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Sport of athletics
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International Association of Athletics Federations, the sport's governing body, defines athletics in six disciplines: track and field, road running, race walking, cross country running, mountain running, and trail running (mountain running was added in 2003 and trail running was added in 2015). All forms of athletics are individual sports with the exception of relay races. However, athletes' performances are often tallied together by country at international championships, and in the case of cross country and certain road races the finishing positions or times of the top athletes from each team or country are combined to declare a team victor.
## Track and field.
Track and field competitions
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emerged in the late 19th century and were typically contested between athletes who were representing rival educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs. Participating athletes may compete in one or more events, according to their specialities. Men and women compete separately. Track and field comes in both indoor and outdoor formats, with most indoor competitions occurring in winter, while outdoor events are mostly held in summer. The sport is defined by the venue in which the competitions are held – the track and field stadium.
A variety of running events are held on the track which fall into three broad distance categories: sprints, middle-distance, and long-distance
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track events. Relay races feature teams comprising four runners each, who must pass a baton to their teammate after a specified distance with the aim of being the first team to finish. Hurdling events and the steeplechase are a variation upon the flat running theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track during the race. The field events come in two types – jumping and throwing competitions. In throwing events, athletes are measured by how far they hurl an implement, with the common events being the shot put, discus, javelin, and hammer throw. There are four common jumping events: the long jump and triple jump are contests measuring the horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while
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the high jump and pole vault are decided on the height achieved. Combined events, which include the decathlon (typically competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women), are competitions where athletes compete in a number of different track and field events, with each performance going toward a final points tally.
The most prestigious track and field contests occur within athletics championships and athletics programmes at multi-sport events. The Olympic athletics competition and World Championships in Athletics, and the Paralympic athletics competition and World Para Athletics Championships, are the highest and most prestigious levels of competition in track and field. Track
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and field events have become the most prominent part of major athletics championships and many famous athletes within the sport of athletics come from this discipline. Discrete track and field competitions are found at national championships-level and also at annual, invitational track and field meets. Meetings range from elite competitions – such as those in the IAAF Diamond League series – to basic all comers track meets, inter-sports club meetings and schools events, which form the grassroots of track and field.
## Road running.
Road running competitions are running events (predominantly long distance) which are mainly conducted on courses of paved or tarmac roads, although major events
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often finish on the track of a main stadium. In addition to being a common recreational sport, the elite level of the sport – particularly marathon races – are one of the most popular aspects of athletics. Road racing events can be of virtually any distance, but the most common and well known are the marathon, half marathon, 10 km and 5 km. The marathon is the only road running event featured at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and the Summer Olympics, although there is also an annual IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. The marathon is also the only road running event featured at the World Para Athletics Championships and the Summer Paralympics. The World Marathon Majors series
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includes the five most prestigious marathon competitions at the elite level – the Berlin, Boston, Chicago, London, and New York City marathons.
The sport of road running finds its roots in the activities of footmen: male servants who ran alongside the carriages of aristocrats around the 18th century, and who also ran errands over distances for their masters. Foot racing competitions evolved from wagers between aristocrats, who pitted their footman against that of another aristocrat in order to determine a winner. The sport became professionalised as footmen were hired specifically on their athletic ability and began to devote their lives to training for the gambling events. The amateur sports
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movement in the late 19th century marginalised competitions based on the professional, gambling model. The 1896 Summer Olympics saw the birth of the modern marathon and the event led to the growth of road running competitions through annual events such as the Boston Marathon (first held in 1897) and the Lake Biwa Marathon and Fukuoka Marathons, which were established in the 1940s. The 1970s running boom in the United States made road running a common pastime and also increased its popularity at the elite level.
Ekiden contests – which originated in Japan and remain very popular there – are a relay race variation on the marathon, being in contrast to the typically individual sport of road running.
##
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Cross country running.
Cross country running is the most naturalistic of the sports in athletics as competitions take place on open-air courses over surfaces such as grass, woodland trails, and earth. It is both an individual and team sport, as runners are judged on an individual basis and a points scoring method is used for teams. Competitions are typically long distance races of or more which are usually held in autumn and winter. Cross country's most successful athletes often compete in long-distance track and road events as well.
The Crick Run in England in 1838 was the first recorded instance of an organised cross country competition. The sport gained popularity in British, then American
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schools in the 19th century and culminated in the creation of the first International Cross Country Championships in 1903. The annual IAAF World Cross Country Championships was inaugurated in 1973 and this remains the highest level of competition for the sport. A number of continental cross country competitions are held, with championships taking place in Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The sport has retained its status at the scholastic level, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States. At the professional level, the foremost competitions come under the banner of the IAAF Cross Country Permit Meetings.
While cross country competitions are no longer held at the Olympics,
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having featured in the athletics programme from 1912–1924, it has been present as one of the events within the modern pentathlon competition since the 1912 Summer Olympics. One variation on traditional cross country is mountain running, which incorporates significant uphill and/or downhill sections as an additional challenge to the course. Fell running and Orienteering are other competitive sports similar to cross country, although they feature an element of navigation which is absent from the set courses of cross country.
## Racewalking.
Racewalking is a form of competitive walking that usually takes place on open-air roads, although running tracks are also occasionally used. Racewalking
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is the only sport in athletics in which judges monitor athletes on their technique. Racewalkers must always have a foot in contact with the ground and their advancing leg must be straightened, not bent at the knee – failure to follow these rules results in disqualification from the race.
Racewalking finds its roots in the sport of pedestrianism which emerged in the late 18th century in England. Spectators would gamble on the outcome of the walking competitions. The sport took on an endurance aspect and competitions were held over long distances or walkers would have to achieve a certain distance within a specified time frame, such as Centurion contests of walking within 24 hours. During this
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period, racewalking was frequently held on athletics tracks for ease of measurement, and the 1908 Summer Olympics in London saw the introduction of the 3500-metre and 10-mile walks. Racewalking was briefly dropped from the Olympic programme in 1928, but the men's 50 kilometres race walk has been held at every Olympic Games but one since 1932. The men's 20 kilometres race walk was added to the Olympic athletics schedule in 1956 and the women's event was first held in 1992. The most common events in modern competition are over 10 km, 20 km and 50 km on roads, although women's 3 km and men's 5 km are held on indoor tracks.
The highest level racewalking competitions occur at the IAAF World Championships
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in Athletics and at the Summer Olympics, although the sport also has its own separate major competition – the IAAF World Race Walking Cup – which has been held since 1961. The IAAF World Race Walking Challenge forms the primary seasonal competition – athletes earn points for their performances at ten selected racewalking competitions and the highest scoring walkers are entered into that year's IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final.
# Categories.
The significant variation in people's abilities in the sport of athletics has led to the creation of numerous competitive categories, in order that athletes are pitted against rivals of a similar kind or ability, and to include groups of people who would
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otherwise not be competitive in open-to-all events. The eligibility of athletes for a given category is occasionally a source of controversy among the sport's participants, officials and spectators, with disputes typically being rooted in deliberate cheating in order to gain a competitive advantage or differing cultural perspectives over the eligibility of a category.
Beyond the primary categories based on physical attributes, some competitions have further eligibility criteria based on nationality, community membership or occupation.
