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Control-flow graph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Control-flow%20graph
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Control-flow graph
CFG is one with edges that can be partitioned into two disjoint sets: forward edges, and back edges, such that:
- Forward edges form a directed acyclic graph with all nodes reachable from the entry node.
- For all back edges (A, B), node B dominates node A.
Structured programming languages are often designed such that all CFGs they produce are reducible, and common structured programming statements such as IF, FOR, WHILE, BREAK, and CONTINUE produce reducible graphs. To produce irreducible graphs, statements such as GOTO are needed. Irreducible graphs may also be produced by some compiler optimizations.
# Loop connectedness.
The loop connectedness of a CFG is defined with respect to a given
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Control-flow graph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Control-flow%20graph
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Control-flow graph
depth-first search tree (DFST) of the CFG. This DFST should be rooted at the start node and cover every node of the CFG.
Edges in the CFG which run from a node to one of its DFST ancestors (including itself) are called back edges.
The loop connectedness is the largest number of back edges found in any cycle-free path of the CFG. In a reducible CFG, the loop connectedness is independent of the DFST chosen.
Loop connectedness has been used to reason about the time complexity of data-flow analysis.
# See also.
- Abstract syntax tree
- Flowchart
- Control-flow diagram
- Control-flow analysis
- Data-flow analysis
- Interval (graph theory)
- Program dependence graph
- Cyclomatic complexity
-
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Control-flow graph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Control-flow%20graph
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Control-flow graph
ducible CFG, the loop connectedness is independent of the DFST chosen.
Loop connectedness has been used to reason about the time complexity of data-flow analysis.
# See also.
- Abstract syntax tree
- Flowchart
- Control-flow diagram
- Control-flow analysis
- Data-flow analysis
- Interval (graph theory)
- Program dependence graph
- Cyclomatic complexity
- Static single assignment
- Compiler construction
- Intermediate representation
# External links.
- The Machine-SUIF Control Flow Graph Library
- GNU Compiler Collection Internals
- Paper "Infrastructure for Profile Driven Optimizations in GCC Compiler" by Zdeněk Dvořák "et al."
- Examples
- Avrora – Control-Flow Graph Tool
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Jimmy Sturr
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
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Jimmy Sturr
Jimmy Sturr
James W. Sturr, Jr. is an American polka musician, trumpeter, clarinetist, saxophonist and leader of Jimmy Sturr & His Orchestra. His recordings have won 18 out of the 24 Grammy Awards given for Best Polka Album. Sturr's orchestra is on the Top Ten List of the All-Time Grammy Awards, and has acquired more Grammy nominations than anyone in the history of musical polka awards.
# Touring history.
Sturr and his orchestra have performed at Carnegie Hall, Lincoln Center in New York City and the Palace of Culture in Warsaw, Poland. When touring, the band rides in Jimmy's forty-five foot customized tour bus, previously owned by Billy Ray Cyrus.
# Radio show.
Sturr hosts a syndicated
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Jimmy Sturr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
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Jimmy Sturr
radio show on stations including WTBQ in his hometown of Florida, New York, the station he once owned. He also has a weekly radio show on SirusXM channel, Rural Radio.
# Discography.
- "All American Polka Festival"
- "The Best of Jimmy Sturr and His Orchestra"
- "Come on and Dance:Live" (2014)
- "Come Share the Wine" (2008 Grammy)
- "Double Magic"
- "First Class Polkas"
- "Forget Me Never"
- "Gone Polka" (2002 Grammy) with Willie Nelson and Brenda Lee
- "Grammy Gold"
- "Greatest Hits of Polka"
- "I Love to Polka" (1996 Grammy)
- "A Jimmy Sturr Christmas"
- "Let the Whole World Sing" (2009 Grammy)
- "Let's Polka 'Round" with Charlie Daniels, Bela Fleck and Boots Randolph (2004
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Jimmy Sturr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
|
Jimmy Sturr
Grammy)
- "Life's a Polka"
- "Live at Gilley's!" (1992 Grammy)
- "Living on Polka Time" (1998 Grammy) with Bill Anderson and Flaco Jiménez
- "Most Requested Hits"
- "Not Just Another Polka"
- "Polka! All Night Long" (1997 Grammy) with Willie Nelson
- "Polka Christmas"
- ""Polka Christmas" in My Home Town"
- "Polka Cola" with Bill Anderson
- "Polka Fever" (1978)
- "Polka in Paradise" with Bobby Vinton (2007 Grammy)
- "Polka is My Life"
- "Polka Party"
- "Polkapalooza"
- "Primetime Polkas"
- "Pure Country"
- "Pure Polka"
- "Rock N Polka"
- "Saturday Night Polka"
- "Shake, Rattle and Polka!" (2006 Grammy)
- "Sturr It Up"
- "Sturr Struck"
- "Top of the World" with Arlo Guthrie
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Jimmy Sturr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
|
Jimmy Sturr
and Rhonda Vincent (2003 Grammy)
- "Touched by a Polka" with Mel Tillis (2001 Grammy)
- "Tribute to the Legends of Polka Music"
- "When It's Polka Time at Your House" (1991 Grammy)
# Band members.
Main Band Members
- Jimmy Sturr - Leader, Vocals, Clarinet, Saxophone, Drums, and Trumpet
- Rick Henly - Trumpet
- Bill Ash - Trumpet
- Kenny Harbus - Trumpet & Vocals
- Jim Perry - Clarinet, Alto Saxophone, and Tenor Saxophone
- Nick DeVito - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone
- Johnny Karas - Tenor Saxophone & Vocals
- Ron Oswanski - Piano & Accordion
- Frank Urbanovitch - Violin & Vocals
- Rich Pavasaris - Bass Guitar
- Rich Berends - Drums
Other Band Members/Reoccurring Members
- Tom Conklin
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Jimmy Sturr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
|
Jimmy Sturr
- Bus Driver
- Jim Dixon - Bus Driver
- Gus Kosior - Manager & Bus Driver
- Barbara James - Assistant Manager
- Al Piatkowski - Accordion
- Nick Koryluk - Accordion
- Joe Mariany - Clarinet and Saxophone
- Ray Barno - Clarinet, Alto Saxophone, and Baritone Saxophone
- Chris Caffery - Guitar
Past Band Members
- Hank Golis - Trumpet
- Kevin Krauth - Trumpet & Vocals
- Al Noble - Trumpet
- Ben Poole - Trumpet
- Eric Parks - Trumpet
- Dana Sylvander - Trombone
- Dennis Coyman - Drums
- Bill Langan - Bass Guitar
- Mike Ralff - Bass Guitar
- Dave Kowalski - Guitar
- Eddie Burton - Guitar
- Lou Pallo - Guitar
- Kevin Chase - Guitar
- Walt Cunningham - Strings & Banjo
- Ed Goldberg
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Jimmy Sturr
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy%20Sturr
|
Jimmy Sturr
& Banjo
- Ed Goldberg - Piano & Bass
- Jeff Hoffman - Piano
- Jeff Miller - Piano
- Keith Slattery - Piano
- Lenny Filipowski - Piano
- Dennis Polisky - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone
- Greg Dolecki - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone
- Joe Magnuszewski - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone
- Peter Kargul - Violin
- Ryan Joseph - Violin
- Steve Wnuk - Violin
- Gene Bartkiewicz - Accordion
- Wally Czerniawski - Accordion
- Steve Swiader - Accordion
- Gennarose - Vocals
- Lance Wing - Vocals
- Lindsey Webster - Vocals
- John Doolan - Equipment Manager
- Bryan Doolan - Roadie
- Thomas 'Tom' Karas - Accordion/keyboard (1983-1989)
# External links.
- Official website
- Interview with Jimmy Sturr
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
|
Daniel Chodowiecki
Daniel Chodowiecki
Daniel Niklaus Chodowiecki (16 October 1726 – 7 February 1801) was a Polish—and later German—painter and printmaker with Huguenot ancestry, who is most famous as an etcher. He spent most of his life in Berlin, and became the director of the Berlin Academy of Art.
