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the average retirement age and lifespan of the employees, the returns to be earned by the pension plan's investments and any additional taxes or levies, such as those required by the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation in the U.S. So, for this arrangement, the benefit is relatively secure but the contribution is uncertain even when estimated by a professional. This has serious cost considerations and risks for the employer offering a pension plan.
One of the growing concerns with defined benefit plans is that the level of future obligations will outpace the value of assets held by the plan. This "underfunding" dilemma can be faced by any type of defined benefit plan, private or public, but
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it is most acute in governmental and other public plans where political pressures and less rigorous accounting standards can result in excessive commitments to employees and retirees, but inadequate contributions. Many states and municipalities across the United States of America and Canada now face chronic pension crises.
### Examples.
Many countries offer state-sponsored retirement benefits, beyond those provided by employers, which are funded by payroll or other taxes. In the United States, the Social Security system is similar in function to a defined benefit pension arrangement, albeit one that is constructed differently from a pension offered by a private employer; however, Social Security
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is distinct in that there is no legally guaranteed level of benefits derived from the amount paid into the program.
Individuals that have worked in the UK and have paid certain levels of national insurance deductions can expect an income from the state pension scheme after their normal retirement. The state pension is currently divided into two parts: the basic state pension, State Second [tier] Pension scheme called S2P. Individuals will qualify for the basic state pension if they have completed sufficient years contribution to their national insurance record. The S2P pension scheme is earnings related and depends on earnings in each year as to how much an individual can expect to receive.
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It is possible for an individual to forgo the S2P payment from the state, in lieu of a payment made to an appropriate pension scheme of their choice, during their working life. For more details see UK pension provision.
## Defined contribution plans.
In a defined contribution plan, contributions are paid into an individual account for each member. The contributions are invested, for example in the stock market, and the returns on the investment (which may be positive or negative) are credited to the individual's account. On retirement, the member's account is used to provide retirement benefits, sometimes through the purchase of an annuity which then provides a regular income. Defined contribution
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plans have become widespread all over the world in recent years, and are now the dominant form of plan in the private sector in many countries. For example, the number of defined benefit plans in the US has been steadily declining, as more and more employers see pension contributions as a large expense avoidable by disbanding the defined benefit plan and instead offering a defined contribution plan.
Money contributed can either be from employee salary deferral or from employer contributions. The portability of defined contribution pensions is legally no different from the portability of defined benefit plans. However, because of the cost of administration and ease of determining the plan sponsor's
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liability for defined contribution plans (you do not need to pay an actuary to calculate the lump sum equivalent that you do for defined benefit plans) in practice, defined contribution plans have become generally portable.
In a defined contribution plan, investment risk and investment rewards are assumed by each individual/employee/retiree and not by the sponsor/employer, and these risks may be substantial. In addition, participants do not necessarily purchase annuities with their savings upon retirement, and bear the risk of outliving their assets. (In the United Kingdom, for instance, it is a legal requirement to use the bulk of the fund to purchase an annuity.)
The "cost" of a defined
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contribution plan is readily calculated, but the benefit from a defined contribution plan depends upon the account balance at the time an employee is looking to use the assets. So, for this arrangement, the "contribution is known" but the "benefit is unknown" (until calculated).
Despite the fact that the participant in a defined contribution plan typically has control over investment decisions, the plan sponsor retains a significant degree of fiduciary responsibility over investment of plan assets, including the selection of investment options and administrative providers.
A defined contribution plan typically involves a number of service providers, including in many cases:
- Trustee
- Custodian
-
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Administrator
- Recordkeeper
- Auditor
- Legal counsel
### Examples.
In the United States, the legal definition of a defined contribution plan is a plan providing for an individual account for each participant, and for benefits based solely on the amount contributed to the account, plus or minus income, gains, expenses and losses allocated to the account (see ). Examples of defined contribution plans in the United States include individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and 401(k) plans. In such plans, the employee is responsible, to one degree or another, for selecting the types of investments toward which the funds in the retirement plan are allocated. This may range from choosing one of
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a small number of pre-determined mutual funds to selecting individual stocks or other securities. Most self-directed retirement plans are characterized by certain tax advantages, and some provide for a portion of the employee's contributions to be matched by the employer. In exchange, the funds in such plans may not be withdrawn by the investor prior to reaching a certain age—typically the year the employee reaches 59.5 years old-- (with a small number of exceptions) without incurring a substantial penalty.
In the US, defined contribution plans are subject to IRS limits on how much can be contributed, known as the section 415 limit. In 2009, the total deferral amount, including employee contribution
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plus employer contribution, was limited to $49,000 or 100% of compensation, whichever is less. The employee-only limit in 2009 was $16,500 with a $5,500 catch-up. These numbers usually increase each year and are indexed to compensate for the effects of inflation. For 2015, the limits were raised to $53,000 and $18,000, respectively.
Examples of defined contribution pension schemes in other countries are, the UK's personal pensions and proposed National Employment Savings Trust (NEST), Germany's Riester plans, Australia's Superannuation system and New Zealand's KiwiSaver scheme. Individual pension savings plans also exist in Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Finland, Ireland, Netherlands,
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Slovenia and Spain
## Hybrid and cash balance plans.
Hybrid plan designs combine the features of defined benefit and defined contribution plan designs.
A cash balance plan is a defined benefit plan made to appear as if it were a defined contribution plan. They have "notional balances" in hypothetical accounts where, typically, each year the plan administrator will contribute an amount equal to a certain percentage of each participant's salary; a second contribution, called "interest credit", is made as well. These are not actual contributions and further discussion is beyond the scope of this entry suffice it to say that there is currently much controversy.
In general, they are usually treated
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as defined benefit plans for tax, accounting and regulatory purposes. As with defined benefit plans, investment risk in hybrid designs is largely borne by the plan sponsor. As with defined contribution designs, plan benefits are expressed in the terms of a notional "account balance," and are usually paid as cash balances upon termination of employment. These features make them more portable than traditional defined benefit plans and perhaps more attractive to a more highly mobile workforce.
Target benefit plans are defined contribution plans made to match (or resemble) defined benefit plans.
## Contrasting types of retirement plans.
Advocates of defined contribution plans point out that each
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employee has the ability to tailor the investment portfolio to his or her individual needs and financial situation, including the choice of how much to contribute, if anything at all. However, others state that these apparent advantages could also hinder some workers who might not possess the financial savvy to choose the correct investment vehicles or have the discipline to voluntarily contribute money to retirement accounts. This debate parallels the discussion currently going on in the U.S., where many Republican leaders favor transforming the Social Security system, at least in part, to a self-directed investment plan.
# Financing.
Defined contribution pensions, by definition, are funded,
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as the "guarantee" made to employees is that specified (defined) contributions will be made during an individual's working life.
There are many ways to finance a pension and save for retirement. Pension plans can be set up by an employer, matching a monetary contribution each month, by the state or personally through a pension scheme with a financial institution, such as a bank or brokerage firm. Pension plans often come with a tax break depending on the country and plan type.
For example, Canadians have the option to open a Registered Retirement Savings Plan (RRSP), as well as a range of employee and state pension programs. This plan allows contributions to this account to be marked as un-taxable
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income and remain un-taxed until withdrawal. Most countries' governments will provide advice on pension schemes.
