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74606
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Wałbrzych
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wałbrzych
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Wałbrzych
place where a weekly market took place in the past. In the years 1731-1853 its center was occupied by the Baroque town hall.
- Alberti Palace (District Museum)
- Wałbrzych, the Guardian Angels Church. Built in 1898 in the neo-Gothic style, in the place of the previous church.
- Protestant church. Designed in the years 1785-1788 by Carl Gotthard Langhans, the founder of the Berlin Brandenburg Gate
- Mausoleum in Wałbrzych (Totenburg). Hitler's monument of "pride, glory and strength" commemorated the victims of World War I, in fact it was a place of cultivation of Nazi ideas
- Railway tunnel under the Little Wołowiec mountain. Counting 1,601 m (5,253 ft) is the longest railway tunnel in Poland
-
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Mountain Borowa (black mountain). The highest mountain in the Wałbrzyskie Mountains, in 2017 a public observation tower was built
- Mountain Chełmiec. The second largest peak in the area. A monumental mountain in the shape of a dome that dominates the city. At the top there is an observation tower, 45 meter cross, and two radio-television masts
- Old Mine - Center for Science and the Arts (Stara Kopalnia - Centrum Nauki i Sztuki)is the biggest post-industrial tourist attraction in Poland, located in the former bituminous coal mine – Kopalnia Węgla Kamiennego “Julia” (“Thorez”). It covers the area of 4.5 hectares of historic post-industrial objects with authentic equipment, such as a machine
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Wałbrzych
park which has been secured and made accessible for visitors.
- Mining monuments in the city have been a lot of post-mining objects, among others, buildings, halls and mining towers.
# City districts.
Including date of incorporation into the city
# Education.
- Angelus Silesius State University in Wałbrzych official site
- Wrocław Technical University in Wałbrzych official site
- Wałbrzyska Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Przedsiębiorczości official site
- Ignacy Paderewski High School official site
- Hugo Kołłątaj High School official site
- Mikołaj Kopernik High School official site
- The city has a research center, Polish Academy of Sciences
# Politics.
## Wałbrzych constituency.
Members
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Wałbrzych
of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Wałbrzych constituency:
- Zbigniew Chlebowski, PO
- Henryk Gołębiewski, SLD
- Roman Ludwiczuk, PO (Senat)
- Katarzyna Mrzygłocka, PO
- Giovanni Roman, PiS
- Mieczysław Szyszka, PiS (Senat)
- Anna Zalewska, PiS
# Sports.
- Górnik Wałbrzych is a professional men's basketball club, two times Polish champions. Currently, it plays in the Polish 3rd league. Last time Górnik played in the Polish Basketball League (the Polish top basketball league) was in 2009.
- Górnik Wałbrzych is a professional men's football club playing in the Polish 4th league (5th level). It played in the Ekstraklasa (top tier) in the 1980s.
- Zagłębie Wałbrzych is a men's football
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club, which played in the Ekstraklasa in the 1960s and 1970s, finishing 3rd in 1971. It's currently competing in the amateur Klasa A.
- KK Wałbrzych (former Górnik Nowe Miasto Wałbrzych) – is a semi-professional men's basketball club playing in the Polish 3rd league.
- Victoria PWSZ Wałbrzych is a professional men's volleyball club playing in the Polish 3rd league.
There are many semi-professional or amateur football clubs (like Czarni Wałbrzych, Juventur Wałbrzych, Podgórze Wałbrzych, Gwarek Wałbrzych and one basketball club (KS Dark Dog is playing in the Polish 3rd league).
- LKKS Górnik Wałbrzych is a cycling club
- Wałbrzych native Sebastian Janikowski is a placekicker in the NFL.
-
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Wałbrzych
ASZ PWSZ Walbrzych -(women soccer)-(Level 1)-(Ekstraliga)-(poland)- TBA
# Media.
- New Walbrzych Headlines official site
- Tygodnik Wałbrzyski official site
- www.walbrzych.info official site
- TV Zamkowa official site
- TV Walbrzych official site
- 30 minut – Gazeta która nie ma ceny ((Free) Newspaper – that does not have a price) official site
# Notable people.
- Wolfgang Menzel (1798–1873), German poet, critic and literary historian
- Gerhard Menzel (1894–1966), German writer
- Abraham Robinson (1918–1974), German-Jewish-American mathematician
- Klaus Töpfer (b. 1938), German politician (CDU), born 1938 in Waldenburg
- Christian Brückner (b. 1943), German actor
- Marcel Reif
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Wałbrzych
(b. 1949), German soccer journalist
- Urszula Włodarczyk (b. 1965), Polish heptathlete
- Joanna Bator (b. 1968), Polish Nike Award-winning novelist, journalist, feminist and academic
- Krzysztof Ignaczak (b. 1978), Polish volleyball player
- Sebastian Janikowski (b. 1978), retired Polish-American football placekicker for the NFL Oakland Raiders and Seattle Seahawks
- Adrian Mrowiec (b. 1983), Polish footballer
- Bartosz Kurek (b. 1988), Polish volleyball player
# International relations.
## Twin towns — sister cities.
Wałbrzych is twinned with:
# See also.
- Piotr Giro
- Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II
- Nazi gold train
# External links.
-
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Wałbrzych
zysztof Ignaczak (b. 1978), Polish volleyball player
- Sebastian Janikowski (b. 1978), retired Polish-American football placekicker for the NFL Oakland Raiders and Seattle Seahawks
- Adrian Mrowiec (b. 1983), Polish footballer
- Bartosz Kurek (b. 1988), Polish volleyball player
# International relations.
## Twin towns — sister cities.
Wałbrzych is twinned with:
# See also.
- Piotr Giro
- Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II
- Nazi gold train
# External links.
- Wałbrzych official city website
- Wałbrzych information website
- Jewish Community in Wałbrzych on Virtual Shtetl
- Local news website (pol)
- Wałbrzych photo gallery and local news
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Rybnik
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rybnik
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Rybnik
Rybnik
Rybnik (, ) is a city in southwestern Poland, in the Silesian Voivodeship. The city first developed as a fishing centre ("rybnik" means "fishpond" in several Slavic languages) in the Middle Ages, then was a capital of so-called Rybnik State. Rybnik grew as an important centre of coal mining and the seat of the surrounding county in the 19th century. Under Poland's communist rule from 1945-1989 the city was projected to grow as a main mining centre of southern Poland.
The Rybnik area with its large coal mines and power plants is an important economic region of Poland, and a notable center of music, home of the Szafrankowie Brothers State School of Music as well as a Philharmonic Orchestra.
#
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Population.
The city's population peaked in 1997 at 144,943. Currently Rybnik has 138,696 inhabitants (as of 2018). 88.9% of the city's residents identified themselves as Polish in the 2002 National Census. Its density is 955.3 per km². Rybnik's demographic situation remains far better than most other Polish cities, with a rather young population: 18.2% being under the age of 18 and only 15.9% older than 65.
According to the National Census of 2002 out of 142,731 Rybnik's citizens, 126,860 (88.9%) declared Polish nationality, 8,980 (6.3%) were Silesians and 382 were of German origin (0.3%).
# Districts.
Rybnik is a "powiat" (county) divided into 27 districts that have its own administrative
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body. Most of them are suburban areas, including: Chwałęcice, Golejów, Gotartowice, Grabownia (German: Grabowina), Kamień, Kłokocin, Ligota – Ligocka Kuźnia (German: Ellguth-Carstenhütte), Meksyk, Ochojec, Orzepowice, Popielów (German: Poppelau), Radziejów (German: Radzieow), Rybnicka Kuźnia (German: Rybniker Hammer), Rybnik – Północ, Stodoły, Wielopole, Zamysłów (German: Königlich Zamislau) and Zebrzydowice. There are also four former towns that have been merged with Rybnik: Boguszowice Stare, Chwałowice, Niedobczyce and Niewiadom. Two districts (Boguszowice Osiedle and Maroko-Nowiny) are typical Polish housing estates, with large blocks of flats and supporting buildings (such as shops and
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schools) built in communist time. The remaining three districts, Smolna (German: Smollna), Śródmieście and Paruszowiec-Piaski (German: Paruschowitz) formed the pre-war town of Rybnik. Those areas are densely built-up, with old town, city hall, most of schools, offices and shopping malls in Śródmieście (literally: "city centre" in Polish) and 19th century factories and houses in Paruszowiec.
