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aircraft, the AEA White Wing, which was later copied by the U.S. aeronautical pioneer Glenn Curtiss.
- Henry Farman's ailerons on his 1909 Farman III were the first to resemble ailerons on modern aircraft as they were hinged directly to the wing planform structure, and thus were viewed as having a reasonable claim as the ancestor of the modern-day aileron.
- Wingtip ailerons were also used on the contemporary Bleriot VIII—the first known flightworthy aircraft to use the joystick and rudder bar pioneering form of modern flight controls in a single airframe, and the 1911-vintage Curtiss Model D pusher biplane had spanwise rectangular interplane ailerons of a similar nature to those on the final
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form of the Santos-Dumont 14-bis, but mounted on, and pivoted from the outer "rear" interplane struts instead.
- Another very late contestant included the American, William Whitney Christmas, who claimed to have invented the aileron in the 1914 patent for what would become the Christmas Bullet which was built in 1918. Both "Bullet" prototypes crashed during their first "flights" when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced.
## Patents and lawsuits.
Regardless of the 1868 Boulton patent and the extensive prior art created by multiple other experimenters, the Wright Brothers' Ohio patent attorney Henry Toulmin filed an expansive patent application,
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and on May 22, 1906, they were granted U.S. Patent 821393. The patent's importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of "controlling" an airplane. The patent application included the claim for the lateral control of aircraft flight that was not limited to wing warping, but through any manipulation of the "...angular relations of the lateral margins of the airplanes [wings]... varied in opposite directions". Thus the patent explicitly stated that other methods besides wing-warping could be used for adjusting the outer portions of an airplane's wings to different angles on its right and left sides to achieve lateral roll control. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U.S. Patent
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831173 at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping. Both the Wright Brothers patent and Montgomery's patent were reviewed and approved by the same patent examiner at the United States Patent Office, William Townsend. At the time Townsend indicated that both methods of wing warping were invented independently and were sufficiently different to each justify their own patent award.
Multiple U.S. court decisions favoured the expansive Wright patent, which the Wright Brothers sought to enforce with licensing fees starting from $1,000 per airplane, and astoundingly said to range up to $1,000 per day. According to Louis S. Casey, a former curator of the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum in
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Washington, D.C., and other researchers, due to the patent they had received the Wrights stood firmly on the position that all flying using lateral roll control, anywhere in the world, would only be conducted under license by them.
The Wrights subsequently became embroiled with numerous lawsuits they launched against every recalcitrant aircraft builder which used lateral flight controls (essentially all manufacturers not paying them their demanded royalties), and the brothers were consequently blamed for playing "...a major role in the lack of growth and aviation industry competition in the United States comparative to other nations like Germany leading up to and during World War I". Years
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of protracted legal guerrilla warfare ensued with many other aircraft builders until the United States entered World War I, when its government imposed a legislated agreement between all U.S. parties which resulted in royalty payments of 1% to the Wrights.
## Ongoing controversy.
There are still conflicting claims today over who first invented the aileron. Other 19th century engineers and scientists, including Charles Renard, Alphonse Pénaud, and Louis Mouillard, had described similar flight control surfaces, possibly serving as further inspiration to Boulton aside from Count d'Esterno. Another technique for lateral flight control, wing warping, was also described or experimented with by several
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people including Jean-Marie Le Bris, John Montgomery, Clement Ader, Edson Gallaudet, D.D. Wells, and Hugo Mattullath. Aviation historian C.H. Gibbs-Smith wrote that the aileron was "...one of the most remarkable inventions... of aeronautical history, which was immediately lost sight of".
In 1906 the Wright brothers obtained a patent not for the invention of an airplane (which had existed for a number of decades in the form of gliders) but for the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces, including lateral flight control, although rudders, elevators and ailerons had been invented long before their efforts began. Irrespective of such controversies
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it was Boulton, undisputedly, who was the first to patent ailerons, doing so in 1868. The ailerons used by Esnault-Pelterie in 1904 followed Boulton's concept, although it is not known whether he had studied the 1868 patent or if he independently reinvented them.
# Flight dynamics.
Pairs of ailerons are typically interconnected so that when one is moved downward, the other is moved upward: the down-going aileron increases the lift on its wing while the up-going aileron reduces the lift on its wing, producing a rolling (also called 'banking') moment about the aircraft's longitudinal axis (which extends from the nose to the tail of an airplane). Ailerons are usually situated near the wing tip,
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but may sometimes also be situated nearer the wing root. Modern airliners may also have a second pair of ailerons on their wings, and the terms 'outboard aileron' and 'inboard aileron' are used to describe these positions respectively.
An unwanted side effect of aileron operation is adverse yaw—a yawing moment in the opposite direction to the roll. Using the ailerons to roll an aircraft to the right produces a yawing motion to the left. As the aircraft rolls, adverse yaw is caused partly by the change in drag between the left and right wing. The rising wing generates increased lift, which causes increased induced drag. The descending wing generates reduced lift, which causes reduced induced
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drag. Profile drag caused by the deflected ailerons may add further to the difference, along with changes in the lift vectors as one rotates back while the other rotates forward.
In a coordinated turn, adverse yaw is effectively compensated by the use of the rudder, which results in a sideforce on the vertical tail that opposes the adverse yaw by creating a favorable yawing moment. Another method of compensation is 'differential ailerons', which have been rigged such that the down-going aileron deflects less than the up-going one. In this case the opposing yaw moment is generated by a difference in profile drag between the left and right wingtips. "Frise ailerons" accentuate this profile drag
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imbalance by protruding beneath the wing of an upward-deflected aileron, most often by being hinged slightly behind the leading edge and near the bottom of the surface, with the lower section of the aileron surface's leading edge protruding slightly below the wing's undersurface when the aileron is deflected upwards, substantially increasing profile drag on that side. Ailerons may also be designed to use a combination of these methods.
With ailerons in the neutral position, the wing on the outside of the turn develops more lift than the opposite wing due to the variation in airspeed across the wing span, which tends to cause the aircraft to continue to roll. Once the desired angle of bank (degree
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of rotation about the longitudinal axis) has been obtained, the pilot uses opposite aileron to prevent the angle of bank from increasing due to this variation in lift across the wing span. This minor opposite use of the control must be maintained throughout the turn. The pilot also uses a slight amount of rudder in the same direction as the turn to counteract adverse yaw and to produce a "coordinated" turn wherein the fuselage is parallel to the flight path. A simple gauge on the instrument panel called the slip indicator, also known as "the ball", indicates when this coordination is achieved.
# Aileron components.
## Horns and aerodynamic counterbalances.
Particularly on larger or faster
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aircraft, control forces may be extremely heavy. Borrowing a discovery from boats that extending a control surface's area forward of the hinge lightens the forces needed first appeared on ailerons during World War I when ailerons were extended beyond the wingtip and provided with a horn ahead of the hinge. Known as overhung ailerons, possibly the best known examples are the Fokker Dr.I and Fokker D.VII. Later examples brought the counterbalance in line with the wing to improve control and reduce drag. This is seen less often now, due to the Frise type aileron which provides the same benefit.