# History.
Widows' funds were among the first pension type arrangement to appear, for example Duke Ernest the Pious of Gotha in Germany, founded a widows' fund for clergy in 1645 and another for teachers in 1662. 'Various schemes of provision for ministers' widows were then established throughout Europe at about the start of the eighteenth century, some based on a single premium others based on yearly premiums to be distributed as benefits in the same year.'
## Germany.
As part of Otto von Bismarck's social legislation, the Old Age and Disability Insurance Bill in 1889. The Old
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Age Pension program, financed by a tax on workers, was originally designed to provide a pension annuity for workers who reached the age of 70 years, though this was lowered to 65 years in 1916. It is sometimes claimed that at the time life expectancy for the average Prussian was 45 years; in fact this figure is due to the very high infant mortality and high maternal death rate from childbirth of this era.
In fact, an adult entering into insurance under the scheme would on average live to 70 years of age, a figure used in the actuarial assumptions included in the legislation.
## Ireland.
There is a history of pensions in Ireland that can be traced back to Brehon Law imposing a legal responsibility
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on the kin group to take care of its members who were aged, blind, deaf, sick or insane. For a discussion on pension funds and early Irish law, see F Kelly, "A Guide to Early Irish Law" (Dublin, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1988). In 2010, there were over 76,291 pension schemes operating in Ireland.
Today the Republic of Ireland has a two-tiered approach to the provision of pensions or retirement benefits. First, there is a state social welfare retirement pension, which promises a basic level of pension. This is a flat rate pension, funded by the national social insurance system and is termed Pay Related Social Insurance or PRSI. Secondly, there are the occupational pension schemes
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and self-employed arrangements, which supplement the state pension.
## United Kingdom.
Until the 20th century, poverty was seen as a quasi-criminal state, and this was reflected in the Vagabonds and Beggars Act 1495 that imprisoned beggars. During Elizabethan and Victorian times, English poor laws represented a shift whereby the poor were seen merely as morally degenerate, and were expected to perform forced labour in workhouses.
The beginning of the modern state pension was the Old Age Pensions Act 1908, that provided 5 shillings (£0.25) a week for those over 70 whose annual means do not exceed £31.50. It coincided with the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905-09
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and was the first step in the Liberal welfare reforms to the completion of a system of social security, with unemployment and health insurance through the National Insurance Act 1911.
After the Second World War, the National Insurance Act 1946 completed universal coverage of social security. The National Assistance Act 1948 formally abolished the poor law, and gave a minimum income to those not paying national insurance.
The early 1990s established the existing framework for state pensions in the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 and Superannuation and other Funds (Validation) Act 1992. Following the highly respected Goode Report, occupational pensions were covered by comprehensive
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statutes in the Pension Schemes Act 1993 and the Pensions Act 1995.
In 2002 the Pensions Commission was established as a cross party body to review pensions in the United Kingdom. The first Act to follow was the Pensions Act 2004 that updated regulation by replacing OPRA with the Pensions Regulator and relaxing the stringency of minimum funding requirements for pensions, while ensuring protection for insolvent businesses. In a major update of the state pension, the Pensions Act 2007, which aligned and raised retirement ages. Following that, the Pensions Act 2008 has set up automatic enrolment for occupational pensions, and a public competitor designed to be a low-cost and efficient fund manager,
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called the National Employment Savings Trust (or "Nest").
## United States.
Public pensions got their start with various 'promises', informal and legislated, made to veterans of the Revolutionary War and, more extensively, the Civil War. They were expanded greatly, and began to be offered by a number of state and local governments during the early Progressive Era in the late nineteenth century.
Federal civilian pensions were offered under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS), formed in 1920. CSRS provided retirement, disability and survivor benefits for most civilian employees in the US Federal government, until the creation of a new Federal agency, the Federal Employees Retirement
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System (FERS), in 1987.
Pension plans became popular in the United States during World War II, when wage freezes prohibited outright increases in workers' pay. The defined benefit plan had been the most popular and common type of retirement plan in the United States through the 1980s; since that time, defined contribution plans have become the more common type of retirement plan in the United States and many other western countries.
In April 2012, the Northern Mariana Islands Retirement Fund filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The retirement fund is a defined benefit type pension plan and was only partially funded by the government, with only $268.4 million in assets and $911 million
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in liabilities. The plan experienced low investment returns and a benefit structure that had been increased without raises in funding.
According to "Pensions and Investments", this is "apparently the first" US public pension plan to declare bankruptcy.
# Current challenges.
A growing challenge for many nations is population ageing. As birth rates drop and life expectancy increases an ever-larger portion of the population is elderly. This leaves fewer workers for each retired person. In many developed countries this means that government and public sector pensions could potentially be a drag on their economies unless pension systems are reformed or taxes are increased. One method of reforming
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the pension system is to increase the retirement age. Two exceptions are Australia and Canada, where the pension system is forecast to be solvent for the foreseeable future. In Canada, for instance, the annual payments were increased by some 70% in 1998 to achieve this. These two nations also have an advantage from their relative openness to immigration: immigrants tend to be of working age. However, their populations are not growing as fast as the U.S., which supplements a high immigration rate with one of the highest birthrates among Western countries. Thus, the population in the U.S. is not ageing to the extent as those in Europe, Australia, or Canada.
Another growing challenge is the recent
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trend of states and businesses in the United States purposely under-funding their pension schemes in order to push the costs onto the federal government. For example, in 2009, the majority of states have unfunded pension liabilities exceeding all reported state debt. Bradley Belt, former executive director of the PBGC (the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, the federal agency that insures private-sector defined-benefit pension plans in the event of bankruptcy), testified before a Congressional hearing in October 2004, "I am particularly concerned with the temptation, and indeed, growing tendency, to use the pension insurance fund as a means to obtain an interest-free and risk-free loan to
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enable companies to restructure. Unfortunately, the current calculation appears to be that shifting pension liabilities onto other premium payers or potentially taxpayers is the path of least resistance rather than a last resort."
Challenges have further been increased by the post-2007 credit crunch. Total funding of the nation's 100 largest corporate pension plans fell by $303bn in 2008, going from a $86bn surplus at the end of 2007 to a $217bn deficit at the end of 2008.
# Pension systems by country.
Pension systems by country:
# Notable examples of pension systems by country.
Some of the listed systems might also be considered social insurance.
- Argentina - Administración Nacional
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de la Seguridad Social
- Australia:
- Superannuation in Australia - Private, and compulsory, individual retirement contribution system.
