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43590
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Flux
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flux
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Flux
ace of the tube will be the same. The total flux for any surface surrounding a charge "q" is "q"/ε.
In free space the electric displacement is given by the constitutive relation D = ε E, so for any bounding surface the D-field flux equals the charge "Q" within it. Here the expression "flux of" indicates a mathematical operation and, as can be seen, the result is not necessarily a "flow", since nothing actually flows along electric field lines.
### Magnetic flux.
The magnetic flux density (magnetic field) having the unit Wb/m (Tesla) is denoted by B, and magnetic flux is defined analogously:
with the same notation above. The quantity arises in Faraday's law of induction, in integral form:
| 5,800 |
43601
|
Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
Gnuplot
gnuplot is a command-line program that can generate two- and three-dimensional plots of functions, data, and data fits. The program runs on all major computers and operating systems (Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows, macOS, and others).
It is a program with a fairly long history, dating back to 1986. Despite its name, this software is not part of the GNU project.
# Features.
gnuplot can produce output directly on screen, or in many formats of graphics files, including Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Encapsulated PostScript (EPS), Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), JPEG and many others. It is also capable of producing LaTeX code that can be included directly in LaTeX documents, making
| 5,801 |
43601
|
Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
use of LaTeX's fonts and powerful formula notation abilities. The program can be used both interactively and in batch mode using scripts.
The gnuplot core code is programmed in C. Modular subsystems for output via Qt, wxWidgets, and LaTeX/TikZ/ConTeXt are written in C++ and Lua.
The code below creates the graph to the right.
The name of this program was originally chosen to avoid conflicts with a program called "newplot", and was originally a compromise between "llamaplot" and "nplot".
# Distribution terms.
Despite gnuplot's name, it is not named after, part of or related to the GNU Project, nor does it use the GNU General Public License. It was named as part of a compromise by the original
| 5,802 |
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Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
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Gnuplot
authors, punning on "gnu" (the animal) and "newplot".
Official source code to gnuplot is freely redistributable, but modified versions thereof are not. The gnuplot license instead recommends distribution of patches against official releases, optionally accompanied by officially released source code. Binaries may be distributed along with the unmodified source code and any patches applied thereto. Contact information must be supplied with derived works for technical support for the modified software.
Permission to modify the software is granted, but not the right to distribute the complete modified source code. Modifications are to be distributed as patches to the released version.
Despite
| 5,803 |
43601
|
Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
this restriction, gnuplot is accepted and used by many GNU packages and is widely included in Linux distributions including the stricter ones such as Debian and Fedora. The OSI Open Source Definition and the Debian Free Software Guidelines specifically allow for restrictions on distribution of modified source code, given explicit permission to distribute both patches and source code.
Newer gnuplot modules (e.g. Qt, wxWidgets, and cairo drivers) have been contributed under dual-licensing terms, e.g. gnuplot + BSD or gnuplot + GPL.
# GUIs and programs that use gnuplot.
Several third-party programs have graphical user interfaces that can be used to generate graphs using gnuplot as the plotting
| 5,804 |
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Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
engine. These include:
- gretl, a statistics package for econometrics
- JGNUPlot, a java-based GUI
- Kayali a computer algebra system
- xldlas, an old X11 statistics package
- gnuplotxyz, an old Windows program
- wxPinter, a graphical plot manager for gnuplot
- Maxima is a text-based computer algebra system which itself has several third-party GUIs.
Other programs that use gnuplot include:
- GNU Octave, a mathematical programming language
- statist, a terminal-based program
- gplot.pl provides a simpler command-line interface.
- feedgnuplot provides a plotting of stored and realtime data from a pipe.
- ElchemeaAnalytical, an Impedance spectroscopy plotting and fitting program developed
| 5,805 |
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|
Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
by DTU Energy
- Gnuplot add-in for MS-Excel
# Programming and application interfaces.
gnuplot can be used from various programming languages to graph data, including Perl (via PDL and other CPAN packages), Python (via Gnuplot-py and SageMath), Julia (via Gaston.jl), Java (via JavaGnuplotHybrid and jgnuplot), Ruby (via Ruby Gnuplot), Ch (via Ch Gnuplot), Haskell (via Haskell gnuplot), Fortran 95, and Smalltalk (Squeak and GNU Smalltalk).
gnuplot also supports piping, which is typical of scripts. For script-driven graphics, gnuplot is by far the most popular program.
# See also.
- List of graphing software
# Further reading and external links.
- gnuplotting: a blog of gnuplot examples
| 5,806 |
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|
Gnuplot
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnuplot
|
Gnuplot
rl (via PDL and other CPAN packages), Python (via Gnuplot-py and SageMath), Julia (via Gaston.jl), Java (via JavaGnuplotHybrid and jgnuplot), Ruby (via Ruby Gnuplot), Ch (via Ch Gnuplot), Haskell (via Haskell gnuplot), Fortran 95, and Smalltalk (Squeak and GNU Smalltalk).
gnuplot also supports piping, which is typical of scripts. For script-driven graphics, gnuplot is by far the most popular program.
# See also.
- List of graphing software
# Further reading and external links.
- gnuplotting: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips
- spplotters: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips
- gnuplot surprising: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips
- Visualize your data with gnuplot: an IBM tutorial
| 5,807 |
43609
|
Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
Jumping
Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne, by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch.
Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called "hopping" in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump
| 5,808 |
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
and show jumping.
# Physics.
All jumping involves the application of force against a substrate, which in turn generates a reactive force that propels the jumper away from the substrate. Any solid or liquid capable of producing an opposing force can serve as a substrate, including ground or water. Examples of the latter include dolphins performing traveling jumps, and Indian skitter frogs executing standing jumps from water.
Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne
| 5,809 |
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path.
Following the moment of launch (i.e., initial loss of contact with the substrate), a jumper will traverse a parabolic path. The launch angle and initial launch velocity determine the travel distance, duration, and height of the jump. The maximum possible horizontal travel distance occurs at a launch angle of 45 degrees, but any launch angle between 35 and 55 degrees will result in ninety percent of the maximum possible distance.
Muscles (or other actuators in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
kinetic energy at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's speed. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase.
Mechanical power (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic
| 5,811 |
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
elements, such as tendons or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. Such elastic elements can release energy at a much higher rate (higher power) than equivalent muscle mass, thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of.
A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a "standing jump"), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a "moving jump" or "running jump", the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch
| 5,812 |
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Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run.
# Anatomy.
Animals use a wide variety of anatomical adaptations for jumping. These adaptations are exclusively concerned with the launch, as any post-launch method of extending range or controlling the jump must use aerodynamic forces, and thus is considered gliding or parachuting.
Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming
| 5,813 |
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Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.
## Limb morphology.
In terrestrial animals, the primary propulsive structure is the legs, though a few species use their tails. Typical characteristics of jumping species include long legs, large leg muscles, and additional limb elements.
Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified
| 5,814 |
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Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length.
Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.
