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community living here, were killed by the Germans. Life in Nazi-occupied Częstochowa is depicted in the Pulitzer Prize-winning graphic novel "Maus", by Art Spiegelman, the son of a Jewish Częstochowa resident. Before the Holocaust, Częstochowa was considered a great Jewish center in Poland. By the end of WWII, nearly all Jews had been killed or deported to be killed, making Częstochowa what the Nazis called Judenfrei.
# Modern day.
Due to the communist idea of fast industrialisation, the inefficient steel mill was significantly expanded and named after Bolesław Bierut. This, combined with the growing tourist movement, led to yet another period of fast city growth, concluded in 1975 with the
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creation of a separate Częstochowa Voivodeship. In the immediate post-war period, Częstochowa belonged to Kielce Voivodeship (1945–1950), and then the city was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship. In the People's Republic of Poland, Częstochowa emerged not only as an industrial, but also academic center of the region. The city expanded, with first tram lines opened in 1959. On January 1, 1977, several villages and settlements were annexed by Częstochowa. As a result, the area of the city expanded from .
In modern times, Pope John Paul II, a native son of Poland, prayed before the Madonna during his historic visit in 1979, several months after his election to the Chair of Peter. The Pope made
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another visit to Our Lady of Częstochowa in 1983 and again in 1987, 1991, 1997 and 1999. On August 15, 1991, John Paul II was named Honorary Citizen of Częstochowa. On May 26, 2006, the city was visited by Pope Benedict XVI.
# Climate.
It can be said that the climate is humid continental (Köppen: "Dfb"), but still with some oceanic characteristics ("Cfb"), especially in recent normals. Częstochowa is in one of the hottest summer regions in Poland, although its inventions are not the most rigorous, they are colder than the more moderate climates of the west and the Baltic Sea.
On average, four hours a day with direct solar radiation. In the course of the year, the best insolation is observed
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in June, due to the greatest length of the day. There are few windless days in Częstochowa. Lull periods on an annual scale account for an average of 9.2%. Western winds prevail here - 18% and south-west - 18.2%. At the same time, they achieve the highest speeds from these directions - 2.2 m/s. The northern winds are least common - 7.7% and north-eastern winds - 7.4%.
# Economy.
There are about 26,000 companies registered in Częstochowa. They are represented by the Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Częstochowa. The investment areas form part of the Katowice Special Economic Zone. The main initiator of activities pertaining to the economic development and investments is the Agency
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of Regional Development. In 2007, in areas surrounding the ISD Częstochowa Steelworks, the Częstochowa Industry Park was established. In 2011, three industry clusters were established - The Cluster of Polymers Manufacturing "Plastosfera", Częstochowa Communal Cluster "Aglomeracja"and the Regional Cluster of Building Industry and Infrastructure "Budosfera".
Industry
Częstochowa is the main city in the Częstochowa Industrial District, which is the third biggest in the Silesian Voivodship. Since the medieval times, the metal industry has been developing, thanks to the iron ore deposits. The main factories in the city include:
- The ISD Częstochowa Steelworks - one of the biggest steelworks in
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Poland, initially established in 1896. The Steelworks produces over 65% of steel sheets manufactured in Poland and has an approximate 35% share in the entire national consumption of this product.
- TRW Automotive Częstochowa - a manufacturer of car safety systems.
- CSF Poland - producer of wires, anti-vibration systems and gaskets
- Brembo Poland - manufacturer of elements of braking systems
- CGR Poland - manufacturer of automotive components
- The Częstochowa Cokery Plant - one of the leading coke producers in Poland
- Guardian Industries Poland - glassworks
- Stolzle Częstochowa - the glassworks specialising in packaging glass for luxury products and perfumes.
- Iron Cast Foundry
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"Volcano" - the oldest operating factory in the city, established in 1894
- Dospel - producer of ventilation systems
- Metalplast - producer of locks and construction hardware fittings
- ViperPrint - one of the biggest printing houses in Poland
Trade and commerce
In Częstochowa, there is the Jurajska Shopping Mall, which was opened in 2009. It has 200 shops, service and catering outlets and a Cinema City multiplex. It provides clients with a multi-storey car park with 2000 parking spaces. Additionally, there are hypermarkets - M1 Shopping Centre and Auchan Northern Częstochowa (previously Real, opened in 1997), Tesco (opened in 1999) and Auchan Częstochowa Poczesna (opened in 2001).
#
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Tourism.
Currently the city is one of the main tourist attractions of the area and is sometimes called the "little Nuremberg" because of the number of souvenir shops. It attracts millions (4.5 mln - 2005) of tourists and pilgrims every year. The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, housed at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a particularly popular attraction.
Throughout the centuries, many buildings have been erected, most of them now have status of tourist attractions and historical monuments since Częstochowa was established already in the Middle Ages. Among those attractions are old townhouses and the urban core of the city centre. The most popular with religious tourism as mentioned above is the Jasna
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Góra Monastery.
## Prominent tourist destinations.
The main representative artery in the city centre is the Najświętszej Maryi Panny Avenue (The Holy Virgin Mary Avenue). It was first built in the beginning of the 19th century, as a road linking Częstochowa with New Częstochowa, cities which were administratively merged in 1826. The most characteristic feature of the avenue is its layout, whereby the lanes are separated by the pedestrianised boulevard. During the pilgrimage period, the Avenues are used by pilgrims heading for Jasna Góra Monastery. The avenues are 1.5 km long and 44 m wide; primarily they perform trade, service, financial and cultural functions. The housing consists mostly
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of classicist, late-classicist houses, rarely eclectic. More modern buildings can also be noticed. The most interesting townhouses include:
- Franke's House – in the beginning it belonged to Adolf Franke, a Lutheran hailing from Greater Poland and also an owner of a spinning mill and textile mill. It was being built between 1901 and 1903. Between 1918 and 1939, Hotel 'Victoria' was located there. During World War II, it lay on the border of the Jewish ghetto, which made it the key point for those wanting to escape. After the dismantling of the ghetto, the Franke's House housed German hospital and army hotel, and after the war it was the seat of the High School of Arts and a bursary. Eclectic
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with prevailing neo-renaissance features.
- Zapalkiewicz's House is classicist townhouse, built in 1871. It was the seat of a theatre, which was functioning until 1908. Later, until 1923, there was a cinema "Paryskie" and subsequently a number of financial institution have had their branches in the building.
- Mercantile Townhouse - eclectic townhouse, was being built between 1894 and 1907. At the beginning business and economics courses were taking place there. Before the World War 2, it was the seat of Warsaw Industrial Bank and Częstochowa Savings and Loans Bank.
- Kohn's House is a neo-classicist townhouse, built in 1865. Before the war, a number of enterprises were operating in the building,
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including Bankers, Jackowski's Restaurant and Cafe, and Bata's Shoe Shop and between 1909 and 1930 a cinema called "Odeon".
- Polish Bank's Townhouse is an art nouveau townhouse, built in 1904. In the beginning, it was the seat of a local branch of the Russian State Bank. In 1927, the building was taken over by the Polish Bank Inc. After World War II, it became the property of the Polish National Bank. In 1990, the building was sold to the ING Silesian Bank.