- Social Security - Public pensions
- Austria:
- Pensions in Austria
- Canada:
- Canada Pension Plan
- Old Age Security
- Quebec Pension Plan
- Registered Retirement Savings Plan
- Saskatchewan Pension Plan
- Hong Kong - Mandatory Provident Fund
- Finland - Kansaneläkelaitos
- France:
- Pensions in France
- Allocation de Solidarité aux Personnes Agées
- Pensions Reserve Fund (France)
- India :
- National Pension System
- Employees' Provident Fund Organisation of India
- Japan - National Pension
- Malaysia - Employees Provident Fund
- Mexico
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- Mexico Pension Plan
- Netherlands - Algemene Ouderdomswet
- New Zealand
- New Zealand Superannuation – public pensions
- KiwiSaver – Private voluntary retirement contribution system
- Poland - Social Insurance Institution
- Singapore - Central Provident Fund
- South Korea - National Pension Service
- Sweden - Social security in Sweden
- Switzerland Pension system in Switzerland
- United Kingdom:
- UK pension provision (generally)
- Self-invested personal pensions
- United States:
- Public employee pensions
- Retirement plans in the United States
- Social Security
- Vanuatu - Vanuatu National Provident Fund
# See also.
- Elderly care
- Financial advisor and Fee-only financial
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pensions
- United States:
- Public employee pensions
- Retirement plans in the United States
- Social Security
- Vanuatu - Vanuatu National Provident Fund
# See also.
- Elderly care
- Financial advisor and Fee-only financial advisor
- Generational accounting
- Pension led funding
- Pension model
- Pensions crisis
- Public debt
- Retirement
- Retirement age
- Retirement planning
- Social pension
Specific:
- Bankruptcy code
- Ham and Eggs Movement, California pension proposal of the 1930s-40s
- Individual Pension Plan (IPP)
- Pension Rights Center
- Provident Fund
- Roth 401(k)
- Universities Superannuation Scheme
# External links.
- US Retirement
- UK State pension
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Arsinoe II
Arsinoë II (, 316 BC – unknown date between July 270 and 260 BC) was a Ptolemaic queen and co-regent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of ancient Egypt.
Arsinoe was queen of Thrace, Anatolia and Macedonia by marriage to King Lysimachus () and co-ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom with her brother-husband, Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( "Ptolemy the Sibling-Loving"). Arsinoe was given the unprecedented Egyptian title "King of Upper and Lower Egypt", marking her as a full pharaoh.
# Life.
## Early life.
Arsinoë was the first daughter of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter (Greek: Πτολεμαίος Σωτήρ, "Ptolemy the Savior"), founder of the Hellenistic state of Egypt, and his second wife Berenice I of Egypt.
She
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was born in Memphis, but was raised in the new city of Alexandria, where her father moved his capital early on. Nothing is known of her childhood or education, but judging from her later life as patron of scholars and noted for her learning, she is estimated to have been given a high education. Her brothers were tutored by intellectuals hired by their fathers, and it is regarded likely that she attended these lessons as well: she corresponded with the intellectual Strato of Lampsacus later in life, and he may have previously been her tutor.
## Queen of Lysimachus.
At about age 15, Arsinoë married King Lysimachus (who was then around 60 years old), with whom she had three sons: Ptolemy Epigonos,
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Lysimachus, and Philip.
In order to position her sons for the throne, she had Lysimachus' first son, Agathocles, poisoned on account of treason.
Arsinoe reportedly paid for a rotunda in the Samothrace temple complex, where she was likely an initiate.
## Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos.
After Lysimachus' death in battle in 281 BC, she fled to Cassandreia () and married her paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I Soter from his previous wife, Eurydice of Egypt. The marriage was for political reasons as they both claimed the throne of Macedonia and Thrace (by the time of his death Lysimachus was ruler of both regions, and his power extended to southern Greece and Anatolia).
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Their relationship was never good.
As Ptolemy Keraunos was becoming more powerful, she decided it was time to stop him and conspired against him with her sons. This action caused Ptolemy Keraunus to kill two of her sons, Lysimachus and Philip, while the eldest, Ptolemy, was able to escape and to flee north, to the kingdom of the Dardanians.
She herself sought refuge in the Samothrace temple complex, which she had benefited during her tenure as queen. She eventually left from Samothrace for Alexandria, Egypt, to seek protection from her brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
It is not known which year she left for Egypt. She may have left so early as 280, directly after the murder of the younger
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sons, or as late as 276, when the claim of her eldest son to the Macedonian throne had clearly failed after the succession of Antigonus II Gonatas.
## Queen of Egypt.
In Egypt, she is believed to have instigated the accusation and exile of her brother Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I. Whether this was actually true is unknown: it is not known which year she arrived in Egypt, and her sister-in-law may already have been exiled at that point, or her divorce may have taken place without her involvement.
Whatever the case, after the divorce of Ptolemy, Arsinoe II then married her brother. As a result, both were given the epithet "Philadelphoi" ( "Sibling-loving (plural)") by the presumably scandalized
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Greeks. The closer circumstances and reasons behind the marriage is not known.
Her role as queen was unprecedented in the dynasty at the time and became a role model for later Ptolemaic queens: she acted alongside her brother in ritual and public display, became a religious and literal patron and was included in the Egyptian and Greek cults created by him for them. Sharing in all of her brother's titles, she apparently was quite influential, having towns dedicated to her, her own cult (as was Egyptian custom), appearing on coinage and contributing to foreign policy, including Ptolemy II's victory in the First Syrian War between Egypt and the Seleucid Empire.
According to Posidippus, she won
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three chariot races at the Olympic Games, probably in 272 BC.
# Legacy.
After her death, Ptolemy II continued to refer to her on official documents, as well as supporting her coinage and cult. In establishing her worship as a goddess he justified his own cult.
# See also.
- Arsinoitherium
# Bibliography.
- H. Bengtson, Griechische Geschichte von den Anfängen bis in die römische Kaiserzeit, C.H.Beck, 1977
- R.A. Billows, Kings and colonists: aspects of Macedonian imperialism, BRILL, 1995
# Further reading.
- S.M. Burstein, "Arsinoe II Philadelphos: A Revisionist View", in W.L. Adams and E.N. Borza (eds), "Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage" (Washington, 1982),
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- R.A. Billows, Kings and colonists: aspects of Macedonian imperialism, BRILL, 1995
# Further reading.
- S.M. Burstein, "Arsinoe II Philadelphos: A Revisionist View", in W.L. Adams and E.N. Borza (eds), "Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage" (Washington, 1982), 197-212
- P. McKechnie and P. Guillaume (eds) "Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World". Leiden, 2008.
- M. Nilsson, "The Crown of Arsinoë II: The Creation of an Image of Authority". Oxford, 2012.
- D. L. Selden, Daniel L. "Alibis". "Classical Antiquity" 17 (2), October 1998.
# External links.
- Coin with her portrait
- Encyclopædia Britannica
- Arsinoe II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
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Black panther
A black panther is the melanistic colour variant of any "Panthera" species. Black panthers in Asia and Africa are leopards ("P. pardus"), and those in the Americas are jaguars ("P. onca").
# Melanism in the genus "Panthera".
Melanism in the jaguar is conferred by a dominant allele, and in the leopard ("Panthera pardus") by a recessive allele. Close examination of the colour of these black cats will show that the typical markings are still present, but are hidden by the excess black pigment melanin, giving an effect similar to that of printed silk. This is called "ghost striping". Melanistic and non-melanistic animals can be littermates. It is thought that melanism may confer
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a selective advantage under certain conditions since it is more common in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Recently, preliminary studies also suggest that melanism might be linked to beneficial mutations in the immune system.
## Leopard.
Frequency of melanism appears to be approximately 11% over the species range. Data on the distribution of leopard populations indicates that melanism occurs in five subspecies in the wild: Javan leopard ("P. p. melas"), African leopard ("P. p. pardus"), Indian leopard ("P. p. fusca"), Indochinese leopard ("P. p. delacouri"), Sri Lankan leopard ("P. p. kotiya"), and has been documented in two other subspecies: Arabian leopard and Amur
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leopard ("P. p. orientalis") in captivity. Black leopards are common in the equatorial rainforest of the Malay Peninsula and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya. Melanistic leopards are common in Java, and are reported from densely forested areas in southwestern China, Myanmar, Assam and Nepal, from Travancore and some parts of southern India where they may be more numerous than spotted leopards.