## Power amplification through stored energy.
Grasshoppers
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
use elastic energy storage to increase jumping distance. Although power output is a principal determinant of jump distance (as noted above), physiological constraints limit muscle power to approximately 375 Watts per kilogram of muscle. To overcome this limitation, grasshoppers anchor their legs via an internal "catch mechanism" while their muscles stretch an elastic apodeme (similar to a vertebrate tendon). When the catch is released, the apodeme rapidly releases its energy. Because the apodeme releases energy more quickly than muscle, its power output exceeds that of the muscle that produced the energy.
This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of
| 5,816 |
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Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.
# Classification.
One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer. In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished:
- Jump — jumping from and landing on two feet
- Hop — jumping from
| 5,817 |
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Jumping
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
|
Jumping
one foot and landing on the same foot
- Leap — jumping from one foot and landing on the other foot
- Assemble — jumping from one foot and landing on two feet
- Sissonne — jumping from two feet and landing on one foot
Leaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and pronging.
# Height-enhancing devices and techniques.
The height of a jump may be increased by using a trampoline or by converting horizontal velocity into vertical velocity with the aid of a device such as a half pipe.
Various exercises can be used to increase an athlete's vertical jumping height. One category of such exercises—plyometrics—employs repetition of discrete
| 5,818 |
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
jumping-related movements to increase speed, agility, and power.
It has been shown in research that children who are more physically active display more proficient jumping (along with other basic motor skill) patterns.
It is also noted that jumping development in children has a direct relationship with age. As children grow older, it is seen that their jumping abilities in all forms also increase. Jumping development is more easily identifiable in children rather than adults due to the fact that there are less physical differences at a younger age. Adults of the same age may be vastly different in terms of physicality and athleticism making it difficult to see how age affects jumping ability.
#
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Jumping
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jumping
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Jumping
een shown in research that children who are more physically active display more proficient jumping (along with other basic motor skill) patterns.
It is also noted that jumping development in children has a direct relationship with age. As children grow older, it is seen that their jumping abilities in all forms also increase. Jumping development is more easily identifiable in children rather than adults due to the fact that there are less physical differences at a younger age. Adults of the same age may be vastly different in terms of physicality and athleticism making it difficult to see how age affects jumping ability.
# See also.
- List of jumping activities
- Teleportation in fiction
| 5,820 |
43608
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William Rufus Shafter
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
|
William Rufus Shafter
William Rufus Shafter
William Rufus Shafter (October 16, 1835 – November 12, 1906) was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War who received America's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Fair Oaks. Shafter also played a prominent part as a major general in the Spanish–American War. Fort Shafter, Hawaii, is named for him, as well as the city of Shafter, California and the ghost town of Shafter, Texas. He was nicknamed "Pecos Bill".
# Early life.
Shafter was born in Galesburg, Michigan on October 16, 1835. He worked as a teacher and farmer in the years preceding the Civil War.
# Civil War and Indian campaigns.
Shafter served as a 1st
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
lieutenant the Union Army's 7th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment at the battles of Ball's Bluff and Fair Oaks. He was wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks and later received the Medal of Honor for heroism during the battle. He led a charge on the first day of the battle and was wounded towards the close of that day's fighting. In order to stay with his regiment he concealed his wounds, fighting on the second day of the battle. On August 22, 1862, he was mustered out of the volunteer service but returned to the field as major in the 19th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He was captured at the Battle of Thompson's Station and spent three months in a Confederate prison. In April 1864 after
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
his release he was appointed colonel of the 17th United States Colored Infantry and led the regiment at the Battle of Nashville.
By the end of the war, he had been promoted to brevet brigadier general of volunteers. He stayed in the regular army when the war ended. During his subsequent service in the Indian Wars, he received his "Pecos Bill" nickname. He led the 24th Infantry, another United States Colored Troops regiment, in campaigns against the Cheyenne, Comanche, Kickapoo and Kiowa Indians in Texas. While commander of Fort Davis, he started a controversial court-martial of second lieutenant Henry Flipper, the first black cadet to graduate from West Point. In May 1897 he was appointed as
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
a brigadier general.
# Spanish–American War.
Just before the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Shafter was commander of the Department of California. Shafter was an unlikely candidate for command of the expedition to Cuba. He was aged 63, weighed over 300 pounds and suffered from gout. Nevertheless, he received a promotion to Major General of Volunteers and command of the Fifth Army Corps being assembled in Tampa, Florida. One possible reason for his being given this command was his lack of political ambitions.
Shafter appeared to maintain a very loose control over the expedition to Cuba from the beginning, commencing with a very disorganized landing at Daiquiri on the southern coast
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
of Cuba. Confusion prevailed over landing priorities and the chain of command. When General Sumner refused to allow the Army's Gatling Gun Detachment - which had priority - to disembark from the transport "Cherokee" on the grounds that the lieutenant commanding the detachment did not have the rank to enforce his priority, Shafter had to personally intervene, returning to the ship in a steam launch to enforce his demand that the guns come off immediately.
During the disembarkation, Shafter sent forward Fifth Corps' Cavalry Division under Joseph Wheeler to reconnoiter the road to Santiago de Cuba. In a complete (alleged, look for and read after action reports from Lt. Colonel Roosevelt and Colonel
| 5,825 |
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
Wood.) disregard of orders, Wheeler brought on a fight which escalated into the Battle of Las Guasimas. Shafter apparently did not realize the battle was even underway nor did he say anything to Wheeler about it afterward.
A plan was finally developed for the attack on Santiago. Shafter would send his 1st Division (at the time, brigade and division numbers were not unique outside their parent formation) to attack El Caney while his 2nd Division and the Cavalry Division would attack the heights south of El Caney known as San Juan Hill. Originally, Shafter planned to lead his forces from the front, but he suffered greatly from the tropical heat and was confined to his headquarters far to the
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
rear and out of sight of the fighting. Unable to see the battle firsthand, he never developed a coherent chain of command. Shafter's offensive battle plans were both simplistic and extremely vague. He seemed to be unaware or unconcerned about the mass killing effect of modern military weapons technology possessed by the Spanish. Further, his intelligence-gathering efforts on Spanish troop dispositions and equipment was extremely meager, though he had a number of sources available to him, including reconnaissance reports by Cuban rebel forces as well as espionage obtained from indigenous Cubans.
During the hurried attack on El Caney and San Juan Heights, American forces, who had packed the available
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
roads and were unable maneuver, suffered heavy losses from Spanish troops equipped with modern repeating smokeless powder rifles and breech-loading artillery, while the short-ranged black-powder guns of U.S. artillery units were unable to respond effectively. Additional casualties were incurred in the actual assault, which was marked by a series of brave but disorganized and uncoordinated advances. After suffering some 1,400 casualties, and aided by a single Gatling Gun detachment for fire support, American troops successfully stormed and occupied both El Caney and San Juan Heights.
