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as "The Church of [[Poor Clares]]," is a famous landmark of the city. It is a small, Gothic-Renaissance (including [[Neo-Renaissance]] additions), single-aisle church built between 1582–1602. The interior is rather austere since the church has been stripped of most of its furnishings. Not a surprising fact, considering that in the 19th century the Prussian authorities dissolved the [[Order of Poor Ladies|Order of St Clare]] and turned the church into a warehouse, among other uses. Nonetheless, the church is worth visiting and inspecting. In particular the original wooden polychrome ceiling dating from the 17th century draws the attention of every visitor.
"Wyspa Młyńska" ([[Mill Island in Bydgoszcz|Mill
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Island]]) is among the most spectacular and atmospheric places in Bydgoszcz. What makes it unique is the location in the very heart of the city centre, just a few steps from the old Market Square. It was the 'industrial' centre of Bydgoszcz in the Middle Ages and for several hundred years thereafter, and it was here that the famous royal mint operated in the 17th century. Most of the buildings which can still be seen on the island date from the 19th century, but the so-called "Biały Spichlerz" (the White Granary) recalls the end of the 18th century. However, it is the water, footbridges, historic red-brick tenement houses reflected in the rivers, and the greenery, including old chestnut trees,
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that create the unique atmosphere of the island.
[[File:Bdg SpichrzStrPort 7 07-2013.jpg|thumb|left|220px|The Old Port Granary built in 1835]]
[[Hotel "Pod Orlem" in Bydgoszcz|"Hotel pod Orłem"]] (Hotel Adler or The Eagle Hotel), an icon of the city's 19th-century architecture, was designed by the distinguished Bydgoszcz architect Józef Święcicki, the author of around sixty buildings in the city. Completed in 1896, it served as a hotel from the very beginning and was originally owned by Emil Bernhardt, a hotel manager educated in Switzerland. Its façade displays forms characteristic of the Neo-baroque style in architecture.
[[St. Vincent de Paul Basilica Minor in Bydgoszcz|Saint Vincent de
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Paul's Basilica]], erected between 1925 and 1939, is the largest church in Bydgoszcz and one of the biggest in Poland. It can accommodate around 12,000 people. This monumental church, modelled after the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome, was designed by the Polish architect Adam Ballenstaedt. The most characteristic element of the neo-classical temple is the reinforced concrete dome 40 metres in diameter.
The [[Grodzka Street in Bydgoszcz#Grain Granaries|three granaries]] in [[Grodzka Street in Bydgoszcz|Grodzka Street]], picturesquely located on the Brda River in the immediate vicinity of the old Market Square, are the official symbol of the city. Built at the turn of the 19th century, they
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were originally used to store grain and similar products, but now house exhibitions of the City's Leon Wyczółkowski District Museum.
The city is mostly associated with water, sports, [[Art Nouveau]] buildings, waterfront, music, and urban greenery. It is worth noting that Bydgoszcz boasts the largest city park in Poland (830 ha). The city was also once famous for its industry.
Unfortunately, some great monuments were destroyed, for example the church in the Old Market Square and the [[Former Municipal Theatre in Bydgoszcz|Municipal Theatre]]. Additionally, the Old Town lost a few characteristic tenement houses, including the western frontage of the Market Square. The city also lost its Gothic
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castle and defensive walls. In Bydgoszcz there is a great number of villas in the concept of [[Garden city movement|garden suburbs]].
[[File:Widok z mostu Sulimy-Kamińskiego w Bydg zmierzch panorama1.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Buildings on the Brda (German: "Brahe") River, with the 2004 Tightrope sculpture.]]
# Economy.
[[File:EN76-006.jpg|thumb|[[Pesa SA]] train manufacturer has its headquarters in Bydgoszcz]]
In the city there are 38 banks represented through a network of 116 branches (including the headquarters of the [[Poczta Polska|Postal Bank]]), whilst 37 insurance companies also have offices in the city. [[JP Morgan Chase]], one of the largest financial institutions in the world, has
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established a branch in Bydgoszcz. Most industrial complexes are scattered throughout the city, however, the 'Zachem' chemical works deserves attention, covering tens of square kilometers in the south-east of the city, the remnants of the German explosives factory built in World War II occupy an area which has its own rail lines, internal communication, housing, and large forested area.
Since 2000, Bydgoszcz has been annually subjected to international 'verification' ratings. In February 2008 the Agency '[[Fitch Ratings]]', recategorised the city, increasing its rating from BBB-(stable forecast) to BBB (stable estimate).
In 2004, Bydgoszcz launched an Industrial and Technology Park of 283
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hectares, an attractive place for doing business as companies which relocate there receive tax breaks, 24-hour security, access to large plots of land and to the media, the railway line Chorzów Batory – Tczew (passenger, coal), the DK5 and DK10 national roads, and future freeways [[Expressway S10 (Poland)|S10]] and [[Expressway S5 (Poland)|S5]]. Bydgoszcz airport is also close by.
The city has, in recent years, become one of Poland's most important economic centres. This is especially true for the role the city plays in the economy of the [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship]], of which it is, along with [[Toruń]], capital.
# Culture.
[[File:Bydgoszcz Pl Wolności zmierzch jasny.jpg|thumb|[[Baroque
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Revival]] tenement house at Plac Wolności 1]]
Bydgoszcz is a major cultural center in the country, especially for music. Traditions of the municipal theater date back to the 17th century, when the Jesuit college built a theater. In 1824, a [[Former Municipal Theatre in Bydgoszcz|permanent theater building]] was erected, and this was rebuilt in 1895 in a monumental form by the Berlin architect Heinrich Seeling. The first music school was established in Bydgoszcz in 1904; it had close links to the very well-known European piano factory of Bruno Sommerfeld. Numerous orchestras and choirs, both German (Gesangverein, Liedertafel) and Polish (St. Wojciech Halka, Moniuszko), have also made the city
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their home. Since 1974, Bydgoszcz has been home to a very prestigious [[Bydgoszcz Music Academy - "Feliks Nowowiejski"|Academy of Music]]. Bydgoszcz is also an important place for contemporary European culture; one of the most important European centers of jazz music, the Brain club, was founded in Bydgoszcz by Jacek Majewski and Slawomir Janicki.
Bydgoszcz was a candidate for the title of [[European Capital of Culture]] in 2016.
## Museums.
[[File:Klasztor klarysek 0732.jpg|thumb|The town museum on Gdańska Street, originally 17th-century nunnery]]
Muzeum Okręgowe im. Leona Wyczółkowskiego (Leon Wyczółkowski District Museum) is a municipally-owned museum. Apart from a large collection of
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[[Leon Wyczółkowski]]'s works, it houses permanent as well as temporary exhibitions of art. It is based in several buildings, including the old granaries on the [[Brda (river)|Brda]] River and [[Mill Island in Bydgoszcz|Mill Island]].
In Bydgoszcz the [[Gdańska Street, Bydgoszcz#Main edifices|Pomeranian Military Museum]] specializes in documenting 19th- and 20th-century Polish military history, particularly the history of the Pomeranian Military District and several other units present in the area.
