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Insofar as the minstrels had authentic contact with black culture, it was via neighborhoods, taverns, theaters and waterfronts where blacks and whites could mingle freely. The inauthenticity of the music and the Irish and Scottish elements in it are explained by the fact that slaves were rarely allowed to play native African music and therefore had to adopt and adapt elements of European folk music. Compounding the problem is the difficulty in ascertaining how much minstrel music was written by black composers, as the custom at the time was to sell all rights to a song to publishers or other performers. Nevertheless, many troupes claimed to have carried out more serious "fieldwork". Similar
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to American people who come from all over the world creating one big 'melting pot,' it is only fitting that some of the first forms of truly American music and drama are composed of elements from many different places.
Early blackface songs often consisted of unrelated verses strung together by a common chorus. In this pre-Emmett minstrelsy, the music "jangled the nerves of those who believed in music that was proper, respectable, polished, and harmonic, with recognizable melodies." It was thus a juxtaposition of "vigorous earth-slapping footwork of black dances … with the Irish lineaments of blackface jigs and reels." Similar to the look of a blackface performer, the lyrics in the songs that
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were sung have a tone of mockery and a spirit of laughing at black Americans rather than with them. The minstrel show texts sometimes even mixed black lore, such as stories about talking animals or slave tricksters, with humor from the region southwest of the Appalachians, itself a mixture of traditions from different races and cultures. Minstrel instruments were also a mélange: African banjo and tambourine with European fiddle and bones In short, early minstrel music and dance was not true black culture; it was a white reaction to it. This was the first large-scale appropriation and commercial exploitation of black culture by American whites.
In the late 1830s, a decidedly European structure
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and high-brow style became popular in minstrel music. The banjo, played with "scientific touches of perfection" and popularized by Joel Sweeney, became the heart of the minstrel band. Songs like the Virginia Minstrels' hit "Old Dan Tucker" have a catchy tune and energetic rhythm, melody and harmony; minstrel music was now for singing as well as dancing. The "Spirit of the Times" even described the music as vulgar because it was "entirely too elegant" and that the "excellence" of the singing "[was] an objection to it." Others complained that the minstrels had foregone their black roots. In short, the Virginia Minstrels and their imitators wanted to please a new audience of predominantly white,
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middle-class Northerners, by playing music the spectators would find familiar and pleasant.
Despite the elements of ridicule contained in blackface performance, mid-19th century white audiences, by and large, believed the songs and dances to be authentically black. For their part, the minstrels always billed themselves and their music as such. The songs were called "plantation melodies" or "Ethiopian choruses", among other names. By using the black caricatures and so-called black music, the minstrels added a touch of the unknown to the evening's entertainment, which was enough to fool audiences into accepting the whole performance as authentic.
The minstrels' dance styles, on the other hand,
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were much truer to their alleged source. The success of "Jump Jim Crow" is indicative: It was an old English tune with fairly standard lyrics, which leaves only Rice's dance—wild upper-body movements with little movement below the waist—to explain its popularity. Dances like the Turkey Trot, the Buzzard Lope, and the Juba dance all had their origins in the plantations of the South, and some were popularized by black performers such as William Henry Lane, Signor Cornmeali ("Old Corn Meal"), and John "Picayune" Butler. One performance by Lane in 1842 was described as consisting of "sliding steps, like a shuffle, and not the high steps of an Irish jig." Lane and the white men who mimicked him moved
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about the stage with no obvious foot movement. The walk around, a common feature of the minstrel show's first act, was ultimately of West African origin and featured a competition between individuals hemmed in by the other minstrels. Elements of white tradition remained, of course, such as the fast-paced "breakdown" that formed part of the repertoire beginning with Rice. Minstrel dance was generally not held to the same mockery as other parts, although contemporaries such as Fanny Kemble argued that minstrel dances were merely a "faint, feeble, impotent—in a word, pale Northern reproductions of that ineffable black conception."
The introduction of the jubilee, or spiritual, marked the minstrels'
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first undeniable adoption of black music. These songs remained relatively authentic in nature, antiphonal with a repetitive structure that relied heavily on call and response. The black troupes sang the most authentic jubilees, while white companies inserted humorous verses and replaced religious themes with plantation imagery, often starring the old darky. "Jubilee" eventually became synonymous with "plantation".
# Legacy.
The minstrel show played a powerful role in shaping assumptions about black people. However, unlike vehemently anti-black propaganda from the time, minstrelsy made this attitude palatable to a wide audience by couching it in the guise of well-intentioned paternalism.
Popular
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entertainment perpetuated the racist stereotype of the uneducated, ever-cheerful, and highly musical black person well into the 1950s. Even as the minstrel show was dying out in all but amateur theater, blackface performers became common acts on vaudeville stages and in legitimate drama. These entertainers kept the familiar songs, dances, and pseudo-black dialect, often in nostalgic looks back at the old minstrel show. The most famous of these performers is probably Al Jolson, who took blackface to the big screen in the 1920s in films such as "The Jazz Singer" (1927). His 1930 film "Mammy" uses the setting of a traveling minstrel show, giving an on-screen presentation of a performance. Likewise,
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when the sound era of cartoons began in the late 1920s, early animators such as Walt Disney gave characters such as Mickey Mouse (who already resembled blackface performers) a minstrel-show personality; the early Mickey is constantly singing and dancing and smiling. The face of Raggedy Ann is a color-reversed minstrel mask, and Raggedy Ann's creator, Johnny Gruelle, designed the doll in part with the antics of blackface star Fred Stone in mind. As late as 1942, as demonstrated in the Warner Bros. cartoon "Fresh Hare", minstrel shows could be used as a gag (in this case, Elmer Fudd and Bugs Bunny leading a chorus of "Camptown Races") with the expectation, presumably, that audiences would get
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the reference. Radio shows got into the act, a fact perhaps best exemplified by the popular radio shows "Two Black Crows", "Sam 'n' Henry", and "Amos 'n' Andy", A transcription survives from 1931 of "The Blue Coal Minstrels", which uses many of the standard forms of the minstrel show, including Tambo, Bones and the interlocutor. The National Broadcasting Company, in a 1930 pamphlet, used the minstrel show as a point of reference in selling its services. As recently as the mid-1970s the BBC broadcast "The Black and White Minstrel Show" starring the George Mitchell Minstrels. The racist archetypes that blackface minstrelsy helped to create persist to this day; some argue that this is even true
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in hip hop culture and movies. The 2000 Spike Lee movie "Bamboozled" alleges that modern black entertainment exploits African-American culture much as the minstrel shows did a century ago, for example.