## Trim tabs.
Trim tabs are small movable sections resembling scaled down ailerons located at or near
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the trailing edge of the aileron. On most propeller powered aircraft, the rotation of the propeller(s) induces a counteracting roll movement due to Newton's third law of motion, in that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. To relieve the pilot of having to provide continuous pressure on the stick in one direction (which causes fatigue) trim tabs are provided to adjust or "trim out" the pressure needed against any unwanted movement. The tab itself is deflected in relation to the aileron, causing the aileron to move in the opposite direction. Trim tabs come in two forms, adjustable and fixed. A fixed trim tab is manually bent to the required amount of deflection, while the adjustable
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trim tab can be controlled from within the cockpit so that different power settings or flight attitudes can be compensated for. Some large aircraft from the 1950s (including the Canadair Argus) used free floating control surfaces that the pilot controlled only through the deflection of trim tabs, in which case additional tabs were also provided to fine-tune the control to provide straight and level flight.
## Spades.
Spades are flat metal plates, usually attached to the aileron lower surface, ahead of the aileron hinge, by a lever arm. They reduce the force needed by the pilot to deflect the aileron and are often seen on aerobatic aircraft. As the aileron is deflected upward, the spade produces
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a downward aerodynamic force, which tends to rotate the whole assembly so as to further deflect the aileron upward. The size of the spade (and its lever arm) determines how much force the pilot needs to apply to deflect the aileron. A spade works in the same manner as a horn but is more efficient due to the longer moment arm.
## Mass balance weights.
To prevent control surface flutter (aeroelastic flutter), the center of lift of the control surface should be behind the center of gravity of that surface. To achieve this, lead weights may be added to the front of the aileron. In some aircraft the aileron construction may be too heavy to allow this system to work without huge weight increases.
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In this case, the weight may be added to a lever arm to move the weight well out in front to the aileron body. These balance weights are tear drop shaped (to reduce drag), which make them appear quite different from spades, although both project forward and below the aileron. In addition to reducing flutter, mass balances also reduce the stick forces required to move the control surface in flight.
## Aileron fences.
Some aileron designs, particularly when fitted on swept wings, include fences like wing fences flush with their inboard plane, in order to suppress some of the spanwise component of the airflow running on the top of the wing, which tends to disrupt the laminarity of the flow above
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the aileron, when deflected downwards.
# Types of ailerons.
## Single acting ailerons.
Used during aviation's pre-war "pioneer era" and into the early years of the First World War, these ailerons were each controlled by a single cable, which pulled the aileron up. When the aircraft was at rest, the ailerons hung vertically down. This type of aileron was used on the Farman III biplane 1909 and the Short 166. A "reverse" version of this, utilizing wing-warping, existed on the later version of the Santos-Dumont "Demoiselle", which only warped the wingtips "downward". One of the disadvantages of this setup was a greater tendency to yaw than even with basic interconnected ailerons. During the
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1930s a number of light aircraft used single acting controls but used springs to return the ailerons to their neutral positions when the stick was released.
## Wingtip ailerons.
Used on the first-ever airframe to have the combination of "joystick/rudder-bar" controls that directly led to the modern flight control system, the Blériot VIII in 1908, some designs of early aircraft used "wingtip" ailerons, where the entire wingtip was rotated to achieve roll control as a separate, pivoting roll-control surface—the AEA June Bug used a form of these, with both the experimental German Fokker V.1 of 1916 and the earlier versions of the Junkers J 7 all-duralumin metal demonstrator monoplane using them—the
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J 7 led directly to the Junkers D.I all-duralumin metal German fighter design of 1918, which had conventionally hinged ailerons. The main problem with this type of aileron is the dangerous tendency to stall if used aggressively, especially if the aircraft is already in danger of stalling, hence the use primarily on prototypes, and their replacement on production aircraft with more conventional ailerons.
## Frise ailerons.
Engineer Leslie George Frise (1897–1979) of the Bristol Aeroplane Company developed an aileron shape that is pivoted at about its 25 to 30% chord line and near its bottom surface , in order to decrease stick forces as aircraft became faster during the 1930s. When the aileron
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is deflected up (to make its wing go down), the leading edge of the aileron starts to protrude below the underside of the wing into the airflow beneath the wing. The moment of the leading edge in the airflow helps to move up the trailing edge, which decreases the stick force. The down moving aileron also adds energy to the boundary layer. The edge of the aileron directs air flow from the underside of the wing to the upper surface of the aileron, thus creating a lifting force added to the lift of the wing. This reduces the needed deflection of the aileron. Both the Canadian Fleet Model 2 biplane of 1930 and the 1938 popular US Piper J-3 Cub monoplane possessed Frise ailerons as designed and helped
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introduce them to a wide audience.
A claimed benefit of the Frise aileron is the ability to counteract adverse yaw. To do so, the leading edge of the aileron has to be sharp or bluntly rounded, which adds significant drag to the upturned aileron and helps counterbalance the yaw force created by the other aileron turned down. This can add some unpleasant, nonlinear effect and/or potentially dangerous aerodynamic vibration (flutter). Adverse yaw moment is basically countered by aircraft yaw stability and also by the use of differential aileron movement.
## Differential ailerons.
By careful design of the mechanical linkages, the up aileron can be made to deflect more than the down aileron (e.g.,
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US patent 1,565,097). This helps reduce the likelihood of a wing tip stall when aileron deflections are made at high angles of attack. In addition, the consequent differential in drag reduces adverse yaw (as also discussed above). The idea is that the loss of lift associated with the up aileron carries no penalty while the increase in lift associated with the down aileron is minimized. The rolling couple on the aircraft is always the difference in lift between the two wings. A designer at de Havilland invented a simple and practical linkage and their de Havilland Tiger Moth classic British biplane became one of the best-known aircraft, and one of the earliest, to use differential ailerons.
#
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Roll control without ailerons.
## Wing warping.
On the earliest Pioneer Era aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer and the later, 1909-origin Blériot XI and Etrich Taube, lateral control was effected by twisting the outboard portion of the wing so as to increase or decrease lift by changing the angle of attack. This had the disadvantages of stressing the structure, being heavy on the controls, and of risking stalling the side with the increased angle of attack during a maneuver. By 1916, most designers had abandoned wing warping in favor of ailerons. Researchers at NASA and elsewhere have been taking a second look at wing warping again, although under new names. The NASA version is the X-53 Active
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Aeroelastic Wing while the United States Air Force tested the Adaptive Compliant Wing.
## Differential spoilers.
Spoilers are devices that when extended into the airflow over a wing, disrupt the airflow and reduce the amount of lift generated. Many modern aircraft designs, especially jet aircraft, use spoilers in lieu of, or to supplement ailerons, such as the F4 Phantom II and Northrop P-61 Black Widow, which had almost full width flaps (there were very small conventional ailerons at the wingtips as well).
