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4746152
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Kuromatsu Station
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuromatsu%20Station
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Kuromatsu Station
Kuromatsu Station
Kuromatsu Station may refer to either of two train stations in Japan:
- Kuromatsu Station (Miyagi) (黒松駅), in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture
- Kuromatsu Station (Shimane) (黒松駅), in Shimane Prefecture
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neil%20McCarthy%20(actor)
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
Neil McCarthy (actor)
Neil McCarthy (26 July 1932 – 6 February 1985) was an English actor known for his dramatic physical appearance caused by acromegaly. He was also a gifted linguist and pianist.
# Early life.
Born in Spalding, Lincolnshire, the son of a dentist, McCarthy was educated at Stamford School and Trinity College, Dublin and trained as a teacher.
# Career.
After his teacher training, McCarthy appeared on stage at Oxford repertory theatre, at the Edinburgh Festival and in the West End of London.
McCarthy's film credits include memorable roles as a Welsh soldier in "Zulu" (1964), as Sergeant Jock McPherson in "Where Eagles Dare" (1967), as Joe Gargery in "Charles Dickens - Great
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neil%20McCarthy%20(actor)
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
Expectations", (1968), as Gates in "The Ruffians" (1973), as the villain Calibos in "Clash of the Titans" (1981) and as a robber in "Time Bandits" (1981). His television credits include: "Man of the World", "Danger Man", "The Avengers", "The Saint", "Z-Cars", "Dixon of Dock Green", "Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased)", "Catweazle", "My Wife Next Door" (A Sense of Movement), "", "Department S", "Who Pays the Ferryman?", "Return of the Saint", "Doctor Who" (in the serials "The Mind of Evil" and "The Power of Kroll"), "Enemy at the Door", "Shogun", "The Professionals", "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em", "Only When I Laugh", "The Gentle Touch" and "Emmerdale Farm", and the television adaptation of the Lord
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neil%20McCarthy%20(actor)
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
Peter Wimsey novel, "The Nine Tailors".
He died of motor neurone disease in Fordingbridge, Hampshire in 1985, aged 53.
# Filmography.
- "Breakout" (1959) - Chandler's henchman (uncredited)
- "Sands of the Desert" (1960) - Hassan
- "The Criminal" (1960) - O'Hara
- "Offbeat" (1961) - Leo Farrell
- "Solo for Sparrow" (1962) - Dusty
- "The Pot Carriers" (1962) - Bracket
- "We Joined the Navy" (1962) - Sergeant
- "Two Left Feet" (1963) - Ted (uncredited)
- "The Cracksman" (1963) - Van Gogh
- "Zulu" (1964) - Private Thomas
- "The Hill" (1965) - Burton
- "Cuckoo Patrol" (1967) - Superman No.2
- "Great Expectations" (1967) - Joe Gargery (TV mini-series)
- "Seven Times Seven" (1968) -
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
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Neil McCarthy (actor)
s" (1967) - Joe Gargery (TV mini-series)
- "Seven Times Seven" (1968) - Mr. Docherty
- "Where Eagles Dare" (1968) - Sgt. Jock MacPherson
- "Follow Me!" (1972) - Parkinson
- "The Zoo Robbery" (1973) - Skipper
- "Steptoe and Son Ride Again" (1973) - Lennie
- "Operation Daybreak" (1975) - Man at Quarry (uncredited)
- "Side by Side" (1975) - Alf (uncredited)
- "Fern, the Red Deer" (1976) - Poacher
- "Trial by Combat" (1976) - Ben Willoughby
- "The Incredible Sarah" (1976) - Sergeant
- "Shōgun" (1980) - Spillbergen
- "George and Mildred" (1980) - Eddie
- "The Monster Club" (1980) - Watson - B-Squad Member
- "Clash of the Titans" (1981) - Calibos
- "Time Bandits" (1981) - 2nd Robber
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4746146
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Pentetic acid
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentetic%20acid
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Pentetic acid
Pentetic acid
Pentetic acid or diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) is an aminopolycarboxylic acid consisting of a diethylenetriamine backbone with five carboxymethyl groups. The molecule can be viewed as an expanded version of EDTA and is used similarly. It is a white solid with limited solubility in water.
# Coordination properties.
The conjugate base of DTPA has a high affinity for metal cations. Thus, the penta-anion DTPA is potentially an octadentate ligand assuming that each nitrogen centre and each COO-group counts as a centre for coordination. The formation constants for its complexes are about 100 greater than those for EDTA. As a chelating agent, DTPA wraps around a metal ion
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Pentetic acid
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Pentetic acid
by forming up to eight bonds. Its complexes can also have an extra water molecule that coordinates the metal ion. Transition metals, however, usually form less than eight coordination bonds. So, after forming a complex with a metal, DTPA still has the ability to bind to other reagents, as is shown by its derivative pendetide. For example, in its complex with copper(II), DTPA binds in a hexadentate manner utilizing the three amine centres and three of the five carboxylates.
# Applications.
Like the more common EDTA, DTPA is predominantly used for sequestering metal ions that otherwise decompose hydrogen peroxide, which is used to bleach pulp in paper making. Several million kilograms are produced
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Pentetic acid
for this purpose annually.
Its chelating properties are useful in deactivating calcium and magnesium ions in hair products. DTPA is used in over 150 cosmetic products. Additionally, DTPA is used in MRI contrasting agents. DTPA improves MRI images by forming a complex with a gadolinium ion, which alters the properties of nearby water molecules.
DTPA has been considered for treatment of radioactive materials such as plutonium, americium, and other actinides. In theory, these complexes are more apt to be eliminated in urine. It is normally administered as the calcium or zinc salt, since these ions are readily displaced by more highly charged cations. DTPA forms complexes with thorium(IV), uranium(IV),
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Pentetic acid
neptunium(IV), and cerium(III/IV).
In August, 2004 the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) determined zinc-DTPA and calcium-DTPA to be safe and effective for treatment of those who have breathed in or otherwise been contaminated internally by plutonium, americium, or curium. The recommended treatment is for an initial dose of calcium-DTPA, as this salt of DTPA has been shown to be more effective in the first 24 hours after internal contamination by plutonium, americium, or curium. After that time has elapsed both calcium-DTPA and zinc-DTPA are similarly effective in reducing internal contamination with plutonium, americium or curium, and zinc-DTPA is less likely to deplete the body's normal
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Pentetic acid
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Pentetic acid
levels of zinc and other metals essential to health. Each drug can be administered by nebulizer for those who have breathed in contamination, and by intravenous injection for those contaminated by other routes.
DTPA is also used as a chelate for aquarium plant fertilizer, specifically iron, an essential micronutrient typically needed in substantial quantities by all plants. Chelates are dissolved organic substances that bind to metals and prevent them from forming larger molecules through oxidation. FeDTPA is often sold under the name iron chelate 10% or 11% when used for the purpose of aquarium plant fertilization. Iron typically found in the aquarium water column has been converted into the
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Pentetic acid
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Pentetic acid
ferric state (Fe) since it is in the presence of dissolved oxygen. However plants require iron in the ferrous state (Fe), therefore additional energy must be expended in order to extract the ferric iron from the water column and convert it to the ferrous form. When used to chelate iron fertilizer DTPA ensures that the iron is kept in the ferrous state (Fe) over time so it can be utilized by aquatic plants without expending valuable energy.
# Related compounds.
Compounds that are structurally related to DTPA are used in medicine, taking advantage of the high affinity of the triaminopentacarboxylate scaffold for metal ions.
- In ibritumomab tiuxetan, the chelator tiuxetan is a modified version
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Pentetic acid
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Pentetic acid
r metal ions.