Meanwhile, African-American actors were limited to the same old minstrel-defined roles for years to come and by playing them, made them more believable to white audiences. On the other hand, these parts opened the entertainment industry to African-American performers and gave them their first opportunity to alter those stereotypes. Many famous singers and actors gained their start in black minstrelsy, including W. C. Handy, Ida Cox, Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Ethel Waters, and Butterbeans and Susie.
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The Rabbit's Foot Company was a variety troupe, founded in 1900 by an African American, Pat Chappelle, which drew on and developed the minstrel tradition while updating it and helping to develop and spread black musical styles. Besides Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, later musicians working for "the Foots" included Louis Jordan, Brownie McGhee and Rufus Thomas, and the company was still touring as late as 1950. Its success was rivalled by other touring variety troupes, such as ""Silas Green from New Orleans"."
The very structure of American entertainment bears minstrelsy's imprint. The endless barrage of gags and puns appears in the work of the Marx Brothers and David and Jerry Zucker. The varied
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structure of songs, gags, "hokum" and dramatic pieces continued into vaudeville, variety shows, and to modern sketch comedy shows such as "Hee Haw" or, more distantly, "Saturday Night Live" and "In Living Color". Jokes once delivered by endmen are still told today: "Why did the chicken cross the road?" "Why does a fireman wear red suspenders?" Other jokes form part of the repertoire of modern comedians: "Who was that lady I saw you with last night? That was no lady—that was my wife!" The stump speech is an important precursor to modern stand-up comedy.
Another important legacy of minstrelsy is its music. The hokum blues genre carried over the dandy, the wench, the simple-minded slave characters
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(sometimes rendered as the rustic white "rube") and even the interlocutor into early blues and country music incarnations through the medium of "race music" and "hillbilly" recordings. Many minstrel tunes are now popular folk songs. Most have been expunged of the exaggerated black dialect and the overt references to blacks. "Dixie", for example, was adopted by the Confederacy as its unofficial national anthem and is still popular, and "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny" was sanitized and made the state song of Virginia until 1997. "My Old Kentucky Home" remains the state song of Kentucky. The instruments of the minstrel show were largely kept on, especially in the South. Minstrel performers from
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the last days of the shows, such as Uncle Dave Macon, helped popularize the banjo and fiddle in modern country music. And by introducing America to black dance and musical style, minstrels opened the nation to black cultural forms for the first time on a large scale.
# Motion pictures with minstrel show routines.
A small number of films available today contain authentic recreations of Minstrel show numbers and routines. Due to their content they are rarely (if ever) broadcast on television today, but are available on home video.
- "Babes on Broadway" (1941), a musical starring Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland. The next-to-last musical number is a medley of songs performed in blackface.
- "Honolulu"
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(1939), in which Eleanor Powell performs a blackface dance homage to Bill "Bojangles" Robinson.
- "Fresh Hare" (1942), an animated short featuring Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd. The final scene, edited out of recent television broadcasts, shows Bunny and Fudd in blackface, along with five tall men in the same condition, singing "Camptown Races".
- "The Adventures of Mark Twain" (1944), blackface musicians perform a jolly number on the river vessel, in the scene where Captain Clemens rescues Charles Langdon from a thief.
- "Dixie" (1943), a film based on the life of songwriter Daniel Decatur Emmett. It includes Bing Crosby singing the film's title song in blackface.
- "Holiday Inn" (1942), contains
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a musical number entitled "Abraham" with Bing Crosby performing in blackface in the style of a minstrel show. Beginning in the 1980s, this number has been cut from many TV broadcasts.
- "Hollywood Varieties" (1950), a collection of stage acts with Glen Vernon and Edward Ryan in a blackface skit.
- "I Dream of Jeanie" (1952) aka "I Dream of Jeanie (with the Light Brown Hair"), a completely fictional film biography of Stephen Foster. Veteran performer Glen Turnbull makes a guest appearance as a blackface Minstrel performer in Christy's Minstrels.
- "The Jazz Singer" (1927), the first feature-length motion picture with synchronized dialogue sequences. Based on a play by Samson Raphaelson, the
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story tells of Jakie Rabinowitz (Al Jolson), the son of a devout Jewish family, who runs away from home to become a jazz singer.
- "Mammy" (1930), another Al Jolson film, this relives Jolson's early years as a minstrel man. With songs by Irving Berlin, who is also credited with the original story titled "Mr. Bones".
- "Minstrel Man" (1944), a fictional film about the rise, fall, and revival of a minstrel performer's career. It was nominated for two Academy Awards (Best Original Song and Best Original Score).
- "My Wild Irish Rose" (1947), starring Dennis Morgan, Andrea King, and Arlene Dahl, is set in 1890s New York and features several scenes depicting blackface musical numbers.
- "A Plantation
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Act" (1926), a Vitaphone sound-on-disc short film starring Al Jolson. Long thought to have been lost, a copy of the film and sound disc were located and the restored version has been issued as a bonus feature on the DVD release of "The Jazz Singer".
- "Show Boat" (1936), film starring Irene Dunne, Allan Jones, Hattie McDaniel, Paul Robeson. One of the shows on board is a blackface minstrel act.
- "Swanee River" (1940), another fictionalized biographical film on Stephen Foster. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Musical Scoring and was the last on-screen appearance of Al Jolson.
- "Torch Song" (1953), starring Joan Crawford, Michael Wilding, and Marjorie Rambeau, contains a musical
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number, done in blackface, entitled "Two-faced Woman."
- "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1903), an early "full-length" movie (between 10 and 14 minutes), was directed by Edwin S. Porter and used white actors in blackface in the major roles. Similar to the earlier "Tom Shows" it featured black stereotypes such as having the slaves dance in almost any context, including at a slave auction.