- Biegański's House is a one-storey classicist townhouse built in 1880. Initially, it was owned by Karol Henryk Rosenfeld and later by his son-in-law dr. Władysław Biegański. After the Second World War, the building was a seat of the Częstochowa's
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Doctors Association.
- Hantke's Palace is an example of Baroque Revival architecture, built to the order of an industrialist and entrepreneur Bernard Hantke, who established the ISD Częstochowa Steel Mill. The palace was built between 1900 and 1903. After WW2, the building was the seat of the Częstochowa Steel Mill Culture Centre.
- Former Orthodox Vicarage - classicist townhouse, built in 1875, until 1918 it was the seat of a local Orthodox priest. In 1918, it was taken over by the local Catholic diocese. After the war, there was a local headquarters of Polish Army. Since the 1970s it has been a property of the Częstochowa Regional Museum.
- Old Square - a square located in the Old Town
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district with dimensions of 100m by 66m. Since medieval times it operated as the main square of Old Częstochowa. There are still preserved old townhouses, which are listed on the historic monuments register. Between the 15th century and 1812, a town hall was located there, which was then damaged because of a fire. In 2007, archaeological works began. As a result, a city well was found and also fundaments of city facilities such as a weigh house and gallows.
- Wieluńska Street - one of the historic streets in Częstochowa, located in the vicinity of Jasna Góra monastery. It is 300 meters long and the buildings on the street were erected in the late-classicist style in the second half of the 19th
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century.
- Jasna Góra Parks are two city parks (Stanisław Staszic Park and 3 May Park) located in the city centre, on the slope of Jasna Góra Hill. The parks were established in 1843. The total area of both parks is 11.8 ha. The parks are a popular leisure place and a spot for those enjoying short walks. In 1909, the Great Exhibition of Agriculture and Industry took place in the park, it was attended by 660 exhibitors and 500,000 visitors. In Staszic Park, one can find an astronomical observatory, which was opened in 1909. The parks also accommodate the Iron Ore Museum.
- Ulica 7 Kamienic (7 Townhouses Street) is one of historical streets in Częstochowa. It is 600 metres long; the street was
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created in the first half of the 19th century. The name derives from the seven houses which had been built at the beginning.
- Cathedral Basilica of the Holy Family, Częstochowa - a cathedral built in the neo-gothic style between 1901-1927. In 1925, it became a cathedral of a Roman Catholic Diocese of Częstochowa and in 1992 it became the basilica of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa.
- St James' Church - built between 1869 and 1872 under the initiative of a Tsar's representative for Częstochowa region - Parmen Kashernikov. Initially, it was a seat of an Orthodox parish of Saints Cyril and Methodius. In 1914, it became a property of a Catholic church, serving as an army parish
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church. After the end of First World War, it was retained by the Catholic church as part of the Recovery of Orthodox Churches in the Second Polish Republic. In 1937, the Archdiocese of Częstochowa established a parish of St James.
- St Sigismund's Church - a gothic church built in the 15th century, making it the oldest parish church in Częstochowa.
- St Barbara's Church - built in the 16th century under the initiative of Father Andrzej Gołdonowski from the Pauline Order. The place is linked to the icon of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa. Following the desecration of the icon by robbers in 1430 who left it at a spring next to the current location of church.
# Transport.
Main road connections
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from Częstochowa include a connection with Warsaw (to the north-east) and Katowice (to the south) via the European route E75 (Motorway ). There are also three other national roads: to Wieluń, to Opole and to Piotrków Trybunalski. Furthermore, Częstochowa is a major railroad hub, located at the intersection of two important lines - west-east (from Lubliniec to Kielce) and north-south (from Warsaw to Katowice). Also, an additional northbound line stems from Częstochowa, which goes to Chorzew Siemkowice, where it joins the Polish Coal Trunk-Line. There are six railway stations in the city, the biggest ones being "Częstochowa Osobowa" and "Częstochowa Stradom". The city has direct connections to
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many Polish cities as Warsaw, Cracow, Katowice, Wrocław and Szczecin, proteza koniecpolska makes some of the connections more comfortable.
The public transport is managed by the Częstochowa City Council of Roads and Transport. The public transport carriage is contracted to the City Public Transport Corporation (Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne). The public transport in Częstochowa comprises 3 tram lines, 30 city bus lines and 8 suburban lines connecting Częstochowa with Blachownia, Mstów, Konopiska, Poczesna, Olsztyn. The bus transport connecting Częstochowa Bus Station with other towns and villages in the Częstochowa region is operated by the Częstochowa Bus Transport Ltd. (PKS Częstochowa).
The
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closest airport is the Katowice International Airport, which is located from Częstochowa, and a small Częstochowa - Rudniki airport in Kościelec, Rędziny.
# Culture.
## Museums.
In Częstochowa on top of the Jasna Góra Monastery serving the museum and exhibition functions, other similar institutions include:
- Częstochowa Regional Museum, the oldest museum in Częstochowa. The seat of the museum is in the building of a former town hall. The Częstochowa Regional Museum consists of a number of venues in Częstochowa and its surroundings.
- Town Hall, the most presentable Museum building in Częstochowa. It was built in 1828, because of administrative needs arising from the expansion and merger
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of two towns: Old Częstochowa and New Częstochowa. It has been the seat of Częstochowa Regional Museum since 1967. There is a permanent historical exhibition - 'History of the City of Częstochowa - Stage 1'. It illustrates the development of the city - from its beginnings to the 17th century. The 'Gallery of Prominent Citizens of Częstochowa' reminds about individuals important to the local community. In the gallery 'Attic', occasional temporary exhibitions are presented.
- House of Poetry - Halina Poświatowska Museum, located on Jasnogórska Street 23. After the World War 2, Halina Poświatowska and her family lived there. It has been opened since 2006. As a part of the permanent exhibition,
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the visitors can see documents, memorabilia, photographs and scripts of her poems. Sometimes, in the museum poetry evenings are organised.
- Gallery of 19th and 20th Century Sculpture and Painting, located on Katedralna Street inside a two-storey terrace house from the beginning of the 20th century. There are three exhibitions: Art of Young Poland, Polish Avant-garde and Modern Art, Częstochowa's Art of the 19th century and first half of the 20th century.
- Archaeological Reserve of Lusatian Culture, located in the Raków neighborhood on Łukasińskiego Street. This 2500-year-old burial ground was discovered in 1955 during construction works of Częstochowa's tram line. It is a permanently maintained
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burial ground from the early stages of the Iron Age (750–550 years BC). Tourists have been able to visit the site since 1965. Around the burial ground, there are showcases about the Lusatian culture.
- Museum of Iron Ore Mining, established in 1976 in underground corridors resembling mine corridors. The Museum recreates mine workings and is equipped with mining equipment from the closed down mine "Szczekaczka".