- In ibritumomab tiuxetan, the chelator tiuxetan is a modified version of DTPA whose carbon backbone contains an isothiocyanatobenzyl and a methyl group.
- In capromab pendetide and satumomab pendetide, the chelator pendetide (GYK-DTPA) is a modified DTPA containing a peptide linker used to connect the chelate to an antibody.
- Pentetreotide is a modified DTPA attached to a peptide segment.
- DTPA and derivatives are used to chelate gadolinium to form a MRI contrast agent, such as Magnevist.
- Technetium-99m is chelated with DTPA for ventilation perfusion (V/Q) scans and radioisotope renography nuclear medicine scans.
# See also.
- Nuclear medicine
- Radiopharmaceutical
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4746196
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The Sweet Singles Album
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Sweet%20Singles%20Album
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The Sweet Singles Album
The Sweet Singles Album
The Sweet Singles Album is a 1975 compilation album by Sweet released on RCA Records for the Australia and New Zealand market only. It was released by RCA Australia, mainly to capitalise on The Sweet's various heavier singles from the 1973-74 period, ahead of the band visiting the region and touring. "The Sweet Singles Album" does not replace any of the original European Sweet release albums but compliments them. The track listing shows a harder rock style and a move away from the softer bubblegum tracks of the earlier 1968-72 period.
The Sweet toured Australia and New Zealand later in 1975, to much success. By the end of 1975, The Sweet had a number of albums in the
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The Sweet Singles Album
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The Sweet Singles Album
charts plus two big hit singles, "Peppermint Twist" and "Fox on the Run". "Peppermint Twist" was also an Australian only release, being taken as a single, from the "Sweet Fanny Adams" album.
"The Sweet Singles Album" itself was available right through the 1970s, before being deleted by RCA Australia, around 1979. To date, it is one of the last few Sweet albums yet to make it to compact disc, both in original running track order plus artwork.
# LP track listing.
- Side one
- 2. "The Ballroom Blitz" – 3:59
- 3. "Man From Mecca" – 2:45
- 4. "New York Connection" – 3:35
- 5. "Need A Lot Of Lovin'" – 3:00
- 6. "Burning" – 4:04
- 7. "Teenage Rampage" – 3:32
- Side two
- 2. "Block Buster!"
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The Sweet Singles Album
– 3:12
- 3. "Rock and Roll Disgrace" – 3:50
- 4. "Own Up, Take A Look At Yourself" – 3:55
- 5. "Burn On The Flame" – 3:37
- 6. "Hellraiser" – 3:15
# Cassette track listing.
- Side one
- 2. "Man from Mecca" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 2:45
- 3. "New York Connection" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:35
- 4. "Need a Lot of Lovin'" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:00
- 5. "Teenage Rampage" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:32
- 6. "Hellraiser" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:15
- 7. "Block Buster!" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:12
- Side two
- 2. "Rock and Roll Disgrace" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:50
- 3. "Own Up, Take a Look at Yourself" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:55
- 4.
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The Sweet Singles Album
listing.
- Side one
- 2. "Man from Mecca" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 2:45
- 3. "New York Connection" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:35
- 4. "Need a Lot of Lovin'" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:00
- 5. "Teenage Rampage" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:32
- 6. "Hellraiser" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:15
- 7. "Block Buster!" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:12
- Side two
- 2. "Rock and Roll Disgrace" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:50
- 3. "Own Up, Take a Look at Yourself" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:55
- 4. "Burn On The Flame" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 3:37
- 5. "The Ballroom Blitz" (Chinn, Chapman) – 3:59
- 6. "Burning" (Connolly, Priest, Scott, Tucker) – 4:04
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4746129
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Alton Tobey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alton%20Tobey
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Alton Tobey
Alton Tobey
Alton Stanley Tobey (5 November 1914 - 4 January 2005), the American artist, was a painter, historical artist, muralist, portraitist, illustrator, and teacher of art.
# Biography.
He was born in Middletown, Connecticut, and in 1934 won a scholarship to the Yale University School of Fine Arts. After his military service, he completed his masters degree at Yale and taught there for a period. Alton Stanley Tobey resided for most of his life in the village of Larchmont, part of the town of Mamaroneck in Westchester County, New York. He was married to Roslyn Tobey, an esteemed piano teacher and musician. Their son, David Tobey, is a painter and musician.
Alton Tobey died on January
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Alton Tobey
4, 2005 at a nursing home in Mamaroneck, New York.
"The New York Times" obituary, by Wolfgang Saxon, described Alton Tobey as "a muralist, portraitist, and illustrator whose renderings of famous events and faces hang in museums, libraries, public buildings, corporate offices, and private collections." Tobey is ranked by the Artists Trade Union of Russia amongst the world-best artists of the last four centuries".
# Style.
Referring to the dichotomy between his realist works and his curvilinears and other modernist works, Alton Tobey once said, "I live an artistic double life: one of classical realism and the other of aesthetic exploration."
## Realist work.
Tobey's murals, illustrations,
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Alton Tobey
and portraits show him working in the realistic style for which he is best known.
The huge murals on historical subjects (first painted in the 1930s, when he worked for the WPA Federal Art Project) are probably the most widely seen of Tobey's works, prominently displayed in many public places in the US and elsewhere. These include public institutions in his native Connecticut; the Smithsonian Institution and other venues in Washington, DC; New York's Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum; and even an officers club in Saudi Arabia. Indeed, the Larchmont Gazette obituary (see 'External links') states, "Alton Tobey was best known for the murals, which he called 'symphonies of painting'." Alton Tobey was
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Alton Tobey
president of the National Society of Mural Painters from 1984 to 1988.
As a realist painter and illustrator, Alton Tobey is also famously the creator of the hundreds of paintings which illustrate the twelve volumes of "The Golden Book History of the United States. Additionally, he did many illustrations for SPORT magazine, Life Magazine and Time-Life books. Millions of children, whether they knew it or not, grew up gazing at Alton Tobey's vivid imaginings of historical events (such as this one depicting a scene from the Russian revolution). Michael Bierut wrote for Design Observer magazine a very touching tribute to Alton Tobey that begins: "Alton Tobey died the week before last. Chances are
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Alton Tobey
you've never heard of him, but when I was eight years old, I had no doubt about one thing: Alton Tobey was the best artist in the world." Tobey's works are included in the collection of the National Museum of American Illustration.
In his work as a frequently commissioned portraitist, Tobey had the honor of rendering many prominent sitters in paint. These included Pope John Paul II, the poet Robert Frost, and Albert Einstein. In fact, it was while Einstein was sitting for his Tobey portrait (during the 1940s), that a cordial acquaintance began which yielded an important gem of artistic inspiration: Einstein's remark that there are really no straight lines in nature led to Alton Tobey's invention
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Alton Tobey
of his signature "curvilinear" style - one of his experimental genres.
## Abstract and experimental work.
Besides the realist works, Tobey also created less well known paintings in several very personal idioms.
Among the several experimental styles, perhaps the most original works (that is, immediately recognizable as having been painted by Alton S. Tobey and no one else) are those in an abstract (or semi-abstract) idiom using a curious "visual alphabet" of his own invention. These he called his "curvilinears" ("Sailboats", shown here, is an example). He created some sculptures in this idiom as well. These abstract works, just as much as those in his realistic vein, display a distinctive
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Alton Tobey
and exacting draftsmanship.
