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The Brannock Device is a measuring instrument invented by Charles F. Brannock for measuring a person's shoe size. Brannock spent two years developing a simple means of measuring the length, width, and arch length of the human foot. He eventually improved on the wooden RITZ Stick, the industry standard of the day, patenting his first prototype in 1925 and an improved version in 1927. The device has both left and right heel cups and is rotated through 180 degrees to measure the second foot. Brannock later formed the Brannock Device Company to manufacture and sell the product, and headed the company until 1992 when he died at age 89. Today, the Brannock Device is an international standard of the footwear industry, and the Smithsonian Institution houses samples of some of the first Brannock Devices.
The Brannock Device Company was headquartered in Syracuse, New York, until shortly after Charles Brannock's death. Salvatore Leonardi purchased the company from the Brannock Estate in 1993, and moved manufacturing to a small factory in Liverpool, New York. The company continues to manufacture several models of the device for determining the shoe sizes of men, women, and children; they also produce specialized models for fitting other types of footwear.
On May 31, 2018 the Syracuse minor league baseball team had a one-night promotion and rebranded as the Syracuse Devices in honor of the Brannock Device.
References
Sources
Craig, Berry. "Why the Shoe Fits." American Heritage of Invention & Technology 16, no. 1. (Summer 2000): 64.
Davidson, Martha. "A Fitting Place for the Brannock Device Company Records." 2001.
Lukas, Paul. Inconspicuous Consumption: An Obsessive Look at the Stuff We Take for Granted, from the Everyday to the Obscure. Three Rivers Press, 1997.
Brannock Device Company Records, 1925–1998
Aeppel, Timothy, "Maker of Foot Measurer Tries to Stop Other Shoe From Dropping - On It". Wall Street Journal, Jan. 10, 2011.
External links
The Brannock Device Co., Inc.
Charles Brannock: MIT inventor of the Week (August 2001)
Brannock Company history and archives
Brannock Device, an early Design Drawing from the Smithsonian (1920s) Smithsonian Institution Libraries
Dimensional instruments
Shoemaking
Anthropometry
Manufacturing companies based in Syracuse, New York
American inventions
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The American Newspaper is a critical study of journalism conducted by Will Irwin from 1909 to 1910 spanning fourteen articles that discuss the origins, purposes, and principles that journalists should aspire to. The article series appeared in Collier's in serialized form in 1911.
In his analysis, Irwin raised awareness among the public as to the corruption and moral decay of newspapers of the era. He covered both negative and positive aspects of newspaper coverage, and even attempted to define what is "news", a topic that is still debatable to this day among journalists in the field. He remarked the role of newspapers, saying that "The newspaper which has absorbed and made systematic many things that went by rule of thumb in cruder stages of society, has generally taken over this legislative power of public opinion, this executive power of gossip."
Irwin's study is still referenced today for students of journalism.
Bibliography
Hudson, Robert V. Will Irwin's Pioneering Criticism of the Press (1970)
References
Books about media bias
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Eternity, in common parlance, means infinite time that never ends or the quality, condition, or fact of being everlasting or eternal. Classical philosophy, however, defines eternity as what is timeless or exists outside time, whereas sempiternity corresponds to infinite duration.
Philosophy
Classical philosophy defines eternity as what exists outside time, as in describing timeless supernatural beings and forces, distinguished from sempiternity which corresponds to infinite time, as described in requiem prayers for the dead. Some thinkers, such as Aristotle, suggest the eternity of the natural cosmos in regard to both past and future eternal duration. Boethius defined eternity as "simultaneously full and perfect possession of interminable life". Thomas Aquinas believed that God's eternity does not cease, as it is without either a beginning or an end; the concept of eternity is of divine simplicity, thus incapable of being defined or fully understood by humankind.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and many others in the Age of Enlightenment drew on the classical distinction to put forward metaphysical hypotheses such as "eternity is a permanent now".
Contemporary philosophy and physics
Today cosmologists, philosophers, and others look towards analyses of the concept from across cultures and history. They debate, among other things, whether an absolute concept of eternity has real application for fundamental laws of physics; compare the issue of the entropy as an arrow of time.
Religion
Eternity as infinite duration is an important concept in many lives and religions. God or gods are often said to endure eternally, or exist for all time, forever, without beginning or end. Religious views of an afterlife may speak of it in terms of eternity or eternal life. Christian theologians may regard immutability, like the eternal Platonic forms, as essential to eternity.