- "White Christmas" (1954), features a full-scale minstrel show number, but without blackface. The lyrics to the songs remove all suggestion that minstrel shows involved blackface, but retain many standard minstrel show features, including the roles of "Mr. Bones" and "Mr. Interlocutor". The costumes in the number are
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also made to look like watermelons (complete with seeds on the women's sequined bodysuits), a common racist trope following the Civil War. The lyrics to the song include the line "I'd pawn my overcoat and vest / To see a minstrel show ", which model the assumed careless and carefree nature of poverty.
- "Yes Sir, Mr. Bones" (1951), is based around a young child who finds a rest home for retired minstrel performers. In "flashback" sequences, a number of actual minstrel veterans, including Scatman Crothers, Freeman Davis (aka "Brother Bones"), Ned Haverly, Phil Arnold, "endmen" Cotton Watts and Slim Williams, the dancing team of Boyce and Evans, and the comic duo Ches Davis and Emmett Miller,
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perform in the roles they popularized in Minstrel shows.
- "Here Come The Waves" (1944), contains a show-within-a-show. It includes a minstrel routine performed by Bing Crosby and Sonny Tufts; their two characters then sing a musical number entitled "Ac-Cen-Tchu-Ate the Positive".
- "Swing Time" (1936), a musical starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers features a dance number entitled "Bojangles of Harlem" performed by Astaire in blackface.
- "Bamboozled" (2000), a satirical film using minstrelsy to lampoon American popular culture written and directed by Spike Lee.
- "Masked and Anonymous" (2003), set in a dystopian future. Ed Harris plays a blackfaced character in one scene.
# See also.
-
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Blackface
- List of blackface minstrel songs
- List of blackface minstrel troupes
- List of entertainers who performed in blackface
- Coon song
- "The Black and White Minstrel Show", a British television and theatre show of the American traditional genre in the 1960s and 1970s
- Stage Irish, the stereotyped portrayal of Irish people once common in plays during the 17th 18th and 20th centuries.
# References.
- . Reprinted 2003.
- . Reprinted 2003.
- . M. A. Thesis, University of Michigan.
- .
- .
- "Official Song of the State of Virginia". 50states.com. Retrieved September 3, 2006.
- . The relevant excerpt is available online: "A Working Model". Retrieved September 8, 2005.
- Sotiropoulos,
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Karen (2006). ""Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America"" Cambridge: (Harvard University Press).
- Strausbaugh, John (2006). "Black Like You". Tarcher.
- Sweet, Frank W. (2000). "A History of the Minstrel Show". Backintyme. .
- .
- .
# External links.
- "Minstrel Potpourri" performed by the Edison Minstrels (possibly The Haydn Quartet)
- "Waiting for the Robert E. Lee" performed by the Heidelberg Quintet (from the Internet Archive)
- Ruckus! American Entertainments at the Turn of the Twentieth Century From the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
- The Frank Dumont Minstrelsy Scrapbook 1850-1902, compiled by minstrel performer
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and manager Frank Dumont, containing more than 50 years of documentation about minstrelsy and its origins is available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
- The JUBA Project: Early Blackface Minstrelsy in Britain, 1842-1852
- Guide to American Minstrel Show Collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University
- American Minstrel Show Collection, Princeton University
- Historical Notes for Collection 1: African-American and Jamaican Melodies, includes biographical sketches of many black minstrel composers and access to their music.
- Metropolitan Police Minstrels - from the 1920s
- Minstrel show by white people as reported in the "Los Angeles Times" of November 2,
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ity
- American Minstrel Show Collection, Princeton University
- Historical Notes for Collection 1: African-American and Jamaican Melodies, includes biographical sketches of many black minstrel composers and access to their music.
- Metropolitan Police Minstrels - from the 1920s
- Minstrel show by white people as reported in the "Los Angeles Times" of November 2, 1901
- Cartoons of white minstrels in blackface, "Los Angeles Times," May 2, 1902
- Guide to the Minstrel show performance collections housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Research Center
- Popular culture once embraced racist blackface minstrel shows - Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)
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De facto
In law and government, de facto ( or ; , "in fact"; ) describes practices that exist in reality, even though they are not officially recognized by laws. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with "de jure" ("in law"), which refers to things that happen according to law. Unofficial customs that are widely accepted are sometimes called de facto standards.
# Examples.
## Standards.
A is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardisation process, and may not have an official standards document.
s are usually voluntary,
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like ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, like drinking water quality requirements. The term "de facto standard" is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as "de jure standards"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard.
In social sciences, a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem.
## National languages.
Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have a de facto national language but no official, de jure national language.
Some countries have a de facto national language in
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addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco the official language is Arabic, but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, Maori and New Zealand Sign Language are de jure official languages, while English is a de facto official language. In Singapore, English is the de jure language, but Chinese, Malay and Tamil are common de facto languages.
Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union, but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union.
## Politics.
A
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de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by a power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead.
In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed a previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders
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sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally.
Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta, which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president for life, making him the formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq. However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president, he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan
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al-Bakr, the de jure president.
In Argentina, the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932, 1943–1946, 1955–1958, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983, the last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress. The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments, a case law (precedential) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by
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a subsequent legitimate government.
That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994. Article 36 states:
In 1526, after seizing power Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi made his brother, Umar Din, the de jure Sultan of the Adal Sultanate. Ahmad, however, was in all practice the de facto Sultan. Some other notable true de facto leaders have been Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and General Manuel Noriega of Panama. Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or the legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the "leaders" of
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their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Terms like "strongman" or "dictator" are often used to refer to de facto rulers of this sort. In the Soviet Union, after Vladimir Lenin was incapacitated from a stroke in 1923, Joseph Stalin—who, as General Secretary of the Communist Party had the power to appoint anyone he chose to top party positions—eventually emerged as leader of the Party and the legitimate government. Until the 1936 Soviet Constitution officially declared the Party "...the vanguard of the working people", thus legitimising Stalin's leadership, Stalin ruled the USSR as the de facto dictator.
