarily to popular perception of his doctrine, advocate that we should first seek to avoid suffering and that the greatest pleasure lies in a robust state of profound tranquility (ataraxia) that is free from the worrisome pursuit or the unwelcome consequences of ephemeral pleasures.
For Stoicism, the greatest good lies in reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference (apatheia) to pleasure and pain: as a consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering.
Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. Bentham
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argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. John Stuart Mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Karl Popper, in "The Open Society and Its Enemies", proposed a negative utilitarianism, which prioritizes the reduction of suffering over the enhancement of happiness when speaking of utility: "I believe that there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure. (...) human suffering makes a direct moral appeal
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for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway." David Pearce, for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology (see more details below in section Biology, neurology, psychology). Another aspect worthy of mention here is that many utilitarians since Bentham hold that the moral status of a being comes from its ability to feel pleasure and pain: therefore, moral agents should consider not only the interests of human beings but also those of (other) animals. Richard Ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of 'speciesism' and 'painism'. Peter Singer's
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writings, especially the book "Animal Liberation", represent the leading edge of this kind of utilitarianism for animals as well as for people.
Another doctrine related to the relief of suffering is humanitarianism (see also humanitarian principles, humanitarian aid, and humane society). "Where humanitarian efforts seek a positive addition to the happiness of sentient beings, it is to make the unhappy happy rather than the happy happier. (...) [Humanitarianism] is an ingredient in many social attitudes; in the modern world it has so penetrated into diverse movements (...) that it can hardly be said to exist in itself."
Pessimists hold this world to be mainly bad, or even the worst possible,
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plagued with, among other things, unbearable and unstoppable suffering. Some identify suffering as the nature of the world, and conclude that it would be better if life did not exist at all. Arthur Schopenhauer recommends us to take refuge in things like art, philosophy, loss of the will to live, and tolerance toward 'fellow-sufferers'.
Friedrich Nietzsche, first influenced by Schopenhauer, developed afterward quite another attitude, arguing that the suffering of life is productive, exalting the will to power, despising weak compassion or pity, and recommending us to embrace willfully the 'eternal return' of the greatest sufferings.
Philosophy of pain is a philosophical specialty that focuses
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on physical pain and is, through that, relevant to suffering in general.
# Religion.
Suffering plays an important role in a number of religions, regarding matters such as the following: consolation or relief; moral conduct (do no harm, help the afflicted, show compassion); spiritual advancement through life hardships or through self-imposed trials (mortification of the flesh, penance, ascetism); ultimate destiny (salvation, damnation, hell). Theodicy deals with the problem of evil, which is the difficulty of reconciling the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent god with the existence of evil: a quintessential form of evil, for many people, is extreme suffering, especially in innocent children,
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or in creatures destined to an eternity of torments (see problem of hell).
The 'Four Noble Truths' of Buddhism are about dukkha, a term often translated as suffering. They state the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhism considers liberation from "dukkha" and the practice of compassion (karuna) as basic for leading a holy life and attaining nirvana.
Hinduism holds that suffering follows naturally from personal negative behaviors in one's current life or in a past life (see karma in Hinduism). One must accept suffering as a just consequence and as an opportunity for spiritual progress. Thus the soul or true self,
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which is eternally free of any suffering, may come to manifest itself in the person, who then achieves liberation (moksha). Abstinence from causing pain or harm to other beings, called ahimsa, is a central tenet of Hinduism, and even more so of another Indian religion, Jainism (see ahimsa in Jainism).
In Judaism, suffering is often seen as a punishment for sins and a test of a person's faith, like the Book of Job illustrates.
For Christianity, redemptive suffering is the belief that human suffering, when accepted and offered up in union with the Passion of Jesus, can remit the just punishment for sins and allow to grow in the love of God, others and oneself.
In Islam, the faithful must endure
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suffering with hope and faith, not resist or ask why, accept it as Allah's will and submit to it as a test of faith. Allah never asks more than can be endured. One must also work to alleviate the suffering of others, as well as one's own. Suffering is also seen as a blessing. Through that gift, the sufferer remembers God and connects with him. Suffering expunges the sins of human beings and cleanses their soul for the immense reward of the afterlife, and the avoidance of hell.
