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Frederick B. Abramson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20B.%20Abramson
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Frederick B. Abramson
Frederick B. Abramson
Frederick B. Abramson (1935 in New York, New York – June 1, 1991 in Washington D.C.) was a Washington D.C. lawyer who served as President of the District of Columbia Bar from June 1985 to June 1986.
# Early life and education.
Abramson was raised in Harlem - his father was an elevator operator, and his mother was a food service worker - but he attended a program for gifted students at Stuyvesant High School, before transferring to Cornwall Academy in Connecticut after receiving a scholarship that his sister had seen advertised in the Amsterdam News. He was the first African-American student to attend Cornwall, and later became one of only four African-American students
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Frederick B. Abramson
in his class at Yale University, from which he graduated in 1956, also after receiving a scholarship. He went on to earn his Juris Doctor from the University of Chicago School of Law in 1959.
# Career.
Abramson settled in Washington, D.C., where he practiced law and participated in the governance of the legal profession for the rest of his life.
After stints in the United States Justice Department and with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Abramson went into private practice. He was one of the first black associates in a major Washington law firm while working for the firm of Arnold & Porter from 1969 to 1973, when he became a partner in Rollinson & Schaumberg. In 1977, Abramson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20B.%20Abramson
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Frederick B. Abramson
became a partner in Sachs, Greenebaum & Taylor, where he would remain until 1990. In January 1991, he became the first African-American head of the Office of Bar Counsel for the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, supervising investigations of attorneys alleged to have violated the Rules of Professional Responsibility. He held the position for only five months before succumbing to pneumonia at the age of 56.
At the time of his death Abramson was also Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the David A. Clarke School of Law. He also served nine years on the D.C. Judicial Nomination Commission (four as Chair), and was a member of the ABA Commission on Opportunities for Minorities, the ABA Standing
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Frederick B. Abramson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20B.%20Abramson
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Frederick B. Abramson
D.C. Judicial Nomination Commission (four as Chair), and was a member of the ABA Commission on Opportunities for Minorities, the ABA Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary, the boards of directors of the Washington Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights and Urban Affairs, Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia, National Women's Law Centre and Century National Bank of Washington.
Abramson's death prompted members of the District's legal community to create the Frederick B. Abramson Memorial Foundation, which provides opportunities for young African-American men and women to further their education.
# External links.
- Website of the Frederick B. Abramson Memorial Foundation
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1643524
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Floyd Collins (musical)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Floyd%20Collins%20(musical)
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Floyd Collins (musical)
Floyd Collins (musical)
Floyd Collins is a musical with music and lyrics by Adam Guettel, and book by Tina Landau. The story is based on the death of Floyd Collins near Cave City, Kentucky in the winter of 1925. The musical opened Off-Broadway on February 9, 1996, where it ran for 25 performances. There have been subsequent London productions as well as regional U.S. productions.
# Productions.
"Floyd Collins" premiered at the American Music Theater Festival, in Philadelphia, in 1994.
The show opened Off-Broadway at Playwrights Horizons, New York City, on February 9, 1996 and closed on March 24, 1996 after 25 performances. Directed by Landau, the cast included Christopher Innvar as Floyd
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Floyd Collins (musical)
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Floyd Collins (musical)
Collins, Martin Moran as Skeets Miller, Jason Danieley as Homer Collins, and Theresa McCarthy as Nellie Collins, as well as Cass Morgan, Brian d'Arcy James, Matthew (Matt) Bennett and Michael Mulheren. The musical won the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Musical, and the 1995-1996 Obie Award for its score. In 2003, a reunion concert was held at Playwrights Horizons with Romain Frugé as Floyd Collins and most of the original cast.
After a three-stop mini US tour in 1999, including San Diego's Old Globe Theatre, Chicago's Goodman Theatre, and Philadelphia's American Music Theatre Festival, where it had first premiered; the show had its first independent regional production at New Line Theatre
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Floyd Collins (musical)
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Floyd Collins (musical)
in St. Louis, MO in November 1999.
The show made its London debut at the Bridewell Theatre in July 1999, with Nigel Richards as Floyd, Anna Francolini as Nellie and Craig Parnell as Homer. The production was directed by Clive Paget. A London revival was produced at The Vault, Southwark Playhouse in February and March 2012. The production was directed by Derek Bond, with Glenn Carter as Floyd, Robyn North as Nellie, Gareth Chart as Homer and Ryan Sampson as Skeets. The production was produced by Peter Huntley and was long-listed for the Ned Sherrin Award for Best Musical at the Evening Standard Awards and won Best Musical Production at the 'Offies'the Off-West-End Awards. A Chicago revival was
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Floyd Collins (musical)
produced at BoHo Theatre in June and July 2012. The production was directed by Peter Marston Sullivan, with Jim DeSelm as Floyd, Jon Harrison as Homer, and Sarah Bockel as Nellie. "Floyd Collins" had its North Carolina regional premiere in August 2011 at the Carolina Actors Studio Theatre in Charlotte.
The finale song is the title track of Audra McDonald's 2000 album "How Glory Goes", and was also included on Brian Stokes Mitchell's 2006 self-titled album.
In June 2015, the production premiered at the Ophelia Theater in Astoria, NY. The production was directed by the Artistic Director of Ophelia Theatre Group and features an intimate and immersive staging within a newly renovated black box
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Floyd Collins (musical)
space.
# Plot summary.
As originally written, the character list included Floyd Collins, Homer Collins, Nellie Collins, and Johnnie Gerald; as rewritten the role of Johnnie Gerald was merged with that of Homer Collins. As currently performed, the roles include Bee Doyle, Dr Hazlett, three reporters, a Con Man, Lee Collins, Homer Collins, Floyd Collins, Clif Rony, Jewlle Estes, Nellie Collins, Skeets Miller, Miss Jane, H. T. Carmichael and Ed Bishop.
Floyd Collins, exploring Sand Cave, uses the echoes of his voice to sound out the region, and falls through a tight passageway when his foot became trapped, wedged in position by a small rock. His family and his fellow cavers try to free him;
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Floyd Collins (musical)
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Floyd Collins (musical)
when it becomes clear that his rescue will not be easy, his brother Homer spends the night in the cave with him. William Burke "Skeets" Miller, a small man, is able to squeeze through and visit with Floyd, relaying stories which were printed in the news.
Despite efforts by miners, the National Guard and the Red Cross, attempts at rescue fail, and the crowd grows outside the cave as a media circus ensues.
Seventeen days after Floyd had entered the cave, a shaft finally reaches him. He had died three days earlier.
The play's musical style is drawn from bluegrass, Americana, and "more complex musical forms that have their antecedents in the likes of Bartok, Janacek and Stravinsky".
# Songs.
-
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Floyd Collins (musical)
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Floyd Collins (musical)
Act I
- Ballad of Floyd Collins - Company
- The Call - Floyd
- It Moves - Floyd
- Time to Go - Floyd
- Lucky – Nellie and Miss Jane
- 'Tween a Rock An' a Hard Place (replaced by "Where a Man Belongs" in 1999) – Family and locals
- Daybreak – Homer and Floyd
- Ballad of Floyd Collins (Reprise) - Jewell
- I Landed on Him – Skeets Miller
- And She'd Have Blue Eyes - Floyd
- Heart An' Hand - Miss Jane and Lee
- Riddle Song – Homer and Floyd
- Act II
- Is That Remarkable? – reporters and company
- Carnival – Floyd and company
- Through the Mountain - Nellie
- Git Comfortable - Homer
- Ballad of Floyd Collins (2nd Reprise) - Jewell
- The Dream - Floyd, Nellie, Homer and company
-
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Floyd Collins (musical)
How Glory Goes - Floyd
# Response.
Despite having a run of only 25 performances, the show left a strong impression on contemporary theatre. John Simon, writing for "New York Magazine", proclaimed that Floyd Collins was ""the" original and daring musical of our day." He also wrote that "Floyd Collins reestablishes America's sovereignty in a genre it created, but has since lost hold of: it is the modern musical's true and exhilarating ace in the hole."