## Roll induced by rudder.
All aircraft with dihedral have some form of yaw-roll coupling to promote stability. Common trainers like the Cessna 152/172 series can be roll controlled with
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rudder alone. The rudder of the Boeing 737 has more roll authority over the aircraft than the ailerons at high angles of attack. This led to two notable accidents when the rudder jammed in the fully deflected position causing rollovers (see Boeing 737 rudder issues).
Some aircraft such as the Fokker Spin and model gliders lack any type of lateral control. Those aircraft use a higher amount of dihedral than conventional aircraft. Deflecting the rudder gives yaw and a lot of differential wing lift, giving a yaw induced roll moment. This type of control system is most commonly seen in the Flying Flea family of small aircraft and on simpler 2-function (pitch and yaw control) glider models or 3-function
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(pitch, yaw and throttle control) model powered aircraft, such as radio-controlled versions of "Old Timer" free-flight engine-powered model aircraft.
## Other methods.
- Weight-shift control is widely used in hang gliders, powered hang gliders, and ultralight aircraft.
- Flight with disabled controls has been successful in a small number of aviation incidents.
- Reaction control valves as used in the Harrier jump jet family of military aircraft.
- Top rudder: this device was fitted to the British Army Aeroplane No 1. It comprised an all-flying fin mounted above the upper wing and pivoted about a vertical axis. In operation it applied a side force approximately above the centre of pressure,
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causing the craft to roll. The design also had all-flying ailerons between the wing planes, but these were removed at the time it made the first official flight of a British aircraft and roll control during the flight was achieved solely by use of the top rudder.
# Combinations with other control surfaces.
- A control surface that combines an aileron and flap is called a "flaperon". A single surface on each wing serves both purposes: Used as an aileron, the flaperons left and right are actuated differentially; when used as a flap, both flaperons are actuated downwards. When a flaperon is actuated downward (i.e., used as a flap), there is enough freedom of movement left to be able to still
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use the aileron function.
- Some aircraft have used differentially controlled spoilers or "spoilerons" to provide roll instead of conventional ailerons. The advantage is that the entire trailing edge of the wing may be devoted to flaps, providing better low speed control. The Northrop P-61 Black Widow used spoilers in this manner, in conjunction with full span zap flaps and some modern airliners use spoilers to assist the ailerons.
- On delta-winged aircraft, the ailerons are combined with the elevators to form an "elevon".
- Several modern fighter aircraft may have no ailerons on their wings but provide roll control with an all moving horizontal tailplane. When horizontal tailplane stabilators
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can move differentially to perform the roll control function of ailerons, as they do on some modern fighter aircraft, they are termed 'tailerons' or 'rolling tails'. Tailerons additionally permit wider flaps on the aircraft's wings.
- Aileron struts combined movable surfaces with an airfoil shaped wing strut. Acting in the propeller slipstream increased their effectiveness, although their mechanical advantage is lowered due to the inboard location.
# See also.
- Aircraft flight control system
- Elevator (aeronautics)
- Flap
- Flaperon, a control surface combining both a flap and an aileron
- Spoiler, a flight control surface occasionally confused with ailerons
- Rudder
- Trailing edge
-
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an aileron
- Spoiler, a flight control surface occasionally confused with ailerons
- Rudder
- Trailing edge
- The Wright brothers patent war
# References.
Footnotes
- Bullmer, Joe. "The WRight Story: The True Story of the Wright Brothers' Contribution to Early Aviation", CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, , , 2009.
- Casey, Louis S. "Curtiss, The Hammondsport Era, 1907-1915", New York: Crown Publishers, 1981, pp. 12–15, , .
- Parkin, John H. "Bell and Baldwin: Their Development of Aerodromes and Hydrodromes at Baddeck, Nova Scotia", Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964.
# External links.
- NASA Glenn Research Center aileron article with Java demo and more pictures
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Foreign relations of Israel
Israel has diplomatic relations with 163 of the 193 UN member states as of December 2018. Israel maintains full diplomatic relations and open borders with two of its Arab neighbours, Egypt and Jordan, after signing peace treaties in 1979 and 1994 respectively. Thirty UN member states do not recognize Israel. These include 17 of the 22 members of the Arab League: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. A further 9 are members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Mali, Niger and Pakistan.
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Other countries which do not recognise Israel include Bhutan, Cuba and North Korea. Israel is a member of a number of United Nations and other international organisations.
The close friendship with the United States has also been a linchpin of Israeli foreign policy for decades. From the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 until the Iranian Revolution and the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979, Israel and Iran maintained close ties. Iran was the second Muslim-majority country to recognize Israel as a sovereign nation after Turkey. In the mid-20th century, Israel ran extensive foreign aid and educational programs in Africa, sending experts in agriculture, water management and health
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care. China is one of the few countries in the world to concurrently maintain warm relations with both Israel and the Muslim world at large, and remains as a linchpin in Israel's foreign policy due to its global influence which integrates with Israel's pragmatic economic management, political stability, as well as its regional strategic importance in the Middle East.
During the 2000s, the foreign ministry warned that the increasing influence of the EU would further isolate Israel in global affairs. In the wake of a series of diplomatic rifts with Turkey and the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt in 2011, Israel had increasingly unfriendly relations with those countries for a few years
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before things improved. During roughly the same period, Israeli relations with many countries in Europe including Greece and Cyprus in the context of the Energy Triangle and in Asia, including China and India, were enhanced, largely on account of the growth of Israel's high-tech economy. Israeli ties with Egypt have improved since the Muslim Brotherhood was removed from power there, while ties to Turkey have been uneven since their 2010 nadir but less dismal than that point.
# Membership in international organizations.
The first international organization which the Israeli government joined was the International Wheat Council, established as part of Point Four Program in early 1949. Israel
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has been a member of the United Nations since 11 May 1949.
Israel is a member of many UN agencies, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Israel also participates in other international organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Within the UNESCO, Israel is a member in many international programs and organizations. In the area of science, Israel is an active member of the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
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(IOC), the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), the International Centre for Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), and the International Geoscience Programme (IGCP). Other notable organizations Israel is an active member of include the Education For All movement, the European Centre for Higher Education (CEPES), the World Heritage Committee (WHC), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). Relations are carried out through the Israeli National Commission for UNESCO.
Israel joined the European Union's Framework Programmes
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for Research and Technological Development (FP) in 1994, and is a member of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL). It is also a member of the Bank for International Settlement (BIS) since 2003.
On 10 May 2010, Israel was invited to join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Israel is a member of NATO's Mediterranean Dialogue forum. In 2014 Israel joined the Paris Club.
# Diplomatic relations.
After the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Israel was subjected to Arab League boycotts and attempts to diplomatically isolate the state.
