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President of Poland
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President of Poland
the interim head of state until Komorowski's swearing-in on 6 August.
# Former Presidents.
Within Poland, former presidents are entitled to lifetime personal security protection by Biuro Ochrony Rządu officers, in addition to receiving a substantial pension and a private office. On 10 April 2010, Lech Kaczyński, president at the time, and Ryszard Kaczorowski, the last president-in-exile although not internationally recognized, died in the crash of the Polish Air Force Tu-154 en route to Russia.
As of 2019, three former Presidents of Poland are alive:
- Lech Wałęsa (1990–1995)
- Aleksander Kwaśniewski (1995–2005)
- Bronisław Komorowski (2010–2015)
Also, three former Acting Presidents are
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President of Poland
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President of Poland
e to Russia.
As of 2019, three former Presidents of Poland are alive:
- Lech Wałęsa (1990–1995)
- Aleksander Kwaśniewski (1995–2005)
- Bronisław Komorowski (2010–2015)
Also, three former Acting Presidents are alive:
- Bronisław Komorowski (2010)
- Bogdan Borusewicz (2010)
- Grzegorz Schetyna (2010)
# Living former Presidents.
There are three living former Polish Presidents:
# See also.
- Polish presidential elections of 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020
- Prime Minister of Poland
- Polish government in exile
- List of heads of state of Poland
- List of Polish monarchs
- Lists of incumbents
- Naczelnik państwa
# External links.
- President of Poland Official Website
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753 BC
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753 BC
753 BC
# Events.
- April 21: Rome founded by Romulus (according to tradition). Beginning of the Roman "Ab urbe condita" calendar.
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Édouard Roche
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Édouard Roche
Édouard Roche
Édouard Albert Roche (17 October 1820 – 27 April 1883) was a French astronomer and mathematician, who is best known for his work in the field of celestial mechanics. His name was given to the concepts of the Roche sphere, Roche limit and Roche lobe. He also was the author of works in meteorology.
# Biography.
He was born in Montpellier, and studied at the University of Montpellier, receiving his D.Sc. in 1844 and later becoming a professor at the same institution, where he served in the Faculté des Sciences starting in 1849. Roche made a mathematical study of Laplace's nebular hypothesis and presented his results in a series of papers to the Academy of Montpellier from his appointment
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Édouard Roche
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Édouard%20Roche
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Édouard Roche
until 1877. The most important were on comets (1860) and the nebular hypothesis itself (1873). Roche's studies examined the effects of strong gravitational fields upon swarms of tiny particles.
He is perhaps most famous for his theory that the planetary rings of Saturn were formed when a large moon came too close to Saturn and was pulled apart by gravitational forces. He described a method of calculating the distance at which an object held together only by gravity would break up due to tidal forces; this distance became known as the Roche limit.
His other best known works also involved orbital mechanics. The Roche sphere describes the limits at which an object which is in orbit around two
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Édouard Roche
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Édouard Roche
other objects will be captured by one or the other, and the Roche lobe approximates the gravitational sphere of influence of one astronomical body in the face of perturbations from another heavier body around which it orbits.
# Works.
Roche's works are in French, his vernacular language.
## Lists of works.
- List of works, on the site of the Académie des sciences (31 items) (Includes—unnumbered—works commenting that of Roche. Also includes works in meteorology)
- , in "Mémoires de la Société des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts de Lille", 1885 (34 items)
# See also.
- Roche lobe
- Roche limit
- Roche sphere
# References.
- Z. Kopal, "The Roche problem", Kluwer Academic Publishers,
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Édouard Roche
ptured by one or the other, and the Roche lobe approximates the gravitational sphere of influence of one astronomical body in the face of perturbations from another heavier body around which it orbits.
# Works.
Roche's works are in French, his vernacular language.
## Lists of works.
- List of works, on the site of the Académie des sciences (31 items) (Includes—unnumbered—works commenting that of Roche. Also includes works in meteorology)
- , in "Mémoires de la Société des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts de Lille", 1885 (34 items)
# See also.
- Roche lobe
- Roche limit
- Roche sphere
# References.
- Z. Kopal, "The Roche problem", Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1989 .
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Teresa of Ávila
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Teresa of Ávila
Teresa of Ávila
Saint Teresa of Ávila, born Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada, also called Saint Teresa of Jesus (28 March 15154 October 1582), was a Spanish noblewoman who chose a monastic life in the Catholic Church. A Carmelite nun, prominent Spanish mystic, religious reformer, author, theologian of the contemplative life and mental prayer, she earned the rare distinction of being declared a Doctor of the Church over four centuries after her death. Active during the Counter-Reformation, she reformed the Carmelite Orders of both women and men. The movement she initiated was later joined by the younger Spanish Carmelite friar and mystic, Saint John of the Cross. It led eventually to the establishment
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of the Discalced Carmelites. A formal papal decree adopting the split was issued in 1580.
Teresa, who had been a social celebrity in her home province, was dogged by early family losses and ill health. In her mature years, she became the central figure of a movement of spiritual and monastic renewal borne out of an inner conviction and honed by ascetic practice. She was also at the centre of deep ecclesiastical controversy as she took on the pervasive laxity in her order against the background of the Protestant reformation sweeping over Europe and the Spanish Inquisition asserting church discipline in her home country. The consequences were to last well beyond her life.
Forty years after her
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death in 1622, Teresa was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. At the time she was considered a candidate for national patron saint of Spain, but lost out to St. James the Apostle. She has since become one of the patron saints of Spain.
Her written contributions, which include her autobiography, "The Life of Teresa of Jesus" and her seminal work "The Interior Castle", are today an integral part of Spanish Renaissance literature. Together with "The Way of Perfection", her works form part of the Literary canon of Christian mysticism and Christian meditation practice, and continue to attract interest from people both within and outside the Catholic Church.
However, not until 27 September 1970 did Pope
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Paul VI proclaim Teresa a "Doctor of the Church" in recognition of her centuries-long spiritual legacy to Catholicism.
Other associations with Teresa beyond her writings continue to exert a wide influence. A "Santero" image of the Immaculate Conception of El Viejo said to have been sent by her with a brother emigrating to Peru, was canonically crowned by Pope John Paul II on December 28, 1989 at the Shrine of El Viejo in Nicaragua. Another Catholic tradition holds that Saint Teresa is personally associated with devotion to the Infant Jesus of Prague, a statue she may have owned. Since her death, her reputation has grown, leading to multiple portrayals. She continues to be widely noted as inspiration
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to philosophers, theologians, historians, neurologists, fiction writers, artists as well as countless ordinary people interested in Christian spirituality and mysticism.
Speaking to pilgrims from Avila in October 1981, Pope John Paul II said: "It is necessary for the rich legacy left by Teresa of Jesus to be deeply reconsidered so that it can effect a renewal of the inner life of your nation and thereby influence the renewal of life in the entire church in all its aspects. The giant figure of the Great Teresa should act as a strong encouragement in that direction not only on a local or national scale but also on a universal scale".
# Early life.
Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada was born
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in 1515 in Ávila, Spain. Her paternal grandfather, Juan Sánchez de Toledo, was a marrano or Converso, a Jew forced to convert to Christianity or emigrate. When Teresa's father was a child, Juan was condemned by the Spanish Inquisition for allegedly returning to the Jewish faith, but he was later able to assume a Catholic identity. Her father, , was a successful wool merchant and one of the wealthiest men in Ávila. He bought a knighthood and assimilated successfully into Christian society.
