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Kalisz
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Kalisz
(General Government) or to Germany as slave workers. In 1945 the population of the city was 43,000 – approximately half the pre-war figure.
Following the war, Jewish Holocaust survivors returned to the city, by 1946 numbering some 500.By the late 1940s only some 100 remained, and those few who stayed blended into Polish society.
In 1975, after Edward Gierek's reform of the administrative division of Poland, Kalisz again became the capital of a province – Kalisz Voivodeship; the province was abolished in 1998, however, and since then Kalisz has been the county seat of a separate powiat within the Greater Poland Voivodeship. In 1991 the city festival was inaugurated on 11 June to commemorate
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the confirmation of the incorporation of the city in 1282. In 1992, Kalisz became the seat of a separate diocese of the Catholic Church.
# Religion.
There are 19 Catholic Churches, 5 Protestant Churches, and one Orthodox Church in Kalisz. Before World War II there were 25,000 Jews in Kalisz, but most of them were murdered by Germans and by the summer of 1942 the Jewish community in Kalisz was entirely destroyed.
# Education.
Kalisz is a notable centre of education in the region. It is home to twenty-nine primary schools, fifteen junior high schools, and five high schools. Seven colleges and a dozen or so vocational schools are also located there. The city is also home to branches of Poznań
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University, Poznań University of Economics, and Poznań University of Science and Technology, as well as several other institutions of higher education. It is a home to the Henryk Melcer Music School.
# Economy.
Although there is little heavy industry within the city limits, Kalisz is home to several of large enterprises. It is notable for the Winiary (part of the Nestlé group) and Colian food processing plants and the Big Star jeans factory. Two plane engine production factories, WSK-Kalisz and Pratt & Whitney Kalisz (a branch of Pratt & Whitney Canada), are located in Kalisz.
# Sports.
- SSK Calisia Kalisz – women's volleyball team, 2nd place in 2003/2004 season and 1st place in 2004/2005
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season
- KKS Kalisz – men's soccer team playing in the III liga.
# Transport.
Kalisz railway station was built in 1902 as the destination of the Warsaw–Kalisz Railway. It is currently served by Przewozy Regionalne and PKP Intercity.
# Notable people from Kalisz.
- Adam Asnyk (1838–1897), poet
- Wojciech Bogusławski (1757–1829), actor, theater director and playwright
- Bolesław the Pious (1224/27–1279), duke of Greater Poland
- Krystyna Borowicz (1923–2009), actress
- Juliusz Bursche (1862–1942), bishop
- Maria Dąbrowska (1889–1965), writer
- Janina David (born 1930), writer
- Agaton Giller (1831–1887), patriotic activist
- Stefan Giller (1833–1918), poet, an epigone of the Polish
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Romanticism
- Cyprian Godebski (1765–1809), freedom fighter and a poet
- Avraham Gombiner (1635–1682), Jewish rabbi and scholar
- Adam Hofman (born 1980), politician
- Julian Klemczyński (1807/10–1851), composer
- Augustyn Kordecki (1603–1673), prior of the Jasna Góra Monastery and hero of The Deluge
- Alfred Kowalski (1849–1915), painter
- Jerzy Kryszak (born 1950), actor
- Theodor Meron (born 1930), president of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and judge in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
- Bonawentura Niemojowski (1787–1835), journalist
- Wincenty Niemojowski (1784–1834), journalist
- Ladislaus Pilars de Pilar (1874–1952), poet
- Wojciech
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Siemion (1928–2010), actor and director
- Zdzisława Sośnicka (born 1945), singer
- Stefan Szolc-Rogoziński (1861–1896), traveller and explorer
- Jerzy Świrski (1882–1959), vice admiral
- Alicja Tchórz (born 1992), swimmer
- Marta Walczykiewicz (born 1987), sprint canoer
- Stanisław Wojciechowski (1869–1953), president of Poland
- Jan Ptaszyn Wróblewski (born 1936), musician
- Iga Wyrwał (born 1989), glamour model
- Eve Zaremba (born 1930), writer
# International relations.
## Twin towns — Sister cities.
Kalisz is twinned with:
# See also.
- History of the Jews in Kalisz
- Kalisz Department (Polish: "Departament Kaliski"): a unit of administrative division and local government
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olc-Rogoziński (1861–1896), traveller and explorer
- Jerzy Świrski (1882–1959), vice admiral
- Alicja Tchórz (born 1992), swimmer
- Marta Walczykiewicz (born 1987), sprint canoer
- Stanisław Wojciechowski (1869–1953), president of Poland
- Jan Ptaszyn Wróblewski (born 1936), musician
- Iga Wyrwał (born 1989), glamour model
- Eve Zaremba (born 1930), writer
# International relations.
## Twin towns — Sister cities.
Kalisz is twinned with:
# See also.
- History of the Jews in Kalisz
- Kalisz Department (Polish: "Departament Kaliski"): a unit of administrative division and local government in Polish Duchy of Warsaw in years 1807–1815
- Kaliszanie
# External links.
- www.kalisz.pl
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Gliwice
Gliwice () is a city in Upper Silesia, in southern Poland. The city is located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Kłodnica river (a tributary of the Oder). It lies approximately 25 km west from Katowice, regional capital of the Silesian Voivodeship.
Gliwice is the westernmost city of the Upper Silesian metropolis, a conurbation of 1.9 million people, and is the third-largest city of this area, with 179,806 permanent residents as of 2018. It also lies within the larger Upper Silesian metropolitan area which has a population of about 5.3 million people and spans across most of eastern Upper Silesia, western Lesser Poland and the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic. It is one
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of the major college towns in Poland, thanks to the Silesian University of Technology, which was founded in 1945 by academics of Lwow University of Technology expelled from Soviet Ukraine in 1945-48. Over 20,000 people study in Gliwice. Gliwice is an important industrial center of Poland. Following an economic transformation in the 1990s, Gliwice switched from steelworks and coal mining to automotive and machine industry. The last remaining coal mine in Gliwice was set to close before 2021; however, following good economic results this decision has been postponed.
Founded in the 13th century, Gliwice is one of the oldest settlements in Upper Silesia. Gliwice's medieval old town was mostly destroyed
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by the Red Army in World War II, but it has since been rebuilt and has undergone a major restoration in recent years. Gliwice's most historical structures include (15th century), Gliwice Castle and city walls (14th century), (originally a hospital, 15th century) and (15th century). Gliwice is also known for its Radio Tower, where Gleiwitz incident happened shortly before the outbreak of World War II and which is though to be the world’s tallest wooden construction, as well as Weichmann Textile House, one of the first buildings designed by world-renowned architect Erich Mendelsohn. Gliwice will host the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019 which will take place on 24 November 2019.
# Etymology.
In
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Slavic languages, the root "gliw" or "gliv" suggests terrain characterized by loam or wetland. In South Slavic languages, "glive" or "gljive" refers to mushrooms, with "gljivice" meaning little mushrooms.
# History.
## Early history.
Gliwice was first mentioned as a town in 1276 and was ruled during the Middle Ages by the Silesian Piast dukes. During the reign of Mieszko I Tanglefoot, the town was part of a duchy centered on Opole-Racibórz, and became a separate duchy in 1289. According to 14th-century writers, the town seemed defensive in character and was ruled by Siemowit of Bytom. The town became a possession of the Bohemia crown in 1335, passing with that crown to the Austrian Habsburgs
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as Gleiwitz in 1526.
## Early Modern Age.
Because of the vast expenses incurred by the Habsburg Monarchy during their 16th century wars against the Ottoman Empire, Gleiwitz was leased to Friedrich Zettritz for the amount of 14,000 thalers. Although the original lease was for a duration of 18 years, it was renewed in 1580 for 10 years and in 1589 for an additional 18 years.
During the mid 18th century Silesian Wars, Gleiwitz was taken from the Habsburg Monarchy by the Kingdom of Prussia along with the majority of Silesia. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Gleiwitz was administered in the Prussian district of Tost-Gleiwitz within the Province of Silesia in 1816. The city was incorporated
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with Prussia into the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany. In 1897 Gleiwitz became its own Stadtkreis, or urban district.