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Today, Israel has diplomatic ties with 157 out of the other 192 member states of the United Nations as well as with non-member Holy See (Vatican City) and the European Union. Some states recognize Israel as a state, but have no diplomatic relations. Several countries once had diplomatic relations with Israel, but have since broken or suspended them (Bolivia, Cuba, and Venezuela in Latin America; Mauritania in the Arab League; Mali and Niger in non-Arab Africa; and Iran until the Islamic revolution). Some of these countries have since resumed relations. In addition, a number of countries (all members of the Arab League) that at one time had formal economic ties (primarily trade offices) with
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Israel that fell short of full diplomatic relations, have severed such ties (Bahrain, Morocco, Oman, Qatar and Tunisia).
## No recognition or diplomatic relations.
### Member states of the UN.
At present, a total of 31 United Nations member states do not recognize or do not maintain diplomatic relations with Israel: 19 of the 21 UN members in the Arab League: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (the exceptions are bordering countries Egypt and Jordan); a further 9 members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Indonesia,
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Iran, Malaysia, Mali, Niger, and Pakistan; and Bhutan, Cuba, and North Korea. Some of these countries accept Israeli passports and acknowledge other indications of Israeli sovereignty. The following are the UN member states with which Israel does not have diplomatic relations (period of former relations marked in parenthesis):
- Africa:
- Americas:
- East Asia:
- Middle East:
- South and Central Asia:
- Southeast Asia:
### Non-members of the UN.
Israel has no diplomatic relations with the following states or entities:
- Republic of China (Taiwan), which recognizes Israel, but does not officially conduct relations (though there are unofficial relations) because of Israel's recognition
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of the People's Republic of China.
- Other states with limited recognition:
- Sovereign Military Order of Malta.
## Partial recognition.
Comoros has no official diplomatic ties with Israel but the countries engage in mutual trade.
Although the Israeli diplomatic missions in Bahrain, Morocco, and Oman were closed in 2000, trade and economic ties continue. Israeli tourism to Morocco is encouraged by the World Federation of Moroccan Jewry, a non-governmental private Jewish organization.
Israeli citizens are admitted into North Korea with Israeli passports, but like other foreign visitors they are asked to deposit their passport with the local authorities and use specially issued local documents
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for tourists.
# North Africa and Middle East.
On 1 October 1994, the Persian Gulf states announced their support for a review of the Arab boycott, abolishing the secondary and tertiary boycotts against Israel.
## Algeria.
In the mid-1990s, while Israel and North African states slowly started diplomatic relations, Algeria remained one of the last countries to consider such a move. It was only when Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak met Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika at the funeral of the Moroccan King Hasan II on 25 July 1999 that comments about rapprochement were made.
Algeria and Israel do not have diplomatic relations.
## Bahrain.
Relations are generally tense and the two states
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do not have diplomatic relations. Like other Arab states, Bahrain does not recognize Israel. A brief period of warming in relations occurred in the mid-1990s.
In 2011, amid Arab spring uprising, Wikileaks cables published on "Haaretz" revealed some of the hidden relations between Bahraini and Israeli officials. In a meeting with the U.S. ambassador in February 2005, Bahrain's king, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa had bragged about having contact with Israel's national intelligence agency, Mossad. He indicated that Bahrain is ready to develop relations in other fields as well. The king reportedly gave orders that official statements don't use phrases such as "enemy" and "Zionist entity" when referring
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to Israel anymore. However, he refused the idea of having trade relations, saying it was "too early" and would be postponed until the establishment of an independent Palestine state.
## Egypt.
Israel has had full diplomatic relations with Egypt since the signing of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty in 1979.
According to an Egyptian Government 2006 poll of 1,000 Egyptians (taken at the time of the 2006 Lebanon War), 92% of Egyptians view Israel as an enemy nation. In Israel, the 1978 Camp David Accords were supported by 85% of Israelis, according to a 2001 poll taken by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, based in Israel.
Egypt has mediated several unofficial ceasefire understandings between
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Israel and Palestinians.
## Iran.
Relations between Israel and Iran have alternated from close political alliances between the two states during the era of the Pahlavi dynasty to hostility following the rise to power of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. While Iran was the second Muslim-majority country to recognize Israel, the two states do not currently have diplomatic relations with each other, due to Iran's withdrawal of its recognition of Israel. The post-1979 Iranian authorities avoid referring to Israel by its name, and instead use the terms "the Zionist regime" or "occupied Palestine". Iranian passports bear an inscription that says, "The bearer of this passport is forbidden from traveling
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to occupied Palestine."
Due to recent rhetoric between Iran and Israel, development of nuclear technology, and funding of the groups Hamas and Hezbollah, tensions have risen dramatically between the State of Israel and the Islamic Republic of Iran, especially after the election of the hardline Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in 2005. Comments made by Ahmadinejad were perceived by Israel as threat of destruction.
A large population of Iranian Jews reside in Israel, among them former President of Israel Moshe Katsav, former Chief of Staff / Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz, and former Chief of staff Dan Halutz.
## Iraq.
Following the American-British led invasion of Iraq in 2003, diplomats had been discussing
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the possibility of improved relations between Israel and Iraq. However, then-Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Allawi said in 2004 that Iraq would not establish ties with Israel.
### Iraqi Kurdistan.
In 2006, the president of KRG Kurdistan Regional Government Massoud Barzani said: "It is not a crime to have relations with Israel. If Baghdad established diplomatic relations with Israel, we could open a consulate in Hewlêr (Kurdistan)." Israeli television broadcast photographs from the 1960s showing Mustafa Barzani embracing then Israeli defense minister Moshe Dayan. In 2004, Israeli officials met with Kurdish political leaders. In 2006 the BBC reported that Israel was training Kurdish militias in Iraqi
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Kurdistan. In April 2012, it was alleged that high-ranking Kurdish officials had collected the revenues of Iraqi oil that had been smuggled to Israel via the Kurdistan Region.
## Jordan.
Israel has full diplomatic relations in peace with Jordan since the signing of the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace in 1994, but relations remain somewhat tense.
## Kuwait.
Relations between Israel and Kuwait are generally hostile, mainly as part of the Arab–Israeli conflict. Kuwait does not recognize Israel and refuses entry to any person who holds an Israeli passport or Israel travel documents. Like many Arab countries, Kuwait opposes normalizing ties with Israel.
## Lebanon.
According to Laura Zittrain
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Eisenberg, the author of "My Enemy's Enemy", the pre-state Zionist attention to Lebanon consisted primarily of repeated attempts to establish a political alliance between the Jewish community in Palestine and the Maronite Catholic Community in Lebanon. Largely neglected by traditional scholarship on the Arab-Israeli condition, the Zionist-Lebanese relationship from 1900 to 1948 was surprisingly active and amicable. Zionist curiosity was naturally piqued by Lebanon, an Arab country with a sizable non-Muslim population enjoying political predominance.