Previously married to Catalina del Peso y Henao, with whom he had three children, in 1509, Sánchez de Cepeda married Teresa's mother, Beatriz de Ahumada y Cuevas, in Gotarrendura.
Teresa's mother was keen
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to raise her daughter as a pious Christian. Teresa was fascinated by accounts of the lives of the saints and ran away from home at age seven with her brother Rodrigo to find martyrdom among the Moors. Her uncle stopped them on the road as he was returning to the town, having spotted them outside the town walls.
When Teresa was eleven years old, her mother died, leaving her grief-stricken. This prompted her to embrace a deeper devotion to the Virgin Mary as her spiritual mother. Teresa was also enamored of popular fiction, which at the time was primarily medieval tales of knighthood and works about fashion, gardens and flowers. Teresa was sent to the Augustinian nuns' school at Ávila.
## Entry
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into religious life.
After completing her education, she initially resisted the idea of a religious vocation, but after a stay with her uncle and other relatives, she relented. In 1536 aged 18, much to the disappointment of her pious and austere father, she decided to enter the local easy-going Carmelite "Convent of the Incarnation", significantly built on top of land that had been used previously as a burial ground for Jews. She took up religious reading on contemplative prayer, especially Osuna’s "Third Spiritual Alphabet" (1527). Her zeal for mortification caused her to become ill again and she spent almost a year in bed, causing huge worry to her community and family. She nearly died but,
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she recovered thanks to the miraculous intercession of St. Joseph, she believed. She began to experience instances of religious ecstasy.
## Foundations of spirituality.
Her reading of medieval mystics, consisted of directions for examinations of conscience and for spiritual self-concentration and inner contemplation known in mystical nomenclature as "oratio recollectionis" or "oratio mentalis". She also dipped into other mystical ascetic works such as the "Tractatus de oratione et meditatione" of Saint Peter of Alcantara, and perhaps some upon which Saint Ignatius of Loyola based his "Spiritual Exercises"—possibly the "Spiritual Exercises" themselves.
She reported that, during her illness,
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she had risen from the lowest stage, "recollection", to the "devotions of silence" or even to the "devotions of ecstasy", which was one of perfect union with God (see ). During this final stage, she said she frequently experienced a rich "blessing of tears". As the Catholic distinction between mortal and venial sin became clear to her, she came to understand the awful terror of sin and the inherent nature of original sin. She also became conscious of her own natural impotence in confronting sin and the necessity of absolute subjection to God.
Around 1556, friends suggested that her newfound knowledge was diabolical, not divine. She had begun to inflict mortifications of the flesh upon herself.
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But her confessor, the Jesuit Saint Francis Borgia, reassured her of the divine inspiration of her thoughts. On St. Peter's Day in 1559, Teresa became firmly convinced that Jesus Christ presented himself to her in bodily form, though invisible. These visions lasted almost uninterrupted for more than two years. In another vision, a seraph drove the fiery point of a golden lance repeatedly through her heart, causing an ineffable spiritual and bodily pain:
This vision was the inspiration for one of Bernini's most famous works, the "Ecstasy of Saint Teresa" at Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome.
The memory of this episode served as an inspiration throughout the rest of her life, and motivated
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her lifelong imitation of the life and suffering of Jesus, epitomized in the adage often associated with her: "Lord, either let me suffer or let me die."
## Embarrassment of raptures.
Teresa who became a celebrity in her town dispensing wisdom from behind the convent grille, was also known for her raptures which sometimes involved levitation. It was a source of embarrassment to her and she bade her sisters hold her down when this occurred. Subsequently, historians and neurologists and psychiatrists like, Peter Fenwick and Javier Alvarez-Rodriguez among others, have taken an interest in her symptomatology. The fact that she wrote down virtually everything that happened to her during her religious
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life, means that an invaluable and exceedingly rare medical record from the 16th-century has been preserved. Examination of this record has led to the speculative conclusion that she may have suffered from Temporal lobe epilepsy.
# Monastic reformer.
Over time, Teresa found herself increasingly at odds with the spiritual malaise prevailing in her convent of the Incarnation. Among the 150 nuns living there, the observance of cloister, designed to protect and strengthen spiritual practice and prayer, became so lax that it appeared to lose its purpose. The daily invasion of visitors, many of high social and political rank, disturbed the atmosphere with frivolous concerns and vacuous conversation.
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Such intrusions in the solitude essential to develop and sustain contemplative prayer so grieved Teresa that she longed to intervene.
The incentive to take the practical steps inspired by her inward motivation was supported by the Franciscan priest, Saint Peter of Alcantara, who met her early in 1560 and became her spiritual adviser. She resolved to found a "reformed" Carmelite convent, correcting the laxity which she had found at the Incarnation convent and elsewhere besides. Guimara de Ulloa, a woman of wealth and a friend, supplied the funds for the project.
The abject poverty of the new convent, established in 1562 and named St. Joseph's (San José), at first caused a scandal among the
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citizens and authorities of Ávila, and the small house with its chapel was in peril of suppression. However, powerful patrons, including the local bishop, coupled with the impression of well ordered subsistence and purpose, turned animosity into approval.
In March 1563, after Teresa had moved to the new convent house, she received papal sanction for her primary principles of absolute poverty and renunciation of ownership of property, which she proceeded to formulate into a "constitution". Her plan was the revival of the earlier, stricter monastic rules, supplemented by new regulations including the three disciplines of ceremonial flagellation prescribed for the Divine Office every week, and
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the discalceation of the religious. For the first five years, Teresa remained in seclusion, mostly engaged in prayer and writing.
## Extended travels.
In 1567, Teresa received a patent from the Carmelite General, Rubeo de Ravenna, to establish further houses of the new order. This process required many visitations and long journeys across nearly all the provinces of Spain. She left a record of the arduous project in her "Libro de las Fundaciones". Between 1567 and 1571, reformed convents were established at Medina del Campo, Malagón, Valladolid, Toledo, Pastrana, Salamanca, and Alba de Tormes.
As part of the original patent, Teresa was given permission to set up two houses for men who wished
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to adopt the reforms. She convinced two Carmelite friars, John of the Cross and Father Anthony of Jesus to help with this. They founded the first monastery of Discalced Carmelite brothers in November 1568 at Duruelo. Another friend of Teresa, Jerónimo Gracián, the Carmelite visitator of the older observance of Andalusia and apostolic commissioner, and later provincial of the Teresian order, gave her powerful support in founding monasteries at Segovia (1571), Beas de Segura (1574), Seville (1575), and Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia, 1576). Meanwhile, John of the Cross promoted the inner life of the movement through his power as a teacher and preacher.
## Opposition to reforms.
In 1576, unreformed
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members of the Carmelite order began to persecute Teresa, her supporters and her reforms. Following a number of resolutions adopted at the general chapter at Piacenza, the governing body of the order forbade all further founding of reformed convents. The general chapter instructed her to go into "voluntary" retirement at one of her institutions. She obeyed and chose St. Joseph's at Toledo. Meanwhile, her friends and associates were subjected to further attacks.
Several years later, her appeals by letter to King Philip II of Spain secured relief. As a result, in 1579, the cases before the inquisition against her, Father Gracian and others, were dropped. This allowed the reform to resume. An
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edict from Pope Gregory XIII allowed the appointment of a special provincial for the newer branch of the Carmelite religious, and a royal decree created a "protective" board of four assessors for the reform.
During the last three years of her life, Teresa founded convents at Villanueva de la Jara in northern Andalusia (1580), Palencia (1580), Soria (1581), Burgos, and Granada (1582). In total, seventeen convents, all but one founded by her, and as many men's monasteries were owed to her reforms over twenty years.