In North Africa, dark leopards have been reported in the Atlas Mountains. A black leopard was reported from the alpine zone of Mount Kenya. Black leopards also occur in Kenya's Aberdare Mountains and in Ethiopia. Unconfirmed reports of black leopards
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exist also in South Africa and in northern Iran. Based on records from camera-traps, melanistic leopards occur foremost in tropical and subtropical moist forests.
In 2019, a black leopard was recorded in Kenya's Laikipia County.
The taxonomic status of captive black leopards and the extent of hybridization between different subspecies is uncertain. Therefore, coordinated breeding programs for black leopards do not exist in European and North American zoos. Black leopards occupy space needed for breeding of endangered leopard subspecies and are not kept within the North American Species Survival Plan.
A pseudo-melanistic leopard has a normal background color, but the spots are more densely
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packed than normal and merge to obscure the golden-brown background color. Any spots on the flanks and limbs that have not merged into the mass of swirls and stripes are unusually small and discrete, rather than forming rosettes. The face and underparts are paler and dappled like those of ordinary spotted leopards.
## Jaguar.
In jaguars, the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently, black jaguars may produce either black or spotted cubs, but a pair of spotted jaguars can only produce spotted cubs. Individuals with two copies of the allele are darker (the black background colour is more dense) than ones with just one copy, whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than
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black.
The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples. English naturalist W. H. Hudson wrote:
## Jaguar × lion.
In 2006 a black jaguar named "Diablo" was inadvertently crossed with a lioness named "Lola" at the Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary in Barrie, Ontario, Canada.
# Unconfirmed cases.
## Cougar.
There are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic cougars. Melanistic cougars have never been photographed or killed in the wild, and none have ever been bred. Unconfirmed sightings, known as the "North American black panther", are currently attributed to errors in species identification by non-experts, and by the mimetic exaggeration of size. Black panthers in
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the American Southeast feature prominently in Choctaw folklore where, along with the owl, they are often thought to symbolize Death.
In his "Histoire Naturelle" (1749), French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, wrote of the "Black Cougar":
This "black cougar" was most likely a margay or ocelot, which are under in weight, live in trees, and do have melanistic phases.
Another description of a black cougar was provided by Thomas Pennant:
According to his translator Smellie (1781), the description was taken from two black jaguars exhibited in London some years previously.
## Australia.
Black panther sightings are frequently recorded in rural Victoria and New South Wales, and
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Western Australia. The Australian "phantom panthers" are said to be responsible for the disappearances and deaths of numerous cats, dogs and livestock.
"" led an investigation into the phantom panther. Mike Williams, a local researcher, said he had sent feces and hair found by locals to labs for analysis, which identified it as feces from dogs that had feasted on swamp wallaby, and hair from a domestic cat. Williams said he also had known leopard feces and hair collected from a private zoo tested by one of the same labs, but that these samples came back with the same results of dog feces and domestic cat hair. This indicated the lab incapable of distinguishing between leopard hairs and those
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of domestic animals, casting doubt on the previous findings. The lab used was not identified in the episode.
# Culture and literature.
- Bagheera in "The Jungle Book" by Rudyard Kipling is an Indian panther that mentors the human character Mowgli.
- The Black Panther Party was an African-American political organization.
- The Black Panther is a Marvel Comics superhero based in the fictional African country of Wakanda.
- The NFL football team the Carolina Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo resembling the animal.
- The National Rugby League team the Penrith Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo of the animal.
# See also.
- Black cat
- Black tiger (animal)
-
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ican political organization.
- The Black Panther is a Marvel Comics superhero based in the fictional African country of Wakanda.
- The NFL football team the Carolina Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo resembling the animal.
- The National Rugby League team the Penrith Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo of the animal.
# See also.
- Black cat
- Black tiger (animal)
- Keimu
- Pogeyan
- White panther
# External links.
- Photographs of a melanistic bobcat and a melanistic jaguar – Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
- Mutant Leopards, Mutant Jaguars and Mutant Pumas (text licensed under GFDL)
- Photograph of a black or dark cougar
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Method
Method (, methodos) literally means a pursuit of knowledge, investigation, mode of prosecuting such inquiry, or system. In recent centuries it more often means a prescribed process for completing a task. It may refer to:
- Scientific method, a series of steps, or collection of methods, taken to acquire knowledge
- Method (computer programming), a piece of code associated with a class or object to perform a task
- Method (patent), under patent law, a protected series of steps or acts
- Methodology, comparison or study and critique of individual methods that are used in a given discipline or field of inquiry
- "Discourse on the Method", a philosophical and mathematical treatise by
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René Descartes
- "Methods" (journal), a scientific journal covering research on techniques in the experimental biological and medical sciences
# Arts.
- Method (music), a kind of textbook to help students learning to play a musical instrument
- "Method" (2004 film), a 2004 film directed by Duncan Roy
- "Method" (2017 film), a South Korean film
- Method (Godhead), the bassist and programmer for the industrial band Godhead
- Method acting, a style of acting in which the actor attempts to replicate the conditions under which the character operates
- Method Acting, a song by the group Bright Eyes on their album "Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground"
- Method ringing,
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he Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground"
- Method ringing, a British style of ringing church bells according to a series of mathematical algorithms
- Method Man, an American rapper
- "Method", a song by Living Colour from the album "The Chair in the Doorway"
- "A Method", a song by TV on the Radio from the album "Return to Cookie Mountain"
# Business.
- Method Incorporated, an international brand experience agency
- Method Products (branded as "method"), a San Francisco-based corporation that manufactures household products
- Method Studios, a Los Angeles-based visual effects company
# See also.
- Methodology
- The Method (disambiguation)
- Methodism (disambiguation)
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CFG
CFG may stand for:
- Canada's Food Guide, a diet planning document produced by Health Canada
- China Film Group, a Chinese film studio
- City Football Group, a multinational sporting organisation owning and controlling a number of football clubs
- Citizens Financial Group, a regional US Financial Institution
- Condor Flugdienst, ICAO airline designator of a German airline
- Configuration file, a file used to configure the initial settings for some computer programs
- Consortium for Functional Glycomics, a research initiative to study carbohydrate-protein interaction
- Context-free grammar, in computer science, a grammar that naturally generates a formal language
- Control flow graph,
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st, ICAO airline designator of a German airline
- Configuration file, a file used to configure the initial settings for some computer programs
- Consortium for Functional Glycomics, a research initiative to study carbohydrate-protein interaction
- Context-free grammar, in computer science, a grammar that naturally generates a formal language
- Control flow graph, in computer science, a representation of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution
- Cooperative game, in characteristic function form ("Characteristic Function Game")
- Jaime González Airport, an international airport that serves the city of Cienfuegos, Cuba
# See also.
- CFGS (disambiguation)
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Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem
Melisende (1105 – 11 September 1161) was Queen of Jerusalem from 1131 to 1153, and regent for her son between 1153 and 1161 while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, and the Armenian princess Morphia of Melitene.