## Men's and women's divisions.
The foremost division of this kind is by sex: in athletics, men and women almost exclusively compete against people of the same
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sex. In contrast to the men's division, the development of the women's division has caused regular dispute in terms of eligibility. Several intersex athletes had success in the women's division in the early 20th century, such as Stanisława Walasiewicz and Mary Weston (later Mark), and the IAAF responded by introducing sex verification for all athletes in the women's category, beginning with the disqualification of sprinter Foekje Dillema in 1950 after she refused to be tested. Olympic champion Ewa Kłobukowska became the first athlete to publicly fail the test in 1967 and the humiliation she suffered as a result of the announcement led to sex tests becoming a confidential process. Hurdler Maria
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José Martínez-Patiño failed a test and was disqualified in 1985, but publicly fought the ban in court and was reinstated in 1988. In 1991, the IAAF replaced the sex chromatin test with general medical tests for athletes of all divisions, due to changes in ethical and scientific viewpoints.
The question of eligibility for the women's division continued to be a contentious and public issue into the 21st century, with Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand bearing periods of inegibility and taking the IAAF to the Court of Arbitration for Sport over their bans under the hyperandrogenism rules. An increasing number of trans men and trans women began to compete in the women's division in the 2010s, which
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caused other athletes in the division to raise questions of fairness in competition. The dispute reached new heights in 2019 with the United Nations Human Rights Council issuing a statement that the IAAF was breaching "international human rights norms and standards" through its practice of allowing some athletes to compete in the women's division only once they had lowered their testosterone levels through medical intervention. The IAAF and several prominent women athletes, such as Paula Radcliffe, said this was required in order to prevent a situation where countries deliberately sought out athletes who were intersex, transgender or had a difference in sex development (DSD) in order to succeed
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in women's sport.
## Age.
Age is a significant determiner of ability to compete in athletics, with athletic ability generally increasing through childhood and adolescence, peaking in early adulthood, then gradually declining from around the age of 30 onwards. As a result, numerous age categories have been created to encourage younger and older athletes to engage in competition. At international level, there are three major categories for young athletes: under-23, under-20 (formerly junior), and under-18 (formerly youth). Beyond international rules, different youth categories are in use in the sport, often in the form of two-year or single age groupings. Age categories are more extensive for
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older athletes and these are commonly organised under the umbrella of masters athletics, which has age groups spanning five years for all athletes aged 35 and above. There is no limit to the number of age groupings, hence Stanisław Kowalski holds a world record for men aged 105 years and over. For competitions where age is not taken into account, this is known as senior or open class athletics; in international rules there remain some restrictions on younger people competing in endurance events for health reasons.
Athletes' eligibility for a competitive age grouping is typically assessed through official documentation, such as birth records or passports. Instances of age cheating have occurred
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at all of the IAAF's global age category championships. One prominent incident was Olympic medalist Thomas Longosiwa, who provided a falsified passport to compete at the 2006 World Junior Championships in Athletics at age 24. Age falsification for youth categories is mostly limited to less developed parts of the world, such as Africa and South Asia, which have less stringent controls on official documentation and many mature athletes engaging in high school competition due to disruptions to education. The same regions of the world also present issues with age verification in masters age categories, with examples such as Indian distance runners Dharampal Singh Gudha and Fauja Singh (both claiming
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to be over 100 years old) reaching mainstream attention.
## Athletes with disabilities.
Athletes with physical disabilities have competed at separate international events since 1952. The International Paralympic Committee governs the competitions in athletics, and hosts the Paralympic Games, which have continued since 1960.
Competitors at elite level competitions, are classified by disability, to arrange athletes with a similar disability in the same event. A classified T12 athlete for example, is a track athlete with a visual impairment.
- F = Field athletes
- T = Track athletes
- 11–13 – visual impairment. Compete with a sighted guide.
- 20 – Intellectual disability
- 31–38 – cerebral
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palsy
- 40–46 – amputation, and others (including athletes with dwarfism)
- 51–58 – Wheelchair
Operating independently of the Paralympic movement, deaf athletes have a long-established tradition of organised athletics, with the first major world competition being included at the 1924 Deaflympics. The primary impediments to the inclusion of deaf athletes in mainstream athletics are sound based elements of the sport, such as the starter's pistol. This can be a disadvantage even in Paralympic sport, as shown in by the example of Olivia Breen who failed to hear a false start in a cerebral palsy class race at the 2012 Paralympics.
In wheelchair racing athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs.
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Most major marathons have wheelchair divisions and the elite racers consistently beat the runners on foot. The speed of wheel chair racers has caused difficulties for race organisers in properly staggering their start times compared to runners. A collision between Josh Cassidy (a wheelchair racer) and Tiki Gelana (a leading female marathoner) at the 2013 London Marathon brought the issue into the spotlight again.
Occasionally, athletes with a disability reach a level at which they can compete against able-bodied athletes. Legally blind Marla Runyan ran in the 2000 and 2004 Olympics and won a gold medal in the 1500 metres at the 1999 Pan American Games. Oscar Pistorius, a double amputee, was
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a semi-finalist at the 2011 World Championships and won a silver medal as part of South Africa's 4 × 400 metres relay team. In masters athletics it is far more common to make an accommodation for athletes with a disability. Blind Ivy Granstrom set numerous Masters world records while being guided around the track.
The disability categories have caused dispute among athletes, with some athletes being accused of exaggerating their level of disability in order to compete in less challenging categories. Athletes with intellectual disabilities were banned from competition in all Paralymic sports in response to verification issues and cheating at the 2000 Summer Paralympics and the intellectual disability
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athletics programme was only restored twelve years later at the 2012 Summer Paralympics.
# Venues.
Professional athletics almost exclusively takes place in one of three types of venue: stadiums, set courses on grass or woodland, and road-based courses. Such venues ensure that events take place in a relatively standardised manner, as well as improving the safety of athletes and enjoyment for spectators. At a more basic level, many forms of athletics demand very little in terms of venue requirements; almost any open space or area of field can provide a suitable venue for basic running, jumping and throwing competitions.
## Track and field stadium.
A standard outdoor track is in the shape of
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a stadium, 400 metres in length, and has at least eight lanes 1.22 m in width (small arenas might have six lanes). Older track facilities may have nonstandard track lengths, such as 440 yards (402.3 m; 1/4 mile) (common in the United States). Historically, tracks were covered by a dirt running surface. Modern All-weather running tracks are covered by a synthetic weather-resistant running surface, which typically consists of rubber (either black SBR or colored EPDM granules), bound by polyurethane or latex resins. Older tracks may be cinder-covered.
A standard indoor track is designed similarly to an outdoor track, but is only 200 metres in length and has between four and eight lanes, each with
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width between 0.90 m and 1.10 m. Often, the bends of an indoor track will be banked to compensate for the small turning radius. However, because of space limitations, indoor tracks may have other nonstandard lengths, such as 160-yard (146.3 m) indoor track at Madison Square Garden used for the Millrose Games. Because of space limitations, meetings held at indoor facilities do not hold many of athletics events typically contested outdoors.
## Cross country courses.
There is no standardised form of cross country course and each venue is significantly defined by the environment it contains – some may be relatively flat and featureless, while others may be more challenging with natural obstacles,
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tight turns, and undulating ground. While a small number of purpose-built courses exist, the vast majority of cross country running courses are created by cordoning a specific area within any open natural land, typically a park, woodland or greenspace near a settlement.