During the war of 1975–1990, some right-wing militias were Israel's allies, and after the assassination of President Bachir Gemayel, Israel and
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Lebanon signed an agreement on 17 May 1983 which was a peace treaty in all but name. The Lebanese legislature ratified the treaty by a margin of 80 votes, but in a very weak and unstable domestic position president Amine Gemayel abrogated the peace treaty on 5 March 1984 under unrelenting Syrian pressure, after the U.S. Marines withdrew and after Israel had begun withdrawing from Lebanon.
During the Syrian Occupation of Lebanon (1976–2005), it was highly unlikely that Lebanon would sign a peace treaty with Israel before Syria, as Syria's influence on Lebanese politics was strong; however, the Syrian Occupation withdrew from Lebanon, yet the Iran–Syria–Hezbollah axis remained through the heavy
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arms presence.
During the 90's, the success of the First Persian Gulf War created new opportunities for Middle East peacemaking. However, Lebanon was under the Syrian Occupation, which took over the treaties and negotiations.
In August 2006, after the clash between Hezbollah and Israel, Lebanese Prime Minister Fouad Siniora said that Lebanon would be the "last Arab country to make peace with Israel" because of the large number of civilians that were killed in the 2006 Lebanon War. Hassan Nasrallah, the leader of Hezbollah, the Iranian proxy in Lebanon, proclaims "Death to Israel" and promises the "liberation" of Jerusalem, even though many Lebanese social fractions and political parties in
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Lebanon neither agree with his vision nor with the strategy and practices of his armed party.
Since the year 2000, and due to many wars with Hezbollah, Israel treats Lebanon as an "enemy state", although it is considering the possibility of a non-aggression pact.
In 2008 A Pew Research Center survey found that negative views concerning Jews were most common in Lebanon, with 97% of Lebanese having unfavorable opinion of Jews. In a 2011 survey again by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held strongly negative views of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 3% of Lebanese reported having a positive view of Jews.
## Morocco.
Moroccan expeditionary forces
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fought alongside a coalition of Arab countries in the Yom Kippur War against Israel. In 1986, King Hassan II invited then Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres for talks, becoming the second Arab leader to host an Israeli leader after Anwar Sadat. Following the September 1993 signing of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles, Morocco accelerated its economic ties and political contacts with Israel. In September 1994, Morocco and Israel announced the opening of bilateral liaison offices. When the king died in 1999, then-prime minister Ehud Barak and the Moroccan-born foreign minister David Levy flew to Rabat for his funeral. The foreign offices were closed in 2000 following sustained
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Israeli-Palestinian violence. In September 2016, Moroccan King Mohammed VI sent his personal adviser Andre Azulai, who is Jewish, to attend the state funeral of former Israeli Prime Minister and President Shimon Peres.
There is a Postage stamp with picture of a King of Morocco in collection of State of Israel.
## Qatar.
Qatar and Israel do not currently have diplomatic relations, although they maintained economic relations between 1996 and 2000. Qatar is a major financial supporter of the Palestinian Sunni-Islamic fundamentalist group Hamas.
## Saudi Arabia.
In 2005, Saudi Arabia announced the end of its ban on Israeli goods and services, mostly due to its application to the World Trade
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Organization, where one member country cannot have a total ban on another. However, , the Saudi boycott was not cancelled.
In recent years, Saudi Arabia has changed its viewpoint concerning the validity of negotiating with Israel. It calls for Israel's withdrawal from territory occupied in June 1967 in order for peace with the Arab states; then-Crown Prince Abdullah extended a multilateral peace proposal based on withdrawal in 2002. At that time, Israel did not respond to the offer. In 2007 Saudi Arabia again officially supported a resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict which supported a full right of Palestinian refugees to move to Israel, which generated more official negative reactions
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from Israeli authorities.
## Syria.
Syria's relations with Israel are very poor, due to Syria's close ties with the anti-Israel militant group Hezbollah and the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Since 2004, Syria has accepted the import of apples from farmers in the Golan Heights, territory that it claims, through the Quneitra crossing. This was a result of the ongoing Israeli refusal to accept apples from Golan farmers (reportedly due to over-supply), which led to a plea by the farmers to the Syrian government to accept their produce before it became spoiled in order to prevent economic collapse. In 2010, some 10,000 tons of apples grown by Druze farmers in the Golan Heights were sent to Syria.
##
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Tunisia.
Tunisia participated in the Yom Kippur War, sending 1,000–2,000 troops to fight alongside a coalition of Arab countries against Israel. The relations worsened further in the early 2000s when the Second Intifada began, and on 22 October 2000, the state radio of Tunisia declared that President Ben Ali had decided to break all diplomatic ties with Israel following the "violence in the Palestinian-controlled territories". On 21 Oct, Ben Ali had issued a strong condemnation of "the violation of the holy shrine of Al Quds Al Sharif, the repeated Israeli provocations, the use of weapons against innocent children and defenseless people, and the racist persecution of Arab Palestinian citizens",
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which "constitute flagrant violations of sanctities and human rights, and a blatant aggression against all human values and practices". On 22 October itself Israel expressed its disappointment at the Tunisian decision to sever relations and to close the Tunisian Interest Office in Tel Aviv and the Israeli Interest Office in Tunis. Expressing "surprise", the Israeli Foreign Ministry said: "It appears that Tunisia has elected to renounce its potential role as a bridge for dialogue between Israel and its neighbours, thereby harming the critical effort to promote regional peace".
## Turkey.
Turkey was the first Muslim-majority nation to formally recognize the State of Israel, only one year after
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the Declaration of the Jewish State (28 March 1949). Israel was a major supplier of arms to Turkey. Military, strategic, and diplomatic cooperation between Turkey and Israel were given high priority by the governments of both countries, which shared concerns with respect to regional instabilities in the Middle East.
Relations have been strained since the turn of the 20th to 21st century as a result of the political decline in Turkey of forces based on the secular Kemalist ideology and the corresponding rise of the Justice and Development Party (AK party) of prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
In February 2006, relations between Turkey and Israel suffered when Turkey hosted a delegation from
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the Palestinian group Hamas, although on a formal visit to Turkey in 2006, the Israeli then Foreign Minister Tzipi Livni stated that "Bilateral relations [between Turkey and Israel] are excellent. Not only on a leader-to-leader level but also on a people-to-people level".
In January 2009, the Turkish government's condemnation of the 2008–09 Gaza War severely strained relations between the two countries. Erdoğan harshly criticized Israel's conduct in Gaza at the World Economic Forum conference in Davos, Switzerland in early 2009
Relations between the two countries were further strained after the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid. On 2 September 2011, Turkey downgraded ties with Israel to second secretary
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level and suspended military co-operation between the countries. Turkey demanded an apology from Israel over the flotilla incident, which Israel was interested in providing, but Turkey also demanded Israel end its blockade of the Hamas-run Gaza Strip, which Israel has stated is a non-possibility. After some diplomatic activity by U.S. President Barack Obama, Israeli PM Netanyahu did issue an apology over the flotilla events and Israel and Turkey agreed on financial compensation; in return, Turkey dropped its demand that the Gaza Strip blockade end and also removed state support from several lawsuits in Turkey that demanded the arrest and trial of Israeli military and political leaders who were
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in charge in 2010 during the flotilla incident. Turkey's numerous regional problems, ranging from the coup that ousted the Muslim Brotherhood regime in Egypt in 2013 and the increasingly disruptive effects of its border from the Syrian conflict, were the main reason for this general improvement in relations, as Ankara wanted more stability and allies than it had when Erdogan had initiated his plans years earlier to move Turkey away from the pro-Israel (and generally pro-West and/or pro-EU) camp and improve ties to groups like Hamas and countries like Iran.