The next task for Shafter was the investment and siege of the city of Santiago and its garrison. However, the
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
extent of the American losses were becoming known at Shafter's headquarters back at Sevilla (his gout, poor physical condition, and huge bulk did not allow him to go to the front). The casualties were delivered not only by messenger report, but also by "meat wagons" delivering the wounded and dying to the hospital. Viewing the carnage, Shafter began to waver in his determination to defeat the Spanish at Santiago. He knew his troops' position was tenuous, but again had little intelligence on the hardships of the Spanish inside beleaguered Santiago. Shafter felt the Navy was doing little to relieve the pressure on his forces. Supplies could not be delivered to the front, leaving his men in want
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
of necessities, particularly food rations. Shafter himself was ill, and very weak. With this view of events, Shafter sent a dramatic message to Washington. He suggested that the army should give up its attack and all its gains for the day, and withdraw to safer ground about five miles away. Fortunately, by the time this message reached Washington, Shafter changed his mind, and instead renewed siege operations after demanding the Spanish surrender the city and garrison of Santiago. With the victory of the U.S. Navy at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, by Admirals William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley, the fate of the Spanish position at Santiago was sealed. Shortly afterward, the Spanish
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
commander surrendered the city.
# Postwar career and retirement.
With disease rampant in the American army in Cuba, Shafter and many of his officers favored a quick withdrawal from Cuba. Shafter personally left Cuba in September 1898, and after a stay in quarantine at Camp Wikoff, Shafter returned to command the Department of California. There he oversaw the supplying of the expedition to the Philippines. In January 1900, Shafter offered the following opinion on the war in the Philippines: "My plan would be to disarm the natives of the Philippine Islands, even if I have to kill half of them to do it. Then I would treat the rest of them with perfect justice."
Shafter was a member of the Military
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, the Military Order of Foreign Wars and the Sons of the American Revolution.
Shafter retired in 1901 and retired to a farm, next to his daughter's land in Bakersfield, California. He died there in 1906 and is buried at San Francisco National Cemetery.
# In popular culture.
Shafter was portrayed by Rodger Boyce in the 1997 film "Rough Riders".
# Medal of Honor citation.
Rank and Organization:
Citation:
# Military awards.
- Medal of Honor
- Civil War Campaign Medal
- Indian Campaign Medal
- Spanish Campaign Medal
# See also.
- List of Medal of Honor recipients
# References.
- Paul H. Carlson, "William R. Shafter: Military Commander
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William Rufus Shafter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Rufus%20Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter
# In popular culture.
Shafter was portrayed by Rodger Boyce in the 1997 film "Rough Riders".
# Medal of Honor citation.
Rank and Organization:
Citation:
# Military awards.
- Medal of Honor
- Civil War Campaign Medal
- Indian Campaign Medal
- Spanish Campaign Medal
# See also.
- List of Medal of Honor recipients
# References.
- Paul H. Carlson, "William R. Shafter: Military Commander in the American West", unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, 1973
- Paul Carlson, ""Pecos Bill", a Military Biography of William R. Shafter". College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1989.
# External links.
- view of Major General Shafter (needs Flash)
| 5,833 |
43592
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John Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Herschel
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John Herschel
John Herschel
Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet (; 7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871) was an English polymath, mathematician, astronomer, chemist, inventor, experimental photographer who invented the blueprint, and did botanical work.
Herschel originated the use of the Julian day system in astronomy. He named seven moons of Saturn and four moons of Uranus. He made many contributions to the science of photography, and investigated colour blindness and the chemical power of ultraviolet rays; his "Preliminary Discourse" (1831), which advocated an inductive approach to scientific experiment and theory building, was an important contribution to the philosophy of science.
# Early life and
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John Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Herschel
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John Herschel
work on astronomy.
Herschel was born in Slough, Buckinghamshire, the son of Mary Baldwin and William Herschel. He was the nephew of astronomer Caroline Herschel. He studied shortly at Eton College and St John's College, Cambridge, graduating as Senior Wrangler in 1813. It was during his time as an undergraduate that he became friends with the mathematicians Charles Babbage and George Peacock. He left Cambridge in 1816 and started working with his father. He took up astronomy in 1816, building a reflecting telescope with a mirror in diameter, and with a focal length. Between 1821 and 1823 he re-examined, with James South, the double stars catalogued by his father. He was one of the founders
| 5,835 |
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John Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Herschel
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John Herschel
of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820. For his work with his father, he was presented with the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826 (which he won again in 1836), and with the Lalande Medal of the French Academy of Sciences in 1825, while in 1821 the Royal Society bestowed upon him the Copley Medal for his mathematical contributions to their Transactions. Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1831.
Herschel served as President of the Royal Astronomical Society three times: 1827–29, 1839–41 and 1847–49.
Herschel's "A preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy", published early in 1831 as part of "Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet cyclopædia", set
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John Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Herschel
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John Herschel
out methods of scientific investigation with an orderly relationship between observation and theorising. He described nature as being governed by laws which were difficult to discern or to state mathematically, and the highest aim of natural philosophy was understanding these laws through inductive reasoning, finding a single unifying explanation for a phenomenon. This became an authoritative statement with wide influence on science, particularly at the University of Cambridge where it inspired the student Charles Darwin with "a burning zeal" to contribute to this work.
Herschel published a catalogue of his astronomical observations in 1864, as the "General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters",
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John Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Herschel
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a compilation of his own work and that of his father's, expanding on the senior Herschel's "Catalogue of Nebulae". A further complementary volume was published posthumously, as the "General Catalogue of 10,300 Multiple and Double Stars".
Herschel correctly considered astigmatism to be due to irregularity of the cornea and theorised that vision could be improved by the application of some animal jelly contained in a capsule of glass against the cornea. His views were published in an article entitled Light in 1828 and the "Encyclopædia Metropolitana" in 1845.
Discoveries of Herschel include the galaxies NGC 7, NGC 10, NGC 25, and NGC 28
# Visit to Southern Africa.
Declining an offer from the
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Duke of Sussex that they travel to South Africa on a Navy ship, Herschel and his wife paid £500 for passage on the S.S. "Mountstuart Elphinstone", which departed from Portsmouth on 13 November 1833.
The voyage to South Africa was made in order to catalogue the stars, nebulae, and other objects of the southern skies. This was to be a completion as well as extension of the survey of the northern heavens undertaken initially by his father William Herschel. He arrived in Cape Town on 15 January 1834 and set up a private telescope at Feldhausen at Claremont, a suburb of Cape Town. Amongst his other observations during this time was that of the return of Comet Halley. Herschel collaborated with Thomas
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Maclear, the Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope and the members of the two families became close friends. During this time, he also witnessed the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae (December, 1837).
In addition to his astronomical work, however, this voyage to a far corner of the British empire also gave Herschel an escape from the pressures under which he found himself in London, where he was one of the most sought-after of all British men of science. While in southern Africa, he engaged in a broad variety of scientific pursuits free from a sense of strong obligations to a larger scientific community. It was, he later recalled, probably the happiest time in his life.
In an extraordinary
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departure from astronomy, Herschel combined his talents with those of his wife, Margaret, and between 1834 and 1838 they produced 131 botanical illustrations of fine quality, showing the Cape flora. Herschel used a camera lucida to obtain accurate outlines of the specimens and left the details to his wife. Even though their portfolio had been intended as a personal record, and despite the lack of floral dissections in the paintings, their accurate rendition makes them more valuable than many contemporary collections. Some 112 of the 132 known flower studies were collected and published as "Flora Herscheliana" in 1996.