At the elite and professional level, courses must be looped and each lap must be between 1750 m and 2000 m in length. Severe obstacles such as deep ditches, high barriers and thick undergrowth not normally present; the course should be able to be completed whilst remaining on foot throughout. In order to maintain the sport's distinction from road running, the usage of unnatural or macadamised surfaces is generally kept to a
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minimum or avoided entirely.
Because the majority of races take place on areas of grass, soil, mud or earth, weather conditions can significantly affect the difficulty of cross country courses, as snow and rain reduces traction and can create areas of standing water.
## Road courses.
The surface of road races is highly important and the IAAF dictate that the courses must be along man-made roads, bicycle paths or footpaths. Courses set along major roads of cities are typical of road running events, and traffic is usually cordoned off from the area during the competition. While soft ground, such as grass, is generally avoided, races may start and finish on soft ground or within a track and
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field stadium. Road racing courses come in two primary types: looped and point-to-point. Courses may be measured and designed to cover a standardised distance, such as , or they may simply follow a set route between two landmarks.
Road running courses over 5 km usually offer drinks or refreshment stations for runners at designated points alongside the course and medical professionals are present at the courses of major races due to the health risks involved with long-distance running.
Elite road walks are conducted on closed loop courses (usually loops of 2,000 or 2,500 meters). Refreshment stations are also present over long distance walking competitions, with drinks being available on every
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lap for races longer than 10 km.
# Organizations.
Since its foundation in 1912, the international governing body for athletics has been the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). It was initially known as the International Amateur Athletics Federation but changed later its name to reflect that the sport had moved away from amateurism towards professionalism in the late 1970s. The IAAF has 215 member nations and territories, which are divided into six continental areas (or area associations). The six association areas are for Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, North America and South America. The sports within athletics do not have their own independent governing bodies at either
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international or continental level; instead, all fall under the athletics authorities.
- AAA – Asian Athletics Association
- CAA – Confederation of African Athletics
- CONSUDATLE – South American Athletics Confederation
- NACACAA – North America, Central America and Caribbean Athletic Association
- EAA – European Athletics Association
- OAA – Oceania Athletics Association
National level athletics organisations are responsible for the regulation of the sport within their respective countries and most major competitions have some form of permit or approval from their national body.
# Competitions.
Athletics competitions can be broadly divided into three types: international championships,
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national championships, and annual meetings and races. Athletics at international championships, or Games, represent the pinnacle of competition within the sport, and they are contested between athletes representing their country or region. The organisation of these competitions is usually overseen by either a world, continental, or regional athletics governing body. Athletes gain entry into these competitions by earning selection from their national athletics governing body, which is generally done by assessing athletes via their past achievements or performances at a national selection event. National championships are annual competitions endorsed by a national governing body which serve the
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purpose of deciding the country's best athlete in each event. Annual one-day meetings and races form the most basic level of competition and are the most common format of athletics contests. These events are often invitational and are organised by sports organisations, sports promoters, or other institutions.
Competitions typically feature only one of the sports within athletics. However, major outdoor international athletics championships and athletics competitions held as part of multi-sport events usually feature a combination of track and field, road running and racewalking events
## International championships.
### Olympic Games.
The modern Summer Olympics was the first event at which
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a global athletics competition took place. All the four major sports within athletics have featured in the Olympic athletics programme since its inception in 1896, although cross country has since been dropped. The Olympic competition is the most prestigious athletics contest, and many athletics events are among the most watched events at the Summer Olympics. A total of 47 athletics events are held at the Olympics, 24 for men and 23 for women (as of London 2012). The events within the men's and women's programmes are either identical or have a similar equivalent, with the sole exception being that men contest the 50 km race walk.
### Paralympic Games.
The Summer Paralympics include athletes
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with a physical disability. Track and field, and road events have featured in the Paralympic athletics programme since its inception in 1960. The Paralympic competition is the most prestigious athletics contest where athletes with a physical disability compete.
Athletics at the Paralympic Games also include wheelchair racing where athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Athletes with a visual impairment compete with a sighted guide. At the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, for the first time at an international athletics event, the guides received medals, such as the pilots in cycling, and the guides at the Paralympic Winter Games have done for a while.
## World Championships.
The
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IAAF World Championships in Athletics is the primary global athletics championships held by IAAF. The biennial competition was first held in 1983 and now features an event programme which is identical to the Olympics. Thus, road running, racewalking and track and field are the sports which feature at the competition. Cross country running has its own discrete global championships – the IAAF World Cross Country Championships – which has been held annually since 1973. The IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics is a biennial athletics championships which features solely indoor track and field events. The foremost separate road running event is the annual IAAF World Half Marathon Championships
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(formerly World Road Running Championships). While not having official world championship status, the biennial IAAF World Race Walking Cup fulfils a similar role for the sport of racewalking. Outdoor track and field is the only sport in athletics that does not have a its own distinct global championship which is separate from other types of athletics, although the IAAF Continental Cup (a quadrennial competition between continental teams) is composed entirely of outdoor track and field events.
Other world championships include the IAAF World Junior and World Youth Championships in Athletics, which are for athletes under-19 and under-17, respectively. World Masters Athletics conducts the World
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Masters Athletics Championships for athletes in 5-year age divisions over the age of 35. The now defunct IAAF World Road Relay Championships served as the global event for ekiden marathon relay races.
Elite athletes with a physical disability compete at the World Para Athletics Championships and at the Commonwealth Games.
### Commonwealth Games.
Athletics is one of the sports at the quadrennial Commonwealth Games competition. It has been a Commonwealth Games sport since the inaugural edition of the event's precursor, the 1930 British Empire Games. It is a core sport and must be included in the sporting programme of each edition of the Games.
### Universiade.
Athletics is one of the sports
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at the biennial summer Universiade competition. It has been one of the event's competed sports since the inaugural edition.
# Culture and media.
Athletics, and its athletes in particular, has been artistically depicted since ancient times – one of the surviving instances include runners and high jumpers in the motifs of Ancient Egyptian tombs dating from 2250 BC. Athletics was much respected in Ancient Greece and the events within the ancient pentathlon provided inspiration for large statues such as the Discobolus and Discophoros, and for motifs on countless vase and pottery works. Aristotle discussed the significance of the pentathlon in his treatise "Rhetoric" and reflected on the athlete
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aesthetic of the period: "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength...This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful".
Films about athletics are overwhelmingly focused on running events: the 1962 film "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner" (based on the book of the same name) explores cross country running as a means of escape. "Chariots of Fire", perhaps one of the most well-known athletics films, is a fictionalised account of Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams's chase for sprint gold medals at the 1924 Olympics. Track and field has been the subject of American films such as "Personal Best" (1981) and "Across the Tracks" (1991).
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Biopics are found within the genre, including "Prefontaine" (regarding Steve Prefontaine) and "Jim Thorpe – All-American" (1951) featuring Burt Lancaster as Thorpe. Documentaries are also common with examples such as 2007 film "Spirit of the Marathon", which follows runners' preparations for the 2005 Chicago Marathon.
Books on the subject are predominantly non-fiction, and tend towards the forms of training manuals and historical accounts of athletics. The story of the four-minute mile has been a particularly popular subject, spawning books such as "The Perfect Mile" and "".