# Last days.
Her final illness overtook her on one of her journeys from Burgos to Alba de Tormes. She died in 1582, just as Catholic Europe was making the switch from the Julian
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to the Gregorian calendar, which required the excision of the dates of 5–14 October from the calendar. She died either before midnight of 4 October or early in the morning of 15 October which is celebrated as her feast day. (According to the liturgical calendar then in use, she died on the 15th in any case, which began at sunset.) Her last words were: "My Lord, it is time to move on. Well then, may your will be done. O my Lord and my Spouse, the hour that I have longed for has come. It is time to meet one another."
## Holy relics.
She was buried at the Convento de la Anunciación in Alba de Tormes. Nine months after her death the coffin was opened and her body was found to be intact but the
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clothing had rotted. Before the body was re-interred one of her hands was cut off, wrapped in a scarf and sent to Ávila. Father Gracián cut the little finger off the hand and - according to his own account - kept it with him until it was taken by the occupying Ottoman Turks, from whom he had to redeem it with a few rings and 20 reales. The body was exhumed again on 25 November 1585 to be moved to Ávila and found to be incorrupt. An arm was removed and left in Alba de Tormes at the nuns' request, to compensate for losing the main relic of Teresa, but the rest of the body was reburied in the Discalced Carmelite chapter house in Ávila. The removal was done without the approval of the Duke of Alba
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de Tormes and he brought the body back in 1586, with Pope Sixtus V ordering that it remain in Alba de Tormes on pain of excommunication. A grander tomb on the original site was raised in 1598 and the body was moved to a new chapel in 1616.
The body still remains there, apart from the following parts:
- Rome - right foot and part of the upper jaw
- Lisbon - left hand
- Ronda, Spain - left eye and right hand (the latter was kept by Francisco Franco until his death after Francoist troops captured it from Republican troops during the Spanish Civil War)
- Museum of the Church of the Annunciation, Alba de Tormes - left arm and heart
- Church of Our Lady of Loreto, Paris, France - one finger
-
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Sanlúcar de Barrameda - one finger
# Canonization.
In 1622, forty years after her death, she was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. The Cortes exalted her to patroness of Spain in 1627. The University of Salamanca had granted her the title "Doctor ecclesiae" (Latin for "Doctor of the Church") with a diploma in her lifetime but that title is distinct from the papal honour of Doctor of the Church, which is always conferred posthumously. The latter was finally bestowed upon her by Pope Paul VI on 27 September 1970, along with Saint Catherine of Siena, making them the first women to be awarded the distinction. Teresa is revered as the Doctor of Prayer. The mysticism in her works exerted a formative
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influence upon many theologians of the following centuries, such as Francis of Sales, Fénelon, and the Port-Royalists. In 1670 her coffin was plated in silver.
# Mysticism.
The ultimate preoccupation of Teresa's mystical thought, as consistently reflected in her writings, is the ascent of the soul to God in four stages (see: "The Autobiography" Chs. 10-22):
- The first, "Devotion of the Heart", consists of mental prayer and contemplation. It means the withdrawal of the soul from without, penitence and especially the devout meditation on the passion of Christ ("Autobiography" 11.20).
- The second, "Devotion of Peace", is where human will is surrendered to God. This occurs by virtue of an
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uplifted awareness granted by God, while other faculties, such as memory, reason, and imagination, are not yet safe from worldly distraction. Although a partial distraction can happen, due to outer activity such as repetition of prayers or writing down spiritual things, the prevailing state is one of quietude ("Autobiography" 14.1).
- The third, "Devotion of Union", concerns the absorption-in-God. It is not only a heightened, but essentially, an ecstatic state. At this level, reason is also surrendered to God, and only the memory and imagination are left to ramble. This state is characterized by a blissful peace, a sweet slumber of at least the "higher soul faculties", that is a consciousness
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of being enraptured by the love of God.
- The fourth, "Devotion of Ecstasy", is where the consciousness of being in the body disappears. Sensory faculties cease to operate. Memory and imagination also become absorbed in God, as though intoxicated. Body and spirit dwell in the throes of exquisite pain, alternating between a fearful fiery glow, in complete unconscious helplessness, and periods of apparent strangulation. Sometimes such ecstatic transports literally cause the body to be lifted into space. This state may last as long as half an hour and tends to be followed by relaxation of a few hours of swoon-like weakness, attended by the absence of all faculties while in union with God. The
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subject awakens from this trance state in tears. it may be regarded as the culmination of mystical experience.
Indeed, Teresa was said to have been observed levitating during Mass on more than one occasion.
Teresa is regarded as one of the foremost writers on mental prayer, and her position among writers on mystical theology as unique. Her writings on this theme, stem from her personal experiences, thereby manifesting considerable insight and analytical gifts. Her definitions have been used in the "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Teresa states: "Contemplative prayer, "oración mental", in my opinion is nothing other than a close sharing between friends. It means frequently taking time to
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be alone with Him whom we know loves us." Throughout her writings, Teresa returns to the image of watering one's garden as a metaphor for mystical prayer.
# Writings.
Teresa's writings are regarded as among the most remarkable in the mystical literature of the Catholic Church.
- The "Autobiography", written before 1567, under the direction of her confessor, Fr. Pedro Ibáñez.
- "El Camino de Perfección" ("The Way of Perfection"), written also before 1567, at the direction of her confessor.
- "Meditations on Song of Songs", 1567, written nominally for her daughters at the convent of Our Lady of Mount Carmel.
- "El Castillo Interior" ("The Interior Castle"), written in 1577.
- "Relaciones"
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("Relationships"), an extension of the autobiography giving her inner and outer experiences in epistolary form.
- Two smaller works are the "Conceptos del Amor" ("Concepts of Love") and "Exclamaciones". In addition, there are "Las Cartas" (Saragossa, 1671), or her correspondence, of which there are 342 extant letters and 87 fragments of others. St Teresa's prose is marked by an unaffected grace, an ornate neatness, and charming power of expression, together placing her in the front rank of Spanish prose writers.
- Her rare poems (""Todas las poesías"", Munster, 1854) are distinguished for tenderness of feeling and rhythm of thought.
## Philosophical works.
Christia Mercer, Columbia University
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philosophy professor, claims that the seventeenth-century Frenchman, René Descartes, lifted some of his most influential ideas from Teresa of Ávila, who, fifty years before Descartes, wrote popular books about the role of philosophical reflection in intellectual growth. She describes a number of striking similarities between Descartes' seminal work "Meditations on First Philosophy" and Teresa's "Interior Castle".
## Excerpts.
Saint Teresa, who reported visions of Jesus and Mary, was a strong believer in the efficacy of holy water, claiming to have used it with success to repel evil spirits and temptations. She wrote: "I know from frequent experience that there is nothing which puts devils
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to flight better than holy water."
A poem:
The modern poem "Christ has no body", though widely attributed to Teresa, is not found in her writings.
# Legacy and the Infant Jesus of Prague.
The Spanish nuns who established "Carmel" in France brought a devotion to the Infant Jesus with them, and it became widespread in France. Indeed, one of Teresa's most famous later followers, Saint Thérèse of Lisieux (1875-1898), a French Carmelite, herself named for Teresa, took as her religious name Sister "Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face".
Though there are no written historical accounts establishing that Teresa of Ávila ever owned the famous Infant Jesus of Prague statue, according to tradition,
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such a statue is said to have been in her possession and Teresa is reputed to have given it to a noblewoman travelling to Prague. The age of the statue dates to approximately the same time as Teresa.