The city has many art galleries, two [[Pomeranian Philharmonic|symphony orchestras]] and chamber and choirs. Bydgoszcz's cultural facilities also include libraries, including the [[Provincial and
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Municipal Public Library in Bydgoszcz|Provincial and Municipal Public Library]] with an extensive collection of volumes from the 15th to the 19th centuries, and old books from Germany.
## Classical music.
- [[Pomeranian Philharmonic|Filharmonia Pomorska im. Ignacego Paderewskiego]] (Ignacy Paderewski's Concert Hall) is one of the best [[classical music]] concert halls in Europe, thanks to the superbly esigned acoustic qualities of the main concert hall.
## Popular music.
- Concerts of [[popular music]] in Bydgoszcz are usually held in Filharmonia Pomorska, [[Łuczniczka]], Zawisza and Polonia stadiums as well as [[Grassland|open plains]] of Myslecinek's Rozopole on the outskirts of the city.
-
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[[Alternative rock|Alternative music]] festival "Low Fi"
- Smooth Festival Złote Przeboje Bydgoszcz
- Eska Music Festival Bydgoszcz
- Hity na Czasie Festival Bydgoszcz
- Bydgoszcz Hit Festival
## Theatre.
[[File:Filharmonia Pomorska AW.jpg|thumb|Pomeranian Philharmonic Orchestra House]]
[[Polish Theatre in Bydgoszcz|Teatr Polski im Hieronima Konieczki]] (Hieronim Konieczka's Polish Theatre): Despite its name, the theatre offers a wide variety of shows both of national and foreign origin. It also regularly plays hosts to a large number of touring shows. Founded in 1949, since 2002 the theatre has taken part in the "Festiwal Prapremier" where the most renowned Polish theatres stage their
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latest premieres. There are also a number of private theatre companies operating in Bydgoszcz.
In the years 1960–1986 there was an outdoor theater, the reactivation of which is currently being pursued by the Theatre Culture Association, "Fides" and the Acting School A. Grzymala-Siedlecki.
[[File:Bdg OperaNova 8 07-2013.jpg|left|thumb|"Opera Nova" on the Brda River bank]]
The [[Pomeranian Philharmonic]] named after Ignacy Jan Paderewski has existed since 1953. The concert hall, which can hold 920 people is classified, in terms of sound, as one of the best in Europe, which is confirmed by well-known artists and critics (including J. Waldorff). Due to the phenomenon of acoustics, it attracts
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the interest of many famous artists. Bydgoszcz's stage has been frequented by many global celebrities, including Arthur Rubinstein, Benjamin Britten, Witold Malcuzynski, Luciano Pavarotti, Shlomo Mintz, Mischa Maisky, Kevin Kenner, Kurt Masur, Kazimierz Kord, Jerzy Maksymiuk and Antoni Wit. In recent years, the city has also hosted an excellent range of bands such as the BBC Radio Symphony Orchestra, the National Polish Radio Symphony Orchestra and others.
The [[Opera Nova Bydgoszcz|Opera Nova]], in existence since 1956, started the construction of a new building in 1974 which was to consist of three main halls, situated on the Brda. The Opera Nova has become a cultural showcase of Bydgoszcz
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in the world. Considering the short history of the Opera, its success has been astounding; a large number of famous opera singers have performed there and theatrical troops from the Wrocław Opera, Theater of Leningrad, Moscow, Kiev, Minsk and Gulbenkian Foundation of Lisbon have also made appearances.
## Cinematography.
- The International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography [[camerimage|CAMERIMAGE]] is a festival dedicated to [[cinematography]] and its creators [[cinematographer]]s.
# Education.
[[File:Wydział Matematyki, Fizyki i Techniki, Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego w Bydgoszczy.jpg|right|thumb|[[Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz]]]]
# Transport.
[[File:Bydgoszcz-0492
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IMG.jpg|thumb|[[Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport]]]]
## Airports.
- [[Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport]]
## Railways.
Bydgoszcz is one of the biggest railway junctions in Poland, with two important lines crossing there – the east-west connection from [[Toruń]] to [[Piła|Pila]] and the north-south line from [[Inowrocław]] to [[Gdańsk]] (see: [[Polish Coal Trunk-Line]]). There are also secondary-importance lines stemming from the city, to [[Szubin]] and to [[Chełmża]]. Among rail stations located in the city, there are:
[[File:Pesa 122NaB Swing.JPG|thumb|left|Tram in Bydgoszcz]]
## Buses and trams.
- Local buses and [[Tramways in Bydgoszcz|trams]] are operated by ZDMiKP Bydgoszcz
-
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PKS Bydgoszcz – operates inter-city and international bus routes.
# Sports.
[[File:Bdg halaLuczniczka 17 07-2013.jpg|thumb|The sport, show and fair arena "[[Łuczniczka]]".]]
[[File:Stadion Zawiszy Bydgoszcz trybuna B.jpg|thumb|[[Zdzisław Krzyszkowiak Stadium]]]]
## Sports clubs.
- [[Artego Bydgoszcz]] – women's basketball team playing in Ford Gemaz Extraleague.
- [[Astoria Bydgoszcz]] – men's [[Basketball in Poland|basketball]] team playing in [[Dominet Bank Ekstraliga]] (formerly [[Dominet Bank Ekstraliga|Era Basket Liga]]): 8th in 2003/2004 season, 6th in 2004/2005, 9th in 2005/2006. Now Astoria is playing in 2nd Polish League.
- [[Bydgoszcz Archers]] – American football team.
- [[Pałac
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Bydgoszcz]] – women's volleyball team playing in [[Polish Women's-Volleyball League|Polish Seria A Women's Volleyball League]]: 2nd place in 2004/2005 season, 4th place in 2005/2006 season.
- [[Chemik Bydgoszcz (volleyball)|Chemik Bydgoszcz]] – men's [[Volleyball in Poland|volleyball]] team playing in [[Polish Volleyball League]]
- [[Polonia Bydgoszcz]] – [[Motorcycle speedway|speedway]] team. The club has won Polish Speedway League 7 times (lately in 2002) and European Team Championship 3 times (lately in 2001).
- [[Zawisza Bydgoszcz]] – [[Football in Poland|football]] team.
- RTW Bydgostia Bydgoszcz – [[Rowing (sport)]] Bydgostia Regional Rowing Association was founded on 4 December 1928.
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The Club was A Team Polish Champion in the following years: 1938, 1966, 1967, 1970 and for the successive seventeen years from 1993 to 2009.
- [[KKP Bydgoszcz]] – women's football Team.