Athletics journalism has spawned a number of dedicated periodicals including "Athletics Weekly" and "Race Walking Record",
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both of which were first published in England in the early 1940s, and "Track & Field News" which was first published in the United States in 1948. "Runner's World" has been in print since 1966 and the "Track & Field Magazine of Japan" ("Rikujyo Kyogi Magazine") is another long-running publication.
Athletics events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Running commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin, a modern athlete figure appears in the foreground, shown in the starting position, while in the background two ancient runners are carved in a manner that gives the
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appearance of a coin that is "worn" by time. This scene originally appeared on a black-figure vase of the 6th century BC.
# See also.
- List of Olympic medalists in athletics (men), (women)
- List of world records in athletics
- World records (athletes with a disability)
- National records in athletics
- Association of Track and Field Statisticians
- Running in Ancient Greece
# External links.
- International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) website
- "Track and Field News" website
- European Athletics website
- GBR Athletics – historical competition data
- Masters World Rankings
- This provides a detailed, although Anglocentric, overview of the history of the sport.
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Płock
Płock ( ) is a city on the Vistula river in central Poland. It is located in the Masovian Voivodeship (since 1999), having previously been the capital of the Płock Voivodeship (1975–1998). According to the data provided by GUS on 31 December 2018 there were 120,000 inhabitants in the city. Its full ceremonial name, according to the preamble to the City Statute, is "Stołeczne Książęce Miasto Płock" (the Princely or Ducal Capital City of Płock). It is used in ceremonial documents as well as for preserving an old tradition.
Płock is now a capital of the "powiat" (county) in the west of the Mazovian Voivodeship. From 1079 - 1138 it was the first historical capital of Poland. Its cathedral
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contains the sarcophagi of a number of Polish monarchs. It is the cultural, academic, scientific, administrative and transportation center of the west and north Masovian region.
The first Jewish settlers came to the city in the 14th century, responding to the extension of rights by the Polish kings. They built a community and constituted a large portion of the population through the 19th century, sometimes more than 40%. Jews contributed to expansion of trades and crafts, and helped the process of industrialization. In 1939, they made up 26% of the city's population. After the 1939 invasion of Poland, the German Nazis established a Jewish ghetto in Płock in 1940. They deported many of the Jews
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to other areas but exterminated most of them in the Holocaust. By the war's end, only 300 Jewish residents were known to have survived, of more than 10,000 in the region.
# History.
The area was long inhabited by the pagan peoples. In the 10th century, a fortified location was established high of the Vistula River's bank. This location was at a junction of shipping and routes and was strategic for centuries. Its location was a great asset. In 1009 a Benedictine monastery was established here. It became a center of science and art for the area. In 1075, a diocese seat was created here for the Christian church. Płock was the capital city during the reign of the Polish monarchs Władysław I Herman
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and Bolesław III Wrymouth (1079–1138). It was also a seat of several of the dukes of Masovia.
During the rule of the first monarchs of the Piast dynasty, even prior to the Baptism of Poland, Płock served as one of the monarchial seats, including that of Prince Mieszko I and King Bolesław I the Brave. The king built the original fortifications on Tumskie Hill, overlooking the Vistula River. From 1037–1047, Płock was capital of the independent Mazovian state of Masław. Płock has been the residence of many Mazovian princes.
From 1079 to 1138, the city was the capital of Poland, then earning its title as the Ducal Capital City of Płock (). It served as the medieval capital during the reigns of
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the Polish monarchs Władysław I Herman and Bolesław III Wrymouth.
The city suffered major losses in population due to plague, fire, and warfare, with wars between Sweden and Poland in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. At that time, the Swedes destroyed much of the city, but the people rebuilt and recovered. In the late 18th century, it took down the old city walls, and made a New Town, filled with many German migrants.
In the 19th century, the city was included within the region controlled by the Russian Empire, when Poland was divided among it, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary. It was a seat of provincial government and an active center; its economy was closely tied to major grain trade.
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It laid out a new city plan in the early 19th century, as new residents continued to arrive. Many of its finest buildings were constructed in this period in the Classical style. It had a scientific society before mid-century, and in the late 19th century began to industrialize.
Germany attacked Poland in 1939, and began to take over its government annecting the town to the Reich as part of the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau. It impressed people as forced laborers for German factories, treating them harshly. The Germans renamed the city in 1941 to Schröttersburg, after the former Prussian Upper President Friedrich Leopold von Schrötter.
# Culture and religion.
The Museum of Mazovia provides exhibits
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and interpretation of the city and region's history. Płock is the oldest legislated seat of the Roman Catholic diocese; the Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral was built here in the first half of the 12th century and houses the sarcophagi of Polish monarchs. It is one of the five oldest cathedrals in Poland.
## Divine Mercy.
The city is famous for the Divine Mercy Sanctuary where the apparition of Jesus to Saint Faustina Kowalska took place.
## Mariavite Church.
From the visions of Feliksa Kozłowska in 1893, the Mariavite order of priests originated, originally working to renew clergy within the Roman Catholic Church. Despite repeated attempts, they were not recognized by the Vatican
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and in the early 20th century established a separate and independent denomination. This site is the main seat of the Mariavite bishops. Their most important church was built here in the beginning of the 20th century; it is called "Temple of Mercy and Charity" and is situated in a pleasant garden on the hill on which the historical centre of Płock is built, near the Vistula river. Poland in total has about 25,000 members of the Old Catholic Mariavite Church, as it is now named, with another 5,000 in France. A smaller breakaway church, the Catholic Mariavite Church, which has an integrated female priesthood (since 1929), has 3,000 members in Poland.
## Jewish history.
The Jewish presence in
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Płock (Yiddish: "Plotzk") dates back many centuries, probably to the 13th and 14th centuries, when records include them. The Polish kings extended rights to them in 1264 and the 14th century, and provided continued political support through the centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, their more than 1200 residents comprised more than 48% of the city's population in what is considered the city's Old Town; through the century, their proportions ranged from 30s and 40 percent. It varied as German migrants were arriving in the region, and the area was becoming urbanized, as more people moved to the city. As in other parts of Poland, they were restricted to employment in trades and crafts.
In
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the late 19th century, Jews established two factories to produce farm machines and tools, and the first iron foundry in the city. They had two synagogues and two cemeteries (dating to the 15th century), religious and secular schools, and established a library and hospital. They contributed strongly to the economy and culture of the city. In the early 20th century, they had two newspapers, representing active political parties.
In 1939, Płock had a Jewish population of 9,000, an estimated 26% of the city's total. It had one of the highest proportional Jewish populations in Poland. After Nazi persecution began in 1939, about 2,000 Jews fled the city, with half going to Soviet-controlled territory.
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They were assigned to locations far from the front. In 1940, the Nazis established a ghetto in Płock. They started actions against the Jews, killing those in an old people's home and sick children, and transporting others to be killed at Brwilski Forest. Ultimately, they transported the Jews to 20 camps and sites in the Radom district, where most died. By 1946, only 300 Jews survived in Płock. While they were active in the new politics, gradually the Jews left, and by 1959 three remained. Herman Kruk, a survivor and notable chronicler of life inside the Nazi concentration camps, was born in Płock in 1897.
The small synagogue, built in 1810, was one of the few to survive World War II in the
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Mazowsze region of Poland. The Great Synagogue was destroyed during the Holocaust. The small synagogue was designated as a historic building about 1960, but deteriorated in physical condition while vacant. It was renovated and adapted for use as a museum, opening in April 2013 as the Museum of Masovian Jews, a branch of the Museum of Płock Mazowiecki.