The Leviathan gas field in the Eastern Mediterranean is a further source of friction. Israel is planning its exploitation in partnership
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with Cyprus, a state that Turkey does not recognize because of the Cyprus dispute. However, in 2015, Turkey and Israel began to work on diplomatic relations by holding a secret meeting, and events over the last 2 years have brought Leviathan into position as a project that will help both Ankara and Jerusalem and make Nicoisia into less of a potential problem.
## United Arab Emirates.
Relations with the United Arab Emirates are tense. Following the assassination of Mahmoud Al-Mabhouh in 2010, allegedly by the UAE by Israel, UAE announced that travelers suspected of being Israeli would not be admitted even if using a foreign passport. The UAE does not recognize Israel as a state, and the two
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countries do not have diplomatic or economic relations. More recently, relations have improved to the extent that Israel has decided to open an office in Abu Dhabi, albeit only as a mission to the International Renewable Energy Agency.
## Yemen.
They do not have diplomatic relations and relations between the two countries are very tense. People with an Israeli passport or any passport with an Israeli stamp cannot enter Yemen, and Yemen is defined as an "enemy state" by Israeli law.
# Sub-Saharan Africa.
Israel has diplomatic relations with 41 of the 44 Sub-Saharan African states that are not members of the Arab League, including a number of Muslim-majority states.
## Angola.
Relations
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between Israel and Angola are based on trade and foreign policy. In 2005, President José Eduardo dos Santos visited Israel. In March 2006, the trade volume between the two countries amounted to $400 million. The Israeli ambassador to Angola is Avraham Benjamin.
## Botswana.
The two countries established relations in 1993. Neither has a formal consulate or embassy in the other country, but the two governments have cooperated on several development initiatives. Six Israeli-centered diamond companies have operations in Botswana.
## Cameroon.
H.E. Mr. Henri Etoundi Essomba, Ambassador of Cameroon to Israel in 2012, serves as the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps in Israel
Relations were cut off
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in the wake of the Yom Kippur war, but restored in 1986, and Cameroon and Israel now have many military and political ties, with Israel training and arming Cameroon's rapid reaction forces and Cameroon voting against many anti-Israel resolutions at the UN.
## Chad.
In November 2018, Chadian President Idriss Déby paid a visit to Israel. In January 2019, Prime Minister Netanyahu paid a visit to Chad and both nations re-established diplomatic relations.
## Djibouti.
Although Israel does not have diplomatic or official trade relations with Djibouti (a member of the Arab League), following a meeting between officials of both countries in September 1995, plans were then announced to open liaison
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offices in the respective countries' capitals, prior to the possible establishment of diplomatic relations between the two states. However, such relations did not materialize.
## Eritrea.
Eritrea developed relations with Israel shortly after gaining its independence in 1993, despite protests among Arab countries. Israeli-Eritrean relations are close. The president of Eritrea has visited Israel for medical treatment. However, Eritrea condemned Israeli military action during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict. Israeli-Eritrean ties are complicated by Israel's close ties to Ethiopia.
## Ethiopia.
In Africa, Ethiopia is Israel's main and closest ally in the continent, due to common political,
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religious and security interests. However, relations were severed between the years 1973 and 1989. Many towns in Ethiopia are named after biblical Israel settlements, including Ethiopia's third largest city of Nazret (Adama). Israel also provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects. Thousands of Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) live in Israel. In 2012, Israel appointed a Beta Israeli of Ethiopian origin, Beylanesh Zevadia as ambassador to Ethiopia.
## Ghana.
Diplomatic relations with Ghana were established immediately following Ghanaian independence in 1957. Agreement on technical cooperation was concluded on 25 May 1962. On 24 May 1968, a trade agreement was concluded. A cultural cooperation
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agreement was concluded on 1 March 1973.
Relations were broken at the initiative of the government of Ghana on 28 October 1973, following the Yom Kippur war. Improvement in relations followed Israeli attempts to prevent Ghanaian support for the Palestinian Authority, which led to a state visit to Ghana by Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs Avigdor Liberman in September 2009. During that visit, a bilateral agreement for agricultural cooperation was signed. Diplomatic relations were restored in September 2011.
## Guinea.
Diplomatic relations between Israel and the Republic of Guinea were established in 1958, and were strained due to the Cold War, as the Israeli government supported US policy
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while the government of Guinea took a pro-Soviet line. These relations were broken on 5 June 1967 when war broke out between Israel and Egypt in the Six-Day War. After Israel's support to Guinea during its fight against the Ebola virus, relations between the two states were restored on 20 July 2016.
## Kenya.
Diplomatic relations were established in December 1963. Israel has an embassy in Nairobi and Kenya has an embassy in Tel Aviv. In 2003, Kenya requested Israel's help in developing a national solar energy program. In 2006, Israel sent an 80-person search-and-rescue team to Kenya to save people trapped in rubble when a multistory building collapsed. Following the 2007 Kenyan presidential
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election Israel donated medicine to the Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Eldoret.
## Lesotho.
Lesotho was one of only three Sub-Saharan black African states (the others being Malawi and Swaziland) that maintained full diplomatic relations with Israel in the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War in 1973.
## Liberia.
Liberia was one of the African nations to vote 'yes' to Israel becoming an independent and sovereign nation and Jewish state.
## Madagascar.
Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements in force.
## Malawi.
Israel established diplomatic relations with Malawi in July 1964, immediately following that country achieving independence from the United Kingdom. Malawi was one
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of only three Sub-Saharan black African states (the others being Lesotho and Swaziland) that continued to maintain full diplomatic relations with Israel in the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, and has never severed such ties.
## Mauritania.
Mauritania declared war on Israel as a result of the 1967 Six-Day War, following the Arab League's collective decision (Mauritania was not admitted to the League until November 1973), and did not reverse that declaration until at least 1991 and, for some 32 years in about early-mid-1999. Israelis were seemingly oblivious to the ongoing state of war.
Mauritania did not abide by moves to recognise Israel's right to exist in the same way as most other
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Arab countries, after the earlier 1967 Khartoum Resolution.
Little public information exists, and it must be inferred from behind the scenes meetings between Mauritania and Israel in 1995 and 1996 said to be at the instigation of Mauritania's President Ould Taya; the establishment of unofficial "interest sections" in the respective Spanish embassies in 1996 in the two capital cities, leading to; the exchange of diplomatic representatives in each other's countries from 27 October 1999; that Mauritania had reversed its declaration by then.