As their home during their stay in the Cape, the Herschels had selected 'Feldhausen'
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("Field Houses"), an old estate on the south-eastern side of Table Mountain. Here John set up his reflector to begin his survey of the southern skies.
Herschel, at the same time, read widely. Intrigued by the ideas of gradual formation of landscapes set out in Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology", he wrote to Lyell on 20 February 1836 praising the book as a work that would bring "a complete revolution in [its] subject, by altering entirely the point of view in which it must thenceforward be contemplated" and opening a way for bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others." Herschel himself thought catastrophic extinction and renewal "an inadequate
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conception of the Creator" and by analogy with other intermediate causes, "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process". He prefaced his words with the couplet:
Taking a gradualist view of development and referring to evolutionary descent from a proto-language, Herschel commented:
The document was circulated, and Charles Babbage incorporated extracts in his ninth and unofficial "Bridgewater Treatise", which postulated laws set up by a divine programmer. When HMS "Beagle" called at Cape Town, Captain Robert FitzRoy and the young naturalist Charles Darwin visited Herschel on 3 June 1836.
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Later on, Darwin would be influenced by Herschel's writings in developing his theory advanced in "The Origin of Species". In the opening lines of that work, Darwin writes that his intent is "to throw some light on the origin of species – that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers," referring to Herschel. However, Herschel ultimately rejected the theory of natural selection.
Herschel returned to England in 1838, was created a baronet, of Slough in the County of Buckingham, and published "Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope" in 1847. In this publication he proposed the names still used today for the seven then-known satellites
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of Saturn: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus. In the same year, Herschel received his second Copley Medal from the Royal Society for this work. A few years later, in 1852, he proposed the names still used today for the four then-known satellites of Uranus: Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.
# Photography.
Herschel made numerous important contributions to photography. He made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in inventing the cyanotype process, which became known as blueprints. and variations, such as the chrysotype. In 1839, he made a photograph on glass, which still exists, and experimented with some color reproduction, noting that rays of different
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parts of the spectrum tended to impart their own color to a photographic paper. Herschel made experiments using photosensitive emulsions of vegetable juices, called phytotypes, also known as anthotypes, and published his discoveries in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1842. He collaborated in the early 1840s with Henry Collen, portrait painter to Queen Victoria. Herschel originally discovered the platinum process on the basis of the light sensitivity of platinum salts, later developed by William Willis.
Herschel coined the term "photography" in 1839. Herschel was also the first to apply the terms "negative" and "positive" to photography.
Herschel discovered
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sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery that this "hyposulphite of soda" ("hypo") could be used as a photographic fixer, to "fix" pictures and make them permanent, after experimentally applying it thus in early 1839.
Herschel's ground-breaking research on the subject was read at the Royal Society in London in March 1839 and January 1840.
# Other aspects of Herschel's career.
Herschel wrote many papers and articles, including entries on meteorology, physical geography and the telescope for the eighth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica". He also translated the "Iliad" of Homer.
In 1823, Herschel published his findings
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on the optical spectra of metal salts.
Herschel invented the actinometer in 1825 to measure the direct heating power of the sun's rays, and his work with the instrument is of great importance in the early history of photochemistry.
Herschel proposed a correction to the Gregorian calendar, making years that are multiples of 4000 not leap years, thus reducing the average length of the calendar year from 365.2425 days to 365.24225. Although this is closer to the mean tropical year of 365.24219 days, his proposal has never been adopted because the Gregorian calendar is based on the mean time between vernal equinoxes (currently days).
Herschel was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American
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Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832, and in 1836, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
In 1835, the "New York Sun" newspaper wrote a series of satiric articles that came to be known as the Great Moon Hoax, with statements falsely attributed to Herschel about his supposed discoveries of animals living on the Moon, including batlike winged humanoids.
The village of Herschel in western Saskatchewan Canada (site of the discovery of "Dolichorhynchops herschelensis, a type of short-necked plesiosaur",) Mount Herschel Antarctica, the crater J. Herschel on the Moon, and the Herschel Girls' School in Cape Town South Africa, are all named after him.
While it is commonly accepted
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that Herschel Island, in the Arctic Ocean, part of the Yukon Territory, was named after him, the entries in the expedition journal of Sir John Franklin state that the latter wished to honour the Herschel family, of which John Herschel's father, Sir William Herschel, and his aunt, Caroline Herschel, are as notable as John.
# Family.
Herschel married his cousin Margaret Brodie Stewart (1810–1884) on 3 March 1829 at Edinburgh and was father of the following children:
- 1. Caroline Emilia Elizabeth Herschel (31 March 1830 – 29 Jan 1909), who married Alexander Hamilton-Gordon
- 2. Isabella Herschel (5 June 1831 – 1893)
- 3. Sir William James Herschel, 2nd Bt. (9 January 1833 – 1917),
- 4. Margaret
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Louisa Herschel (1834–1861), an accomplished artist
- 5. Prof. Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836–1907), FRS, FRAS
- 6. Col. John Herschel FRS, FRAS, (1837–1921) surveyor
- 7. Marie Sophie Herschel (1839–1929)
- 8. Amelia Herschel (1841–1926) married Sir Thomas Francis Wade, diplomat and sinologist
- 9. Julia Edith Herschel (1842–1933) married on 4 June 1878 to Captain (later Admiral) John Fiot Lee Pearse Maclear
- 10. Matilda Rose Herschel (1844–1914), a gifted artist, married William Waterfield (Indian Civil Service)
- 11. Francisca Herschel (1846–1932)
- 12. Constance Ann Herschel (1855–20 June 1939)
# Death.
Herschel died on 11 May 1871 at age 79 at Collingwood, his home near Hawkhurst
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in Kent. On his death, he was given a national funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey. His obituary by Henry W Field of London was read to the American Philosophical Society on 1 December 1871.
# Bibliography.
- "On the Aberration of Compound Lenses and Object-Glasses" (1821)
- Book-length articles on "Light", "Sound" and "Physical Astronomy" for the "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana" (30 vols. 1817–45)
- "General Catalogue of 10,300 Multiple and Double Stars" (published posthumously)
- "Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects"
- "General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters"
- "Manual of Scientific Inquiry" (ed.), (1849)
- "Meteorology" (1861)
- "Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects"
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ltiple and Double Stars" (published posthumously)
- "Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects"
- "General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters"
- "Manual of Scientific Inquiry" (ed.), (1849)
- "Meteorology" (1861)
- "Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects" (1867)
# Further reading.
- On Herschel's relationship with Charles Babbage, William Whewell, and Richard Jones, see
# External links.
- Biographical information
- R. Derek Wood (2008), 'Fourteenth March 1839, Herschel's Key to Photography'
- Herschel Museum of Astronomy
- Science in the Making Herschel's papers in the Royal Society's archives
- Chronology of Astronomy in South Africa
- , published in Astronomische Nachrichten
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Hari
Hari or Har(i) (Sanskrit: हरि, Punjabi: ਹਰਿ, IAST: "Harī" or "Har") is a name for the supreme absolute in the Vedas, Guru Granth Sahib and many other sacred texts of South Asia. Hari refers to Vishnu who takes away all the sorrows of his devotees. In Rigveda’s Purusha Suktam (Praise of the supreme cosmic being), Hari is the first and most important name of god (Brahman), alternative name of supreme being is Narayana after Hari and Purusha according to Narayana Suktam of yajurveda. In the Hindu tradition, it is often used interchangeably with Vishnu to such an extent that they are considered to be one and the same. In Vedas, it is required to use the mantra "Harih om" before any recitation,
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just to declare that every ritual we perform is an offer to that supreme divine even if the hymn praises any demigod. In Hinduism, kirtan or praise songs of any god has a common name known as Hari kirtan and katha or storytelling is known as Hari katha.