Symbolism
Eternity is often symbolized by the endless snake, swallowing its own tail, the ouroboros. The circle, band, or ring is also commonly used as a symbol for eternity, as is the mathematical symbol of infinity, . Symbolically these are reminders that eternity has no beginning or end.
See also
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Eternity.
Entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on the relationship between God and Time.
Concepts in metaphysics
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of time
Philosophy of religion
Infinity
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Modern agriculture may refer to:
Agribusiness
Intensive farming
Organic farming
Precision agriculture
Sustainable agriculture
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Pet Kladenți (în ) este un sat în comuna Beala, regiunea Ruse, Bulgaria.
Demografie
La recensământul din 2011, populația satului Pet Kladenți era de locuitori. Din punct de vedere etnic, majoritatea locuitorilor (%) erau bulgari. Pentru % din locuitori nu este cunoscută apartenența etnică.
Note
Sate din regiunea Ruse
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In American football, a spiral is the continuous in-flight rotation around the longitudinal axis of a football following its release from the hand of a passer or foot of a punter.
History
Pop Warner is credited for teaching his players both the spiral punt and the spiral pass.
Pass
The development of the forward pass is traced to Eddie Cochems and Bradbury Robinson at St. Louis. Howard R. Reiter also claimed to develop the overhand forward pass.
Punt
Alex Moffat invented the spiral punt, described by one writer as "a dramatic change from the traditional end-over-end kicks." He also invented the drop kick.
See also
Spiral
Torpedo punt
Forward pass
References
American football terminology
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Penance is any act or a set of actions done out of repentance for sins committed, as well as an alternate name for the Catholic, Lutheran, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox sacrament of Reconciliation or Confession. It also plays a part in confession among Anglicans and Methodists, in which it is a rite, as well as among other Protestants. The word penance derives from Old French and Latin paenitentia, both of which derive from the same root meaning repentance, the desire to be forgiven (in English see contrition). Penance and repentance, similar in their derivation and original sense, have come to symbolize conflicting views of the essence of repentance, arising from the controversy as to the respective merits of "faith" and "good works". Word derivations occur in many languages.
According to dictionary definitions, the primary meaning of penance is the deeds done out of penitence, which also focuses more on the external actions than does repentance which refers to the true, interior sorrow for one's hurtful words or actions. Only repentance implies a purpose of amendment which means the resolve to avoid such hurtful behavior in the future. The words "true" and "firm" might be added to all but penance, to specify the depth of change in one's hurtful attitude. Contrition is the state of feeling remorseful, and can describe both the show of regret to the deepest and firmest sorrow for one's wrongdoings.
Christianity
Penance as a religious attitude
Protestant Reformers, upholding the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance consisted in a change of the whole moral attitude of the mind and soul (Matthew 13:15; Luke 22:32), and that the divine forgiveness preceded true repentance and confession to God without any reparation of "works". Rather, "God's kindness is meant to lead you to repentance" (Romans 2:4, ESV). In his Of Justification By Faith, Calvin says: "without forgiveness no man is pleasing to God." Nonetheless, in traditions formed by a Calvinist or Zwinglian sensibility there has traditionally been a stress on reconciliation as a precondition to fellowship.
The attitude of penance or repentance can be externalized in acts that a believer imposes on themselves, acts that are called penances. Penitential activity is particularly common during the season of Lent and Holy Week. In some cultural traditions, this week, which commemorates the Passion of Christ, may be marked by penances that include flagellantism or even voluntary pseudo-crucifixion. Advent is another season during which, to a lesser extent, penances are performed. Acts of self-discipline are used as tokens of repentance. Easier acts of self-discipline include devoting time to prayer or reading of the Bible or other spiritual books. Examples of harder acts of self-discipline are fasting, continence, abstaining from alcohol or tobacco, or other privations. Self-flagellation and the wearing of a cilice are more rarely used. Such acts have sometimes been called mortification of the flesh, a phrase inspired by : "If you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body, you will live."
Such acts are associated also with the sacrament. In the New Testament there was no specific ritual for reconciliation except Baptism. With the delay of the expected Second Coming, there was a recognized need for a means of accepting back into the Christian community those who had been expelled for serious sins. In early Christianity, Bishops did not forgive but rather declared that God had forgiven the sins when it was clear that there was repentance, and the penitent was readmitted to the community. Today the act of penance or satisfaction imposed in connection with the sacrament for the same therapeutic purpose can be set prayers or a certain number of prostrations or an act or omission intended to reinforce what is positive in the penitent's behaviour or to inhibit what is negative. The act imposed is itself called a penance or epitemia.