# Heir presumptive.
Jerusalem had recently been conquered by Christian Franks in 1099 during the First Crusade, and Melisende's paternal family originally came from the County of Rethel in France. Her father Baldwin was a crusader knight who carved out the Crusader State of Edessa and married Morphia, daughter of the Armenian prince Gabriel of Melitene, in a diplomatic marriage to fortify alliances in the region.
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Melisende, named after her paternal grandmother, Melisende of Montlhéry, grew up in Edessa until she was 13, when her father was elected as the King of Jerusalem as successor of his cousin Baldwin I. By the time of his election as king, and Morphia already had three daughters: Melisende, Alice, and Hodierna. As the new king, had been encouraged to put away Morphia in favor of a new younger wife with better political connections, one that could yet bear him a male heir. Armenian historian Matthew of Edessa wrote that was thoroughly devoted to his wife, and refused to consider divorcing her. As a mark of his love for his wife, had postponed his coronation until Christmas Day 1119 so that Morphia
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and his daughters could travel to Jerusalem and so that the queen could be crowned alongside him. For her part, Morphia did not interfere in the day to day politics of Jerusalem, but demonstrated her ability to take charge of affairs when events warranted it. When Melisende's father was captured during a campaign in 1123, Morphia hired a band of Armenian mercenaries to discover where her husband was being held prisoner, and in 1124 Morphia took a leading part in the negotiations with Baldwin's captors to have him released, including traveling to Syria and handing over her youngest daughter Yveta as hostage and as surety for the payment of the king's ransom. Both of her parents stood as role
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models for the young Melisende, half Frankish and half Armenian, growing up in the Frankish East in a state of constant warfare.
As the eldest child, Melisende was raised as heir presumptive. Frankish women in the Outremer had a higher life expectancy than men, in part due to the constant state of war in the region, and as a result Frankish women exerted a wide degree of influence in the region and provided a strong sense of continuity to Eastern Frankish society. Women who inherited territory usually did so because war and violence brought many men to premature death, and women who were recognized as queen regnant rarely exercised their authority directly, with their spouse exercising authority
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"jure uxoris", through the medium of their wives. Contemporaries of Melisende who did rule, however, included Urraca of Castile (1080–1129), and Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204). During her father's reign Melisende was styled as "daughter of the king and heir of the kingdom of Jerusalem", and took precedence above other nobles and Christian clergy in ceremonial occasions. Increasingly she was associated with her father on official documents, including in the minting of money, granting of fiefdoms and other forms of patronage, and in diplomatic correspondence. Baldwin raised his daughter as a capable successor to himself and Melisende enjoyed the support of the "Haute Cour", a kind of royal council
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composed of the nobility and clergy of the realm.
However, also thought that he would have to marry Melisende to a powerful ally, one who would protect and safeguard Melisende's inheritance and her future heirs. Baldwin deferred to King Louis VI of France to recommend a Frankish vassal for his daughter's hand. The Frankish connection remained an important consideration for Crusader Jerusalem, as the nascent kingdom depended heavily on manpower and connections from France, Germany, and Italy. By deferring to France, was not submitting Jerusalem to the suzerainty of France; rather, he was placing the moral guardianship of the Outremer with the West for its survival, reminding that the Outremer
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was, to some extent, Frankish lands.
When Melisende bore a son and heir in 1130, the future Baldwin III, her father took steps to ensure Melisende would rule after him as reigning Queen of Jerusalem. held a coronation ceremony investing the kingship of Jerusalem jointly between his daughter, his grandson , and Fulk. Strengthening her position, designated Melisende as sole guardian for the young Baldwin, excluding Fulk. When died the next year in 1131, Melisende and Fulk ascended to the throne as joint rulers. Later, William of Tyre wrote of Melisende's right to rule following the death of her father that "the rule of the kingdom remained in the power of the lady queen Melisende, a queen beloved
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by God, to whom it passed by hereditary right". However, with the aid of his knights, Fulk excluded Melisende from granting titles, offering patronage, and of issuing grants, diplomas, and charters. Fulk openly and publicly dismissed her hereditary authority. The fears of seemed to be justified, and the continued mistreatment of their queen irritated the members of the "Haute Cour", whose own positions would be eroded if Fulk continued to dominate the realm. Fulk's behavior was in keeping with his ruling philosophy, as in Anjou Fulk had squashed any attempts by local towns to administer themselves and strong-armed his vassals into submission. Fulk's autocratic style contrasted with the somewhat
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collegial association with their monarch that native Eastern Franks had come to enjoy.
# Palace intrigue.
The estrangement between husband and wife was a convenient political tool that Fulk used in 1134 when he accused Hugh II of Le Puiset, Count of Jaffa, of having an affair with Melisende. Hugh was the most powerful baron in the kingdom, and devotedly loyal to the memory of his cousin . This loyalty now extended to Melisende. Contemporary sources, such as William of Tyre, discount the alleged infidelity of Melisende and instead point out that Fulk overly favoured newly arrived Frankish crusaders from Anjou over the native nobility of the kingdom. Had Melisende been guilty, the Church and
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nobility likely would not have later rallied to her cause.
Hugh allied himself with the Muslim city of Ascalon, and was able to hold off the army set against him. He could not maintain his position indefinitely, however. His alliance with Ascalon cost him support at court. The Patriarch negotiated lenient terms for peace, and Hugh was exiled for three years. Soon thereafter an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Hugh was attributed to Fulk or his supporters. This was reason enough for the queen's party to openly challenge Fulk, as Fulk's unfounded assertions of infidelity were a public affront that would damage Melisende's position entirely.
Through what amounted to a palace coup, the
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queen's supporters overcame Fulk, and from 1135 onwards Fulk's influence rapidly deteriorated. One historian wrote that Fulk's supporters "went in terror of their lives" in the palace. William of Tyre wrote that Fulk "did not attempt to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without [Melisende's] knowledge". Husband and wife reconciled by 1136 and a second son, Amalric, was born. When Fulk was killed in a hunting accident in 1143, Melisende publicly and privately mourned for him.
Melisende's victory was complete. Again she is seen in the historical record granting titles of nobility, fiefdoms, appointments and offices, granting royal favours and pardons and holding court. Of Melisende,
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William of Tyre wrote "reseditque reginam regni potestas penes dominam Melisendem, Deo amabilem reginam, cui jure hereditario competebat." Melisende was no mere regent-queen for her son , but a queen regnant, reigning by right of hereditary and civil law.
# Patroness of the church and arts.
Melisende enjoyed the support of the Church throughout her lifetime; from her appointment as successor, throughout the conflict with Fulk, and later when would come of age. In 1138 she founded the large convent of St. Lazarus in Bethany where her younger sister Ioveta would rule as abbess. In keeping with a royal abbey, Melisende granted the convent the fertile plains of Jericho. Additionally, the queen
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supplied rich furnishings and liturgical vessels, so that it would not be in any way inferior to religious houses for men. According to author and historian Bernard Hamilton, Melisende also gave large
Queen Melisende also appreciated a variety of literary and visual arts - her passion and assortment due to the different artistic exposures she received as a result of her parents' mixed Frankish-Armenian union. She created both a school of book makers and a school of miniature painters - a painting style most used in medieval illuminated manuscripts. She also commissioned the construction of "a vaulted complex of shops in Jerusalem, including the legendary (and still surviving) Street of Bad
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Cooking". The Street of Bad Cooking (Malquisinat) was the central and most famous market of Crusader Jerusalem, presenting specialized merchants and cooks to supply the numerous pilgrims who visited the city with food.