No depiction of Hari (God) is permitted in Sikhism. Hari in Purusha Suktam, Narayana Suktam and Rudra Suktam is usually depicted as having a form with countless heads, limbs and arms (a way of saying that Supreme divine is pervaded everywhere and cannot be limited). Lord Hari is also called sharangapani as he also wields a bow named as sharanga.
The word "Hari" is widely used in Sanskrit and Prakrit literature as well as in Hindu, Sikhism,
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Buddhist and Jain religions. The name "Hari" also appears as the 656th name of Vishnu in the Vishnu sahasranama of the Mahabharata and is considered to be of great significance in Vaishnavism.
# Etymology.
The Sanskrit word "हरि" (Hari) is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root "*"ǵʰel-" to shine; to flourish; green; yellow" which also gave rise to the Persian terms "zar" 'gold', Greek "khloros" 'green', Slavic "zelen" 'green' and "zolto" 'gold', as well as the English words "yellow" and "gold".
The same root occurs in other Sanskrit words like "haridrā", 'turmeric', named for its yellow color.
## Other names of Hari.
There are multiple names of Lord Hari mentioned in the holy scriptures
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of Hinduism such as the Bhagwad Gita and Mahabharata. A few names which are used quite frequently,
- Vishnu
- Narayana
- Rama
- Krishna
- List of names of Vishnu
- Madhav
- Damodar
- Govind
- Gopal
# In Indian religion.
- The Harivamsha ("lineage of Hari") is a text in both the Puranic and Itihasa traditions.
- As the name of tawny-colored animals, "hari" may refer to lions (also a name of the zodiacal sign Leo), bay horses, or monkeys. The feminine "Harī " is the name of the mythological "mother of monkeys" in the Sanskrit epics.
- Harihara is the name of a fused deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) in Hinduism.
- Hari is the name of a class of gods under the fourth
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Manu ("manu tāmasa", "Dark Manu") in the Puranas.
- In Hinduism, beginning with Adi Sankara's commentary on the Vishnu sahasranama, "hari" became etymologized as derived from the verbal root "hṛ" "to grab, seize, steal", in the context of Vaishnavism interpreted as "to take away or remove evil or sin", and the name of Vishnu rendered as "he who destroys samsara", which is the entanglement in the cycle of birth and death, along with ignorance, its cause; compare "hara" as a name of Shiva, translated as "seizer" or "destroyer".
- In the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, Hari is a name of both Krishna or Vishnu, invoked in the Hare Krishna mantra (Hare is a vocative form of Harih, used in mahamantra).
-
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estroys samsara", which is the entanglement in the cycle of birth and death, along with ignorance, its cause; compare "hara" as a name of Shiva, translated as "seizer" or "destroyer".
- In the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, Hari is a name of both Krishna or Vishnu, invoked in the Hare Krishna mantra (Hare is a vocative form of Harih, used in mahamantra).
- The element "hari" is found in a number of Hindu given names, e.g. Bhartrhari, Harendra (i.e. "hari-Indra"), Harisha (i.e. "hari-Isha"), Hariprasad, Harikesh (Harikesha, "golden-haired", also a name of Shiva and of Savitar), etc.
# See also.
- Vishnu
- Narayana
- Hari Nama Keerthanam
- Hari Tuma Haro
- Harikatha
- Harijan
- Krishna
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Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon
Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon or "Bacon's Law" is a parlour game based on the "six degrees of separation" concept, which posits that any two people on Earth are six or fewer acquaintance links apart. Movie buffs challenge each other to find the shortest path between an arbitrary actor and prolific actor Kevin Bacon. It rests on the assumption that anyone involved in the Hollywood film industry can be linked through their film roles to Bacon within six steps. In 2007, Bacon started a charitable organization called SixDegrees.org.
# History.
In a January 1994 interview with "Premiere" magazine Kevin Bacon mentioned while discussing the film "The River Wild" that "he had
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worked with everybody in Hollywood or someone who's worked with them." Following this, a lengthy newsgroup thread which was headed "Kevin Bacon is the Center of the Universe" appeared. Four Albright College students, including Brian Turtle, claim to have invented the game that became known as "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" after watching two movies featuring Bacon back to back, "Footloose" and "The Air Up There". During the second they began to speculate on how many movies Bacon had been in and the number of people with whom he had worked. In the interview, Brian Turtle explained how "it became one of our stupid party tricks I guess. People would throw names at us and we'd connect them to Kevin
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Bacon."
They wrote a letter to talk show host Jon Stewart, telling him that "Kevin Bacon was the center of the entertainment universe" and explaining the game. They appeared on "The Jon Stewart Show" and "The Howard Stern Show" with Bacon to explain the game. Bacon admitted that he initially disliked the game because he believed it was ridiculing him, but he eventually came to enjoy it. The three inventors released a book, "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" (), with an introduction written by Bacon. A board game based on the concept was released by Endless Games.
Bacon also appeared in a commercial for the Visa check card that parodied the game. In the commercial, Bacon wants to write a check to
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buy a book, but the clerk asks for his ID, which he does not have. He leaves and returns with a group of people, then says to the clerk, "Okay, I was in a movie with an extra, Eunice, whose hairdresser, Wayne, attended Sunday school with Father O'Neill, who plays racquetball with Dr. Sanjay, who recently removed the appendix of Kim, who dumped you sophomore year. So you see, we're practically brothers." In a similar vein, Dave Barry, in a column describing the unexpected complications that emerged when he attempted to find out the precise wording of the Lone Ranger's catchphrase, connected the Lone Ranger to Kevin Bacon in the following way: the Lone Ranger was the Green Hornet's great-uncle;
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the Green Hornet and O. J. Simpson both hung out with people named Kato; Simpson and Robert Wagner co-starred in "The Towering Inferno"; Wagner and Bacon co-starred in "Wild Things".
The concept was also presented in an episode of the TV show "Mad About You" dated November 19, 1996, in which a character expressed the opinion that every actor is only three degrees of separation from Kevin Bacon. Bacon spoofed the concept himself in a cameo he performed for the independent film "We Married Margo". Playing himself in a 2003 episode of "Will and Grace", Bacon connects himself to Val Kilmer through Tom Cruise and jokes "Hey, that was a short one!". The headline of "The Onion", a satirical newspaper,
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on October 30, 2002, was "Kevin Bacon Linked To Al-Qaeda". Bacon provides the voice-over commentary for the NY Skyride attraction at the Empire State Building in New York City. At several points throughout the commentary, Bacon alludes to his connections to Hollywood stars via other actors with whom he has worked.