Penance as a sacrament or rite
Eastern Orthodox Church
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, penance is usually called Sacred Mystery of Confession. In Orthodoxy, the intention of the sacramental mystery of Holy Confession is to provide reconciliation with God through means of healing.
Similar to the Eastern Catholic Churches, in the Eastern Orthodox Church there are no confessionals. Traditionally the penitent stands or kneels before either the Icon of Christ the Teacher (to the viewers' right of the Royal Door) or in front of an Icon of Christ, "Not Made by Hands". This is because in Orthodox sacramental theology, confession is not made to the priest, but to Christ; the priest being there as a witness, friend and advisor. On an analogion in front of the penitent has been placed a Gospel Book and a Crucifix. The penitent venerates the Gospel Book and the cross and kneels. This is to show humility before the whole church and before Christ. Once they are ready to start, the priest says, “Blessed is our God, always, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages,” reads the Trisagion Prayers and the Psalm 50 (in the Septuagint; in the KJV this is Psalm 51).
The priest then advises the penitent that Christ is invisibly present and that the penitent should not be embarrassed or be afraid, but should open up their heart and reveal their sins so that Christ may forgive them. The penitent then accuses themselves of sins. The priest quietly and patiently listens, gently asking questions to encourage the penitent not to withhold any sins out of fear or shame. After the confessant reveals all their sins, the priest offers advice and counsel. The priest may modify the prayer rule of the penitent, or even prescribe another rule, if needed to combat the sins the penitent struggles most with. Penances, known as epitemia, are given with a therapeutic intent, so they are opposite to the sin committed.
Epitemia are neither a punishment nor merely a pious action, but are specifically aimed at healing the spiritual ailment that has been confessed. For example, if the penitent broke the Eighth Commandment by stealing something, the priest could prescribe they return what they stole (if possible) and give alms to the poor on a more regular basis. Opposites are treated with opposites. If the penitent suffers from gluttony, the confessant’s fasting rule is reviewed and perhaps increased. The intention of Confession is never to punish, but to heal and purify. Confession is also seen as a “second baptism”, and is sometimes referred to as the "baptism of tears".
In Orthodoxy, Confession is seen as a means to procure better spiritual health and purity. Confession does not involve merely stating the sinful things the person does; the good things a person does or is considering doing are also discussed. The approach is holistic, examining the full life of the confessant. The good works do not earn salvation, but are part of a psychotherapeutic treatment to preserve salvation and purity. Sin is treated as a spiritual illness, or wound, only cured through Jesus Christ. The Orthodox belief is that in Confession, the sinful wounds of the soul are to be exposed and treated in the "open air" (in this case, the Spirit of God. Note the fact that the Greek word for Spirit (πνευμα), can be translated as "air in motion" or wind).
Once the penitent has accepted the therapeutic advice and counsel freely given to him or her, by the priest then, placing his epitrachelion over the head of the confessant. The priest says the prayer of forgiveness over the penitent. In the prayer of forgiveness, the priests asks of God to forgive the sins committed. He then concludes by placing his hand on the head of the penitent and says, “The Grace of the All-Holy Spirit, through my insignificance, has loosened and granted to you forgiveness.”
In summary, the Priest reminds the penitent what he or she has received is a second baptism, through the Mystery of Confession, and that they should be careful not to defile this restored purity but to do good and to hear the voice of the psalmist: “Turn from evil and do good” (). But most of all, the priest urges the penitent to guard him- or herself from sin and to commune as often as permitted. The priest dismisses the repentant one in peace.
Anglicanism
Private confession of sins to a priest, followed by absolution, has always been provided for in the Book of Common Prayer. In the Communion Service of the 1662 English Prayer Book, for example, we read:
And because it is requisite, that no man should come to the holy Communion, but with a full trust in God’s mercy, and with a quiet conscience; therefore, if there be any of you, who by this means [that is, by personal confession of sins] cannot quiet his own conscience herein, but requireth further comfort or counsel; let him come to me, or to some other discreet and learned Minister of God’s Word, and open his grief; that by the ministry of God’s holy Word he may receive the benefit of absolution, together with ghostly counsel and advice, to the quieting of his conscience, and avoiding of all scruple and doubtfulness.
The status of confession as a special friend sacrament is stated in Anglican formularies, such as the Thirty-Nine Articles. Article XXV includes it among "Those five commonly called Sacraments" which "are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel . . . for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God." It is important to note, however, that "commonly called Sacraments" does not mean "wrongly called Sacraments;" and that the Article merely distinguishes confession and the other rites from the two great Sacraments of the Gospel.