Also in a modern (or even postmodern) vein are his series of "fragments": bizarre portraits, mostly of famous people, consisting of extreme closeups of only parts of (usually) the head or face, often far off-center. A particularly amusing example is "Thatcher's Thatch", consisting only of the British Prime Minister's famous hairdo jutting up from the bottom of the canvas. There are also grotesque and piercingly angry paintings of social commentary, sometimes verging on protest art, such as "Our Hero", an over-muscled monster with a tiny infant's head, embodying belligerent and stupid militarism. A portrait of Ronald Reagan called "The Making of a President" shows
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Alton Tobey
the President's head bizarrely stretched and multiplied across the canvas into a menacing, many-eyed creature, culminating on the far right with a disembodied Reagan smile hovering mid-air, bounded by sphincterish wrinkles which extend creepily into the smoky brown background. It would not appear to express reverence or affection for the Gipper — yet it was painted by the same man who painted this.
# See also.
- Illustration
- Mural
- Portrait
- Realism
- Federal Art Project
- National Museum of American Illustration
# References and sources.
- Notes
- Sources
- Davenport, R. J.; "Davenport's art reference & price guide" (Davenport's Art Reference; Ventura, Calif.; biennial (every
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Alton Tobey
2 years) ; OCLC: 18196910
- Falk, Peter H.; "Who was who in American art" (Madison, Conn. : Sound View Press, 1985)
- Kalfatovic, Martin R.; "The New Deal fine arts projects" (Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1994)
- Mallett, Daniel Trowbridge Mallett; "Mallett's Index of artists, international-biographical" (supplement) (New York : P. Smith, 1948) OCLC: 4119402
# External links.
- Alton Tobey website with many COLOR IMAGES [includes announcement: "Acquisition of Tobey paintings featured in newsletter of the National Museum of American Illustration"]
- Askart.com's page on Alton Tobey including a COLOR IMAGE
- Website of Joseph Dolice, curator of the Alton Tobey collection and authority
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Alton Tobey
on the work. Website includes COLOR IMAGES
- COLOR IMAGE of a WPA mural by Alton Tobey (1940)
- Arthistory.about.com page on Alton Tobey (includes a COLOR IMAGE of an unusual mixed media work by Tobey)
- New York Times obituary article on Alton Tobey
- Art Niche New York (ANNY) website page on Alton Tobey with a COLOR IMAGE
- Design Observer essay tribute to Alton Tobey, including a COLOR IMAGE
- Library of Congress bio page on Alton Tobey, with a COLOR IMAGE
- MacArthur Memorial (in Norfolk, Virginia); information (with images) on Alton Tobey's "MacArthur Murals," commissioned by the MacArthur Memorial and completed in 1965
- National Society of Mural Painters (USA) website, listing
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Alton Tobey
NNY) website page on Alton Tobey with a COLOR IMAGE
- Design Observer essay tribute to Alton Tobey, including a COLOR IMAGE
- Library of Congress bio page on Alton Tobey, with a COLOR IMAGE
- MacArthur Memorial (in Norfolk, Virginia); information (with images) on Alton Tobey's "MacArthur Murals," commissioned by the MacArthur Memorial and completed in 1965
- National Society of Mural Painters (USA) website, listing all presidents since the organization's founding in 1895, including "Alton S. Tobey 1984-1988"
- Page on Alton Tobey at westchester.com
- 20-page feature article on Alton S. Tobey in Illustration magazine, Fall 2007, Issue #20 (includes 36 COLOR IMAGES of paintings by Tobey)
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20Christian%20thought%20on%20persecution%20and%20tolerance
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
This article gives a historical overview of Christian positions on Persecution of Christians, persecutions by Christians, religious persecution and toleration. Christian theologians like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas legitimized religious persecution to various extents, and during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Christians considered heresy and dissent punishable offences and they also fought wars to impose Christianity on non-Christian populations (or Christian sects whose beliefs they considered heretical). However, Early modern Europe witnessed the turning point in the history of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance.
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
Christian writers like John Milton and John Locke argued for limited religious toleration, while some Christians eventually came to support the concept of religious freedom which was developed by secular authors like Thomas Jefferson. Nowadays Christians generally accept the belief that heresy and dissent are not punishable by a civil authority. Many Christians "look back on the centuries of persecution with a mixture of revulsion and incomprehension."
# Historical background.
Early Christianity was a minority religion in the Roman Empire and the early Christians were persecuted during that time. After Constantine I stopped the persecution of Christians, it became the dominant religion in
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
the Roman Empire. Already beginning under his reign, Christian heretics were persecuted; The most extreme case (as far as historians know) was the burning of Priscillian and six of his followers at the stake in 383. In the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted into a persecuting religion. Beginning in the late 4th century A.D. also the ancient pagan religions were actively suppressed.
After the decline of the Roman Empire, the further Christianization of Europe was to a large extent peaceful, although Jews and Muslims were harshly persecuted, to an extent of forced conversions in Byzantine empire. Encounters between Christians and Pagans were
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
sometimes confrontational, and some Christian kings (Charlemagne, Olaf I of Norway) were known for their violence against pagans. The Northern Crusades, a series of campaigns against the pagan Balts and Slavs of northeastern Europe, faced fierce pagan resistance, requiring decades of violence by dedicated warrior-monks to force the submission, and compel the conversion, of the region's inhabitants, who were often left as serfs to an imported Christian German-speaking nobility. There were often severe consequences for populations that chose to resist; for example, the Christian conquest and conversion of Old Prussia resulted in the death of much of the native population, whose language subsequently
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
became extinct.
The persecution of Christian heretics resumed in 1022, when fourteen people were burned at Orléans. Around this time Bogomilism and Catharism appeared in Europe; these sects were seen as heretical by the Catholic Church, and the Inquisition was initially established to counter them. Heavily persecuted, these heresies were eradicated by the 14th century. The suppression of the Cathar (or "Albigensian") faith took the form of the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church. Its violence was extreme even by medieval standards. Notable individuals who were executed for heresy in the late Middle Ages are Jerome of Prague, John
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
Badby and Jan Hus. Only the Waldensians, another heretical Christian sect, managed to survive in remote areas in Northern Italy.
Also during the high Middle Ages, 1000-1250, the Crusades pitched Christians and Muslims against each other in a war about the possession of Jerusalem, with atrocities from both sides. There were massacres of Muslims and Jews when Jerusalem was taken by Crusaders in 1099. After Grand Duchy of Moscow and later the Tsardom had conquered the Kazan Khanate and Astrakhan Khanate in the 1550s, the government forcibly baptized Muslim Volga Tatars and pagan Chuvash, Mordva and Mari. Mosques were prohibited. This persecution ended only under the reign of Catherine II of Russia
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in the late eighteenth century.
The Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition also went on to persecute Jews and Muslims. In Spain after the Reconquista, Jews were forced to either convert or be exiled. Many were killed. The persecution of Jews goes back to 12th-century Visigothic Spain after the emergence of the blood libel against Jews. Although the Spanish had agreed to allow Muslims the freedom of religion in 1492, this was often ignored. In 1501, Muslims were offered the choice of conversion or exile. In 1556, Arab or Muslim dress was forbidden, and in 1566 Arabic language as a whole was prohibited in Spain. Jews were eventually expelled from England by King Edward I, too.
When Martin Luther
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wrote his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, Catholicism reacted the same way as it had to the heresies of the late Middle Ages. However, while the Protestant Reformation could be "crushed" in Spain with "a few dozen executions in the 1550s", the same strategy failed in Germany, Northern Europe and in England. France had to suffer through the French Wars of Religion before it again became wholly Catholic. The divide between Catholicism and the new Protestant denominations was deep. Protestants commonly alleged that the catholic Pope was the Antichrist. Conflicts between Christian factions reached their heights in France with the 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, in Germany and Central Europe with
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the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and in England with the English Civil War (1641–1651). Following the devastations caused by these wars, the ideas of religious toleration, freedom of religion and religious pluralism slowly gained ground in Europe. The Witch trials in Early Modern Europe, which had reached their height between 1550 and 1650, continued until 1750.