On 6 March 2009, the Israeli diplomatic delegation to Mauritania left after nine years of diplomatic ties, following a demand from the Mauritanian authorities
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to close the Israeli embassy in Nouakchott within 48 hours. The Mauritanian delegation to Israel left earlier without sending official notice to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
## Mauritius.
Both countries have signed many bilateral agreements.
## Nigeria.
Israel and Nigeria established diplomatic relations in 1960. In 1973, Nigeria broke off contacts with Israel, but in May 1992, bilateral relations were restored. Since April 1993, Israel has maintained an embassy in Abuja, and Nigeria has maintained an embassy in Tel Aviv. Many Nigerians go on religious pilgrimage to Israel.
## Rwanda.
Relations with Rwanda were established soon following independence of the African state. They
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were broken by the government of Rwanda on 8 October 1973, during the Yom Kippur war.
In January 2019, transportation ministers of Israel and Rwanda announced plans to inaugurate regular Air Rwanda flights to Israel. Then, in April 2019, Israel opened an embassy in Kigali.
## Senegal.
Relations with Senegal were established soon following independence of the African state. They were broken by the government of Senegal on 28 October 1973, following the Yom Kippur war. In a trilateral partnership between Israel, Italy and Senegal, Israeli drip irrigation systems are being installed to help farmers in 12 districts of rural Senegal.
## South Africa.
The Union of South Africa was one of only
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four Commonwealth nations to vote in favour of the 1947 UN partition resolution, which led to the establishment of the State of Israel. South Africa was one of the first states to recognize Israel; diplomatic relations between Israel and South Africa were established in 1948. After the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, Israel became a harsh critic of apartheid, leading to a break in its relations with Pretoria. After 1967, Israel and South Africa became strategic partners again, and this lasted until 1987 when Israel joined the West in forcefully opposing apartheid.
Since the end of apartheid, South Africa's new government has been cold toward Israel and critical of Israel's policies towards Palestinians
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but has nevertheless ignored calls from pro-Palestinian South African groups to sever relations between the two countries.
## South Sudan.
Israel recognized the Republic of South Sudan on 10 July 2011, and offered the new state economic help, following its declaration of independence the previous day from the mainly Arab Muslim north Sudan. On 15 July 2011, South Sudan declared its intention to establish full diplomatic relations with Israel and, on 28 July 2011, it was announced that full diplomatic ties had been established between the two countries.
## Swaziland.
Israel established diplomatic relations with Swaziland in September 1968, immediately following that country achieving independence
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from the United Kingdom. Swaziland was one of only three Sub-Saharan black African states (the others being Lesotho and Malawi) that continued to maintain full diplomatic relations with Israel in the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, and has never severed such ties.
## Togo.
In May 2009, Israel and Togo signed a "pact for cooperation in the economic, agricultural and educational fields" with each other.
## Uganda.
In a joint Israeli-Ugandan project, a professor from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Faculty of Agriculture conducted a survey of Lake Victoria with a Ugandan colleague from Makerere University. They found that Nile perch, introduced by the British sixty years ago,
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have decimated native fish populations, leading to malnutrition in the lakeside communities. She helped to set up artificial fish ponds to raise carp, which had disappeared from the local diet. The United States Agency for International Development sponsored the digging of the ponds and sent villagers to Kibbutz HaMa'apil in Emek Hefer to learn spawning techniques. Graduates of the training program established carp farms.
## Zambia.
Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements in force.
## Zimbabwe.
Abel Muzorewa, the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, visited Israel on 21 October 1983. He urged Robert Mugabe to establish diplomatic relations, saying his political policies hurt
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Zimbabwe's agriculture and technology industries. In March 2002 an Israeli company sold riot control vehicles to the Mugabe government, shortly before the nation's 2002 elections.
# Asia.
In addition to Turkey, Israel has diplomatic relations with 6 non-Arab Muslim states in Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan).
## Afghanistan.
Afghanistan, currently, has no relations with Israel. The Monarchy of Afghanistan did have spiritual relations with Israel, whether in secret or Tribal rules in place. The Afghan Royal Family trace their origins to King Saul of Israel. Afghanistan was the only Muslim country that did not revoke citizenship when Jews, also
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known as descendants of Judah, migrated to Israel. Rabbi Eliyahu Avichail has published numerous books linking the Afghans to the Lost Tribes of Israel.
## Bangladesh.
Both the Israeli government and general public supported the Bangladesh Liberation War. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 the new born country was recognised by Israel in as early as 1972 before any Arab country although Bangladesh "categorically rejected" the recognition.
Bangladesh does not recognize Israel as legitimate and officially forbids its citizens to travel to Israel by putting 'Valid for travel to all countries except Israel' on Bangladeshi passports. Bangladesh supports a sovereign Palestinian state
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and an end to Israel's "illegal occupation of Palestine".
## Burma.
Burma (otherwise known as Myanmar) was one of the first countries to recognize Israel and establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Burma has also become one of Israel's strongest allies in the region, in terms of both technical assistance and also the much debated and rumored military links. Premiers from both sides such as U Nu and David Ben-Gurion made state visits to each other's countries in the 1950s. Burma sends agriculture researchers to Israel for training. This was further cemented in Israel's aid assistance during the Cyclone Nargis disaster of May 2008.
## Cambodia.
Israel established diplomatic ties with Cambodia
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in 1960. Ties were cut in 1975 due to the rise of the Khmer Rouge. The ties were restored in 1993. Israel has no embassy in Cambodia and Cambodia has no embassy in Israel. Instead, the Israeli embassy in Bangkok, Thailand, is accredited to Cambodia. Cambodian students study agriculture in Israel.
## China.
On 9 January 1950, the Israeli government extended recognition to the People's Republic of China, but diplomatic relations were not established until January 1992.
Since 1992, Israel and China have developed increasingly close strategic economic, military, cultural and technological links with each other. Israel maintains an embassy in Beijing and is planning to open a new consulate in
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Chengdu, its third in Mainland China. China is Israel's third largest trading partner globally and largest trading partner in East Asia. Trade volume increased from $50 million in 1992 to over $10 billion in 2013. Shared commonalities and similarities between the cultures and values of the two nations with ancient roots dating back thousands of years as well as convergence of interests have made the two countries natural partners. In addition, China is one of the few countries in the world to concurrently maintain warm relations with Israel, the Palestinians, and the Muslim world at large.
China's status as a potential world power has prompted Israel to maintain closer ties with China by integrating
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China's global influence with Israel's pragmatic economic management, political stability and its regional strategic importance in the Middle East. Beijing has appreciated Israel's political stability and diplomatic ingenuity and sees the Jewish state as one of the regional pillars for securing China's influence in the Middle East and the entire world.