Another example
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of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi and nephew Guangxu Emperors), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII) and Queen Marie Caroline of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies).
The term "de facto head of state" is sometimes used to describe the office of a governor general in the Commonwealth realms, since a holder of that office has the same responsibilities in their country
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as the de jure head of state (the sovereign) does within the United Kingdom.
In the Westminster system of government, executive authority is often split between a de jure executive authority of a head of state and a de facto executive authority of a prime minister and cabinet who implement executive powers in the name of the de jure executive authority. In the United Kingdom, the Sovereign is the de jure executive authority, even though executive decisions are made by the indirectly elected Prime Minister and her Cabinet on the Sovereign's behalf, hence the term Her Majesty's Government.
The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce
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its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes, de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which the border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state.
### Segregation.
In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, Coloureds, and
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Indians dated back decades before.
De facto racial discrimination and segregation in the United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was segregation by law (de jure). "Jim Crow laws", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South. These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
# Other uses.
A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed, but the market is so completely dominated by one that the others might as well not exist. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of
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situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate.
## Relationships.
A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australia and New Zealand, the phrase "de facto" by itself has become a colloquial term for one's domestic partner. In Australian law, it is the legally recognized, committed relationship of a couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975. De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into
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a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by the Family Court or Federal Circuit Court. Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in the case of the death of one of the partners.
In April 2014, a federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship
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and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated "de facto relationship(s) may be described as ‘marriage like’ but it is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally."
The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages. Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent, are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around the world. Because its early
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forms originated in England in the Middle Ages, this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire, while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law.
## Relationships not recognised outside Australia.
Due to Australian federalism, de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within a state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution, where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within
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a state. There must be a state nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state.
If an Australian de facto couple moves out of a state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. See the section on Family Court of Australia for further explanation on jurisdiction on de facto relationships.
This is unlike marriage and "matrimonial causes" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally
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by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978).
## Non-marital relationship contract.
A de facto relationship is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called "palimony agreements") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world.
A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage, which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and the District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose
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rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted.
## Family law – custody.
De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time a court order awards custody, either sole or joint.
# Other uses of the term.
In finance, the World Bank has a pertinent definition:
A "de facto government" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation
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or suspension of the constitution.
A de facto state of war is a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war.
In engineering, is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of the technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology.
# See also.
- De jure
- List of Latin
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on of the constitution.
A de facto state of war is a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war.
In engineering, is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of the technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology.
# See also.
- De jure
- List of Latin phrases (D)
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Grease
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Grease
Grease may refer to:
# Common uses.
- Grease (lubricant), a type of industrial lubricant
- Grease, any petroleum product or fat (including cooking fat) that is a soft solid at room temperature
- Brown grease, waste vegetable oil, animal fat, grease, etc. that is recovered from a grease trap
- Yellow grease, in rendering, used frying oils, or lower-quality grades of tallow
- Hydrogenated vegetable oil, used as a replacement for lard and other rendered animal fats
- Vegetable shortening, used as a replacement for lard and other rendered animal fats
## Slang.
- Grease, a euphemism, meaning, to bribe, as in ""to grease" someone's palm"
- Grease, a slang term for killing, as in "The
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mob has been known to "grease" anyone who gets in its way"
- Pomade, a hair styling wax
# Arts, entertainment, and media.
## Films.
- "Grease" (film), 1978 film made from the musical
- "Grease 2", the 1982 film sequel
## Music.
- "Grease" (song), the title song of the 1978 film
- "", the soundtrack album to the 1978 film
- , the new Broadway cast recording of the musical featuring Max Crumm and Laura Osnes
## Television.
### Series.
- "", a U.S. 2016 live TV musical that combines aspects of the 1971 musical play and 1978 film
- "", a U.S. 2007 reality TV show casting the lead roles in revivals of the musical
- "Grease is the Word", a U.K. 2007 reality TV show casting the lead roles
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the lead roles in revivals of the musical
- "Grease is the Word", a U.K. 2007 reality TV show casting the lead roles in revivals of the musical
### Episodes.
- "Grease", a 1997 episode of the cartoon "Extreme Ghostbusters"
## Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.
- "Grease" (musical), a 1971 musical play
- "Grease" (video game), a video game based on the 1978 film
# Biology and healthcare.
- Grease, or Mud fever, a disease causing irritation and dermatitis in the lower limbs of horses, most commonly in the pastern and heel area
- Grease moth ("Aglossa cuprina"), a fat-feeding moth
# See also.
- Greaser (disambiguation)
- Greasy (disambiguation)
- Greece (disambiguation)
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United States Naval Observatory
The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) is one of the oldest scientific agencies in the United States, with a primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) for the United States Navy and the United States Department of Defense. Located in Northwest Washington, D.C. at the Northwestern end of Embassy Row, it is one of the pre-1900 astronomical observatories located in an urban area; at the time of its construction, it was far from the light pollution thrown off by the (then-smaller) city center. Former USNO director Gernot M. R. Winkler initiated the "Master Clock" service that the USNO still operates, and which provides precise time to
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the GPS satellite constellation run by the United States Air Force. The USNO performs radio VLBI-based positions of quasars with numerous global collaborators, in order to produce Earth Orientation parameters.
Aside from its scientific mission, a house located within the Naval Observatory complex serves as the official residence of the Vice President of the United States.
# History.
President John Quincy Adams, who in 1825 signed the bill for the creation of a national observatory just before leaving presidential office, had intended for it to be called the National Observatory. The names "National Observatory" and "Naval Observatory" were both used for 10 years, until a ruling was passed
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to officially use the latter. Adams had made protracted efforts to bring astronomy to a national level at that time. He spent many nights at the observatory, watching and charting the stars, which had always been one of Adams' avocations.
Established by the order of the United States Secretary of the Navy John Branch on 6 December 1830 as the Depot of Charts and Instruments, the Observatory rose from humble beginnings. Placed under the command of Lieutenant Louis M. Goldsborough, with an annual budget of $330, its primary function was the restoration, repair, and rating of navigational instruments. It was made into a national observatory in 1842 via a federal law and a Congressional appropriation
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of $25,000. Lieutenant James Melville Gilliss was put in charge of "obtaining the instruments needed and books." Lt. Gilliss visited the principal observatories of Europe with the mission to purchase telescopes and scientific devices and books.