European Colonialism, that was accompanied by Christian evangelism and often by violence, led to the suppression of indigenous religions in the territories conquered or usurped by the Europeans. The Spanish colonization of the Americas largely destroyed the Aztec and Inca civilization. However, Colonialism (and later European Imperialism)
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as a whole were not motivated by religious zeal; the suppression of the indigenous religions was their side result, not their main purpose. Only partial aspects, like the Goa Inquisition, bear resemblance to the persecutions that occurred on the European continent. By the 18th century, persecutions of unsanctioned beliefs had been reduced in most Europeans countries to religious discrimination, in the form of legal restrictions on those who did not accept the official faith. This often included being barred from higher education, or from participation in the national legislature. In colonized nations, attempts to convert native peoples to Christianity became more encouraging and less forceful.
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In British India during the Victorian era, Christian converts were given preferential treatment for governmental appointments.
At the present time, most countries in which Christianity is the religion of the majority of the people, are either secular states or they embrace the separation of Church and State in another way. (A list of countries in which Christianity is still the state religion can be found in the article on State religion.) Some recent political conflicts are sometimes considered religious persecutions. Among these, there is the case of the Hue Vesak shootings in South Vietnam on May 8, 1963 and the ethnic cleansing of Albanians, most of whom were Muslim, in Kosovo between 1992
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and 1999, along with the genocide of the Bosnian Muslims.
# Christian Roman doctrine in 4th and 5th century A.D..
After he had adopted Christianity following the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine I issued the Edict of Milan in 313 (together with his co-emperor Licinius). Since 306 there had already had been several edicts that granted Christians religious toleration in parts of the Empire, but the Edict of Milan removed all obstacles to the Christian faith and made the Empire officially neutral with regard to religious worship. Constantine supported the church with his patronage; he had an extraordinary number of large basilicas built for the Christian church, and endowed it with land
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and other wealth. In doing this, however, he required the Pagans "to foot the bill". According to Christian chroniclers it appeared necessary to Constantine "to teach his subjects to give up their rites (...) and to accustom them to despise their temples and the images contained therein," which led to the closure of pagan temples due to a lack of support, their wealth flowing to the imperial treasure; Constantine I did not need to use force to implement this; his subjects are said to simply have obeyed him out of fear. Only the chronicler Theophanes has added that temples "were annihilated", but this is considered "not true" by contemporary historians.
According to the historian Ramsay MacMullen
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Constantine desired to obliterate non-Christians but lacking the means he had to be content with robbing their temples towards the end of his reign. He resorted to derogatory and contemptuous comments relating to the old religion; writing of the "obstinacy" of the pagans, of their "misguided rites and ceremonial", and of their "temples of lying" contrasted with "the splendours of the home of truth".
During the course of his life he progressively became more Christian and turned away from any syncretic tendencies he appeared to favour at times and thus demonstrating, according to his biographers, that "The God of the Christians was indeed a jealous God who tolerated no other gods beside him.
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The Church could never acknowledge that she stood on the same plane with other religious bodies, she conquered for herself one domain after another".
After the 3-year-reign of Julian the Apostate (ruled 361 to 363), who revived the Roman state paganism for a short time, the later Christian Roman Emperors sanctioned "attacks on pagan worship". Towards the end of the 4th century Theodosius worked to establish Catholicism as the privileged religion in the Roman Empire.""Theodosius was not the man to sympathise with the balancing policy of the Edict of Milan. He set himself steadfastly to the work of establishing Catholicism as the privileged religion of the state, of repressing dissident Christians
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(heretics) and of enacting explicit legal measures to abolish Paganism in all its phases.""
Two hundred and fifty years after Constantine was converted and began the long campaign of official temple destruction and outlawing of non-Christian worship Justinian was still engaged in the war of dissent.
## The Augustinian consensus.
The transformation that happened in the 4th century lies at the heart of the debate between those Christian authors who advocated religious persecution and those who rejected it. Most of all, the advocates of persecution looked to the writings of Augustine of Hippo, the most influential of the Christian Church Fathers in the Latin West. Initially (in the 390s), he
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had been sceptical about the use of coercion in religious matters. However, he changed his mind after he had witnessed how the Donatists (a schismatic Christian sect) were "brought over to the Catholic unity by fear of imperial edicts." When Augustine had characterized himself in "De utilitate credenti" (392), he said he was "cupidus veri", eager for truth. But in his 93. letter he described himself as "quietis avidus", needing rest, and gave as reason the agitating Donatist. From a position that had trusted the power of philosophical argumentation, Augustine had moved to a position that emphasised the authority of the church. Augustine had become convinced of the effectiveness of mild forms
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of persecution and developed a defence of their use. His authority on this question was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity. Within this Augustinian consensus there was only disagreement about the extent to which Christians should persecute heretics. Augustine advocated fines, imprisonment, banishment and moderate floggings, but, according to Henry Chadwick, "would have been horrified by the burning of heretics." In late Antiquity those burnings appear very rare indeed, the only certain case being the execution of Priscillian and six of his followers in 385. This sentence was roundly condemned by bishops like Ambrose, Augustine's mentor.
## The treatment of heretics.
With
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the adoption of Christianity by Constantine I (after Battle of Milvian Bridge, 312), heresy had become a political issue in the late Roman empire. Adherents of unconventional Christian beliefs not covered by the Nicene Creed like Novatianism and Gnosticism were banned from holding meetings, but the Roman emperor intervened especially in the conflict between orthodox and Arian Christianity, which resulted in the burning of Arian books.
In contrast to the late antiquity, the execution of heretics was much more easily approved in the late Middle Ages, after the Christianization of Europe was largely completed. The first known case is the burning of fourteen people at Orléans in 1022. In the following
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centuries groups like the Bogomils, Waldensians, Cathars and Lollards were persecuted throughout Europe. The Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) codified the theory and practise of persecution. In its third canon, the council declared: ""Secular authorities, whatever office they may hold, shall be admonished and induced and if necessary compelled by ecclesiastical censure, .. to take an oath that they will strive .. to exterminate in the territories subject to their jurisdiction all heretics pointed out by the Church.""
In the process of eliminating these heretical movements, Church officials, especially members of the Inquisition, made widespread use of torture to provoke confessions. Heretics
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who refused to recant their beliefs were hanged or burnt alive. At the Siege of Béziers during the Albigensian Crusade (launched to eliminate the Cathars in Languedoc, crusaders under the direction of a papal legate, Arnaud Amalric killed an estimated 20,000 people, both Cathars and orthodox Catholics.
The Old Testament has been the main source for Christian theologians advocating religious persecution. An example of this would be John Jewel. In defending the demand for religious uniformity by Elizabeth I of England, he declared: ""Queen Elizabeth doth as did Moses, Josua, David, Salomon, Josias, Jesophat, ...""
# In the Middle Ages.
In the Middle Ages, violent persecution of non-Christians
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became widely accepted by the Catholic Church within the framework of the Crusades. These tactics were particularly widely used in the Northern Crusades, where Christian rulers – and, later, monastic orders such as the Teutonic Knights – waged a centuries-long series of campaigns to compel the pagan Balts and Slavs of the region to convert by conquering them and settling in the newly conquered territory as feudal rulers. The region’s inhabitants resisted conquest, and, even once subjected, rebelled repeatedly in an effort to reject Christianity and reverse the conquest. As part of these campaigns, forced conversions were widespread; massacre and atrocity, combined with the capture and killing
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of hostages to compel surrender and conversion, were commonly used tactics. These tactics sometimes reached such extremes that they caused large-scale depopulation of some regions through the extermination or fleeing of local inhabitants; the Old Prussian people vanished as a distinct culture as a result of the Prussian Crusade.