In 2009, Bacon narrated a National Geographic Channel show "The Human Family Tree" – a program which describes the efforts of that organization's Genographic Project to establish the genetic interconnectedness of all humans. In 2011, James Franco made reference to Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon while hosting the 83rd Academy Awards. In the summer of 2012, Google began to offer the ability
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to find an actor's Bacon number on its main page, by searching for the actor's name preceded by the phrase "bacon number".
EE began a UK television advertising campaign on November 3, 2012, based on the Six Degrees concept, where Kevin Bacon illustrates his connections and draws attention to how the EE 4G network allows similar connectivity.
The most highly connected nodes of the Internet have been referred to as "the 'Kevin Bacons' of the Web," inasmuch as they enable most users to navigate to most sites in 19 clicks or less. In "Weird Al" Yankovic's song "Lame Claim to Fame," one of the lines is, "I know a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows Kevin
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Bacon."
# Bacon numbers.
The Bacon number of an actor is the number of degrees of separation he or she has from Bacon, as defined by the game. This is an application of the Erdős number concept to the Hollywood movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the greater the separation from Kevin Bacon the actor is.
The computation of a Bacon number for actor X is a "shortest path" algorithm, applied to the co-stardom network:
- Kevin Bacon himself has a Bacon number of 0.
- Those actors who have worked directly with Kevin Bacon have a Bacon number of 1.
- If the lowest Bacon number of any actor with whom X has appeared in any movie is N, X's Bacon number is N+1.
## Examples.
Elvis Presley:
-
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Elvis Presley was in "Change of Habit" (1969) with Edward Asner
- Edward Asner was in "JFK" (1991) with Kevin Bacon
Therefore, Asner has a Bacon number of 1, and Presley (who never appeared in a film with Bacon) has a Bacon number of 2.
Ian McKellen:
- Ian McKellen was in "" (2014) with Michael Fassbender and James McAvoy
- McAvoy and Fassbender were in "" (2011) with Kevin Bacon
Therefore, McAvoy and Fassbender have Bacon numbers of 1, and McKellen has a Bacon number of 2.
Because some people have both a finite Bacon "and" a finite Erdős number because of acting and publications, there are a rare few who have a finite Erdős–Bacon number, which is defined as the sum of a person's independent
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Erdős and Bacon numbers.
# Center of the Hollywood Universe.
While at the University of Virginia, Brett Tjaden created the Oracle of Bacon. A previous version of this computer program used information on some 800,000 people from the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), while the current implementation uses data drawn from Wikipedia. The algorithm calculates "how good a center" an individual IMDb personality is, i.e. a weighted average of the degree of separation of all the people that link to that particular person. The site returns an average "personality" number, e.g. for Clint Eastwood, it returns an average "Clint Eastwood Number." From there the Oracle site posits "The Center of the Hollywood
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Universe" as being the person with the lowest average personality number. Kevin Bacon, as it turns out, is not the "Center of the Hollywood Universe" (i.e. the most linkable actor). In fact, Bacon does not even make the top 100 list of average personality numbers. While he is not the most linkable actor, this still signifies being a better center than more than 99% of the people who have ever appeared in a film. Since each actor's average personality number can change with each new film made, the center can and does shift. "Centers" have included Rod Steiger, Donald Sutherland, Eric Roberts, Dennis Hopper, Christopher Lee and Harvey Keitel.
# Photography book.
Inspired by the game, the British
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photographer Andy Gotts tried to reach Kevin Bacon through photographic links instead of film links.
Gotts wrote to 300 actors asking to take their pictures, and received permission only from Joss Ackland. Ackland then suggested that Gotts photograph Greta Scacchi, with whom he had appeared in the film "White Mischief". Gotts proceeded from there, asking each actor to refer him to one or more friends or colleagues. Eventually, Christian Slater referred him to Bacon. Gotts' photograph of Bacon completed the project, eight years after it began. Gotts published the photos in a book, "Degrees" (), with text by Alan Bates, Pierce Brosnan, and Bacon.
# See also.
- Morphy Number, connections via
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chess games to Paul Morphy
- Shusaku number, equivalent in the Go world with Honinbo Shusaku
- Erdős number, collaborations on mathematical papers with Paul Erdős
- Erdős–Bacon number, the sum of a person's Erdős number and Bacon number
# External links.
- The Oracle of Bacon computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from Wikipedia data. A previous implementation used IMDB data.
- Six Degrees of James A. Conrad A how-to demonstration for those wishing to compile their own "degrees of" list by a Hollywood author who is three degrees of Bacon.
- Cinema FreeNet Movie Connector finds links between stars, but can also use directors and producers.
- Filmlovr.com browse the extensive
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Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon
nd Bacon number
# External links.
- The Oracle of Bacon computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from Wikipedia data. A previous implementation used IMDB data.
- Six Degrees of James A. Conrad A how-to demonstration for those wishing to compile their own "degrees of" list by a Hollywood author who is three degrees of Bacon.
- Cinema FreeNet Movie Connector finds links between stars, but can also use directors and producers.
- Filmlovr.com browse the extensive film library to find films to connect via their actors aka determine the Bacon number.
- Six Degrees of Lois Weisberg suggests that Bacon connects to many actors because he acts in many different kinds of roles and films.
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Arsinoe
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Arsinoe
Arsinoe
Arsinoe (), sometimes spelled Arsinoë, pronounced Arsinoi in modern Greek, may refer to:
# People.
- Arsinoe of Macedon, mother of Ptolemy I Soter
- Apama II or Arsinoe (c. 292 BC–after 249 BC), wife of Magas of Cyrene and mother of Berenice II
- Arsinoe, probable mother of Lysimachus or his first wife Nicaea of Macedon
- Arsinoe I (305 BC–247 BC) of Egypt
- Arsinoe II (316 BC–270 BC) of Egypt
- Arsinoe III of Egypt (c. 246 BC–204 BC)
- Arsinoe IV of Egypt (died 41 BC), half-sister of Cleopatra VII
- Arsinoe (mythology), name of multiple mythological figures
# Places.
- Arsinoe (Cilicia)
- Arsinoe (Crete)
- Arsinoe (Northwest Cyprus)
- Arsinoe (Southwest Cyprus)
- Arsinoe
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(Gulf of Suez), a port of Egypt
- Arsinoe (Eritrea)
- Conope (Greece) or Arsinoe
- Ephesus, also called Arsinoe
- Faiyum (Egypt), also called Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis, seat of the Roman Catholic titular bishopric Arsinoë in Arcadia
- Famagusta (Cyprus) or Arsinoe
- Coressia (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Hellenistic period
- Methana (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Ptolemaic period
- Olbia (Egypt) or Arsinoe
- Patara (Lycia) or Arsinoe
- Taucheira (Libya) or Arsinoe
- Arsinoes Chaos, located in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle on Mars