The observatory's primary mission was to care for the United States Navy's marine chronometers, charts, and other navigational equipment. It calibrated ships' chronometers by timing the transit of stars across the meridian. Opened in 1844 in Foggy Bottom north of the present site of the Lincoln Memorial and west of the White House (see: Old Naval Observatory), the observatory moved in 1893 to its present location on a 2000-foot circle of land atop Observatory
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Hill overlooking Massachusetts Avenue. These facilities were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2017.
The first superintendent was Navy Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury. Maury had the world's first vulcanized time ball, created to his specifications by Charles Goodyear for the U.S. Observatory. It was the first time ball in the United States, being placed into service in 1845, and the 12th in the world. Maury kept accurate time by the stars and planets. The time ball was dropped every day except Sunday precisely at the astronomically defined moment of Mean Solar Noon, enabling all ships and civilians to know the exact time. By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's
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clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D.C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon-time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company. Time was also "sold" to the railroads and was used in conjunction with railroad chronometers to schedule American rail transport. Early in the 20th century, the Arlington Time Signal broadcast this service to wireless receivers.
In 1849 the Nautical Almanac Office (NAO) was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts as a separate organization. It was moved to Washington, D.C. in 1866, colocating with the U. S. Naval Observatory in 1893. On September
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20, 1894, the NAO became a "branch" of USNO, however it remained autonomous for several years after this.
An early scientific duty assigned to the Observatory was the U.S. contribution to the definition of the Astronomical Unit, or the AU, which defines a standard mean distance between the Sun and the Earth, conducted under the auspices of the Congressionally funded U.S. Transit of Venus Commission. The astronomical measurements taken of the transit of Venus by a number of countries since 1639 resulted in a progressively more accurate definition of the AU. Relying heavily on photographic methods, the naval observers returned 350 photographic plates in 1874, and 1,380 measurable plates in 1882.
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The results of the surveys conducted simultaneously from several locations around the world (for each of the two transits) produced a final value of the solar parallax, after adjustments, of 8.809", with a probable error of 0.0059", yielding a "U.S. defined" Earth-Sun distance of , with a probable error of . This calculated distance was a significant improvement over several previous estimates.
The telescope used for the discovery of the Moons of Mars was the 26-inch (66 cm) refractor (a telescope with a lens), then located at Foggy Bottom. In 1893 it was moved to the present location.
In November 1913 the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an antenna, exchanged sustained wireless
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(radio) signals with the United States Naval Observatory, using an antenna in Arlington, Virginia to determine the exact difference of longitude between the two institutions.
In 1934, the last (then) large telescope to be installed at USNO saw "first light". This 40-inch aperture instrument was also the second (and final) telescope made by famed optician, George Willis Ritchey. The Ritchey–Chrétien telescope design has since become the "de facto" optical design for nearly all major telescopes, including the famed Keck telescopes and the spaceborne Hubble Space Telescope. Unfortunately, light pollution forced USNO to relocate the 40-inch telescope to Flagstaff, Arizona. There it began operations
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of a new Navy command, now called the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS). Those operations commenced in 1955, and within a decade, the Navy's largest telescope, the 61-inch "Kaj Strand Astrometric Reflector" was built, seeing light at NOFS in 1964.
The United States Naval Observatory no longer obtains significant astrometric observations, but it continues to be a major authority in the areas of Precise Time and Time Interval, Earth orientation, astrometry and celestial observation. In collaboration with many national and international scientific establishments, it determines the timing and astronomical data required for accurate navigation, astrometry, and fundamental astronomy and
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calculation methods — and distributes this information (such as star catalogs) in the Astronomical Almanac, The Nautical Almanac, and on-line.
Perhaps it is best known to the general public for its highly accurate ensemble of atomic clocks and its year 2000 time ball replacement. The site also houses the largest astronomy library in the United States (and the largest astrophysical periodicals collection in the world). The library includes a large collection of rare, often famous, physics and astronomy books from across the past millennium.
USNO continues to maintain its dark-sky observatory, NOFS, near Flagstaff, Arizona, which also now oversees the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer. The
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Alternate Master Clock, mentioned above, also continues to operate at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado.
# Departments.
In 1990, the Orbital Mechanics Department and Astronomical Applications Department were established, and Nautical Almanac Office became a division of the Astronomical Applications Department. The Orbital Mechanics Department operated under P. K. Seidelmann until 1994 when the department was abolished, and its functions were moved to a group within the Astronomical Applications Department. In 2010, USNO's astronomical 'department' known as the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS) was officially made autonomous as an Echelon Five command separate from USNO, but reporting
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to it. In the alpine woodlands above 7,000 feet altitude outside Flagstaff, Arizona, NOFS performs its national, Celestial Reference Frame (CRF) mission under dark skies in that region.
## Official residence of the Vice President of the United States.
Since 1974, a house situated in the grounds of the observatory, at Number One Observatory Circle, has been the official residence of the Vice President of the United States. The house is separated from the Naval Observatory, and was formerly the residence of its superintendent, and later the home of the Chief of Naval Operations. The Observatory is therefore subject to tight security control enforced by the Secret Service.
According to a 15 May
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2009 blog posting by "Newsweek's" Eleanor Clift, Vice President Joe Biden revealed the existence of what Clift described as a bunker-like room in the residence. The bunker is the secure, undisclosed location where former Vice President Dick Cheney remained under protection in secret after the September 11 attacks: according to Clift's report, titled "Shining Light on Cheney's Hideaway":
Biden said a young naval officer giving him a tour of the residence showed him the hideaway, which is behind a massive steel door secured by an elaborate lock with a narrow connecting hallway lined with shelves filled with communications equipment.
Biden's press office subsequently issued a statement denying
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the bunker report, suggesting that Biden had instead been describing "an upstairs workspace".