## Industrialization.
The first coke-fired blast furnace on the European continent was constructed in Gleiwitz in 1796 under the direction of John Baildon. Gleiwitz began to develop into a major city through industrialization during the 19th century. The town's ironworks fostered the growth of other industrial fields in the area. The city's population in 1875 was 14,156. However, during the late 19th century Gleiwitz had: 14 distilleries, 2 breweries, 5 mills, 7 brick factories, 3 sawmills, a shingle factory, 8 chalk factories and 2 glassworks.
Other
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features of the 19th century industrialized Gleiwitz were a gasworks, a furnace factory, a beer bottling company, and a plant for asphalt and paste. Economically, Gleiwitz opened several banks, Savings and loan associations, and bond centers. Its tram system was completed in 1892, while its theater was opened in 1899; until World War II, Gleiwitz' theatre featured actors from throughout Europe and was one of the most famous theatres in the whole of Germany.
## 20th century.
According to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Gleiwitz's population in 1905 was 61,324. By 1911 it had two Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages,
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and a barracks. Gleiwitz was the center of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. It possessed a royal foundry, with which were connected machine factories and boilerworks. Other industrialized areas of the city had other foundries, meal mills, and factories producing wire, gas pipes, cement, and paper.
After the end of World War I, clashes between Poles and Germans occurred during the Polish insurrections in Silesia. Some ethnically Polish inhabitants of Upper Silesia wanted to incorporate the city into the Second Polish Republic. Seeking a peaceful solution to the conflict, the League of Nations held a plebiscite on 20 March 1921 to determine which country the city should belong to. In Gleiwitz,
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32,029 votes (78.7% of given votes) were for remaining in Germany, Poland received 8,558 (21.0%) votes, and 113 (0.3%) votes were declared invalid. The total voter turnout was listed as 97.0%. This prompted another insurrection by Poles. The League of Nations determined that three Silesian towns: Gleiwitz, Hindenburg and Beuthen would remain in Germany, and the eastern part of Upper Silesia with its main town of Katowice (Kattowitz) would join restored Poland.
An attack on a radio station in Gleiwitz on 31 August 1939, staged by the German secret police, served as a pretext, devised by Reinhard Heydrich under orders from Hitler, for Nazi Germany to invade Poland, which marked the start of the
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Second World War. From July 1944 to January 1945, Gliwice was the location for one of the many sub-camps of the Auschwitz concentration camp.
On 24 January 1945, Gliwice was occupied by the Red Army as part of their Allied Occupation Zone. Under borders changes dictated by the Soviet Union at the Potsdam Conference, Gliwice fell inside Poland's new borders after Germany's defeat in the war. It was incorporated into Poland's Silesian Voivodeship on 18 March 1945, after almost 600 years of being outside the Polish state.
# Demographics.
## Population development.
The earliest population estimate of Gliwice comes from a 1750 and puts population mark at 1,159 people. The same source cites population
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to be 2,990 in 1810, 6,415 in 1838, and 10,923 in 1861. A census from 1858 reported the following ethnic makeup: 7,060 - German, 3,566 - Polish, 11 - Moravian, 1 - Czech. Since the Industrial Revolution, Gliwice saw rapid economic growth which fuelled fast population increase. In 1890 Gliwice had 19,667 inhabitants, and this number has increased over twofold over the next 10 years to 52,362 in 1900. Gliwice gained its status of a large city ("" in German) in 1927, when population reached 102,452 people.
In 1945, with the approaching Red Army a significant number of residents were either evacuated or fled the city at their own discretion. Following the Yalta Conference, Gliwice, along most of
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Silesia, was incorporated into communist Poland, and the remaining German population was expelled. Ethnic Poles, themselves expelled from the Polish Kresy (which were incorporated into Soviet Union), started to settle down in Gliwice. Population estimates reached their pre-war levels in 1950, at 119,968 people. Gliwice's population peaked in 1988 at 223,403 inhabitants.
As of December 31, 2016, Gliwice's population stood at 182,156 people, a decrease of 1,236 over the previous year. Gliwice faces a continuous population decline since 1988, which is credited to very low birth rates (exceeded by death rates) and suburbanisation. graph{
}/graph
## Nationality, ethnicity and language.
Historically,
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Gliwice was ethnically diverse, with a German majority. In the Upper Silesian Plebiscite in 1921, 78.9 percent of voters opted for Germany (however 15.1 percent of vote in Gliwice was cast by not-residents, who are believed to overwhelmingly vote for Germany across the region). However in 1945 most of Germans were expelled or fled themselves, and the city was repopulated with expatriates, mostly from Eastern Poland. Many of these new inhabitants were academics from the Lwow Polytechnic who created the Silesian University of Technology.
According to the 2011 Polish Census, 93.7 percent of people in Gliwice claimed Polish nationality, with the biggest minorities being Silesians at 9.7 percent
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(18,169 people) and Germans at 1.3 percent (2,525). 0.3 percent declared another nationality, and the nationality of 2.1 percent of people could not be established. These numbers do not sum up to 100 percent as responders were allowed to choose up to two nationalities. Most-common languages used at home were: Polish (97.7 percent), Silesian (2.3 percent), German (0.7 percent) and English (0.4 percent).
## Religion.
Except for a short period immediately after Reformation, Gliwice has always had a Catholic majority, with sizeable Protestant and Jewish minorities. According to the population estimate in 1861, 7,476 people (68.4 percent) were Catholic, 1,555 (14.2 percent) Protestant, and 1,892
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Jewish (17.3 percent, highest share in city history).
Currently, as of 2011 census, 84.7 percent of inhabitants claim they belong to a religion. The majority - 82.73 percent - belongs to the Catholic Church. This is significantly lower than the Polish average, which is 89.6 and 88.3 percent, respectively. According to the Catholic Church in Poland, weekly mass attendance in the Diocese of Gliwice is at 36.7 percent of obliged, on par with Polish average. Other larger denominations include Jehovah's Witnesses (0.56 percent or 1,044 adherents) and Protestants (0.37 percent or 701 adherents).
Gliwice is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gliwice, which has 23 parish churches in the city.
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Gliwice is also the seat of the one of the three Armenian Church parishes in Poland (the other being in Warsaw and Gdańsk), which is subject to the Holy See directly. Other denominations present in the city include: a Greek Catholic Church parish, a Evangelical Church of Augsburg Confession parish, a Methodist parish, 9 Jehovah Witnesses halls (including one offering English-language services), several evangelical churches, a Buddhist temple and a Jewish prayer house.
### Jews in Gliwice.
Gliwice's Jewish population reached its highest number in 1929 at approx. 2,200 people, and started to decline in late 1930s, as NSDAP gained power in Germany. In 1933 there was 1,803 Jews in the city, and
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this number has dropped by half to 902 in 1939, most of them perished in the war. Between 1933 and 1937, Jews of Upper Silesia enjoyed somewhat less legal persecution compared to Jews in other parts of Germany, thanks to the Polish-German Treaty of Protection of Minorities' Rights in Upper Silesia. This regional exception was granted thanks to the Bernheim petition that Gliwice citizen Franz Bernheim filed against Nazi Germany in front of the League of Nations.
Only 25 Jews of the pre-war population lived through the war in the city, all of them being in mixed marriages with gentiles. Immediately after the war, Gliwice became a congregation point for Jews saved from The Holocaust, with population
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at around a 1,000 people in 1945. Since then, the number of Jews in Gliwice has started to decline as survivors moved to larger cities or emigrated to Israel, United States and other western counties. Currently, Gliwice's Jewish community is estimated at around 25 people and is part of the Katowice Jewish Religious Community.
Gliwice has one , where religious services are held every Sabbath and on holidays. It is located in the house that the Jewish Religious Community elected in 1905. Previously, Jews in Gliwice prayed in the New Synagogue which was destroyed by nazis during the Kristallnacht in 1938.
Notable members of the Jewish community in Gliwice include:
- Oscar Troplowitz (1863-1918)
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- German pharmacist, owner of Beiersdorf AG and inventor of Nivea Creme
- Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930) - German physicist, discoverer of anode rays, sometimes credited for discovery of the proton
- Julian Kornhauser, (b. 1946) - Polish poet and father of current first lady Agata Kornhauser-Duda, was born in Gliwice in 1946 to a Jewish father and Silesian mother.