"The New York Times" wrote that "Mr. Guettel establishes himself as a young composer of strength and sophistication."
# Recordings.
The original cast recording was released on Nonesuch on March 18, 1997.
The following songs are not included
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Floyd Collins (musical)
hat "Floyd Collins reestablishes America's sovereignty in a genre it created, but has since lost hold of: it is the modern musical's true and exhilarating ace in the hole."
"The New York Times" wrote that "Mr. Guettel establishes himself as a young composer of strength and sophistication."
# Recordings.
The original cast recording was released on Nonesuch on March 18, 1997.
The following songs are not included on the recording:
- And She'd Have Blue Eyes
- The Ballad of Floyd Collins (reprise) (act 1)
- Where a Man Belongs
# External links.
- 1999 "Los Angeles Times" article about the writing of "Floyd Collins"
- 2015 City Center interview with Jesse Eisenberg about "Floyd Collins"
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Oh, Mr Porter!
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oh,%20Mr%20Porter!
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Oh, Mr Porter!
Oh, Mr Porter!
Oh, Mr Porter! is a 1937 British comedy film starring Will Hay with Moore Marriott and Graham Moffatt and directed by Marcel Varnel. While not Hay's commercially most successful (although it grossed £500,000 at the box office – equal to over £30,000,000 in modern-day money), it is probably his best-known film to modern audiences. It is widely acclaimed as the best of Hay's work, and a classic of its genre. The film had its first public showing in November 1937 and went on general release on 3 January 1938.
The plot of "Oh, Mr Porter" was loosely based on the Arnold Ridley play "The Ghost Train". The title was taken from "Oh! Mr Porter", a music hall song.
# Plot.
William Porter
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Oh, Mr Porter!
(Will Hay) is an inept railway worker who – due to family connections – is given the job of stationmaster at a remote and ramshackle rural Northern Irish railway station in the (fictitious) town of Buggleskelly, situated on the border with the then Irish Free State.
After taking the ferry from England to Northern Ireland, Porter is aghast when he discovers how isolated the station is. It is situated out in the countryside, two miles cross-country from the nearest bus stop. To make matters worse, local legend has it that the ghost of One-Eyed Joe the Miller haunts the line and, as a result, no-one will go near the station after dark.
Porter's co-workers at the station are the elderly deputy
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Oh, Mr Porter!
stationmaster, Harbottle (Moore Marriott), and an overweight, insolent young porter, Albert (Graham Moffatt), who make a living by stealing goods in transit and swapping railway tickets for food. They welcome Porter to his new job by regaling him with tales of the deaths and disappearances of previous stationmasters – each apparently the victim of the curse of One-Eyed Joe.
From the beginning, the station is run very unprofessionally. Porter is woken up by a cow sticking its head through the window of the old railway carriage he is sleeping in (the cow has been lost in transit and is being milked by Harbottle), and the team's breakfast consists of bacon made from a litter of piglets which the
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Oh, Mr Porter!
railway is supposed to be looking after for a local farmer.
Determined to shake things up (particularly after he is forced to deal with the irate farmer when he comes to collect his pigs), Stationmaster Porter tries to renovate the station in several ways, most sensibly by painting the entire station, but also by less conventional means – including stopping the passing express and organising an excursion to Connemara.
Porter attempts to drum up business among the local people in the pub by offering tickets to this excursion, but as the locals begin to argue about where the excursion should go a fight breaks out. Porter crawls to safety in the landlord's rooms next door, where he meets a one-eyed
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Oh, Mr Porter!
man who introduces himself as Joe and offers to buy all of the tickets for an away game that the village football team, the Buggleskelly Wednesday, are playing the following day.
But Porter is unaware that he has really agreed to transport a group of criminals who are involved in running guns to the Irish Free State. The 'football' train leaves at six a.m. the following morning, rather than the scheduled ten a.m., at the insistence of Joe and although Porter questions some of the odd packages being loaded onto the train, he accepts Joe's claim that these are in fact goalposts for the game.
The train disappears as the smugglers divert it down a disused branch line near the border, and with
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everybody claiming that Porter has lost his mind (there is no such team as Buggleskelly Wednesday, and Harbottle points out that the local team wouldn't leave without him as he is their centre forward). Unfortunately this huge misunderstanding causes Porter to lose his job, since no one has seen the train. Then after his co-workers talk about a tunnel on a nearby disused branch line, Porter decides to head off to track down the errant engine (in hopes of getting his job back).
The trio find the missing train inside a derelict railway tunnel, underneath a supposedly haunted windmill. They investigate and are briefly captured by the gun runners, but escape and climb progressively higher up the
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windmill until eventually they are trapped at the top.
Using the windmill sails, they contrive to get down where they hatch a plan to capture the gun runners. Coupling the carriages containing the criminals and their guns to their own engine, "Gladstone", they carry them away from the border at full speed, burning everything from Harbottle's underwear to level crossing gates they smash through in order to keep up steam. To keep the criminals quiet, Albert climbs on top of the carriage and hits anyone who sticks their head out with a large shovel.
Porter writes a note explaining the situation and places it in Harbottle's empty 'medicine' bottle. When they pass a large station, he throws the
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bottle through the window of the stationmaster's office, alerting the authorities to their plight. The entire railway goes into action, with lines being closed and other trains re-routed so that Gladstone can finally crash into a siding where the waiting police force arrest the gun runners.
After a short-lived celebration, in which Harbottle points out that "Gladstone" is ninety years old and Porter claims it is good for another ninety, the engine explodes after its hectic journey, and Porter, Harbottle and Albert lower their hats in respect.
# Cast.
- Will Hay as William Porter
- Moore Marriott as Jeremiah Harbottle
- Graham Moffatt as Albert Brown
- Percy Walsh as Superintendent
- Dave
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O'Toole as Postman
- Sebastian Smith as Mr Trimbletow
- Agnes Lauchlan as Mrs Trimbletow
- Dennis Wyndham as Grogan/One-Eyed Joe
- Frederick Piper as Ledbetter
- Frederick Lloyd as Minister
- Frank Atkinson as Irishman in bar
# Production.
Despite the majority of the film being set in Northern Ireland, none of the filming took place there; the railway station at Buggleskelly was the disused Cliddesden railway station on the Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway, which had closed to goods in 1936. "Oh, Mr.Porter!" was filmed at Cliddesden between May and July 1937. All the interior shots were made at Gainsborough Studios, Shepherds Bush, during the August. The windmill in which Porter and
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his colleagues are trapped is located at Terling, Essex, and "Gladstone", the ancient steam locomotive, was portrayed by No. 2 "Northiam" 2-4-0T built by Hawthorn Leslie in 1899 and loaned by the Kent and East Sussex Railway to the film. The engine was returned to the company after completion of the film and remained in service until 1941, when it was scrapped.