The city of Rybnik is the centre of a metropolitan area, the Rybnik Coal Region () with a total population of 600,000. The distance to Katowice is about , and to Ostrava about .
# History.
The city's name derives from the Proto-Slavic word for "fish" ("ryba") and meant "fishpond" in the Old Polish language.
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The name highlights the importance of fish farming for the city's economy in the Middle Ages, which is reflected in its coat of arms until this day.
The city's origins can be traced back into the 9th and 10th century, when three Slavic settlements existed on Rybnik's present-day territory which eventually merged to form one town. In the course of the medieval eastward migration of German settlers ("Ostsiedlung"), Rybnik, as many other Polish settlements, was incorporated (granted city status and right) according to the so-called Magdeburg Law at some point before 1308 (the exact date remains unknown). This, however, is not to be confused with a change in national affiliation; Rybnik continued
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to be part of the Kingdom of Poland, until Silesia as a whole became a fiefdom of the Bohemian crown in 1327. The city continued to grow and developed into a regional trade centre. In the 15th century, the Hussites devastated the city, before being eventually defeated in a decisive battle on a hill nearby. From 1526, Bohemia, including the fiefdom of Silesia, which Rybnik was a part of, came under the authority of the Habsburg crown.
At the beginning of the War of the Austrian Succession between Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) and the Habsburg empress Maria Theresa of Austria, the greatest part of Silesia, including Rybnik, was annexed by Prussia in 1740, which Austria eventually recognized
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Rybnik
in 1763. Coal mining gained importance for Rybnik's economy as early as the 18th century. In 1871, Prussia, including Rybnik, merged into the German Empire, the first modern German nation state. At this point, Poland had already ceased to exist as an independent state, having been divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia in the Third Partition of Poland of 1795.
With the intensification of Germanization and anti-Polish politics in the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, the ethnically mixed region of Upper Silesia became affected by growing tensions between German and Polish nationalists. After the end of World War I in 1918, Polish statehood was finally restored. Amidst
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an atmosphere of ethnic unrest, a referendum was organized to determine the future national affiliation of Upper Silesia. Although an overall majority had opted for Germany, the area was finally divided in an attempt to satisfy both parties. Although both parties considered the territory they were assigned insufficient, the division was justified insofar as in the German and Polish parts a majority had voted in favour of the respective nation.
The lowest number of pro-German votes was registered in the districts of Rybnik and Pszczyna (Pless). The city and the largest part of the district of Rybnik were attached to Poland; Rybnik thus became part of a Polish state for the first time since 1526.
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Rybnik
The referendum and eventual division of Upper Silesia were accompanied by three Silesian Uprisings, the first of which (in 1919) was centered on Rybnik.
Within the Second Polish Republic of the interwar period, Rybnik was part of the Silesian Voivodeship and enjoyed far-reaching political and financial autonomy.
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the border city Rybnik returned under the rule of Germany, directly incorporated into the German state. The population was ethnically categorized and either "re-Germanized" or disfranchised and partially deported into the General Government as Poles.
After the eventual German defeat which ended World War II in the European theatre of war
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Rybnik
in 1945, Rybnik was once more integrated into Poland, the territory of which was shifted westward on Joseph Stalin's initiative. Rybnik thus ceased to be German-Polish border city. Its population was again categorized to be either "re-polonized" or forcefully resettled to Germany. A large portion of ethnic Germans from Rybnik eventually settled in the West German city of Dorsten (District of Recklinghausen), which eventually became one of Rybnik's twin towns in 1994.
In the post-war period, coal mining continued to gain importance. The 1970s saw the construction of an important coal-fired power plant. A reservoir on the river Ruda was constructed to provide it with cooling water. In 2002, the
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University of Economics ("Akademia Ekomomiczna"), the University of Silesia ("Uniwersytet Śląski"), both in based Katowice, and the Silesian Polytechnic University ("Politechnika Śląska") based in Gliwice established a joint campus in Rybnik to improve academic training opportunities in the area.
# Tourism.
In contrast to the central part of the Upper Silesian Industry Area a short distance to the north, Rybnik enjoys the reputation of a "green" city having a relatively clean environment. While the city is not a centre of tourism, it does have various interesting sights and opportunities for recreation. To the north-east of the built-up area, there is a reservoir ("Zalew Rybnicki") on the
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river Ruda, which serves as a cooling water source for the power station. Surrounded by forests, it offers swimming, fishing, sailing and surfing opportunities, and due to the power station's waste heat it is warm enough all year to be a habitat for grass carps. The Beskidy Mountains, a popular recreational area, also for skiing, are within a 1–2 hour drive.
Sights worth visiting:
- the neo-gothic basilica of St. Anthony ("Bazylika św. Antoniego")
- the building of the former district authority (1887)
- the neo-classical new town hall (1928)
- the neo-classical old town hall with clock-tower, today housing the registry office and the museum of local history
- the Church of St. Catherine
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("Kościół św. Katarzyny") (1534)
- the Church of St. Lawrence ("Kościół św. Wawrzyńca") (1717)
- a late Baroque estate house (1736)
- a Piast castle from the early 13th century, completely redesigned in the 18th century
# Famous people from Rybnik.
- Krzysztof Bodziony (born 1985), Polish footballer
- Hermann Boehm (1884–1972) Kriegsmarine Admiral
- Jerzy Dudek, Real Madrid and Polish national football team goalkeeper
- Thomas Godoj, winner of 2008 Deutschland sucht den Superstar
- Henryk Górecki, composer of classical music
- Lidia Grychtołówna, Polish pianist
- Olek Krupa, actor
- Otto Landsberg, German politician
- Adam Makowicz, Polish jazz pianist
- Piotr Paleczny, Polish
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pianist
- Ewa Sonnet, Polish model and singer
- Tomasz Zdebel, Polish football player of Silesian-German descent
# Sports.
In 2006, the 8th European Glider Aerobatic Championships took place in Rybnik.
The aeroclub of Rybnik is very successful in national and international glider aerobatic competitions: Jerzy Makula won the European Glider Aerobatic Championships two times and the World Glider Aerobatic Championships six times. Other current or former members of the Polish national glider aerobatics team from are Małgorzata Margańska, Krzysztof Brzikalik, Lucjan Fizia, Stanisław Makula and Ireneusz Boczkowski.
## Teams from Rybnik.
- ROW Rybnik - multi-sports club
- Thunders Rybnik -
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american football
# International relations.
## Twin towns — sister cities.
Rybnik is twinned with:
# References.
- Notes
# External links.
- Rybnik's official website (Polish, some content in English)
- Rybnik City Guide (English only)
- Commercial information portal (Polish only)
- Independent information portal (Polish only)
- Photo-website (Polish and Silesian)
- Rybnik, Silesia (Polish, some content in English)
- Football fan site (KS ROW Rybnik) (Polish only)
- German minority in Rybnik (German)
- Friends of Rybnik in Dorsten, a twin town (German)
- Company Information portal (Polish only)
- Smolna information portal (Polish only)
- Rybnik during World War II (Polish
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- Rybnik's official website (Polish, some content in English)
- Rybnik City Guide (English only)
- Commercial information portal (Polish only)
- Independent information portal (Polish only)
- Photo-website (Polish and Silesian)
- Rybnik, Silesia (Polish, some content in English)
- Football fan site (KS ROW Rybnik) (Polish only)
- German minority in Rybnik (German)
- Friends of Rybnik in Dorsten, a twin town (German)
- Company Information portal (Polish only)
- Smolna information portal (Polish only)
- Rybnik during World War II (Polish only)
- Jewish Community in Rybnik on Virtual Shtetl
- rybnickie pismo akademickie KAMPUS
- Rybnik Thunders American Football Team (Polish only)
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Palma de Mallorca
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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palma%20de%20Mallorca
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Palma de Mallorca
Palma de Mallorca
Palma, formerly Palma de Mallorca ( or , , ), is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands in Spain. It is situated on the south coast of Mallorca on the Bay of Palma. The Cabrera Archipelago, though widely separated from Palma proper, is administratively considered part of the municipality. , Palma Airport serves over 29 million passengers per year.