## Sports facilities.
- [[Łuczniczka]] Sport, Show and Fair Arena
- [[Stadion Zawiszy Bydgoszcz im. Zdzisława Krzyszkowiaka|Zdzisław Krzyszkowiak Stadium]]
- [[Polonia Bydgoszcz Stadium|Polonia Stadium]]
- [[Hala Torbyd]], a closed indoor arena
## Sports events.
- [[Motorcycle speedway|Speedway]]:
- [[Speedway Grand Prix of Poland|Grand Prix of Poland]]: (1998–1999, 2001–2009)
- [[Speedway Grand Prix of Europe|Grand Prix of Europe]]: (2000)
- [[Mieczysław Połukard Criterium of Polish Speedway Leagues
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Aces]] (1951–1960, since 1982)
- Bydgoszcz was the host of the [[International Association of Athletics Federations|IAAF]] [[World Junior Championships in Athletics]]in [[2008 World Junior Championships in Athletics|2008]] and [[2016 World Junior Championships in Athletics|2016]], 2008 and the [[European Athletics U23 Championships]] in [[2003 European Athletics U23 Championships|2003]] and [[2017 European Athletics U23 Championships|2017]].
- Bydgoszcz hosted the [[IAAF World Cross Country Championships]] in 2013 and 2010.
- [[Eurobasket 2009]]
- [[2009 Women's European Volleyball Championship|Women's European Volleyball Championships 2009]]
- European Athletics Festival Bydgoszcz
- [[2019
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FIFA U-20 World Cup]]
# Politics.
## Bydgoszcz constituency.
[[List of Sejm members (2005–2007)|Members of Polish Sejm 2007–2011]] elected from Bydgoszcz constituency:
Members of [[Senate of the Republic of Poland|Polish Senate]] 2007–2011 elected from Bydgoszcz constituency:
- Zbigniew Pawłowicz, Civic Platform
- [[Jan Rulewski]], Civic Platform
# International relations.
## Twin towns and friendship relations.
[[File:Bydgoszcz Luczniczka.JPG|thumb|240px|"Łuczniczka" ("The Archeress"), Ferdinand Lepcke, 1897]]
# Legends.
It is also said that [[Pan Twardowski]] spent some time in the city of Bydgoszcz, where, in his memory, a figure was recently mounted in a window of a tenement,
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overseeing the Old Town. At 1:13 p.m. and 9:13 p.m. the window opens and Pan Twardowski appears, to the accompaniment of weird music and devilish laughter. He takes a bow, waves his hand, and then disappears. This little show gathers crowds of amused spectators.
# External links.
- Bydgoszcz.pl homepage (Polish)
- Visit Bydgoszcz.pl homepage (Polish, English)
- Municipal website
- Wirtualna Bydgoszcz – informator bydgoski
- Bydgoszcz news
- Evangelical – Augsburg (Lutheran) Parish in Bydgoszcz
- Foto Galeria Bydgoska – foto.bydgoszcz.pl
# Further reading.
- Ludwig Kühnast: "Historische Nachrichten über die Stadt Bromberg – Von der Gründung der Stadt bis zur preußischen Besitznahme"
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informator bydgoski
- Bydgoszcz news
- Evangelical – Augsburg (Lutheran) Parish in Bydgoszcz
- Foto Galeria Bydgoska – foto.bydgoszcz.pl
# Further reading.
- Ludwig Kühnast: "Historische Nachrichten über die Stadt Bromberg – Von der Gründung der Stadt bis zur preußischen Besitznahme" (Historical news about the town of Bromberg – From the town's founding to the Prussian occupation). Bromberg Berlin Posen 1837 (Online) (in German).
[[Category:Bydgoszcz| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship]]
[[Category:Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–39)]]
[[Category:City counties of Poland]]
[[Category:Cities with powiat rights]]
[[Category:Holocaust locations in Poland]]
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Caria
Caria (; from Greek: Καρία, "Karia", ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there. The inhabitants of Caria, known as Carians, had arrived there before the Ionian and Dorian Greeks. They were described by Herodotus as being of Minoan Greek descent, while the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians. The Carians did speak an Anatolian language, known as Carian, which does not necessarily
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reflect their geographic origin, as Anatolian once may have been widespread. Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges, which could be an earlier name for Carians or for a people who had preceded them in the region and continued to exist as part of their society in a reputedly second-class status.
# Municipalities of Caria.
Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization.
## Coastal Caria.
Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus, but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Greek
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Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus (Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia, giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which the Carians called Andanus. After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown.
On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus (Gökova Körfezi). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns." Halicarnassus, a Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns: Theangela, Sibde, Medmasa, Euranium, Pedasa or
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Pedasum, and Telmissus. These with Myndus and Synagela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus.
On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory (Cape Krio), also called Doris after the Dorian colony of Cnidus. At the base of the peninsula (Datça Peninsula) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city").
South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of Symi), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius, Thymnias
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and Schoenus, the last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island: Elaeus or Elaeussa near Loryma. On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi.
South of there is the Rhodian Peraea, a section of the coast under Rhodes. It includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus, Amos, Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa (Marmaris). Beyond Cressa is the Calbis River (Dalyan River). On the other side is Caunus (near Dalyan), with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between.
Then follow some cities that some assign to Lydia and some to
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Caria: Calynda on the Indus River, Crya, Carya, Carysis or Cari and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of Makri), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus.
## Inland Caria.
At the base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus, and near Milas where the current village Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris (Stratonicea). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia. Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into Mylasa. Connected to the latter by a sacred way
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is Labranda. Around Stratonicea is also Lagina or Lakena as well as Tendeba and Astragon.
Further inland towards Aydin is Alabanda, noted for its marble and its scorpions, Orthosia, Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper Maeander and Halydienses, Alinda or Alina. At the confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus is Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with Phrygia, Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near Geyre. Founded by the Leleges and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and Aphrodisias, sometime capital of Caria.
Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and
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Plarasa. Tabae was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of Cibyra.
# History.
## Pre-Classical Greek states and people.
The name of "Caria" also appears in a number of early languages: Hittite "Karkija" (a member state of the Assuwa league, c. 1250 BC), Babylonian "Karsa", Elamite and Old Persian "Kurka". According to Herodotos, the legendary King Kar, son of Zeus and Creta, founded Caria and named it after him, and his brothers Lydos and Mysos founded Lydia and Mysia, respectively.
## Sovereign state
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hosting the Greeks.
Caria arose as a Neo-Hittite kingdom around the 11th century BC. The coast of Caria was part of the Doric hexapolis ("six-cities") when the Dorians arrived after the Trojan War, in c. 13th century BC, in the last and southernmost waves of Greek migration to western Anatolia's coastline and occupied former Mycenaean settlements such us Knidos and Halicarnassos (near present-day Bodrum). Herodotus, the famous historian was born in Halicarnassus during the 5th century BC. Greek apoikism (a form of colonization) in Caria took place mostly on the coast, as well as in the interior in great number, and groups of cities and towns were organized in local federations.
Homer's "Iliad"
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records that at the time of the Trojan War, the city of Miletus belonged to the Carians, and was allied to the Trojan cause.
Lemprière notes that "As Caria probably abounded in figs, a particular sort has been called Carica, and the words "In Care periculum facere", have been proverbially used to signify the encountering of danger in the pursuit of a thing of trifling value." The region of Caria continues to be an important fig-producing area to this day, accounting for most fig production in Turkey, which is the world's largest producer of figs.
## Lydian province.
The expansionism of Lydia under Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid
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advance.