According to the Bahá'í Faith, all suffering is a brief and temporary manifestation of physical life, whose source is the material aspects of physical existence, and often attachment to them, whereas only joy exists in
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the spiritual worlds.
# Arts and literature.
[[Image:Bruegel, Pieter de Oude - De val van icarus - hi res.jpg|thumb|340px|right|"[[Landscape with the Fall of Icarus]]"by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]]]]
Artistic and literary works often engage with suffering, sometimes at great cost to their creators or performers. The Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database offers a list of such works under the categories art, film, literature, and theater. Be it in the tragic, comic or other genres, art and literature offer means to alleviate (and perhaps also exacerbate) suffering, as argued for instance in Harold Schweizer's "Suffering and the remedy of art".
This Brueghel painting is among those that
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inspired W. H. Auden's poem [[Musée des Beaux Arts (poem)|Musée des Beaux Arts]]:
"About suffering they were never wrong," br
"The Old Masters; how well, they understood" br
"Its human position; how it takes place" br
"While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along;"br
"(...)"br
"In Breughel's Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away" br
"Quite leisurely from the disaster; (...)"
# Social sciences.
"Social suffering", according to [[Arthur Kleinman]] and others, describes "collective and individual human suffering associated with life conditions shaped by powerful social forces". Such suffering is an increasing concern in medical anthropology, ethnography,
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mass media analysis, and Holocaust studies, says Iain Wilkinson, who is developing a sociology of suffering.
The "[[Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential]]" is a work by the [[Union of International Associations]]. Its main databases are about world problems (56,564 profiles), global strategies and solutions (32,547 profiles), human values (3,257 profiles), and human development (4,817 profiles). It states that "the most fundamental entry common to the core parts is that of pain (or suffering)" and "common to the core parts is the learning dimension of new understanding or insight in response to suffering".
[[Ralph G.H. Siu]], an American author, urged in 1988 the "creation of
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a new and vigorous academic discipline, called panetics, to be devoted to the study of the infliction of suffering", The International Society for Panetics was founded in 1991 to study and develop ways to reduce the infliction of human suffering by individuals acting through professions, corporations, governments, and other social groups.
In economics, the following notions relate not only to the matters suggested by their positive appellations, but to the matter of suffering as well: [[Quality of life|Well-being or Quality of life]], [[Welfare economics]], [[Happiness economics]], [[Gross National Happiness]], [[Genuine Progress Indicator]].
In law, "[[Pain and suffering]]" is a legal term
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that refers to the mental distress or physical pain endured by a plaintiff as a result of injury for which the plaintiff seeks redress. Assessments of pain and suffering are required to be made for attributing legal awards. In the Western world these are typical made by juries in a discretionary fashion and are regarded as subjective, variable, and difficult to predict, for instance in the US, UK, Australia, and New Zealand. See also, in US law, [[Negligent infliction of emotional distress]] and [[Intentional infliction of emotional distress]].
In management and organization studies, drawing on the work of Eric Cassell, suffering has been defined as the distress a person experiences when they
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perceive a threat to any aspect of their continued existence, whether physical, psychological, or social. Other researchers have noted that suffering results from an inability to control actions that usually define one's view of one's self and that the characteristics of suffering include the loss of autonomy, or the loss of valued relationships or sense of self. Suffering is therefore determined not by the threat itself but, rather, by its meaning to the individual and the threat to their personhood.
# Biology, neurology, psychology.
Suffering and [[pleasure]] are respectively the negative and positive affects, or hedonic tones, or [[valence (psychology)|valences]] that psychologists often
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identify as basic in our emotional lives. The evolutionary role of physical and mental suffering, through natural selection, is primordial: it [[warning system|warns]] of threats, motivates [[coping (psychology)|coping]] ([[fight-or-flight response|fight or flight]], [[escapism]]), and [[reinforce]]s negatively certain behaviors (see [[punishment (psychology)|punishment]], [[aversives]]). Despite its initial disrupting nature, suffering contributes to the organization of meaning in an individual's world and psyche. In turn, meaning determines how individuals or societies experience and deal with suffering.