# Literature.
- Arsinoe, a character in "Le Misanthrope" by Molière
- Arsinoe, a character in "The Etruscan" by Mika Waltari
- Arsinoe, a character
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itular bishopric Arsinoë in Arcadia
- Famagusta (Cyprus) or Arsinoe
- Coressia (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Hellenistic period
- Methana (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Ptolemaic period
- Olbia (Egypt) or Arsinoe
- Patara (Lycia) or Arsinoe
- Taucheira (Libya) or Arsinoe
- Arsinoes Chaos, located in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle on Mars
# Literature.
- Arsinoe, a character in "Le Misanthrope" by Molière
- Arsinoe, a character in "The Etruscan" by Mika Waltari
- Arsinoe, a character in "Three Dark Crowns" by Kendare Blake
# Other uses.
- "Arsinoe" (genus), a genus of beetle in the family Carabidae
- 404 Arsinoë, an asteroid
# See also.
- Arsinoi, a community in Messenia
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Ghost town
Ghost town
A ghost town is an abandoned village, town, or city, usually one that contains substantial visible remains. A town often becomes a ghost town because the economic activity that supported it has failed, or due to natural or human-caused disasters such as floods, prolonged droughts, government actions, uncontrolled lawlessness, war, pollution, or nuclear disasters. The term can sometimes refer to cities, towns, and neighbourhoods that are still populated, but significantly less so than in past years; for example, those affected by high levels of unemployment and dereliction.
Some ghost towns, especially those that preserve period-specific architecture, have become tourist attractions.
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Some examples are Bannack, Garnet, Calico, Centralia, Oatman, and South Pass City in the United States, Barkerville in Canada, Craco in Italy, Elizabeth Bay and Kolmanskop in Namibia, Pripyat in Ukraine, and Danushkodi in India.
The town of Plymouth on the Caribbean island of Montserrat is a ghost town that is the "de jure" capital of Montserrat. It was rendered uninhabitable by volcanic ash from an eruption.
# Definition.
The definition of a ghost town varies between individuals, and between cultures. Some writers discount settlements that were abandoned as a result of a natural or human-made disaster or other causes using the term only to describe settlements that were deserted because
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they were no longer economically viable; T. Lindsey Baker, author of "Ghost Towns of Texas", defines a ghost town as "a town for which the reason for being no longer exists". Some believe that any settlement with visible tangible remains should not be called a ghost town; others say, conversely, that a ghost town should contain the tangible remains of buildings. Whether or not the settlement must be completely deserted, or may contain a small population, is also a matter for debate. Generally, though, the term is used in a looser sense, encompassing any and all of these definitions. The American author Lambert Florin's preferred definition of a ghost town was simply "a shadowy semblance of a
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former self".
# Reasons for abandonment.
Factors leading to abandonment of towns include depleted natural resources, economic activity shifting elsewhere, railroads and roads bypassing or no longer accessing the town, human intervention, disasters, massacres, wars, and the shifting of politics or fall of empires. A town can also be abandoned when it is part of an exclusion zone due to natural or man-made causes.
## Economic activity shifting elsewhere.
Ghost towns may result when the single activity or resource that created a boomtown (e.g., nearby mine, mill or resort) is depleted or the resource economy undergoes a "bust" (e.g., catastrophic resource price collapse). Boomtowns can often
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decrease in size as fast as they initially grew. Sometimes, all or nearly the entire population can desert the town, resulting in a ghost town.
The dismantling of a boomtown can often occur on a planned basis. Mining companies nowadays will create a temporary community to service a mine site, building all the accommodation, shops and services required, and then remove them once the resource has been extracted. Modular buildings can be used to facilitate the process. A gold rush would often bring intensive but short-lived economic activity to a remote village, only to leave a ghost town once the resource was depleted.
In some cases, multiple factors may remove the economic basis for a community;
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some former mining towns on U.S. Route 66 suffered both mine closures when the resources were depleted and loss of highway traffic as US 66 was diverted away from places like Oatman, Arizona onto a more direct path. Mine and pulp mill closures have led to many ghost towns in British Columbia, Canada including several relatively recent ones: Ocean Falls which closed in 1973 after the pulp mill was decommissioned, Kitsault B.C. whose molybdenum mine shut down after only 18 months in 1982, and Cassiar whose asbestos mine operated from 1952 to 1992.
In other cases, the reason for abandonment can arise from a town's intended economic function shifting to another, nearby place. This happened to Collingwood,
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Queensland in Outback Australia when nearby Winton outperformed Collingwood as a regional centre for the livestock-raising industry. The railway reached Winton in 1899, linking it with the rest of Queensland, and Collingwood was a ghost town by the following year.
The Middle East has many ghost towns that were created when the shifting of politics or the fall of empires caused capital cities to be socially or economically unviable, such as Ctesiphon.
The rise of condominium investment and a resulting real estate bubble may also lead to a ghost town, as real estate prices rise and affordable housing becomes less available. Such examples include China and Canada, where housing is often used
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as an investment rather than for habitation.
## Human intervention.
Railroads and roads bypassing or no longer reaching a town can also create a ghost town. This was the case in many of the ghost towns along Ontario's historic Opeongo Line, and along U.S. Route 66 after motorists bypassed the latter on the faster moving highways I-44 and I-40. Some ghost towns were founded along railways where steam trains would stop at periodic intervals to take on water. Amboy, California was part of one such series of villages along the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad across the Mojave Desert.
River re-routing is another factor, one example being the towns along the Aral Sea.
Ghost towns may be created
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when land is expropriated by a government, and residents are required to relocate. One example is the village of Tyneham in Dorset, England, acquired during World War II to build an artillery range.
A similar situation occurred in the U.S. when NASA acquired land to construct the John C. Stennis Space Center (SSC), a rocket testing facility in Hancock County, Mississippi (on the Mississippi side of the Pearl River, which is the Mississippi–Louisiana state line). This required NASA to acquire a large (approximately ) buffer zone because of the loud noise and potential dangers associated with testing such rockets. Five thinly populated rural Mississippi communities (Gainesville, Logtown, Napoleon,
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Santa Rosa, and Westonia), plus the northern portion of a sixth (Pearlington), along with 700 families in residence, had to be completely relocated away from the facility.
Sometimes the town might cease to officially exist, but the physical infrastructure remains. For example, the five Mississippi communities that had to be abandoned to build SSC still have remnants of those communities within the facility itself. These include city streets, now overgrown with forest flora and fauna, and a one-room schoolhouse. Another example of infrastructure remaining is the former town of Weston, Illinois, that voted itself out of existence and turned the land over for construction of the Fermi National
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Accelerator Laboratory. Many houses and even a few barns remain, used for housing visiting scientists and storing maintenance equipment, while roads that used to cross through the site have been blocked off at the edges of the property, with gatehouses or barricades to prevent unsupervised access.