## Persian satrapy.
Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as a satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus, from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus, Antiochia, Myndus, Laodicea, Alinda and Alabanda. Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule.
During the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC), the cities of Caria were allies of Xerxes I and they fought at the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis, where the Queen of Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent
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of 70 Carian ships. Themistocles, before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at the battles, but if they were bound down by too strong compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack. Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias (), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a Thracian, but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe (), and Neanthes () adds that she was from Halicarnassus in Caria.".
After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria
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became members of the Athenian-led Delian League, but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast Mausolus took control of neighbouring Lycia, a territory which was still held by Pixodarus as shown by the Xanthos trilingual inscription.
The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC.
Halicarnassus was the location of the famed Mausoleum dedicated to Mausolus, a satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife, Artemisia II of Caria. The monument became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and from which the Romans
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named any grand tomb a "mausoleum."
## Macedonian empire.
Caria was conquered by Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land Ada of Caria who had been dethroned by the Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir.
## Roman-Byzantine province.
As part of the Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region but the territory administratively belonged to the province of Asia. During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a
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separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia.
Christianity was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by St. Paul, and the only early churches seem to be those of Laodicea and Colossae (Chonae) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria.
## Dissolution under the Byzantine Empire and passage to Turkish rule.
In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military theme system was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the Turks
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under the Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century.
There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions, but the first Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for the region as a whole, a large Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively Greek supplemented with a small Jewish community in Milas) as low as one per cent. One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas
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to the then much smaller Muğla, which was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from the islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the population exchange.
# See also.
- Ancient regions of Anatolia
- Carians
- Carian language
- Aphrodisias
# Bibliography.
- Downloadable Google Books.
#
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population exchange.
# See also.
- Ancient regions of Anatolia
- Carians
- Carian language
- Aphrodisias
# Bibliography.
- Downloadable Google Books.
# Further reading.
- Riet van Bremen, Jan-Mathieu Carbon (ed.)," Hellenistic Karia: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Hellenistic Karia, Oxford, 29 June-2 July 2006" (Talence: Ausonius Editions, 2010). (Etudes, 28).
- Lars Karlsson and Susanne Carlsson, "Labraunda and Karia" (Uppsala, 2011).
# External links.
- Livius.org: History and Culture of Ancient Caria
- Asia Minor Coins: ancient Greek and Roman coins from Caria
- Ancient Caria: In the garden of the sun, CANAN KÜÇÜKEREN, Hürriyet Daily News, 28 March 2011
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Osteopathy
Osteopathy is a type of alternative medicine that emphasizes physical manipulation of muscle tissue and bones. Practitioners of osteopathy are referred to as osteopaths. Its name derives from Ancient Greek "bone" (ὀστέον) and "sensitive to" or "responding to" (-πάθεια).
The UK's National Health Service says there is "limited evidence" that osteopathy "may be effective for some types of neck, shoulder or lower limb pain and recovery after hip or knee operations", but that there is no evidence that osteopathy is effective as a treatment for health conditions unrelated to the bones and muscles. Others have concluded that there is insufficient evidence to suggest efficacy for osteopathic
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style manipulation in treating musculoskeletal pain.
Osteopathic manipulation is the core set of techniques in osteopathy and osteopathic medicine. Parts of osteopathy, such as cranial therapy, have no therapeutic value and have been labeled as pseudoscience. The techniques are based on an ideology created by Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917) which posits the existence of a "myofascial continuity" – a tissue layer that "links every part of the body with every other part". Osteopaths attempt to diagnose and treat what was originally called "the osteopathic lesion", but which is now named "somatic dysfunction", by manipulating a person's bones and muscles. OMT techniques are most commonly used
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to treat back pain and other musculoskeletal issues.
In the United States, the training of osteopathic physicians (who practice osteopathic medicine) has become substantially similar to that of regular physicians. While osteopathic manipulation is still included in the curricula of osteopathic physicians, and is promoted as a unique aspect of DO training, this has been described as nothing more than extra' training in pseudoscientific practices". Osteopathic medical schools also tend to be weaker than MD schools with regards to research and the understanding of scientific inquiry. In other countries, training may focus primarily on osteopathy and does not include a standard medical education,
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with graduates being referred to as "[non-physician] osteopaths". The government policy and legal framework in which practitioners operate vary greatly from country to country.
# History.
Osteopathic medicine was founded by Andrew Taylor Still, a 19th-century American physician, Civil War surgeon, and Kansas state and territorial legislator. He lived near Baldwin City, Kansas at the time of the American Civil War and it was there that he founded the practice of osteopathy. Still claimed that human illness was rooted in problems with the musculoskeletal system, and that osteopathic manipulations could solve these problems by harnessing the body's own self-repairing potential. Still's patients
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were forbidden from treatment by conventional medicine, as well as from other practices such as drinking alcohol. These practices derive from the belief, common in the early 19th century among proponents of alternative medicine (then called "irregular medicine" or "unorthodox medicine"), that the body's natural state tends toward health and inherently contains the capacity to battle any illness. This was opposed to orthodox practitioners, who held that intervention by the physician was necessary to restore health in the patient. At the time Still established the basis for osteopathy, the division between irregular medicine and regular medicine had already been a major conflict for decades.
The
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foundations of this divergence may be traced back to the mid-18th century, when advances in physiology began to localize the causes and nature of diseases to specific organs and tissues. Doctors began shifting their focus from the patient to the internal state of the body, resulting in an issue labeled as the problem of the "vanishing patient". A stronger movement towards experimental and scientific medicine was then developed. In the perspective of the unorthodox physicians, the sympathy and holism that were integral to medicine in the past were left behind. Heroic medicine became the convention for treating patients, with aggressive practices like bloodletting and prescribing chemicals such
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as mercury, becoming the forefront in therapeutics. Alternative medicine had its beginnings in the early 19th century, when gentler practices in comparison to heroic medicine began to emerge. Homeopaths, Thomsonians, and hydropaths practiced unconventional forms of healing that may have had strong appeal to patients due to their more attenuated practices. As alternative medicine grew to include more followers, orthodox medicine continued to rebuke and seek to invalidate the "irregulars," as termed by the orthodox practitioners in heroic medicine. As each side sought to defend its practice, a schism began to present itself in the medical marketplace, with both the irregular and regular practitioners
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attempting to discredit the other. The irregulars — those who are now referred to as Alternative Medicine practitioners — argued that the regulars practiced an overly mechanistic approach to treating patients, treated the symptoms of disease instead of the original causes, and were blind to the harm they were causing their patients. Regular practitioners had a similar argument, labeling unorthodox medicine as unfounded, passive, and dangerous to a disease-afflicted patient. This is the medical environment that pervaded throughout the 19th century, and this is the setting that Still entered when he began developing his idea of osteopathy.