Until the Prayer Book revisions of the 1970s and the creation of Alternative Service Books in various Anglican provinces, the penitential rite was always part of larger services. Prior to the revision, private confessions would be according to the form of Ministry to the Sick. The form of absolution provided in the order for the Visitation of the Sick reads, "Our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath left power to his Church to absolve all sinners who truly repent and believe in him, of his great mercy forgive thee thine offences: And by his authority committed to me, I absolve thee from all thy sins, In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen."
Despite the provision for private confession in every edition of the Book of Common Prayer, the practice was frequently contested during the Ritualist controversies of the later nineteenth century.
Methodism
In the Methodist Church, as with the Anglican Communion, penance is defined by the Articles of Religion as one those "Commonly called Sacraments but not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel", also known as the "five lesser sacraments". John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, held "the validity of Anglican practice in his day as reflected in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer", stating that "We grant confession to men to be in many cases of use: public, in case of public scandal; private, to a spiritual guide for disburdening of the conscience, and as a help to repentance." Additionally, per the recommendation of John Wesley, Methodist class meetings traditionally meet weekly in order to confess sins to one another. The Book of Worship of The United Methodist Church contains the rite for private confession and absolution in A Service of Healing II, in which the minister pronounces the words "In the name of Jesus Christ, you are forgiven!"; some Methodist churches have regularly scheduled auricular confession and absolution, while others make it available upon request. Since Methodism holds the office of the keys to "belong to all baptized persons", private confession does not necessarily need to be made to a pastor, and therefore lay confession is permitted, although this is not the norm. Near the time of death, many Methodists confess their sins and receive absolution from an ordained minister, in addition to being anointed. In Methodism, the minister is bound by the Seal of the Confessional, with The Book of Discipline stating "All clergy of The United Methodist Church are charged to maintain all confidences inviolate, including confessional confidences"; any confessor who divulges information revealed in confession is subject to being defrocked in accordance with canon law. As with Lutheranism, in the Methodist tradition, corporate confession is the most common practice, with the Methodist liturgy including "prayers of confession, assurance and pardon". The traditional confession of The Sunday Service, the first liturgical text used by Methodists, comes from the service of Morning Prayer in The Book of Common Prayer. The confession of one's sin is particularly important before receiving Holy Communion; the official United Methodist publication about the Eucharist titled This Holy Mystery states that:
Many Methodists, like other Protestants, regularly practice confession of their sin to God Himself, holding that "When we do confess, our fellowship with the Father is restored. He extends His parental forgiveness. He cleanses us of all unrighteousness, thus removing the consequences of the previously unconfessed sin. We are back on track to realise the best plan that He has for our lives."
Lutheranism
The Lutheran Church teaches two key parts in repentance (contrition and faith). In mainstream Lutheranism, the faithful often receive the sacrament of penance from a Lutheran priest before receiving the Eucharist. Prior to going to Confessing and receiving Absolution, the faithful are expected to examine their lives in light of the Ten Commandments. The order of Confession and Absolution is contained in the Small Catechism, as well as other liturgical books of the Lutheran Churches. Lutherans typically kneel at the communion rails to confess their sins, while the confessor—a Lutheran priest—listens and then offers absolution while laying their stole on the penitent's head. Clergy are prohibited from revealing anything said during private Confession and Absolution per the Seal of the Confessional, and face excommunication if it is violated. In Laestadian Lutheranism penitent sinners, in accordance with the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, practice lay confession, "confess[ing] their transgressions to other church members, who can then absolve the penitent."
Roman Catholicism
The Roman Catholic Church uses the term "penance" in a number of separate but related instances: (a) as a moral virtue, (b) as a sacrament, (c) as acts of satisfaction, and (d) as those specific acts of satisfaction assigned the penitent by the confessor in the context of the sacrament. These have as in common the concept that he who sins must repent and as far as possible make reparation to Divine justice.
A moral virtue
Penance is a moral virtue whereby the sinner is disposed to hatred of his or her sin as an offence against God and to a firm purpose of amendment and satisfaction. The principal act in the exercise of this virtue is the detestation of one's own sin. The motive of this detestation is that sin offends God. Theologians, following Thomas Aquinas (Summa III, Q. lxxxv, a. 1), regard penance as truly a virtue, though they have disagreed regarding its place among the virtues. Some have classed it with the virtue of charity, others with the virtue of religion, Bonaventure saw it as a part of the virtue of justice. Cajetan seems to have considered it as belonging to all three; but most theologians agree with Aquinas that penance is a distinct virtue (virtus specialis).