# Time service.
The U.S. Naval Observatory operates two Master Clock facilities. The primary facility, in Washington, D.C. maintains 57 HP/Agilent/Symmetricom 5071A-001 high performance cesium atomic clocks and 24 hydrogen masers. The alternate master clock, at Schriever Air Force Base, maintains 12 cesium clocks and 3 masers. The observatory also operates four rubidium atomic fountain clocks, which have a stability reaching 7. The observatory intends to build several more of this type for use at its two facilities. The clocks used for the USNO timescale are kept in 19 environmental chambers, whose
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temperatures are kept constant to within 0.1 degree C and whose relative humidities (for all masers and most cesiums) are kept constant to within 1%. The timescale is based only upon the Washington DC clocks. On June 7, 2007, 70 standards were weighted in the timescale computations.
The U.S. Naval Observatory provides public time service via 26 NTP servers on the public Internet, and via telephone voice announcements:
- +1 202 762-1401 (Washington, D.C.)
- +1 202 762-1069
- +1 719 567-6742 (Colorado Springs)
The voice of actor Fred Covington (1928–1993) has been announcing the USNO time since 1978.
The voice announcements follow the same pattern at both sites. They always begin with the
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local time (daylight or standard), and include a background of 1-second ticks. Local time announcements are made on the minute, and 15, 30, and 45 seconds after the minute. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is announced five seconds after the local time. Upon connecting, only the second-marking ticks are heard for the few seconds before the next scheduled local time announcement
The USNO also operates a modem time service, and provides time to the Global Positioning System.
# Instrument shop.
The United States Naval Observatory Instrument shop has been manufacturing precise instrumentation since the early 1900s.
# Publications.
- "Astronomical Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory"
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(USNOA) (v. 1–6: 1846–1867)
- "Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory" (USNOM) (v. 1–22: 1862–1880)
- "Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory" (USNOO) (v. 1–7: 1887–1893)
- "Publications of the U.S. Naval Observatory", Second Series (PUSNO) (v. 1–16: 1900–1949)
- "U.S. Naval Observatory Circulars"
- "The Astronomical Almanac"
- "The Nautical Almanac"
- "The Air Almanac"
- "Astronomical Phenomena"
# See also.
- List of astronomical observatories
- Rear Admiral Samuel P. Carter
# Further reading.
- (British edition).
# External links.
- USNO, "What Time is it?"
- Transcription: Lieut. Matthew Fontaine Maury’s 1847 Letter to President
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Naval Observatory" (USNOO) (v. 1–7: 1887–1893)
- "Publications of the U.S. Naval Observatory", Second Series (PUSNO) (v. 1–16: 1900–1949)
- "U.S. Naval Observatory Circulars"
- "The Astronomical Almanac"
- "The Nautical Almanac"
- "The Air Almanac"
- "Astronomical Phenomena"
# See also.
- List of astronomical observatories
- Rear Admiral Samuel P. Carter
# Further reading.
- (British edition).
# External links.
- USNO, "What Time is it?"
- Transcription: Lieut. Matthew Fontaine Maury’s 1847 Letter to President John Quincy Adams on the many details of the United States National Observatory that was later called the "Navy" Observatory
- Old photographies at the Paris Observatory
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Wassenaar Arrangement
The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) with 42 participating states including many former Comecon (Warsaw Pact) countries.
The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations. Participating states seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities
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which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities.
It is the successor to the Cold War-era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, which is near The Hague. The Wassenaar Arrangement is considerably less strict than COCOM, focusing primarily on the transparency of national export control regimes and not granting veto power to individual members over organizational decisions. A Secretariat for administering the agreement is located in Vienna, Austria. Like COCOM, however, it is not a treaty, and therefore is not legally binding.
Every six months member countries exchange
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information on deliveries of conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members that fall under eight broad weapons categories: battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs), large-caliber artillery, military aircraft, military helicopters, warships, missiles or missile systems, and small arms and light weapons.
# Control lists.
The outline of the arrangement is set out in a document entitled "Guidelines & Procedures, including the Initial Elements". The list of restricted technologies is broken into two parts, the "List of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies" (also known as the "Basic List") and the "Munitions List". The Basic List is composed of ten categories based on increasing levels of sophistication:
-
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Category 1 – Special Materials and Related Equipment
- Category 2 – Materials Processing
- Category 3 – Electronics
- Category 4 – Computers
- Category 5 – Part 1 – Telecommunications
- Category 5 – Part 2 – Information Security
- Category 6 – Sensors and Lasers
- Category 7 – Navigation and Avionics
- Category 8 – Marine
- Category 9 – Aerospace and Propulsion
Basic List has two nested subsections—Sensitive and Very Sensitive. Items of the Very Sensitive List include materials for stealth technology—i.e., equipment that could be used for submarine detection, advanced radar, and jet engine technologies.
The Munitions List has 22 categories, which are not labeled.
In order for an
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item to be placed on the lists, Member States must take into account the following
criteria:
- Foreign availability outside Participating States
- Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
- Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item.
- Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, Nuclear Suppliers Group, or Missile Technology Control Regime
# Membership.
, the 42 participating states are:
– European Union member state. - NATO member.
, , , & are not members of the Wassenaar Agreement. & see below.
## Admission requirements.
Admission requires states to:
- Be a producer or exporter of arms or sensitive industrial equipment
- Maintain
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non-proliferation policies and appropriate national policies, including adherence to:
- Non-proliferation policies, such as (where applicable) the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile Technology Control Regime, and the Australia Group
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention and, where applicable, START I (including the Lisbon Protocol)
- Maintain fully effective export controls
The People's Republic of China and Israel are not members. The Arrangement is open on a global and non-discriminatory basis to prospective adherents that comply with the agreed criteria. Admission of new members requires the consensus of all members.
India
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joined as the 42nd participating state on 07 December 2017. "Wassenaar Arrangement participating states reviewed the progress of a number of current membership applications and agreed at the plenary meeting to admit India which will become the Arrangement's 42nd participating state as soon as the necessary procedural arrangements for joining the WA are completed," the grouping said in a statement. India's application was supported by Russia, USA, France and Germany.
# 2013 amendments.
In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies was amended to include internet-based surveillance systems. New technologies placed under the export control regime include "intrusion software"—software
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designed to defeat a computer or network's protective measures so as to extract data or information—as well as IP network surveillance systems.