# History.
Palma was founded as a Roman camp upon the remains of a Talaiotic settlement. The city was subjected to several Vandal raids during the fall of the Western Roman Empire, then reconquered by the Byzantine Empire, then colonised by the Moors (who called it Medina Mayurqa) and, in
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Palma de Mallorca
the 13th century, by James I of Aragon.
## Roman period.
After the conquest of Mallorca, the city was loosely incorporated into the province of Tarraconensis by 123 BC; the Romans founded two new cities: "Palma" on the south of the island, and "Pollentia" in the northeast — on the site of a Phoenician settlement. Whilst Pollentia acted as a port to Roman cities on the northwestern Mediterranean Sea, Palma was the port used for destinations in Africa, such as Carthage, and Hispania, such as Saguntum, Gades and Carthago Nova. Though present-day Palma has no significant remains from this period, occasional archaeological finds are made in city centre excavations. For example, the remains of the
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Palma de Mallorca
Roman Wall can be seen at Can Bordils, the Municipal Archive, and below it, at the Maimó ben Faraig Center.
## Byzantine period.
Though the period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Muslim conquest is not well understood (due to lack of documents), there is clear evidence of a Byzantine presence in the city, as indicated by mosaics found in the oldest parts of the Cathedral, which was in early medieval times part of a paleo-Christian temple.
## Muslim period.
Between 902 and 1229, the city was under Islamic control. It remained the capital of the island and it was known as Medina Mayurqa, which in Arabic means "City of Majorca".
### Under the Emirate of Córdoba.
The arrival
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Palma de Mallorca
of the Moors in the Balearic Islands occurred at the beginning of the 8th century. During this period, the population developed an economy based on self-sufficiency and piracy, and even showed evidence of a relative hierarchy. The dominant groups took advantage of the Byzantine withdrawal due to Islamic expansion across the Mediterranean, to reinforce their domination upon the rest of the population, thus ensuring their power and the gradual abandonment of Imperial political structures.
In 707, a Muslim fleet, under the command of Abd Allgaht ibn Musa, son of the governor of Ifriqiya, Musa ibn Nusayr, stopped off at the island. It appears that Abd Allah convinced the powers of the city to accept
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Palma de Mallorca
a peace treaty. This treaty was granted in exchange for a tax, respect for social, economic and political structures to the communities that subscribed to it, as well as the continuity of their religious beliefs.
After 707, the city was inhabited by Christians who were nominally in allegiance to the sovereignty of the Umayyad Caliphate, yet who, "de facto", enjoyed absolute autonomy. The city, being in Mallorca, constituted an enclave between western Christian and Islamic territories, and this attracted and encouraged increased levels of piracy in the surrounding waters. For wide sectors of the city's population, the sacking of ships (whether Muslim or Christian) which passed through Balearic
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Palma de Mallorca
waters was a source of riches over the next fifteen decades. Eventually, continued piracy in the region lead to a retaliation by Al-Andalus which launched a naval fleet against the city and the whole of the Islands.
The Islands were defended by the emperor Charlemagne in 799 from a Muslim pirate incursion.
In 848 (maybe 849), four years after the first Viking incursions had sacked the whole island, an attack from Córdoba forced the authorities to ratify the treaty to which the city had submitted in 707. As the city still occupied an eccentric position regarding the commerce network established by the Moors in the western Mediterranean, the enclave was not immediately incorporated into Al-Andalus.
While
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the Emirate of Córdoba reinforced its influence upon the Mediterranean, Al-Andalus increased its interest in the city. The consequence of this was the substitution of the submission treaty for the effective incorporation of the islands to the Islamic state. A squad under the command of Isam al-Jawlani took advantage of instability caused by several Viking incursions and disembarked in Mallorca, and after destroying any resistance, incorporated Mallorca, with Palma as its capital, to the Córdoban state.
The incorporation of the city into the Emirate set the basis for a new society. Commerce and manufacturing developed in a manner that was previously unknown. This caused considerable demographic
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growth, thereby establishing Medina Mayurqa as one of the major ports for trading goods in and out of the Emirate of Córdoba.
### Dénia—Balearic taifa (1015–1087).
The Umayyad regime, despite its administrative centralisation, mercenary army and struggle to gain wider social support, could neither harmonise the various ethnic groups inside al-Andalus nor dissolve the old tribes which still organised sporadic ethnic fighting. During the 11th century, the Caliphate's control waned considerably. Provinces broke free from the central Cordoban administration, and became effectively sovereign states — "taifas" — under the same governors that had been named by the last Umayyad Caliphs. According
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Palma de Mallorca
to their origin, these "taifas" can be grouped under three broad categories: people of Arab, Berber or Slavic origin.
Palma was part of the taifa of Dénia. The founder of this state was a client of the Al-Mansur family, Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali, who could profit from the progressive crumbling of the Caliphate's superstructure to gain control over the province of Dénia. Subsequently, Muyahid organised a campaign throughout the Balearic Islands to consolidate the district and incorporated it into their "taifa" in early 1015.
During the following years Palma became the main port from where attacks on Christian vessels and coasts could be launched. Palma was the base from where a campaign against
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Sardinia was launched between 1016 and 1017, which caused the Pisans and Genoese forces to intervene. Later, this intervention set the basis for Italian mercantile penetration of the city.
The Denian dominion lasted until 1087, a period during which the city, as well as the rest of the islands, was relatively peaceful. Their supremacy at sea was still not rivalled by the Italian merchant republics, thus there were few external threats.
### Balearic Taifa (1087–1115) and Western Mediterranean.
The Banu Hud conquest of Dénia and its incorporation to the Eastern district of the taifa of Zaragoza meant the destruction of the legacy of Muyahid. The islands were freed from mainland dominion and
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briefly enjoyed independence, during which Medina Mayurqa was the capital.
The economy during this period depended on both agriculture and piracy. In the latter 11th century, Christian commercial powers took the initiative at sea against the Muslims. After centuries of fighting defensively in the face of Islamic pressure, Italians, Catalans and Occitans took offensive action. Consequently, the benefits of piracy diminished causing severe economic stress on the city.
The clearest proof of the new ruling relation of forces, from 1090, is the Crusade organised by the most important mercantile cities of the Christian states against the Islands. This effort was destined to finally eradicate Muslim
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piracy mainly based in Palma and surrounding havens. In 1115, Palma was sacked and later abandoned by an expedition commanded by Ramon Berenguer III the Great, count of Barcelona and Provence, which was composed of Catalans, Pisans and other Italians, and soldiers from Provence, Corsica, and Sardinia, in a struggle to end Almoravid control.
After this, the Islands became part of the Almoravid dynasty. The inglobement of all the taifa to a larger state helped to re-establish a balance along the frontier that separated western Christian states from the Muslim world.