Melisende's love for books and her religious piety were very well known. She was recognized as a patroness of books, a fact her husband knew how to exploit following the incident that greatly injured their relationship and the monarchy's stability. King Fulk was jealous of the friendship Melisende shared with Hugh, Count of Jafa. Placed under scrutiny for supposed adultery with the Queen, Hugh was attacked by an assassin who was most likely sent by the King himself. This greatly
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angered the queen. Melisende was extremely hostile after the accusations about her alleged infidelity with Hugh and refused to speak to or allow in court those who sided with her husband - deeming them "under the displeasure of the queen". It is apparent that Fulk set to appease his wife by commissioning her the special book as a peace offering. "The Melisende Psalter is an extraordinarily beautiful little book that survives today in the British Museum" - a gloriously decorated gift carefully and thoughtfully chosen. While only 21.6 centimeters tall and 14 centimeters wide, the Melisende Psalter was ornately and expensively adorned - originally having the entire front cover gilded in gold and
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with six roundels made of ivory and exquisitely carved. It has a "multicolored silk spine" and the ivory roundels/medallions have studded "turquoise, ruby, and emerald stones" around scenes of King David from the Old Testament, a calendar with all the saints' days/observances marked, and also prayers of worship and adoration - all with extremely ornate illuminated initial letters. While there is no identification placing this book as Melisende's or made with her in mind, there is plenty of evidence that is highly suggestive of her as the sole recipient. The use of Latin text appropriate for a secular woman (as opposed to an abbess or such), the particular venerations of the Virgin Mary and Mary
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Magdalen (suggestive of the nearby abbey Melisende patronized and was later buried at), and the only two royal mentions/inclusions being of Melisende's parents all indicate that this book was for her. One final indicator that this was from Fulk to Melisende (other than the fact that only a king would be able to afford creating such a piece so pricey) is that there is a carving of a bird on the back cover labeled "Herodius" which is also known as "fulica" or falcon - making this a stamp pun/play on words to King Fulk's name.
Though influenced by Byzantine and Italian traditions in the illuminations, the artists who contributed to the Melisende Psalter had a unique and decidedly 'Jerusalem style'.
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The historian Hugo Buchtal wrote that
There is no account of how Melisende received this gift but shortly after its creation, the royal union appeared stronger than ever. Two things prove the couple's reconciliation: 1) almost every single charter after this was issued by Fulk but labeled "with the consent and the approval of Queen Melisende", and 2) the birth of the royal pair's second son, Amalric, in 1136. It is also reported that Queen Melisende mourned greatly after her husband fell off a horse and died in 1145.
# Second Crusade.
In 1144 the Crusader state of Edessa was besieged in a border war that threatened its survival. Queen Melisende responded by sending an army led by constable
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Manasses of Hierges, Philip of Milly, and Elinand of Bures. Raymond of Antioch ignored the call for help, as his army was already occupied against the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia. Despite Melisende's army, Edessa fell.
Melisende sent word to the Pope in Rome, and the west called for a Second Crusade. The crusader expedition was led by French Louis VII of France and the German Emperor Conrad III. Accompanying Louis was his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, with her own vassal lords in tow. Eleanor had herself been designated by her father, William X, to succeed him in her own right, just as Melisende had been designated to succeed her father.
During the Crusader meeting in Acre in 1148, the battle
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strategy was planned. Conrad and Louis advised 18-year-old to attack the Muslim city-state of Damascus, though Melisende, Manasses, and Eleanor wanted to take Aleppo, which would aid them in retaking Edessa. The meeting ended with Damascus as their target. Damascus and Jerusalem were on very good diplomatic terms and there was a peace treaty between them. The result of this breach of treaty was that Damascus would never trust the Crusader states again, and the loss of a sympathetic Muslim state was a blow from which later monarchs of Jerusalem could not recover. After 11 months, Eleanor and Louis departed for France, ending the Second Crusade.
# Mother and son.
Melisende's relationship with
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her son was complex. As a mother she would know her son and his capabilities, and she is known to have been particularly close to her children. As a ruler she may have been reluctant to entrust decision-making powers to an untried youth. Either way there was no political or social pressure to grant Baldwin any authority before 1152, even though Baldwin reached majority in 1145. and Melisende were jointly crowned as co-rulers on Christmas Day, 1143. This joint crowning was similar to Melisende's own crowning with her father in 1128, and may have reflected a growing trend to crown one's heir in the present monarch's lifetime, as demonstrated in other realms of this period.
Baldwin grew up to
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be a capable, if not brilliant, military commander. By age 22 however, Baldwin felt he could take some responsibility in governance. Melisende had hitherto only partially associated Baldwin in her rule. Tension between mother and son mounted between 1150 and 1152, with Baldwin blaming Manasses for alienating his mother from him. The crisis reached a boiling point early 1152 when Baldwin demanded that the patriarch Fulcher crown him in the Holy Sepulchre, without Melisende present. The Patriarch refused. Baldwin, in protest, staged a procession in the city streets wearing laurel wreaths, a kind of self-crowning.
Baldwin and Melisende agreed to put the decision to the "Haute Cour". The "Haute
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Cour" decided that Baldwin would rule the north of the kingdom and Melisende the richer Judea and Samaria, and Jerusalem itself. Melisende acquiesced, though with misgivings. This decision would prevent a civil war but also divide the kingdom's resources. Though later historians criticized Melisende for not abdicating in favor of her son, there was little impetus for her to do so. She was universally recognized as an exceptional steward for her kingdom, and her rule had been characterized as a wise one by church leaders and other contemporaries. Baldwin had not shown any interest in governance prior to 1152, and had resisted responsibility in this arena. The Church clearly supported Melisende,
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as did the barons of Judea and Samaria.
Despite putting the matter before the "Haute Cour", Baldwin was not happy with the partition any more than Melisende. But instead of reaching further compromise, within weeks of the decision he launched an invasion of his mother's realms. Baldwin showed that he was Fulk's son by quickly taking the field; Nablus and Jerusalem fell swiftly. Melisende with her younger son Amalric and others sought refuge in the Tower of David. Church mediation between mother and son resulted in the grant of the city of Nablus and adjacent lands to Melisende to rule for life, and a solemn oath by not to disturb her peace. This peace settlement demonstrated that though Melisende
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lost the "civil war" to her son, she still maintained great influence and avoided total obscurity in a convent.
# Retirement.
By 1153, son and mother had been reconciled. Since the civil war, Baldwin had shown his mother great respect. Melisende's connections, especially to her sister Hodierna, and to her niece Constance of Antioch, meant that she had direct influence in northern Syria, a priceless connection since Baldwin had himself broken the treaty with Damascus in 1147.
As was often on military campaigns, he realized he had few reliable advisers. From 1154 onwards, Melisende is again associated with her son in many of his official public acts. In 1156, she concluded a treaty with the
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merchants of Pisa. In 1157, with Baldwin on campaign in Antioch, Melisende saw an opportunity to take el-Hablis, which controlled the lands of Gilead beyond the Jordan. Also in 1157, on the death of patriarch Fulcher, Melisende, her sister Ioveta the Abbess of Bethany, and Sibylla of Flanders had Amalric of Nesle appointed as patriarch of Jerusalem. Additionally, Melisende was witness to her son Amalric's marriage to Agnes of Courtenay in 1157. In 1160, she gave her assent to a grant made by her son Amalric to the Holy Sepulchre, perhaps on the occasion of the birth of her granddaughter Sibylla to Agnes and Amalric.