[[Image:MRI Head 5 slices.jpg|thumb|Neuroimaging sheds light on the seat of suffering]]
Many
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brain structures and physiological processes are involved in suffering. Various hypotheses try to account for the experience of suffering. One of these, the "pain overlap theory" takes note, thanks to neuroimaging studies, that the [[cingulate cortex]] fires up when the brain feels suffering from experimentally induced social distress or physical pain as well. The theory proposes therefore that physical pain and social pain (i.e. two radically differing kinds of suffering) share a common phenomenological and neurological basis.
According to [[David Pearce (philosopher)|David Pearce]]’s online manifesto [[The Hedonistic Imperative]], suffering is the avoidable result of Darwinian genetic design.
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Pearce promotes replacing the pain/pleasure axis with a robot-like response to noxious stimuli or with gradients of bliss, through [[genetic engineering]] and other technical scientific advances.
Hedonistic psychology, [[affective science]], and [[affective neuroscience]] are some of the emerging scientific fields that could in the coming years focus their attention on the phenomenon of suffering.
# Health care.
Disease and injury may contribute to suffering in humans and animals. For example, suffering may be a feature of mental or physical illness such as [[borderline personality disorder]] and occasionally in [[Cancer|advanced cancer]]. [[Health care]] addresses this suffering in many
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ways, in subfields such as [[medicine]], [[clinical psychology]], [[psychotherapy]], [[alternative medicine]], [[hygiene]], [[public health]], and through various [[health care provider]]s.
Health care approaches to suffering, however, remain problematic. Physician and author Eric Cassell, widely cited on the subject of attending to the suffering person as a primary goal of medicine, has defined suffering as "the state of severe distress associated with events that threaten the intactness of the person". Cassell writes: "The obligation of physicians to relieve human suffering stretches back to antiquity. Despite this fact, little attention is explicitly given to the problem of suffering in
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medical education, research or practice." Mirroring the traditional body and mind dichotomy that underlies its teaching and practice, medicine strongly distinguishes [[pain]] from suffering, and most attention goes to the treatment of pain. Nevertheless, physical pain itself still lacks adequate attention from the medical community, according to numerous reports. Besides, some medical fields like [[palliative care]], [[pain management|pain management (or pain medicine)]], [[oncology]], or [[psychiatry]], do somewhat address suffering 'as such'. In palliative care, for instance, pioneer [[Cicely Saunders]] created the concept of 'total pain' ('total suffering' say now the textbooks), which encompasses
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the whole set of physical and mental distress, discomfort, symptoms, problems, or needs that a patient may experience hurtfully.
# Relief and prevention in society.
Since suffering is such a universal motivating experience, people, when asked, can relate their activities to its relief and prevention. Farmers, for instance, may claim that they prevent famine, artists may say that they take our minds off our worries, and teachers may hold that they hand down tools for coping with life hazards. In certain aspects of collective life, however, suffering is more readily an explicit concern by itself. Such aspects may include [[public health]], [[human rights]], [[humanitarian aid]], [[disaster relief]],
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[[philanthropy]], [[economic aid]], [[social services]], [[insurance]], and [[animal welfare]]. To these can be added the aspects of [[security]] and [[safety]], which relate to precautionary measures taken by individuals or families, to interventions by the military, the police, the firefighters, and to notions or fields like [[social security]], [[environmental security]], and [[human security]].
# Uses.
Philosopher Leonard Katz wrote: "But Nature, as we now know, regards ultimately only fitness and not our happiness (...), and does not scruple to use hate, fear, punishment and even war alongside affection in ordering social groups and selecting among them, just as she uses pain as well
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as pleasure to get us to feed, water and protect our bodies and also in forging our social bonds."
People make use of suffering for specific social or personal purposes in many areas of human life, as can be seen in the following instances:
- In arts, literature, or entertainment, people may use suffering for creation, for performance, or for enjoyment. Entertainment particularly makes use of suffering in [[blood sport]]s and [[Violence#Violence in the media|violence in the media]], including [[Video game controversy|violent video games]] depiction of suffering. A more or less great amount of suffering is involved in [[body art]]. The most common forms of body art include [[tattooing]], [[body
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piercing]], [[scarification]], [[human branding]]. Another form of body art is a sub-category of [[performance art]], in which for instance the body is mutilated or pushed to its physical limits.