The title sequence uses scenes shot at a variety of locations on the Waterloo to Southampton railway line and also between Maze Hill and Greenwich in south-east London. According to John Huntley in his book "Railways on Screen", "[t]he editor reversed his negative at one stage in preparing the title backgrounds, causing them to come
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out reversed on the final print". The scene in which Porter travels to Buggleskelly by bus, while being warned of a terrible danger by locals, parodies that of the Tod Browning film, "Dracula" (1931).
The Southern Railway of Northern Ireland that Porter works for is fictitious. In reality, from the route chosen on the map, the line would have belonged to the Great Northern Railway (Ireland), with Buggleskelly being close to the real town of Lisnaskea. In addition, the Irish border on the map portrayed in the film is inaccurate, placing the border too far east, and roughly along the eastern coast of Lough Erne rather than the border of County Fermanagh.
# Reception.
The film has been very
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well received over time.
The British Film Institute included the film in its 360 Classic Feature Films list; "Variety" magazine described the movie as "amusing, if over-long", noting that there was "[n]o love interest to mar the comedy"; and the cult website TV Cream listed it at number 41 in its list of cinema's Top 100 Films.
The film critic Barry Norman included it among his 100 best films of all time, and fellow critic Derek Malcolm also included the film in his "Century of Films", describing it as "perfectly representing a certain type of bumbling British humour", despite being directed by a Parisian director.
The director Marcel Varnel considered the film as among his best work, and
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Oh, Mr Porter!
it was described in 2006, by "The Times" in its obituary for writer Val Guest, as "a comic masterpiece of the British cinema". Jimmy Perry, in his autobiography, wrote that the trio of Captain Mainwaring, Corporal Jones and Private Pike in "Dad's Army" was inspired by watching "Oh, Mr Porter!"
# Legacy.
The Will Hay Appreciation Society unveiled a memorial bench to Will Hay, Moore Marriott and Graham Moffatt in October 2018, in Cliddesden, Hampshire, the filming location for Buggleskelly. The bench was unveiled by Pete Waterman.
# Reviews.
## Modern reviews.
- Spinning Image Review
- Bootleg Files Review
- Screenonline Review
## Contemporary reviews.
- Variety Magazine Review, 1937
-
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esden, Hampshire, the filming location for Buggleskelly. The bench was unveiled by Pete Waterman.
# Reviews.
## Modern reviews.
- Spinning Image Review
- Bootleg Files Review
- Screenonline Review
## Contemporary reviews.
- Variety Magazine Review, 1937
- BFI Monthly Film Bulletin Review, October 1937
# Parody.
The film was parodied in the Harry Enfield spoof documentary "Norbert Smith - a Life", as "Oh, Mr Bank Robber!" starring "Will Silly".
# External links.
- Article on the song, with a sound file of the tune
- Guardian article on the film
- ""Full Steam Ahead""
- Link to video clip of "Oh, Mr Porter"
- ""First Stop Buggleskelly"" – the Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway
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1643515
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Empire Corridor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empire%20Corridor
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Empire Corridor
Empire Corridor
The Empire Corridor is a term used to refer to the approximately railroad corridor between Niagara Falls, New York and New York City, including the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Utica, Amsterdam, Schenectady and Albany. Amtrak's "Empire Service" and "Maple Leaf" serve the entire length of the corridor, with the "Maple Leaf" continuing to Toronto. The "Lake Shore Limited" follows the corridor between New York and station, where it diverges to continue on to Chicago. The "Ethan Allen Express" and "Adirondack" follow the corridor between New York and , after which they diverge and continue on to and , respectively. Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line provides commuter rail
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Empire Corridor
service between Poughkeepsie, New York and Grand Central Terminal. The line is electrified by both overhead catenary and top-contact third rail between Penn Station and 41st Street and by under-contact third rail between and .
The corridor is also one of ten federally designated high-speed rail corridors in the United States.
If the proposed high-speed service were built on the corridor, trains traveling between Buffalo and New York City would travel at speeds of up to . In the 1890s service on the Empire State Express service between New York City and Buffalo was about 1 hour faster than Amtrak's service in 2013. On September 14, 1891 the Empire State Express covered the between New York
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Empire Corridor
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Empire Corridor
City and Buffalo in 7 hours and 6 minutes (including stops), averaging , with a top speed of .
# Ownership.
The Empire Corridor is largely owned by CSX Transportation (CSX), which owns the trackage between Niagara Falls and Poughkeepsie. South of Poughkeepsie, Metro-North owns the trackage to Yonkers, from which Amtrak owns the trackage into Pennsylvania Station.
Much of the corridor had been part of the main line of the New York Central Railroad, passing to Penn Central in 1968 and Conrail in 1976. In a series of purchases in the 1980s and 1990s, Amtrak bought the Yonkers-New York City segment, Metro-North acquired the Poughkeepsie-Yonkers segment, and CSX acquired the remainder when it
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split Conrail's assets with Norfolk Southern.
On October 18, 2011, Amtrak and CSX announced an agreement for Amtrak to lease, operate and maintain the CSX-owned trackage between Poughkeepsie and Schenectady. Amtrak officially assumed control of the line on December 1, 2012.
# Current passenger services.
The busiest segment of the Empire Corridor is between New York City and Albany with multiple trains per day.
## Amtrak.
The following trains operate along the varied segments of the corridor:
- "Empire Service": local service along the entire corridor from New York City to . Most trains operate along the southern segment between New York and , with two trains in each direction continuing
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west to Niagara Falls daily.
- "Ethan Allen Express": three trains in each direction daily from New York City to , splitting from the corridor in Schenectady.
- "Adirondack": New York City to , splitting from the corridor in Schenectady.
- "Lake Shore Limited": New York City to , splitting from the corridor at , though a section of the train splits off in Albany to serve Boston instead of New York.
- "Maple Leaf": daily service from New York City to , operating on the entire corridor.
## Commuter rail.
- Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line, from Poughkeepsie, New York to Grand Central Terminal, New York
# Freight service.
Freight service is provided by CSX Transportation.
# See also.
-
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"Lake Shore Limited": New York City to , splitting from the corridor at , though a section of the train splits off in Albany to serve Boston instead of New York.
- "Maple Leaf": daily service from New York City to , operating on the entire corridor.
## Commuter rail.
- Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line, from Poughkeepsie, New York to Grand Central Terminal, New York
# Freight service.
Freight service is provided by CSX Transportation.
# See also.
- New York high-speed rail
- High-speed rail in the United States
- West Side Line
# External links.
- Empire Corridor, New York State Department of Transportation
- Empire Corridor section of the Federal Railroad Administration website
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Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symphony%20No.%207%20(Sibelius)
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Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)
Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)
Symphony No. 7 in C major, Op. 105, was the final published symphony of the Finnish composer, Jean Sibelius. Completed in 1924, Symphony No. 7 is notable for being a one-movement symphony, in contrast to the standard symphonic formula of four movements. It has been described as "completely original in form, subtle in its handling of tempi, individual in its treatment of key and wholly organic in growth" and "Sibelius's most remarkable compositional achievement".
After Sibelius finished its composition on March 2, 1924, the work was premiered in Stockholm on March 24 as "Fantasia sinfonica No. 1", a "symphonic fantasy". The composer was apparently undecided on what
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Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)
name to give the piece, and only granted it status as a symphony after some deliberation. For its publication on 25 February 1925, the score was titled "Symphony No. 7 (in one movement)".