# Economy.
The main industry is oil refining, which was established in 1960. The country's largest oil refinery (Płock refinery) and parent company, PKN Orlen, are located here. It is served by a large pipeline leading from Russia to Germany. Associated industrial activities connected with the refinery are servicing and construction. A Levi Strauss
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& Co. factory is located in Płock and provides manufacturing jobs.
# Education.
- Szkoła Wyższa im. Pawła Włodkowica
- Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Płocku
- Płock Campus of Warsaw University of Technology
- LO im. Marszałka Stanisława Małachowskiego w Płocku - the oldest school in Poland
- LO im. Wladysława Jagiełły w Płocku
- III LO im. Marii Dąbrowskiej w Płocku
- IV LO im. Bolesława Krzywoustego w Płocku
## Mass transit.
- KM Płock - Komunikacja Miejska Płock
Bus service covers the entire city, with 41 routes.
- PKS Płock - Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacji Samochodowej w Płocku S.A.
## Bridges in Płock.
- Pilsudskiego Bridge - Most im. Legionów Piłsudskiego
- Solidarity Bridge
#
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Sport.
- Wisła Płock - football team (Polish Cup and Polish Supercup, currently playing in Polish First Division)
- Wisła Płock - handball team (repeated Polish Champion and repeated winner Cup of Poland)
# Politics.
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Płock constituency
- Julia Pitera, PO
- Mirosław Koźlakiewicz, PO
- Andrzej Nowakowski, PO
- Wojciech Jasiński, Pis
- Marek Opioła, Pis
- Robert Kołakowski, Pis
- Dariusz Kaczanowski, Pis
- Waldemar Pawlak, PSL
- Adam Struzik, PSL
- Jolanta Szymanek-Deresz, SLD+SDPL+PD+UP (died in a plane crash 10 April 2010)
# Twin towns - sister cities.
Płock is twinned with:
# See also.
- Duke Capital City of Płock
- New Holland Agriculture
-
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inner Cup of Poland)
# Politics.
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Płock constituency
- Julia Pitera, PO
- Mirosław Koźlakiewicz, PO
- Andrzej Nowakowski, PO
- Wojciech Jasiński, Pis
- Marek Opioła, Pis
- Robert Kołakowski, Pis
- Dariusz Kaczanowski, Pis
- Waldemar Pawlak, PSL
- Adam Struzik, PSL
- Jolanta Szymanek-Deresz, SLD+SDPL+PD+UP (died in a plane crash 10 April 2010)
# Twin towns - sister cities.
Płock is twinned with:
# See also.
- Duke Capital City of Płock
- New Holland Agriculture
- Płock Department
# References.
- Official website
- Photogallery of Płock
- Interactive map
- Jewish Community in Płock on Virtual Shtetl
- Zumi maps
- Anthem of Płock
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Rzeszów
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Rzeszów
Rzeszów ( ; ; ) is the largest city in southeastern Poland and eighteenth in the whole country, with a population of 191,564 (31 December 2018). It is located on both sides of the Wisłok River in the heartland of the Sandomierz Basin. Rzeszów has been the capital of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship since 1 January 1999, and is also the seat of Rzeszów County.
The history of Rzeszów begins in 1354, when it received city rights and privileges by Casimir III the Great. Local trade routes connecting the European Continent with the Middle East and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the city's early prosperity and development. In the 16th century, Rzeszów had a connection with Gdańsk and the Baltic
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Sea. It also experienced growth in commerce and craftsmanship, especially under local rulers and noblemen. Following the Partitions of Poland, Rzeszów was annexed by the Austrian Empire and did not regain its position until it returned to Poland after World War I. During World War II Rzeszów's large Jewish community perished in the Holocaust.
Rzeszów has found its place in the group of the most elite cities in Poland, with growing number of investments, rapid progress and a very high standard of living. In 2011 Forbes awarded Rzeszów with the second place in the ranking of the most attractive semi-large cities for business. Moreover, the city is home to a number of higher education schools
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and foreign consulates. Rzeszów is also developing as a regional tourist destination; its Old Town, Main Market Square, churches and synagogues are among the best preserved in the country.
In recent years, the population of Rzeszów has grown from 159,000 (2005) to over 190,000 (2018). Further plans for extending the city's borders include incorporating surrounding counties to strengthen its function as a metropolitan centre in southeastern Poland.
Rzeszów is served by an international airport and is a member of Eurocities.
# History.
In the area of Rzeszów, the first humans appeared in the late Paleolithic Age; archeologists have excavated a tool made in that period at site Rzeszów 25. In
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the mid-6th century BC, the first farmers came to the area of the city, most likely through the Moravian Gate. Later on, Rzeszów was a settlement of the Lusatian culture, which was followed by the Przeworsk culture.
In the 5th century, the first Slavs appeared in the area, which is confirmed by numerous archeological findings. Most probably, Rzeszów was then inhabited by the Vistulans. Some time between 11th and 13th century the town was conquered and subsequently annexed by the East Slavic Ruthenians. Polish princes of the Piast dynasty annexed it in 1264 and in Tarnów, there was a meeting of Prince Bolesław V the Chaste, and Prince Daniel of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, during which both
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sides agreed that the border would go between Rzeszów and Czudec (Rzeszów belonged to Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, while Czudec and Strzyżów to Lesser Poland).
After unification of Poland (see Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth), Rzeszów remained in Ruthenian hands until 1340, when Casimir III the Great annexed Red Ruthenia, inviting his knights to govern the newly acquired land. According to some sources, at that time Rzeszów was inhabited by the Walddeutsche, and was called Rishof (during World War II, the Germans renamed it "Reichshof"). The town was granted Magdeburg rights, it had a parish church, a market place and a cemetery, and its total area was some 1,5 km. Magdeburg rights granted
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Rzeszów's local authorities the permission to punish criminals, build fortifications and tax merchants.
In 1458 Rzeszów was burned by the Vlachs and the Turkic Tatars. In 1502 the Tatars destroyed it again. Earlier, in 1427, Rzeszów had burned to the ground in a big fire, but the town recovered after these events, thanks to its favorable location on the main West – East (Kraków – Lwów) and North – South (Lublin – Slovakia) trade routes. In the 15th century the first Jews settled in Rzeszów. The 16th century was the time of prosperity for the town, especially when Rzeszów belonged to Mikołaj Spytek Ligęza (since the 1580s), who invested in infrastructure, building a castle, a Bernardine church
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and a monastery. Rzeszów then had some 2,500 inhabitants, with a rapidly growing Jewish community. The town was granted several royal rights, including the privilege to organise several markets a year. At that time, Rzeszów finally grew beyond its medieval borders, marked by fortifications.
In 1638 Rzeszów passed into the hands of the powerful and wealthy Lubomirski family, becoming the centre of its vast properties. At first, the town prospered and in 1658, first college was opened there, which now operates as High School Nr 1. The period of prosperity ended, and furthermore, there were several fires and wars, which destroyed the town. Rzeszów was first captured by the Swedes during The Deluge,
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then by the troops of George II Rákóczi leading to the Treaty of Radnot. During the Great Northern War, the Swedes again captured Rzeszów, in 1702, then several different armies occupied the town, ransacking it and destroying houses.