### Period of the Banu Ganiya (1157–1203).
The situation changed in the mid-12th century, when the Almoravids were displaced from
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al-Andalus and western Maghreb by the Almohad. Almoravid dominions, from 1157 on, were restricted to the Balearic Islands, with Palma again acting as the capital, governed by Muhammad ibn Ganiya. Massive arrival of al-Andalus refugees contributed to reinforce the positions of the last Almoravid legitimatists, the Banu Ganiya, who, conscious of their weakness in the Western Mediterranean context, started to get closer to the growing powers represented by Italian maritime republics. Genoa and Pisans obtained in this period their first commercial concessions in the city and the rest of the islands.
The Banu Ganiya, taking advantage of the great loss suffered by Abu Yuqub Yusuf in the Siege of
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Santarém, attacked Ifriqiya, where the Almohad dominion had not been consolidated yet, in the same year. However, this attack was repelled and the Almohad authorities encouraged anti-Almoravid revolts in the Islands. The city was captured by the Almohads in 1203.
## Christian reconquest and late Middle Ages.
On 31 December 1229, after three months of siege, the city was reconquered by James I of Aragon and was renamed Ciutat de Mallorca (Mallorca City). In addition to being kept as capital of the Kingdom of Majorca, it was given a municipality that comprised the whole island. The governing arm was the University of the City and Kingdom of Majorca.
After the death of James I of Aragon, Palma
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became joint capital of the Kingdom of Majorca, together with Perpignan. His son, James II of Majorca, championed the construction of statues and monuments in the city: Bellver Castle, the churches of St. Francesc and St. Domingo, reformed the Palace of Almudaina and began the construction of the Cathedral of Majorca.
In 1391, anti-Jewish riots broke out. The Jewish community of Inca was completely wiped out, as were those of Sóller, Sineu, and Alcudia. In spite of the governor's prohibition on leaving the island, many Jews fled to North Africa. The remaining Jews were forced to convert under threat of death.
Abraham Cresques was a 14th-century Jewish cartographer of the Majorcan cartographic
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school from Palma; Cresques is credited with the authorship of the famous Catalan Atlas.
The river that cut through the city gave rise to two distinct areas within the city; the "Upper town" and "Lower town", depending upon which side of the river one was situated.
The city's advantageous geographical location allowed it extensive commerce with Catalonia, Valencia, Provence, the Maghreb, the Italian republics and the dominions of the Great Turk, which heralded a golden age for the city.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Rebellion of the Brotherhoods (a peasant uprising against Charles V's administration) and the frequent attack of Turkish and Berber pirates caused a reduction of commercial
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activities and a huge inversion in defensive structures. As a consequence, the city entered a period of decadence that would last till the end of the 17th century.
## 17th to 19th centuries.
The 17th century is characterised by the division of the city in two sides or gangs, named "Canamunts" and "Canavalls" (from Majorcan Catalan "the ones from the upper/lower side"), with severe social and economical repercussions. During this period the port became a haven for pirates. During the last quarter of the century, the Inquisition continued its persecution of the city's Jews, locally called "xuetes".
The fall of Barcelona in 1714 meant the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and the defeat
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and destruction of the Crown of Aragon, and this was reflected on the Nueva Planta decrees, issued by Philip V of Spain in 1715. These occupation decrees changed the government of the island and separated it from the municipality's government of Palma, which became the official city name. By the end of the 19th century, the name "Palma de Mallorca" was generalised in written Spanish, although it is still colloquially named "Ciutat" ("city") in Catalan. In the 18th century Charles III of Spain removed interdiction of commerce with Spanish colonies in America and the port and commercial activity of the city grew once again.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Palma became a refuge for many
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who had exiled themselves from the Napoleonic occupation of Catalonia and Valencia; during this period freedom flourished, until the absolutist restoration. With the establishment of contemporary Spanish state administrative organization, Palma became the capital of the new province of Balearic Islands in the 1833 territorial division of Spain. The French occupation of Algeria in the 19th century ended the fear of Maghrebi attacks in Majorca, which favoured the expansion of new maritime routes, and consequently, the economic growth of the city.
## Modern period.
Since the advent of mass tourism in the 1950s, the city has been transformed into a tourist destination and has attracted many workers
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from mainland Spain. This has contributed to a huge change in the city's traditions, its language, and its economic power.
The boom in tourism has caused Palma to grow significantly. In 1960, Mallorca received 500,000 visitors, in 1997 it received more than 6,739,700. In 2001 more than 19,200,000 people passed through "Son Sant Joan" airport near Palma, with an additional 1.5 million coming by sea.
In the 21st century, urban redevelopment, by the so-called "Pla Mirall" (English "Mirror Plan"), had attracted groups of immigrant workers from outside the European Union, especially from Africa and South America.
More than half of the population works in tourism, approximately 80%, therefore being
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the main economic portal of Palma. Tourism has affected the rapid economic growth of Palma, making the island of Mallorca wealthier compared to other regions in Spain.
The second economic portal of Palma is agriculture. Main exports of Palma's agriculture are, almonds, oranges, lemons and olives. The island is also gifted with a wide variety of natural resources, such as mines of copper, lead and marble.
The city also has several surrounding neighborhood communities including Establiments, Nord, Son Espanyol, Ces Cases Noves, and Sa Creu Vermella.
# Geography.
Palma is a major city and seaport located in the southwest of Mallorca, a western mediterranean island belonging to the Balearic
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Islands archipelago. The land area of the city is about with an altitude of above sea level.
The city center of Palma is located north of the homonymous bay ("Badia de Palma" in the local Catalan language). The area that extends eastwards is mostly a flat fertile plain known as Es Pla. To the north and west, the city borders the Serra de Tramuntana, the island's major mountain range and a Unesco World Heritage site.
## Population.
census, the population of the city of Palma proper was 401,270, and the population of the entire urban area was 550,000, making it the twelfth largest urban area of Spain. Almost half of the total population of Mallorca lives in Palma.
## Climate.
Palma has a
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Mediterranean climate, the climate classification named after the sea surrounding the city. There is a significant marine influence to warm winters, but summers are warmed by the surrounding continental landmasses.
# Main sights.
## Plaça d'Espanya.
The "Plaça d'Espanya" is the transport hub of Palma. The Estació Intermodal caters for buses and trains (the latter controlled by TIB). The two old buildings are home to the tourist information centre and several cafés sit either side of the two large escalators which lead into the "Estació", which sits underneath a large and popular park. On the lawns are several glass boxes, which let in light and ventilation to the station below ground. There
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are also train-themed playing structures, each one shaped like a train carriage and named after towns along the line of the Ferrocarril de Sóller, a railway dating back to 1911 which has its Palma Station right next to the park. Just down the street from here a new bus station is under construction. At the centre of the plaza is a statue of James I, Conquistador of Majorca.
## Cathedral area.
Palma is famous for La Seu, its vast cathedral built on a previous mosque which was built atop an original Christian church. Although construction of the present Cathedral began in 1229, it did not finish until 1601. Local architect Antoni Gaudí was drafted in to restore the building in 1901. The Parc
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de la Mar (Park of the Sea) lies just south, overlooked by the great building which sits above it on the city's stone foundations. Between the two are the town walls.
## The Rocks.
The rocks located a short walk from the cathedral are a place of calm and tranquility.
## Old city.
The Old City (in the south-east area of Palma behind the cathedral) is a maze of streets clearly hinting at an Arab past. With the exception of a few streets and squares which allow traffic and are populated with tourists most of the time, the walkways of this city quarter are fairly narrow, quiet streets, surrounded by a diverse range of interesting buildings, the architecture of which is comparable to cities such
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as Florence. The majority are private houses, some of which are open to the public as discreet museums or galleries. The Old City is also home to the "Ajuntament" (or Town Hall), the Convent of the Cathedral and the "Banys Àrabs".