# Composition.
The concept of a continuous, single-movement symphony was one Sibelius only reached after a long process of experimentation. His Symphony No. 3, dating from 1907, contained three movements, an earlier fourth movement having been fused into the third. The final result was successful enough for Sibelius to use the same idea in his Symphony No. 5, completed in 1915. Although his first mention of No. 7 occurred in December 1918, the source for its material has been traced back to around 1914, the
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time when he was working on the Fifth.
In 1918 Sibelius had described his plans for this symphony as involving "joy of life and vitality with "appassionato" sections". The symphony would have three movements, the last being a "Hellenic rondo". Surviving sketches from the early 1920s show that the composer was working on a work of four, not three, movements. The overall key seems to have been G minor, while the second movement, an "Adagio" in C major, provided much of the material for the themes that eventually made up the Symphony. The first surviving draft of a single-movement symphony dates from 1923, suggesting that Sibelius may have made the decision to dispense with a multi-movement work
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at this time. Through the summer of 1923 the composer produced several further drafts, at least one of which is in a performable state: however the ending of the symphony was not yet fully worked out.
As 1923 turned into 1924, Sibelius was distracted from his work on the symphony by a number of outside events: the award of a large cash prize from a Helsinki foundation, family birthdays and the composition of a number of brief piano works. When he returned to the symphony, the composer drank copious amounts of whisky in order, he claimed, to steady his hand as he wrote on the manuscript paper.
Along with his Symphony No. 5 and No. 6, No. 7 was Sibelius's final home for material from "Kuutar",
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a never-completed symphonic poem whose title roughly means "Moon Spiritess". This work helped to shape the earliest parts of No. 7, those created during the composition of Nos. 5 and 6. One of the themes from "Kuutar", called ""Tähtölä"" ("Where the Stars Dwell"), evolved into part of No. 7's opening "Adagio" section. ()
# Importance.
Although the symphony apparently first existed in embryonic form in D major, it eventually attained the home key of C major. There was a time when composing in C was considered fruitless—it had "nothing more to offer". But in response to this symphony, the British composer Ralph Vaughan Williams said that only Sibelius could make C major sound completely fresh.
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Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)
Peter Franklin, writing of the Seventh in the Segerstam–Chandos cycle of Sibelius symphonies, calls the dramatic conclusion "the grandest celebration of C major there ever was."
Sibelius lived for 33 years after finishing the Seventh, but it was one of the last works he composed. He did complete one more important orchestral work, his symphonic poem "Tapiola". However, despite much evidence of work on a Symphony No. 8, it is believed that Sibelius burned whatever he had written. He left No. 7 to stand as his final statement on symphonic form.
# Form.
The form of the symphony is startlingly original. Since the time of Joseph Haydn, a movement in a symphony would typically be unified by an
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approximately constant tempo and would attain variety by use of contrasting themes in different keys. Sibelius turned this scheme on its head. The symphony is unified by the key of C (every significant passage in the work is in C major or C minor), and variety is achieved by an almost constantly changing tempo, as well as by contrasts of mode, articulation and texture.
Sibelius had done something similar in the Symphony No. 5's first movement, which combines elements of a standard symphonic first movement with a faster scherzo. However, the Seventh symphony contains much wider variety within one movement.
# Instrumentation.
- 2 flutes (both switch to piccolo during the central "Adagio")
-
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2 oboes
- 2 clarinets in B♭
- 2 bassoons
- 4 horns in F
- 3 trumpets in B♭
- 3 trombones
- Timpani
- Strings
# Description.
## "Adagio" (bars 1–92).
The symphony begins with a soft roll on the timpani followed by a slow ascending syncopated C major scale (starting on the timpani's G) in the strings which leads to an unexpected chord in the remote key of A-flat minor. The interval of a minor sixth between the initial note of G and the final note of E♭ has been interpreted as a reference to the beginning of Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde": the passage is followed by chords taken from that work.
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A few bars later, in bar 11, a key motif is announced quietly on the flute and repeated
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on the clarinet:
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Soon a passage is arrived at which sounds rather like a chorale, with the violas and cellos softly singing a hymnlike tune that will gradually build up to the first climax of the symphony.
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As the climax approaches, the orchestra adds volume and intensity. At the climax, the first trombone announces the main tune of the symphony (bars 60–64), labelled ""Aino"" in sketches, after the composer's wife.
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This theme reappears at key moments of the symphony, each time reaffirming C as the tonality.
## "Un pochett. meno adagio" – "poco affrett." – "Poco a poco affrettando il Tempo al" ... "Vivacissimo" – "rallentando al" ... (bars 93–221).
At bar 93 the tempo
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is marked "Un pochett[ino] meno adagio" (a little bit less slowly). A new theme in the Dorian mode, based on the ascending scale in the opening bars, soon appears on the oboe (bars 94 and 95):
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The tempo gradually increases ("affrettando") in a long sequential passage exploring several tonalities. At bar 134 the time signature slips from into notching up the tension. The key signature switches to C minor:
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Soon the tempo is ratcheted up to "Vivacissimo" (very lively), with fast staccato chords traded between the strings and woodwind. The music turns stormy in mood with ominous ascending and descending scales on the strings, while the ""Aino"" theme is heard again in the brass:
##
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"Largamente molto" – "Affettuoso" (bars 496–521).
This section ends with a chord progression from A♭ back to the symphony's main key of C major taken directly from Sibelius's earlier work "Valse Triste" from "Kuolema".
## "Tempo I" (bars 522–525).
The last four measures return to the initial "Adagio" tempo. Logically this ought to be faster than the preceding music, which was "Adagio" then "Largamente molto" (broadening — that is, slowing — a lot), but most conductors slow down. The strings play a version of the theme from bars 11–12 against a grand C major chord held by the brass and woodwinds. Lionel Pike describes the D to C note progression followed by the B (enharmonically equivalent
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he B (enharmonically equivalent to C♭) to C progression in the strings as being the final resolution of the tonal dissonance created by the striking A♭ minor chord from near the beginning of the work (also for example the "dissonant" A♭ resolves to "consonant" G in the immediately preceding section). The D to C note progression is also the first two notes of the trombone's recurring "Aino" theme. Arnold Whittall describes this ending as "triumphantly abrupt".
# External links.
- An Inktroduction by the Inkpot Sibelius Nutcase
- Available recordings, from arkivmusic.com
- Discography
- The Development of the Symphony from Four Movements in original Sketch to its present one-movement form
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Beth Rivkah
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Beth Rivkah
Beth Rivkah
Beth Rivkah (, "Bais Rivkah", lit. "House of Rebecca"), formally known as Associated Beth Rivkah Schools, is a private girls' school system affiliated with the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement. It was established in 1941 by Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, the sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe, and developed by his son-in-law, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe. The flagship school in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, includes an early childhood division, elementary school, high school, and a teacher training seminary. Other branches are located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Yerres, France; Melbourne, Australia; Casablanca, Morocco; and Kfar Chabad, Israel.
Many Lubavitcher
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girls attend the Beth Rivkah school system from first through twelfth grades. Students at the one- to two-year, post-high-school teacher training seminary have the option of earning a teaching certificate, which can be used in both Chabad and non-Chabad Jewish schools.
# Name.
The sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe named Beth Rivkah after his grandmother, Rebbetzin Rivkah Schneersohn, wife of the fourth Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn.