It has been thought that Teresa carried a portable statue of the Child Jesus wherever she went, the idea circulated by the early 1700s.
# Patron saint.
In 1626, at the request of Philip IV of Spain, the Castilian parliament elected Teresa "without lacking one vote" as copatron saint of Castile. This status was affirmed by Pope Urban VIII in a brief issued on 21 July 1627 in which he stated:
More broadly, the 1620s, the entirety of Spain (Castile and beyond) debated who should be the country's
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patron saint; the choices were either the current patron, Saint James Matamoros, or a pairing of him and the newly canonised Saint Teresa of Ávila. Teresa's promoters said Spain faced newer challenges, especially the threat of Protestantism and societal decline at home, thus needing a more contemporary patron who understood those issues and could guide the Spanish nation. Santiago's supporters ("Santiaguistas") fought back and eventually won the argument, but Teresa of Ávila remained far more popular at the local level. Saint James the Greater kept the title of patron saint for the Spanish people, and the most Blessed Virgin Mary under the title Immaculate Conception as the sole patroness for
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the entire Spanish Kingdom.
# Portrayals.
They include the following:
## Music.
- Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed two motets for the feast of Saint Teresa: "Flores, flores o Gallia" for two voices and two flutes (H 374), c. 1680 and the other, for two high voices, one bass and Bass continuo (H 342), in 1686.
- She is a principal character of the opera "Four Saints in Three Acts" by the composer Virgil Thomson with a libretto by Gertrude Stein.
- Saint Teresa is the subject of the song "Theresa's Sound-World" by Sonic Youth off the 1992 album "Dirty", lyrics by Thurston Moore.
- "Saint Teresa" is a track on Joan Osborne's "Relish" album, nominated for a Grammy Award in 1996.
## Painting
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and sculpture.
- Saint Teresa was the inspiration for one of Bernini's most famous sculptures, "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.
- Teresa was the subject of a portrait by the Flemish master, Sir Pieter Paul Rubens (1615) now in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
- "St. Teresa" was painted in 1819–20 by François Gérard, a French neoclassical painter.
## Literature.
- Simone de Beauvoir singles out Teresa as a woman who lived the human condition (perhaps the only woman to do so) in her book "The Second Sex".
- She is mentioned prominently in Kathryn Harrison's novel "Poison". The main character, Francisca De Luarca, is fascinated by her
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life.
- R. A. Lafferty was strongly inspired by "El Castillo Interior" when he wrote his novel "Fourth Mansions". Quotations from St. Teresa's work are frequently used as chapter headings.
- Pierre Klossowski prominently features Saint Teresa of Ávila in his metaphysical novel "The Baphomet".
- George Eliot compared Dorothea Brooke to St. Teresa in "Middlemarch" (1871–1872) and wrote briefly about the life and works of St. Teresa in the "Prelude" to the novel.
- Thomas Hardy took Saint Teresa as the inspiration for much of the characterisation of the heroine Tess (Teresa) Durbeyfield, in "Tess of the d'Urbervilles" (1891), most notably the scene in which she lies in a field and senses her
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soul ecstatically above her.
- The contemporary poet Jorie Graham features Saint Teresa in the poem "Breakdancing" in her volume "The End of Beauty".
- Barbara Mujica's novel "Sister Teresa", while not strictly hagiographical, is based upon Teresa's life.
- Timothy Findley's 1999 novel "Pilgrim" features Saint Teresa as a minor character.
## Drama and Film.
- Performance artist Linda Montano has cited Teresa of Ávila as one of the most important influences on her work and since her return to Catholicism in the 2000s has done performances of her life.
- "Teresa de Jesús" (1984), directed by Josefina Molina and starring Concha Velasco, is a Spanish made for TV mini-series. In it Teresa is
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portrayed as the determined foundress of new carmelite houses while protecting the infant Jesus statue on her many arduous journeys. The devotion to the Child Jesus spread quickly in Spain, possibly due to her mystical reputation and then to other places, including France.
- Nigel Wingrove's 1989 short film "Visions of Ecstasy" was based on Teresa of Ávila. The film features phantasied sexualised scenes of Teresa with the body of Jesus on the cross. It is the only work to be refused certification by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) on the grounds of blasphemy.
- Dževad Karahasan. "The Delighted Angel" drama about Teresa of Ávila and Rabija al-Adavija, Vienna-Salzburg-Klagenfurt,
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ARBOS 1995.
- Paz Vega stars as Teresa in "Teresa, el cuerpo de Cristo", a 2007 Spanish biopic directed by Ray Loriga.
# See also.
- Asín on mystical analogies in Saint Teresa of Avila and Islam
- "Book of the First Monks"
- Byzantine Discalced Carmelites
- Carmelite Rule of St. Albert
- Constitutions of the Carmelite Order
- Mount Carmel#Carmelites
- Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites
- Saints and levitation
- Spanish Renaissance literature
- "Teresa de Jesús, 1984 Spanish language mini-series
# Bibliography.
## Works by Teresa.
- , St. Teresa's autobiography in an online version at Project Gutenberg
- "The Complete Works of St Teresa of Jesus", in five volumes, translated
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and edited by E. Allison Peers, including 2 volumes of correspondence. London: Sheed and Ward, 1982.
- "The Interior Castle". Edited by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1972.
- "The Way of Perfection". Translated and Edited by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1991.
- "The Life of Teresa of Jesus: The Autobiography of Teresa of Avila". Translated by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1991.
- "The Interior Castle - The Mansions", TAN Books, 1997.
- "The Way of Perfection", TAN Books, 1997.
- "Way of Perfection", London, 2012. limovia.net
- "The Book of Her Life", translated, with Notes, by Kieran Kavanaugh, OCD and Otilio Rodriguez, OCD. Introduction by Jodi Bilinkoff. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett
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Publishing Company, 2008.
- "The Complete Poetry of St. Teresa of Avila". A Bilingual Edition - Edición y traducción de Eric W. Vogt." New Orleans University Press of the South, 1996. Second edition, 2015. xl, 116 p.
## About Teresa.
This article was originally based on the text in the "Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge."
- (493 pages) French original
- Auclair, Marcelle. (1953) "Saint Teresa of Avila". First English publication: New York: Pantheon. , (457 pages)
# Further reading.
- Vita Sackville-West. "The Eagle and the Dove, Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux", First published in 1943 by Michael Joseph LTD, 26 Bloomsbury Street, London, W.C.1
- Carolyn
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A. Greene. "Castles in the Sand" fiction with cited sources about Teresa of Avila Lighthouse Trails Publishing, 2009.
- Jean Abiven. "15 Days of Prayer with Saint Teresa of Avila", New City Press, 2011.
- Bárbara Mujica, "Teresa de Ávila: Lettered Woman", (Nashville, Vanderbilt University Press, 2009).
- E. Rhodes, "Teresa de Jesus's Book and the Reform of the Religious Man in Sixteenth Century Spain," in Laurence Lux-Sterritt and Carmen Mangion (eds), "Gender, Catholicism and Spirituality: Women and the Roman Catholic Church in Britain and Europe, 1200-1900" (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011),
- John Thomas, "Ecstasy, art & the body. St. Teresa of Avila's 'Transverberation', and it
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depiction in the sculpture of Gianlorenzo Bernini" in John Thomas, "Happiness, Truth & Holy Images. Essays of Popular Theology and Religion & Art" (Wolverhampton, Twin Books, 2019), pp. 12–16.