# Higher education and science.
Gliwice is a major applied science hub for the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union. Gliwice is a seat of:
- Silesian University of Technology with about 32,000 students ("Politechnika Śląska")
- Akademia Polonijna of Częstochowa, branch in Gliwice
- Gliwice College of Entrepreneurship ("Gliwicka Wyższa
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Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości")
- Polish Academy of Sciences ("Polska Akademia Nauk")
- Institute of Theoretical And Applied Informatics
- Institute of Chemical Engineering
- Carbochemistry branch
- Other (commercial or government funded) applied research centers:
- Oncological Research Center (Centrum Onkologii)
- Inorganic Chemistry Research Institute (Instytut Chemii Nieorganicznej)
- Research Institute of Refractory Materials (Instytut Materiałów Ogniotrwałych)
- Research Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals (Instytut Metali Nieżelaznych)
- Research Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy ()
- Welding Research Institute (Instytut Spawalnictwa)
# Water transport.
The Gliwice Canal ("Kanał Gliwicki")
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links the harbour to the Oder River and thus to the waterway network across much of Germany and to the Baltic Sea. There is also an older Kłodnica Canal ("Kanał Kłodnicki") which is no longer operational.
# Sports.
- Piast Gliwice – men's football team playing in Orange Ektraklasa (since season 2008/2009),
- Carbo Gliwice – men's football team,
- Sośnica Gliwice – women's handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League: 10th place in 2003/2004 season.
- Gliwickie Towarzystwo Koszykówki – men's basketball team.
- P.A. Nova Gliwice – men's futsal team playing in 1st league (4 times Champion of Poland).
- Gliwice Cricket Club
- K.S. Kodokan Gliwice - martial arts team
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and club.
- Gliwice LIONS - American Football team.
# Politics.
President of the city (i.e. Mayor) is Zygmunt Frankiewicz. Gliwice has 21 city districts, each of them with its own "Rada Osiedlowa". They include in alphabetical order: Bojków, Brzezinka, Czechowice, Kopernik, Ligota Zabrska, Łabędy, Obrońców Pokoju, Ostropa, Politechnika, Sikornik, Sośnica, Stare Gliwice, Szobiszowice, Śródmieście, Żwirki I Wigury, Trynek, Wilcze Gardło, Wojska Polskiego, Wójtowa Wieś, Zatorze, Żerniki.
## Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency.
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency include: Brzeziński Jacek (PO), Chłopek Aleksander (PiS), Gałażewski Andrzej (PO), Głogowski
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Tomasz (PO), Kaźmierczak Jan (PO), Martyniuk Wacław (LiD), Religa Zbigniew (PiS), Sekuła Mirosław (PO), Szarama Wojciech (PiS), Szumilas Krystyna, (PO).
# Buildings.
- The Gliwice Radio Tower of "Radiostacja Gliwicka" ("Radio Station Gliwice") in Szobiszowice is the only remaining radio tower of wood construction in the world, and with a height of 118 meters, is perhaps the tallest remaining construction made out of wood in the world.
- Gliwice Trynek narrow-gauge station is a protected monument. The narrow-gauge line to Racibórz via Rudy closed in 1991 although a short section still remains as a museum line.
- Castle in Gliwice dates back to the Middle Ages and hosts a museum.
# International
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relations.
## Twin towns—Sister cities.
Gliwice is twinned with the following cities:
# Notable people.
- John Baildon (1772–1846), Scottish engineer
- Horst Bienek (1930–1990), German author of novels about Upper Silesia
- William Blandowski (1822–1878), German explorer, zoologist, photographer
- Sebastian Boenisch (born 1987), Polish-German footballer who plays for the Poland national football team
- Lothar Bolz (1903–1986), German politician, foreign affairs minister of the communist German Democratic Republic
- Agata Buzek (born 1976), actress, daughter of Jerzy Buzek
- Jerzy Buzek (born 1940), professor of chemistry, Prime Minister of Poland 1997–2001, MEP since 2004 and president
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of European Parliament since 2009
- Ernst Degner (1931–1983), German Grand Prix motorcycle racer and designer
- Robert Dziekański, Polish immigrant to Canada who was tasered 5 times and killed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police at Vancouver International Airport
- Gottfried Bermann Fischer (1897–1995), German publisher
- Christian Ganczarski (born 1966), German citizen of Polish descent, convert to Islam and convicted terrorist
- Eugen Goldstein (1850–1930), German physicist
- Sophia Grojsman (Khodosh) (born 1945), internationally famous American perfumer
- Hans Hanke (1912–1981), German military officer (World War Two)
- Rudolf Herrnstadt (1903–1966), German communist
- Adalbert
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Kelm (1856–1939), architect, important for the enlargement of the town in the 1890s. Famous for the Naval Academy Mürwik in Flensburg-Mürwik.
- Wojciech Kocyan, pianist
- Włodzimierz Lubański (born 1947), Polish football player
- Zbigniew Messner (1929–2014), professor and former rector of Economic Academy in Katowice, deputy prime minister of People's Republic of Poland 1983–1985, prime minister 1985–1988
- Gustav Neumann (1838–1881), German chess player
- Lukas Podolski (born 1985), Polish-German football player, Galatasaray FC
- Wojciech Pszoniak (born 1942), film and theatre actor
- Adam Matuszczyk (born 1989), Polish football player
- Tadeusz Różewicz (1921–2014), Polish poet and
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Gliwice
writer
- Zofia Rydet (1911–1997), Polish photographer
- Stanisław Sojka (born 1959), Polish musician
- Oskar Troplowitz (1863–1918), German pharmacist and owner of Beiersdorf AG, inventor of Nivea and other products
- Richard Wetz (1875–1935), German composer
- Erich Peter Wohlfarth (1924–1988), German physicist
- Leo Yankevich (1961–2018), American poet and translator
- Adam Zagajewski (born 1945), award-winning Polish poet
- Krystian Zimerman (born 1956), internationally renowned Polish pianist
# See also.
- Gliwice County
- Gliwice incident
# References.
- Um.gliwice.pl
- Web.archive.org
- Jewish Community in Gliwice on Virtual Shtetl
- Polsl.pl
- Gliwice.pl
- Gliwice.com
-
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# References.
- Um.gliwice.pl
- Web.archive.org
- Jewish Community in Gliwice on Virtual Shtetl
- Polsl.pl
- Gliwice.pl
- Gliwice.com
- Gliwice.zobacz.slask.pl
- Forumgliwice.com
- Gliwice.info.pl
- Aegee-gliwice.org, Travel Guide
# Further reading.
- Max Lamla: "Merkwürdiges aus meinem Leben (1917–1999)", Saarbrücken 2006,
- Boleslaw Domanski (2000) "The Impact of Spatial and Social Qualities on the Reproduction of Local Economic Success: The Case of the Path Dependent Development of Gliwice", in: Prace Geograficne, zesyt 106, Cracow, pp 35–54.
- B. Nietsche, "Geschichte der Stadt Gleiwitz" (1886)
- Seidel, "Die königliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz" (Berlin, 1896)
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Mahón
Mahón
Maó-Mahón, sometimes written in English as Mahon () ( , ) is a municipality, the capital city of the island of Menorca, and seat of the . The city is located on the eastern coast of the island, which is part of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands, Spain. Maó-Mahón has one of the largest natural harbours in the world: long and up to wide. The water is deep but it remains mostly clear due to it being slightly enclosed. It is also said to be the birthplace of mayonnaise.
Its population in 2009 was estimated to be 29,495.
# History.
The name's origin is attributed to the Carthaginian general Mago Barca, brother to Hannibal, who is thought to have taken refuge there in 205 BC.
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Mahón
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it became part of the Eastern Empire; it suffered raids from Vikings and Arabs, until the Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba conquered it in 903.
Maó-Mahón was captured in 1287 from the Moors by Alfonso III of Aragon and incorporated into the Kingdom of Majorca, a vassal kingdom of the Crown of Aragon. Its harbour, one of the most strategically important in the western Mediterranean, was re-fortified.