### Other museums and galleries.
- City Gallery of Art, established in 1977. Promotes and presents modern art. Zdzisław Beksiński The museum forms part of the City Gallery of Art. It also organises cyclical cultural events such as IV Triennale of Art 'Sacrum', Jurajska Autumn, City
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Setting.
- Museum of Match Production "", located inside the building of a former match factory on Ogrodowa Street. The visitors can see the historic machine park from the late 19th century and retrace the match-making process - from barking through making 'sticks' to packing the matches. In the museum, there are also documents relating to the match-making industry and an exhibition called 'Sculptures from a single match'. In another hall, one can see a phillumenistic exhibition, where matchbox labels from various periods are displayed.
- Museum of Railway History, where souvenirs, railway equipment and railway elements are gathered. The museum is located on the first floor of Częstochowa
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Stradom railway station. It was established in 2001. Two historical steam engines are under the care of the museum.
- Museum of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa. The museum is located in the building of the Theological College of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa on Św. Barbary Street. It was established in 1997. Among exhibits are sculptures (including Mary the Virgin's sculpture from 1430, sculpture of St Martin from 1500) and pictures showing scenes from the life of Jesus Christ and Mary the Mother of God and saints. Additionally, there are commemoration numismatics and medals.
- Tomasz Sętowski's Museum of Imagination
- Museum of Coins and Medals commemorating John
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Paul II
- Gallery 'Konduktorownia'
## Music.
The Bronisław Huberman Philharmonic of Częstochowa is located in the city centre on Wilson Street, in the building erected between 1955 and 1965 on foundations of New Synagogue, which had been burnt down on 25 December 1939. The Philharmonic has at its disposal two concert halls and one rehearsal hall. The large concert hall can accommodate 825 people, whilst the small hall has 156 seats.
The concert hall of the Philharmonic of Częstochowa is a place where concerts of symphonic orchestra take place. The building itself is younger than the history of symphonic concerts in Częstochowa, as the first concert took place in March 1945. The mixed choir
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has been functioning since the Philharmonic was set up. The choir was professionalized in September 2012 and it was named The Częstochowa Philharmonic Choir "Collegium Cantorum".
The Philharmonic is also a co-organiser and a co-performer of operas, operettas and ballets. It is also a place where various exhibitions take place. The Philharmonic annually organises Bronisław Huberman International Violin Festival, Reszek Vocal Competition, Festival of Traditional Jazz "Hot Jazz Spring". The Philharmonic also engages in organising the "Night of Culture", the International Festival of Sacral Music "Gaude Mater" and the Bach Family Music Festival.
Music education is also an important part of the
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Philharmonic's activity. Its educational functions are carried out through series of concerts such as "Music for children", "FEEL harmony - feel the climate!" and "Sunday Mornings with Philharmonic". In 2010, the building of The Philharmonic of Cżęstochowa was refurbished through the financial support from the European Fund of Regional Development.
In Częstochowa, there are many functioning female, male and mixed choirs. The oldest is the Male Choir "Pochodnia" (Torch). Others include the Academic Choir of the Częstochowa University of Technology, the Jasna Góra Vocal Ensemble "Camerata" and the Archcathedral Choir of the Holy Family "Basilica Cantans".
## Theatre.
Adam Mickiewicz Theatre
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is located on Kiliński Street in the city centre. The building was erected between 1928 and 1931. Between 1979 and 1984 it was refurbished. The theatre has three halls: Big, Small, Histrion and Marek Perepeczko Foyer. The Theatre organises "Festival of Important Plays - Through Touch", "Festival of High School Theatres" and "Children's Land of Sensitivity". It also takes part in annually organised "Night of Culture".
### Festivals.
The Centre for the Promotion of Culture 'Gaude Mater' is a cultural institution established in 1991. It is the organiser of various cultural events in Częstochowa, such as:
- International Festival of Sacral Music 'Gaude Mater'. It has been organised since 1991
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and it takes place each year in the beginning of May. It is organised under the auspices of The Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the Polish Episcopal Conference. The main aim of the festival is to bring various cultures closer through presenting music typical of different religions. It also seeks to present contemporary Polish music and to promote young composers through "Musica Sacra" - The International Competition for Young Composers. The Gaude Mater festival also addresses problematic aspects of sacrum in music during various seminars organised during the Festival.
- The Night of Culture, the annual cultural event organised in Częstochowa. For a single fare, one can attend
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plays, performances, concerts and exhibitions specially prepared for that night.
- Days of Cżęstochowa
- Days of European Folk Culture
- Days of Christian Culture
- Low-key Jazz
- Kalina Jędrusik Festival
- Worldwide Congress of Częstochowians
- The Częstochowa Song and Dance Ensemble operating under the auspices of Gaude Mater
### Music festivals.
- The International Festival of Sacral Music "Gaude Mater"
- The International Festival of Traditional Jazz "Hot Jazz Spring Częstochowa"
- Częstochowa Festival of Alternative Culture "Frytka-OFF"
- ReaggeON Częstochowa
- HipHop Elements
- Aleje tu się dzieje (Avenues - Something's going on here)
### Cinemas.
In Częstochowa, there
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are three cinemas. Two are part of chain of cinemas Cinema City Poland: Cinema City "Wolność" (Freedom), which has 1766 seats, and Cinema City Galeria Jurajska, opened in 2009. There is also an independent cinema, Ośrodek Kultury Filmowej (Centre of Cinematography), established in 1991.
# Healthcare.
- Regional Specialist Hospital (Nowobialska Street and PCK Street)
- City Polyclinical Hospital (Bona Street, Mickiewicz Street and Mirowska Street)
- Weigel Hospital in Blachownia
- Metallurgic Hospital in Częstochowa
# Education.
Some of the tertiary educational institutions in Częstochowa include:
- Częstochowa University of Technology
- Jan Długosz University (previously Wyższa Szkoła
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Pedagogiczna)
- Polonia University (previously Wyższa Szkoła Języków Obcych i Ekonomii)
- Wyższa Szkoła Hotelarstwa i Turystyki (School of Graduate Studies in Hospitality Management and Tourism)
- Wyższa Szkoła Lingwistyczna (College of Foreign Language Studies)
- Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania (College of Management)
- Centrum Języków Europejskich - Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych ( Center of European Languages - Teacher's College of Foreign Languages)
- Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Archidiecezji Częstochowskiej (Theological College of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa)
- Centralna Szkoła Państwowej Straży Pożarnej w Częstochowie (The Central School of the State Fire Services
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in Częstochowa)
# Sports.
The most popular sports in Częstochowa are speedway, volleyball and football. The following teams represent Częstochowa on national level:
## Speedway.
- CKM Włókniarz Częstochowa – speedway team from Częstochowa, established in 1946 3rd place in season 2005, 2nd place in season 2006 first place in season 2003, 3rd place in 2009. Włókniarz finished last season in 1 Liga (2nd Tier) on 3rd place and obtained promotion to Speedway Ekstraliga.