- John Thomas, "Architectural image and "via mystica". St. Teresa's "Las Moradas"", in John Thomas, "Happiness, Truth & Holy Images. Essays of Popular Theology and Religion & Art" (Wolverhampton, Twin Books, 2019), pp. 39–48.
# External links.
- "Teresa 500": Videos of a conference held at Roehampton University in 2015 on the 500th anniversary of Teresa's birth/a
- "St. Teresa, Virgin", "Butler's Lives of the Saints"
- Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica
- Biography Online: Saint Teresa of Avila
-
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erence held at Roehampton University in 2015 on the 500th anniversary of Teresa's birth/a
- "St. Teresa, Virgin", "Butler's Lives of the Saints"
- Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica
- Biography Online: Saint Teresa of Avila
- Patron Saints: Saint Teresa of Avila
- Books written by Saint Teresa of Avila, including Saint John of the Cross
- Basilica of Saint Teresa in Alba de Tormes (in Spanish)
- (in Spanish)
- Life of St. Teresa of Jesus, of The Order of Our Lady of Carmel
- "Way of Perfection"
- "Interior Castle" or "The Mansions"
- Convent of St Teresa in Avila
- Poems of Saint Teresa
- , 1900, by Alexander Whyte, from Project Gutenberg
- Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square
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Carmelites
The Carmelites, formally known as the Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel () or sometimes simply as Carmel by synecdoche, is a Roman Catholic mendicant religious order founded, probably in the 12th century, on Mount Carmel in the Crusader States, hence the name Carmelites. However, historical records about its origin remain very uncertain. Berthold of Calabria has traditionally been associated with the founding of the order, but few clear records of early Carmelite history have survived.
# Charism.
The charism (or spiritual focus) of the Carmelite Order is contemplation. Carmelites understand contemplation in a broad sense encompassing prayer, community,
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and service. These three elements are at the heart of the Carmelite charism. The most recent statement about the charism of Carmel was in the 1995 Constitutions of the Order, in which Chapter 2 is entirely devoted to the idea of charism. Carmel understands contemplation and action to be complementary, not contradictory. What is distinctive of Carmelites is the way that they practice the elements of prayer, community and service, taking particular inspiration from the prophet Elijah and the Blessed Virgin Mary, patrons of the order.
The order is considered by the Catholic Church to be under the special protection of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and thus has a strong Marian devotion to Our Lady of
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Mount Carmel. As in most of the orders dating to medieval times, the First Order is the friars (who are active/contemplative), the Second Order is the nuns (who are cloistered), and the Third Order consists of laypeople who continue to live in the world, and can be married, but participate in the charism of the order by liturgical prayers, apostolates, and contemplative prayer. There are also offshoots such as active Carmelite sisters.
# History.
## Origins.
Carmelite tradition traces the origin of the order to a community of hermits on Mount Carmel, which succeeded the schools of the prophets in ancient Israel during the initial period of the formation of the Crusader states. A group of
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men had gathered at the well of Elijah on Mount Carmel. These men, who had gone to Palestine from Europe either as pilgrims or as crusaders, chose Mount Carmel in part because it was the traditional home of Elijah.
The foundation is believed to have been dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. (The Carmelites were forced to leave the site, and the Holy Land, in 1291. Their original conventual buildings were destroyed several times, but members of the order were able to return in the nineteenth century under the Ottoman Empire. A monastery of Discalced Carmelite friars was built close to the original site under the auspices of Julius of the Saviour and consecrated on 12 June 1836.)
Some time
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between 1206 and 1214 the hermits, about whom very little is known, approached Albert of Jerusalem, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and papal legate, for a rule. (Albert is credited with giving a rule to the Humiliati during his long tenure as Bishop of Vercelli, and was well-versed in diplomacy, being sent by Pope Innocent III as Papal Legate to what was known as the Eastern Province.) Albert created a document, the Rule of St Albert, which is both juridically terse and replete with Scriptural allusions, thereby grounding the hermits in the life of the universal Church and their own aspirations.
The rule consisted of sixteen articles, which enjoined strict obedience to their prior, residence
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in individual cells, constancy in prayer, the hearing of Mass every morning in the oratory of the community, vows of poverty and toil, daily silence from vespers until terce the next morning, abstinence from all forms of meat except in cases of severe illness, and fasting from Holy Cross Day (September 14) until the Easter of the following year.
The Rule of St. Albert addresses a prior whose name is only listed as "B." When later required to name their founders, the Brothers referred to both Elijah and the Blessed Virgin as early models of the community. Later, under pressure from other European mendicant orders to be more specific, the name "Saint Berthold" was given, possibly drawn from the
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oral tradition of the order.
## Early history.
Virtually nothing is known of the Carmelites from 1214, when Albert died, until 1238. The Rule of St. Albert was approved by Pope Honorius III in 1226, and again by Pope Gregory IX in 1229, with a modification regarding ownership of property and permission to celebrate divine services. The Carmelites next appear in the historical record, in 1238, when with the increasing cleavage between the West and the East, the Carmelites found it advisable to leave the Near East. Many moved to Cyprus and Sicily.
In 1242, the Carmelites migrated west, establishing a settlement at Aylesford, Kent, England, and Hulne, near Alnwick in Northumberland. Two years
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later, they established a chapter in southern France. Settlements were established at Losenham, Kent, and Bradmer, on the north Norfolk coast, before 1247. By 1245 the Carmelites were so numerous in England that they were able to hold their first general chapter at Aylesford, where Simon Stock, then eighty years old, was chosen general. During his rule of twenty years the order prospered: foundations were made at London and Cambridge (1247), Marseilles (1248), Cologne (1252), York (before 1253), Monpellier (before 1256), Norwich, Oxford and Bristol (1256), Paris (1258), and elsewhere. By 1274, there were 22 Carmelite houses in England, about the same number in France, eleven in Catalonia, three
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in Scotland with the Aberdeen house established around 1273, as well as some in Italy, Germany and elsewhere.
Acknowledging the changed circumstances of life outside the Holy Land, the Carmelites appealed to the papal curia for a modification of the Rule. Pope Innocent IV entrusted the drafting of a modified Rule to two Dominicans, and the new Rule was promulgated by Pope Innocent IV in his 1247 Bull "Quem honorem Conditoris". This both brought it closer to the model generally envisaged for mendicant orders in Europe at the time, and made allowances for the changed needs of an Order now based in Europe rather than the Holy Land: for instance, foundations were no longer required to be made in
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desert places, the canonical office was recited, and abstinence was mitigated.
There is scholarly debate over the significance for the Carmelites of the decree at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 that no order founded after 1215 should be allowed to continue. This action put an end to several other mendicant orders, including the Sack Friars, and the Pied, Crutched and Apostolic Friars. The Carmelites, as an order whose Rule had been promulgated by the Pope only after 1215, should in theory have been included in this set. Certainly, the rapid expansion of the order was halted after 1274, with far fewer houses established in subsequent years. Later Carmelite apologists, from the fourteenth
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century onwards, however, interpreted the Second Council of Lyon as a confirmation of the order. Such tensions may in part explain why, at a General Chapter in London in 1281, the order asserted that it had ancient origins from Elijah and Elisha at Mount Carmel.
Such tension appears to have lessened under subsequent popes, however. In 1286, Honorius IV confirmed the Carmelite Rule, and in 1298 Boniface VIII formally removed the restrictions placed on the order by the Second Council of Lyon. In 1326, John XXII's bull "Super cathedram" extended to the order all the rights and exemptions that existed for the older existing Franciscans and Dominicans, signalling an acceptance of the Carmelites
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at the heart of Western religious life.