In the mid-eighteenth century, the town's population was composed of Poles (Roman Catholics) and Yiddish Jews in almost equal numbers (50.1% and 49.8%, respectively).
## Rzeszów under Austrian rule.
In 1772, following first partition of Poland, Rzeszów became part of the Austrian Empire, to which it belonged for 146 years. In the late 18th century, Rzeszów had 3,000 inhabitants. By the mid-19th century, the population grew to around 7,500, with 40% of them Jewish.
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In 1858, Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis reached Rzeszów, which resulted in further development of the town. In 1888 first telephone lines were opened, in 1900 – gas street lamps, and in 1911 – power plant and water system. The population grew to 23,000, with half of inhabitants being Jews. A number of modern building were constructed, most of them in Secession style.
During World War I, several battles took place in the area of the town. Rzeszów was home to a large garrison of the Austro-Hungarian Army, and in the city of Przemyśl, located nearby, there was a major fortress. During the Battle of Galicia in the late summer of 1914, Russian troops moved towards Rzeszów, and on 21
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September, they captured it. First Russian occupation lasted only 16 days, ending after an attack of the Austrians, on 4 October. Under Russian pressure, the Austrians were unable to keep the town, and on 7 November, the Russians again appeared in Rzeszów. In late fall of 1914, the frontline was established between Tarnów and Gorlice, and Rzeszów became an important center of the Imperial Russian Army, with large magazines of food and ammunition located there. Russian occupation lasted until May 1915.
After the Russians were pushed out of Galicia, Rzeszów remained outside of the area of military activities. Austrian administration returned, but wartime reality and destruction of the town had
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a negative effect on the population, and the quality of life deteriorated.
## Interwar period and Second World War.
On 12 October 1918, Rzeszów's mayor, together with the town council, sent a message to Warsaw, announcing loyalty to the independent Polish government. On November 1st, after clashes with German and Austrian troops, Rzeszów was liberated, and the next day, mayor Roman Krogulski took a pledge of allegiance to the Polish state. During World War I, some 200 residents of Rzeszów died, rail infrastructure was destroyed, as well as approximately 60 houses.
In 1920, Rzeszów became capital of a county in the Lwów Voivodeship. The town grew, and creation of the Central Industrial Region
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had an enormous impact on Rzeszów. It became a major center of defense industry, with PZL Rzeszów opening there in 1937, it also was a home to a large garrison of the Polish Army, with the 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade stationed there. In 1939, Rzeszów had 40,000 inhabitants, but its dynamic growth was stopped by the Invasion of Poland.
On 6 September 1939, Rzeszów was bombed by the Luftwaffe. The town was defended by the 10 Cavalry Brigade and 24th Uhlan Regiment from Kraśnik. German attack began on 6 September in the afternoon, and the Wehrmacht entered the city on the next day in the morning. Rzeszów, renamed into Reichshof, became part of the General Government, in 1941 a ghetto was opened
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there, whose Jewish inhabitants were later murdered in Bełżec extermination camp.
During the war, Rzeszów was a main center of Polish resistance (Home Army, AK), with Rzeszów Inspectorate of the AK covering several counties. On 25 May, during Action Kosba, Home Army soldiers killed on Rzeszów street Gestapo henchmen, Friederich Pottenbaum and Hans Flaschke. In the summer 1944, during Operation Tempest, units of the Home Army attacked German positions in the town, and on 2 August, Rzeszów was in the hands of the Home Army. Polish authorities loyal to the London Government tried to negotiate with the Soviets, but without success. NKVD immediately opened a prison in the cellars of the Rzeszów
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Castle, sending there a number of Home Army soldiers. In the night of 7/9 October 1944, Home Army unit under Łukasz Ciepliński attacked the castle, trying to release 400 inmates kept there. The attack failed, and Ciepliński was captured and subsequently executed in 1951.
### The Holocaust.
Until the outbreak of World War II the Jews of Rzeszów numbered 14,000, more than one-third of the total ethnic Polish population. The town was occupied by the German Army on 10 September 1939 and was renamed as "Reichshof". German persecution of the Jews began almost immediately; by the end of 1939, there were 10 forced labour camps in the Rzeszów region and many Jews became slave labourers. Jews were forced
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to live in the Gestapo-controlled ghetto. Many Jews managed to flee to Soviet-occupied Poland. By June 1940, the number of Jews in Rzeszów had decreased to 11,800, of whom 7,800 were pre-war residents of the city; the rest were from surrounding villages. Life in the ghetto was impossible and hundreds died. During the war some 20,000 Jews were murdered in the ghetto in Rzeszów. This number includes thousands who were sent to Rzeszów only to be deported or murdered soon after arrival.
In the fall of 1943 most Jewish slave labor was transported in Holocaust trains to the newly reopened Szebnie concentration camp. A month later, on 5 November 1943, some 2,800 Jews were sent from there, to meet
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their demise in Auschwitz. Of Rzeszów's 14,000 Jews, only 100 survived the war in Rzeszów itself, hiding all over Poland, and in various camps. After the war an additional 600 Rzeszów Jews returned from the Soviet Union. Almost all of them subsequently left the city and the country.
## Communist era and present times.
On 7 July 1945, Rzeszów became capital of the newly created Rzeszów Voivodeship, which consisted of western counties of prewar Lwów Voivodeship, and several counties of prewar Kraków Voivodeship. This decision had a major impact on the city, as it quickly grew. New offices of the regional government were built, and in 1951, several neighboring villages were annexed by Rzeszów,
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and the area of the city grew to 39 km. In 1971 and 1977, further villages were annexed. In early 1981, Rzeszów was a main center of peasant's protests, who for fifty days occupied local offices, which resulted in the signing of the Rzeszów – Ustrzyki Agreement, and the creation of Rural Solidarity.
On 1 January 1999, the city became the capital of Podkarpackie Voivodeship. Its population grew to 170,000, and area to 91,43 km.
Since 1 January 2017 years Rzeszów will be greater on the village Bzianka (Government Decision of July 2016.). The area of Rzeszów will increase to over 120 square kilometers and more than 188,000 inhabitants.
In 2004, Rzeszów hosted the Central European Olympiad in
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Informatics (CEOI).
### Papal visit.
In 1991 Pope John Paul II visited Rzeszów. During the celebrations in which nearly 1,000,000 people participated, the pope beatified Bishop Józef Sebastian Pelczar, former bishop of Przemyśl. On 25 March 1992 Pope John Paul II established the new Diocese of Rzeszów. The city of Rzeszów became the administrative centre of the new Diocese and the Church of the Sacred Heart became the new city cathedral.
# Geography.
## Climate.
Rzeszów lies in the north temperate zone and has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. It is characterised by a significant variation between hot summers and cold, snowy winters. Average temperatures in summer range
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from and in winter from . The average annual temperature is . In summer temperatures often exceed , and sometimes even , while winter drops to at night and about at day; during very cold nights the temperature drops to . In view of the fact that Rzeszów lies near the Carpathian Mountains, there is sometimes a halny – a föhn wind, when the temperature can rise rapidly.