The Church’s acceptance of forced conversion was a new ideological development within Christianity. Beginning with the Wendish Crusade, the Church began to sponsor and endorse forced conversion through conquest, something it had hitherto not done. In addition to sponsoring forced conversion, the Church accepted the use of forced conversion as a pretext for the elimination
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of hostile or recalcitrant tribes that did not easily submit to conquest. In 1171 or 1172, Pope Alexander III, in the Bull "Nos parum animus noster", declared the conquest and forced conversion of pagans in northern Europe an official Crusade, recognizing it as a spiritually meritorious activity whose participants would receive the same remission of sin as those fighting in Levant. The concept of just war was extended to include any war against pagans, with tactics traditionally outside the concept of just war included as acceptable. Dominican friars helped ideologically justify the crusades and their tactics by portraying the pagans as evil and deserving of conquest, persecution and forced
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conversion in their preaching in support of the crusades.
# The Protestant theory of persecution.
The Protestant Reformation changed the face of Western Christianity forever, but initially it did nothing to change the Christian endorsement of religious persecution. The Reformers "fully embraced" Augustine's advocacy of coercion in religious matters, and many regarded the death penalty for heresy as legitimate. Furthermore, by presenting a much more powerful threat to Catholic unity than the heretic groups of the Middle Ages, the Reformation led to the intensification of persecution under Catholic regimes.
- Martin Luther had written against persecution in the 1520s, and had demonstrated genuine
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sympathy towards the Jews in his earlier writings, especially in "Das Jesus ein geborener Jude sei" ("That Jesus was born as a Jew") from 1523, but after 1525 his position hardened. In "Wider die Sabbather an einen guten Freund" (Against the Sabbather to a Good Friend), 1538, he still considered a conversion of the Jews to Christianity as possible, but in 1543 he published On the Jews and their Lies, a "violent anti-semitic tract."
- John Calvin helped to secure the execution for heresy of Michael Servetus, although he unsuccessfully requested that he should be beheaded instead of being burned at the stake.
Effectively, however, the 16th-century Protestant view was less extreme than the mediaeval
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Catholic position. In England, John Foxe, John Hales, Richard Perrinchief, Herbert Thorndike and Jonas Proast all only saw mild forms of persecution against the English Dissenters as legitimate. But (with the probable exception of John Foxe), this was only a retraction in degree, not a full rejection of religious persecution. There is also the crucial distinction between "dissent" and "heresy" to consider. Most dissenters disagreed with the Anglican Church only on secondary matters of worship and ecclesiology, and although this was a considered a serious sin, only a few 17th-century Anglican writers thought that this 'crime' deserved the death penalty. These concerns notwithstanding, the English
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government saw fit to execute as treasonous a multitude of priests, dissenters, and recusant Catholics, even those who retained but private reservations. The English Act of Supremacy thus significantly complicated the matter by securely welding Church and state.
The Elizabethan bishop Thomas Bilson was of the opinion that men ought to be "corrected, not murdered", but he did not condemn the Christian Emperors for executing the Manichaeans for "monstrous blasphemies". The Lutheran theologian Georgius Calixtus argued for the reconciliation of Christendom by removing all unimportant differences between Catholicism and Protestantism, and Rupertus Meldenius advocated in necessariis unitas, in dubiis
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libertas, in omnibus caritas ("in necessary things unity; in uncertain things freedom; in everything compassion") in 1626.
# Protestant advocacy for toleration.
## The English Protestant 'Call for Toleration'.
While the Christian theologians mentioned above advocated religious persecution to various extents, it was also Christians who helped pioneer the concept of religious toleration.
In his book on 'The English Reformation', particularly in the chapter 'The Origins of Religious Toleration', the late A. G. Dickens argued that from the beginning of the Reformation there had "existed in Protestant thought – in Zwingli, Melanchthon and Bucer, as well as among the Anabaptists – a more liberal
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tradition, which John Frith was perhaps the first echo in England". Condemned for heresy, Frith was burnt at the stake in 1533. In his own mind, he died not because of the denial of the doctrines on purgatory and transubstantiation but "for the principle that a particular doctrine on either point was not a necessary part of a Christian's faith". In other words, there was an important distinction to be made between a genuine article of faith and other matters where a variety of very different conclusions should be tolerated within the Church. This stand against unreasonable and profligate dogmatism meant that Frith, "to a greater extent than any other of our early Protestants", upheld "a certain
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degree of religious freedom".
Frith was not alone. John Foxe, for example, "strove hard to save Anabaptists from the fire, and he enunciated a sweeping doctrine of tolerance even towards Catholics, whose doctrines he detested with every fibre of his being".
In the early 17th century, Thomas Helwys was principal formulator of that distinctively Baptist request: that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, so that individuals might have a freedom of religious conscience. Helwys said the King "is a mortal man, and not God, therefore he hath no power over the mortal soul of his subjects to make laws and ordinances for them and to set spiritual Lords over them". King James
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I had Helwys thrown into Newgate prison, where he had died by 1616 at about the age of forty.
By the time of the English Revolution Helwys' stance on religious toleration was more commonplace. However, whilst accepting their zeal in desiring a 'godly society', some contemporary historians doubt whether the English Puritans during the English Revolution were as committed to religious liberty and pluralism as traditional histories have suggested. However, historian John Coffey's recent work emphasises the contribution of a minority of radical Protestants who steadfastly sought toleration for heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism. This minority included the
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Seekers, as well as the General Baptists and the Levellers. Their collective witness demanded the church be an entirely voluntary, non-coercive community able to evangelise in a pluralistic society governed by a purely civil state. Such a demand was in sharp contrast to the ambitions of the magisterial Protestantism of the Calvinist majority.
In 1644 the "Augustinian consensus concerning persecution was irreparably fractured." This year can be identified quite exactly, because 1644 saw the publication of John Milton's "Areopagitica", William Walwyn's "The Compassionate Samaritane", Henry Robinson's "Liberty of Conscience" and Roger William's "The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution." These authors
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were Puritans or had dissented from the Church of England, and their radical Protestantism led them to condemn religious persecution, which they saw as a popish corruption of primitive Christianity. Other non-Anglican writers advocating toleration were Richard Overton, John Wildman and John Goodwin, the Baptists Samuel Richardson and Thomas Collier and the Quakers Samuel Fisher and William Penn. Anglicans who argued against persecution were: John Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, James Harrington, Jeremy Taylor, Henry More, John Tillotson and Gilbert Burnet.
All of these considered themselves Christians or were actual churchmen. John Milton and John Locke are the predecessors
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of modern liberalism. Although Milton was a Puritan and Locke an Anglican, "Areopagitica" and "A Letter concerning Toleration" are canonical liberal texts. Only from the 1690s onwards the philosophy of Deism emerged, and with it a third group that advocated religious toleration, but, unlike the radical Protestants and the Anglicans, also rejected biblical authority; this group prominently includes Voltaire, Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, Thomas Jefferson and the English-Irish philosopher John Toland. When Toland published the writings of Milton, Edmund Ludlow and Algernon Sidney, he tried to downplay the Puritan divinity in these works.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph
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II, issued the Patent of Toleration in 1781.