## Volleyball.
- AZS Częstochowa – men's volleyball team playing in Krispol 1. Liga Siatkarzy (Polish 2nd Division), 6 times Polish champion, 6 times 2nd place in Polish championship, 4 times 3rd place in Polish championship,
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twice Polish Cup winner, winner of the CEV Challenge Cup 2011/2012, 16th place and relegation from PlusLiga in season 2016/2017. The club was established in 1945.
- KS Norwid Częstochowa – men's volleyball team playing in Krispol 1. Liga Siatkarzy (2nd level in the Polish volleyball league system). The club was established in 2002.
- KS AJD Częstochowianka Częstochowa - women's volleyball team playing in PZPS Druga Liga Kobiet (3rd level in the Polish volleyball league system).
## Football.
- Raków Częstochowa – Częstochowa's greatest football team, plays in the I liga (Poland) (2nd level of the Polish football league system). Runners-up of the Polish cup in 1966–67. As youngsters, both
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Jerzy Brzęczek and Jakub Błaszczykowski played for Raków, as well as Jacek Krzynówek. The club was established in 1921. They finished season 2016/2017 in II liga (3rd level in the Polish football league system) on 1st place and obtained promotion to I liga (Poland) .
- Skra Częstochowa – Częstochowa's second best football team, plays in the III Liga Opole-Silesia Division (4th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1926. They finished season 2015/2016 on 7th place.
- Victoria Częstochowa – team playing in Liga Okręgowa – Częstochowa Regional Division (6th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1922.
- KS Stradom Częstochowa
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- team playing in Liga Okręgowa - Częstochowa Regional Division (6th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1934.
- LKS Płomień Kuźnica Marianowa - team playing in Liga Okręgowa - Częstochowa Regional Division (6th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1982.
- Orzeł Kiedrzyn - team playing in Liga Okręgowa - Częstochowa Regional Division (6th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1950.
- UKS Ajaks Częstochowa - team playing in Klasa B - Częstochowa Regional Division (8th level of the Polish football league system). The club was established in 1998.
- Gol Częstochowa – women's football
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team playing in I Liga Kobiet (2nd level of the Polish female football league system). The club was on 6th place in season 2014/15.
## Other teams.
- KU AZS Częstochowa – Częstochowa's basketball team, plays in Druga Liga PzKosz (4th level of the Polish basketball league system)
- Rugby Club Częstochowa – Częstochowa's rugby team, plays in Polish 3rd League rugby XV and in 7's League, established in 2005
- Saints Częstochowa – American Football team playing in PLFA II. The club was established in 2010.
- Defenders Częstochowa - Baseball team playing in Polish Baseball 2nd League. The club was established in 2013.
- Table Tennis – AJD Print Cycero Rolnik AZS Częstochowa, AZS AJD Mustang
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- Tennis – CzKT Victoria
- Badminton – Kolejarz Częstochowa
- Chess - Hetman Częstochowa
- Weightlifting - KS Polonia Częstochowa
- Velodrome team – Lwy Częstochowa
## Sport venues.
- Arena Częstochowa - multifunctional stadium located in Zawodzie district. It is mostly used by speedway club Włókniarz Częstochowa. The stadium was built in 1946. Following the modernisation, it can accommodate 16,850 spectators.
- Sports Hall Częstochowa - multifunctional sports hall located in Zawodzie district. It can accommodate 7,100 spectators. It meets all the criteria as set out by the FIVB and FIBA. It was officially opened on 29 September 2012. The hall has hosted various events including
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vollebay league matches of AZS Częstochowa, boxing fights and concerts.
- Polonia Hall - multifunctional sports hall in Tysiąclecie district. The hall was officially opened in 1985. It is administered by the City Council Centre of Sport and Leisure. The hall is mostly used by volleyball and basketball teams. It can accommodate 3,015 spectators.
- City Football Stadium "Raków" - a football stadium located in Raków district. It is mostly used by Raków Częstochowa and Gol Częstochowa. The stadium was officially opened in 1955. Currently, it can accommodate up to 8,000 spectators. The stadium has 3,720 seats. There are further plans for modernisation, which include increasing the number of seats
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to 10,100.
- City Athletics Stadium - a stadium administered by the City Council Centre of Sport and Leisure. The stadium was built in 1965, but extensively modernised in 2000. The stadium has 894 seats.
- Rosa Private Golf Club - located in Konopiska, from Częstochowa
- Three indoor swimming pools and one outdoor swimming pool
# Administration.
Częstochowa is a city with powiat rights. Residents of Częstochowa elect 28 city councilors. The executive branch of local government is a city mayor. The city hall is located in Śląska Street 11/13.
The city is divided into 20 neighborhoods. The residents of each neighborhood elect Neighborhood Council members.
The neighborhoods of Częstochowa
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include: Błeszno, Częstochówka-Parkitka, Dźbów, Gnaszyn-Kawodrza, Grabówka, Kiedrzyn, Lisiniec, Mirów, Ostatni Grosz, Podjasnogórska, Północ, Raków, Stare Miasto, Stradom, Śródmieście, Trzech Wieszczów, Tysiąclecie, Wrzosowiak, Wyczerpy-Aniołów, and Zawodzie-Dąbie.
# Politics.
## Local government.
The current Mayor of Częstochowa is Krzysztof Matyjaszczyk, a member of Democratic Left Alliance.
In the Częstochowa 2018 mayoral elections the results were as follows: Krzysztof Matyjaszczyk (Democratic Left Alliance) 59.76%, Artur Warzocha (Law and Justice) 25.54%, Marcin Maranda (Residents of Częstochowa) 6.17%, Tomasz Jaskóła (Kukiz'15) 5.27%, Jacek Krawczyk (Civic Coalition) 2.83%, Martin
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Saczek (Razem) 0.43%.
In the Częstochowa City Council Elections 2018 the results were as follows. Seats in the city council: Left Democratic Alliance (32.80%) 12, Law and Justice (26.04%) 10, Civic Coalition (15.98%) 5, Together for Częstochowa (Independents) (8.77%) 1. After elections in Częstochowa was formed a centre-left coalition between liberal and pro-market Civic Coalition and social democratic Left Democratic Alliance. Conservative Law and Justice remained in oppossition.
# Media.
- Daily newspapers
- "Gazeta Wyborcza" – since 1991 it has been published with a local supplement
- "Dziennik Zachodni" – published with local supplement
- "Życie Częstochowy i Powiatu" ("Life of Częstochowa
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and Region") – it has been published since 1947
- Weeklies
- "Gazeta Częstochowska" (Częstochowa's newspaper) – since 1956
- "Częstochowski Tygodnik Regionalny - 7 dni" (Częstochowa's Regional Weekly - 7 days) – since 2004
- "Niedziela" (Sunday) – nationwide Catholic weekly newspaper that has been published since 1926
- "Poniedziałek" (Monday)
- Tydzień w Czestochowie.pl
There are also published cultural quarterlies such as: Aleje 3, Bulion; a monthly Puls Regionu and an annual – Ziemia Częstochowska
- Radio and TV
- Radio Jasna Góra – Catholic radio station broadcast from the Jasna Góra Monastery
- Radio Fiat – Catholic radio station belonging to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of
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- Radio Jura – local radio station
- Polskie Radio Katowice
- Radio Złote Przeboje
- RMF Classic
- RMF Maxxx
- TV Orion
# Religion and places of worship.
In addition to the Roman Catholic Church and Polish Orthodox Church, various denominations are present in Częstochowa, including Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland, Baptist Union of Poland, Jehovah Witnesses, Pentecostal Church, Plymouth Brethren, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Polish Catholic Church. Częstochowa is the Seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa, as well as Holy Family Archdiocese Cathedral in Częstochowa, and the Jasna Góra Monastery along with 50 Catholic Parish Churches.