In 1535, the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa attacked Maó-Mahón and took 6,000 captives as slaves back to Algiers, in the Sack of Mahon.
## British rule.
Menorca was captured in 1708 by a joint British-Dutch force on behalf of Holy Roman Emperor Charles
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Mahón
VI, during the War of the Spanish Succession. The British saw the island's potential as a naval base and sought to take full control. Its status as a British possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. During the island's years as a British dependency, the capital was moved from Ciutadella de Menorca to Mahon, which then served as residence for the governor, the most famous being General Richard Kane. During this period the natural harbour leading to the town and surrounding settlements were sometimes collectively known as ""Port Mahon"" "(see map left)".
The island was lost to the French in 1756 following the naval Battle of Menorca and the final Siege of Fort St Philip, which
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took place several miles from the town. After their defeat in the Seven Years' War, France returned the island to the British in 1763. In a joint Franco-Spanish effort and following a long five month invasion, the British surrendered the island again in 1782; It was transferred to Spain in 1783 as part of the Peace of Paris. The British recaptured the island in 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars. The British and the French tried (and failed) to end hostilities between themselves with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Both nations agreed to cede or withdraw from certain territories, with the island of Menorca passing to the Spanish, with whom it has remained since.
### The Royal Navy.
A
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small but important Royal Navy Dockyard was established by the British on the north side of the harbour, opposite the town, in 1715. It served as the Royal Navy's principal Mediterranean base for much of the 18th century, and remains in use today as a Spanish Naval station. Several Dockyard buildings, dating from the 1760s, can still be seen on Illa Pinto (formerly known as Saffron Island) including a Naval Storehouse with clock tower. There recently have been moves to establish a maritime museum here. The island has a distinctive octagonal shape, formed when wharves were constructed around it in the 1760s to enable several warships to be careened there all at once.
The ruins of a former Royal
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Naval Hospital, founded in 1711, stand on another nearby island (Illa del Rei). They recently have been restored.
## 20th century.
During the Spanish Civil War, the island remained loyal to the Republic, but was captured by the Nationalists in 1939. During the battle to capture the islands from the republicans, Maó-Mahón was bombed by Italian and Spanish Nationalist bomber planes.
Spanish leader Francisco Franco visited the city on 11 May 1960 to open a new thermal power station. The event was used by the authorities to further promote Francoist Spain.
## Modern era.
Today it serves as the seat of the Island Council of Menorca ("Consell Insular de Menorca").
Towards the end of the 20th
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Mahón
century, the renovation of its historic centre was made possible by income from tourism.
A traditional cheese made on the island ("Mahón cheese") is named after the city. Some believe that the origin and name of mayonnaise are found in this Menorcan city. In Spanish "mahón" is also the name of nankeen, especially the blue cloth.
# Notable residents.
- Joan Ramis, lawyer and historian (1746–1819)
- Pasqual Calbó i Caldés, painter (1752–1816)
- Mathieu Orfila, toxicologist (1787–1853).
- Orestes Araújo, Uruguayan historian and educator (1853–1915)
- Nicolau Maria Rubió i Tudurí, architect and writer (1891–1981).
- Marcelino Gavilán Bofill, otorrinolaringologist (1889–1981).
- Francesc
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educator (1853–1915)
- Nicolau Maria Rubió i Tudurí, architect and writer (1891–1981).
- Marcelino Gavilán Bofill, otorrinolaringologist (1889–1981).
- Francesc de Borja Moll i Casasnovas, linguist and philologist (1903–1991).
- Rafita Gomar Moreno, actor (1984–).
- Sergio Llull, basketball player in Real Madrid (1987–).
# Other.
At 39°51'25"N 4°17'26"E, there is a large military-used Wullenweber antenna for radio direction finding.
# Twin towns.
- Cervia, Italy
# External links.
- Municipality of Maó-Mahón, WebMenorca site: walking tour Maó-Mahón
- Note about the toponomy Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. From the Onomastics office of Universitat de les Illes Balears
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Koszalin
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Koszalin
Koszalin
Koszalin (; , ) is a city in northwestern Poland, in Western Pomerania. It is located south of the Baltic Sea coast, and intersected by the river Dzierżęcinka. Koszalin is also a county-status city and capital of Koszalin County of West Pomeranian Voivodeship since 1999. Previously, it was a capital of Koszalin Voivodeship (1950–1998). The current mayor of Koszalin is Piotr Jedliński.
# History.
## Middle Ages.
According to the Medieval Chronicle of Greater Poland ("Kronika Wielkopolska") Koszalin was one of the Pomeranian cities captured and subjugated by Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland in 1107 (other towns included Kołobrzeg, Kamień and Wolin). Afterwards, in the 12th century
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the area became part of the Griffin-ruled Duchy of Pomerania, a vassal state of Poland, which later on separated from Poland after the fragmentation of Poland into smaller duchies.
In 1214, Bogislaw II, Duke of Pomerania, made a donation of a village known as Koszalice/Cossalitz by Chełmska Hill in Kołobrzeg Land to the Norbertine monastery in Białoboki near Trzebiatów. New, mostly German, settlers from outside of Pomerania were invited to settle the territory. In 1248, the eastern part of Kołobrzeg Land, including the village, was transferred by Duke Barnim I to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kammin.
On 23 May 1266, Kammin bishop Hermann von Gleichen granted a charter to the village, granting
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it Lübeck law, local government, autonomy and multiple privileges. When in 1276 the bishops became the sovereign in neighboring Kołobrzeg, they moved their residence there, while the administration of the diocese was done from Koszalin.
The city obtained direct access to the Baltic Sea when it gained the village of Jamno (1331), parts of Lake Jamno, a spit between the lake and the sea and the castle of Unieście in 1353. Thence, it participated in the Baltic Sea trade as a member of the Hanseatic League, which led to several conflicts with the competing seaports of at Kołobrzeg and Darłowo. From 1356 until 1417/1422, the city was part of the Duchy of Pomerania-Wolgast. In 1446 Koszalin fought
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a victorious battle against the nearby rival city of Kołobrzeg. In 1475 a conflict between the city of Koszalin and the Pomeranian duke Bogislaw X broke out, resulting in the kidnapping and temporary imprisonment of the duke in Koszalin.
## Modern Age.
As a result of German colonization discriminatory regulations against the indigenous population were introduced. In 1516 local Germans enforced a ban on buying goods from Slavic speakers. It was also forbidden to accept native Slavs to craft guilds.
In 1534 during the Protestant Reformation, the city became mostly Lutheran under the influence of Johannes Bugenhagen. In 1568, Johann Friedrich, Duke of Pomerania and bishop of Cammin, started
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constructing a residence. After the 1637 death of the last Pomeranian duke, Bogislaw XIV, the city passed to his cousin, Bishop Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ of Kammin. Occupied by Swedish troops during the Thirty Years' War in 1637, some of the city's inhabitants sought refuge in nearby Poland. The city was granted to Brandenburg-Prussia after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Stettin (1653), and with all of Farther Pomerania became part of the Brandenburgian Pomerania.
As part of the Kingdom of Prussia, "Cöslin" was heavily damaged by a fire in 1718, but was rebuilt in the following years. In 1764 on the Chełmska Hill, now located within the city limits, a Pole Jan Gelczewski founded
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a paper mill that supplied numerous city offices. The city was occupied by French troops in 1807 after the War of the Fourth Coalition. Following the Napoleonic wars, it became the capital of Fürstenthum District (county) and Regierungsbezirk Cöslin (government region) within the Province of Pomerania. The Fürstenthum District was dissolved on 1 September 1872 and replaced with the Cöslin District on December 13. Between 1829 and 1845, a road connecting Koszalin with Szczecin and Gdańsk was built. Part of this road, from Koszalin to the nearby town of Sianów, was built in 1833 by around one hundred former Polish insurgents.
The town became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification
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of Germany. The railroad from Stettin (Szczecin) through "Cöslin" and Stolp (Słupsk) to Danzig (Gdańsk) was constructed from 1858-78. A military cadet school created by Frederick the Great in 1776 was moved from Kulm (Chełmno) to the city in 1890.