# Death.
In 1161, Melisende had what appears to have been a stroke. Her memory
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was severely impaired and she could no longer take part in state affairs. Her sisters, the countess of Tripoli and abbess of Bethany, came to nurse her before she died on 11 September 1161. Melisende was buried next to her mother Morphia in the shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat. Melisende, like her mother, bequeathed property to the Orthodox monastery of Saint Sabbas.
William of Tyre, writing on Melisende's 30-year reign, wrote that "she was a very wise woman, fully experienced in almost all affairs of state business, who completely triumphed over the handicap of her sex so that she could take charge of important affairs", and that, "striving to emulate the glory of the best princes, Melisende
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ruled the kingdom with such ability that she was rightly considered to have equalled her predecessors in that regard". Professor Bernard Hamilton of the University of Nottingham has written that, while William of Tyre's comments may seem rather patronizing to modern readers, they amount to a great show of respect from a society and culture in which women were regarded as having fewer rights and less authority than their brothers, their fathers or even their sons.
# Sources.
- Tranovich, Margaret, "Melisende of Jerusalem: The World of a Forgotten Crusader Queen" (Sawbridgeworth, East and West Publishing, 2011).
- Gaudette, Helen A. (2010), "The Spending Power of a Crusader Queen: Melisende
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of Jerusalem", "in" Theresa Earenfight (ed.), "Women and Wealth in Late Medieval Europe", Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 135‑148
- Gerish, Deborah (2006), "Holy War, Royal Wives, and Equivocation in Twelfth-Century Jerusalem", "in" Naill Christie and Maya Yazigis (ed.), "Noble Ideals and Bloody Realities", Leiden, J. Brill, pp. 119‑144
- Gerish, Deborah (2012), "Royal Daughters of Jerusalem and the Demands of Holy War", "Leidschrift Historisch Tijdschrift", vol. 27, n 3, pp. 89‑112
- Hamilton, Bernard (1978), "Women in the Crusader States: the Queens of Jerusalem", "in" Derek Baker and Rosalind M. T. Hill (ed.), "Medieval Women", Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 143‑174; Nurith
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Kenaan-Kedar, "Armenian Architecture in Twelfth-Century Crusader Jerusalem", "Assaph Studies in Art History", n 3, pp. 77‑91
- Kühnel, Bianca (1991), "The Kingly Statement of the Bookcovers of Queen Melisende’s Psalter", "in" Ernst Dassmann and Klaus Thraede (ed.), "Tesserae: Festschrift für Joseph Engemann", Münster, Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, pp. 340‑357
- Lambert, Sarah (1997), "Queen or Consort: Rulership and Politics in the Latin East, 1118-1228", "in" Anne J. Duggan (ed.), "Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe", Woodbridge, Boydell Press, pp. 153‑169
- Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1972), "Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem", "Dumbarton Oaks Papers", vol. 26,
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rt, Sarah (1997), "Queen or Consort: Rulership and Politics in the Latin East, 1118-1228", "in" Anne J. Duggan (ed.), "Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe", Woodbridge, Boydell Press, pp. 153‑169
- Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1972), "Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem", "Dumbarton Oaks Papers", vol. 26, pp. 93‑182.
- Newman, Sharan, "Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem", Palgrave Macmillan, 2014
- Philips, Jonathan. "Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades", Vintage Books, 2010
# Further reading.
- Historical fiction
# External links.
- Melisende: Queen of Jerusalem on Medieval Archives Podcast
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Brave Combo
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Brave Combo
Brave Combo
Brave Combo is a polka/rock/worldbeat band based in Denton, Texas. Founded in 1979 by guitarist/keyboardist/accordionist Carl Finch, they have been a prominent fixture in the Texas music scene for more than thirty-five years. Their music, both originals and covers, incorporates a number of dance styles, mostly polka, but also some Latin American and Caribbean styles like norteño, salsa, rumba, cha-cha-cha, choro, samba, two-step, cumbia, charanga, merengue, ska, etc.
As part of their perceived artistic mission to expand the musical tastes of their listeners, they have often played and recorded covers of well-known songs in a style radically different from the original versions.
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Examples include polka versions of Jimi Hendrix's "Purple Haze" and The Doors' "People are Strange", The Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" as a cha-cha, and "Sixteen Tons" as a cumbia. While their records may have a sense of humor, they are played straight and not usually considered joke or novelty records.
# Awards and honors.
They won a Grammy Award in 1999 in the Best Polka Album category for their album "Polkasonic", and again in 2004 for their album "".
In naming Denton, Texas, the "Best Music Scene" for 2008, "Paste" magazine cited Brave Combo as the "Grand Pooh-Bah of Denton bands" and said that "Brave Combo, is in many ways the template from which all the rest are cut:
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eclectic and artistically ambitious, with a high degree of musicianship and a strong DIY ethic."
# Media appearances.
- The band made a short appearance, as animated figures, on the March 21, 2004, episode of "The Simpsons" ("Co-Dependent's Day"). Series creator Matt Groening is a fan of the band and they appeared on the show at his personal request. In the episode, the band played a new original song called "Fill The Stein" and their version of "The Simpsons Theme" played over the closing credits.
- Finch and other band members made cameo appearances in Talking Heads leader David Byrne's 1986 movie "True Stories", set in fictional Virgil, Texas. Finch can be spotted in the fashion show sporting
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a brick-patterned suit and in the parade leading the all-accordion marching band. (In real life, Brave Combo was David Byrne's wedding band.)
- They appear in the 1986 Hank Wangford Channel 4 television series "The A to Z of C & W" singing the Hank Williams song "Cold, Cold Heart".
- They contributed two songs to the "Gumby" album, released in 1989.
- Their song "Busy Office Rhumba" was used as the theme for the 1993 Fox television series "Bakersfield P.D."
- They appear as a wedding band in the 1995 feature film "Late Bloomers".
- In 2000, they appeared on the national telecast of the "MDA Labor Day Telethon" with Jerry Lewis dancing along to the music.
- They wrote and performed the
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theme song for the 2005 series "ESPN Bowling Night".
- The opening theme and other music for the 2008 PBS animated series "Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns" were produced by Carl Finch and composed, arranged, and performed by Finch and Brave Combo.
- Their live music video, "The Denton Polka", appears on the "Bohemia Rising DVD Compilation" (released in 2009), a collection of documentary shorts directed by Christopher Largen exploring rebellion and resistance to corporate demolition in their hometown of Denton, Texas.
- Included in Bob Dylan's 2009 Christmas release, "Christmas In The Heart", the song "Must Be Santa", is performed polka-style. Dylan's arrangement is almost identical
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to the Brave Combo arrangement from their 1991 CD "It's Christmas, Man!". In an interview published by Street News Service, Dylan acknowledged the influence of Brave Combo: "This version comes from a band called Brave Combo. Somebody sent their record to us for our radio show. They’re a regional band out of Texas that takes regular songs and changes the way you think about them. You oughta hear their version of 'Hey Jude'."