# Location.
Beth Rivkah of Crown Heights is spread over two campuses. The early childhood center (including a Head Start Program) and elementary school are located at Campus Chomesh at 470 Lefferts Avenue. The high school, teacher training seminary, and administrative
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offices are located at 310 Crown Street.
# History.
The Beth Rivkah elementary school for girls was established by Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn in Brooklyn, New York, in 1941, two years after he founded the first boys' yeshiva in that city. The initial enrollment of about 30 students met in a rented storefront. The high school was established in 1955, and the teacher training seminary opened in Crown Heights in 1960.
The elementary and high school divisions experienced significant growth from the late 1950s to the 1970s due to the high birthrate among Lubavitcher families, and the influx of Soviet and Iranian Jewish refugees to New York City. By the early 1980s, enrollment exceeded 600
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students.
In 1988 the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe presided at a groundbreaking ceremony for Campus Chomesh, which he established as a memorial to his Rebbetzin, Chaya Mushka Schneerson, who had died that year. The four-story, campus occupies the site of the former Lefferts General Hospital and two adjacent structures, covering nearly one city block. The campus accommodates over 2,000 students with close to 100 classrooms, as well as science labs, computer centers, libraries, a sports gymnasium, and a rooftop playground. Philanthropist Ronald Perelman provided nearly half of the $15 million funding for the campus, which opened in 1995.
# Curriculum.
School is in session six days a week, excluding
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Shabbat (Saturday), with a half-day scheduled on Fridays to accommodate Shabbat preparations. The school day runs from 9 am to 4 pm, with a half-hour break for lunch. Judaic studies – including Bible, Midrash, Jewish law, Jewish history, Hebrew, Yiddish, and the writings of the Chabad Rebbes – are taught in the mornings. Secular subjects such as English, mathematics, geography, science, and American history are taught in the afternoons. While in previous decades the language of instruction was Yiddish, the school now teaches religious subjects in Hebrew and secular subjects in English. Yiddish is taught as a second language. An optional Yiddish track is offered in first grade.
As a private
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school certified by the State of New York, Beth Rivkah is required to teach science (biology and chemistry), history (U.S. and world history), English literature, and mathematics (algebra, geometry, and trigonometry), among other subjects. For fifth-grade science and sixth-grade world history, however, Chabad educators eschew state-mandated booklets and textbooks and instead use material that they collect from a variety of sources in order to comply with the Hasidic movement's religious beliefs. In high school, where students are required by the New York Board of Regents to study from specific textbooks, teachers append their own notations to pages describing theories such as the Big Bang and
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evolution to inform students of the Torah point of view on these topics. Novels read in English literature classes are also vetted for compliance with Chabad philosophy and religious belief.
Beth Rivkah teachers employ pedagogical techniques such as "group work, cooperative learning, and multiple-intelligence methods", and attend both regional and national workshops sponsored by Chabad to improve their pedagogical methods.
# Summer camp.
The Crown Heights school runs a 7-week day camp on the premises each summer for preschool through seventh grade. The camp is divided into three divisions: Kiddie Camp (Pre-1A), Younger Division (Grades 1 and 2) and Older Division (Grades 3 through 7).
#
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Student body.
Beth Rivkah accepts all students regardless of religious affiliation or educational background. It also accepts students who cannot afford full tuition. The school has weathered financial shortfalls due to its tuition policy. In September 2014 the Pre-1A, elementary and high school divisions did not open on time for the fall semester due to financial difficulties; the early childhood center, which is government-funded, was not affected.
Beth Rivkah has a dress code. In addition to a school uniform, jewelry and grooming guidelines are enforced in accordance with the laws of "tzniut" (modesty).
In 2012, the Crown Heights school ordered students to delete their Facebook accounts
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or face expulsion.
Since many girls are named Chaya Mushka after the Rebbetzin of the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe, teachers call on students by their surnames.
# Branches.
The seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, founded other branches of Beth Rivkah in Yerres, France; Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Melbourne, Australia; Casablanca, Meknes, and Sefrou, Morocco; and Kfar Chabad, Israel in the 1940s and 1950s. By 1967, there were 98 Beth Rivkah schools worldwide, with an enrollment of 40,000 students.
## Yerres, France.
The Beth Rivkah school in the Paris neighborhood of Yerres opened in 1947. It consists of an early childhood division, elementary school, high school, and
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seminary for girls. There is also a cheder for boys. As of 2015, total enrollment is 600 students.
## Montreal.
Beth Rivkah Academy of Montreal opened in 1956. In 1967 it opened a facility for 500 students, with dormitory accommodations for 180. As of 2015, enrollment in the early childhood division, elementary school, and high school is 600 students aged 18 months to 18 years. Approximately 10 percent of students are immigrants, and there is a significant percentage of special-needs students in the elementary and high school divisions. In addition to providing religious and secular studies, the academy is an accredited French-language school.
## Melbourne.
The Beth Rivkah Ladies College
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in Melbourne, Australia was established in 1956. Part of the Yeshivah Centre educational network, which includes the Yeshivah College for boys founded in 1954, the Beth Rikvah Ladies College consists of a preschool, elementary school, and high school for girls. A sister school, Ohel Chana, is a teacher training seminary. Both Beth Rivkah and Yeshivah College enroll students from non-Chabad families. In 2014 the educational network made headlines by capping tuition fees at 8% of family income for low wage-earners and 18% for high wage-earners, notwithstanding how many children in the family are enrolled in the schools.
## Morocco.
Beth Rivkah schools were established in Casablanca, Meknes,
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and Sefrou, Morocco, in the mid-1950s. According to a 1956 survey, these schools had a combined enrollment of 374 students that year. With the migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel and France in the 1950s, the Lubavitch yeshiva for boys, Oholei Yosef Yitzchok, and the Beth Rivkah school for girls were centered in Casablanca and dormitory facilities were opened to accommodate students from other locales. By 1980, the Beth Rivkah school had some 300 students.
## Israel.
The Beit Rivkah College in Kfar Chabad, Israel, opened in 1957. Originally a teacher training institute, it evolved into a two-year seminary and then a teachers college which bestows both B.A. and M.A. degrees. As of 2010, enrollment
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ing institute, it evolved into a two-year seminary and then a teachers college which bestows both B.A. and M.A. degrees. As of 2010, enrollment was 1,000 students in Kfar Chabad and in branches in Jerusalem and Safed.
# See also.
- Role of women in Judaism
# External links.
- Associated Beth Rivkah Schools home page
- Les Institutions Beth Rivkah (France) home page
- Beth Rivkah Academy of Montreal home page
- Yeshivah-Beth Rivka Colleges (Australia) home page
- "Simchas Beis Hasho'eva in Crown Heights: Rehearsing for the ultimate simcha among the Lubavitcher chassidim", pp. 110–122
- "How Brooklyn girl Chanie Gorkin's poem became a global sensation" news.com.au, July 26, 2015–08–20
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Y-class lifeboat
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Y-class lifeboat
Y-class lifeboat
The "Y"-class lifeboat is a class of small inflatable boat operated by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution of the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The "Y"-class is mainly used as a small tender carried on board the larger RNLI All-Weather lifeboats that serve the shores of the UK, and is normally found on the and lifeboats, the having been retired. They are also used as part of the RNLIs Flood Rescue Team.
When in use, it carries up to a crew of two and is primarily used in cliff incidents where the casualty is near the shore and the all-weather lifeboat cannot safely get to the base of the cliffs due to rocks.