After experiencing the loss of his wife and three daughters
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to spinal meningitis and noting that the current orthodox medical system could not save them, Still may have been prompted to shape his reformist attitudes towards conventional medicine. Still set out to reform the orthodox medical scene and establish a practice that did not so readily resort to drugs, purgatives, and harshly invasive therapeutics to treat a person suffering from ailment, similar to the mindset of the irregulars in the early 19th century. Thought to have been influenced by spiritualist figures such as Andrew Jackson Davis and ideas of magnetic and electrical healing, Still began practicing manipulative procedures that were intended to restore harmony in the body. Over the course
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of the next twenty five years, Still attracted support for his medical philosophy that disapproved of orthodox medicine, and shaped his philosophy for osteopathy. Components of this philosophy included the idea that structure and function are interrelated and the importance of each piece of the body in the harmonious function of its whole.
Still sought to establish a new medical school that could produce physicians trained under this philosophy, and be prepared to compete against the orthodox, or allopathic, physicians. He established the American School of Osteopathy on 20 May 1892, in Kirksville, Missouri, with twenty-one students in the first class. Still described the foundations of osteopathy
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in his book "The Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of Osteopathy" in 1892. He named his new school of medicine "osteopathy", reasoning that "the bone, osteon, was the starting point from which [he] was to ascertain the cause of pathological conditions". He would eventually claim that he could "shake a child and stop scarlet fever, croup, diphtheria, and cure whooping cough in three days by a wring of its neck."
When the state of Missouri granted the right to award the MD degree, he remained dissatisfied with the limitations of conventional medicine and instead chose to retain the distinction of the DO degree. In the early 20th century, osteopaths across the United States sought to establish
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law that would legitimize their medical degree to the standard of the allopathic medic. The processes were arduous, and not without conflict. In some states, it took years for the bills to be passed. Osteopaths were often ridiculed and in some cases arrested, but in each state, osteopaths managed to achieve the legal acknowledgement and action they set out to pursue. In 1898 the American Institute of Osteopathy started the "Journal of Osteopathy" and by that time four states recognized osteopathy as a profession.
# Practice.
According to the American Osteopathic Association (AOA), osteopathic manipulative treatment is considered to be only one component of osteopathic medicine and may be used
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alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy, rehabilitation, surgery, patient education, diet, and exercise. OMT techniques are not necessarily unique to osteopathic medicine; other disciplines, such as physical therapy or chiropractic, use similar techniques.
One integral tenet of osteopathy is that problems in the body's anatomy can affect its proper functioning. Another tenet is the body's innate ability to heal itself. Many of osteopathic medicine’s manipulative techniques are aimed at reducing or eliminating the impediments to proper structure and function so the self-healing mechanism can assume its role in restoring a person to health. Osteopathic medicine defines a concept of health
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care that embraces the concept of the unity of the living organism's structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The American Osteopathic Association (AOA) state that the four major principles of osteopathic medicine are the following:
- 1. The body is an integrated unit of mind, body, and spirit.
- 2. The body possesses self-regulatory mechanisms, having the inherent capacity to defend, repair, and remodel itself.
- 3. Structure and function are reciprocally interrelated.
- 4. Rational therapy is based on consideration of the first three principles.
These principles are not held by Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine to be empirical laws; they serve, rather, as the underpinnings of the
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osteopathic approach to health and disease.
## Muscle energy.
Muscle energy techniques address somatic dysfunction through stretching and muscle contraction. For example, if a person is unable to fully abduct her arm, the treating physician raises the patient's arm near the end of the patient's range of motion, also called the edge of the restrictive barrier. The patient then tries to lower her arm, while the physician provides resistance. This resistance against the patient's motion allows for isometric contraction of the patient's muscle. Once the patient relaxes, her range of motion increases slightly. The repetition of alternating cycles of contraction and subsequent relaxation help the
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treated muscle improve its range of motion. Muscle energy techniques are contraindicated in patients with fractures, crush injuries, dislocations, joint instability, severe muscle spasms or strains, severe osteoporosis, severe whiplash injury, vertebrobasilar insufficiency, severe illness, and recent surgery.
## Counterstrain.
Counterstrain is a system of diagnosis and treatment that considers the physical dysfunction to be a continuing, inappropriate strain reflex, which is inhibited during treatment by applying a position of mild strain in the direction exactly opposite to that of the reflex. After a counterstrain point tender to palpation has been diagnosed, the identified tender point
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is treated by the osteopathic physician who, while monitoring the tender point, positions the patient such that the point is no longer tender to palpation. This position is held for ninety seconds and the patient is subsequently returned to her normal posture. Most often this position of ease is usually achieved by shortening the muscle of interest. Improvement or resolution of the tenderness at the identified counterstrain point is the desired outcome. The use of counterstrain technique is contraindicated in patients with severe osteoporosis, pathology of the vertebral arteries, and in patients who are very ill or cannot voluntarily relax during the procedure.
## High-velocity, low-amplitude.
High
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velocity, low amplitude (HVLA) is a technique which employs a rapid, targeted, therapeutic force of brief duration that travels a short distance within the anatomic range of motion of a joint and engages the restrictive barrier in one or more places of motion to elicit release of restriction. The use of HVLA is contraindicated in patients with Down syndrome due to instability of the atlantoaxial joint which may stem from ligamentous laxity, and in pathologic bone conditions such as fracture, history of a pathologic fracture, osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, and severe cases of rheumatoid arthritis. HVLA is also contraindicated in patients with vascular disease such as aneurysms, or disease of the
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carotid arteries or vertebral arteries. People taking ciprofloxacin or anticoagulants, or who have local metastases should not receive HVLA.
## Myofascial release.
Fascia is the soft tissue component of the connective tissue that provides support and protection for most structures within the human body, including muscle. This soft tissue can become restricted due to psychogenic disease, overuse, trauma, infectious agents, or inactivity, often resulting in pain, muscle tension, and corresponding diminished blood flow. "Myofascial release" is a form of alternative treatment. The practitioners claim to treat skeletal muscle immobility and pain by relaxing contracted muscles. Palpatory feedback
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by the practitioner is said to be an integral part to achieving a release of myofascial tissues, accomplished by relaxing contracted muscles, increasing circulation and lymphatic drainage, and stimulating the stretch reflex of muscles and overlying fascia.
Practitioners who perform myofascial release consider the fascia and its corresponding muscle to be the main targets of their procedure, but assert that other tissue may be affected as well, including other connective tissue.
Some osteopaths search for small lumps of tissue, called "Chapman release points" as part of their diagnostic procedure.
## Lymphatic pump treatment.
Lymphatic pump treatment (LPT) is a manual technique intended to
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encourage lymph flow in a person's lymphatic system. The first modern lymphatic pump technique was developed in 1920, although osteopathic physicians used various forms of lymphatic techniques as early as the late 19th century.
Relative contraindications for the use of lymphatic pump treatments include fractures, abscesses or localized infections, and severe bacterial infections with body temperature elevated higher than .
# Effectiveness.
In 2014, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 randomized controlled trials found moderate-quality evidence that OMT reduces pain and improves functional status in acute and chronic nonspecific low back pain. The same analysis also found moderate-quality
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evidence for pain reduction for nonspecific low back pain in postpartum women and low-quality evidence for pain reduction in nonspecific low back pain in pregnant women. A 2013 systematic review found insufficient evidence to rate osteopathic manipulation for chronic nonspecific low back pain. In 2011, a systematic review found no compelling evidence that osteopathic manipulation was effective for the treatment of musculoskeletal pain.