- They were featured on Bowling for Soup's album "Sorry for Partyin'", playing a polka version of Bowling For Soup's song "Belgium".
- The season seven episode "Fun on a Bun" of the animated science fiction comedy "Futurama" includes two original songs by the band plus
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a cover version of "The Chicken Dance". The episode debuted August 1, 2012, on Comedy Central.
# Members.
- Carl Finch - guitar, keyboards, accordion (born November 29, 1951, Texarkana, Arkansas) (1979–present)
- Lyle Atkinson - bass guitar, tuba (born October 23, 1953, Minneapolis, Minnesota) (1979–1985, 2015-present)
- Danny O'Brien - trumpet (born July 12, 1966, Lakenheath, England) (1993–present)
- Alan Emert - drums (born May 5, 1965) (1997–2008, 2010–present)
- Robert Hokamp - guitar, lap steel, cornet (2015–present) *
## Former members.
- Jeffrey Barnes - saxophones, clarinet, flute, harmonica, penny whistles (born July 27, 1951, Fremont, Ohio) (1983–2015)
- Ginny Mac - accordion
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(2011–2013)
- Tim Walsh - saxophone, flute, clarinet (born c.1952) (1979–1983)
- Dave Cameron - drums (born c.1958) (1979–1983)
- Cenobio "Bubba" Hernandez - bass guitar (born November 30, 1958, San Antonio, Texas) (1985–2007)
- Phil Hernandez - drums (born February 5, 1971, Buffalo, New York) (1992 - ?)
- Mitch Marine - drums (born c.1956) (1983–1992)
- Joe Cripps - percussion (born January 5, 1965, Little Rock, Arkansas) (1992 - 1999), some subsequent performances
- Greg Beck - drums (1996-1997)
- Paul Stivitts - drums (born 1971) NYC
- Ann Marie Harrop - bass guitar (2007–2009)
- Little Jack Melody - bass guitar (2009–2014)
- Arjuna Contreras - drums (born August 11, 1974, Kenosha,
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drums (born February 5, 1971, Buffalo, New York) (1992 - ?)
- Mitch Marine - drums (born c.1956) (1983–1992)
- Joe Cripps - percussion (born January 5, 1965, Little Rock, Arkansas) (1992 - 1999), some subsequent performances
- Greg Beck - drums (1996-1997)
- Paul Stivitts - drums (born 1971) NYC
- Ann Marie Harrop - bass guitar (2007–2009)
- Little Jack Melody - bass guitar (2009–2014)
- Arjuna Contreras - drums (born August 11, 1974, Kenosha, Wisconsin) (2008–2010)
- Bill Tomlin - Drums (born September 28, 1948)
# External links.
- bravecombo.com/ - official website
- "Bohemia Rising: The Story of Fry Street"
- Brave Combo collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive
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Control-flow graph
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Control-flow graph
Control-flow graph
In computer science, a control-flow graph (CFG) is a representation, using graph notation, of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution. The control-flow graph is due to Frances E. Allen, who notes that Reese T. Prosser used boolean connectivity matrices for flow analysis before.
The CFG is essential to many compiler optimizations and static-analysis tools.
# Definition.
In a control-flow graph each node in the graph represents a basic block, i.e. a straight-line piece of code without any jumps or jump targets; jump targets start a block, and jumps end a block. Directed edges are used to represent jumps in the control flow. There are, in most
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presentations, two specially designated blocks: the "entry block", through which control enters into the flow graph, and the "exit block", through which all control flow leaves.
Because of its construction procedure, in a CFG, every edge A→B has the property that:
The CFG can thus be obtained, at least conceptually, by starting from the program's (full) flow graph—i.e. the graph in which every node represents an individual instruction—and performing an edge contraction for every edge that falsifies the predicate above, i.e. contracting every edge whose source has a single exit and whose destination has a single entry. This contraction-based algorithm is of no practical importance, except as
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a visualization aid for understanding the CFG construction, because the CFG can be more efficiently constructed directly from the program by scanning it for basic blocks.
# Example.
Consider the following fragment of code:
In the above, we have 4 basic blocks: A from 0 to 1, B from 2 to 3, C at 4 and D at 5. In particular, in this case, A is the "entry block", D the "exit block" and lines 4 and 5 are jump targets. A graph for this fragment has edges from A to B, A to C, B to D and C to D.
# Reachability.
Reachability is a graph property useful in optimization.
If a subgraph is not connected from the subgraph containing the entry block, that subgraph is unreachable during any execution,
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and so is unreachable code; under normal conditions it can be safely removed.
If the exit block is unreachable from the entry block, an infinite loop may exist. Not all infinite loops are detectable, see Halting problem. A halting order may also exist there.
Unreachable code and infinite loops are possible even if the programmer does not explicitly code them: optimizations like constant propagation and constant folding followed by jump threading can collapse multiple basic blocks into one, cause edges to be removed from a CFG, etc., thus possibly disconnecting parts of the graph.
# Domination relationship.
A block M "dominates" a block N if every path from the entry that reaches block N
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has to pass through block M. The entry block dominates all blocks.
In the reverse direction, block M "postdominates" block N if every path from N to the exit has to pass through block M. The exit block postdominates all blocks.
It is said that a block M "immediately dominates" block N if M dominates N, and there is no intervening block P such that M dominates P and P dominates N. In other words, M is the last dominator on all paths from entry to N. Each block has a unique immediate dominator.
Similarly, there is a notion of "immediate postdominator", analogous to "immediate dominator".
The "dominator tree" is an ancillary data structure depicting the dominator relationships. There is an
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arc from Block M to Block N if M is an immediate dominator of N. This graph is a tree, since each block has a unique immediate dominator. This tree is rooted at the entry block. The dominator tree can be calculated efficiently using Lengauer–Tarjan's algorithm.
A "postdominator tree" is analogous to the "dominator tree". This tree is rooted at the exit block.
# Special edges.
A "back edge" is an edge that points to a block that has already been met during a depth-first (DFS) traversal of the graph. Back edges are typical of loops.
A "critical edge" is an edge which is neither the only edge leaving its source block, nor the only edge entering its destination block. These edges must be "split":
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a new block must be created in the middle of the edge, in order to insert computations on the edge without affecting any other edges.
An "abnormal edge" is an edge whose destination is unknown. Exception handling constructs can produce them. These edges tend to inhibit optimization.
An "impossible edge" (also known as a "fake edge") is an edge which has been added to the graph solely to preserve the property that the exit block postdominates all blocks. It cannot ever be traversed.
# Loop management.
A "loop header" (sometimes called the "entry point" of the loop) is a dominator that is the target of a loop-forming back edge. The loop header dominates all blocks in the loop body. A block
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may be a loop header for more than one loop. A loop may have multiple entry points, in which case it has no "loop header".
Suppose block M is a dominator with several incoming edges, some of them being back edges (so M is a loop header). It is advantageous to several optimization passes to break M up into two blocks M and M. The contents of M and back edges are moved to M, the rest of the edges are moved to point into M, and a new edge from M to M is inserted (so that M is the immediate dominator of M). In the beginning, M would be empty, but passes like loop-invariant code motion could populate it. M is called the "loop pre-header", and M would be the loop header.
# Reducibility.
A reducible
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