### Flooding by dams.
Construction of dams has produced ghost towns that have been left underwater. Examples include the settlement of Loyston, Tennessee, U.S., inundated by the creation of Norris Dam. The town was reorganised and reconstructed on nearby higher ground. Other examples are The Lost Villages of Ontario flooded by Saint Lawrence Seaway construction in 1958, the hamlets of Nether Hambleton
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and Middle Hambleton in Rutland, England, which were flooded to create Rutland Water, and the villages of Ashopton and Derwent, England, flooded during the construction of the Ladybower Reservoir. Mologa in Russia was flooded by the creation of Rybinsk reservoir, and in France the Tignes Dam flooded the village of Tignes, displacing 78 families. Many ancient villages had to be abandoned during construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China, leading to the displacement of many rural people. In the Costa Rican province of Guanacaste, the town of Arenal was rebuilt to make room for the man-made Lake Arenal. The old town now lies submerged below the lake. Old Adaminaby was flooded by a dam of the
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Snowy River Scheme. Construction of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River in Egypt submerged archaeological sites and ancient settlements such as Buhen under Lake Nasser. Another example of towns left underwater is Tehri; by the construction of the Tehri Dam in the Indian state of Uttarakhand.
### Massacres.
Some towns become deserted when their populations are massacred. The original French village at Oradour-sur-Glane was destroyed on 10 June 1944 when 642 of its 663 inhabitants, including women and children, were killed by a German Waffen-SS company. A new village was built after the war on a nearby site, and the ruins of the original have been maintained as a memorial.
## Disasters, actual
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and anticipated.
Natural and man-made disasters can create ghost towns. For example, after being flooded more than 30 times since their town was founded in 1845, residents of Pattonsburg, Missouri, decided to relocate after two floods in 1993. With government help, the whole town was rebuilt away.
Craco, a medieval village in the Italian region of Basilicata, was evacuated after a landslide in 1963. Nowadays it is a famous filming location for many movies, including "The Passion of The Christ" by Mel Gibson, "Christ Stopped at Eboli" by Francesco Rosi, "The Nativity Story" by Catherine Hardwicke and "Quantum of Solace" by Marc Forster.
In 1984, Centralia, Pennsylvania was abandoned due to
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an uncontainable mine fire, which began in 1962 and still rages to this day; eventually the fire reached an abandoned mine underneath the nearby town of Byrnesville, Pennsylvania, which caused that mine to catch on fire too and forced the evacuation of that town as well.
Ghost towns may also occasionally come into being due to an "anticipated" natural disaster – for example, the Canadian town of Lemieux, Ontario was abandoned in 1991 after soil testing revealed that the community was built on an unstable bed of Leda clay. Two years after the last building in Lemieux was demolished, a landslide swept part of the former town-site into the South Nation River. Two decades earlier, the Canadian
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town of Saint-Jean-Vianney, Québec, also constructed on a Leda clay base, had been abandoned after a landslide on 4 May 1971, which swept away 41 homes, killing 31 people.
Following the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, dangerously high levels of nuclear radiation escaped into the surrounding area, and nearly 200 towns and villages in Ukraine and neighbouring Belarus were evacuated, including the cities of Pripyat and Chernobyl. The area was so contaminated with nuclear radiation that many of the evacuees were never permitted to return to their homes. Pripyat is the most famous of these abandoned towns; it was built for the workers of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and had a population of almost
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50,000 at the time of the disaster.
## Disease and contamination.
Significant fatality rates from epidemics have produced ghost towns. Some places in eastern Arkansas were abandoned after more than 7,000 Arkansans died during the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 and 1919. Several communities in Ireland, particularly in the west of the country, were wiped out due to the Great Famine in the latter half of the 19th century, and the years of economic decline that followed.
Catastrophic environmental damage caused by long-term contamination can also create a ghost town. Some notable examples are Times Beach, Missouri, whose residents were exposed to a high level of dioxins, and Wittenoom, Western
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Australia, which was once Australia's largest source of blue asbestos, but was shut down in 1966 due to health concerns. Treece and Picher, twin communities straddling the Kansas–Oklahoma border, were once one of the United States' largest sources of zinc and lead, but over a century of unregulated disposal of mine tailings led to groundwater contamination and lead poisoning in the town's children, eventually resulting in a mandatory Environmental Protection Agency buyout and evacuation. Contamination due to ammunition caused by military use may also lead to the development of ghost towns. Rerik West, an area of Rerik, Germany, had been home to a Group of Soviet Forces in Germany barracks during
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the German Democratic Republic, but following German reunification it was abandoned due to ammunition contamination from the barracks. Located on a peninsula separated from Rerik by a small isthmus, in 1992 it was turned into a restricted area while the rest of the town remained populated.
# Revived ghost towns.
A few ghost towns get a second life, often due to heritage tourism generating a new economy able to support residents. For example, Walhalla, Victoria, Australia, became almost deserted after its gold mine ceased operation in 1914, but owing to its accessibility and proximity to other attractive locations, it has had a recent economic and holiday population surge.
Alexandria, the
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second largest city of Egypt, was a flourishing city in the Ancient era, but declined during the Middle Ages. It underwent a dramatic revival during the 19th century; from a population of 5,000 in 1806, it grew into a city of more than 200,000 inhabitants by 1882, and is now home to more than four million people.
In Algeria, many cities became hamlets after the end of Late Antiquity. They were revived with shifts in population during and after French colonization of Algeria. Oran, currently the nation's second largest city with 1 million people, was a village of only a few thousand people before colonization.
Foncebadón, a village in León, Spain that was mostly abandoned and only inhabited
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by a mother and son, is slowly being revived owing to the ever-increasing stream of pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela.
# Around the world.
## Africa.
Wars and rebellions in some African countries have left many towns and villages deserted. Since 2003, when President François Bozizé came to power, thousands of citizens of the Central African Republic have been forced to flee their homes as a result of the escalating conflict between armed rebels and government troops. Villages accused of supporting the rebels, such as Beogombo Deux near Paoua, are ransacked by government soldiers. Those who are not killed have no choice but to escape to refugee camps. The instability in the region
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also leaves organized and well-equipped bandits free to terrorize the populace, often leaving villages abandoned in their wake. Elsewhere in Africa, the town of Lukangol was burnt to the ground during tribal clashes in South Sudan. Before its destruction, the town had a population of 20,000. The Libyan town of Tawergha had a population of around 25,000 before it was abandoned during the 2011 civil war, and it has remained empty since.
Many of the ghost towns in mineral-rich Africa are former mining towns. Shortly after the start of the 1908 diamond rush in German South-West Africa, now known as Namibia, the German Imperial government claimed sole mining rights by creating the "Sperrgebiet"
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("forbidden zone"), effectively criminalizing new settlement. The small mining towns of this area, among them Pomona, Elizabeth Bay and Kolmanskop, were exempt from this ban, but the denial of new land claims soon rendered all of them ghost towns.
## Asia.
China has many large urban property developments, sometimes referred to as "ghost cities", that have remained mostly unoccupied since they were built.
The town of Dhanushkodi, India is a ghost town.
Many abandoned towns and settlements in the former Soviet Union were established near Gulag concentration camps to supply necessary services. Since most of these camps were abandoned in the 1950s, the towns were abandoned as well. One such
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