# Family.
He was born in the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) in Poland, and in a letter “in typical Berlin humor” wrote, “that he moved to Berlin, Germany, which shows for sure, that he is a 'genuine Pole'.” He kept close to the Huguenot scene, due to his ancestry.
His grandfather Bartholomāus Chodowiecki had lived in the 16th century in Greater Poland. Gottfried Chodowiecki, Daniel's father, was a tradesman in Danzig
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
|
Daniel Chodowiecki
and his mother, Henriette Ayrer born in Switzerland, was a Huguenot. Daniel's grandfather Christian had been a tradesman in the city as well. When his father died, both Daniel (aged 16) and his younger brother Gottfried Chodowiecki went to live with their uncle in Berlin, who offered to educate them, and where Daniel received an artistic training with the painter Haid in Augsburg. His brother also became a painter.
He had three daughters, Jeannette (b. 1761, married the French-reformed preacher Jacques Papin), Suzanne (1763–1819) and Henriette (1770–1880). Jeannette's daughter Marianne Chodowiecka Papin (married Gretschel, 1794–1870) and her son Heinrich Papin (1786–1839) also became artists.
#
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
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Daniel Chodowiecki
Art.
Soon Daniel was able to earn a living by painting. He was admitted to the Berlin Academy in 1764 and became vice-director under Bernhard Rode in 1788. He had found his true calling and became the most famous German graphic artist of his time. His works includes several thousand etchings, usually rather small, and many drawings and paintings. His book illustrations embrace almost all the great classics. His prints represent in great detail the life of the bourgeoisie during the "Zopfstil" period, a time between Rococo and Classicism. In 1797 Chodowiecki was appointed director of the Academy of Arts in Berlin, where he died on 7 February 1801. The bulk of his work was in illustrating scientific
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
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Daniel Chodowiecki
books by Basedow, Buffon, Lavater, Pestalozzi and others. He also painted many portraits of Polish gentry and was interested in Huguenot and Polish history as well, making some paintings on the topic.
He was in tune with the developing spirit of the age, and many works reflect the cult of sensibility, and then the revolutionary and German nationalist feelings of the end of the century.
In printmaking, he is credited with the invention of the deliberate "remarque", a small sketch on a plate, lying outside the main image. These were originally little sketches or doodles by artists, not really meant to be seen, but Chodowiecki turned them into "bonus items" for collectors.
Chodowiecki, though
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
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Daniel Chodowiecki
speaking only French and German (due to his offices in the Huguenot French community in Berlin he often spoke French), many times also declared his Polish allegiance and had his son Isaac Heinrich, born in Berlin, painted as a very young child with a Polish outfit and haircut. After Partitions of Poland Chodowiecki wrote to Gräfin Solms-Laubach: "From father's side I'm Polish, a descendant of a brave nation which will soon vanish". In a letter to Józef Łęcki, the Polish astronomer, he wrote: ""I consider it an honour to be a genuine Pole, even though I am now living in Germany"". Because of his mother's and his wife's Huguenot descent he was very close to the Huguenots of Berlin. Nearly all
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Daniel Chodowiecki
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
|
Daniel Chodowiecki
his life and career was spent in Germany, writing in German and living in Berlin from the age of almost 17.
One of his most popular books is "Journey from Berlin to Danzig" (, 1773) with many illustrations. He purchased a horse rather than going by stage coach. This was his first return after 30 years absence and he went specifically to see his elderly mother and sisters in Danzig again. He made only one more trip to Danzig afterwards, to his mother's funeral. He describes and illustrates towns and people in Pomerania and Prussia on the way.
Chodowiecki is buried at the "Französischer Friedhof" cemetery in Berlin.
# References.
- Wolfgang Plat, "Die Reise nach Danzig, Mit Daniel Chodowiecki
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Daniel Chodowiecki
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel%20Chodowiecki
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Daniel Chodowiecki
stage coach. This was his first return after 30 years absence and he went specifically to see his elderly mother and sisters in Danzig again. He made only one more trip to Danzig afterwards, to his mother's funeral. He describes and illustrates towns and people in Pomerania and Prussia on the way.
Chodowiecki is buried at the "Französischer Friedhof" cemetery in Berlin.
# References.
- Wolfgang Plat, "Die Reise nach Danzig, Mit Daniel Chodowiecki durch Pommern"
# External links.
- 541 images of works at the LA County Museum of Art
- Gallery of works by Chodowiecki at www.malarze.com
- Gallery of works by Chodowiecki's brother - Gottfried at www.malarze.com
- Works at www.bildindex.de
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1580s BC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1580s%20BC
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1580s BC
1580s BC
The 1580s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1589 BC to December 31, 1580 BC.
# Events and trends.
The Egyptians invented a new and better calendar. It is based on both the moon and a star. They observed the annual appearance of the brightest star in the sky, Sirius. This calendar was more advanced than the Babylonian calendar.
# Significant people.
- Erishum III, King of Assyria, 1598–1586 BC (traditional date), or ca. 1580–1567 BC (newer dating)
- Actaeus, King of Athens, first King of Athens according to the Parian Chronicle succeeded in the throne by Cecrops I
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
Spamdexing
In digital marketing and online advertising, spamdexing (also known as search engine spam, search engine poisoning, black-hat search engine optimization (SEO), search spam or web spam) is the deliberate manipulation of search engine indexes. It involves a number of methods, such as link building and repeating unrelated phrases, to manipulate the relevance or prominence of resources indexed, in a manner inconsistent with the purpose of the indexing system.
It could be considered to be a part of search engine optimization, though there are many search engine optimization methods that improve the quality and appearance of the content of web sites and serve content useful to many users.
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
Search engines use a variety of algorithms to determine relevancy ranking. Some of these include determining whether the search term appears in the body text or URL of a web page. Many search engines check for instances of spamdexing and will remove suspect pages from their indexes. Also, search-engine operators can quickly block the results-listing from entire websites that use spamdexing, perhaps alerted by user complaints of false matches. The rise of spamdexing in the mid-1990s made the leading search engines of the time less useful. Using unethical methods to make websites rank higher in search engine results than they otherwise would is commonly referred to in the SEO (search engine optimization)
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
industry as "black-hat SEO". These methods are more focused on breaking the search-engine-promotion rules and guidelines. In addition to this, the perpetrators run the risk of their websites being severely penalized by the Google Panda and Google Penguin search-results ranking algorithms.
Common spamdexing techniques can be classified into two broad classes: "content spam" (or "term spam") and "link spam".
# History.
The earliest known reference to the term "spamdexing" is by Eric Convey in his article "Porn sneaks way back on Web," The Boston Herald, May 22, 1996, where he said:
The problem arises when site operators load their Web pages with hundreds of extraneous terms so search engines
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
will list them among legitimate addresses.
The process is called "spamdexing," a combination of spamming — the Internet term for sending users unsolicited information — and "indexing."
# Content spam.
These techniques involve altering the logical view that a search engine has over the page's contents. They all aim at variants of the vector space model for information retrieval on text collections.