# Launching from the "Tamar"-class.
Within the stern section
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.
When in use, it carries up to a crew of two and is primarily used in cliff incidents where the casualty is near the shore and the all-weather lifeboat cannot safely get to the base of the cliffs due to rocks.
# Launching from the "Tamar"-class.
Within the stern section of the "Tamar"-class lifeboat is a built-in, recessed chamber which houses the small inflatable "Y"-class lifeboat. Access to this inflatable tender is achieved by lifting a section of deck and lowering a transom which doubles as a ramp. This allows the tender to be easily launched and recovered.
Other small boats operated by the RNLI include the beach rescue boats, the and the lifeboats.
# External links.
- RNLI Fleet
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Franchise (short story)
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Franchise (short story)
Franchise (short story)
"Franchise" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov. It first appeared in the August 1955 issue of the magazine "If: Worlds of Science Fiction", and was reprinted in the collections "Earth Is Room Enough" (1957) and "Robot Dreams" (1986). It is one of a loosely connected series of stories concerning a fictional computer called Multivac. It is the first story in which Asimov dealt with computers "as computers" and not as immobile robots.
# Plot summary.
In the future, the United States has converted to an "electronic democracy" where the computer Multivac selects a single person to answer a number of questions. Multivac will then use the answers
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Franchise (short story)
and other data to determine what the results of an election would be, avoiding the need for an actual election to be held.
The story centers around Norman Muller of Bloomington, Indiana, the man chosen as "Voter of the Year" in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Although the law requires him to accept the dubious honour, he is not sure that he wants the responsibility of representing the entire electorate, worrying that the result will be unfavorable and he will be blamed.
However, after "voting", he is very proud that the citizens of the United States had, through him, "exercised once again their free, untrammeled franchise" – a statement that is somewhat ironic as the citizens did not
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Franchise (short story)
actually get to vote; even he himself did not vote for any candidate, law, or issue.
The idea of a computer predicting whom the electorate would vote for instead of actually holding an election was probably inspired by the UNIVAC I's correct prediction of the result of the U.S. presidential election in 1952.
# Influence.
The use of a single representative individual to stand in for the entire population can help in evaluating the sensitivity of a statistical method. "Franchise" was cited as the inspiration of the term "Asimov data set", where an ensemble of simulated experiments can be replaced by a single representative experiment.
# "Franchise (Isaac Asimov Collection)".
"Franchise" was
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Franchise (short story)
vote for instead of actually holding an election was probably inspired by the UNIVAC I's correct prediction of the result of the U.S. presidential election in 1952.
# Influence.
The use of a single representative individual to stand in for the entire population can help in evaluating the sensitivity of a statistical method. "Franchise" was cited as the inspiration of the term "Asimov data set", where an ensemble of simulated experiments can be replaced by a single representative experiment.
# "Franchise (Isaac Asimov Collection)".
"Franchise" was the title story of a 1989 compilation "Franchise" illustrated by David Shannon (, ).
# External links.
- "Franchise" at the Internet Archive
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Blow Dry
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Blow Dry
Blow Dry
Blow Dry is a 2001 British comedy film directed by Paddy Breathnach, written by Simon Beaufoy and starring Alan Rickman, Natasha Richardson, Rachel Griffiths, and Josh Hartnett. The plot focuses on the takeover of a small English town by the British Hairdressing Championship who is holding their annual competition there.
# Plot.
Shelley Allen (Natasha Richardson) operates a hairdressing shop in Keighley with her domestic partner Sandra (Rachel Griffiths). Shelley has been battling cancer, a secret known only to Sandra and a few confidants. She receives a terminal prognosis from her oncologist and decides to hide the truth from Sandra. When Keighley is chosen to host the British hairdressing
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championship, Shelley wants to participate one last time. She asks her ex-husband Phil (Alan Rickman) and her son Brian (Josh Hartnett), who operate a barber shop, to join her and Sandra as a team to enter the competition. Phil rejects the proposition: ten years previously Shelley had been his partner in the competition, and she ran off with Sandra (their model) the night before the third event; Phil has never forgiven them. Meanwhile, defending champion Raymond Robertson (Bill Nighy) visits Phil to ensure that Phil is not competing. Brian is offput when Raymond belittles Phil's confidence and ability. When he is attracted to Raymond's beautiful daughter Christina (Rachael Leigh Cook), Brian
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offers to join Shelley's team.
Christina aspires to be a hair colorist, but lacks experience. Brian brings her to a funeral parlor where he works, where she can practice on one of the corpses after hours while Brian cuts its hair. Christina is startled when the corpse "groans" (expels trapped gas in the lungs) and flees into the street. Brian follows to console her and inadvertently allows the doors to lock behind them. The next morning the family of the deceased is displeased to find shocking pink spiky hair on their 95-year-old uncle. During the first round of the competition, Brian is cornered by the relatives of the deceased and is physically beaten.
Shelley reveals to Phil and Brian that
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she has terminal cancer. Phil reconsiders and agrees to coach but not to cut. After Raymond's team successfully cheats in the first round, Phil sabotages a second attempt in the second round, allowing the other top teams to narrow the gap to Raymond. Christina gains coloring experience using the sheep of the family that assaulted Brian. Brian however disowns her when he realizes she is helping Raymond cheat.
The night before the third round, Sandra learns that Shelley's cancer is terminal. Angry that Shelley lied to her, she quits the team. Shelley recruits one of her clients as the model for the third round and wins, moving the team into second place overall. Phil is congratulatory, but Shelley
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reveals that her motivation was not to win – she wanted the team effort to bond the four of them into a family before she dies. Phil agrees to participate in the final round; he also talks Sandra into rejoining the team. Christina cuts off most of her hair so that she cannot participate in her father's scheme for the final round, and she and Brian reconcile.
In the last round, Phil's novel design includes shaving Sandra's head to reveal an old scalp tattoo and applying body paint to her naked, winged body. The result snatches them the overall victory by one point. Shelley, Sandra, Phil, Brian and Christina leave the competition arm-in-arm as Keighley celebrates a hometown winner.
# Cast.
-
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Alan Rickman as Phil Allen
- Natasha Richardson as Shelley Allen
- Rachel Griffiths as Sandra
- Rachael Leigh Cook as Christina Robertson
- Josh Hartnett as Brian Allen
- Bill Nighy as Ray (Raymond) Robertson
- Warren Clarke as Tony
- Hugh Bonneville as Louis
- Rosemary Harris as Daisy
- Heidi Klum as Jasmine
- Peter McDonald as Vincent
- Michael McElhatton as Robert
- David Bradley as Noah
# Production and release.
"Blow Dry" was released in American cinemas on 9 March 2001. The UK premiere was on 30 March 2001 in Keighley and Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, where the story was set and filmed. Releases in other countries followed between May 2001 and May 2002, including on 21 June 2001
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in the Czech Republic, 26 July 2001 in Germany and 18 April 2002 in Hungary.
The release of "Blow Dry" was delayed when "The Big Tease", a similarly themed film about the world champion hair competition, came out in 2000.
# Reception.
"Blow Dry" opened in North America on 9 March 2001, grossing over US$240,000 in 157 theaters on its opening weekend, and ended its 24-day theatrical run in North America with total grosses of $637,769, as of 8 April 2001. It went on to gross a further $10,205 in the Czech Republic (as of 8 July 2001), $164,372 in Germany (as of 12 August 2001) and $17,940 in Hungary (as of 24 April 2002).