## Developments in 17th-century England.
Following the debates that started in the 1640s the Church of England was the first Christian church to grant adherents of other Christian denominations freedom of worship, with the Act of Toleration 1689, which nevertheless still retained some forms of religious discrimination and did not include toleration for Catholics. At present, only individuals who are members of the Church of England at the time of the succession may become the British monarch.
# In the United States.
The Puritan-Whig tradition of toleration did have their greatest effect not in England, but in the Thirteen Colonies that would later
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form the United States. Notable tolerationists were directly involved in the founding of the colonies. Roger Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island, "a haven for persecuted minorities," John Locke drafted the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina and William Penn drew up the constitution of Pennsylvania. Voltaire pointed the readers of his "Traité sur la Tolérance" (1763) specifically to the examples of Carolina and Pennsylvania. People like Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and John Adams stood self-consciously in the tradition of Milton, Sidney and Locke, and extended their tolerationism further to also apply to Catholics and atheists. Coffey considers it possible to argue, "that the tolerationist
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tradition of seventeenth-century England reached its fulfilment in the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom and the First Amendment to the American Constitution."
That the North American colonies and later the United States provided a refuge for religious minorities from Europe partly explains the higher degree of religiosity in the contemporary United States and the "unusual sectarian quality of U.S. Protestantism". Compared to Europe, "the United States has a superabundance of denominations and sects (...) as well as a far higher ratio of churchgoers." Which importance the Christian religion should have in the United States, with its strong concept of Separation of church and state, is
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a contentious question. For political commentator Kevin Phillips, "few questions will be more important to the twenty-first-century United States than whether renascent religion and its accompanying hubris will be carried on the nation's books as an asset or as a liability."
According to a 2008 survey, 65% of US-American Christians believe that many religions can lead to eternal life. 52% of US-American Christians think that at least some non-Christian faiths can lead to eternal life.
# The mid-20th-century Spanish model.
As of the mid-20th century, an example of Catholic church-state relations was the Catholic situation in Franco's Spain, where under the National Catholicism doctrine the
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Catholic Church:
- was officially recognized and protected by the state,
- had substantial control over social policy, and
- had this relationship explicitly set out in a Concordat.
It had long been the policy of the Catholic Church to support toleration of competing religions under such a scheme, but to support legal restrictions on attempts to convert Catholics to those religions, under the motto that "error has no rights".
# Modern Roman Catholic policy.
On the seventh of December 1965 The Catholic Church's Vatican II council issued the decree "Dignitatis humanae" which dealt with the rights of the person and communities to social and civil liberty in religious matters. It states: "2.
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The Vatican Council declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. Freedom of this kind means that all men should be immune from coercion on the part of individuals, social groups and every human power so that, within due limits, nobody is forced to act against his convictions in religious matters in private or public, alone or in associations with others. The Vatican Council further declares that the right of religious freedom is based on the very word of God and by reason itself. This right of the human person to religious freedom must be given such recognition in the constitutional order of society as will make it a civic right...but if it [the civil authority] presumes
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to control or restrict religious activity it must be said to have exceeded the limits of its power...Therefore, provided the just requirements of public order are not violated, these groups [i.e. religious communities] have a right to immunity so that they may organize their own lives according to their religious principles...From this it follows that it is wrong for a public authority to compel its citizens by force or fear or any other means to profess or repudiate any religion or to prevent anyone from joining or leaving a religious body. There is even more serious transgression of God's will and of the sacred rights of the individual person and the family of nations when force is applied
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to wipe out or repress religion either throughout the whole world or in a single region or in a particular community".
On 12 March 2000 Pope John Paul II prayed for forgiveness because "Christians have often denied the Gospel; yielding to a mentality of power, they have violated the rights of ethnic groups and peoples, and shown contempt for their cultures and religious traditions"
Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI) wrote "The quality of exemplarity which the honest admission of past faults can exert on attitudes within the Church and civil society should also be noted, for it gives rise to a renewed obedience to the Truth and to respect for the dignity and the rights of others,
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most especially, of the very weak. In this sense, the numerous requests for forgiveness formulated by John Paul II constitute an example that draws attention to something good and stimulates the imitation of it, recalling individuals and groups of people to an honest and fruitful examination of conscience with a view to reconciliation"
# See also.
- Criticisms of Christianity
- Persecution of Buddhists by Christians
- Totalism
- Public Worship Regulation Act 1874
# Literature.
- John Coffey (2000), "Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689", Studies in Modern History, Pearson Education
- Ramsay MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100-400, Yale University
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rsecution of Buddhists by Christians
- Totalism
- Public Worship Regulation Act 1874
# Literature.
- John Coffey (2000), "Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689", Studies in Modern History, Pearson Education
- Ramsay MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100-400, Yale University Press, 1984,
- Ramsay MacMullen, "Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eight Centuries", Yale University Press, 1997,
# Further reading.
- Chris Beneke (2006): "Beyond toleration. the religious origins of American pluralism", Oxford University Press
- Alexandra Walsham (2006): "Charitable hatred. Tolerance and intolerance in England, 1500 - 1700", Manchester University Press
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Rupp
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Rupp
Rupp
Rupp or RUPP can refer to:
- Rational Unified Process Product
- Royal University of Phnom Penh
- Roads used as public paths,
- Warren Rupp Observatory
- Rupp Industries, a Mansfield, Ohio producer of go-karts, mini-bikes, and snowmobiles from the late 1950s until 1978; founded by car racer Mickey Rupp
People called Rupp or Ruppe:
- Adolph Rupp (1901–1977), an American basketball coach
- Adolph Rupp Trophy, an American basketball trophy
- Rupp Arena, an American basketball arena
- Bernd Rupp (b. 1942), a German football player
- Debra Jo Rupp (b. 1951), an American television actress
- Duane Rupp (b. 1938), a Canadian ice hockey player
- Ernest Gordon Rupp (1910–1986), a British
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Rupp
preacher and historian
- Galen Rupp (b. 1986), an American athlete
- George Erik Rupp (b. 1942), an American educator and theologian
- Hans Georg Rupp (1907-1989), German judge
- Heinrich Bernhard Rupp (1688-1719), a German botanist
- Herman Rupp (1872–1956), an Australian clergyman and botanist
- Jean Rupp (1905–1983), French bishop and Vatican diplomat
- Kerry Rupp, an American basketball coach
- Leila J. Rupp (b. 1950), an American historian and feminist
- Loret Miller Ruppe (1936–1996), an American administrator and diplomat
- Michael Rupp (b. 1980), an American ice hockey player
- Mickey Rupp (b. 1936), an American racecar driver
- Pat Rupp (1942–2006), an American ice hockey
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(1872–1956), an Australian clergyman and botanist
- Jean Rupp (1905–1983), French bishop and Vatican diplomat
- Kerry Rupp, an American basketball coach
- Leila J. Rupp (b. 1950), an American historian and feminist
- Loret Miller Ruppe (1936–1996), an American administrator and diplomat
- Michael Rupp (b. 1980), an American ice hockey player
- Mickey Rupp (b. 1936), an American racecar driver
- Pat Rupp (1942–2006), an American ice hockey player
- Philip Ruppe (b. 1926), an American politician
- Rainer Rupp (b. 1945), East German spy
- Scott T. Rupp, an American politician
- Sieghardt Rupp (1931–2015), an Austrian actor
- Terry Rupp (born 1966), an American college baseball coach
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Damaris Hayman
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Damaris Hayman
Damaris Hayman
Damaris Hayman (born 16 June 1929) is an English character actress, often cast in upper class or eccentric roles.