The purpose of the amendments was to prevent Western technology companies from selling surveillance technology to governments known to abuse human rights. However, some technology companies have expressed concerns that the scope of the controls may be too broad, limiting security researchers' ability to identify and correct security vulnerabilities. Google and Facebook criticized the agreement for the restrictions it will place on activities like penetration testing, sharing information about threats, and bug bounty programs. They argue that the restrictions
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mpanies have expressed concerns that the scope of the controls may be too broad, limiting security researchers' ability to identify and correct security vulnerabilities. Google and Facebook criticized the agreement for the restrictions it will place on activities like penetration testing, sharing information about threats, and bug bounty programs. They argue that the restrictions will weaken the security of participating nations and do little to curb threats from non-participant nations.
# See also.
- Arms Export Control Act
- Defense Security Cooperation Agency
- Export Control Classification Number
- International Traffic in Arms Regulations
# External links.
- Wassenaar Arrangement
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Flux
Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. A flux is either a concept based in physics or used with applied mathematics. Both concepts have mathematical rigor, enabling comparison of the underlying mathematics when the terminology is unclear. For transport phenomena, flux is a vector quantity, describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of a substance or property. In electromagnetism, flux is a scalar quantity, defined as the surface integral of the component of a vector field perpendicular to the surface at each point.
# Terminology.
The word "flux" comes from Latin: "fluxus" means "flow", and "fluere"
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is "to flow". As "fluxion", this term was introduced into differential calculus by Isaac Newton.
The concept of heat flux was a key contribution of Joseph Fourier, in the analysis of heat transfer phenomena. His seminal treatise "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" ("The Analytical Theory of Heat"), defines "fluxion" as a central quantity and proceeds to derive the now well-known expressions of flux in terms of temperature differences across a slab, and then more generally in terms of temperature gradients or differentials of temperature, across other geometries. One could argue, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell, that the transport definition precedes the definition of flux used in electromagnetism.
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The specific quote from Maxwell is:
According to the transport definition, flux may be a single vector, or it may be a vector field / function of position. In the latter case flux can readily be integrated over a surface. By contrast, according to the electromagnetism definition, flux "is" the integral over a surface; it makes no sense to integrate a second-definition flux for one would be integrating over a surface twice. Thus, Maxwell's quote only makes sense if "flux" is being used according to the transport definition (and furthermore is a vector field rather than single vector). This is ironic because Maxwell was one of the major developers of what we now call "electric flux" and "magnetic
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flux" according to the electromagnetism definition. Their names in accordance with the quote (and transport definition) would be "surface integral of electric flux" and "surface integral of magnetic flux", in which case "electric flux" would instead be defined as "electric field" and "magnetic flux" defined as "magnetic field". This implies that Maxwell conceived of these fields as flows/fluxes of some sort.
Given a flux according to the electromagnetism definition, the corresponding flux density, if that term is used, refers to its derivative along the surface that was integrated. By the Fundamental theorem of calculus, the corresponding flux density is a flux according to the transport definition.
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Given a current such as electric current—charge per time, current density would also be a flux according to the transport definition—charge per time per area. Due to the conflicting definitions of "flux", and the interchangeability of "flux", "flow", and "current" in nontechnical English, all of the terms used in this paragraph are sometimes used interchangeably and ambiguously. Concrete fluxes in the rest of this article will be used in accordance to their broad acceptance in the literature, regardless of which definition of flux the term corresponds to.
# Flux as flow rate per unit area.
In transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), flux is defined as the "rate
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of flow of a property per unit area," which has the dimensions [quantity]·[time]·[area]. The area is of the surface the property is flowing "through" or "across". For example, the magnitude of a river's current, i.e. the amount of water that flows through a cross-section of the river each second, or the amount of sunlight energy that lands on a patch of ground each second, are kinds of flux.
## General mathematical definition (transport).
Here are 3 definitions in increasing order of complexity. Each is a special case of the following. In all cases the frequent symbol "j", (or "J") is used for flux, "q" for the physical quantity that flows, "t" for time, and "A" for area. These identifiers
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will be written in bold when and only when they are vectors.
First, flux as a (single) scalar:
where:
In this case the surface in which flux is being measured is fixed, and has area "A". The surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere constant with respect to position, and perpendicular to the surface.
Second, flux as a scalar field defined along a surface, i.e. a function of points on the surface:
As before, the surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere perpendicular to it. However the flow need not be constant. "q" is now a function of p, a point on the surface, and "A", an area. Rather than measure the total flow through the surface,
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q measures the flow through the disk with area "A" centered at "p" along the surface.
Finally, flux as a vector field:
In this case, there is no fixed surface we are measuring over. "q" is a function of a point, an area, and a direction (given by a unit vector, formula_7), and measures the flow through the disk of area A perpendicular to that unit vector. "I" is defined picking the unit vector that maximizes the flow around the point, because the true flow is maximized across the disk that is perpendicular to it. The unit vector thus uniquely maximizes the function when it points in the "true direction" of the flow. [Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of notation because the "arg max" cannot
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directly compare vectors; we take the vector with the biggest norm instead.]
### Properties.
These direct definitions, especially the last, are rather unwieldy. For example, the argmax construction is artificial from the perspective of empirical measurements, when with a Weathervane or similar one can easily deduce the direction of flux at a point. Rather than defining the vector flux directly, it is often more intuitive to state some properties about it. Furthermore, from these properties the flux can uniquely be determined anyway.
If the flux j passes through the area at an angle θ to the area normal formula_7, then
where · is the dot product of the unit vectors. This is, the component
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of flux passing through the surface (i.e. normal to it) is "j" cos θ, while the component of flux passing tangential to the area is "j" sin θ, but there is "no" flux actually passing "through" the area in the tangential direction. The "only" component of flux passing normal to the area is the cosine component.
For vector flux, the surface integral of j over a surface "S", gives the proper flowing per unit of time through the surface.
A (and its infinitesimal) is the vector area, combination of the magnitude of the area through which the property passes, "A", and a unit vector normal to the area, formula_7. The relation is formula_12.