The order grew quickly after reaching Europe. By the end of the thirteenth century, the order had around 150 houses in Europe, divided into twelve provinces throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. In England, the order had 30 houses under four "distinctions": London, Norwich, Oxford and York, as well as new houses in Scotland and Ireland. It has been estimated that the total Carmelite population in England between 1296 and 1347 was about 720, with the largest house (London), having over 60 friars, but most averaging between 20 and 30.
## Reforms.
Quite early in their history, the Carmelites began to develop ministries in keeping with their new status
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as mendicant religious. This resulted in the production in 1270 of a letter "Ignea Sagitta "("Flaming Arrow") by the ruling prior general from 1266 to 1271, Nicholas of Narbonne (also known as Nicholas Gallicus, or Nicholas the Frenchman), who called for a return to a strictly eremitical life. His belief that most friars were ill-suited to an active apostolate was based on a number of scandals. The letter is symbolic of the tensions the Carmelites grappled with in the thirteenth century between their eremitical origins (expressed particularly in a desire for solitude and a focus on contemplation) and their more recent transformation into a fundamentally mendicant order (expressed in the desire
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to respond to the Church's apostolic mission).
By the late 14th century, the Carmelites were becoming increasingly interested in their origins; the lack of a distinctive named founder (by contrast with the Dominicans and Franciscans) may have been a factor in the development of numerous legends surrounding Carmelite origins. One particularly influential book was the "Institution of the First Monks", the first part of a four-part work from the late fourteenth century. It was almost certainly composed by Philip Ribot, Catalan Carmelite provincial, though Ribot passed off his work as a collection of earlier writings that he edited, claiming that the "Institution" itself was written by John XLIV,
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supposedly a patriarch of Jerusalem, who purportedly wrote the text in Greek in 412. The "Institution" tells of the founding of the Carmelite order by the prophet Elijah and gives a fanciful history of the order in the pre- and early Christian era. It was hugely influential, and has been described as the "chief book of spiritual reading in the Carmelite order" until the seventeenth century.
In the late 14th and 15th centuries the Carmelites, like a number of other religious orders, declined and reform became imperative. In 1432 the Carmelites obtained from Pope Eugenius IV the bull "Romani pontificis", which mitigated the Rule of St Albert and the 1247 modification, on the ground that the original
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demanded too much of the friars. The main clauses modified concerned fasting and remaining within individual cells: the bull allowed them to eat meat three days a week and to perambulate in the cloisters of their convents. This reform brought the Carmelites closer into line with other mendicant orders, but it was also the source of much subsequent tension, as others refused to accept this change in the nature of the order, seeing it as a loss of Carmel's original vision and spirit.
Such tension erupted almost immediately. Shortly before 1433 three priories in Valais, Tuscany, and Mantua were reformed by the preaching of Thomas Conecte of Rennes and formed the Congregation of Mantua, refusing
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to accept the mitigation of 1432. They instead insisted on a more severe monastic observance than that applied between 1247 and 1432. Under the Mantuan observance, entrance to the cloister was forbidden to outsiders, the friars were banned from being outside the convent without good reason, and money was distributed from a common chest. In 1443, they obtained a bull from Pope Eugenius IV which effectively declared the Mantua chapter independent of the rest of the order, with its own special set of constitutions and governed by its own vice prior general. Under the reconciliatory efforts of prior-general Blessed John Soreth (; prior-general 1451–1471), however, the Mantuan congregation was brought
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closer to the main Carmelite order, such that in 1462 the Mantuans even accepted parts of the 1432 mitigation.
This was likely in part due to Soreth's own reforming impulses. In 1459, for instance, Pope Pius II left the regulation of fasts to the discretion of the prior general; Soreth accordingly sought until his death in 1471 to restore the primitive asceticism.
Soreth also founded the order of Carmelite nuns in 1452 (with authorisation from the papal bull "Cum Nulla"). The first convent, Our Lady of Angels, was in Florence, but the movement rapidly spread to Belgium (in 1452), France, and Spain (with the foundation of the Incarnation in Avila in 1479).
In 1476, a papal bull "Cum nulla"
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of Pope Sixtus IV founded the Carmelites of the Third Order. They received a special rule in 1635, which was amended in 1678.
The need for reform of the Carmelite order was recognized by the early sixteenth century, and some early attempts at reform were made then, notably from 1523 onwards by Nicholas Audet, vicar-general of the order. His plans saw some fruit: during three years of travels through France and Germany, introducing his reforms into the houses of the order, more than one hundred houses were reformed. Audet met resistance in other places, however: in the Spanish province of Castile, more than half the friars walked away.
Reform in Spain began in earnest in the 1560s, with the
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work of Teresa of Ávila, who, together with John of the Cross, established the Discalced Carmelites. Teresa's foundations were welcomed by King Philip II of Spain, who was most anxious for all Orders to be reformed according to the principles of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). But she created practical problems at the grassroots level. The proliferation of new religious houses in towns that were already struggling to cope economically was an unwelcome prospect. Local townspeople resisted direction by the nobility and diocesan clergy. Teresa tried to make her monasteries as self-sufficient as was practicable, and restricted the number of nuns per community accordingly.
The Discalced Carmelites
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also faced much opposition from other unreformed Carmelite houses (notably, Carmelites from Toledo arrested and imprisoned John of the Cross in their own monastery). Only in the 1580s did the Discalced Carmelites gain official approval of their status. In 1593, the Discalced Carmelites had their own superior general styled propositus general, the first being Nicholas Doria. Due to the politics of foundation, the Discalced friars in Italy were canonically erected as a separate juridical entity.
After the rise of Protestantism and the devastation of the French Wars of Religion, a spirit of reform renewed 16th–17th century France, as well as the Carmelite Order in France. In the late 16th century,
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Pierre Behourt began an effort to restore the state of the Province of Touraine, which was continued by the practical reforms of Philip Thibault. The Provincial Chapter of 1604 appointed Thibault the prior of the Convent in Rennes, and moved the Novitiate to Rennes, thereby ensuring that new members of the Province would be formed by the reform-minded friars. The Observance of Rennes advocated poverty, the interior life and regular observance as the antidote to the laxity and decadence into which religious life had fallen, in addition, incorporating currents of renewal from the Discalced Reform, the French School, and the Society of Jesus. Thibault is said to have wished to marry the spirit
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of the society with the Order of Carmelites as far as possible. One of the most renowned figures of the Reform was John of St. Samson, a blind lay brother, highly regarded for his humility and exalted spiritual life. In 1612, Br. John was moved to the Convent at Rennes and, in addition to playing the organ, served as the instructor and spiritual director of the novices. Thus John of St. Samson became known as the "Soul of the Reform." Eventually, the Observance of Rennes spread to priories throughout France, Belgium, and Germany, and became known as the Touraine Reform, after the Province from which the movement originated.
Carmelite nunneries were established in New Spain (Mexico), the first
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founded in 1604 in Puebla de los Angeles, New Spain's second largest city, followed by one in the capital Mexico City 1616. In all, before Mexican independence in 1821, there were five Carmelite convents among 56 nunneries.
## Controversies with other orders.
By the middle of the 17th century, the Carmelites had reached their zenith. At this period, however, they became involved in controversies with other orders, particularly with the Jesuits. The special objects of attack were the traditional origin of the Carmelites and the source of their scapular. The Sorbonne, represented by Jean Launoy, joined the Jesuits in their polemics against the Carmelites.