Penance as a virtue resides in the will. Since it is a part of the cardinal virtue of justice, it can operate in a soul which has lost the virtue of charity by mortal sin. However it cannot exist in a soul which has lost the virtue of faith, since without faith all sense of the just measure of the injustice of sin is lost. It urges the individual to undergo punishment for the sake of repairing the order of justice; when motivated by even an ordinary measure of supernatural charity it infallibly obtains the forgiveness of venial sins and their temporal punishments; when motivated by that extraordinary measure which is called perfect charity (love of God for his own sake) it obtains the forgiveness of even mortal sins, when it desires simultaneously to seek out the Sacrament of penance as soon as possible, and of large quantities of temporal punishment.
Penance, while a duty, is first of all a gift. No man can do any penance worthy of God's consideration without His first giving the grace to do so. In penance is proclaimed mankind's unworthiness in the face of God's condescension, the indispensable disposition to God's grace. For though sanctifying grace alone forgives and purges sins from the soul, it is necessary that the individual consent to this action of grace by the work of the virtue of penance, Penance helps to conquer sinful habits and builds generosity, humility and patience. The following is a brief consideration of Our Lady's four requests: penance, prayer, devotion to her Immaculate Heart and the brown scapular. To those seeking help or in suffering please refer yourself through said means.
Sacrament of Penance
"The process of repentance and conversion was described by Jesus in the parable of prodigal son." In the Catholic Church, the sacrament of penance (also called reconciliation, forgiveness, confession and conversion) is one of the two sacraments of healing: Jesus Christ has willed that by this means the church should continue, in the power of the Holy Spirit, his work of healing and salvation. Reconciliation with God is both the purpose and effect of this sacrament.
Through the priest who is the minister of the sacrament and who acts not in his own name but on behalf of God, confession of sins is made to God and absolution is received from God. In this sacrament, the sinner, placing himself before the merciful judgment of God, anticipates in a certain way, the judgment to which he will be subjected at the end of his earthly life.
Essential to the sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution). among the penitent's acts contrition holds first place. Serious sins (mortal sins) must be confessed within at most a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended.
Assigned penance
The act of penance or satisfaction that the priest imposes helps the penitent to overcome selfishness, to desire more strongly to live a holy life, to be closer to Jesus, and to show to others the love and compassion of Jesus. It is part of the healing that the sacrament brings. "Sin injures and weakens the sinner himself, as well as his relations with God and neighbour. Absolution takes away sin, but it does not remedy all the disorders sin has caused. Raised up from sin, the sinner must still recover his full spiritual health by doing something more to make amends for the sin: he must 'make satisfaction for' or 'expiate' his sins." This is done by prayer, charity, or an act of Christian asceticism. The rite of the sacrament requires that "the kind and extent of the satisfaction should be suited to the personal condition of each penitent so that each one may restore the order which he disturbed and through the corresponding remedy be cured of the sickness from which he suffered."
It may consist of prayer, works of mercy, service of neighbor, voluntary self-denial, sacrifices, "and above all the patient acceptance of the cross we all must bear. Such penances help configure us to Christ, who alone expiated our sins once for all."
Penitential acts
In the 1966 apostolic constitution Paenitemini Pope Paul VI said, "Penance therefore—already in the Old Testament—is a religious, personal act which has as its aim love and surrender to God: fasting for the sake of God, not for one's own self... [The Church] reaffirms the primacy of the religious and supernatural values of penitence (values extremely suitable for restoring to the world today a sense of the presence of God and of His sovereignty over man and a sense of Christ and His salvation). In Paenitemini it is affirmed that "[b]y divine law all the faithful are required to do penance." "As from the fact of sin we Christians can claim no exception, so from the obligation to penance we can seek no exemption." Chapter 8 of the Didache enjoined Christians to fast every Wednesday and Friday.
The conversion of heart can be expressed in many ways. "Scripture and the Fathers insist above all on three forms, fasting, prayer, and almsgiving, which express conversion in relation to oneself, to God, and to others." Also mentioned are efforts at reconciliation with one's neighbor, and the practice of charity "which covers a multitude of sins" as in 1 Peter 4:8. “Taking up one’s cross each day and following Jesus is the surest way of penance."
In the Liturgical year, the seasons of Advent and Lent are particularly appropriate for penitential exercises such as voluntary self-denial and fraternal sharing. Under canon 1250 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law "The penitential days and times in the universal Church are every Friday of the whole year and the season of Lent." Canon 1253 stated "The conference of bishops can determine more precisely the observance of fast and abstinence as well as substitute other forms of penance, especially works of charity and exercises of piety, in whole or in part, for abstinence and fast."