China and Israel have developed close strategic military links with each other. Bilateral military relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of secret non-official ties to a close strategic partnership with the modern and militarily powerful Israel. Israel and China began extensive military cooperation as early as the 1980s, even
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though no formal diplomatic relations existed.
Israel has provided China with military assistance, expertise and technology. According to a report from the United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, "Israel ranks second only to Russia as a weapons system provider to China and as a conduit for sophisticated cutting edge military technology, followed by France and Germany." Israel was ready to sell China the Phalcon, an Israeli airborne early-warning radar system (AWACS), until the United States forced it to cancel the deal. Some estimate that Israel sold arms worth US$4 billion to China in this period. China has looked to Israel for the arms and military technology it cannot
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acquire from the United States and Russia. Israel is now China's second-largest foreign supplier of arms after Russia with China has purchased a wide array of military equipment and technology, including communications satellites. China is a vital market for Israel's aerospace and defense industry. Due to Israel's recognition of China, Israel has also limited its cooperation with Taiwan in order to foster closer ties with Mainland China.
Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of bilateral relations, as both sides recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based on their ancient and rich histories.
China's receptive and friendly
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embrace of the Jewish people on its soil has been one of affectionate sympathy as the Chinese have developed a favorable view of Jews, admiring them for their contributions to humanity, their ability to survive, the sharing of Chinese values such as family, frugality, hard work and education, and being products of ancient civilizations have been an impetus towards the long and enduring friendship between the Chinese and Jewish peoples. Shared affinities and similar cultural commonalities has not only been an impetus for the close bonds between China and Israel but has also created a symbol of brotherhood between the two communities.
Though Israel established diplomatic relations with China
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in 1992, the ties between the Chinese and Jewish people remain centuries old in addition to Israel and China being products of ancient civilizations dating back thousands of years. The cultural similarities between the Chinese and Jewish civilizations with both nations originating thousands of years ago have drawn the two countries closer together making the two countries natural partners in the international community. Chinese Jews have been a major impetus in maintaining the strong nexus between the Chinese and Jewish civilizations. Jews remain a small minority in China, but unlike many parts of the world, Jews have historically lived in China without any instances of antisemitism from the
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Han majority populace contributing to mutual respect and admiration between the two peoples. With the intrinsic affinity that the Chinese people feel for the Jews, relations between the two communities have been mutually close, harmonious and friendly, due to shared common cultural similarities between the two peoples resulted Jews enjoying equal rights and coexisting peacefully alongside the mainstream Han Chinese populace with instances of Jews assimilating into the Han Chinese community through intermarriage. On a geopolitical scale, China has sought to maintain close relations with the Jewish state as Israel's regional importance, stability and influence in an otherwise volatile region has
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been an important asset for the expansion of China's influence in the Middle East and the entire world. Shared commonalities and similarities between the cultures and values of the two nations, ancient roots as well as convergence of interests have driven the two countries closer with respect to scientific, economic, diplomatic and cultural ties.
China is one of Israel's closest economic allies in East Asia where both countries have placed considerable importance on maintaining a strategic and supportive economic relationship. The economic synergy has served the two respective countries greatly where Israel's global technological prowess combined with China's global economic influence, industrial
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manufacturing capabilities, and marketing expertise made cooperation between the two nations inevitable. China including Hong Kong is Israel's second top export destination after the United States and has been the top market for Israeli exports in East Asia. China is also Israel's third largest trading partner and export market after the United States and the European Union with China being Israel's largest export market in East Asia. Israel has sought China's enormous global influence on world affairs, large consumer market, broad industrial manufacturing scale, and burgeoning economic dynamism while China has sought Israel as a powerhouse of advanced technological wizardry and a wellspring
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of entrepreneurial acumen leveraging each other's complementary capabilities and resources. China has sought Israel's technology to increase its international economic competitiveness and risk management. With the advice and experience of Jewish entrepreneurs, innovators, and inventors from the high-technology sectors, China has utilized Israel's indispensable economic and technological contributions to foster its long term economic development. China has also expressed desire for Israel's advanced technologies, particularly in fields related to agriculture, telecommunications, and defense. The scientific and technological advancements made by Israel had led many Chinese politicians to respect
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the country's ingenuity and creative inventiveness because they know of the contributions that as Israeli agricultural, drip irrigation, and solar energy technologies are seen as crucial to China's economic development. Throughout Israel's early economic history, many Israeli startup companies were acquired by major U.S. and Western European corporations. Since the 2010s, China and Israel enhanced bilateral economic ties with China connecting both Chinese and Israeli businessmen and investors to invest in each other's economies respectively. Chinese economic cooperation with Israel has saw substantial Chinese investment of more than US$15 billion in the Israeli economy, spawning seed capital
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in Israeli startup companies, as well as the acquisition of Israeli companies by major Chinese corporations that incorporate Israel's know how to help the invigorate the development of the modern Chinese economy more efficiently. China now ranks second after the United States in collaboration with Israeli high-tech firms that are backed by Israel's Office of the Chief Scientist. Major Chinese firms such as Fosun, ChemChina, Brightfood, Horizons Ventures and China Everbright have invested significant amounts of financial capital and resources across numerous Israeli industries. Chinese businessmen and major Chinese corporations hold Israel's business, economic and entrepreneurial acumen and technological
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expertise with high esteem and have sought to integrate Israel's know-how with China's marketing proficiency, industrial manufacturing capacity and aptitude for large consumer market scaling.
## Hong Kong.
Israel and Hong Kong have full diplomatic ties as part of Israel's diplomatic ties with China. Israel has a consulate in the city, while Hong Kong is represented in Israel by the Chinese embassy in Tel Aviv.
## India.
India established diplomatic relations with the State of Israel in 1992 and has since become Israel's strongest ally in Asia. The two countries cooperate in anti-terrorist activities in the Middle East and Southern Asia. Israel is India's second largest arms provider and
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India is Israel's principal arms market, and the trade volume between the two countries has increased significantly in the past few years. Co-operation has taken place in the space sector as well with India launching Israeli satellites. India became the top source market for Israel from Asia in 2010 with 41,000 tourist arrivals in that year.
Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defense and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1991. In 2009, Israel overtook Russia as India's biggest arms supplier; the U.S. even gave Israel approval to sell the Phalcon to India after earlier forcing Jerusalem to cancel a similar deal with China.
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India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare. In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programs between judges and jurists of the two countries. According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.
## Indonesia.
In 2012, Indonesia agreed to informally upgrade its relations with Israel and to open a
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consulate in Ramallah, headed by a diplomat with the rank of ambassador, who will also unofficially serve as his country's ambassador for contacts with Israel. The move, which was agreed upon after five years of sensitive deliberations, represents a de facto upgrading of relations between Israel and the world's most populous Muslim country. Indonesia has formally presented the move to open a West Bank consulate as a demonstration of its support for Palestinian independence. In fact, while the ambassador-ranked diplomat will be accredited to the Palestinian Authority/PLO, a significant portion of his work will be in dealings with Israel, and the office will fulfill substantial diplomatic duties
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