# Biography.
Hayman was born in Kensington, London, England and educated at Cheltenham Ladies' College. After repertory work in the theatre, she made her film début in "The Belles of St Trinian's" (1954) in an uncredited role as a sixth former.
Apart from scores of small parts, Hayman appeared in the "Doctor Who" serial "The Dæmons" (1971) as Miss Hawthorne, the self-proclaimed White Witch of the village Devil's End. "Doctor Who, the Television Companion" described her character as, "very memorable," and praised Hayman as being "perfectly cast in the role, her engaging
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Damaris Hayman
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Damaris Hayman
performance adding much to the story". Hayman has also appeared in such comedies as "Steptoe and Son", "Love Thy Neighbour", "The Young Ones", "One Foot In The Grave" and "Sez Les". She worked with Ronnie Barker, appearing in one episode of his final series, "Clarence" (1988). She appeared in "The Liver Birds" (1971) as Miss Rigby and in the 1986 "Duty Free" Christmas special.
After appearing in a sketch in Tony Hancock's last British TV series in 1967, she became a close friend of the comedian in the remaining year of his life. She appeared in the six-part straight-to-dvd drama "White Witch of Devil's End" (2017) which began production in 2012.
# Other films.
- "The Belles of St. Trinian's"
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(1954) - Visiting Parent (uncredited)
- "Greyfriars Bobby: The True Story of a Dog" (1961) - Black-haired woman (uncredited)
- "Only Two Can Play" (1962) - Lady Committee Member (uncredited)
- "West 11" (1963) - Guide with School Party (uncredited)
- "Bitter Harvest" (1963) - Neighbour in Flat (uncredited)
- "Smokescreen" (1964) - Mrs. Roper's Nurse (uncredited)
- "Bunny Lake Is Missing" (1965) - Daphne
- "The Magnificent Six and 1/2: The Ski Wheelers" (1971)
- "Mutiny on the Buses" (1972) - Mrs. Jenkins
- "Anoop and the Elephant" (1972) - Miss Flint
- "Love Thy Neighbour" (1973) - Woman on Bus
- "Paganini Strikes Again" (1973) - Miss Lanyard
- "Man About the House" (1974) - Old
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ide with School Party (uncredited)
- "Bitter Harvest" (1963) - Neighbour in Flat (uncredited)
- "Smokescreen" (1964) - Mrs. Roper's Nurse (uncredited)
- "Bunny Lake Is Missing" (1965) - Daphne
- "The Magnificent Six and 1/2: The Ski Wheelers" (1971)
- "Mutiny on the Buses" (1972) - Mrs. Jenkins
- "Anoop and the Elephant" (1972) - Miss Flint
- "Love Thy Neighbour" (1973) - Woman on Bus
- "Paganini Strikes Again" (1973) - Miss Lanyard
- "Man About the House" (1974) - Old Lady (uncredited)
- "Confessions of a Driving Instructor" (1976) - Tweedy Golfing Lady
- "The Pink Panther Strikes Again" (1976) - Fiona
- "Full Circle" (1977) - Miss Pinner
- "The Missionary" (1982) - Lady Quimby
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Hindi–Urdu controversy
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Hindi–Urdu controversy
The Hindi–Urdu controversy arose in 19th century colonial India out of the debate over whether the Hindi or Urdu languages should be chosen as a national language. Hindi and Urdu are generally understood in linguistic terms as two forms or dialects of a single language, Hindustani (lit "of "Hindustan""), that are written in two different scripts: Devanagari (for Hindi) and a modified Perso-Arabic script (for Urdu).
Both Hindi and Urdu represent forms of the Khariboli dialect of Hindustani. A Persianized variant of Hindustani began to take shape during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD) and Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD) in South Asia. Known as Dakkani in southern India,
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and by names such as Hindi, Hindavi, and Hindustani in northern India and elsewhere, it emerged as a lingua franca across much of India and was written in several scripts including Perso-Arabic, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Gurmukhi.
The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardization process and further Persianization in the late Mughal period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from the Turkic word "ordu" (army) or "orda" and is said to have arisen as the "language of the camp", or ""Zaban-i-Ordu"", although this explanation insufficiently explains its linguistic features (such as its strong affinities with Persian, rather than Turkic languages). As
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a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became the first official language of British India in 1850.
Hindi as a standardized literary register of Khariboli arose later; the Braj dialect was the dominant literary language in the Devanagari script up until and through the nineteenth century. Efforts to promote a Devanagari version of the Khariboli dialect under the name of Hindi gained pace around 1880 as an effort to displace Urdu's official position.
The last few decades of the nineteenth century witnessed the eruption of the Hindi–Urdu controversy in the United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh, then known as "the North-Western Provinces
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and Oudh"). The controversy comprised "Hindi" and "Urdu" protagonists each advocating the official use of Hindustani with the Devanagari script or with the Nastaʿlīq script, respectively. Hindi movements advocating the growth of and official status for Devanagari were established in Northern India. Babu Shiva Prasad and Madan Mohan Malaviya were notable early proponents of this movement. This, consequently, led to the development of Urdu movements defending Urdu's official status; Syed Ahmed Khan was one of its noted advocates.
In 1900, the government issued a decree granting symbolic equal status to both Hindi and Urdu. Hindi and Urdu started to diverge linguistically, with Hindi drawing on
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Sanskrit as the primary source for formal and academic vocabulary, often with a conscious attempt to purge the language of Persian-derived equivalents. Deploring this Hindu-Muslim divide, Gandhi proposed re-merging the standards, using either Devanagari or Urdu script, under the traditional generic term Hindustani. Bolstered by the support of the Indian National Congress and various leaders involved in the Indian Independence Movement, Hindi, in the Devanagari script, along with English, replaced Urdu as one of the official languages of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.
# Background.
The conflict over language reflected the larger politicization of culture and
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religion in nineteenth century colonial India, when religious identities were utilized in administration in unprecedented ways. Several factors contributed to the increasing divergence of Hindi and Urdu. The Muslim rulers chose to write Hindustani in Perso-Arabic script instead of Devanagari script. In time, Hindustani written in Perso-Arabic script also became a literary language with an increasing body of literature written in the 18th and 19th century. A division developed gradually between Hindus, who chose to write Hindustani in Devanagari script, and Muslims and some Hindus who chose to write the same in Urdu script. The development of Hindi movements in the late nineteenth century further
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contributed to this divergence. Sumit Sarkar notes that in the 18th and the bulk of the 19th century, "Urdu had been the language of polite culture over a big part of north India, for Hindus quite as much as Muslims". For the decade of 1881-90, Sarkar gives figures which showed that the circulation of Urdu newspapers was twice that of Hindi newspapers and there were 55% more Urdu books as Hindi books. He gives the example of the author Premchand who wrote mainly in Urdu till 1915, until he found it difficult to publish in the language.
Professor Paul R. Brass notes in his book, "Language, Religion and Politics in North India",
# Controversy.
## British language policy.
In 1837, the British
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East India company replaced Persian with local vernacular in various provinces as the official language of government offices and of the lower courts. However, in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, Urdu in Urdu script was chosen as the replacement for Persian, rather than Hindi in the Devanagari script. The most immediate reason for the controversy is believed to be the contradictory language policy in North India in the 1860s. Although the then government encouraged both Hindi and Urdu as a medium of education in school, it discouraged Hindi or Nagari script for official purposes. This policy gave rise to conflict between students educated in Hindi or Urdu for the competition
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of government jobs, which eventually took on a communal form.