- In business and various organizations, suffering may be used for constraining humans or animals into required behaviors.
- In a criminal context, people may use suffering for coercion, revenge, or pleasure.
- In interpersonal relationships, especially in places like families, schools, or workplaces, suffering is used for various motives, particularly under the form of [[abuse]] and [[punishment]]. In another fashion related to interpersonal relationships, the sick, or victims, or [[malingering|malingerers]],
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may use suffering more or less voluntarily to get [[Primary gain|primary, secondary, or tertiary gain]].
- In law, suffering is used for [[punishment]] (see [[penal law]] ); victims may refer to what legal texts call "[[pain and suffering]]" to get compensation; lawyers may use a victim's suffering as an argument against the accused; an accused's or defendant's suffering may be an argument in their favor; authorities at times use light or heavy [[torture]] in order to get information or a confession.
- In the news media, suffering is often the raw material.
- In personal conduct, people may use suffering for themselves, in a positive way. Personal suffering may lead, if bitterness, depression,
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or spitefulness is avoided, to character-building, spiritual growth, or moral achievement; realizing the extent or gravity of suffering in the world may motivate one to relieve it and may give an inspiring direction to one's life. Alternatively, people may make self-detrimental use of suffering. Some may be caught in compulsive reenactment of painful feelings in order to protect them from seeing that those feelings have their origin in unmentionable past experiences; some may addictively indulge in disagreeable emotions like fear, anger, or jealousy, in order to enjoy pleasant feelings of arousal or release that often accompany these emotions; some may engage in acts of [[self-harm]] aimed at
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relieving otherwise unbearable states of mind.
- In politics, there is purposeful infliction of suffering in [[war]], [[torture]], and [[terrorism]]; people may use nonphysical suffering against competitors in nonviolent power struggles; people who argue for a policy may put forward the need to relieve, prevent or avenge suffering; individuals or groups may use past suffering as a political lever in their favor.
- In religion, suffering is used especially to grow spiritually, to expiate, to inspire compassion and help, to frighten, to punish.
- In [[rites of passage]] (see also [[hazing]], [[ragging]]), rituals that make use of suffering are frequent.
- In science, humans and animals are
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subjected on purpose to aversive experiences for the study of suffering or other phenomena.
- In sex, especially in a context of [[sadism and masochism]] or [[BDSM]], individuals may use a certain amount of physical or mental suffering (e.g. pain, humiliation).
- In sports, suffering may be used to outperform competitors or oneself; see [[sports injury]], and [[no pain, no gain]]; see also [[blood sport]] and [[violence in sport]] as instances of pain-based entertainment.
# Selected bibliography.
- [[Joseph A. Amato]]. "Victims and Values: A History and a Theory of Suffering." New York: Praeger, 1990.
- James Davies. "The Importance of Suffering: the value and meaning of emotional discontent".
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London: Routledge
- Cynthia Halpern. "Suffering, Politics, Power: a Genealogy in Modern Political Theory." Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.
- Jamie Mayerfeld. "Suffering and Moral Responsibility." New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Thomas Metzinger. "Suffering."In Kurt Almqvist & Anders Haag (2017)[eds.], The Return of Consciousness. Stockholm: Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation.
- David B. Morris. "The Culture of Pain." Berkeley: University of California, 2002.
- [[Elaine Scarry]]. "The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World." New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
- [[Ronald Anderson]]. "World Suffering and Quality of Life", Social Indicators
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In Kurt Almqvist & Anders Haag (2017)[eds.], The Return of Consciousness. Stockholm: Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation.
- David B. Morris. "The Culture of Pain." Berkeley: University of California, 2002.
- [[Elaine Scarry]]. "The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World." New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
- [[Ronald Anderson]]. "World Suffering and Quality of Life", Social Indicators Research Series, Volume 56, 2015. ; Also: "Human Suffering and Quality of Life", SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research, 2014.