After the Nazis had closed down Dietrich Bonhoeffer's seminar in Finkenwalde (a suburb of Stettin, now Szczecin) in 1937, Bonhoeffer chose the town as one of the sites where he illegally continued to educate vicars of the Confessing Church. During the Second World War Köslin was the site of the first school for the "rocket troops" created on orders of Walter Dornberger, the Wehrmacht's head of the V-2 design and development program. The Nazis brought
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many prisoners of war and forced labourers to the city, mainly Poles, but also Italians and French.
## After World War II.
On 4 March 1945, the city was captured by the Red Army. Under the border changes forced by the Soviet Union in the post-war Potsdam Agreement, Koszalin once again became part of Poland. Most of the town's German population fled or was expelled to the remainder of post-war Germany. The city was resettled by Poles and Kashubians, many of whom had been expelled from Polish territory annexed by the Soviets.
As early as March 1945 a Polish police unit was established, consisting of former forced labourers and prisoners of war, however, the Soviets, still present in the city,
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plundered local industrial factories in April. From May 1945, life in the destroyed city was being organized, the first post-war schools, shops and service premises were established. In March 1946, the anti-communist Home Army 5th Wilno Brigade was active in Koszalin. In July 1947, the last units of the Soviet Army left Koszalin, and from that time only Polish troops were stationed in the city.
Initially, the city was considered to become the capital of the voivodeship created from the former German province east of the Oder-Neisse line, which nevertheless was assigned to Szczecin (Szczecin voivodeship, 1945–1950). In 1950 this voivodeship was divided into a truncated Szczecin Voivodeship and
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Koszalin Voivodeship. In years 1950-75 Koszalin was the capital of the enlarged Koszalin Voivodeship sometimes called Middle Pomerania due to becoming the fastest growing city in Poland. In years 1975-98 it was the capital of the smaller Koszalin Voivodeship.
As a result of the Local Government Reorganization Act (1998) Koszalin became part of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship (effective 1 January 1999) regardless of an earlier proposal for a new Middle Pomeranian Voivodeship covering approximately the area of former Koszalin Voivodeship (1950–75).
# Landmarks.
The city borders on Chełmska Hill (), a site of pagan worship in prehistory, and upon which is now built the tower "sanctuary of the
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covenant", which was consecrated by Pope John Paul II in 1991, and is currently a pilgrimage site. Also an observation is located on the hill.
Koszalin's most distinctive landmark is the Gothic St. Mary's Cathedral, dating from the early 14th century. Positioned in front of the cathedral is a monument commemorating John Paul II's visit to the city.
# Demographics.
Before World War II the population of the town was composed of Protestants, Jews and Catholics.
# Climate.
The climate is oceanic (Köppen: "Cfb") with some humid continental characteristics ("Dfb"), usually categorized if the 0 °C isotherm is used (for the same classification). Being in Western Pomerania and near the Baltic Sea,
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it has a much more moderate climate than the others large Polish cities. The summers are warm and practically never hot as in the south and the winters are often more moderate than the northeast and east, although still cold, yet it is not as mild as Western Europe. Daily averages below freezing point can be found in January and February, while in the summer they are between 15 and 16 °C, relatively cool. The average annual precipitation is 704 mm, distributed during the year. Koszalin is one of the sunniest cities in the country.
# Notable people.
- Daniel Liczko (1615- 1662), Sergeant of the Dutch colonial army in New Amsterdam
- Ewald Christian von Kleist (1715–1759) a German poet and
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Koszalin
cavalry officer
- Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888) German physicist and mathematician and a founder of thermodynamics
- Karl Adolf Lorenz (1837–1923), conductor, composer and music pedagogue
- Hans Grade (1879–1946), aviation pioneer
- Fritz von Brodowski (1886–1944) a German army general, controversially killed while in French custody during WWII
- Georg Wendt (1889–1948) a German politician, member of the SPD and SED
- Friedrich-Karl Burckhardt (1889-1962), World War I flying ace
- Peter von Heydebreck (1889–1934), NSDAP politician
- Paul Dahlke (1904–1984) a German stage and film actor
- Heinz Pollay (1908–1979) a German dressage horse rider, competed in the 1936 and 1952 Summer Olympics
-
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Hans-Joachim Preil (1923–1999), actor and comedian
- Leslie Brent (born 1925), immunologist and zoologist
- Waltraud Nowarra (1940–2007) a German chess player
- Vladimir Berdnikov (born 1946), painter and glass artist
- Mirosław Okoński (born 1958), footballer, played 418 pro games and 29 for Poland
- Kuba Wojewódzki (born 1963) a Polish journalist, TV personality, drummer and comedian
- Mirosław Trzeciak (born 1968), footballer, director of sport development of Legia Warszawa
- Marcin Horbacz (born 1974) a Polish modern pentathlete, competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics
- Maciej Stachowiak (born 1976), software engineer at Apple Inc.
- Kasia Cerekwicka (born 1980) a Polish pop singer
-
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Paweł Spisak (born 1981) a Polish equestrian, competed at the 2004, 2008, 2012 and 2016 Summer Olympics
- Sebastian Mila (born 1982), footballer
- Joanna Majdan (born 1988), chess player
# Sports.
- AZS Koszalin - men's basketball team, playing in the Polish Basketball League (the top division)
- AZS Politechnika Koszalin - women's handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League: 3rd place in 1st league in 2003/2004 season; promoted to Premiership in 2004/2005 season.
- Gwardia Koszalin - football team, currently playing in the fourth Polish division.
- Bałtyk Koszalin - football team, currently playing in the fourth Polish division
- Tennis - Bałtyk Koszalin
- Rugby
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- Rugby Club Koszalin
- Motorsport - Klub Motor Sport Koszalin
- American Football - Korsarze Koszalin
# Major corporations.
- Zakład Energetyczny Koszalin SA
- Brok Brewery SA
- JAAN Nordglass Autoglass
- TWIP Foundation
# Education.
- Koszalin University of Technology (Politechnika Koszalińska)
- Baltic College (Bałtycka Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna)
- Air Force training center (Centrum Szkolenia Sił Powietrznych im. Romualda Traugutta)
- Koszalin University of Humanities (Koszalińska Wyższa Szkoła Nauk Humanistycznych)
- State Higher Vocational School in Koszalin (Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Koszalinie)
- Major Seminary of the Diocese of Koszalin-Kolobrzeska in Koszalin
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(Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Diecezji Koszalińsko-Kołobrzeskiej w Koszalinie)
- Team State School of Music (Zespół Państwowych Szkół Muzycznych im. Grażyny Bacewicz)
- School Arts Team (Zespół Szkół Plastycznych im. Władysława Hasiora)
- 1st. High School Stanisława Dubois (Dubois or colloquially Dibulec)
- 2nd. High School Władysława Broniewskiego (colloquially Bronek)
- 5th. High School Stanisława Lema (Jednosci)
- 6th. High School Cypriana Norwida (Podgorna)
# International relations.
Koszalin is twinned with:
- Albano Laziale, Italy
- Bourges, France
- Fuzhou, China
- Gladsaxe, Denmark
- Kristianstad, Sweden
- Lida, Belarus
- Neubrandenburg, Germany
- Neumünster, Germany
-
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any
- Schwedt, Germany
- Seinäjoki, Finland
- Berlin Tempelhof-Schöneberg, Germany
# See also.
- Museum of Vladimir Vysotsky in Koszalin
# External links.
- Official City Authorities site
- Technical University of Koszalin
- ChefMoz Dining Guide
- Unofficial Forum of Koszalin's Community
- Koszalin in Your Wonder Beautiful Place
- http://www.koszalincity.pl/ (Polish)
- Heimatkreis Köslin (German refugee's organization)
## Media.
- Głos Pomorza, regional daily newspaper
- Głos Koszaliński, regional daily newspaper
- Radio Koszalin, regional radio station
- Radio Północ, regional radio station
- Telewizja Polska Szczecin, regional TV station
- TV MAX, regional TV station
-
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Tarnów
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Tarnów
Tarnów
Tarnów (; is a city in southeastern Poland with 109,062 inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of 269,000 inhabitants. The city is situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship since 1999. From 1975 to 1998, it was the capital of the Tarnów Voivodeship. It is a major rail junction, located on the strategic east–west connection from Lviv to Kraków, and two additional lines, one of which links the city with the Slovak border. Tarnów is known for its traditional Polish architecture, which was strongly influenced by foreign cultures and foreigners that once lived in the area, most notably Jews, Germans and Austrians. The entire Old Town, featuring 16th century tenements, houses and defensive
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walls, has been fully preserved. Tarnów is also the warmest city of Poland, with the highest long-term mean annual temperature in the whole country.