#
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International relations.
## Twin towns — sister cities.
Częstochowa is twinned with:
# Notable people.
- Julia Banaś (b. 1997), Polish model
- Jakub Błaszczykowski (b. 1985), Polish footballer
- Jerzy Duda-Gracz (1941–2004), Polish painter
- Władysław Biegański (1857-1917), Polish medical doctor, philosopher and social activist
- Bronisław Huberman (1882–1947), Polish-Jewish classical violinist and founder of the Palestine Philharmonic Orchestra, now Israel Philharmonic Orchestra
- Alexander Imich (1903–2014), Polish-American chemist
- Janusz Iwański (b. 1956), Polish jazz and rock guitarist, composer, songwriter and vocalist
- Kalina Jędrusik (1930–1991), Polish singer and actress
-
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Pinchas Menachem Justman (1848–1920), Jewish Hasidic Rabbi
- Marion Kozak (b.1934), Polish-born British activist, mother of British politicians David Miliband and Ed Miliband
- Jerzy Kulej (1940–2012), Polish boxer and politician
- Agnes Milowka (1981–2011), Australian technical diver, underwater photographer, author, maritime archaeologist and cave explorer
- Ingrid Pitt (1937–2010), Polish-British actress, author, and writer
- Halina Poświatowska (1935–1967), Polish poet and writer
- Hershl Sperling, participant in the Treblinka revolt and escapee
- Zygmunt Staszczyk (b. 1963), Polish singer
- Samuel Willenberg (1923–2016), Polish-Jewish Treblinka survivor who participated in the uprising
#
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(1940–2012), Polish boxer and politician
- Agnes Milowka (1981–2011), Australian technical diver, underwater photographer, author, maritime archaeologist and cave explorer
- Ingrid Pitt (1937–2010), Polish-British actress, author, and writer
- Halina Poświatowska (1935–1967), Polish poet and writer
- Hershl Sperling, participant in the Treblinka revolt and escapee
- Zygmunt Staszczyk (b. 1963), Polish singer
- Samuel Willenberg (1923–2016), Polish-Jewish Treblinka survivor who participated in the uprising
# External links.
- Official website
- The Black Madonna Monastery
- Częstochowa Yizkor Book – remembering Częstochowa Jews murdered by Nazis
- 8 Częstochowa Yizkor Books at NYPL
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Château de Malmaison
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Château de Malmaison
Château de Malmaison () is a French château near the western bank of the Seine about west of the centre of Paris in Rueil-Malmaison.
Formerly the residence of Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais, along with the Tuileries it was the headquarters of the French government from 1800 to 1802, and Napoleon's last residence in France at the end of the Hundred Days in 1815. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the estate became a summer residence of Edward Tuck, the Vice Consul of the American Legation in Paris.
# History.
Joséphine de Beauharnais bought the manor house in April 1799 for herself and her husband, General Napoléon Bonaparte, the future Napoléon I of
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France, at that time away fighting the Egyptian Campaign. Malmaison was a run-down estate, seven miles (12 km) west of central Paris that encompassed nearly of woods and meadows.
Upon his return, Bonaparte expressed fury at Joséphine for purchasing such an expensive house with the money she had expected him to bring back from the Egyptian campaign. The house, for which she had paid well over 300,000 francs, needed extensive renovations, and she spent a fortune doing so. Malmaison would bring great happiness to the Bonapartes. Joséphine's daughter, Hortense would call it "a delicious spot".
Joséphine endeavored to transform the large estate into "the most beautiful and curious garden in Europe,
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a model of good cultivation". She located rare and exotic plants and animals to enhance the gardens. Joséphine wrote: "I wish that Malmaison may soon become the source of riches for all [of France]"...
In 1800, Joséphine built a heated orangery large enough for 300 pineapple plants. Five years later, she ordered the building of a greenhouse, heated by a dozen coal-burning stoves. From 1803 until her death in 1814, Josephine cultivated nearly 200 new plants in France for the first time.
The property achieved enduring fame for its rose garden. Empress Joséphine had the Belgian artist Pierre-Joseph Redouté (1759–1840) record her roses (and lilies), and prints of these works sell quite well, even
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today. She created an extensive collection of roses, gathering plants from her native Martinique and from other places around the world. She grew some 250 varieties of roses. From the foreword to "Jardin de la Malmaison" (1803):
Birds and animals of all sorts began to enrich her garden, where they were allowed to roam free among the grounds. At the height of her days at Malmaison, Joséphine had the company of kangaroos, emus, black swans, zebras, sheep, gazelles, ostriches, chamois, a seal, antelopes and llamas to name a few. Some were from the Baudin expedition.
After her divorce from Napoléon, Joséphine received Malmaison in her own right, along with a pension of 5 million francs a year,
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and remained there until her death in 1814. Napoléon returned and took residence in the house after his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (1815), before his exile to the island of Saint Helena.
In 1842 Malmaison was purchased by Maria Christina, widow of King Ferdinand VII of Spain; she lived there with her second husband Agustín Fernando Muñoz, 1st Duke of Riánsares. In 1861 Maria Christina sold the property to Napoleon III.
Malmaison was fully restored by the famous French architect Pierre Humbert in the early 20th century. It is now considered an important historical monument.
# Present times.
The public can visit the manor house as a Napoleonic "musée national". The museum lies on RN
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rchased by Maria Christina, widow of King Ferdinand VII of Spain; she lived there with her second husband Agustín Fernando Muñoz, 1st Duke of Riánsares. In 1861 Maria Christina sold the property to Napoleon III.
Malmaison was fully restored by the famous French architect Pierre Humbert in the early 20th century. It is now considered an important historical monument.
# Present times.
The public can visit the manor house as a Napoleonic "musée national". The museum lies on RN 13 ("route nationale" 13) from Paris and bus 258 from RER A "Grande Arche" station.
# External links.
- Official site
- "Josephine's garden", Orient Express Magazine, Vol. 19, No. 1, by HRH Princess Michael of Kent.
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John Sladek
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John Sladek
John Thomas Sladek (December 15, 1937 – March 10, 2000) was an American science fiction author, known for his satirical and surreal novels.