## Keyword stuffing.
Keyword stuffing involves the calculated placement of keywords within a page to raise the keyword count, variety, and density of the page. This is useful to make a page appear to be relevant for a web crawler in a way that makes it more likely to be found. Example: A promoter
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Spamdexing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
of a Ponzi scheme wants to attract web surfers to a site where he advertises his scam. He places hidden text appropriate for a fan page of a popular music group on his page, hoping that the page will be listed as a fan site and receive many visits from music lovers. Older versions of indexing programs simply counted how often a keyword appeared, and used that to determine relevance levels. Most modern search engines have the ability to analyze a page for keyword stuffing and determine whether the frequency is consistent with other sites created specifically to attract search engine traffic. Also, large webpages are truncated, so that massive dictionary lists cannot be indexed on a single webpage.
##
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
Hidden or invisible text.
Unrelated hidden text is disguised by making it the same color as the background, using a tiny font size, or hiding it within HTML code such as "no frame" sections, alt attributes, zero-sized DIVs, and "no script" sections. People screening websites for a search-engine company might temporarily or permanently block an entire website for having invisible text on some of its pages. However, hidden text is not always spamdexing: it can also be used to enhance accessibility.
## Meta-tag stuffing.
This involves repeating keywords in the meta tags, and using meta keywords that are unrelated to the site's content. This tactic has been ineffective since 2005.
## Doorway
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
pages.
"Gateway" or doorway pages are low-quality web pages created with very little content, but are instead stuffed with very similar keywords and phrases. They are designed to rank highly within the search results, but serve no purpose to visitors looking for information. A doorway page will generally have "click here to enter" on the page. In 2006, Google ousted BMW for using "doorway pages" to the company's German site, BMW.de.
## Scraper sites.
Scraper sites are created using various programs designed to "scrape" search-engine results pages or other sources of content and create "content" for a website. The specific presentation of content on these sites is unique, but is merely an
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
amalgamation of content taken from other sources, often without permission. Such websites are generally full of advertising (such as pay-per-click ads), or they redirect the user to other sites. It is even feasible for scraper sites to outrank original websites for their own information and organization names.
## Article spinning.
Article spinning involves rewriting existing articles, as opposed to merely scraping content from other sites, to avoid penalties imposed by search engines for duplicate content. This process is undertaken by hired writers or automated using a thesaurus database or a neural network.
## Machine translation.
Similarly to article spinning, some sites use machine translation
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
to render their content in several languages, with no human editing, resulting in unintelligible texts.
## Pages with no information related to page title.
Publishing web pages that contain information that is unrelated to the title is a misleading practice known as deception. Despite being a target for penalties from the leading search engines that rank pages, deception is a common practice in some types of sites, including dictionary and encyclopedia sites.
# Link spam.
Link spam is defined as links between pages that are present for reasons
other than merit. Link spam takes advantage of link-based ranking algorithms, which gives websites higher rankings the more other highly ranked websites
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
link to it. These techniques also aim at influencing other link-based ranking techniques such as the HITS algorithm. There are many different types of link spam, built for both positive and negative ranking effects on websites. (See ).
## Link-building software.
A common form of link spam is the use of link-building software to automate the search engine optimization process.
## Link farms.
Link farms are tightly-knit networks of websites that link to each other for the sole purpose of gaming the search engine ranking algorithms. These are also known facetiously as "mutual admiration societies". Use of links farms has been greatly reduced after Google launched the first Panda Update in February
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
2011, which introduced significant improvements in its spam-detection algorithm.
## Private blog networks.
Blog networks (PBNs) are a group of authoritative websites used as a source of contextual links that point to the owner's main website to achieve higher search engine ranking. Owners of PBN websites use expired domains or auction domains that have backlinks from high-authority websites. Google targeted and penalized PBN users on several occasions with several massive deindexing campaigns since 2014.
## Hidden links.
Putting hyperlinks where visitors will not see them to increase link popularity. Highlighted link text can help rank a webpage higher for matching that phrase.
## Sybil
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
attack.
A Sybil attack is the forging of multiple identities for malicious intent, named after the famous multiple personality disorder patient "Sybil". A spammer may create multiple web sites at different domain names that all link to each other, such as fake blogs (known as spam blogs).
## Spam blogs.
Spam blogs are blogs created solely for commercial promotion and the passage of link authority to target sites. Often these "splogs" are designed in a misleading manner that will give the effect of a legitimate website but upon close inspection will often be written using spinning software or very poorly written and barely readable content. They are similar in nature to link farms.
## Guest
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
blog spam.
Guest blog spam is the process of placing guest blogs on websites for the sole purpose of gaining a link to another website, or websites. Unfortunately often confused with legitimate forms of guest blogging with other motives than placing links. Made famous by Matt Cutts publicly declaring "war" against this method of link spam.
## Buying expired domains.
Some link spammers utilize expired domain crawler software or monitor DNS records for domains that will expire soon, then buy them when they expire and replace the pages with links to their pages. However, it is possible but not confirmed that Google resets the link data on expired domains. To maintain all previous Google ranking
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
data for the domain, it is advisable that a buyer grabs the domain before it is "dropped".
Some of these techniques may be applied for creating a Google bomb — that is, to cooperate with other users to boost the ranking of a particular page for a particular query.
## Cookie stuffing.
Cookie stuffing involves placing an affiliate tracking cookie on a website visitor's computer without their knowledge, which will then generate revenue for the person doing the cookie stuffing. This not only generates fraudulent affiliate sales, but also has the potential to overwrite other affiliates' cookies, essentially stealing their legitimately earned commissions.
## Using world-writable pages.
Web sites
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
that can be edited by users can be used by spamdexers to insert links to spam sites if the appropriate anti-spam measures are not taken.
Automated spambots can rapidly make the user-editable portion of a site unusable.
Programmers have developed a variety of automated spam prevention techniques to block or at least slow down spambots.
### Spam in blogs.
Spam in blogs is the placing or solicitation of links randomly on other sites, placing a desired keyword into the hyperlinked text of the inbound link. Guest books, forums, blogs, and any site that accepts visitors' comments are particular targets and are often victims of drive-by spamming where automated software creates nonsense posts with
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
links that are usually irrelevant and unwanted.
### Comment spam.
Comment spam is a form of link spam that has arisen in web pages that allow dynamic user editing such as wikis, blogs, and guestbooks. It can be problematic because agents can be written that automatically randomly select a user edited web page, such as a Wikipedia article, and add spamming links.
### Wiki spam.
Wiki spam is a form of link spam on wiki pages. The spammer uses the open editability of wiki systems to place links from the wiki site to the spam site. The subject of the spam site is often unrelated to the wiki page where the link is added.
### Referrer log spamming.
Referrer spam takes place when a spam perpetrator
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
or facilitator accesses a web page (the "referee"), by following a link from another web page (the "referrer"), so that the referee is given the address of the referrer by the person's Internet browser. Some websites have a referrer log which shows which pages link to that site. By having a robot randomly access many sites enough times, with a message or specific address given as the referrer, that message or Internet address then appears in the referrer log of those sites that have referrer logs. Since some Web search engines base the importance of sites on the number of different sites linking to them, referrer-log spam may increase the search engine rankings of the spammer's sites. Also,
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
site administrators who notice the referrer log entries in their logs may follow the link back to the spammer's referrer page.
### Countermeasures.
Because of the large amount of spam posted to user-editable webpages, Google proposed a nofollow tag that could be embedded with links. A link-based search engine, such as Google's PageRank system, will not use the link to increase the score of the linked website if the link carries a nofollow tag. This ensures that spamming links to user-editable websites will not raise the sites ranking with search engines. Nofollow is used by several major websites, including Wordpress, Blogger and Wikipedia.