Papebroch, the Bollandist editor of
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the "Acta Sanctorum," was answered by the Carmelite Sebastian of St. Paul, who made such serious charges against the orthodoxy of his opponent's writings that the very existence of the Bollandists was threatened. The peril was averted, however. In 1696 a decree of Juan Tomás de Rocaberti, archbishop of Valencia and inquisitor-general of the Holy Office, forbade all further controversies between the Carmelites and Jesuits. Two years later, on November 20, 1698, Pope Innocent XII issued a brief that definitely ended the controversy on pain of excommunication, and placed all writings in violation of the brief on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
## Modern history.
Since the 1430s, the Congregation
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of Mantua had continued to function in its little corner of Italy. It was only at the end of the 19th century that those following the reform of Tourraine (by this time known as the "strict observance") and the Mantuan Congregation were formally merged under one set of constitutions. The friars following Mantua conceded to Tourraine's Constitutions but insisted that the older form of the habit - namely their own - should be adopted. In a photograph of the period Blessed Titus Brandsma is shown in the habit of Tourraine as a novice; in all subsequent images he wears that of the newly styled Ancient Observance.
The French Revolution led to the suppression of the order, with the nuns dispersed
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into small groups who lived out of view in private houses.
After the end of the disturbances the wealthy heiress and Carmelite nun Camille de Soyécourt did much to restore the order.
The secularization in Germany and the repercussions on religious orders following the unification of Italy were strong blows to the Carmelites.
By the last decades of the 19th century, there were approximately 200 Carmelite men throughout the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, however, new leadership and less political interference allowed a rebirth of the order. Existing provinces began re-founding provinces that had become defunct. The theological preparation of the Carmelites was strengthened, particularly
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with the foundation of St. Albert's College in Rome.
By 2001, the membership had increased to approximately 2,100 men in 25 provinces, 700 enclosed nuns in 70 monasteries, and 13 affiliated Congregations and Institutes. In addition, the Third Order of lay Carmelites count 25,000-30,000 members throughout the world. Provinces exist in Australia, Brazil, Britain, Canada, Chile, Hungary, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Singapore, Spain, Portugal and the United States. Delegations directly under the Prior General exist in Argentina, France, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, Lebanon, the Philippines and Portugal.
Carmelite Missions exist in Bolivia,
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Burkino Faso, Cameroon, Colombia, India, Kenya, Lithuania, Mexico, Mozambique, Peru, Romania, Tanzania, Trinidad, Venezuela and Zimbabwe.
Monasteries of enclosed Carmelite nuns exist in Brazil, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Kenya, the Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand (in Christchurch since 1933), Nicaragua, Norway, Peru, the Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. Hermit communities of either men or women exist in Brazil, France, Indonesia, Lebanon, Italy and the United States.
The Discalced Carmelite Order built the priory of Elijah (1911) at the site of Elijah's epic contest
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with the prophets of Ba'al (1 Kings 18:20-40). The monastery is situated about 25 kilometers south of Haifa on the eastern side of the Carmel, and stands on the foundations of a series of earlier monasteries. The site is held sacred by Christians, Jews and Muslims; the name of the area is "el-Muhraqa," an Arabic construction meaning "place of burning", and is a direct reference to the biblical account.
Several Carmelite figures who have received significant attention in the 20th century, including Thérèse of Lisieux, one of only four female Doctors of the Church, so named because of her famous teaching on the "way of confidence and love" set forth in her best-selling memoir, "Story of a Soul";
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Three nuns of Monastery of Guadalajara who were martyred on the 24th July 1936 by Spanish Republicans. Titus Brandsma, a Dutch scholar and writer who was killed in Dachau concentration camp because of his stance against Nazism; and Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (née Edith Stein), a Jewish convert to Catholicism who was also imprisoned and died at Auschwitz.
Raphael Kalinowski (1835–1907) was the first friar to be canonized in the order since co-founder John of the Cross. The writings and teachings of Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection, a Carmelite friar of the 17th century, continue as a spiritual classic under the title "The Practice of the Presence of God". Other non-religious ("i.e.,"
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non-vowed monastic) great figures include George Preca, a Maltese priest and Carmelite Tertiary. The Feast of All Carmelite Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on November 14.
Leaders of the Carmelite Order meet from time to time in General Congregation. The most recent General Congregation took place in Fátima, Portugal from 18 to 30 September 2016.
# Habit and scapular.
In 1287, the original way of life of the order was changed to conform to that of the mendicant orders on the initiative of St. Simon Stock and at the command of Pope Innocent IV. Their former habit of a mantle with black and white or brown and white stripes—the black or brown stripes representing the scorches the mantle of
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Elijah received from the fiery chariot as it fell from his shoulders—was discarded. They wore the same habit as the Dominicans, except that the cloak was white. They also borrowed much from the Dominican and Franciscan constitutions. Their distinctive garment was a scapular of two strips of dark cloth, worn on the breast and back, and fastened at the shoulders. Tradition holds that this was given to St. Simon Stock by the Blessed Virgin Mary, who appeared to him and promised that all who wore it with faith and piety and who died clothed in it would be saved. There arose a sodality of the scapular, which affiliated a large number of laymen with the Carmelites.
A miniature version of the Carmelite
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scapular is popular among Roman Catholics and is one of the most popular devotions in the Church. Wearers usually believe that if they faithfully wear the Carmelite scapular (also called "the brown scapular" or simply "the scapular") and die in a state of grace, they will be saved from eternal damnation. Catholics who decide to wear the scapular are usually enrolled by a priest, and some choose to enter the Scapular Confraternity. The Lay Carmelites of the Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel wear a scapular which is smaller than the shortened scapular worn by some Carmelite religious for sleeping, but still larger than the devotional scapulars.
# Visions and devotions.
Among the various
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Catholic orders, Carmelite nuns have had a proportionally high ratio of visions of Jesus and Mary and have been responsible for key Catholic devotions.
From the time of her clothing in the Carmelite religious habit (1583) until her death (1607), Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi is said to have had a series of raptures and ecstasies.
- First, these raptures sometimes seized upon her whole being with such force as to compel her to rapid motion (e.g. towards some sacred object).
- Secondly, she was frequently able, whilst in ecstasy, to carry on working e.g., embroidery, painting, with perfect composure and efficiency.
- Thirdly, during these raptures Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi gave utterance to maxims
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of Divine Love, and to counsels of perfection for souls. These were preserved by her companions, who (unknown to her) wrote them down.
In the Carmelite convent of Beja, in Portugal, two Carmelite nuns of the Ancient Observance reported several apparitions and mystical revelations throughout their life: Venerable Mother Mariana of the Purification received numerous apparitions of the Child Jesus and her body was found incorrupt after her death; Venerable Mother Maria Perpétua da Luz wrote 60 books with messages from heaven; both religious died with the odor of sanctity.
In the 19th century, another Carmelite nun, Thérèse of Lisieux, was instrumental in spreading devotion to the Holy Face throughout
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France in the 1890s with her many poems and prayers. Eventually Pope Pius XII approved the devotion in 1958 and declared the Feast of the Holy Face of Jesus as Shrove Tuesday (the day before Ash Wednesday) for all Catholics. Therese of Lisieux emerged as one of the most popular saints for Catholics in the 20th century, and a statue of her can be found in many European and North American Catholic churches built prior to the Second Vatican Council (after which the number of statues tended to be reduced when churches were built).