# Life and work.
Born in Waverly, Iowa in 1937, Sladek was in England in the 1960s for the New Wave movement and published his first story in the magazine" New Worlds". His first science fiction novel, published in London by Gollancz as "The Reproductive System" and in the United States as "Mechasm", dealt with a project to build machines that build copies of themselves, a process that gets out of hand and threatens to destroy humanity. In "The Müller-Fokker Effect", an attempt to preserve human personality on tape likewise goes awry, giving
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the author a chance to satirize big business, big religion, superpatriotism, and men's magazines, among other things. "Roderick" and "Roderick at Random" offer the traditional satirical approach of looking at the world through the eyes of an innocent, in this case a robot. Sladek revisited robots from a darker point of view in the BSFA Award winning novel "Tik-Tok", featuring a sociopathic robot who lacks any moral "asimov circuits", and "Bugs", a wide-ranging satire in which a hapless technical writer (a job Sladek held for many years) helps to create a robot who quickly goes insane.
Sladek was also known for his parodies of other science fiction writers, such as Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke,
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and Cordwainer Smith. These were collected in "The Steam-Driven Boy and other Strangers" (1973). Under the pseudonym of "James Vogh", Sladek wrote "Arachne Rising", which purports to be a nonfiction account of a thirteenth sign of the zodiac suppressed by the scientific establishment, in an attempt to demonstrate that people will believe anything. In the 1960s he also co-wrote two pseudonymous novels with his friend Thomas M. Disch, the Gothic "The House that Fear Built" (1966; as "Cassandra Knye") and the satirical thriller "Black Alice" (1968; as "Thom Demijohn").
Another of Sladek's notable parodies is of the anti-Stratfordian citation of the "hapax legomenon" in "Love's Labour's Lost" "honorificabilitudinitatibus"
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as an anagram of "hi ludi, F. Baconis nati, tuiti orbi", Latin for "these plays, F. Bacon's offspring, are preserved for the world", "proving" that Francis Bacon wrote the play. Sladek noted that "honorificabilitudinitatibus" was also an anagram for "I, B. Ionsonii, uurit [writ] a lift'd batch", thus "proving" that Shakespeare's works were written by Ben Jonson.
Sladek returned from England to Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1986, where he lived until his death in 2000 from pulmonary fibrosis. He was married twice, to Pamela Sladek, which ended in divorce in 1986, and to Sandra Gunter whom he married in 1994. He had a daughter from his first marriage.
# Skepticism.
A strict materialist, Sladek
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subjected the occult and pseudoscience to merciless scrutiny in "The New Apocrypha". The book critically examined the claims of dowsing, homeopathy, parapsychology, perpetual motion and Ufology.
# Bibliography.
## Science fiction novels.
- "The Reproductive System" Gollancz 1968, Equinox/Avon SF Rediscovery 3 1977, Gollancz Classic SF #8 1986; as "Mechasm" Ace Special 1969, Pocket 1980
- "The Müller-Fokker Effect" Hutchinson 1970; William Morrow 1971, Panther 1972, Pocket 1973, Carrol & Graf 1990
- "Roderick" Granada 1980; Carroll & Graf 1987
- "Roderick at Random" Granada 1983, Carroll & Graf 1988
- "Tik-Tok" Gollancz 1983, Corgi 1984, DAW 1985 Gollancz 2001; winner of the British Science
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Fiction Association Best Novel award in 1984;
- "Love Among the Xoids" Chris Drumm (chapbook) 1984;
- "Bugs" Macmillan UK 1989, Paladin 1991
- "Blood and Gingerbread" Cheap Street (chapbook) 1990;
- "Wholly Smokes" Wildside 2003.
## Science fiction collections.
- "The Steam-Driven Boy and other Strangers" Panther 1973, Wildside 2005
- "Keep the Giraffe Burning" Panther 1977, Wildside 2004
- "The Best of John Sladek" Pocket 1981
- "Alien Accounts" Granada 1982, Wildside 2005
- "The Lunatics of Terra" Gollancz 1984, Wildside 2005
- "Maps: The Uncollected John Sladek", edited by David Langford (2002).
## Omnibus editions.
- "The Complete Roderick" comprising "Roderick" and "Roderick
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at Random" Gollancz SF Masterworks #45 2001, Overlook Press 2004
- "The Reproductive System" / "The Müller-Fokker Effect" / "Tik-Tok" Gollancz 2013
## Mystery novels and stories.
- "The Castle and the Key" (as by Cassandra Knye) Paperback Library 1967
- "By an Unknown Hand", the first story featuring the detective Thackeray Phin, which was awarded the first prize in The Times Detective Story Competition in 1972, and published in "The Times Anthology of Detective Stories" (now included in the collection "Maps", edited by David Langford (2002));
- "Black Aura" Jonathan Cape 1974, Panther 1975, a Phin novel;
- "It Takes Your Breath Away", a Phin short story, originally printed in theatre
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programmes for a London play, 1974 (now included in "Maps");
- "Invisible Green" Gollancz 1977, the second Phin novel. Both Phin novels are locked room mysteries.
## Nonfiction.
- "The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Science and Occult Beliefs" Stein and Day 1973, Panther 1978
- "Arachne Rising: The Search for the Thirteenth Sign of the Zodiac" (1977) (as James Vogh)
- "The Cosmic Factor" (1978) (as James Vogh)
- "Judgement of Jupiter" (1980) (as Richard A. Tilms)
- "The Book of Clues" (1984)
## With Thomas M. Disch.
- "The House that Fear Built" (1966)
- "Black Alice" (1968)
## Selected short stories.
- "The Happy Breed"
- "Elephant With Wooden Leg"
- "The Great Wall of Mexico"
-
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in and Day 1973, Panther 1978
- "Arachne Rising: The Search for the Thirteenth Sign of the Zodiac" (1977) (as James Vogh)
- "The Cosmic Factor" (1978) (as James Vogh)
- "Judgement of Jupiter" (1980) (as Richard A. Tilms)
- "The Book of Clues" (1984)
## With Thomas M. Disch.
- "The House that Fear Built" (1966)
- "Black Alice" (1968)
## Selected short stories.
- "The Happy Breed"
- "Elephant With Wooden Leg"
- "The Great Wall of Mexico"
- "The Discovery of the Nullitron" (with Thomas M. Disch)
# References.
- Citations
# External links.
- "An Interview with John Sladek (1982)" by David Langford
- Guardian newspaper obituary by David Langford
- John Sladek at Ansible Editions
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Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)
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Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)
Vladimir Andreevich Steklov (; 9 January 1864 – 30 May 1926) was a Prominent Russian and Soviet mathematician, mechanician and physicist.
# Biography.
Steklov was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. In 1887, he graduated from the Kharkov University, where he was a student of Aleksandr Lyapunov. In 1889–1906 he worked at the Department of Mechanics of this University. He became a full professor in 1896. During 1893–1905 he also taught theoretical mechanics in the Kharkov Technological Institute (now known as Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute). In 1906 he started working at Petersburg University. In 1921 he petitioned for the creation of the Institute of Physics and
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Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)
Mathematics. Upon his death the institute was named after him. The Mathematics Department split from the Institute in 1934. It is now known as Steklov Institute of Mathematics.