The critical response to the film was generally negative. , review aggregator
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end, and ended its 24-day theatrical run in North America with total grosses of $637,769, as of 8 April 2001. It went on to gross a further $10,205 in the Czech Republic (as of 8 July 2001), $164,372 in Germany (as of 12 August 2001) and $17,940 in Hungary (as of 24 April 2002).
The critical response to the film was generally negative. , review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives "Blow Dry" an approval rating of 19% based on reviews from 64 critics, reporting a rating average of 4 out of 10, and describes the critical consensus to be that the film is "[h]eartwarming, but over-the-top and too formulaic". At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 38 out of 100, based on 19 reviews.
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Spooks (group)
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Spooks (group)
Spooks (group)
Spooks was an American hip-hop/R&B group, active in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The members of the group got together in 1994, taking their name from the 1969 novel by Sam Greenlee, "The Spook Who Sat by the Door". After attaining success throughout Europe with their album "S.I.O.S.O.S., Vol. 1", Spooks garnered a hit with the single, "Things I've Seen", which featured in the Laurence Fishburne film "Once in the Life" (2000). Water-Water left the group before their second album "Faster Than You Know", and died in a car accident in September 2003, days before the album's release. The group disbanded soon afterwards, with little heard from the members since. In 2009 Ming Xia
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Spooks (group)
ne film "Once in the Life" (2000). Water-Water left the group before their second album "Faster Than You Know", and died in a car accident in September 2003, days before the album's release. The group disbanded soon afterwards, with little heard from the members since. In 2009 Ming Xia appeared on Chali 2na's "Fish Outta Water". The Spooks were discovered by Philadelphia hip-hop legend "Parry P", who signed them to the Antra Records, where he was the Vice President of A&R.
# External links.
- [ The Spooks] on Allmusic
- The Spooks on imusic.am
- Spooks Biography
- http://www.last.fm/music/Spooks
- Ming-Xia's solo recordings
- Interview with Joe Davis and Booker T on drownedinsound.com
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Glack
Glack () is a hamlet and townland in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland. It is 4 km south of Ballykelly, in a raised spot overlooking Lough Foyle. . In the 2001 Census it had a population of 183 people. It is situated within Causeway Coast and Glens district.
Glack is made up of three clusters of buildings. It has a primary school (St Finlough's, in neighbouring Sistrakeel townland) and a business called Paragon Tiles Ltd.
# Sport.
- Glack has its own bowling team called St Finlough's.
- Glack GAC is the local Gaelic Athletic Association club
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Vachellia erioloba
Vachellia erioloba (camel thorn, giraffe thorn), still more commonly known as "Acacia erioloba", is a tree of southern Africa in the family Fabaceae. Its preferred habitat is the deep dry sandy soils in parts of South Africa, Botswana, the western areas of Zimbabwe and Namibia. It is also native to Angola, south-west Mozambique, Zambia and Swaziland. The tree was first described by Ernst Heinrich Friedrich Meyer and Johann Franz Drège in 1836. The camel thorn is a protected tree in South Africa.
The tree can grow up to 17 metres high. It is slow-growing, very hardy to drought and fairly frost-resistant. The wood is dark reddish-brown in colour and extremely dense and strong.
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Vachellia erioloba
It is good for fires, which leads to widespread clearing of dead trees and the felling of healthy trees. It produces ear-shaped pods, favoured by a large number of herbivores including cattle. The seeds can be roasted and used as a substitute for coffee beans.
The name 'camel thorn' refers to the fact that giraffe ("kameelperd" in Afrikaans) commonly feed on the leaves with their specially-adapted tongue and lips that can avoid the thorns. The scientific name 'erioloba' means "wooly lobe", a reference to the ear-shaped pods.
It's most commonly seen and used as the metonym of the long running PBS wildlife program Nature, as the tree is commonly seen in their title sequence and program logo.
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Economic history of France
# Medieval France.
The collapse of the Roman Empire unlinked the French economy from Europe. Town and city life and trade declined and society became based on the self-sufficient manor. What limited international trade existed in the Merovingian age — primarily in luxury goods such as silk, papyrus, and silver — was carried out by foreign merchants such as the Radhanites.
Agricultural output began to increase in the Carolingian age as a result of the arrival of new crops, improvements in agricultural production, and good weather conditions. However, this did not lead to the revival of urban life; in fact, urban activity further declined in the Carolingian era as
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a result of civil war, Arab raids, and Viking invasions. The Pirenne hypotheses posits that at this disruption brought an end to long-distance trade, without which civilization retreated to purely agricultural settlements, and isolated military, church, and royal centers. When trade revived these centers became the nucleus of new towns and cities around which suburbs of merchants and artisans grew.
The High Middle Ages saw a continuation of the agricultural boom of the Carolingian age. In addition, urban life grew during this period; towns such as Paris expanded dramatically.
The 13 decades from 1335 to 1450 spawned a series of economic catastrophes, with bad harvests, famines, plagues, and
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wars that overwhelmed four generations of Frenchmen. The population had expanded, making the food supply more precarious. The bubonic plague ("Black Death") hit Western Europe in 1347, killing a third of the population, and it was echoed by several smaller plagues at 15-year intervals. The French and English armies during the Hundred Years War marched back and forth across the land; they ransacked and burned towns, drained the food supply, disrupted agriculture and trade, and left disease and famine in their wake. Royal authority weakened, as local nobles became strongmen fighting their neighbors for control of the local region. France's population plunged from 17 million, down to 12 million
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in 130 years. Finally, starting in the 1450s, a long cycle of recuperation began.
# Early Modern France.
(Figures cited in the following section are given in livre tournois, the standard "money of account" used in the period. Comparisons with modern figures are extremely difficult; food items were comparatively cheap, but luxury goods and fabrics were very expensive. In the 15th century, an artisan could earn perhaps 30 livres a year; a great noble could have land revenues from 6000 to 30,000 livres or more. A late seventeenth-century unskilled worker in Paris earned around 250 livres a year, while a revenue of 4000 livres a year maintained a relatively successful writer in modest comfort.
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At the end of the 18th century, a well-off family could earn 100,000 livres by year, although the most prestigious families could gain twice or three times that much, while, for provincial nobility, yearly earnings of 10,000 livres permitted a minimum of provincial luxury).
## Renaissance.
The economy of Renaissance France was, for the first half-century, marked by dynamic demographic growth and by developments in agriculture and industry. Until 1795, France was the most populated country in Europe and the third most populous country in the world, behind only China and India. With an estimated population of 17 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, its population
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exceeded even Russia and was twice the size of Britain and Holland. In France, the Renaissance was marked by a massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole, France remained a profoundly rural country, with less than 10% of the population located in urban areas. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 650,000 by the end of the 18th century.
Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (Fr. "pastel", a source of blue dye), and saffron. The South grew artichokes, melons, romaine lettuce, eggplant, salsifys, celery, fennel, parsley, and alfalfa. After 1500 New World crops appeared such as
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beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation was made worse by repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s.
Industrial developments greatly affected printing (introduced in 1470 in Paris, 1473 in Lyon) and metallurgy. The introduction of the high-temperature forge in northeast France and an increase in mineral mining were important developments, although it was still necessary for France to import many metals, including (copper, bronze, tin, and lead). Mines and glasswork benefited
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greatly from royal tax exemptions for a period of about twenty years. Silk production (introduced in Tours in 1470 and in Lyon in 1536) enabled the French to join a thriving market, but French products remained of lesser quality than Italian silks. Wool production was widespread, as was the production of linen and of hemp (both major export products).