In the 20th century, in the last apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Fátima, Portugal, Sister Lúcia, one of the most famous visionaries of Our Lady, said that the
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Virgin appeared to her as Our Lady of Mount Carmel (holding the Brown Scapular). Many years after, Lúcia became a Carmelite nun. When Lúcia was asked in an interview why the Blessed Virgin appeared as Our Lady of Mount Carmel in her last apparition, she replied: "Because Our Lady wants all to wear the Scapular... The reason for this", she explained, "is that the Scapular is our sign of consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary". When asked if the Brown Scapular is as necessary to the fulfillment of Our Lady's requests as the rosary, Lúcia answered: "The Scapular and the Rosary are inseparable".
Many Carmelites have been canonized by the Catholic Church as saints. November 14 is the Feast
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of All Carmelite Saints.
# See also.
- Enclosed religious orders
- "Dialogues of the Carmelites"
- Ipswich Whitefriars
## Other Branches of the Carmelite Order.
- Byzantine Discalced Carmelites
- Carmelites of Mary Immaculate
- Discalced Carmelites (also known as Teresian Carmelites)
- Hermits of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel
- Lay Carmelites (Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel)
- Monks of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel
- Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites
- Episcopal Carmel of Saint Teresa
## Communities of Carmelite Sisters.
- Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles
- Carmelite Sisters for the Aged and Infirm
## Spirituality.
-
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Elijah
- Teresa of Ávila (Doctor of the Church)
- John of the Cross (Doctor of the Church)
- Thérèse of Lisieux (Doctor of the Church)
- Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi
- Sister Lúcia of Fátima
- Nuno of Saint Mary
- Simon Stock
- Elizabeth of the Trinity
- Marie-Antoinette de Geuser "Consumata"
- Edith Stein "Teresa Benedicta of the Cross"
- Teresa of Los Andes
- Teresa Margaret of the Sacred Heart
- Joaquina de Vedruna
- Angelus of Jerusalem
- Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection
- Francisco Palau
- Angelo Paoli
- Jan Tyranowski
- Martyrs of Compiègne
- Titus Brandsma
- John of St. Samson
## Tradition.
- Book of the First Monks
- Carmelite Rite
- Carmelite Rule of St. Albert
-
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Constitutions of the Carmelite Order
- Our Lady of Mount Carmel
- Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
# References.
- "Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion"
- Copsey, Richard and Fitzgerald-Lombard, Patrick (eds.), "Carmel in Britain: studies on the early history of the Carmelite Order" (1992–2004).
- "The Carmelite Order" by Benedict Zimmerman. "The Catholic Encyclopedia", 1908.
# Further reading.
- T. Brandsma, "Carmelite Mysticism, Historical Sketches: 50th Anniversary Edition", (Darien, IL, 1986), ASIN B002HFBEZG
- J. Boyce, "Carmelite Liturgy and Spiritual Identity. The Choir Books of Kraków", Turnhout, 2009, Brepols Publishers,
- W. McGreal, "At the Fountain of Elijah: The
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Carmelite Tradition", (Maryknoll, NY, 1999),
- J. Smet, "The Carmelites: A History of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel", 4. vol. (Darien IL, 1975)
- J. Welch, "The Carmelite Way: An Ancient Path for Today’s Pilgrim", (New York: 1996),
# External links.
- Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
- Order of the Discalced Carmelites
- Index of Carmelite Websites
- Carmelite Hermitage
- Meditations from Carmel
- "Sayings of Light and Love" - Spiritual Maxims of John of the Cross
- The Carmelite history and vocation
- "Mystical Brain" by Isabelle Raynauld (2006) - a documentary film about five Carmelite Nuns who volunteered to have their brains scanned while they meditated
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- Index of Carmelite Websites
- Carmelite Hermitage
- Meditations from Carmel
- "Sayings of Light and Love" - Spiritual Maxims of John of the Cross
- The Carmelite history and vocation
- "Mystical Brain" by Isabelle Raynauld (2006) - a documentary film about five Carmelite Nuns who volunteered to have their brains scanned while they meditated by recalling mystical experiences
## Provinces of the Carmelite Order.
- Carmelites of the Province of the Assumption, British Province (founded c. 1241; refounded 1969)
- Carmelites of the Most Pure Heart of Mary Province, USA/Canada/Peru/Mexico/El Salvador (founded 1890)
- Carmelites of the North American Province of St. Elias (founded 1931)
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Exciton
An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force. It is an electrically neutral quasiparticle that exists in insulators, semiconductors and some liquids. The exciton is regarded as an elementary excitation of condensed matter that can transport energy without transporting net electric charge.
An exciton can form when a material absorbs a photon of higher energy than its bandgap. This excites an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. In turn, this leaves behind a positively charged electron hole (an abstraction for the location from which an electron was moved). The electron in the conduction
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band is then effectively attracted to this localized hole by the repulsive Coulomb forces from large numbers of electrons surrounding the hole and excited electron. This attraction provides a stabilizing energy balance. Consequently, the exciton has slightly less energy than the unbound electron and hole. The wavefunction of the bound state is said to be "hydrogenic", an exotic atom state akin to that of a hydrogen atom. However, the binding energy is much smaller and the particle's size much larger than a hydrogen atom. This is because of both the screening of the Coulomb force by other electrons in the semiconductor (i.e., its dielectric constant), and the small effective masses of the excited
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electron and hole. The recombination of the electron and hole, i.e. the decay of the exciton, is limited by resonance stabilization due to the overlap of the electron and hole wave functions, resulting in an extended lifetime for the exciton.
The electron and hole may have either parallel or anti-parallel spins. The spins are coupled by the exchange interaction, giving rise to exciton fine structure. In periodic lattices, the properties of an exciton show momentum (k-vector) dependence.
The concept of excitons was first proposed by Yakov Frenkel in 1931, when he described the excitation of atoms in a lattice of insulators. He proposed that this excited state would be able to travel in a particle-like
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fashion through the lattice without the net transfer of charge.
Excitons are often treated in the two limiting cases of small dielectric constant versus large dielectric constant; corresponding to Frenkel exciton and Wannier–Mott exciton respectively.
# Frenkel exciton.
In materials with a relatively small dielectric constant, the Coulomb interaction between an electron and a hole may be strong and the excitons thus tend to be small, of the same order as the size of the unit cell. Molecular excitons may even be entirely located on the same molecule, as in fullerenes. This "Frenkel exciton", named after Yakov Frenkel, has a typical binding energy on the order of 0.1 to 1 eV. Frenkel excitons
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are typically found in alkali halide crystals and in organic molecular crystals composed of aromatic molecules, such as anthracene and tetracene.
# Wannier–Mott exciton.
In semiconductors, the dielectric constant is generally large. Consequently, electric field screening tends to reduce the Coulomb interaction between electrons and holes. The result is a "Wannier exciton", which has a radius larger than the lattice spacing. Small effective mass of electrons that is typical of semiconductors also favors large exciton radii. As a result, the effect of the lattice potential can be incorporated into the effective masses of the electron and hole. Likewise, because of the lower masses and the screened
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Coulomb interaction, the binding energy is usually much less than that of a hydrogen atom, typically on the order of . This type of exciton was named for Gregory Wannier and Nevill Francis Mott. Wannier-Mott excitons are typically found in semiconductor crystals with small energy gaps and high dielectric constants, but have also been identified in liquids, such as liquid xenon. They are also known as "large excitons".
In single-wall carbon nanotubes, excitons have both Wannier-Mott and Frenkel character. This is due to the nature of the Coulomb interaction between electrons and holes in one-dimension. The dielectric function of the nanotube itself is large enough to allow for the spatial extent
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