Steklov's primary scientific contribution was in the area of orthogonal functional sets. He introduced a class of closed orthogonal sets, developed the asymptotic Liouville–Steklov method for orthogonal polynomials, proved theorems on generalized Fourier series, and developed an approximation technique later named Steklov function. He also worked on hydrodynamics and the theory of elasticity.
Steklov wrote a number of works on the history of science. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924 in Toronto. In 1926 he
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir%20Steklov%20(mathematician)
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Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)
losed orthogonal sets, developed the asymptotic Liouville–Steklov method for orthogonal polynomials, proved theorems on generalized Fourier series, and developed an approximation technique later named Steklov function. He also worked on hydrodynamics and the theory of elasticity.
Steklov wrote a number of works on the history of science. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924 in Toronto. In 1926 he was elected a corresponding member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Steklov died in Gaspra, Crimea, USSR. He was interred in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
# External links.
- N. Kuznetsov, The Legacy of Vladimir Andreevich Steklov in Mathematical Physics: Work and School.
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Castellón de la Plana
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Castellón de la Plana
Castellón de la Plana
Castellón de la Plana (), Castelló de la Plana (official) (), or simply Castelló, is the capital city of the province of Castellón, in the Valencian Country, Spain, in the east of the Iberian Peninsula, on the Costa del Azahar by the Mediterranean Sea. The mountain range known as Desert de les Palmes rises inland north of the town.
The Prime Meridian crosses Castelló de la Plana.
# History.
The first known building in the area was the Moorish castle of Fadrell, near the Alqueries de La Plana. The town proper was officially founded in 1251, after the conquest of the Moorish Kingdom of Valencia by King James I of Aragon in 1233. James granted royal permission to move the
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Castellón de la Plana
town from the mountain to the plain on September 8, 1251, and tradition claims that the move was completed by the third Sunday of Lent, 1252. During the Middle Ages, the city was protected by moats, walls and towers, and a church was built, later becoming a cathedral. In the 16th century the town was one of the last strongholds in the Revolta de les Germanies (local guilds). It also supported Archduke Charles of Austria in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), but was later taken by the troops of Philip d'Anjou.
In the 19th century, the city walls were torn down and it slowly began to expand, a process interrupted by the War of Independence against Napoleon (1804–14) and the Carlist
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Wars (1833–63). In 1833 Castelló became the capital of the newly constituted province. In the second half of the 19th century, the city again began to expand, marked by the arrival of the railway, the enlargement of the port and the construction of representative buildings (Provincial Hospital, Casino, Theater) and parks.
In 1991 a university (Jaume I University) was established, set upon a modern campus. The local economy is based on industry, tourism and craft-work.
# Main sights.
Most of the historical buildings are located in the diminutive old town, around the Plaça Major (Main Square). These include:
- The "Concatedral de Santa Maria" (co-cathedral of Saint Mary), built in a Gothic-style
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in the 13th century and reconstructed one century later after destruction by fire. The present building is another reconstruction after the demolition ordered by the council during the Spanish civil war (1936).
- The "Ajuntament" (City Hall), erected at the beginning of the 18th century. It features a Tuscan-style façade rising up over a colonnade.
- The free-standing bell-tower of the procathedral, known as "El Fadrí" (the single man), built in the 15th century.
- The "Llotja del Cànem" (Hemp Exchange Market), built during the first half of the 17th century to be used by traders in hempen cloth and ropes, a very important activity in the area at the time. Today the building is used by the
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University for cultural events and temporary exhibitions.
- On the northeast edge of the town, at the end of a broad avenue decorated with orange trees, stands the Basílica of Santa Maria del "Lledó" (European Hackberry or "Celtis australis"), a basilica devoted to an image of the Virgin Mary found in 1366 by a farmer when he was ploughing his lands. The original 14th-century chapel was extended to its present Baroque form during the 16th century.
- Espai d'Art Contemporani de Castelló, Museum for Modern Art
- Teatre Principal
# Events.
The annual festivities in Castellón are a week of celebrations three weeks before Easter every year called La Magdalena. People come from all over the province
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and many international bands and groups participate.
The city is notorious for its music festivals, among which we find: early in February the Tanned Tin music festival for alternative music and experimental music, in July the Festival Internacional de Benicàssim (also known as FIB, which translates to Benicàssim's International Festival), at the beginning of August there is the Arenal Sound and during the middle of that same month, we can find the Rototom Sunsplash Festival, known for its reggae music.
# Sports.
The city has its professional basketball team AB Castelló, which plays in the LEB Oro.
Villareal CF is the local professional football in the adjacent town. Villarreal has supported
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a long rivalry with CD Castellón for geographical reasons, since both are from the province of Castellón, however CD Castellón haven't played in La Liga since the 1970's. CD Castellón and Villareal also rival Valencia. However, the town's team of CD Castellón have had financial problems and unstable history despite having a 16,000 seater stadium, it is playing in the semi-pro and
amateur regional divisions. On 21 March 2018, Castellón beat the record of seasonal tickets in the fourth-tier of divisions with 12,701, and is a giant amongst minnows. On 24 June, it returned to the third tier after a seven-year absence.
# Education.
Jaume I University was founded in 1991, and in 2014 there were
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approximately 15,000 students enrolled who share a single campus.
# Twin towns.
- Châtellerault, France
- Târgoviște, Romania
- Ube, Japan
- Lleida, Spain
# Notable people.
- Sergio Aragonés (born 1937), comics cartoonist.
- Joan Barreda Bort (born 1983), Rally raid motorcyclist.
- Roberto Bautista-Agut (born 1988), professional tennis player.
- José Luis Ballester (born 1969), Olympic butterfly swimmer.
- María Egual (1655-1735), poet and dramatist.
- Sergio García (born 1980), professional golfer.
- Pablo Hernandez Dominguez (born 1985), footballer, formerly with Valencia CF.
- Roberto Merhi, (born 1991), driver.
- Matilde Salvador (born 1918, died 2007), musician, composer
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and painter artist.
- Miguel Angel Silvestre, (born 1982), actor.
- Xavi Valero (born 1973), professional football goalkeeping coach.
# Climate.
The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "BSk" (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).
# Transport.
The small Castellón Airport offers charter and general aviation services, as well as scheduled passenger services to London, Bucharest and Poznan. The new Castellón-Costa Azahar Airport is designed to support large international jet flights and was completed in 2011. It has become a symbol of the wasteful spending prior to the 2008–13 Spanish financial crisis. Valencia Airport is about south whilst Alicante Airport is another
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185 km (115 mi) further down the coast.
The city is served by the Castellón de la Plana railway station. The Euromed railway line links Alicante to Barcelona.
Nowadays, this city has a new public transport called TRAM de Castellón which is a trolleybus. There is just a line Línea 1 (TRAM de Castellón), but authorities are planning to build the second line.
# See also.
- Diocese of Segorbe-Castellón.
- Columbretes Islands
# External links.
- Castelló : A virtual trip
- Castellón de la Plana at Google Maps
- University Jaime I of Castelló de la Plana
- News of Castellón. Noticias de Castellón
- News of CD Castellón.Soccer team. Noticias del CD Castellón
- News of Club Rugby Castelló.