## Hindi and Urdu movements.
In 1867, some Hindus in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh during the British Raj in India began to demand that Hindi be made an official language in place of Urdu. Babu Shiva Prasad of Banares was one of the early proponents of the Nagari script. In a "Memorandum on court characters" written in 1868, he accused the early Muslim rulers of India for forcing them to learn Persian. In 1897, Madan Mohan Malaviya published a collection of documents and statements titled "Court character and primary education in North Western Provinces and Oudh", in which, he made a compelling case for Hindi.
Several Hindi
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movements were formed in the late 19th and early 20th century; notable among them were Nagari Pracharini Sabha formed in Banaras in 1893, Hindi Sahitya Sammelan in Allahabad in 1910, Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha in 1918 and Rashtra Bhasha Prachar Samiti in 1926. The movement was encouraged in 1881 when Hindi in Devanagari script replaced Urdu in Persian script as the official language in neighboring Bihar. They submitted 118 memorials signed by 67,000 people to the Education Commission in several cities. The proponents of Hindi argued that the majority of people spoke Hindi and therefore introduction of Nagari script would provide better education and improve prospects for holding Government
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positions. They also argued that Urdu script made court documents illegible, encouraged forgery and promoted the use of complex Arabic and Persian words.
Organisations such as Anjuman Taraqqi-e-Urdu were formed in defence of the official status given to Urdu. Advocates of Urdu argued that Hindi scripts could not be written faster, and lacked standardisation and vocabulary. They also argued that the Urdu language originated in India, asserted that Urdu could also be spoken fluently by most of the people and disputed the assertion that official status of language and script is essential for the spread of education.
Communal violence broke out as the issue was taken up by firebrands. Sir Syed
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Ahmed Khan had once stated, "I look to both Hindus and Muslims with the same eyes & consider them as two eyes of a bride. By the word nation I only mean Hindus and Muslims and nothing else. We Hindus and Muslims live together under the same soil under the same government. Our interest and problems are common and therefore I consider the two factions as one nation." Speaking to Mr. Shakespeare, the governor of Banaras, after the language controversy heated up, he said "I am now convinced that the Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation as their religion and way of life was quite distinct from one another."
In the last three decades of the 19th century the controversy flared up several
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times in North-Western provinces and Oudh. The Hunter commission, appointed by the Government of India to review the progress of education, was used by the advocates of both Hindi and Urdu for their respective causes.
## Gandhi's idea of Hindustani.
Hindi and Urdu continued to diverge both linguistically and culturally. Linguistically, Hindi continued drawing words from Sanskrit, and Urdu from Persian, Arabic and Chagatai. Culturally Urdu came to be identified with Muslims and Hindi with Hindus. This wide divergence in the 1920s was deplored by Gandhi who exhorted the re-merging of both Hindi and Urdu naming it Hindustani written in both Nagari and Persian scripts. Though he failed in his
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attempt to bring together Hindi and Urdu under the Hindustani banner, he popularised Hindustani in other non-Hindustani speaking areas.
## Muslim nationalism.
It has been argued that the Hindi–Urdu controversy sowed the seeds for Muslim nationalism in India. Some also argued that Syed Ahmad had expressed separatist views long before the controversy developed.
## Linguistic purism.
Because of linguistic purism and its orientation towards the pre-Islamic past, advocates for a pure Hindi have sought to remove many Persian, Arabic and Turkic loanwords and replaced them with borrowings from Sanskrit. Conversely, formal Urdu employs far more Perso-Arabic words than in vernacular Khariboli.
#
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Hindi to Urdu.
In April 1900, the colonial Government of the North-Western Provinces issued an order granting equal official status to both Nagari and Perso-Arabic scripts. This decree evoked protests from Urdu supporters and joy from Hindi supporters. However, the order was more symbolic in that it did not provision exclusive use of Nagari script. Perso-Arabic remained dominant in North-Western provinces and Oudh as the preferred writing system until independence.
C. Rajagopalachari, chief minister of Madras Presidency introduced Hindi as a compulsory language in secondary school education though he later relented and opposed the introduction of Hindi during the Madras anti-Hindi agitation
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of 1965. Bal Gangadhar Tilak supported Devanagari script as the essential part of nationalist movement. The language policy of Congress and the independence movement paved its status as an alternative official language of independent India. Hindi was supported by religious and political leaders, social reformers, writers and intellectuals during independence movement securing that status. Hindi, along with English, was recognised as the official language of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.
# See also.
- Urdu movement
- Hindi in Pakistan
- Linguistic purism
- History of Hindustani
- Persian and Urdu
# References.
"Indo-Persian Literature and Amir Khusrau,
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ers and intellectuals during independence movement securing that status. Hindi, along with English, was recognised as the official language of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.
# See also.
- Urdu movement
- Hindi in Pakistan
- Linguistic purism
- History of Hindustani
- Persian and Urdu
# References.
"Indo-Persian Literature and Amir Khusrau, University of Delhi - PDF
# External links.
- South Asia Analysis Group: Hindi-Urdu controversy
- A century of dedicated service: Anjuman Tarraqqi-i-Urdu, from a href="Dawn%20%28newspaper%29"Dawn
Newspaper/a
- Urdu Scholarship-Maldonado Garcia
- The poisonous potency of script: Hindi and Urdu "ROBERT D. KING"
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Apemantus
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Apemantus
Apemantus
Apemantus is a character in the play "Timon of Athens" by William Shakespeare. He is a cynical and misanthropic philosopher.
# Role in the play.
Early in the play, when Timon is wealthy, Apemantus attends Timon's banquet in order to insult him and his guests. He is the only character at the time who treats Timon badly. The rest of the city highly respects him for his wealth and generosity. Apemantus has several witty exchanges with Timon, in which he argues that mankind is untrustworthy and that they are merely Timon's friends because of his money. Timon eventually loses all of his money and is abandoned by his friends. He turns his back on Athens to live in a cave, and takes the
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Apemantus
ey are merely Timon's friends because of his money. Timon eventually loses all of his money and is abandoned by his friends. He turns his back on Athens to live in a cave, and takes the same opinions about mankind which Apemantus had. Apemantus visits him to accuse Timon of copying his ideals. The two of them then proceed to elaborately insult each other.
The best known recent Apemantus was portrayed by the Irish actor, Norman Rodway, who played the role both for BBC television and for The Arkangel Shakespeare audiobook. His performance in these differ significantly, as neither the rest of the cast nor the interpretation is the same.
# External links.
- Apemantus' lines in Timon of Athens
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Operation Kutuzov
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation%20Kutuzov
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Operation Kutuzov
Operation Kutuzov
Operation Kutuzov was the first of the two counteroffensives launched by the Red Army as part of the Kursk Strategic Offensive Operation. It commenced on 12 July 1943, in the Central Russian Upland, against Army Group Center of the German "Wehrmacht". The operation was named after General Mikhail Kutuzov, the Russian general credited with saving Russia from Napoleon during the French invasion of Russia in 1812. Operation Kutuzov was one of two large-scale Soviet operations launched as counteroffensives against Operation Citadel. The Operation began on 12 July and ended on 18 August 1943 with the capture of Orel and collapse of the Orel bulge.
# Background.
As the end of the
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Operation Kutuzov
rasputitsa or rainy season approached, the Soviet command considered their next steps. Stalin strongly desired to seize the initiative and attack the German forces but was convinced by his senior commanders to take an initial defensive posture and allow the Germans to weaken themselves in attacking prepared positions. After this the Soviet forces would go over onto the offensive. Operation Kutuzov was the offensive plan for the Soviet forces before Moscow facing the German forces of Army Group Center. It was carried out by three Soviet Fronts or army groups: the Western Front, the Bryansk Front and the Central Front. The offensive was directed north of the Kursk area against the German 2nd Panzer
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