## Main sights.
- Rzeszów Castle
- The Main Square
- Rzeszów Town Hall, built in 1591
- Small (17th century) and Big (18th century, restored 1954–63) Synagogue
- Łańcut Castle
- "Podziemia", underground tunnels
## Demographics.
According to GUS data, as of 31 December 2017, Rzeszów had 189,662 inhabitants. In contrast
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to other cities close to the size of Rzeszów in Poland, the population is growing.
Rzeszów is the 18th Polish city in terms of population and 22 in terms of area. The decisions of the Council of Ministers from 2015 and 2016 with a significant increase in the area of cities Zielona Góra and Opole had an impact on the decline from the 20th place to the 22nd place according to the area
# Culture.
## Theatres.
- Wanda Siemaszkowa Theatre (est. 1944)
- Maska Theatre
- Rzeszów Dance Theatre
## Museums.
- Ethnographic Museum
- Museum of the City of Rzeszów
- Diocesan Museum
- Rzeszów Castle
## Art galleries.
- "Szajna" gallery
- "Pod Ratuszem" gallery
- "z Podwórza" gallery
- OPe Photo
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Gallery
## Libraries.
- Provincial and City Public Library in Rzeszów
- Rzeszów University Library
- Rzeszów University of Technology Library
## Other.
- Podpromie Hall
- Artur Malawski Philharmonic Hall
## Notable people.
As the largest city of the region Rzeszów has a diverse set of notable people associated with it. Hero of anti-Nazi and anti-Soviet resistance, Lukasz Cieplinski, singer Justyna Steczkowska, general Józef Zając, and leading theatre director Jerzy Grotowski, among others, were born or lived in the city. Polish prime minister and commander-in-chief general Władysław Sikorski studied there, while pioneer of the oil industry, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, spent much of his life
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in Rzeszów. Anja Rubik, Polish model, was born in 1983 in Rzeszów. Natalie Portman's family come from Rzeszów. Tomasz Stańko, internationally acclaimed jazz trumpeter, Rich Szaro, American football player, and Dawid Kostecki, professional boxer, come from Rzeszów.
## Sports.
- Resovia Rzeszów
- men's volleyball team playing in Polish Volleyball League, 6 times Polish Champions, 3 times Polish Cup winners
- one of the oldest men's football teams in Poland (1905 or 1904)
- basketball team, Polish Champions 1974/75
- Stal Rzeszów
- motorcycle speedway team
- men's football team
- Rzeszów Rockets – American football team
# Economy and infrastructure.
## Industry.
- Valeant Pharmaceuticals
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International (NYSE:VRX) Rzeszów (formerly ICN Polfa Rzeszów)
- United Technologies Corporation (NYSE:UTX) Pratt & Whitney division (acquired WSK-PZL Rzeszów) – Aerospace engineering including one of the world's two F-16 engine manufacturers
- Zelmer SA – household equipment
- Asseco Poland SA (earlier Comp Rzeszów S.A.) – the largest computer software company in Poland
- Novartis International AG (NYSE:NVS) Rzeszów – Gerber Products Company food production facilities
- Sanofi-Aventis (NYSE:SNY)
- Goodrich Corporation opened a 5.3 hectare manufacturing facility near Rzeszów in November 2010
- Eastern IT Cluster grouping several IT companies is headquartered in Rzeszów
- FIBRAIN – manufacturer
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in the field of ICT systems
- G2A.COM Limited - a global digital marketplace which specializes in gaming products
At Widełka substation, situated approximately north-northeast of Rzeszów, the Rzeszów–Khmelnytskyi powerline, the only 750 kV powerline in Poland, ends.
## Media.
### Radio.
- Radio Rzeszów
- Radio Eska Rzeszów
- Akademickie Radio Centrum
- Katolickie Radio Via
- Radio RES
### Press.
- Gazeta Codzienna NOWINY
- Super Nowości
- Nasz Dom
- Gazeta Wyborcza Rzeszów
### Television.
- Polish Television (TVP) branch in Rzeszów
- Rzeszów municipal television
## Transport.
### Transit.
Rzeszów is located on the main West-East European E40 Highway, which goes from Calais
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in France via Belgium, across Germany, Poland, Ukraine and onto Russia and Kazakhstan. Within Poland the E40 follows the A4 Highway. Other Polish cities located by the E40 highway are Wrocław, Katowice, Kraków and Korczowa.
In recent years, communication has been improved by modernisation of the roads within the city. SCATS traffic system has been implemented.
Highway A4 acts as a bypass of the city, running through the northern districts of Rzeszów.
### Airport.
Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport (Port Lotniczy Rzeszów-Jasionka) is located in the village of Jasionka north of the city. As of June 2015 scheduled passenger services are offered by Ryanair, LOT Polish Airlines, and Lufthansa. This is
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supplemented seasonally by tourist charter flights to typical summer leisure destinations.
For more details see Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport or its Official website.
### Buses.
The city operates 49 bus lines including night and airport buses. Rzeszów is also a gateway to the Bieszczady mountains, with many buses heading for Sanok.
### Railways.
Rzeszów is an important rail hub is on the main West-East rail route; . This runs from Silesia and Kraków, Kraków Main station "(Kraków Główny)" – Medyka on the Polish eastern border. This line then continues on to Ukraine. Its main railway station was established in the 19th century and apart from it, there are five additional stations in the city:
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"Rzeszów Staroniwa", "Rzeszów Zwięczyca", "Rzeszów Osiedle", "Rzeszów Załęże" and "Rzeszów Zachodni" (freight only). There are also two non-electrified lines stemming from Rzeszów – to Jasło and to Tarnobrzeg.
# Education.
Universities:
- Rzeszów University (established in 2001 from a number of smaller schools)
- Rzeszów University of Technology (formed from The Higher Engineering School in 1974)
- University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszów (established in 1996) website
- Branches in Dębica, Krosno and Nisko
- Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania website
- WSPiA Rzeszowska Szkoła Wyższa – Rzeszów (established in 1995) website
Notable high schools:
- Konarski's Number 1 High
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website
Notable high schools:
- Konarski's Number 1 High School in Rzeszów
- John Paul II High School
# International relations.
## Twin towns – Sister cities.
Rzeszów is twinned with:
- Gainesville, Florida, United States
- Buffalo, New York, United States
- Košice, Slovakia
- Nyíregyháza, Hungary
- Bielefeld, Germany
- Klagenfurt, Austria
- Lamia, Greece
- Satu Mare, Romania
- Lviv, Ukraine
- Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
- Lutsk, Ukraine
- Fangchenggang, China
# Bibliography.
- Moshe Yaari-Wald (ed.), Sefer Zikkaron li-Kehillat Risha (Heb., some Yid. and Eng., 1967).
# External links.
- Gallery
- Rzeszów City Department
- Welcome to Rzeszów!
- Best infoblog in Rzeszów
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Bytom
Bytom ( ; Silesian: "Bytůń", ) is a city with powiat rights in southern Poland, in Silesia, in centre of Metropolitan Association of Upper Silesia and Dąbrowa Basin.
It is one of the oldest cities in the Upper Silesia, and the former seat of the Piast dukes of the Duchy of Bytom. Until 1532, it was in the hands of the Silesian Piasts, then it belonged to the Hohenzollern dynasty. After 1623 it was a state country in the hands of the Donnersmarck family. From 1742–1945 the town was within the borders of Prussia and Germany, and played an important role as an economic and administrative centre of the local industrial region. Until the outbreak of World War II, it was the main centre of
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national, social, cultural and publishing organisations fighting to preserve Polish identity in Upper Silesia.