### Banys Àrabs.
The "Banys Àrabs", or Arab Baths, one of the few remnants of Palma's Moorish past, are accessed via the quiet Ca'n Serra street near the Convent of the Cathedral, and include the lush gardens of Ca'n Fontirroig, home to Sardinian warblers, house sparrows, cacti, palm trees and a wide range of flowers and ferns. The small two-roomed brick building that once housed the baths is of Byzantine origin, dating back to the 11th century and possibly once
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part of the home of a Muslim nobleman. The bathroom has a cupola with five oculi which let in dazzling light. The twelve columns holding up the small room were pillaged from an earlier Roman construction. The floor over the hypocaust has been worn away by people standing in the centre, mainly to photograph the entrance and the garden beyond it. The whole room is in a rather dilapidated condition. The other room is a brick cube with a small model of the baths as they once were in the corner.
# Notable people.
Notable people who were born in the city include the following individuals.
- Álex Abrines, basketball player for the Oklahoma City Thunder
- Marco Asensio, footballer for Real Madrid
-
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Katie Hall- Famous Model
- Concha Buika, singer
- Rudy Fernández, basketball player for Real Madrid
- Ramon Llull, philosopher and writer
- Jorge Lorenzo, motorcyclist and multiple MotoGP champion
- Guillermo Pont, footballer
- Luis Salom, motorcyclist
- Agustí Villaronga, filmmaker
- Rossy de Palma, actress
# Sports.
Football is the most popular sport on the island, led by the Palma-based Segunda División B clubs Real Mallorca, who play at the Iberostar Stadium, and CD Atlético Baleares.
Basketball is also a popular sport. Palma's top team is CB Bahía San Agustín, which plays its home games at the 5,076 capacity Palau Municipal d'Esports Son Moix.
Because of its maritime location
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all sea sports have also a big presence in Palma. Maybe the most important sporting event in the city is the Ciutat de Palma Prizes.
Road cycling is very popular in Mallorca. An international race for professional cyclists, the Vuelta a Mallorca, is held in February, the first day of which consists of a circuit race around the streets of Palma. The city is also home to the Palma Arena, a multi-platinum venue featuring a velodrome. The arena also hosted the Battle of Surfaces tennis event.
In June 2016, the city of Palma participated in the First World Company Sports Games which included five days of culture, sport and inclusivity within the community of Mallorca as a whole. It was operated
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through the World Federation Company Sport and was promoted for both local people and tourists to come together in the city. It became a large business venture by offering packages including accommodations close to the events and additional tourism information for future events.
# Transport.
- Palma de Mallorca Metro
- Majorca rail network
- Palma de Mallorca Airport
- The city bus system, which includes a loop line through the historic centre, is run by the EMT (See external link below).
- There is also a bus system run by the TIB. This includes routes to and from the municipalities Calvià and Palma.
- In the City of Palma there is a fleet of 1246 taxis. All equipped with air conditioning
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and most of them have a radiotelephone station, with four existing companies: Taxis Palma Radio, Radio-Taxi Ciutat, Taxi Teléfono and Taxis adapted for users with reduced mobility. Until the change of colour regulated through the Municipal Decree No. 19985 of 15 October 1999, the taxis of Palma for 50 years had been of the characteristic black and ivory colours. Currently they are white.
# Twin towns — sister cities.
Palma de Mallorca is twinned with:
- Naples, Italy
# See also.
- Duchess of Palma de Mallorca
- Edwin Lewis Snyder, "Spain's Magic Island", "The Architect and Engineer", 110:10, 37-45, August 1932
- List of municipalities in Balearic Islands
# External links.
- Palma de
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ompanies: Taxis Palma Radio, Radio-Taxi Ciutat, Taxi Teléfono and Taxis adapted for users with reduced mobility. Until the change of colour regulated through the Municipal Decree No. 19985 of 15 October 1999, the taxis of Palma for 50 years had been of the characteristic black and ivory colours. Currently they are white.
# Twin towns — sister cities.
Palma de Mallorca is twinned with:
- Naples, Italy
# See also.
- Duchess of Palma de Mallorca
- Edwin Lewis Snyder, "Spain's Magic Island", "The Architect and Engineer", 110:10, 37-45, August 1932
- List of municipalities in Balearic Islands
# External links.
- Palma de Mallorca´s city council
- Official Website for Tourism in Mallorca
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Sosnowiec
Sosnowiec () is an industrial city county in the Dąbrowa Basin ("Zagłębie Dąbrowskie") of southern Poland, in the Silesian Voivodeship , which is also part of the Silesian Metropolis municipal association. Located in the eastern part of the Upper Silesian Industrial Region, Sosnowiec is one of the cities of the Katowice urban area, which is a conurbation with the overall population of 2.7 million people; as well as the greater Upper Silesian metropolitan area populated by about 5.3 million people. The population of the city is 202,036 as of December 2018.
# Geography.
It is believed that the name Sosnowiec originates from the Polish word "sosna", referring to the pine forests growing
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in the area prior to 1830. The village was originally known as "Sosnowice". Other variations of the name include "Sosnowietz, Sosnowitz, Sosnovitz" (Yiddish), "Sosnovyts, Sosnowyts, Sosnovytz, Sosnowytz," and "Sosnovetz". There are five other smaller settlements in Poland also called Sosnowiec, located in the Kielce Voivodship, Łódź Voivodship, and Opole Voivodship.
Sosnowiec serves as one of the administrative centres of the geographical and historical area of southern Poland known as the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie (the Dąbrowa Basin). It lays within the historic Lesser Poland region near the border with Silesia. It is located about north-east to the centre of Katowice and north-west of Kraków, situated
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in the Silesian Upland on the rivers Brynica and Przemsza, a tributary of the Vistula. The full list of rivers includes Biała Przemsza as well as Czarna Przemsza, Brynica, Bobrek, and Potok Zagórski creek. The city is part of the Silesian Voivodeship since its formation in 1999. Previously (since 1945), it was part of Katowice Voivodeship, and before World War II, Sosnowiec belonged to Kielce Voivodeship.
# History.
The history of the city in its proper sense begins in 1902 when it was granted city rights by merging a number of settlements often several centuries old. However, the history of the village of Sosnowiec dates back to the year 1227, when it was mentioned for the first time. It
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then was a small settlement in the Polish Duchy of Kraków, located in close vicinity of much larger and better developed villages of Sielce and Zagórze (both are now districts of the city). Other districts are even older. Milowice was first mentioned in 1123 as "Miley". Documents from 1228 already mention Milowice, Klimontów, and Zagórze. Furthermore, Milowice was placed on a 1561 map.
As part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sosnowiec belonged to Kraków Voivodeship, one of three voivodeships of Lesser Poland. It became a border town after the neighbouring Duchies of Silesia passed to the Bohemian Crown in 1335. In result of the Third partition of Poland in 1795, however, it was seized
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by the Kingdom of Prussia and was included into the newly established province of New Silesia. During the Napoleonic Wars, it became part of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 and later, of Congress Poland ruled by the namiestniks of the Russian Empire. Located at the borders with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, Sosnowiec became famous for the Three Emperors' Corner tripoint, which was located within current limits of the city.
## City rights.
With effect from 10 June 1902, by the order of Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, Sosnowiec was legally named a city with the area of and with 60,000 inhabitants. Obtaining the city rights helped the dynamic economic and cultural development of the town.
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Apart from steelworks and coal-mines and many enterprises of heavy and light industry, new cultural and social establishments were opened as well. The newly established town consisted of the districts of Sosnowiec, Pogoń, Ostra Górka, Sielec, Kuźnica and Radocha, all of which had been separate villages before. The very fact that Russian authorities waited for so long to grant Sosnowiec town rights is seen as a consequence of the Polish January Uprising 1863/64, after which numerous towns had seen their status reduced to a village. Sosnowiec was first post-1860s location in Congress Poland to have received town charter, second was Puławy in 1906.