# References.
[[Category:Suffering| ]]
[[Category:Feeling]]
[[Category:Pain]]
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[ml:വേദന]]
[[ckb:ئازار]]
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Technological convergence
Technological convergence is a tendency for technologies that were originally quite unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance. The concept is roughly analogous to convergent evolution in biological systems, such that (for example) the ancestors of whales became progressively more like fish in outward form and function, despite not being fish and not coming from a fish lineage. In technological convergence, a cardinal example to convey the concept is that telephones, television, and computers began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies but have converged in many ways into interrelated parts of a telecommunication
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and media industry underpinned by common elements of digital electronics and software.
# Definitions.
""Convergence is a deep integration of knowledge, tools, and all relevant activities of human activity for a common goal, to allow society to answer new questions to change the respective physical or social ecosystem. Such changes in the respective ecosystem open new trends, pathways, and opportunities in the following divergent phase of the process"" (Roco 2002, Bainbridge and Roco 2016 ).
Siddhartha Menon defines convergence, in his "Policy initiative Dilemmas on Media Covergence: A Cross National Perspective", as integration and digitalization. Integration, here, is defined as "a process
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of transformation measure by the degree to which diverse media such as phone, data broadcast and information technology infrastructures are combined into a single seamless all purpose network architecture platform". Digitalization is not so much defined by its physical infrastructure, but by the content or the medium. Jan van Dijk suggests that "digitalization means breaking down signals into bytes consisting of ones and zeros". Convergence is defined by Blackman, 1998, as a trend in the evolution of technology services and industry structures. Convergence is later defined more specifically as the coming together of telecommunications, computing and broadcasting into a single digital bit-stream.
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Mueller stands against the statement that convergence is really a takeover of all forms of media by one technology: digital computers.
Media technological convergence is the tendency that as technology changes, different technological system sometimes evolve toward performing similar tasks. Digital convergence refers to the convergence of four industries into one conglomerate, ITTCE (Information Technologies, Telecommunication, Consumer Electronics, and Entertainment). Previously separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video can now share resources and interact with each other synergistically. Telecommunications convergence (also
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called "network convergence") describes emerging telecommunications technologies, and network architecture used to migrate multiple communications services into a single network. Specifically this involves the converging of previously distinct media such as telephony and data communications into common interfaces on single devices, such as most smart phones can make phone calls and search the web.
Media convergence is the interlinking of computing and other information technologies, media content, media companies and communication networks that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in
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the digital media space. Closely linked to the multilevel process of media convergence are also several developments in different areas of the media and communication sector which are also summarized under the term of media deconvergence. Many experts view this as simply being the tip of the iceberg, as all facets of institutional activity and social life such as business, government, art, journalism, health, and education are increasingly being carried out in these digital media spaces across a growing network of information and communication technology devices. Also included in this topic is the basis of computer networks, wherein many different operating systems are able to communicate via
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different protocols.
Convergent services, such as VoIP, IPTV, Smart TV, and others, tend to replace the older technologies and thus can disrupt markets. IP-based convergence is inevitable and will result in new service and new demand in the market. When the old technology converges into the public-owned common, IP based services become access-independent or less dependent. The old service is access-dependent.
The term digital convergence means the ability to view the same multimedia content from different types devices. These are all thanks to the digitization of content (movies, pictures, music, voice, text) and the development of connections methods. Reading emails on your TV via a connected
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smartphone, watch a streaming movie on the home theater connected to the Internet. Digital convergence simplifies our life into our living room. Formerly, each unit operated independently and networks were not interconnected. Today, information flows on the same network and are stored, read, viewed or listened via same types of equipment. Networks, technologies and content converge on a single device. Result: it saves time and simplifies life. Some examples of digital convergence are; 1. Windows 10. 2. The Iphone, Android or other smart phone devices. 3. Google Glass 4. Iwatch 5. Drawing Tablets for Pc’s 6. Automatic washing machine.
# Elements of Technology Convergence.
There are 5 elements
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of Technological Convergence which are:
[1] Technology,It is a common for technologies that are viewed as very different to develop similar features with time that blur differences. In 1995, a television and a mobile phone were completely different devices. In recent years, they may have similar features such as the ability to connect to wifi, play rich internet-based media and run apps. People may use either their television or phone to play a game or communicate with relatives, using the same software. [2] Media & Content, a television and internet services were once viewed as separate but have begun to converge. It is likely that music, movies, video games and informational content will
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eventually converge to the point that they are no longer distinct formats. For example, future music may always come with an interactive music video that resembles a game.