After Paris, Rouen was the second largest city in France (70,000 inhabitants in 1550), in large part because of its port. Marseille (French since 1481) was France's second major port: it benefited greatly from France's trading agreements signed in 1536 with Suleiman the Magnificent. To increase maritime activity, Francis I founded the port city
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of Le Havre in 1517. Other significant ports included Toulon, Saint Malo and La Rochelle.
Lyon was the center of France's banking and international trade markets. Market fairs occurred four times a year and facilitated the exportation of French goods, such as cloth and fabrics, and importation of Italian, German, Dutch, English goods. It also allowed the importation of exotic goods such as silks, alum, glass, wools, spices, dyes. Lyon also contained houses of most of Europe's banking families, including Fugger and Medici. Regional markets and trade routes linked Lyon, Paris, and Rouen to the rest of the country. Under Francis I and Henry II, the relationships between French imports and the
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exports to England and to Spain were in France's favor. Trade was roughly balanced with the Netherlands, but France continually ran a large trade deficit with Italy due to the latter's silks and exotic goods. In subsequent decades, English, Dutch and Flemish maritime activity would create competition with French trade, which would eventually displace the major markets to the northwest, leading to the decline of Lyon.
Although France, being initially more interested in the Italian wars, arrived late to the exploration and colonization of the Americas, private initiative and piracy brought Bretons, Normans and Basques early to American waters. Starting in 1524, Francis I began to sponsor exploration
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of the New World. Significant explorers sailing under the French flag included Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier. Later, Henry II sponsored the explorations of Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon who established a largely Calvinist colony in Rio de Janeiro, 1555-1560. Later, René Goulaine de Laudonnière and Jean Ribault established a Protestant colony in Florida (1562–1565). (see French colonization of the Americas).
By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although
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many land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the "livre" as its money of account, in favor of the écu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies.
Meanwhile, France's military ventures in Italy and (later) disastrous civil wars demanded huge sums of cash, which were raised with through the "taille" and other taxes. The taille, which was levied mainly on the peasantry, increased from 2.5 million livres
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in 1515 to 6 million after 1551, and by 1589 the taille had reached a record 21 million livres. Financial crises hit the royal household repeatedly, and so in 1523, Francis I established a government bond system in Paris, the "rentes sure l'Hôtel de Ville".
The French Wars of Religion were concurrent with crop failures and epidemics. The belligerents also practiced massive "torched earth" strategies to rob their enemies of foodstuffs. Brigands and leagues of self-defense flourished; transport of goods ceased; villagers fled to the woods and abandoned their lands; towns were set on fire. The south was particularly affected: Auvergne, Lyon, Burgundy, Languedoc—agricultural production in those
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areas fell roughly 40%. The great banking houses left Lyon: from 75 Italian houses in 1568, there remained only 21 in 1597.
## Rural society.
In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village laborers, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies,
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the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the Annales School paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy, and grossly exaggerated social stability.
## Seventeenth century.
After 1597, France economic situation improved and agricultural production was aided by milder weather. Henry IV, with his minister Maximilien de Béthune, Duc de Sully, adopted monetary reforms. These included
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better coinage, a return to the livre tournois as account money, reduction of the debt, which was 200 million livres in 1596, and a reduction of the tax burden on peasants. Henry IV attacked abuses, embarked on a comprehensive administrative reform, increased charges for official offices, the "paulette", repurchased alienated royal lands, improved roads and the funded the construction of canals, and planted the seed of a state-supervised mercantile philosophy. Under Henry IV, agricultural reforms, largely started by Olivier de Serres were instituted. These agricultural and economic reforms, and mercantilism would also be the policies of Louis XIII's minister Cardinal Richelieu. In an effort
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to counteract foreign imports and exploration, Richelieu sought alliances with Morocco and Persia, and encouraged exploration of New France, the Antilles, Sénégal, Gambia and Madagascar, though only the first two were immediate successes. These reforms would establish the groundwork for the Louis XIV's policies.
Louis XIV's glory was irrevocably linked to two great projects, military conquest and the building of Versailles—both of which required enormous sums of money. To finance these projects, Louis created several additional tax systems, including the "capitation" (begun in 1695) which taxed every person including nobles and the clergy, though exemption could be bought for a large one-time
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sum, and the "dixième" (1710–1717, restarted in 1733), which was a true tax on income and on property value and was meant to support the military.
Louis XIV's minister of finances, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, started a mercantile system which used protectionism and state-sponsored manufacturing to promote the production of luxury goods over the rest of the economy. The state established new industries (the royal tapestry works at Beauvais, French quarries for marble), took over established industries (the Gobelins tapestry works), protected inventors, invited workmen from foreign countries (Venetian glass and Flemish cloth manufacturing), and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain
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the character of French goods in foreign markets, Colbert had the quality and measure of each article fixed by law, and severely punished breaches of the regulations. This massive investment in (and preoccupation with) luxury goods and court life (fashion, decoration, cuisine, urban improvements, etc.), and the mediatization (through such gazettes as the Mercure galant) of these products, elevated France to a role of arbiter of European taste.
Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province, Colbert did what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. His régime improved roads and canals. To encourage companies like the important French East India Company
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(founded in 1664), Colbert granted special privileges to trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other places, for the importing of coffee, cotton, dyewoods, fur, pepper, and sugar, but none of these ventures proved successful. Colbert achieved a lasting legacy in his establishment of the French royal navy; he reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon, founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-Malo. He fortified, with some assistance from Vauban, many ports including those of Calais, Dunkirk, Brest and Le Havre.
Colbert's economic policies were a key element in Louis XIV's creation of a centralized and fortified state and in the promotion
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of government glory, including the construction they had many economic failures: they were overly restrictive on workers, they discouraged inventiveness, and had to be supported by unreasonably high tariffs.
The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 created additional economic problems: of the more than 200,000 Huguenot refugees who fled France for Prussia, Switzerland, England, Ireland, United Provinces, Denmark, South Africa and eventually America, many were highly educated skilled artisans and business-owners who took their skills, businesses, and occasionally even their Catholic workers, with them. Both the expansion of French as a European lingua franca in the 18th century, and the
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modernization of the Prussian army have been credited to the Huguenots.
The wars and the weather at the end of the century brought the economy to the brink. Conditions in rural areas were grim from the 1680s to 1720s. To increase tax revenues, the taille was augmented, as too were the prices of official posts in the administration and judicial system. With the borders guarded due to war, international trade was severely hindered. The economic plight of the vast majority of the French population — predominantly simple farmers — was extremely precarious, and the Little Ice Age resulted in further crop failures. Bad harvests caused starvation--killing s tenth of the people in 1693-94. Unwilling
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to sell or transport their much-needed grain to the army, many peasants rebelled or attacked grain convoys, but they were repressed by the state. Meanwhile, wealthy families with stocks of grains survived relatively unscathed; in 1689 and again in 1709, in a gesture of solidarity with his suffering people, Louis XIV had his royal dinnerware and other objects of gold and silver melted down.
## Eighteenth century.
France was large and rich and experienced a slow economic and demographic recovery in the first decades following the death of Louis XIV in 1715. Monetary confidence was briefly eroded by the disastrous paper money "System" introduced by John Law from 1716 to 1720. In 1726, under Louis
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