Natural resources and the good geographical location
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had an important influence on the development of Sosnowiec. The opening of a branch line of the Warsaw-Vienna Railway in 1859 was vitally important for the growth of the town. Development of industry with the new factory of rope and wire, rolling mill, steelworks, iron foundry, steam boilers factory, and later spinning mill, dye-house and paper mill sealed the new image of the town as entirely urban. The "Summer Theatre" and, in 1887, the "Winter Theatre "were founded, the second of which was called City Theatre from 1924 in independent Poland, and later the "Theatre of Zagłębie". In 1914, the village of Środula was incorporated into Sosnowiec.
## Modern era.
In the Second Polish Republic,
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Sosnowiec became part of the Kielce Voivodeship, and in 1934 the "City County of Sosnowiec" was established. Sosnowiec suffered war damages during both major military conflicts in the 20th century: World War I, which caused mainly destruction to industry, and World War II, which brought about the terror of executions.
After the 1939 Invasion of Poland, the city was occupied by Nazi Germany and renamed "Sosnowitz". Initially under military administration set up as part of the General Government, Sosnowiec was annexed by Germany and incorporated into the Province of Silesia on 20 November 1939. In June 1943 thousands of Jews were deported from Sosnowiec Ghetto to Auschwitz concentration camp.
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The ghetto was liquidated two months later and almost all remaining Jews (around 15,000) were also deported to Auschwitz. Previously there had been considerable underground activity among them. The Vistula–Oder Offensive of the Red Army in January 1945 brought about the liberation of the city, which gave it a chance for gradual rebuilding and further development.
## Post-war.
After World War II, Sosnowiec further developed. On June 1, 1975, the metropolitan area was expanded when the neighbouring locations of Zagórze, Kazimierz Górniczy, Porąbka, Klimontów, and Maczki, became its districts. By 1977 the population of the city reached 200,000. Further growth was accelerated by the construction
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of Katowice Steelworks, and in 1981, the population of Sosnowiec was 250,000, reaching its peak in 1987, when it was 259,000. Since then, the population has been declining. In 1992, the city became seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sosnowiec.
## Parks and gardens.
Sosnowiec has more than 2,250 ha of green areas occurring as parks, squares, protection zones, lot gardens and forests. In the area of the city preserved many parks established at the residence of industrialists, and also created a lot of new. Many of them present historical and natural value. Main parks and green areas include the Sielecki Park, which is a historical park at the castle with many natural monuments; the historical
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Dietel Park; the Park-Palace Complex of Schöen with two palaces; the Millennium Park, the Środula Park with a sport complex; the nature park "Szopienice-Borki"; as well as the peatbog "Bory" protected area, part of Natura 2000.
# Economy.
Sosnowiec is characterised by its urban dynamics, economic activity, cultural heritage, and natural environment. In recent years, Sosnowiec was further developed from an industrial centre (with mainly mining and heavy industries) into a hub of trade and services. Nevertheless, it still operates several important coal mines, steel factories and other industrial plants. Its Special Economic Zone, established in Sosnowiec thanks to the efforts of local authorities,
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plays a major role in attracting new businesses into the area. As a result, several companies with Polish and foreign capital opened their businesses in the city. Sosnowiec City Office was awarded the ISO 9001 2001 quality certificate for its management system for providing services for the local community.
From 2006, a new trade centre Expo Silesia began hosting numerous trade shows. Activities of Artistic and Literary Society of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie prove also that Sosnowiec as an industrial centre is not only a working class environment.
# Districts.
For Sosnowiec's 100th birthday, the downtown area was thoroughly rebuilt, to harmonise its architectural layout and give the city a more modern
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image. In 2004 Sosnowiec authorities and designers were awarded the Grand Prix for the rebuilding of the downtown area in a competition for the best public space in the "Śląskie" Provinces. This investment had been accompanied by a program designed to improve the esthetic qualities of the city, under which a comprehensive program for unifying the colors of the elevations, and advertisements entitled “rainbow city” were introduced. Among the city districts there are:
- Dańdówka
- Dębowa Góra
- Jęzor
- Juliusz
- Kazimierz Górniczy
- Klimontów
- Maczki
- Milowice
- Modrzejów
- Niwka
- Ostra Górka
- Ostrowy Górnicze
- Pogoń district in Sosnowiec
- Porąbka
- Radocha
- Rudna district
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of Sosnowiec
- Sielec
- Stary Sosnowiec
- Środula
- Sosnowiec Śródmieście
- Zagórze
## Points of interest.
There are many relics of the industrial era, especially residences of industrialists. Most of them are located outside strict city center, on the Czarna Przemsza river bank. One of the oldest is a 17th-century castle known as the Sielecki Castle. Other main tourist attractions include:
- The Dietel Palace
- Schöen Palace and museum
- Oskar Schöen's Palace called also New Schöen Palace
- Wilhelm Palace
- Cathedral Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary
- Orthodox Church of the Holy Virgin, Hope, Luby and their mother Zofia
- St. John Evangelical Church
- St
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Thomas Church
- Railway Station Sosnowiec Główny
- Railway Station Sosnowiec Maczki
- Huta Buczek
- Old Jewish cemetery
- Three Emperors' Corner
# Education and Science.
Sosnowiec is an academic centre with well-developed research and educational infrastructure on top of industry, services and trade. Its own institutions of higher learning include:
- The University of Silesia in Katowice (schools of modern languages, natural science, technology and a language teacher training college)
- Faculty of Earth Science
- Faculty of Computer and Materials Science
- Faculty of Philology
- The Medical University of Silesia in Katowice,
- Faculty of Pharmacy
- The private School of Marketing
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and Management
- The Silesian University of Technology
- Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science
- The private School of Ecology
Among general secondary level schools in Sosnowiec there are high-schools such as the II Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Emilii Plater, III Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Bolesława Prusa, and IV Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Stanisława Staszica.
# Sports.
- Zagłębie Sosnowiec: men's football team; Polish Cup winner: 1962, 1963, 1977, 1978
- KP Polska Energia Sosnowiec - men's volleyball team playing in Polish Volleyball League (Polska Liga Siatkówki, PLS), 5th place in season 2003/2004.
- kks czarni sosnowiec (Ekstraliga).
# International relations.
Sosnowiec
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is twinned with:
# Notable residents.
- Paula Kania (born 1992), Polish tennis player
- Edward Gierek (1913–2001), Polish communist politician; first secretary of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR)
- Jędrzej Giertych (1903–1992), Polish politician
- Paul Godwin (1902–1982), Polish-German violinist
- Haim Hefer (1925–2012), Israeli poet and songwriter
- Jan Kiepura (1902–1966), Polish singer and actor
- Bartlomiej Oles (born 1973), Polish jazz and free improvisation drummer, composer and record producer
- Marcin Oles (born 1973), Polish jazz and free improvisation bass player
- Shlomo Chanoch Rabinowicz(1882–1942), fourth and last Rebbe of the Radomsk Hasidic dynasty
-
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Włodzimierz Sedlak (1911–1993), Polish priest
- Władysław Spiegelman (1906–1982), father of Art Spiegelman
- James Spigelman (born 1946), Australian judge who served as Chief Justice of New South Wales from 1998 to 2011
- Władysław Szpilman (1911–2000), Polish pianist and classical composer, widely known as the central figure in the 2002 Roman Polanski film "The Pianist"
- Shlomo Sztencl (1884–1919), Polish Orthodox Jewish rabbi
- Ignaz von Szyszylowicz (1857–1910), Polish botanist
- Joanna Krupa (born 1979), Polish-American model, actress and animal rights activist
- Magdalena Ho (born 1994), Vietnamese-Polish model
# External links.
- Official web site of Sosnowiec
- Sosnowiec on
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002 Roman Polanski film "The Pianist"
- Shlomo Sztencl (1884–1919), Polish Orthodox Jewish rabbi
- Ignaz von Szyszylowicz (1857–1910), Polish botanist
- Joanna Krupa (born 1979), Polish-American model, actress and animal rights activist
- Magdalena Ho (born 1994), Vietnamese-Polish model
# External links.
- Official web site of Sosnowiec
- Sosnowiec on an old photography (in Polish)
- Local weather in Sosnowiec, Weather.com
- Mapquest link to 6 towns in Poland called Sosnowiec
- Encarta map of Sosnowiec, Śląskie, Poland
- Pictures of Sosnowiec (in Polish)
- Jewish Community in Sosnowiec on Virtual Shtetl
- Yizkor book of Sosnowiec
- Note about Haim Hefer (1925–2012) (in Hebrew)
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Lublin
Lublin ( ) is the ninth-largest city in Poland and the second-largest city of Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship (province) with a population of 339,682 (December 2018). Lublin is the largest Polish city east of the Vistula River and is about to the southeast of Warsaw by road.