In 2013, a Cochrane Review reviewed six randomized controlled trials which investigated the effect of four types of chest physiotherapy (including OMT) as adjunctive treatments for pneumonia in adults and concluded that "based on current limited evidence, chest
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physiotherapy might not be recommended as routine additional treatment for pneumonia in adults." Techniques investigated in the study included paraspinal inhibition, rib raising, and myofascial release. The review found that OMT did not reduce mortality and did not increase cure rate, but that OMT slightly reduced the duration of hospital stay and antibiotic use. A 2013 systematic review of the use of OMT for treating pediatric conditions concluded that its effectiveness was unproven.
With respect to irritable bowel syndrome, a 2014 review found that there had been a limited number of studies done and that all these studies had small sample sizes; with that caveat, it found preliminary evidence
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that osteopathic manipulation may be beneficial in this condition.
A 2005 Cochrane Review of OMT in asthma treatment concluded that there was insufficient evidence that OMT can be used to treat asthma.
A 2018 systematic review found that there is no evidence for the reliability or specific efficacy of the techniques used in visceral osteopathy.
# Criticism.
D.O.s were listed by the AMA as "cultists" and deemed M.D. consultation of D.O.s unethical from 1923 until 1962. M.D.s regarded that their treatments were rooted in "pseudoscientific dogma", and although physicians from both branches of medicine have been able to meet on common ground, tensions between the two continue.
In 1988, Petr
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Skrabanek classified osteopathy as one of the "paranormal" forms of alternative medicine, commenting that it has a view of disease which had no meaning outside its own closed system.
In a 1995 conference address, the president of the Association of American Medical Colleges, Jordan J. Cohen, pinpointed OMT as a defining difference between M.D.s and D.O.s; while he saw there was no quarrel in the appropriateness of manipulation for musculoskeletal treatment, the difficulty centered on "applying manipulative therapy to treat other systemic diseases" – at that point, Cohen maintained, "we enter the realm of skepticism on the part of the allopathic world."
In 1998 Stephen Barrett of Quackwatch
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said that the worth of manipulative therapy had been exaggerated and that the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) was acting unethically by failing to condemn craniosacral therapy. The article attracted a letter from the law firm representing the AOA accusing Barrett of libel and demanding an apology to avert legal action. In response Barrett made some slight modifications to his text, while maintaining its overall stance; he queried the AOA's reference to "the body's natural tendency toward good health" and challenged them to "provide [him] with adequate scientific evidence showing how this belief has been tested and demonstrated to be true." Barrett has been quoted as saying "the pseudoscience
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within osteopathy can't compete with the science".
In 1999, Joel D. Howell noted that osteopathy and medicine as practiced by M.D.s were becoming increasingly convergent. He suggested that this raised a paradox: "if osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy, what is the justification for its continued existence? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic – that is, based on osteopathic manipulation or other techniques – why should its use be limited to osteopaths?"
In 2004, the osteopathic physician Bryan E. Bledsoe, a professor of emergency medicine, wrote disparagingly of the "pseudoscience" at the foundation of OMT. In his view, "OMT will and should
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follow homeopathy, magnetic healing, chiropractic, and other outdated practices into the pages of medical history."
In 2010, Steven Salzberg wrote that OMT was promoted as a special distinguishing element of DO training, but that it amounted to no more than "'extra' training in pseudoscientific practices." It has been suggested that osteopathic physicians may be more likely than regular MDs to be involved in questionable practices such as orthomolecular therapy and homeopathy.
# Regulation and legal status.
The osteopathic profession has evolved into two branches, non-physician manual medicine osteopaths and full scope of medical practice osteopathic physicians. These groups are so distinct
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that in practice they function as separate professions. The regulation of non-physician manual medicine osteopaths varies greatly between jurisdictions. In Australia, the UK, and New Zealand the non-physician manual medicine osteopaths are regulated by statute and practice requires registration with the relevant regulatory authority. The Osteopathic International Alliance has a country guide with details of registration and practice rights and the International Osteopathic Association has a list of all accredited osteopathic colleges.
Several international and national organizations exist relating to osteopathic education and political advocacy. Similarly, there is also an international organization
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of organizations for national osteopathic and osteopathic medical associations, statutory regulators, and universities/medical schools offering osteopathic and osteopathic medical education, known as the Osteopathic International Alliance (OIA).
The following sections describe the legal status of "osteopathy" and "osteopathic medicine" in each country listed.
## Australia.
Osteopaths work in private practice, and the majority of private health insurance providers cover treatment performed by osteopaths. In addition, treatment performed by osteopaths is covered by the public healthcare system in Australia (Medicare) under the Chronic Disease Management plan.
Osteopaths in Australia undertake
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a minimum of five years' university training in anatomy, physiology, pathology, general medical diagnosis and osteopathic techniques to be eligible to practice.
Osteopathy Australia (formerly the Australian Osteopathic Association) is a national organization representing the interests of Australian osteopaths, osteopathy as a profession in Australia, and consumers' right to access osteopathic services. Founded in 1955 in Victoria, the Australian Osteopathic Association became a national body in 1991 and became Osteopathy Australia in 2014. and is a member of the Osteopathic International Alliance.
The Osteopathy Board of Australia is part of the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency
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which is the regulatory body for all recognized health care professions in Australia. The Osteopathic Board of Australia is separate from the Medical Board of Australia which is the governing body that regulates medical practitioners. Osteopaths trained internationally may be eligible for registration in Australia, dependent on their level of training and following relevant competency assessment.
## Canada.
In Canada, the titles "osteopath" and "osteopathic physician" are protected in some provinces by the medical regulatory college for physicians and surgeons. As of 2011, there were approximately 20 U.S.-trained osteopathic physicians, all of which held a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree,
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practicing in all of Canada. As of 2014, no training programs have been established for osteopathic physicians in Canada.
The non-physician manual practice of osteopathy is practiced in most Canadian provinces. As of 2014, manual osteopathic practice is not a government-regulated health profession in any province, and those interested in pursuing osteopathic studies must register in private osteopathy schools. It is estimated that there are over 1,300 osteopathic manual practitioners in Canada, most of whom practice in Quebec and Ontario. Some sources indicate that there are between 1,000 and 1,200 osteopaths practicing in the province of Quebec, and although this number might seem quite elevated,
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many osteopathy clinics are adding patients on waiting lists due to a shortage of osteopaths in the province.
### Quebec.
Beginning in 2009, Université Laval in Quebec City was working with the "Collège d'études ostéopathiques" in Montreal on a project to implement a professional osteopathy program consisting of a bachelor's degree followed by a professional master's degree in osteopathy as manual therapy. However, due to the many doubts concerning the scientific credibility of osteopathy from the university's faculty of medicine, the program developers decided to abandon the project in 2011, after years of discussion, planning, and preparation for the program implementation. There was some
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controversy with the final decision of the university's committee regarding the continuous undergraduate and professional graduate program in osteopathy because the Commission of studies, which is in charge of evaluating new training programs offered by the university, had judged that the program had its place at Université Laval before receiving the unfavourable support decision from the faculty of medicine. Had the program been implemented, Université Laval would have been the first university institution in Quebec to offer a professional program in osteopathy as a manual therapy.