During Kristallnacht in 1938, Nazi Germans burned down the Bytom Synagogue. In 1942, the Beuthen Jewish community was liquidated and its members were the first transport to be sent to Auschwitz concentration camp.
After the war, decades of the Polish People's Republic were characterized by a constant emphasis on the development of heavy industry, which deeply polluted and degraded Bytom. After 1989, the city experienced a socio-economic decline, however, it remains an important place in the cultural, entertainment, and industrial map of the region.
# Geology.
The bedrock of the
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Upland of consists primarily of sandstones and slates. The rocks are punctuated with abundant natural resources of coal and iron ore from the Carboniferous period. In the north part of the upland, in the Bytom basin lays the broad range of the triassic rocks, from sandstones to limestones, with rich ore, zinc and lead reserves. The upper layer is composed of clay, sand and gravel.
# Coat of arms.
One half of the coat of arms of Bytom depicts a miner mining coal, while the other half presents a yellow eagle on the blue field – the symbol of Upper Silesia.
# History.
Bytom is one of the oldest cities of Upper Silesia, originally recorded as "Bitom" in 1136, when it was part of the Medieval
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Kingdom of Poland. Archaeological discoveries have shown that there was a fortified settlement (a "gród") here, probably founded by the Polish King Bolesław I the Brave in the early 11th century.
After the fragmentation of Poland in 1138, Bytom became part of the Seniorate Province, as it was still considered part of historic Lesser Poland. In 1177 it became part of the Silesian province of Poland, and remained within historic Silesia since. Bytom received city rights from prince Władysław in 1254 with its first centrally located market square. The city of Bytom benefited economically from its location on a trade route linking Kraków with Silesia from east to west, and Hungary with Moravia
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and Greater Poland from north to south. The first Roman Catholic Church of the Virgin Mary was built in 1231. In 1259 Bytom was raided by the Mongols. The Duchy of Opole was split and in 1281 Bytom became a separate duchy, since 1289 under overlordship and administration of the Kingdom of Bohemia. It existed until 1498, when it was re-integrated with the Piast-ruled Duchy of Opole. Due to German settlers coming to the area, the city was Germanized.
It came under control of the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in 1526, which increased the influence of the German language. The city became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 during the Silesian Wars and part of the German Empire in 1871. In the
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19th and the first part of the 20th centuries, the city rapidly grew and industrialized.
Bytom was one of the main centers of Polish resistance against Germanization in Upper Silesia in the 19th century, up until the mid-20th century. Polish social, political and cultural organizations were formed and operated here. From 1848, the newspaper "" was published here. In 1895, the "Sokół" Polish Gymnastic Society was established, and, during the Silesian uprisings, in 1919-1920, Polish football clubs Poniatowski Szombierki and Polonia Bytom were founded, which later on, in post-World War II Poland both won the national championship. In the interwar period, Bytom was one of two cities (alongside
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Kwidzyn) in Germany, in which a Polish gymnasium was allowed to operate. Before 1939, the town, along with Gleiwitz (now Gliwice), was at the southeastern tip of German Silesia.
The Bytom Synagogue was burned down by Nazi German SS and SA troopers during the Kristallnacht on 9–10 November 1938. During World War II, the Beuthen Jewish community was liquidated via the first ever Holocaust transport to be exterminated at Auschwitz-Birkenau.
In 1945 the city was transferred to Poland as a result of the Potsdam Conference. Its German population was largely expelled by the Soviet Army, and replaced by a Polish population, some of them repatriated Poles from the eastern provinces annexed by the Soviets.
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Some of the indigenous Silesian population remained.
# Economy.
Trade is one of main pillars of the economy of Bytom. Being a city with long traditions of commercial trade, Bytom is fulfilling its new postindustrial role. In the centre of Bytom, and mainly around Station Street and the Market Square, is the largest concentration of registered merchants in the county.
In 2007, Bytom and its neighbours created the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union, the largest urban centre in Poland.
# Public transport.
The tram routes are operated by Silesian Interurbans Tramwaje Śląskie S.A
# Sport.
Bytom is home to Polonia Bytom which has both a football and an ice hockey team (TMH Polonia Bytom). Its
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football team played in the Ekstraklasa most recently from 2007 to 2011, winning it twice in 1954 and in 1962. The Szombierki district is home to another former Polish champion Szombierki Bytom which won the title in 1980, and is one of the oldest clubs in the region.
# Culture.
Bytom's cultural venues include:
- Silesian Opera – ul. Moniuszki 21/23
- (Town's Public Library)
- Dance Theatre Rozbark in Bytom
- Bytomskie Centrum Kultury (Bytom Cultural Centre)
- Kronika – Center of modern art
- City Choir of St. Grzegorz Wielki
Among Bytom's art galleries are: Galeria Sztuki Użytkowej Stalowe Anioły, Galeria "Rotunda" MBP, Galeria "Suplement", Galeria "Pod Czaplą", Galeria "Platforma",
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Galeria "Pod Szrtychem", Galeria Sztuki "Od Nowa 2", Galeria SPAP "Plastyka" – Galeria "Kolor", Galeria "Stowarzyszenia.Rewolucja.Art.Pl", and Galeria-herbaciarnia "Fanaberia".
Festivals
- Annual International Contemporary Dance Conference and Performance Festival
- Theatromania – Theatre Festival
- Bytom Literary Autumn
- Festival of New Music
# Education.
- The list of Bytom universities includes:
- Silesian University of Technology – Faculty of Transport
- Medical University of Silesia
- Polish Japanese Institute of Information Technology
- Wyższa Szkoła Ekonomii i Administracji
- Secondary schools:
- I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Jana Smolenia
- II Liceum Ogólnokształcące im.
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Stefana Żeromskiego
- IV Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Bolesława Chrobrego
- 21 other secondary schools
# Confederation of Silesia.
Bytom is a place from where Confederation of Silesia – Polish Bonapartists originates.
# Politics.
## Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency.
Members of 2001–2005 Parliament (Sejm) elected from Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency
- Jan Chojnacki, SLD-UP
- Stanisław Dulias, Samoobrona
- Andrzej Gałażewski, PO
- Ewa Janik, SLD-UP
- Józef Kubica, SLD-UP
- Wacław Martyniuk, SLD-UP
- Wiesław Okoński, SLD-UP
- Wojciech Szarama, PiS
- Krystyna Szumilas, PO
- Marek Widuch, SLD-UP
# Notable people.
- Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki (c. 1665–1734), Polish composer and
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musician
- Heinrich Schulz-Beuthen (1838–1915), German composer
- Siegfried Karfunkelstein (1848–1870), Prussian soldier
- Ernst Gaupp (1865–1916), German anatomist
- Ludwig Halberstädter (1876–1949), radiologist
- Adolf Kober (1879–1958), rabbi and historian
- Maximilian Kaller (1880–1947), bishop of Warmia
- Kate Steinitz (1889–1975), German-American artist and art historian
- Hartwig von Ludwiger (1895–1947), German general
- Max Tau (1897–1976), Jewish-German-Norwegian writer, editor and publisher
- Henry J. Leir (1900–1998), American industrialist, financier, and philanthropist
- Friedrich Domin (1902–1961), German film actor
- Herbert Büchs (1913–1996), German General
- Józef
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