# Other types.
## Mirror websites.
A mirror site
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Spamdexing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamdexing
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Spamdexing
is the hosting of multiple websites with conceptually similar content but using different URLs. Some search engines give a higher rank to results where the keyword searched for appears in the URL.
## URL redirection.
URL redirection is the taking of the user to another page without his or her intervention, "e.g.", using META refresh tags, Flash, JavaScript, Java or Server side redirects. However, 301 Redirect, or permanent redirect, is not considered as a malicious behavior.
## Cloaking.
Cloaking refers to any of several means to serve a page to the search-engine spider that is different from that seen by human users. It can be an attempt to mislead search engines regarding the content on
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a particular web site. Cloaking, however, can also be used to ethically increase accessibility of a site to users with disabilities or provide human users with content that search engines aren't able to process or parse. It is also used to deliver content based on a user's location; Google itself uses IP delivery, a form of cloaking, to deliver results. Another form of cloaking is "code swapping", "i.e.", optimizing a page for top ranking and then swapping another page in its place once a top ranking is achieved. Google refers to these type of redirects as "Sneaky Redirects".
# Overall counterplan.
## By search engine maintainer.
Spamdexed pages are sometimes eliminated from search results
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by the search engine.
## By search engine user.
Users can craft at search keyword, for example, a keyword preceding "-" (minus) will eliminate sites that contains the keyword in their pages or in their domain of URL of the pages from search result. Example, search keyword "-naver" will eliminate sites that contains word "naver" in their pages and the pages whose domain of URL contains "naver".
## Google Chrome extension.
Google itself launched the Google Chrome extension "Personal Blocklist (by Google)" in 2011 as part of countermeasures against content farming. As of 2018, the extension only works with the PC version of Google Chrome.
# See also.
- Adversarial information retrieval
-
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eliminate sites that contains word "naver" in their pages and the pages whose domain of URL contains "naver".
## Google Chrome extension.
Google itself launched the Google Chrome extension "Personal Blocklist (by Google)" in 2011 as part of countermeasures against content farming. As of 2018, the extension only works with the PC version of Google Chrome.
# See also.
- Adversarial information retrieval
- Index (search engine) – overview of search engine indexing technology
- TrustRank
- Web scraping
- Microsoft SmartScreen
- Windows Defender
# External links.
## Other tools and information for webmasters.
- AIRWeb series of workshops on Adversarial Information Retrieval on the Web
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Johannes Daniel Falk
Johannes Daniel Falk (28 October 1768 Danzig – 14 February 1826 Weimar) was a German publisher and poet.
Falk was born in Danzig (Gdańsk) in the Polish province of Royal Prussia, where he received his first education against the wishes of his father, who wanted to employ the child in his business as wig maker. The Danzig city council granted Falk a theology stipendium at Halle, but he did not become a preacher and frequented literary circles of Schiller and Goethe instead.
In late 1815 or early 1816, he wrote the German text "O du fröhliche" that became a popular Christmas carol, to the melody of the Catholic hymn "O Sanctissima".
Falk was the founder of the "Falk'sche
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Johannes Daniel Falk
received his first education against the wishes of his father, who wanted to employ the child in his business as wig maker. The Danzig city council granted Falk a theology stipendium at Halle, but he did not become a preacher and frequented literary circles of Schiller and Goethe instead.
In late 1815 or early 1816, he wrote the German text "O du fröhliche" that became a popular Christmas carol, to the melody of the Catholic hymn "O Sanctissima".
Falk was the founder of the "Falk'sche Institute", a public education place for orphans in Weimar. He died in that city in 1826.
# External links.
- Johann Daniel Falk works, MSS 1992 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
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Cadenza
In music, a cadenza (from , meaning cadence; plural, "cadenze" ) is, generically, an improvised or written-out ornamental passage played or sung by a soloist or soloists, usually in a "free" rhythmic style, and often allowing virtuosic display. During this time the accompaniment will rest, or sustain a note or chord. Thus an improvised cadenza is indicated in written notation by a fermata in all parts. A cadenza will usually occur over the final or penultimate note in a piece, the lead-in () or over the final or penultimate note in an important subsection of a piece. It can also be found before a final coda or ritornello.
# In concerti.
The term "cadenza" often refers to a portion
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of a concerto in which the orchestra stops playing, leaving the soloist to play alone in free time (without a strict, regular pulse) and can be written or improvised, depending on what the composer specifies. Sometimes, the cadenza will include small parts for other instruments besides the soloist; an example is in Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3, where a solo flute, clarinet and horn are used over rippling arpeggios in the piano. The cadenza normally occurs near the end of the first movement, though it can be at any point in a concerto. An example is Tchaikovsky's First Piano Concerto, where in the first five minutes a cadenza is used. The cadenza is usually the most elaborate and
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virtuosic part that the solo instrument plays during the whole piece. At the end of the cadenza, the orchestra re-enters, and generally finishes off the movement on their own, or, less often, with the solo instrument.
# As a vocal flourish.
The cadenza was originally, and remains, a vocal flourish improvised by a performer to elaborate a cadence in an aria. It was later used in instrumental music, and soon became a standard part of the concerto. Cadenzas for voice and wind instruments were to be performed in one breath, and they should not use distant keys. Originally, it was improvised in this context as well, but during the 19th century, composers began to write cadenzas out in full. Third
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parties also wrote cadenzas for works in which it was intended by the composer to be improvised, so the soloist could have a well formed solo that they could practice in advance. Some of these have become so widely played and sung that they are effectively part of the standard repertoire, as is the case with Joseph Joachim's cadenza for Johannes Brahms' Violin Concerto, Beethoven's set of cadenzas for Mozart's Piano Concerto no. 20, and Estelle Liebling's edition of cadenzas for operas such as Donizetti's's "La fille du régiment" and "Lucia di Lammermoor".
# In jazz.
Perhaps the most notable deviations from this tendency towards written (or absent) cadenzas are to be found in jazz, most often
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at the end of a ballad, though cadenzas in this genre are usually brief. Saxophonist John Coltrane, however, usually improvised an extended cadenza when performing "I Want To Talk About You", in which he showcased his predilections for scalar improvisation and multiphonics. The recorded examples of "I Want To Talk About You" ("Live at Birdland" and "Afro Blue Impressions") are approximately 8 minutes in length, with Coltrane's unaccompanied cadenza taking up approximately 3 minutes. More sardonically, jazz critic Martin Williams once described Coltrane's improvisations on "Africa/Brass" as "essentially extended cadenzas to pieces that never get played." Equally noteworthy is saxophonist Sonny
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Rollins' shorter improvised cadenza at the close of "Three Little Words" ("Sonny Rollins on Impulse!").
Cadenzas are also found in instrumental solos with piano or other accompaniment, where they are placed near the beginning or near the end or sometimes in both places (e.g. "The Maid of the Mist," cornet solo by Herbert L. Clarke, or a more modern example: the end of "Think of Me", where Christine Daaé sings a short but involved cadenza, in Andrew Lloyd Webber's "The Phantom of the Opera").
# Notable examples.
- Concertos are not the only pieces that feature cadenzas; "Scena di Canta Gitano", the fourth movement of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's "Capriccio Espagnol", contains cadenzas for horns
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and trumpets, violin, flute, clarinet, and harp in its beginning section.
- Johann Strauss II unusually wrote a cadenza-like solo for cello and flute for the final section of his "Emperor Waltz", before a round of trumpets and then the whole orchestra bring the piece to its end.
- The second movement of Bach's third Brandenburg Concerto consists of just two chords; it is generally taken to indicate a cadenza to be improvised around that cadence.
- The coloratura arias of bel canto composers Gaetano Donizetti, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gioachino Rossini.