In 2001 the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, in a document titled, “Penitential Practices for Today’s Catholics” reiterated their decision to allow U.S. Catholics to substitute another form of penance for abstinence from meat on the Fridays outside of Lent. While the document includes a list of suggested penitential practices, the selection of a Friday penance is left to the individual.
In 2011, Catholic bishops in England and Wales reversed their earlier decision to permit Catholics to practice a penance other than meat abstinence on Fridays. They said, in part: “The bishops wish to re-establish the practice of Friday penance in the lives of the faithful as a clear and distinctive mark of their own Catholic identity. … It is important that all the faithful be united in a common celebration of Friday penance. Note that the duty to perform the tasks of your state in life takes precedence over the law of fasting in the precepts of the Catholic Church. If fasting honestly causes one to be unable to fulfill his/her required tasks, it is uncharitable to fast — the law of fasting would not apply.
Many acts of penance carry an indulgence, which may be applied in behalf of the souls departed. God alone knows what remains to be expiated. The church in granting an indulgence to the living exercises her jurisdiction; over the dead she has no jurisdiction and therefore makes the indulgence available for them by way of suffrage (per modum suffragii), i.e. she petitions God to accept these works of satisfaction and in consideration thereof to mitigate or shorten the sufferings of the souls in Purgatory.
Irvingism
In the Irvingian Churches, such as the New Apostolic Church, persons may confess their sins to an Apostle. The Apostle is then able to "take the confession and proclaim absolution". A seal of confession ensures that confidentiality between the Apostle and Penitent is maintained. In cases of grave urgency, any priestly minister can hear confessions and pronounce absolutions. Auricular confession is not necessary for forgiveness, but it may provide peace if a believer feels burdened.
Penance in Indian beliefs
In Hinduism, acts of hardship committed on oneself (fasting, lying on rocks heated by the Sun, etc.), especially as part of an ascetic way of life (as monk or 'wise man') in order to attain a higher form of mental awareness (through detachment from the earthly, not punishing guilt) or favours from god(s) are considered penance. In Hinduism penance is widely discussed in Dharmasastra literature. In the Gita, there is a warning against excessive "penance" of a merely physical nature. There is the special term "Tapas", for intense concentration that is like a powerful fire, and this used to be sometimes translated as "penance", although the connotations are different.
The Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that "When penance is carefully nourished and practiced, it inevitably results in the mental revocation of undesirable modes of thought and conduct, and makes one amenable to a life of purity and service."
Penance in art and fiction
Art:
A Procession of Flagellants (1812–1819)
Films:
Penance (film) (2009)
Sadhna (1958) aka The Penance
The Bell of Penance (1912)
A Daughter of Penance (1916)
Proper Penance (1992) (V)
The Mission (1986)
See also
Mortal sin
Order of Penitents
Order of Penance, an early name for the Friars Minor
Prayer for the dead
Repentance in Judaism
Al-Kaffarah in Islam
Further reading
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citations
External links
"Penitential Practices for Today's Catholics", United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB), 2001
Christian terminology
Religious practices
Confession (religion)
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Leptodynerus is a palearctic genus of potter wasps.
References
Vecht, J.v.d. & J.M. Carpenter. 1990. A Catalogue of the genera of the Vespidae (Hymenoptera). Zoologische Verhandelingen 260: 3 - 62.
Biological pest control wasps
Potter wasps
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Preusmjeri Nacrt:Diehl Defence
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The dialog box (also called dialogue box (non-U.S. English), message box or simply dialog) is a graphical control element in the form of a small window that communicates information to the user and prompts them for a response.
Dialog boxes are classified as "modal" or "modeless", depending on whether they block interaction with the software that initiated the dialog. The type of dialog box displayed is dependent upon the desired user interaction.
The simplest type of dialog box is the alert, which displays a message and may require an acknowledgment that the message has been read, usually by clicking "OK", or a decision as to whether or not an action should proceed, by clicking "OK" or "Cancel". Alerts are also used to display a "termination notice"—sometimes requesting confirmation that the notice has been read—in the event of either an intentional closing or unintentional closing ("crash") of an application or the operating system. (E.g., "Gedit has encountered an error and must close.") Although this is a frequent interaction pattern for modal dialogs, it is also criticized by usability experts as being ineffective for its intended use, which is to protect against errors caused by destructive actions, and for which better alternatives exist.
An example of a dialog box is the about box found in many software programs, which usually displays the name of the program, its version number, and may also include copyright information.