## European Union.
There is no universal regulatory authority for the practice of "osteopathy" or "osteopathic
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medicine" within the European Union; it is on a country-by-country basis. The UK's General Osteopathic Council, a regulatory body set up under the country's Osteopaths Act 1993, has issued a position paper on European regulation of osteopathy.
## France.
"Osteopathy" is a governmentally recognized profession and has title protection, "autorisation d'utiliser le titre d'ostéopathe". The most recent decree regarding osteopathy was enacted in 2014.
## Belgium.
For 40 years (since the early 70s) osteopaths have been practicing in Belgium, during which time several attempts have been made to obtain an official status of health care profession. In 1999, a law was passed (the 'Colla-Law') providing
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a legal framework for osteopathy, amongst three other non-conventional medical professions, to develop into an independent medical profession in its own right.
In 2011, the Belgian Minister Onkelinx created and established the Chambers for Non-Conventional Medicines and the Joint Commission provided for in the "Colla-law" (1999). The Chamber for Osteopathy has been active since then. Their goal is to discuss and reach an agreement between the various medical bodies to rule on these practices. In February 2014, only one practice, homeopathy, received its recognition. The others, including osteopathy, remain unresolved.
Since 2014, the majority of the professional osteopathic associations have
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joined together under the name UPOB - BVBO (Union Professionelle des Osteopathes de Belgique - Belgische Vereniging van Belgische Osteopaten - Professional Union of Belgian Osteopaths) in order to consolidate the image and united vision of osteopathy (± 900 osteopaths). This merger also resulted in the creation of a website which represents all aspects of osteopathy in Belgium. Its aim is to offer Belgians a base of information about osteopathy, to provide access to a national emergency care service as well as to osteopathic care facilities for the less fortunate. It also serves as a directory for osteopaths who practice osteopathy exclusively. Lastly, the website serves as a platform to support
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actions working towards the recognition of osteopathy.
## Germany.
Germany has both "osteopathy" and "osteopathic medicine". There is a difference in the osteopathic education between non-physician osteopaths, physiotherapists, and medical physicians.
Physiotherapists are a recognized health profession and can achieve a degree of "Diploma in Osteopathic Therapy (D.O.T.)". Non-physician "osteopaths" are not medically licensed. They have an average total of 1200 hours of training, roughly half being in manual therapy and osteopathy, with no medical specialization before they attain their degree. Non-physician osteopaths in Germany officially work under the "Heilpraktiker" law. Heilpraktiker
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is a separate profession within the health care system. There are many schools of osteopathy in Germany; most are moving toward national recognition although such recognition does not currently exist. In Germany, there are rules (at the country level) under which persons (non-physicians) may call themselves osteopaths.
## New Zealand.
The practice of "osteopathy" is regulated by law, under the terms of the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003 which came into effect on 18 September 2004. Under the Act, it is a legal requirement to be registered with the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand (OCNZ), and to hold an annual practicing certificate issued by them, in order to practice
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as an osteopath. Each of the fifteen health professions regulated by the HPCA Act work within the "Scope of Practice" determined and published by its professional Board or Council. Osteopaths in New Zealand are not fully licensed physicians. In New Zealand, in addition to the general scope of practice, osteopaths may also hold the Scope of Practice for Osteopaths using Western Medical Acupuncture and Related Needling Techniques.
In New Zealand a course is offered at Unitec. Australasian courses consist of a bachelor's degree in clinical science (osteopathy) followed by a master's degree. The Unitec double degree programme is the OCNZ prescribed qualification for registration in the scope of
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practice: Osteopath, Australian qualifications accredited by the Australian and New Zealand Osteopathic Council are also prescribed qualifications.
Osteopaths registered and in good standing with the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency – Osteopathy Board of Australian are eligible to register in New Zealand under the mutual recognition system operating between the two countries. Graduates from programs in every other country are required to complete an assessment procedure.
The scope of practice for US-trained "osteopathic physicians" is unlimited on an "exceptions" basis. Full licensure to practice medicine is awarded on an exceptions basis following a hearing before the licensing
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authorities in New Zealand. Both the Medical Council of New Zealand and the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand [OCNZ] regulate osteopathic physicians in New Zealand. Currently, the country has no recognized osteopathic medical schools.
## Portugal.
"Osteopathy" is a governmentally recognized health profession and the title of Osteopath is protected by Law (Act 45/2003, of 22 October, and Act 71/2013, of 2 September). Currently there are three faculties that teach the four-year degree course of osteopathy (BSc Hon in Osteopathy).
## United Kingdom.
The practice of osteopathy has a long history in the United Kingdom. The first school of osteopathy was established in London in 1917 by John
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Martin Littlejohn, a pupil of A.T. Still, who had been Dean of the Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine. After many years of existing outside the mainstream of health care provision, the osteopathic profession in the UK was accorded formal recognition by Parliament in 1993 by the Osteopaths Act. This legislation now provides the profession of osteopathy the same legal framework of statutory self-regulation as other healthcare professions such as medicine and dentistry.
The General Osteopathic Council (GOsC) regulates the practice of osteopathy under the terms of the Osteopaths Act 1993. Under British law, an osteopath must be registered with the GOsC to practice in the United Kingdom. The
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General Osteopathic Council has a statutory duty to promote, develop and regulate the profession of osteopathy in the UK. It fulfills its duty to protect the interests of the public by ensuring that all osteopaths maintain high standards of safety, competence and professional conduct throughout their professional lives. In order to be registered with the General Osteopathic Council an osteopath must hold a recognized qualification that meets the standards as set out by law in the GOsC's Standard of Practice. This Act provides for "protection of title" A person who, whether expressly or implicitly describes him- or herself as an osteopath, osteopathic practitioner, osteopathic physician, osteopathist,
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osteotherapist, or any kind of osteopath is guilty of an offence unless they are registered as an osteopath. There are currently more than five thousand osteopaths registered in the UK.
"Osteopathic medicine" is regulated by the General Osteopathic Council, (GOsC) under the terms of the Osteopaths Act 1993 and statement from the GMC. Practising osteopaths will usually have a B.S. or M.Sc. in osteopathy. Accelerated courses leading to accreditation are available for those with a medical degree and physiotherapists. The London College of Osteopathic Medicine, teaches osteopathy only to those who are already physicians.
## United States.
Those trained only in manual osteopathic treatment, generally
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to relieve muscular and skeletal conditions, are referred to as osteopaths. These non-physician practitioners are not permitted to use the title D.O. in the United States. This is to avoid confusion with osteopathic physicians who are medical doctors trained and certified to practice in the branch of scientific medicine called osteopathic medicine.