# Names and etymology.
The first documented mention of the settlement dates back to 1105, spelled as "Tharnow". The name later evolved to "Tarnowo" (1229), "Tarnów" (1327), and "Tharnow" (1473). The place name Tarnów is widely used in different forms across Slavic Europe, and lands which used to be inhabited by Slavs, such as eastern Germany, Hungary, and northern Greece. There is a German town, Tarnow, Greek Tyrnavos (also spelled as Tirnovo), Czech Trnov, Bulgarian Veliko Tarnovo and Malko Tarnovo, as well as different Trnovos/Trnowos in Slovenia,
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Slovakia, Serbia, Bosnia, and North Macedonia. The name "Tarnów" comes from an early Slavic word "trn/tarn", which means "thorn", or an area covered by thorny plants.
# History.
Already in the mid-9th century, on the Tarnów's St. Martin Mount (Góra sw. Marcina, 2.5 kilometers from the centre of today's city), a Slavic gord was established, probably by the Vistulans. Due to efforts of local archaeologists, we know that the size of the gord was almost 16 hectares, and it was surrounded by a rampart. The settlement was probably destroyed in the 1030s or the 1050s, during either a popular rebellion against Christianity (see Baptism of Poland), or Czech invasion of Lesser Poland. In the mid-11th
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century, a new gord was established on the Biała river. It was a royal property, which in the late 11th or early 12th century was handed over to the Tyniec Benedictine Abbey. The name Tarnów, with a different spelling, was for the first time mentioned in a document of Papal legate, Cardinal Gilles de Paris (1124).
The first documented mention of Tarnów occurs in the year 1309, when a list of miracles of Kinga of Poland specifies a woman named Marta, who was resident of the settlement. In 1327, a knight named Spicymir (Leliwa coat of arms) purchased a village of Tarnów Wielki, and three years later, founded his own private town. On 7 March 1330, King Władysław I the Elbow-high granted Magdeburg
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rights to Tarnów. In the same year, construction of a castle on the St. Martin Hill was completed by Castellan of Kraków, Spycimir Leliwita of Leliwa coat of arms (its ruins can still be seen).
Tarnów remained in the hands of the Leliwa family, out of which in the 15th century the Tarnowski family emerged. In the 14th century, numerous German settlers immigrated from Kraków and Nowy Sącz (see Walddeutsche, Ostsiedlung). During the 17th century Scottish immigrants began to come in large numbers. In 1528 the exiled King of Hungary János Szapolyai lived in the town. The town prospered during the Polish Golden Age, when it belonged to Hetman Jan Tarnowski (1488–1561). In the mid-16th century, its
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population was app. 1,200, with 200 houses located within town's defensive wall (the wall itself had been built in the mid-15th century, and expanded in the early 16th century). In 1467, the waterworks and sewage systems were completed, with large cisterns filled with drinking water built in the main market square. In the 16th century, during the period known as the Polish Golden Age, Tarnów had a school, a synagogue, a Calvinist prayer house, Roman Catholic churches, and up to twelve guilds.
## Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
After the death of Jan Tarnowski (16 May 1561), Italian sculptor Jan Maria Padovano began creating one of the most beautiful examples of Renaissance headstones in the
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Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The monument of hetman Tarnowski is almost 14 meters tall, and stands in St. Anne Chapel, which is located in northern nave of the Tarnów Cathedral. Padovano completed his work in 1573; furthermore, he designed the Renaissance town hall, and oversaw its remodeling in the 1560s. At that time, in 28 niches of the town hall were portraits of members of the Tarnowski family – from Spicymir Leliwita to Jan Krzysztof Tarnowski, who died in 1567. In 1570 Tarnów became property of the Ostrogski family, after Zofia Tarnowska, the daughter of the hetman, married prince Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski. In 1588, after Konstanty's death, the town changed hands several times, belonging
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to different families, which slowed its development. Until the Partitions of Poland, Tarnów belonged to the County of Pilzno, Sandomierz Voivodeship. The town, like almost all locations of Lesser Poland, was devastated in October 1655, during the Swedish invasion of Poland, and as a result, its population declined from 2,000 to 768. In 1723, the town became property of the Sanguszko family, which purchased it from the Lubomirski family.
## Habsburg Empire.
After the first partition of Poland (1772), Tarnów was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, and remained in Austrian Galicia until late 1918. Austrian rule initially brought positive changes, as the town ceased to be private property, became
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the seat of a county (German: kreis), and of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarnów (1783). On 14 March 1794, Józef Bem was born in Tarnów. In the 1830s, under the influence of events in Congress Poland (see November Uprising), Tarnów emerged as a center of Polish conspiratorial organizations. Plans for a national uprising in Galicia failed in early 1846, when local peasants began murdering the nobility in the Galician slaughter. The massacre, led by Jakub Szela (born in Smarżowa), began on 18 February 1846. Szela's peasant units surrounded and attacked manor houses and settlements located in three counties – Sanok, Jasło, and Tarnów. The revolt got out of hand and the Austrians had to put it
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down.
Tarnów went through the period of quick development in the second half of the 19th century, due to the program of construction of railway system. In 1852, the town received rail connection with Kraków, due to the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis, and in 1870, its population was 21,779. In 1878, gas lighting was introduced, and three years later, first daily newspaper appeared. In 1888, the Diocese Museum was founded by Rev. Jozef Baba, and in 1910, Tarnów received modern waterworks, a power plant and a new complex of the main rail station. The city remained a hotspot of Polish conspirational activities, with up to 20% of all members of the Polish Legions in World War I coming
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from Tarnów and its area. On 10 November 1914, units of the Russian Imperial Army captured Tarnów, and remained in the city until 6 May 1915 (see Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive). In the early stages of the offensive, Tarnów was shelled by German-Austrian heavy artillery, which brought destruction to some of its districts.
## Second Polish Republic.
Tarnów was one of the first Polish cities to be freed during the rebirth of Poland following World War I. The Polish Legions liberated the city on the night of 30–31 October 1918. In the Second Polish Republic, Tarnów belonged to Kraków Voivodeship, and gave the newly established country many outstanding figures, such as Franciszek Latinik and Wincenty
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Witos. In early 1927, construction of a large chemical plant was initiated in the suburban village of Świerczków "", which is now a part of the industrial borough of Mościce, a district of the city. Before the outbreak of World War II, the population of Tarnów was 40,000, of which almost half were Jewish.
## 1939 invasion of Poland.
On 28 August 1939, a Nazi saboteur conducted the Tarnów rail station bomb attack killing 20 civilians, two days before the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany. The city was overrun by the German forces on 7 September 1939. Tarnów was incorporated into the General Government territory as the seat of the "Kreishauptmanschaft Tarnow" district on 26 October 1939.
On
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14 June 1940, the first mass transport left the Tarnów station to Auschwitz concentration camp, with 728 Polish political prisoners. All throughout the German occupation of Poland Tarnów was an important center of the Armia Krajowa (AK) and other resistance organizations. In the mid-1944, AK's 16th Infantry Regiment "Barbara" took part in Operation Tempest. The Wehrmacht retreated from Tarnów on 18 January 1945, and the city was captured by the Red Army.
A few months later, the Museum of Tarnów Land was opened, and Tarnów began a postwar recovery. In 1957, State Theatre of Ludwik Solski was opened, and in 1975 Tarnów became the capital of a voivodeship.
## The Jews of Tarnów.
Before World
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War II, about 25,000 Jews lived in Tarnów. Jews, whose recorded presence in the town went back to the mid-15th century, comprised about half of the town's total population. A large portion of Jewish business in Tarnów was devoted to garment and hat manufacturing. The Jewish community was ideologically diverse and included religious Hasidim, secular Zionists, and many more.