Modeless
Non-modal or modeless dialog boxes are used when the requested information is not essential to continue, and so the window can be left open while work continues elsewhere. A type of modeless dialog box is a toolbar which is either separate from the main application, or may be detached from the main application, and items in the toolbar can be used to select certain features or functions of the application.
In general, good software design calls for dialogs to be of this type where possible, since they do not force the user into a particular mode of operation. An example might be a dialog of settings for the current document, e.g. the background and text colors. The user can continue adding text to the main window whatever color it is, but can change it at any time using the dialog. (This isn't meant to be an example of the best possible interface for this; often the same functionality may be accomplished by toolbar buttons on the application's main window.)
System modal
System modal dialog boxes prevent interaction with any other window onscreen and prevent users from switching to another application or performing any other action until the issue presented in the dialog box is addressed. System modal dialogs were more commonly used in the past on single tasking systems where only one application could be running at any time. One current example is the shutdown screen of current Windows versions.
Application modal
Modal dialog boxes temporarily halt the program: the user cannot continue without closing the dialog; the program may require some additional information before it can continue, or may simply wish to confirm that the user wants to proceed with a potentially dangerous course of action (confirmation dialog box). Usability practitioners generally regard modal dialogs as bad design-solutions, since they are prone to produce mode errors. Dangerous actions should be undoable wherever possible; a modal alert dialog that appears unexpectedly or which is dismissed automatically (because the user has developed a habit) will not protect from the dangerous action.
A modal dialog interrupts the main workflow. This effect has either been sought by the developer because it focuses on the completion of the task at hand or rejected because it prevents the user from changing to a different task when needed.
Document modal
The concept of a document modal dialog has recently been used, most notably in macOS and Opera Browser. In the first case, they are shown as sheets attached to a parent window. These dialogs block only that window until the user dismisses the dialog, permitting work in other windows to continue, even within the same application.
In macOS, dialogs appear to emanate from a slot in their parent window, and are shown with a reinforcing animation. This helps to let the user understand that the dialog is attached to the parent window, not just shown in front of it. No work can be done in the underlying document itself while the dialog is displayed, but the parent window can still be moved, re-sized, and minimized, and other windows can be brought in front so the user can work with them:
The same type of dialog box can be compared with the "standard" modal dialog boxes used in Windows and other operating systems.
Similarities include:
the parent window is frozen when the dialog box opens, and one cannot continue to work with the underlying document in that window
no work can be done with the underlying document in that window.
The differences are that
the dialog box may open anywhere in the parent window
depending on where the parent window is located, the dialog box may open virtually anywhere on screen
the dialog box may be moved (in almost all cases), in some cases may be resizable, but usually cannot be minimized, and
no changes to the parent window are possible (cannot be resized, moved or minimized) while the dialog box is open.
Both mechanisms have shortcomings:
The Windows dialog box locks the parent window which can hide other windows the user may need to refer to while interacting with the dialog, though this may be mitigated since other windows are available through the task bar.
The macOS dialog box blocks the parent window, preventing the user from referring to it while interacting with the dialog. This may require the user to close the dialog to access the necessary information, then re-open the dialog box to continue.
See also
Application posture
References
Graphical control elements
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Bulbophyllum teretibulbum é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie em 1937.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1937
Bulbophyllum
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Beatrice II of Bigorre (1110-1156), was a Countess regnant suo jure of Bigorre in 1130-1156.
References
Davezac-Macaya, Essai historique sur le Bigorre
Counts of Bigorre
12th-century women rulers
1110 births
1156 deaths
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Skia or SKIA may refer to:
Skia (typeface), a humanist sans-serif typeface
Skia Graphics Engine, a software library that provides functionality for computer graphics operations
Shade (mythology) (classical Greek skia, Greek: σκιά), the spirit or ghost of a dead person, residing in the underworld
South Kerry Independent Alliance, former name of an Irish political party
SKIA College, Philippines
See also
Skias, settlement in ancient Arcadia
Skia Dwa or Golden Stool, royal and divine throne of the Ashanti people
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Beatrice III of Bigorre (died 1194), was a Countess regnant suo jure of Bigorre in 1178-1194.
References
Davezac-Macaya, Essai historique sur le Bigorre
Counts of Bigorre
12th-century women rulers
1194 deaths
Year of birth unknown
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Oreumenoides is an indomalayan genus of potter wasps.
References
Vecht, J.v.d. & J.M. Carpenter. 1990. A Catalogue of the genera of the Vespidae (Hymenoptera). Zoologische Verhandelingen 260: 3 - 62.