The American Osteopathic Association and the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine recommend using the terms "osteopathic physician" (U.S.-trained only) and "osteopathic medicine" in reference to osteopathic medicine as practiced in the United States. Osteopathic physicians earn the degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.).
"Osteopathic
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medicine" in the United States has always meant a physician trained in and entitled to the full scope of medical practice. "Osteopathy" or "osteopath" as written in some U.S. state and federal laws refers only to "osteopathic medicine" or "osteopathic physicians", respectively. With the increased internationalization of the profession, these older terms have fallen out of favor as generally accepted use due to the confusion they may cause.
## Egypt and the Middle East.
Hesham Khalil introduced osteopathy in the Middle East at a local physical therapy conference in Cairo, Egypt in 2005 with a lecture titled "The global Osteopathic Concept / Holistic approach in Somatic Dysfunction". Since then
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he has toured the Middle East to introduce osteopathy in other Middle Eastern and North African countries, including Sudan, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Kuwait and Oman.
In December 2007 the first Workshop on Global osteopathic approach was held at the Nasser Institute Hospital for Research and Treatment, sponsored by the Faculty of Physical Therapy, University of Cairo, Egypt. On 6 August 2010, the Egyptian Osteopathic Society (OsteoEgypt) was founded. OsteoEgypt promotes a two-tier model of osteopathy in Egypt and the Middle East. The event was timed to coincide with the birthday of A.T. Still.
## India.
Sri Sri University is the first university in India to offer M.Sc in Osteopathy
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ypt) was founded. OsteoEgypt promotes a two-tier model of osteopathy in Egypt and the Middle East. The event was timed to coincide with the birthday of A.T. Still.
## India.
Sri Sri University is the first university in India to offer M.Sc in Osteopathy programme by following the benchmarks defined by the World Health Organisation for training in Osteopathy.
# See also.
- Chiropractic
- Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
- List of medical schools in the United States
- List of osteopathic colleges
- Osteopathic medicine in the United States
- Spinal manipulation
# Further reading.
- American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (2011); "Glossary of Osteopathic Terminology".
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Wałbrzych
Wałbrzych (German: "Waldenburg"; Lower Silesian: "Walmbrig" or "Walmbrich"; or "Valdenburk") is a city in Lower Silesian Voivodeship in southwestern Poland. From 1975–1998 it was the capital of Wałbrzych Voivodeship; it is now the seat of Wałbrzych County. Wałbrzych lies approximately southwest of the voivodeship capital Wrocław and about from the Czech border. It has a population of about 112,600 which makes it the second-largest city in the voivodeship and the 33rd largest in the country.
Wałbrzych is a former major coal mining center. Rather unscathered after World War II, Wałbrzych is a city of rich architecture, among which the most recognizable landmark is the Książ Castle,
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the largest castle of Lower Silesia and the third largest of Poland.
# Etymology.
According to the city's official website, the early Polish name of the settlement was "Lasogród" ("forest castle").
The German name Waldenburg (also meaning "forest castle") referred to the castle Nowy Dwór (German: "Burg Neuhaus"), whose ruins stand south of the city; the name came to be used for the entire settlement. It first appeared in the 15th century. The modern Polish name "Wałbrzych" comes from the German name "Walbrich", a late medieval linguistic variation of the older names "Wallenberg" or "Walmberg".
# History.
## Middle Ages.
Polish sources indicate the city's predecessor, Lasogród, was an early
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medieval Slavic settlement whose inhabitants engaged in hunting, honey gathering, and later agriculture. Lasogród eventually developed into a defensive fort, the remains of which were destroyed in the 19th century during expansion of the city. However, some German sources say no archaeological or written records support notions of an early Slavic settlement or the existence of a castle before the late 13th century, and that during the Middle Ages the area was part of the unpopulated Silesian forest (the "Silesian Przesieka").
According to 17th-century Polish historian Ephraim Naso, Wałbrzych was a small village by 1191. This assertion was rejected by 19th-century German sources and by German
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historian Hugo Weczerka, who says the city was founded between 1290 and 1293, and was mentioned as "Waldenberc" in 1305.
He places the city near Nowy Dwór (German: "Neuhaus"), built by Bolko I the Strict of the Silesian Piasts. The city website, however, cites the building of the castle as a separate event in 1290. A part of Nowy Dwór castle, a manor built in the 17th century, was destroyed in the 19th century.
The settlement was first mentioned as a town in 1426, but it did not receive the rights to hold markets or other privileges due to the competition of nearby towns and the insignificance of the local landlords. Subsequently, the city became the property of the Silesian knightly families,
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initially the Schaffgotsches in 1372, later the Czettritzes, and from 1738, the Hochberg family, owners of Fürstenstein Castle.
## Modern era.
Coal mining in the area was first mentioned in 1536. The settlement was transformed into an industrial centre at the turn of the 19th century, when coal mining and weaving flourished.
As a result of the First Silesian War the city was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742, and subsequently became part of Germany in 1871. In 1843 the city obtained its first rail connection, which linked it with Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). In the early 20th century a glassworks and a large china tableware manufacturing plant, which are still in operation today,
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were built. In 1939 the city had about 65,000 inhabitants. It was conquered by the Soviet Red Army on 8 May 1945 - coincidentally, the day World War II in Europe ended.
After World War II, Waldenburg became part of Poland under border changes demanded by the Soviet Union at the Potsdam Conference. Many of the Germans living in the city fled or were forcibly expelled, and the city was renamed Wałbrzych. Wałbrzych was one of the few areas where a number of Germans were held back as they were deemed indispensable for the economy, e.g. coal mining. An ethnic German society has been maintained in Walbrzych since 1957.
The city was relatively unscathed by the Second World War, and as a result of
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combining the nearby administrative districts with the town and the construction of new housing estates, Wałbrzych expanded geographically. At the beginning of the 1990s, because of new social and economic conditions, a decision was made to close down the town's coal mines. In 1995, a Museum of Industry and Technology was set up on the facilities of the oldest coal mine in the area, KWK THOREZ. The 2005 the film "Komornik" was filmed in and around Wałbrzych.
In 2015 Walbrzych became widely known due to the search for a supposedly buried Nazi gold train.
# Sights.
- Książ Castle (German: "Schloss Fürstenstein"), the largest Silesian castle, the third-largest castle in Poland behind Kraków's
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Wawel Castle and the Malbork Castle.
- Old Książ Castle (Stary Książ). Gothic ruins opposite (across a valley) Książ Castle
- Nowy Dwór Castle. The ruins of the castle Nowy Dwór (Ogorzelec) are on the top of Castle Hill (618 m)
- Czettritz Castle (1604–1628)
- Sanctuary of Our Lady of Sorrows. Gothic church, rebuilt into a Baroque style.Sanctuary of Our Lady of Sorrows placed in the center of Wałbrzych and is the oldest building of the city, called by the inhabitants "the heart of the city"
- Town Hall ("Ratusz"). A representative three-storey building maintained in the style of historical eclecticism, imitating gothic
- Palmiarnia (Palm House)
- Market square (renovated 1997–1999). A
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