One of the events that greatly contributed to the city's development was the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Krewo in 1385. Lublin thrived as a centre of trade and commerce due to its strategic location on the route between Vilnius and Kraków; the inhabitants had the privilege of free trade in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Lublin Parliament session of 1569 led to the creation
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of a real union between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, thus creating the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Lublin witnessed the early stages of Reformation in the 16th century. A Calvinist congregation was founded and groups of radical Arians appeared in the city, making it an important global centre of Arianism. At the turn of the century, Lublin was recognized for hosting a number of outstanding poets, writers, and historians of the epoch.
Until the partitions at the end of the 18th century, Lublin was a royal city of the Crown Kingdom of Poland. Its delegates and nobles had the right to participate in the royal election. In 1578, Lublin was chosen as the
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seat of the Crown Tribunal, the highest appeal court in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and for centuries, the city has been flourishing as a centre of culture and higher learning, with Kraków, Warsaw, Poznań, and Lwów.
Although Lublin was not spared from severe destruction during World War II, its picturesque and historical Old Town has been preserved. The district is one of Poland's official national historic monuments ("Pomnik historii"), as designated May 16, 2007, and tracked by the National Heritage Board of Poland.
The city is viewed as an attractive location for foreign investment, and the analytical Financial Times Group has found Lublin to be one of the best cities for business
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in Poland. The Foreign Direct Investment ranking placed Lublin second among larger Polish cities in the cost-effectiveness category. Lublin is noted for its green spaces and a high standard of living.
# History.
Archaeological finds indicate a long presence of cultures in the area. A complex of settlements started to develop on the future site of Lublin and in its environs in the sixth to seventh centuries. Remains of settlements dating back to the sixth century were discovered in the center of today's Lublin on Czwartek ("Thursday") Hill.
The period of the early Middle Ages was marked by intensification of habitation, particularly in the areas along river valleys. The settlements were centered
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around the stronghold on Old Town Hill, which was likely one of the main centers of Lendians tribe. When the tribal stronghold was destroyed in the 10th century, the center shifted to the northeast, to a new stronghold above Czechówka valley and, after the mid-12th century, to Castle Hill. At least two churches are presumed to have existed in Lublin in the early medieval period. One of them was most probably erected on Czwartek Hill during the rule of Casimir the Restorer in the 11th century. The castle became the seat of a Castellan, first mentioned in historical sources from 1224, but was quite possibly present from the start of the 12th or even 10th century. The oldest historical document
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mentioning Lublin dates from 1198, so the name must have come into general use some time earlier.
The location of Lublin at the eastern borders of the Polish lands gave it military significance. During the first half of the 13th century, Lublin was a target of attacks by Mongols, Ruthenians, and Lithuanians, which resulted in its destruction. It was also ruled by Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia between 1289 and 1302. Lublin was founded as a town by Władysław I the Elbow-high or between 1258 and 1279 during the rule of prince Bolesław V the Chaste. Casimir III the Great, appreciating the site's strategic importance, built a masonry castle in 1341 and encircled the city with defensive walls. From
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1326, if not earlier, the stronghold on Castle Hill included a chapel in honor of the Holy Trinity. A stone church dated to 1335-1370 exists to this day.
## Jagiellonian Poland.
In 1392, the city received an important trade privilege from king Władysław II Jagiełło. With the coming of peace between Poland and Lithuania, it developed into a trade centre, handling a large portion of commerce between the countries. In 1474, the area around Lublin was carved out of Sandomierz Voivodeship and combined to form the Lublin Voivodeship, the third voivodeship of Lesser Poland.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, the town grew rapidly. The largest trade fairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were
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held in Lublin. During the 16th century, the noble parliaments ("sejm") were held in Lublin several times. On 26 June 1569, one of the most important proclaimed the Union of Lublin, which united Poland and Lithuania. The Lithuanian name for the city is Liublinas. Lublin was one of the most influential cities of the state enjoyed voting rights during the royal elections in Poland.
Some of the artists and writers of the 16th century Polish renaissance lived and worked in Lublin, including Sebastian Klonowic and Jan Kochanowski, who died in the city in 1584. In 1578, the Crown Tribunal, the highest court of the Lesser Poland region, was established in Lublin.
Since the second half of the 16th
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century, Protestant Reformation movements devolved in Lublin, and a large congregation of Polish Brethren was present in the city. One of Poland's most important Jewish communities was established in Lublin around this time. Jews established a widely respected" yeshiva", Jewish hospital, synagogue, cemetery, and education centre ("kahal") and built the Grodzka Gate (known as the Jewish Gate) in the historic district. Jews were a vital part of the city's life until the Holocaust, during which they were relocated to the infamous Lublin Ghetto and ultimately murdered.
The yeshiva became a centre of learning of Talmud and Kabbalah, leading the city to be called "the Jewish Oxford." In 1567, the
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"rosh yeshiva" (headmaster) received the title of rector from the king along with rights and privileges equal to those of the heads of Polish universities.
In the 17th century, the town declined due to a Russo-Ukrainian invasion in 1655 and a Swedish invasion during the Northern Wars.
## 19th century to the present.
After the third of the Partitions of Poland in 1795, Lublin was located in the Austrian empire, then since 1809 in the Duchy of Warsaw, and then since 1815 in the Congress Poland under Russian rule.
At the beginning of the 19th century, new squares, streets, and public buildings were built. In 1877, a railway connection to Warsaw and Kovel and Lublin Station were constructed,
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spurring industrial development. Lublin's population grew from 28,900 in 1873 to 50,150 in 1897 (including 24,000 Jews).
Russian rule ended in 1915, when the city was occupied by German and Austro-Hungarian armies. After the defeat of the Central Powers in 1918, the first government of independent Poland operated in Lublin for a short time. In the interwar years, the city continued to modernise and its population grew; important industrial enterprises were established, including the first aviation factory in Poland, the Plage i Laśkiewicz works, later nationalised as the LWS factory. The Catholic University of Lublin was founded in 1918.
In 1921, Roman Catholics constituted 58.9% of the city's
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population, Jews - 39.5%. In 1931, 63.7% of the inhabitants were Roman Catholic and 34.7% Jewish.
After the 1939 German and Soviet invasion of Poland, the city found itself in the General Government territory controlled by Nazi Germany. The population became a target of severe Nazi repressions focusing on Polish Jews. An attempt to "Germanise" the city led to an influx of the ethnic "Volksdeutsche", increasing the number of German minority from 10–15% in 1939 to 20–25%. Near Lublin, the so-called 'reservation' for the Jews was built based on the idea of racial segregation known as the "Nisko or Lublin Plan".
The Jewish population was forced into the newly established Lublin Ghetto near Podzamcze.
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The city served as headquarters for Operation Reinhardt, the main German effort to exterminate all Jews in occupied Poland. The majority of the ghetto inmates, about 26,000 people, were deported to the Bełżec extermination camp between 17 March and 11 April 1942. The remainder were moved to facilities around the Majdanek concentration camp established at the outskirts of the city. Almost all of Lublin's Jews were murdered during the Holocaust in Poland.