[3] Services application, in the late 1990s, there was a large difference between business and consumer software and services. With time, this line has blurred. Technology tends to move from a large number of highly specific tools towards a small set of flexible tools with broad applications.
[4] Robots & Machines, it is increasingly common for machines such as vehicles or appliances to have semi-autonomous features that technically make them robots.
[5] Virtual Reality, can be viewed as the convergence of real life with
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digital entities such as games and information environments.
# History of media technological convergence.
Communication networks were designed to carry different types of information independently. The older media, such as television and radio, are broadcasting networks with passive audiences. Convergence of telecommunication technology permits the manipulation of all forms of information, voice, data, and video. Telecommunication has changed from a world of scarcity to one of seemingly limitless capacity. Consequently, the possibility of audience interactivity morphs the passive audience into an engaged audience. The historical roots of convergence can be traced back to the emergence of
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mobile telephony and the Internet, although the term properly applies only from the point in marketing history when fixed and mobile telephony began to be offered by operators as joined products. Fixed and mobile operators were, for most of the 1990s, independent companies. Even when the same organization marketed both products, these were sold and serviced independently.
In the 1990s an implicit and often explicit assumption was that new media was going to replace the old media and Internet was going to replace broadcasting. In Nicholas Negroponte's "Being Digital", Negroponte predicts the collapse of broadcast networks in favor of an era of narrow-casting. He also suggests that no government
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regulation can shatter the media conglomerate. "The monolithic empires of mass media are dissolving into an array of cottage industries... Media barons of today will be grasping to hold onto their centralized empires tomorrow... The combined forces of technology and human nature will ultimately take a stronger hand in plurality than any laws Congress can invent." The new media companies claimed that the old media would be absorbed fully and completely into the orbit of the emerging technologies.
George Gilder dismisses such claims saying, "The computer industry is converging with the television industry in the same sense that the automobile converged with the horse, the TV converged with the
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nickelodeon, the word-processing program converged with the typewriter, the CAD program converged with the drafting board, and digital desktop publishing converged with the Linotype machine and the letterpress." Gilder believes that computers had come not to transform mass culture but to destroy it.
Media companies put Media Convergence back to their agenda, after the dot-com bubble burst. Erstwhile Knight Ridder promulgated concept of portable magazines, newspaper, and books in 1994."Within news corporations it became increasingly obvious that an editorial model based on mere replication in the internet of contents that had previously been written for print newspapers, radio, or television
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was no longer sufficient." The rise of digital communication in the late 20th century has made it possible for media organizations (or individuals) to deliver text, audio, and video material over the same wired, wireless, or fiber-optic connections. At the same time, it inspired some media organizations to explore multimedia delivery of information. This digital convergence of news media, in particular, was called "Mediamorphosis" by researcher Roger Fidler , in his 1997 book by that name. Today, we are surrounded by a multi-level convergent media world where all modes of communication and information are continually reforming to adapt to the enduring demands of technologies, "changing the way
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we create, consume, learn and interact with each other".
# Converging technological fields.
NBIC, an acronym for Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information technology and Cognitive science, was, in 2014, the most popular term for converging technologies. It was introduced into public discourse through the publication of "Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance", a report sponsored in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation. Various other acronyms have been offered for the same concept such as GNR (Genetics, Nanotechnology and Robotics) (Bill Joy, 2000, Why the future doesn't need us). Journalist Joel Garreau in "Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our
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Minds, Our Bodies — and What It Means to Be Human" uses "GRIN", for Genetic, Robotic, Information, and Nano processes, while science journalist Douglas Mulhall in "Our Molecular Future: How Nanotechnology, Robotics, Genetics and Artificial Intelligence Will Transform Our World" uses "GRAIN", for Genetics, Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and Nanotechnology. Another acronym coined by the ETC Group is "BANG" for "Bits, Atoms, Neurons, Genes".
# Converging science and technology fields.
A comprehensive term used by Roco, Bainbridge, Tonn and Whitesides is Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society (2013). Bainbridge and Roco edited and co-authored the Springer reference Handbook of Science
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