Immediately following the German occupation of the city on 8 September 1939, the persecution of the Jews began. German units burned down most of the city's synagogues on 9 September and drafted Jews for forced-labor projects. Tarnów was incorporated into the Generalgouvernement. Many Tarnów Jews fled to the east, while a
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large influx of refugees from elsewhere in occupied Poland continued to increase the town's Jewish population. In early November, the Germans ordered the establishment of a Jewish council (Judenrat) to transmit orders and regulations to the Jewish community. Among the duties of the Jewish council were enforcement of special taxation on the community and providing workers for forced labor.
During 1941, life for the Jews of Tarnów became increasingly precarious. The Germans imposed a large collective fine on the community. Jews were required to hand in their valuables. Roundups for labor became more frequent and killings became more commonplace and arbitrary. Deportations from Tarnów began in
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June 1942, when about 13,500 Jews were sent to the Belzec extermination camp. The first major act in the extermination of the Jews of Tarnów was the so-called "first operation" from 11–19 June 1942. The Germans gathered thousands of Jews in the Rynek (market place), and then they were tortured and killed. During this time period, on the streets of the town and in the Jewish cemetery, about 3,000 Jews were shot; in the woods of Zbylitowska Góra a few kilometers away from Tarnów a further 7,000 were murdered. According to a document from Michal Borawski born in 1926, featured at the entry of the Bimah as part of the panel offered by the Batorego Foundation, the street stairs ("małe schody" or
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little stairs) from the town-center to the Bernardynski street (where the Bernardine Monastery is located), had to be cleaned of the blood by the local fire brigade for three days.
After the June deportations, the Germans forced the surviving Jews of Tarnów, along with thousands of Jews from neighboring towns, into the new Tarnów Ghetto. The ghetto was surrounded by a high wooden fence. Living conditions in the ghetto were deplorable, marked by severe food shortages, a lack of sanitary facilities, and a forced-labor regimen in factories and workshops producing goods for the German war industry. In September 1942, the Germans ordered all ghetto residents to report to Targowica Square, where
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they were subjected to a 'selection' in which those deemed 'non-essential' were singled out for deportation to Belzec. About 8,000 people were deported. Thereafter, deportations from Tarnów to extermination camps continued sporadically; the Germans deported a group of 2,500 in November 1942.
## Holocaust resistance.
In the midst of the 1942 deportations, some Jews in Tarnów organized a Jewish resistance movement. Many of the resistance leaders were young Zionists involved in the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement. Many of those who left the ghetto to join the partisans fighting in the forests later fell in battle with SS units. Other resisters sought to establish escape routes to Hungary, but
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with limited success. The Germans decided to destroy the Tarnów ghetto in September 1943. The surviving 10,000 Jews were deported, 7,000 of them to Auschwitz and 3,000 to the Plaszow concentration camp in Kraków. In late 1943, Tarnów was declared "free of Jews" (Judenrein). By the end of the war, the overwhelming majority of Tarnów Jews had been murdered by the Germans. Although 700 Jews returned in 1945, some of them soon left the city. Many moved to Israel.
# Geography.
Tarnów lies at the Carpathian foothills, on the Dunajec and the Biała rivers. The area of the city is . It is divided into sixteen districts, known in Polish as osiedla. A few kilometers west of the city lies the district
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of Mościce, built in the late 1920s, together with a large chemical plant. The district was named after President of Poland, Ignacy Mościcki.
## Climate.
Tarnów is one of the warmest cities in Poland. The average temperature in January is and in July. It is claimed that Tarnów has the longest summer in Poland spreading from mid May to mid September (above 118 days).
# Economy.
Tarnów is an important center of economy and industry. The city has chemical plants including Zakłady Azotowe w Tarnowie-Mościcach S.A., which is part of Poland's biggest company operating within the chemical sector Grupa Azoty, Becker Farby Przemysłowe Sp. z o.o., Summit Packaging Polska Sp. z o.o.; as well as food
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plants (Fritar), building materials (Leier Polska S.A., Bruk-Bet), textiles (Spółdzielnia "Tarnowska Odzież, Tarnospin, Tarkonfex"), and several warehouses, as well as a distribution center of the Lidl supermarket chain. Tarnów is an important center of natural gas industry, with headquarters of three different gas corporations.
Another significant company based in Tarnów is the Zakłady Mechaniczne Tarnów operating in the defence industry. It manufactures handguns, assault rifles, sniper rifles and anti-air guns. It is part of the state-controlled Bumar Corporation.
Among the major shopping malls in Tarnów are the Gemini Park Tarnów and Galeria Tarnovia.
# Transport.
Tarnów is an important
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road and rail hub. It lies at the intersection of two major roads – the motorway along European route E40, and the National Road nr. 73, which goes from Kielce to Jasło. Furthermore, the city is a rail junction, with four lines: three main electrified routes (westward to Kraków, eastward to Dębica and southward to Nowy Sącz), as well as secondary-importance local connection to Szczucin. The history of rail transport in Tarnów dates back to the year 1856, when the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis reached the city. The architectural complex of Tarnów Main Station, fashioned after the Lviv railway station was completed in 1906 by the Austrian Partition. Since 2010, Tarnów station houses
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a gallery of modern art, the only such gallery located in a rail station in Poland. Tarnów also has three additional stations: Tarnów Mościce, as well as Tarnów Północny and Tarnów Klikowa, both of which are currently out of service.
The city's public transport system consists of 29 municipal bus routes, which provide convenient transportation to all districts. In 1911–1942 Tarnów had a tram line, with the length of 2.5 kilometres, since replaced by buses.
# Politics.
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Tarnów constituency in 2005 included: Urszula Augustyn, PO, Edward Czesak, PiS, Aleksander Grad, PO, Barbara Marianowska, PiS, Józef Rojek, PiS, Wiesław Woda, PSL and Michał Wojtkiewicz,
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PiS. Member of the European Parliament elected in 2007 was Urszula Gacek, PO, EPP-ED.
# Tourism.
Tarnow is an important tourist, cultural and economic center in Lesser Poland Voivodeship. The old town of Tarnow, called the "pearl of the Polish Renaissance", is one of the most beautiful examples of the Renaissance architectural layout of Polish cities.
Tourist Information
Detailed information about city, tourist attractions, cultural events and other things are provided by Tourist Information Center, located in the southern part of Main Square. Office is well equipped with wide variety of brochures and souvenirs, it also serves as a bike rental spot, luggage storage and small guesthouse (4
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rooms/8 beds).
Tourist Information Center
- Rynek 7, 33–100 Tarnów, phone: +48 14 688 90 90, mobile: 698 633 421 Tourist Information Center V-IX: mon-fri 8–20, sat-sun 9–17; X-IV: mon-fri 8–18, sat-sun 9–17.
# Attractions.
Points of interest around the city include:
- Market Square in the Old Town, with medieval urban layout of streets and tenement houses, some from the Renaissance period,
- 14th century Town Hall,
- Mikolajowski House (1524), the oldest tenement house in Tarnow,
- Remains of the Tarnowski family castle,
- Remains of the Old Synagogue,
- Remains of the 14th – 16th century defensive wall,
- 16th century two fortified towers,
- Bernadine Abbey complex,
- Late 16th
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century Florencki House,
- 18th and 19th century manor houses in the suburbs,
- Jewish Cemetery, founded in 1583,
- Old Cemetery (late 18th century),
- Sanguszko Palace at Gumniska,
- Railway Station (1855),
- City Park (1866),
- Mausoleum of Józef Bem,
- Roman Catholic churches, such as the Tarnów Cathedral (14th century, renovated in 1889–1900), and Holy Trinity church (16th century).
# Education.
- Małopolska Wyższa Szkoła Ekonomiczna
- Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa in Tarnów (PWST)
- Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu
- John Paul II High School in Tarnów
# Sports.
- Unia Tarnów – speedway team, championship of Poland in 2004, 2005 and 2012. Sponsored by Mościce Nitrate Factory. Also
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called Jaskółki (Swallows)
- ZKS Unia Tarnów – Zakładowy Klub Sportowy Unia Tarnów (Workplace Sports Club United Tarnów) – Soccer team, currently in the I League in the "Polska Liga" 2005/2006 season.