- Mozart wrote a cadenza into the third and final movement of Piano Sonata in B-flat major, K. 333, which was an unusual (but not unique) choice
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at that time because the movement is otherwise in sonata-rondo form.
- Beethoven's "Emperor" Concerto contains a notated cadenza. It begins with a cadenza that is partly accompanied by the orchestra. Later in the first movement, the composer specifies that the soloist should play the music that is written out in the score, and not add a cadenza on one's own.
- Beethoven famously included a cadenza-like solo for oboe in the recapitulation section of the first movement of his Symphony No. 5.
- Tchaikovsky's first piano concerto is notable not only for having a cadenza within the first few minutes of the first movement, but also for having a "second" – substantially longer – cadenza in a more
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conventional place, near the end of the movement.
- Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3, in which the first movement features a long and incredibly difficult toccata-like cadenza with an even longer alternative or ossia cadenza written in a heavier chordal style. Both cadenzas lead to an identical section with arpeggios in the piano and a solo flute accompanying, before the cadenza ends quietly.
- Fritz Kreisler's cadenzas for the first and third movements of Beethoven's Violin Concerto.
- Aaron Copland uses a cadenza in his Clarinet Concerto to connect the two movements.
- Karlheinz Stockhausen composed five ensemble cadenzas in his wind quintet "Zeitmaße" (1955–56), cadenzas for piccolo
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trumpet and piccolo in "" (1983), and a cadenza for cor anglais in his trio "" (2007)
- Karol Szymanowski's two violin concertos both feature cadenzas written by the violinist who was intended to play them, Pawel Kochański.
- In the third movement of Elgar's Violin Concerto, there is an unexpected cadenza in which the orchestra supports the solo with a pizzicato tremolando effect. ("cadenza accompagnato")
- Franz Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 for piano contains a "cadenza ad libitum", meaning it is at the pianist's discretion that such a cadenza is added.
- Pianists Chick Corea and Makoto Ozone incorporated jazz cadenzas into an otherwise traditional performance in Japan of the Mozart
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Double Piano Concerto.
- Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade features numerous cadenzas for violin.
- Mozart wrote a cadenza in his own Horn Concerto No. 3, towards the end of the first of three movements.
- Sergei Prokofiev's second piano concerto contains a taxing five-minute cadenza that closes out the first movement.
- In Dmitri Shostakovich's first cello concerto the third movement on its own is a cadenza connecting the second and fourth movements.
- Carlos Chávez's Violin Concerto has a seven-minute unaccompanied cadenza as the third of its five main sections, despite the fact that the soloist plays almost without a break throughout the rest of the 35-minute-long composition
## Composed
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cadenzas.
Composers who have written cadenzas for other performers in works not their own include:
- Carl Baermann's cadenza for the second movement of Mozart's Clarinet Concerto
- Ludwig van Beethoven wrote cadenzas for Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor first and third movements
- Joseph Joachim wrote the cadenza for Brahms's Violin Concerto.
- Benjamin Britten wrote a cadenza for Haydn's Cello Concerto No. 1 in C for Mstislav Rostropovich.
- David Johnstone wrote "A Manual of Cadenzas and Cadences for Cello", pub. Creighton's Collection (2007).
- Wilhelm Kempff wrote cadenzas for Beethoven's first four piano concertos.
- Clara Schumann wrote a cadenza for Beethoven's Piano
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Concerto No. 3
- Karlheinz Stockhausen composed cadenzas for two Mozart concerti for wind instruments (flute and clarinet), for Kathinka Pasveer and Suzanne Stephens, respectively, and one cadenza each for the trumpet concertos by Leopold Mozart and Joseph Haydn, for his son Markus.
- Richard Strauss wrote a vocal cadenza in 1919 for soprano Elisabeth Schumann to sing in Mozart's solo motet Exsultate, jubilate. This cadenza was sung by Kathleen Battle in her recording.
- Friedrich Wührer composed and published cadenzas for Mozart's piano concerti in C major, K. 467; C minor, K. 491; and D major, K. 537.
- Sergei Rachmaninoff wrote a cadenza for Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 and was recorded
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playing the piece with this cadenza in 1919.
- Alfred Schnittke wrote two cadenzas for Beethoven's Violin Concerto, of which the first includes musical quotations from violin concertos of Berg, Brahms, Bartók (Concertos No. 1 and No. 2), Shostakovich (Concerto No. 1), as well as from Beethoven's 7th Symphony.
- Fritz Kreisler composed a half polyphonic cadenza for Beethoven's Violin Concerto.
- John Williams composed a 6-minute segment consisting of a cadenza, a series of variations, and a few more elaborations to go over the opening credits of the 1971 film "Fiddler on the Roof", performed by violinist Isaac Stern.
- Alma Deutscher composed a cadenza for Mozart's 8th Piano Concerto when
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Alma Deutscher composed a cadenza for Mozart's 8th Piano Concerto when she was ten.
- David Popper composed a set of cadenzas for 5 different concertos (Haydn's Concerto No. 2 in D major, Op. 101; Saint Saëns' Cello Concerto No. 1 in A minor, Op. 33; Schumann's Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 129; Volkmann's Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 33; and Molique's Cello Concerto in D major, Op. 45.)
# Further reading.
- Badura-Skoda, Eva, et al. "Cadenza". "Grove Music Online" ed. L. Macy (subscription required). Accessed 2007-04-06.
- Lawson, Colin (1999). "The Historical Performance of Music: An Introduction", p. 75–76. .
# External links.
- , International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
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Flintstone
Flintstone may refer to:
- Flint, a type of stone, sometimes erroneously called flintstone
- Flintstone, Georgia
- Flintstone, Maryland
- "The Flintstones", an animated television show and related productions
- "The Flintstones" (1988 video game)
- "The Flintstones" (1993 video game), a 1993 video game based on the animated television show
- "The Flintstones" (pinball)
- "The Flintstones" (film), a 1994 live action film based on the animated television show
- Flintstones Chewable Vitamins, supplemental multivitamins for children based on the animated sitcom The Flintstones
- "The Flintstones" (2016 comic book)
# See also.
- Flint (disambiguation)
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Country dance
A country dance is any of a very large number of social dances of a type that originated in the British Isles; it is the repeated execution of a predefined sequence of figures, carefully designed to fit a fixed length of music, performed by a group of people, usually in couples, in one or more sets. The figures involve interaction with your partner and/or with other dancers, usually with a progression so that you dance with everyone in your set. It is common in modern times to have a "caller" who teaches the dance and then calls the figures as you dance.
Country dances are done in many different styles .
As a written in 2/4 or 6/8 time, the contredanse was used by Beethoven and
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Mozart.
Introduced to South America by French immigrants, Country Dance had great influence upon Latin American music as contradanza.
The "Anglais" (from the French word meaning "English") or "Angloise" is another term for the English country dance. A Scottish country dance may be termed an "Ecossaise". Irish set dance is also related.
# Characteristics.
A set is a formation of dancers. The most common formations are longways for as many as will, i.e. couples in long lines, and squares, consisting of four couples. The longways formation occurs in over 12,000 modern contra dances ; it was also the most popular formation in all the dance publications of the 18th and early 19th centuries. .
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In 2003, Burleson's Square Dancer's Encyclopedia listed 5125 calls or figures. Circles and fixed-length longways sets are also very common, but the possible formations are limited only by the imagination of the choreographer.
Thomas Wilson, in 1808, wrote, "A Country Dance is composed of an indefinite number of persons, not less than six, but as many more as chuse, but six are sufficient to perform any figure in the treatise." Wilson was writing about his own period. In fact, there are numerous dances for two couples, and quite a few for three or five dancers.