Unlike in the second set of equations, the surface here
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need not be flat.
Finally, we can integrate again over the time duration "t" to "t", getting the total amount of the property flowing through the surface in that time ("t" − "t"):
## Transport fluxes.
Eight of the most common forms of flux from the transport phenomena literature are defined as follows:
- 1. Momentum flux, the rate of transfer of momentum across a unit area (N·s·m·s). (Newton's law of viscosity)
- 2. Heat flux, the rate of heat flow across a unit area (J·m·s). (Fourier's law of conduction) (This definition of heat flux fits Maxwell's original definition.)
- 3. Diffusion flux, the rate of movement of molecules across a unit area (mol·m·s). (Fick's law of diffusion)
- 4.
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Volumetric flux, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m·m·s). (Darcy's law of groundwater flow)
- 5. Mass flux, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m·s). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density.)
- 6. Radiative flux, the amount of energy transferred in the form of photons at a certain distance from the source per unit area per second (J·m·s). Used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star. Also acts as a generalization of heat flux, which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the electromagnetic spectrum.
- 7. Energy flux, the rate of transfer
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of energy through a unit area (J·m·s). The radiative flux and heat flux are specific cases of energy flux.
- 8. Particle flux, the rate of transfer of particles through a unit area ([number of particles] m·s)
These fluxes are vectors at each point in space, and have a definite magnitude and direction. Also, one can take the divergence of any of these fluxes to determine the accumulation rate of the quantity in a control volume around a given point in space. For incompressible flow, the divergence of the volume flux is zero.
### Chemical diffusion.
As mentioned above, chemical molar flux of a component A in an isothermal, isobaric system is defined in Fick's law of diffusion as:
where the
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nabla symbol ∇ denotes the gradient operator, "D" is the diffusion coefficient (m·s) of component A diffusing through component B, "c" is the concentration (mol/m) of component A.
This flux has units of mol·m·s, and fits Maxwell's original definition of flux.
For dilute gases, kinetic molecular theory relates the diffusion coefficient "D" to the particle density "n" = "N"/"V", the molecular mass "m", the collision cross section formula_15, and the absolute temperature "T" by
where the second factor is the mean free path and the square root (with Boltzmann's constant "k") is the mean velocity of the particles.
In turbulent flows, the transport by eddy motion can be expressed as a grossly
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increased diffusion coefficient.
## Quantum mechanics.
In quantum mechanics, particles of mass "m" in the quantum state ψ(r, t) have a probability density defined as
So the probability of finding a particle in a differential volume element dr is
Then the number of particles passing perpendicularly through unit area of a cross-section per unit time is the probability flux;
This is sometimes referred to as the probability current or current density, or probability flux density.
# Flux as a surface integral.
## General mathematical definition (surface integral).
As a mathematical concept, flux is represented by the surface integral of a vector field,
where F is a vector field, and d"A"
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is the vector area of the surface "A", directed as the surface normal.For the second,n is the outward pointed unit normal vector to the surface.
The surface has to be orientable, i.e. two sides can be distinguished: the surface does not fold back onto itself. Also, the surface has to be actually oriented, i.e. we use a convention as to flowing which way is counted positive; flowing backward is then counted negative.
The surface normal is usually directed by the right-hand rule.
Conversely, one can consider the flux the more fundamental quantity and call the vector field the flux density.
Often a vector field is drawn by curves (field lines) following the "flow"; the magnitude of the vector
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field is then the line density, and the flux through a surface is the number of lines. Lines originate from areas of positive divergence (sources) and end at areas of negative divergence (sinks).
See also the image at right: the number of red arrows passing through a unit area is the flux density, the curve encircling the red arrows denotes the boundary of the surface, and the orientation of the arrows with respect to the surface denotes the sign of the inner product of the vector field with the surface normals.
If the surface encloses a 3D region, usually the surface is oriented such that the influx is counted positive; the opposite is the outflux.
The divergence theorem states that the
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net outflux through a closed surface, in other words the net outflux from a 3D region, is found by adding the local net outflow from each point in the region (which is expressed by the divergence).
If the surface is not closed, it has an oriented curve as boundary. Stokes' theorem states that the flux of the curl of a vector field is the line integral of the vector field over this boundary. This path integral is also called circulation, especially in fluid dynamics. Thus the curl is the circulation density.
We can apply the flux and these theorems to many disciplines in which we see currents, forces, etc., applied through areas.
## Electromagnetism.
One way to better understand the concept
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of flux in electromagnetism is by comparing it to a butterfly net. The amount of air moving through the net at any given instant in time is the flux. If the wind speed is high, then the flux through the net is large. If the net is made bigger, then the flux is larger even though the wind speed is the same. For the most air to move through the net, the opening of the net must be facing the direction the wind is blowing. If the net is parallel to the wind, then no wind will be moving through the net. The simplest way to think of flux is "how much air goes through the net", where the air is a velocity field and the net is the boundary of an imaginary surface.
### Electric flux.
An electric "charge,"
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such as a single electron in space, has a magnitude defined in coulombs. Such a charge has an electric field surrounding it. In pictorial form, an electric field is shown as a dot radiating "lines of flux" called Gauss lines. Electric Flux Density is the amount of electric flux, the number of "lines," passing through a given area. Units are Gauss/square meter.
Two forms of electric flux are used, one for the E-field:
and one for the D-field (called the electric displacement):
This quantity arises in Gauss's law – which states that the flux of the electric field E out of a closed surface is proportional to the electric charge "Q" enclosed in the surface (independent of how that charge is distributed),
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the integral form is:
where ε is the permittivity of free space.
If one considers the flux of the electric field vector, E, for a tube near a point charge in the field of the charge but not containing it with sides formed by lines tangent to the field, the flux for the sides is zero and there is an equal and opposite flux at both ends of the tube. This is a consequence of Gauss's Law applied to an inverse square field. The flux for any cross-sectional surface of the tube will be the same. The total flux for any surface surrounding a charge "q" is "q"/ε.
In free space the electric displacement is given by the constitutive relation D = ε E, so for any bounding surface the D-field flux equals
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