-
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coast.
The city is served by the Castellón de la Plana railway station. The Euromed railway line links Alicante to Barcelona.
Nowadays, this city has a new public transport called TRAM de Castellón which is a trolleybus. There is just a line Línea 1 (TRAM de Castellón), but authorities are planning to build the second line.
# See also.
- Diocese of Segorbe-Castellón.
- Columbretes Islands
# External links.
- Castelló : A virtual trip
- Castellón de la Plana at Google Maps
- University Jaime I of Castelló de la Plana
- News of Castellón. Noticias de Castellón
- News of CD Castellón.Soccer team. Noticias del CD Castellón
- News of Club Rugby Castelló.
- Festival music Arenal Sound
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Probus (emperor)
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Probus (emperor)
Probus (emperor)
Probus (; ; c. 19 August 232 – September/October 282), was Roman Emperor from 276 to 282.
Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated inundations of hostile barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.
After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts, but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible. In his reign the facade of the constitutional authority of the Roman Senate was fastidiously maintained, and the conqueror who had carried
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Probus (emperor)
his arms to victory over the Rhine professed himself dependent on the sanction of the Senate.
Upon defeating the Germans Probus re-erected the ancient fortifications of emperor Hadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the Agri Decumates, and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers. Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor Carus.
# Early life.
Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern
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day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior, the son of Dalmatius. According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.
# Military career.
Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very young age, in recognition of his latent ability, he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian frontier. During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay,
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Probus (emperor)
while Gaul was overrun by the Franks, Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east by Shapur I. Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier. Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.
# As emperor.
Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed
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Probus (emperor)
himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia. In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions. Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of "Gothicus".
However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across
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the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of "Gothicus Maximus" and "Germanicus Maximus". Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.
After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube,
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in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.
The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.
One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers
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to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts, in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.
In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals. In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues
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that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain). In 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.
## Assassination.
Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.
Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining
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soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282). According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes. Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army. Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.
# Legacy.
According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the "Augustan History"), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome. While his successor Carus (Imp. 281-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's
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confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.
# Sources.
## Primary sources.
- Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus
- Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita
- Historia Augusta, Life
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of Probus
- Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284
- Zosimus, Historia Nova
## Secondary sources.
- Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", "DIR"
- Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 The Celator November, 1995.
- Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. "The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395", Cambridge University Press, 1971
- Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001
- Gibbon. Edward "Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire" (1888)
Attribution:
# External links.
-
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, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284
- Zosimus, Historia Nova
## Secondary sources.
- Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", "DIR"
- Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 The Celator November, 1995.
- Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. "The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395", Cambridge University Press, 1971
- Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001
- Gibbon. Edward "Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire" (1888)
Attribution:
# External links.
- Probus, article at NumisWiki
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Aileron
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Aileron
An aileron (French for "little wing" or "fin") is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'.
The modern aileron was invented and patented by the British scientist Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, based on his 1864 paper "On Aërial Locomotion". Even though there was extensive prior art in the 19th century for the aileron and its functional analog, wing warping,
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in 1906 the United States granted an expansive patent to the Wright Brothers of Dayton, Ohio, for the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated an airplane's control surfaces. Considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until the First World War compelled the U.S. Government to legislate a legal resolution.
# History.
The name "aileron", from French, meaning "little wing", also refers to the extremities of a bird's wings used to control their flight. It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassell's French-English Dictionary of 1877, with its lead meaning of "small wing". In the context of powered airplanes
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it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, with no distinction between their orientations and functions, or more descriptively as "horizontal rudders" (in French, "gouvernails horizontaux"). Among the earliest printed aeronautical use of 'aileron' was that in the French aviation journal "L'Aérophile" of 1908.
Ailerons had more or less completely supplanted other forms of lateral control, such as wing warping, by about 1915, well after the function of the rudder and elevator flight controls had been largely standardised. Although there were previously many conflicting claims over who first invented the aileron and
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its function, i.e., lateral or roll control, the flight control device was invented and described by the British scientist and metaphysicist Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in his 1864 paper "On Aërial Locomotion". He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.
Boulton's description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was "the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from [passive lateral stability]... With this invention of Boulton's we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control" as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C.H. Gibbs-Smith. Boulton's
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British patent, No. 392 of 1868, issued about 35 years before ailerons were "reinvented" in France, became forgotten and lost from sight until after the flight control device was in general use. Gibbs-Smith stated on several occasions that if the Boulton patent had been revealed at the time of the Wright brothers' legal filings, they might not have been able to claim priority of invention for the lateral control of flying machines. The fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boulton's lost and forgotten invention.
Boulton had described and patented ailerons in 1868 and they were not used on manned aircraft until they were employed on Robert Esnault-Pelterie’s
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glider in 1904, although in 1871 a French military engineer, Charles Renard, built and flew an unmanned glider incorporating ailerons on each side (which he termed ‘winglets’), activated by a Boulton-style pendulum controlled single-axis autopilot device.
The pioneering U.S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers' 1902 glider in the leading aviation periodical of the day, "L'Aérophile", in 1903. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping. The French journal "L’Aérophile" then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider
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which were included in his June 1905 article, and its ailerons were widely copied afterward.
The Wright brothers used wing warping instead of ailerons for roll control on their glider in 1902, and about 1904 their Flyer II was the only aircraft of its time able to do a coordinated banked turn. During the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective and practical than wing warping. Ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplane's wing structure as did the wing warping technique, which was one reason for
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Esnault-Pelterie's decision to switch to ailerons.
By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping—by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well. The U.S. Government, frustrated by the lack of its country's aeronautical advances in the years leading up to World War I, enforced a patent pool effectively putting an end to the Wright brothers patent war. The Wright company quietly changed its aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well.
## Other early aileron designers.
Others who were previously thought to have been the first to introduce ailerons included:
- American John J. Montgomery included spring-loaded trailing
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edge flaps on his second glider (1885): these were operable by the pilot as ailerons. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the entire wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own accounts all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided "entire control of the machine in the wind, preventing it from upsetting."
- New Zealander Richard Pearse reputedly made a powered flight in a monoplane that included small ailerons as early as 1902, but his claims are controversial—and sometimes inconsistent—and, even by his own reports, his aircraft were not well controlled.
- In 1906 Alberto Santos-Dumont's 14-bis was one of the
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Aileron
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aileron
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Aileron
earliest aileron-equipped aircraft to fly, as it was modified to have added octagonal-planform interplane ailerons in its outermost wing bays in November of that year for its concluding flight sessions at the Chateau de Bagatelle's grounds; but those roll control surfaces were not true "trailing-edge" ailerons hinged directly to the wing panels' framework—for the 14-bis, these were instead pivoted around a horizontal axis centred on the "forward" outboard interplane struts, and protruded forward past the wings' leading edges.
- On May 18, 1908, engineer and aircraft designer Frederick Baldwin, a member of the Aerial Experiment Association headed by Alexander Graham Bell, flew their first aileron-controlled
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