A figure is a pattern that the dancers trace along the floor, simple ones such as Circle Left are intuitive and can be danced with
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no prior knowledge, while complex moves such as Strip the willow need to be taught. The stepping and style of dancing varies by region and by period.
Wilson, in 1820, wrote, "Country Dance Figures are certain Movements or Directions formed in Circular, Half Circular, Serpentine, Angular, Straight Lines, etc. etc. drawn out into different Lengths, adapted to the various Strains of Country Dance Music." . Again, the possible figures are limited only by the imagination of the choreographer. Examples of some of the figures are provided in the Glossary of country dance terms.
The music most commonly associated with country dancing is folk/country/traditional/historical music, however modern bands
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are experimenting with countless other genres.
While some dances may have originated on village greens, the vast majority were, and still are, written by Dancing Masters and choreographers.
Each dance consists of a series of figures, hopefully smoothly linked together, designed to fit to the chosen music. The most common form of music is 32 bar jigs or reels, but any music suitable for dancing can be used. In most dances the dancers will progress to a new position so that the next time through the music they are dancing with different people.
While English Folk Dance Clubs generally embrace all types of country dance, American English Country Dance (ECD) groups tend to exclude modern contra
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dances and square dances.
Country dancing is intended for general participation, unlike folk dances such as clogging, which are primarily concert dances, and ballroom dances in which dancers dance with their partners independently of others. Bright, rhythmic and simple, country dances had appeal as a refreshing finale to an evening of stately dances such as the minuet.
Historically, the term contra dance is just another name for a country dance. Howe, in 1858, wrote, "The term "Country Dance" is the one invariably used in all books on dancing that have been published in England during the last three centuries, while all works issued in France within the same period employ the term Contra Dance,
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or in French "Contre Danse". As the authority is equally good in both cases, either term is therefore correct. The Country or Contra Dance has been one of the most popular amusements in the British Isles, France, and other continental countries from time immemorial". However, "contra dance" is most commonly used today to refer to a specific American genre called contra dance.
# History.
Country dances began to influence courtly dance in the 15th century and became particularly popular at the court of Elizabeth I of England. Many references to country dancing and titles shared with known 17th-century dances appear from this time, though few of these can be shown to refer to English country
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dance. While some early features resemble the morris dance and other early styles, the influence of the courtly dances of Continental Europe, especially those of Renaissance Italy, may also be seen, and it is probable that English country dance was affected by these at an early date. Little is known of these dances before the mid-17th century.
John Playford's "The English Dancing Master" (1651) listed over a hundred tunes, each with its own figures. This was enormously popular, reprinted constantly for 80 years and much enlarged. Playford and his successors had a practical monopoly on the publication of dance manuals until 1711, and ceased publishing around 1728. During this period English
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country dances took a variety of forms including finite sets for two, three and four couples as well as circles and squares.
The country dance was introduced to the court of Louis XIV of France, where it became known as "contredanse", and later to Germany and Italy. André Lorin, who visited the English court in the late 17th century, presented a manuscript of dances in the English manner to Louis XIV on his return to France. In 1706 Raoul Auger Feuillet published his "Recüeil de Contredances", a collection of ""contredanses anglaises"" presented in a simplified form of Beauchamp-Feuillet notation and including some dances invented by the author as well as authentic English dances. This was
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subsequently translated into English by John Essex and published in England as "For the Further Improvement of Dancing".
By the 1720s the term "contradanse" had come to refer to longways sets divided into groups of three or two couples, which would remain normative until English country dance's eclipse. The earliest French works refer only to the longways form as "contradanse", which allowed the false etymology of "a dance in which lines dance opposite one another". The square-set type also had its vogue in France during the later 18th century as the quadrille and the cotillion. These usually require a group of eight people, a couple along each side. "Les Lanciers", a descendant of the "quadrille",
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and the "Eightsome Reel" are examples of this kind of dance. Dancing in square sets still survives in Ireland, under the name "set dancing" or "figure dancing".
For some time British publishers issued annual collections of these dances in popular pocket-books. Jane Austen, Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy all loved country dancing and put detailed descriptions into their novels. But the vogue for the waltz and the "quadrille" ousted the country dance from English ballrooms in the early 19th century, though Scottish country dance remained popular.
# Influence.
The English country dance and the French "contredanse", arriving independently in the American colonies, became the New England contra
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dance, which experienced a resurgence in the mid-20th century. The quadrille evolved into square dance in the United States while in Ireland it contributed to the development of modern Irish set dance. English country dance in Scotland developed its own flavour and became the separate Scottish country dance. English Ceilidh is a special case, being a convergence of English, Irish and Scottish forms. In addition certain English country dances survived independently in the popular repertoire. One such is the Virginia Reel, which is almost exactly the same as the 'Sir Roger de Coverley'.
The "contradanza", the Spanish and Spanish-American version of the French "contradanse", became an internationally
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popular style of music and dance in the 18th century. The "contradanza" was popular in Spain and spread throughout Spanish America during the 18th century, where it took on folkloric forms that still exist in Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama and Ecuador. In Cuba during the 19th century the "contradanza" became an important genre, the ancestor of danzon, mambo and cha cha cha. Haitians fleeing the Haitian Revolution of 1791 brought to the Cuban version a Creole influence and a new syncopation.
The "Engelska" (Swedish for "English") or Danish "Engelsk" is a 16-bar Scandinavian folk dance in . Its name comes from the adoption in Scandinavia of English country dances and contra dances
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in the early 19th century. In Denmark the description "Engelsk" was used for both line and square dances of English origin.
# Revival.
Only due to the efforts of Cecil Sharp, Mary Neal and the English Folk Dance and Song Society in the late 19th and early 20th century did a revival take place, so that for some time schoolchildren were taught country dances. In the early 20th century, traditional and historical dances began to be revived in England. Neal, one of the first to do so, was principally known for her work in ritual dances, but Cecil Sharp, in the six volumes of his "Country Dance Book", published between 1909 and 1922, attempted to reconstruct English country dance as it was performed
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at the time of Playford, using the surviving traditional English village dances as a guide, as the manuals defined almost none of the figures described. Sharp and his students were, however, almost wholly concerned with English country dances as found in the early dance manuals: Sharp published 160 dances from the Playford manuals and 16 traditional village country dances. Sharp believed that the Playford dances, especially those with irregular forms, represented the original "folk" form of English country dance and that all later changes in the dance's long history were corruptions. This view is no longer held.
The first collection of modern English country dances since the 1820s, "Maggot
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Pie", was published in 1932, though only in the late 20th century did modern compositions become fully accepted. Reconstructions of historical dances and new compositions continue. Interpreters and composers of the 20th century include Douglas and Helen Kennedy, Pat Shaw, Tom Cook, Ken Sheffield, Charles Bolton, Michael Barraclough, Colin Hume, Gary Roodman, and Andrew Shaw.
# See also.
- Country and Western dance
- Baroque dance
- Social dance
- English Ceilidh
- Choreography and figures in contra dances
- Folk dance
- International folk dance
- Quadrille
- Square dance
- Maypole
- Stave dancing
- Angloise (L. Mozart)
- Troyl, a Cornish gathering similar to a Céilidh
- Twmpath,
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a Welsh gathering similar to a Céilidh
# External links.
## History.
- A multi-edition transcription of Playford's "The Dancing Master," compiled by Robert M. Keller, hosted by the University of New Hampshire's "New Hampshire Library of Traditional Music & Dance."
- A transcription of the first edition of Playford's "The Dancing Master".
- The Colonial Dancing Master Books and recordings.