- Tarnovia Tarnów – Soccer team, also in II League in the "Polska Liga" 2005/2006 season.
- Unia Wisła Paged Tarnów – men's basketball team, 6th in Era Basket Liga in 2003/2004 season.
# Religion.
Besides Catholics other Christian denominations are also present in Tarnów including: Baptist Church, Free Brothers Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Methodist Church, Pentecostal Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church and the non-denominational Evangelical Movement "The Lord is my Banner". Before World
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War II there was a large population of Jews comprising half of the city's population, but now there remain just monuments of their past presence.
According to 2007 Catholic Church statistics provided by the Instytut Statystyki Kościoła Katolickiego SAC, Tarnów is the most religious city in Poland, with 72.5% of the congregation of the Diocese of Tarnów attending Mass weekly. However, as noted by the Institute director, Father Witold Zdaniewicz, the church teachings are not being followed in the area of intimacy.
# International relations.
## Twin towns — Sister cities.
Tarnów is twinned with:
- Trenčín in Slovakia
- Kiskőrös in Hungary
- Schoten in Belgium
- Blackburn in United Kingdom
-
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Casalmaggiore in Italy
- Veszprém in Hungary
- Nowy Sącz in Poland
- Kotlas in Russia
- Ternopil in Ukraine
- Bila Tserkva in Ukraine
- Vinnytsia in Ukraine
# Notable residents.
- Józef Bem (1794–1850), general
- Roman Brandstaetter (1906–1987), writer
- Józef Cyrankiewicz (1911–1989), Prime Minister of Poland
- Charles Denner (1926–1995), French actor
- Jacek Dukaj (born 1974), writer
- Ignace J(ay). Gelb (1907–1985), Polish-American ancient historian, Assyriologist
- Allan Gray (born "Josef Żmigród", 1902–1973), composer
- Michał Heller (born 1936), philosopher
- Rabbi Löb Judah ben Isaac
- Bartosz Kapustka (born 1996), footballer
- Naphtali Keller (1834–1865), Jewish scholar;
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son of Israel Mendel Keller
- Leon Kellner (1859–?), Jewish scholar
- Mateusz Klich (born 1990), footballer
- Tadeusz Klimecki (1895–1943), Chief of Polish General Staff
- (1883–1957), Argentinian Jewish Photographer
- Andrzej Krasicki (1918–1995), film and theatre actor and theatre director
- Krystyna Kuperberg (born 1944), mathematician
- Siegfried Lipiner (1856–1911), Galician-Austrian Jewish poet
- Andrew Odlyzko (born 1949), mathematician
- Agata Mróz-Olszewska (1982–2008), volleyball player and two-time European Champion
- Anny Ondra (1903–1987), Czech movie star
- (1911–1993), industrialist and politician
- Joseph Öttinger (1818–1895), Galician-Jewish physician
- Tony Rickardsson
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(born 1970), motorcycle speedway rider, honorable resident (since 22 June 2006)
- Eustachy Stanisław Sanguszko (1842–1903), nobleman, conservative politician
- Wilhelm Sasnal (born 1972), painter
- Jan Szczepanik (1872–1926), inventor
- Jan Tarnowski (1488–1561), nobleman and Hetman
- Jan of Tarnów (c.1349–1409)
- Jan of Tarnów (1367–1433)
- Rafał z Tarnowa (c. 1330–1373)
- Rabbi Marcus Weissmann-Chajes (1830–1914), Jewish scholar
- Rabbi Salo Wittmayer Baron (1895–1989), Jewish historian
- Franciszek Zachara (1898–1966), composer and pianist
# References.
- "This article incorporates text from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and has been released under the GFDL" as
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2006)
- Eustachy Stanisław Sanguszko (1842–1903), nobleman, conservative politician
- Wilhelm Sasnal (born 1972), painter
- Jan Szczepanik (1872–1926), inventor
- Jan Tarnowski (1488–1561), nobleman and Hetman
- Jan of Tarnów (c.1349–1409)
- Jan of Tarnów (1367–1433)
- Rafał z Tarnowa (c. 1330–1373)
- Rabbi Marcus Weissmann-Chajes (1830–1914), Jewish scholar
- Rabbi Salo Wittmayer Baron (1895–1989), Jewish historian
- Franciszek Zachara (1898–1966), composer and pianist
# References.
- "This article incorporates text from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and has been released under the GFDL" as "Tarnow".
- City of Tarnów English version of Tarnów's official webpage.
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Acne
Acne, also known as acne vulgaris, is a long-term skin disease that occurs when hair follicles are clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin. It is characterized by blackheads or whiteheads, pimples, oily skin, and possible scarring. It primarily affects areas of the skin with a relatively high number of oil glands, including the face, upper part of the chest, and back. The resulting appearance can lead to anxiety, reduced self-esteem and, in extreme cases, depression or thoughts of suicide.
Genetics is thought to be the primary cause of acne in 80% of cases. The role of diet and cigarette smoking is unclear, and neither cleanliness nor exposure to sunlight appear to play a part.
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In both sexes, hormones called androgens appear to be part of the underlying mechanism, by causing increased production of sebum. Another frequent factor is excessive growth of the bacterium "Cutibacterium acnes", which is normally present on the skin.
Many treatment options for acne are available, including lifestyle changes, medications, and medical procedures. Eating fewer simple carbohydrates such as sugar may help. Treatments applied directly to the affected skin, such as azelaic acid, benzoyl peroxide, and salicylic acid, are commonly used. Antibiotics and retinoids are available in formulations that are applied to the skin and taken by mouth for the treatment of acne. However, resistance
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to antibiotics may develop as a result of antibiotic therapy. Several types of birth control pills help against acne in women. Isotretinoin pills are usually reserved for severe acne due to greater potential side effects. Early and aggressive treatment of acne is advocated by some in the medical community to decrease the overall long-term impact to individuals.
In 2015, acne was estimated to affect 633 million people globally, making it the 8th most common disease worldwide. Acne commonly occurs in adolescence and affects an estimated 80–90% of teenagers in the Western world. Lower rates are reported in some rural societies. Children and adults may also be affected before and after puberty.
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Although acne becomes less common in adulthood, it persists in nearly half of affected people into their twenties and thirties and a smaller group continue to have difficulties into their forties.
# Classification.
The severity of acne vulgaris (Gr. ἀκµή, "point" + L. vulgaris, "common") can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe as this helps to determine an appropriate treatment regimen. There is no universally accepted scale for grading acne severity. Mild acne is classically defined by the presence of clogged skin follicles (known as comedones) limited to the face with occasional inflammatory lesions. Moderate severity acne is said to occur when a higher number of inflammatory papules
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and pustules occur on the face compared to mild cases of acne and are found on the trunk of the body. Severe acne is said to occur when nodules (the painful 'bumps' lying under the skin) are the characteristic facial lesions and involvement of the trunk is extensive.
Large nodules were previously referred to as cysts, and the term "nodulocystic" has been used in the medical literature to describe severe cases of inflammatory acne. True cysts are in fact rare in those with acne and the term "severe nodular acne" is now the preferred terminology.
"Acne inversa" (L. invertō, "upside down") and "acne rosacea" (rosa, "rose-colored" + -āceus, "forming") are not true forms of acne and respectively
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refer to the skin conditions hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) and rosacea. Although HS shares certain common features with acne vulgaris, such as a tendency to clog skin follicles with skin cell debris, the condition otherwise lacks the defining features of acne and is therefore considered a distinct skin disorder.
# Signs and symptoms.
Typical features of acne include increased secretion of oily sebum by the skin, microcomedones, comedones, papules, nodules (large papules), pustules, and often results in scarring. The appearance of acne varies with skin color. It may result in psychological and social problems.
## Scars.
Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin
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and are estimated to affect 95% of people with acne vulgaris. The scar is created by abnormal healing following this dermal inflammation. Scarring is most likely to take place with severe acne, but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris. Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or loss at the site of the acne lesion.
Atrophic acne scars have lost collagen from the healing response and are the most common type of acne scar (account for approximately 75% of all acne scars). They may be further classified as ice-pick scars, boxcar scars, and rolling scars. Ice-pick scars are narrow (less than 2 mm
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