After the war, some survivors emerged from hiding with the Christian rescuers or returned from the Soviet Union, and re-established a small Jewish community in the city, but their numbers were insignificant. Most left Poland for Israel and the
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West.
On 24 July 1944, the city was taken by the Soviet Army and became the temporary headquarters of the Soviet-controlled communist Polish Committee of National Liberation established by Joseph Stalin, which was to serve as basis for a puppet government. The capital of new Poland was moved to Warsaw in January 1945 after the Soviet westward offensive.
In the postwar years, Lublin continued to grow, tripling its population and greatly expanding its area. A considerable scientific and research base was established around the newly founded Maria Curie-Sklodowska University. A large automotive factory, Fabryka Samochodów Ciężarowych, was built in the city.
# Geography.
## Climate.
Lublin
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has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb") with cold, damp winters and warm summers.
# Population.
The diagram shows population growth over the past 400 years. In 1999, the population of Lublin was estimated to 359,154, the highest in the city's history.
# Economy and infrastructure.
The Lublin region is a part of eastern Poland, which has benefited less from the economic transformation after 1989 than regions of Poland located closer to Western Europe. Despite the fact that Lublin is one of the closest neighbour cities for Warsaw, the investment inflow in services from the Polish capital has secured a steady growth due to relatively fast connection, while external investments are progressing,
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enabling nearby satellite municipality Świdnik for large-scale industrial investments, seamlessly testing the capacity of the agglomeration. The close cooperation with Warsaw is significant to the regional economy, bringing quality cultural events inshore, yet the proximity of Warsaw is an underestimated asset.
Lublin is a regional center of IT companies. Asseco Business Solutions S.A., eLeader Sp z o.o., CompuGroup Medical Polska Sp. z o.o., Abak-Soft Sp. z o.o. and others have their headquarters here. Other companies (for example Comarch S.A., Britenet Sp. z o.o., Simple S.A., Asseco Poland S.A.) outsourced to Lublin, to take advantage of the educated specialists. There is a visible growth
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in professionals eager to work in Lublin, due to reasons, like quality of life, culture management, the environment, improving connection to Warsaw, levels of education, or financial, because of usually higher operating margins of global organizations present in the area.
The large car factory Fabryka Samochodów Ciężarowych (FSC) seemed to have a brighter future when it was acquired by the South Korean Daewoo conglomerate in the early 1990s. With Daewoo's financial troubles in 1998 related to the Asian financial crisis, the production at FSC practically collapsed and the factory entered bankruptcy. Efforts to restart its van production succeeded when the engine supplier bought the company to
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keep its prime market. With the decline of Lublin as a regional industrial centre, the city's economy has been reoriented toward service industries. Currently, the largest employer is the Maria Curie-Sklodowska University.
The price of land and investing costs are lower than in western Poland. However, the Lublin area has to be one of the main beneficiaries of the EU development funds. Jerzy Kwiecinski, the deputy secretary of state in the Ministry for Regional Development at the Conference of the Ministry for Regional Development (Poland in the European Union — new possibilities for foreign investors) said:
In September 2007, the prime minister signed a bill creating a special economic investment
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zone in Lublin that offers tax incentives. It is part of “Park Mielec” — the European Economic Development area. At least 13 large companies had declared their wish to invest here, e.g., Carrefour, Comarch, Safo, Asseco, Aliplast, Herbapol and Perła Browary Lubelskie. At the same time, the energy giant Polska Grupa Energetyczna, which will build Poland's first nuclear power station, is to have its main offices in Lublin.
Modern shopping centers built in Lublin like Tarasy Zamkowe (Castle Terraces), Lublin Plaza, Galeria Olimp, Galeria Gala, the largest shopping mall in the city, covering 33,500 square meters of area. Similar investments are planned for the near future such as Park Felin (Felicity)
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and a new underground gallery ("Alchemy") between and beneath Świętoduska and Lubartowska Streets.
## Media.
There is a public TV station in the city: TVP Lublin which owns a 104-meter-tall concrete television tower. The station put its first program on the air in 1985. In recent years it contributed programming to TVP3 channel and later TVP Info.
The radio stations airing from Lublin include 'Radio eR - 87.9 FM', Radio 'Eska Lublin' - 103.6 FM, Radio Lublin (regional station of the Polish Radio) - 102.2 FM, [ Radio Centrum (university radio station)] - 98.2 FM, Radio 'Free' (city station of the Polish Radio) - 89,9 FM, and Radio 'Złote Przeboje' (Golden Hits) Lublin - 95.6 FM.
Local newspapers
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include "Kurier Lubelski" daily, regional partner of the national newspaper "Dziennik Wschodni" daily, "Gazeta Wyborcza" [ Lublin Edition] daily (regional supplement to the national newspaper "Gazeta Wyborcza"), "[ Metro]" (daily, free) and "Nasze Miasto Lublin" weekly (free).
## Transport.
From Lublin railway station, ten trains depart each day to Warsaw, and three to Kraków, as in other major cities in Poland. Lublin has also direct train connections with Rzeszów, Szczecin, Gdynia and other Polish cities and towns in the region as Nałęczów, Chełm or Zamość. Long-distance buses depart from near the Castle in the Old Town and serve most of the same destinations as the rail network. The express
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train to Warsaw takes about two and half hours. The Lublin Airport is located in Świdnik, about SE of Lublin. There is a direct train link from the airport to downtown.
## Roads.
, no motorways or expressways connect the city with the rest of Poland; currently, there is an expressway bypass around the city and two opposing stretches of highway to Warsaw and towards the border of Ukraine exist. However, in the next few years the construction of expressways S12, S17 and S19 will improve road access to the city. On 17 December 2009, the bidding process for the construction of S17 expressway around Lublin was started. The construction began in 2010 and was finished in 2014. The project included
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a high capacity bypass road around Lublin, removing most of the through traffic from the city streets and decreasing congestion. Furthermore, the construction of S17 in the direction of Warsaw is due to open in 2019 and the construction of S19 towards Rzeszów will begin.
Lublin is one of only four towns in Poland to have trolleybuses (the others are Gdynia, Sopot and Tychy).
# Culture and tourism.
Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and serves as an important regional cultural capital. Since then, many important international events have taken place here, involving Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Russian and Belarusian artists, researchers and politicians. The frescos at the Holy Trinity
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Chapel in Lublin Castle are a mixture of Catholic motifs with eastern Russian-Byzantine styles, reinforcing how the city connects the West with the East.
## The arts.
### Museum.
The premier museum in the city is the Lublin Museum, one of the oldest and largest museums of Eastern Poland, as well as the Majdanek State Museum with 121,404 visitors in 2011.
### Cinema.
Lublin is a city with filmmaking past. A few important films were recorded here, e.g., Oscar-winning "The Reader" was partially filmed at the Nazi Majdanek concentration camp, in the boundaries of nowadays Lublin area.
In 2008, Lublin in cooperation with Ukrainian Lviv, filmed promotional materials, to promote them as cinematic
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cities. Films were handed out between filmmakers present at Cannes Festival. "Action" was sponsored by the European Union. There are movie theaters in Lublin including Cinema City (multiplex), Cinema Bajka, Cinema Chatka Żaka, and Cinema Medyk.
### Theatres.
There are many cultural organizations in Lublin, either municipal, governmental and/or non-governmental. Among the popular venues are municipal theatres and playhouses such as:
- Musical Theatre in Lublin - "Teatr Muzyczny w Lublinie", opera, operetta, musical, ballet
- Henryk Wieniawski Lublin Philharmonic - "Filharmonia Lubelska"
- Juliusz Osterwa Theatre in Lublin - "Teatr im. Juliusza Osterwy w Lublinie"]
- Hans Christian Andersen
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