- Alan Winston's history survey "English Country Dance and its American Cousin"
- Gene Murrow's comments on the history of ECD
- John Gardiner-Garden's 10 volume 7,000 page magnum opus on social dance from 1450 to 1900 "Historic Dance"
## Interpretation.
- Michael Barraclough
- Colin Hume
- Patri
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J. Pugliese
- John Gardiner-Garden
## Dance associations.
- Bay Area Country Dance Society promotes, preserves, and teaches traditional English and American music and dance in the San Francisco Bay area.
- CD NY Country Dance New York holds weekly dances in New York City.
- Country Dance and Song Society is a United States umbrella organization whose members enjoy English dance.
- Country Dance*New York runs English and contra dance events in New York City.
- Country Dance Society, Boston Centre runs English and contra dances in Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- Ann Arbor Community for Traditional Music and Dance is an umbrella organization whose sponsored events include English and American
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music and dance in Michigan.
- Dover English Country Dancers runs English dances in Dover, DE, USA & presents demonstrations at festivals & historic sites in MD & DE.
- Earthly Delights Historic Dance Academy run dance classes and balls in Australia, as well as a Shakespeare Dance & Music Festival, Baroque Dance Weekend, Jane Austen Festival Australia and Yarrangobilly 19th Century Dance Retreat.
- ECD around the United States A list of English dance series.
- English Folk Dance and Song Society has an online shop selling books and compact disks.
- Felpham & Middleton Country Dance Club has written a history from 1933–1994, just about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance clubs
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am & Middleton Country Dance Club has written a history from 1933–1994, just about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance clubs in England.
- Society for Creative Anachronism practices many English country dances in a historical context.
- The Leesburg Assembly is an English Country Dance community centered in Northern Virginia, USA.
- The Victoria English Country Dance Society is a group of friendly people who gather once a week to dance in Victoria, BC, Canada. Live music is provided by The Dancehall Players.
## General.
- & (Occitan) Folk dances from County of Nice, France
- Scottish Country Dancing database
- Country Dance Clubs, Studio's & Festivals. Dance Clubs & Studios
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Peter Minuit
Peter Minuit, Pieter Minuit, Pierre Minuit, or Peter Minnewit (between 1580 and 1585 – August 5, 1638) was a Walloon from Tournai, in present-day located in Belgium. His surname means "midnight" in French. He was the 3rd Director of the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland from 1626 until 1631, and 3rd Governor of New Netherland. He founded the Swedish colony of New Sweden on the Delaware Peninsula in 1638.
Minuit is generally credited with orchestrating the purchase of Manhattan Island for the Dutch from the Lenape Native Americans. Manhattan later became the site of the Dutch city of New Amsterdam, and the borough of Manhattan of modern-day New York City. A common account
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states that Minuit purchased Manhattan for $24 worth of trinkets. A letter written by Dutch merchant Peter Schaghen to directors of the Dutch East India Company stated that Manhattan was purchased "for the value of 60 guilders" in goods, an amount worth approximately $1,050 in 2015 dollars.
# Biography.
## Early life.
Peter Minuit was born at Tournai between 1580 and 1585 into a Calvinist family that had moved from the city of Tournai (presently part of Wallonia, Belgium) in the Southern Netherlands, to Wesel in Germany, in order to avoid Spanish Catholic colonials, who were not favorably disposed toward Protestants.
His father, Johann, died in 1609 and Peter took over management of the
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household and his father's business. Peter had a good reputation in Wesel, attested by the fact that he was several times appointed a guardian. He also assisted the poor during the Spanish occupation of 1614–1619.
Minuit married Gertrude Raedts on August 20, 1613. Gertrude was from a wealthy family and she probably helped Peter Minuit establish himself as a broker. A will drawn up in 1615 in the Dutch city of Utrecht, mentions "Peter Minnewit" as a diamond cutter. Whether he traded in other items is unknown.
By 1624, the city was in an economic decline and in 1625, he had left Wesel and like others, went to Holland. At first, Gertrude went to stay with her relatives in Cleve.
## As director
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of New Netherland.
Minuit joined the Dutch West India Company, probably in the mid-1620s, and was sent with his family to New Netherland in 1625 to search for tradable goods other than the animal pelts that then were the major product coming from New Netherland. He returned in the same year, and in 1626 was appointed the new director of New Netherland, taking over from Willem Verhulst. He sailed to North America and arrived in the colony on May 4, 1626.
Minuit is credited with purchasing the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans in exchange for traded goods valued at 60 guilders. According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley, Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys, chief of the
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Canarsees, who were only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks.
The figure of 60 guilders comes from a letter by a representative of the Dutch States-General and member of the board of the Dutch West India Company, Pieter Janszoon Schagen, to the States-General in November 1626. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 (or 60 guilders) to US$23. The popular account rounds this off to $24. By 2006 sixty guilders in 1626 was worth approximately $1,000 in current dollars, according to the Institute for Social History of Amsterdam.
According to researchers at the National Library
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of the Netherlands, "The original inhabitants of the area were unfamiliar with the European notions and definitions of ownership rights. For the Indians, water, air and land could not be traded. Such exchanges would also be difficult in practical terms because many groups migrated between their summer and winter quarters. It can be concluded that both parties probably went home with totally different interpretations of the sales agreement."
A contemporary purchase of rights in nearby Staten Island, to which Minuit also was party, involved duffel cloth, iron kettles, axe heads, hoes, wampum, drilling awls, "Jew's harps", and "diverse other wares". "If similar trade goods were involved in the
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Manhattan arrangement", Burrows and Wallace surmise, "then the Dutch were engaged in high-end technology transfer, handing over equipment of enormous usefulness in tasks ranging from clearing land to drilling wampum."
Minuit conducted politics in a measure of democracy in the colony during his time in New Netherland. He was highest judge in the colony, but in both civil and criminal affairs he was assisted by a council of five colonists. This advisory body would advise the director and jointly with him would develop, administer, and adjudicate a body of laws to help govern the colony. In addition there was a schout-fiscal, half-sheriff, half-attorney-general, and the customs officer. During
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Minuit's administration, several mills were built, trade grew exponentially, and the population grew to almost 300.
In 1631, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) suspended Minuit from his post for reasons that are unclear, but probably for (perhaps unintentionally) abetting the landowning patroons who were engaging in illegal fur trade and otherwise enriching themselves against the interests and orders of the West India Company. He arrived back in Europe in August 1632 to explain his actions, but was dismissed and was succeeded as director by Wouter van Twiller. It is possible that Minuit had become the victim of the internal disputes over the rights that the board of directors had given to the
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patroons.
## Establishing the New Sweden colony.
After having lived in Cleves, Germany for several years, Minuit made arrangements with Samuel Blommaert and the Swedish government in 1636 or 1637 to create the first Swedish colony in the New World. Located on the lower Delaware River within territory earlier claimed by the Dutch, it was called New Sweden. Minuit and his company arrived on the "Fogel Grip" and "Kalmar Nyckel" at Swedes' Landing (now Wilmington, Delaware), in the spring of 1638. They constructed Fort Christina later that year, then returned to Stockholm for a second load of colonists, and made a side trip to the Caribbean on the return to pick up a shipment of tobacco for resale
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in Europe to make the voyage profitable. During this voyage, Minuit drowned when the ship he was visiting (at the invitation of its Dutch captain, a friend of Minuit), "The Flying Deer", was lost with all hands during a hurricane at St. Christopher (today's St. Kitts) in the Caribbean. The losses suffered, such as goods, colonists, and Minuit, caused irreversible damage to Sweden's colonization attempts. Two years later, Swedish Lt. Måns Nilsson Kling, whose rank was raised to captain, replaced him as governor. Nine expeditions to the colony were carried out before the Dutch captured it in 1655.
# Legacy.
## Places named after Minuit.
- The Staten Island Ferry Whitehall Terminal's Peter Minuit
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Plaza, north of the South Ferry – Whitehall Street station (). Following the 400th anniversary celebrations of Henry Hudson's voyage to Manhattan, a pavilion was opened there to honor the Dutch. Each night at midnight, LED lights around the pavilion's perimeter glow in honor of Minuit.
- A marker in Inwood Hill Park at the supposed site of the purchase of Manhattan
- A granite flagstaff base in Battery Park, which depicts the historic purchase
- A school and playground in East Harlem, which are named for him.
- An apartment building at 25 Claremont Avenue in Manhattan, which bears his name above the front entrance
- The Peter Minuit Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution
-
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A memorial on Moltkestraße in Wesel, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
## In popular culture.
- The beginning lines of Rodgers and Hart's 1939 song "Give It Back to the Indians" recount the sale of Manhattan: "Old Peter Minuit had nothing to lose when he bought the isle of Manhattan / For twenty-six dollars and a bottle of booze, and they threw in the Bronx and Staten / Pete thought he had the best of the bargain, but the poor red man just grinned / And he grunted "ugh!" (meaning "okay" in his jargon) for he knew poor Pete was skinned."
- One version of Minuit was played by Groucho Marx in the 1957 comedy film "The Story of Mankind".
- Minuit is mentioned on the HBO drama "Boardwalk Empire",
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where the character Edward Bader tells a joke featuring the line, "'50 bucks?' the fella says. 'Peter Stuyvesant only paid 24 for the entire island of Manhattan!'", while Steve Buscemi's' character Enoch 'Nucky' Thompson has to correct Bader and inform him that it was in fact Peter Minuit who bought Manhattan, not Stuyvesant.
- Bob Dylan mentions Minuit in his song "Hard Times in New York Town" (released on The Bootleg Series Volume 1) in the following line: "Mister Hudson come a-sailing down the stream, / and old Mister Minuit paid for his dream." In the released recording of the song, however, Dylan spoonerizes "Mister Minuit" by mispronouncing his name as "Minnie Mistuit." The official lyrics
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have the correct version of the name, except that Minuit is spelled "Minuet."
- Minuit is mentioned in the first episode, "Uno", of the AMC drama "Better Call Saul". Jimmy McGill (the later titular Saul), while confronting lawyers at his brother's law firm, accuses them of being "like Peter Minuit" and suggests that they "throw in some beads and shells" to the $26,000.00 being given to his brother.
# See also.
- Dutch colonization of the Americas
- Dutch Empire
- List of colonial governors of New Jersey
- List of colonial governors of New York
# Further reading.
- Arand, Tobias. "Peter Minuit aus Wesel - Ein rheinischer Überseekaufmann im 17. Jahrhundert; in: Schöne Neue Welt. Rheinländer
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erobern Amerika, hg. v. Rheinischen Freilichtmuseum und Landesmuseum für Volkskunde in Kommern", Opladen 1981, 13-42
- Jacobs, Jaap. (2005), "New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America". Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, .
- Mickley, Joseph J. "Some account of Willem Usselinx and Peter Minuit: Two individuals who were instrumental in establishing the first permanent colony in Delaware", The Historical Society of Delaware, 1881
# External links.
- Project Gutenberg's "Narrative New Netherland", edited by J. Franklin Jameson, includes a footnote about the life of Minuit, but gives an improbable birth date of 1550.
- "The Canarsees", Angelfire
- Edwin G. Burrows and Mike
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ury America". Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, .
- Mickley, Joseph J. "Some account of Willem Usselinx and Peter Minuit: Two individuals who were instrumental in establishing the first permanent colony in Delaware", The Historical Society of Delaware, 1881
# External links.
- Project Gutenberg's "Narrative New Netherland", edited by J. Franklin Jameson, includes a footnote about the life of Minuit, but gives an improbable birth date of 1550.
- "The Canarsees", Angelfire
- Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace: "Gotham", 1999.
- Kenneth T. Jackson, ed.: "Encyclopedia of New York City" (1995)
- Pieter (later English spelling "Peter") Schaghen, "Letter on the purchase of Manhattan Island",
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Edwin Beard Budding
Edwin Beard Budding (1796–1846), an engineer from Eastington, Stroud, was the English inventor of the lawnmower (1830) and adjustable spanner (1842). Due to his invention of the lawnmower Budding is nicknamed "The Grass Man."
# Lawnmower.
Budding had the idea of the lawnmower after seeing a machine in a local cloth mill which used a cutting cylinder (or bladed reel) mounted on a bench to trim the irregular nap from the surface of woollen cloth and give a smooth finish.
Budding's mower was designed primarily to cut the lawn on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as a superior alternative to the scythe, and was granted a British patent on 31 August 1830. It took ten more
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years and further innovations to create a machine that could be worked by animals, and sixty years before a steam-powered lawn mower was built. The first machine produced was 19 inches in width with a frame made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind with motive power coming from the rear land roller which drove gears to transfer the drive to the knives on the cutting cylinder; the ratio was 16:1. There was another roller placed in between the cutting cylinder and the land roller which was adjustable to alter the height of cut. On cutting, the grass clippings were hurled forward into a tray like box. It was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front of the machine
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which could be used to help pull it along. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regent's Park Zoological Gardens in London and the Oxford Colleges. In an agreement between John Ferrabee and Edwin Budding, dated 18 May 1830, Ferrabee paid the costs of development, obtained letters of patent and acquired rights to manufacture, sell and license other manufacturers in the production of lawn mowers. Budding realised that a similar device could be used to cut grass if the mechanism was mounted in a wheeled frame to make the blades rotate close to the lawn's surface. Budding went into partnership with a local engineer, John Ferrabee, and together they made mowers in a factory at Thrupp
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turers in the production of lawn mowers. Budding realised that a similar device could be used to cut grass if the mechanism was mounted in a wheeled frame to make the blades rotate close to the lawn's surface. Budding went into partnership with a local engineer, John Ferrabee, and together they made mowers in a factory at Thrupp near Stroud.
Examples of the early Budding type mowers can be seen in Stroud Museum, the London Science Museum and at Milton Keynes Museum.
# Adjustable spanner.
Budding is also credited with the invention of the screw adjustable spanner in 1842.
# External links.
- https://www.ndti.org.uk/blog/how-a-chance-comment-during-a-park-walk-led-to-a-fascinating-journey
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Great white shark
The great white shark ("Carcharodon carcharias"), also known as the great white, white shark or white pointer, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. The great white shark is notable for its size, with larger female individuals growing to in length and in weight at maturity. However, most are smaller; males measure , and females measure on average. According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fish currently known. According to the same study, male great white sharks
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take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring. Great white sharks can swim at speeds of over , and can swim to depths of .
The great white shark has no known natural predators other than, on very rare occasions, the killer whale. The great white shark is arguably the world's largest known extant macropredatory fish, and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals. It is also known to prey upon a variety of other marine animals, including fish and seabirds. It is the only known surviving species of its genus "Carcharodon", and is responsible for more recorded human bite incidents than any other shark.
The species faces numerous
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ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The IUCN lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species, and it is included in Appendix II of CITES. It is also protected by several national governments such as Australia (as of 2018).
The novel "Jaws" by Peter Benchley and its subsequent film adaptation by Steven Spielberg depicted the great white shark as a "ferocious man eater". Humans are not the preferred prey of the great white shark, but the great white is nevertheless responsible for the largest number of reported and identified fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans.
# Taxonomy.
The great white shark was one of the many amphibia originally described by
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