Biological pest control wasps
Potter wasps
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Online Rights Canada was a grassroots campaign to help notify the public on technology and informational policy issues and help the public notify their MPs about controversial proposals. It was launched with the support of the US-based Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) and the Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic (CIPPIC). and had listings of how to contact local Canadian MPs to voice concern or support on policies and proposals. The Online Rights Canada website appears to no longer exist and the current site content does not reflect the organization or its efforts.
Online Rights Canada was part of a coalition against controversial proposed copyright legislation in Canada known as Bill C-61.
See also
Electronic Frontier Canada
OpenMedia.ca
Pirate Party of Canada
Switzerland (software)
References
External links
Privacy organizations
Political advocacy groups in Canada
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Neoprene (also polychloroprene) is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. Neoprene is sold either as solid rubber or in latex form and is used in a wide variety of commercial applications, such as laptop sleeves, orthopaedic braces (wrist, knee, etc.), electrical insulation, liquid and sheet-applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and automotive fan belts.
Production
Neoprene is produced by free-radical polymerization of chloroprene. In commercial production, this polymer is prepared by free radical emulsion polymerization. Polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Bifunctional nucleophiles, metal oxides (e.g. zinc oxide), and thioureas are used to crosslink individual polymer strands.
History
Neoprene was invented by DuPont scientists on April 17, 1930, after Dr Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont attended a lecture by Fr Julius Arthur Nieuwland, a professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame. Nieuwland's research was focused on acetylene chemistry and during the course of his work he produced divinyl acetylene, a jelly that firms into an elastic compound similar to rubber when passed over sulfur dichloride. After DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took over commercial development of Nieuwland's discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland himself and DuPont chemists Arnold Collins, Ira Williams and James Kirby. Collins focused on monovinyl acetylene and allowed it to react with hydrogen chloride gas, manufacturing chloroprene.
DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, but its commercial possibilities were limited by the original manufacturing process, which left the product with a foul odor. A new process was developed, which eliminated the odor-causing byproducts and halved production costs, and the company began selling the material to manufacturers of finished end-products. To prevent shoddy manufacturers from harming the product's reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold by DuPont. Since the company itself did not manufacture any DuPrene-containing end products, the trademark was dropped in 1937 and replaced with a generic name, neoprene, in an attempt "to signify that the material is an ingredient, not a finished consumer product". DuPont then worked extensively to generate demand for its product, implementing a marketing strategy that included publishing its own technical journal, which extensively publicized neoprene's uses as well as advertising other companies' neoprene-based products. By 1939, sales of neoprene were generating profits over $300,000 for the company ().
Applications
General
Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness makes neoprene well suited for demanding applications such as gaskets, hoses, and corrosion-resistant coatings. It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in power transformer installations, and as padding in external metal cases to protect the contents while allowing a snug fit. It resists burning better than exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers, resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such as gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to line landfills. Neoprene's burn point is around 260 °C (500 °F).
In its native state, neoprene is a very pliable rubber-like material with insulating properties similar to rubber or other solid plastics.
Neoprene foam is used in many applications and is produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form. The closed-cell form is waterproof, less compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can be breathable. It is manufactured by foaming the rubber with nitrogen gas, where the tiny enclosed and separated gas bubbles can also serve as insulation. Nitrogen gas is most commonly used for the foaming of Neoprene foam due to its inertness, flame resistance, and large range of processing temperatures.
Civil engineering
Neoprene is used as a component of elastomeric bridge bearings, to support heavy loads while permitting small horizontal movements.
Aquatics
Neoprene is a popular material in making protective clothing for aquatic activities. Foamed neoprene is commonly used to make fly fishing waders, wetsuits, and drysuits as it provides excellent insulation against cold. The foam is quite buoyant, and divers compensate for this by wearing weights. Since foam neoprene contains gas pockets, the material compresses under water pressure, getting thinner at greater depths; a 7 mm neoprene wet suit offers much less exposure protection under 100 feet of water than at the surface. A recent advance in neoprene for wet suits is the "super-flex" variety, which uses spandex in the knit liner fabric for greater flexibility and stretch. A drysuit is similar to a wetsuit, but uses thicker and more durable neoprene to create an entirely waterproof suit that is suitable for wear in extremely cold water or polluted water.
Home accessories
Recently, neoprene has become a favorite material for lifestyle and other home accessories including laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote controls, mouse pads, and cycling chamois.
Music
The Rhodes piano used hammer tips made of neoprene in its electric pianos, after changing from felt hammers around 1970.
Neoprene is also used for speaker cones and drum practice pads.
Hydroponic gardening
Hydroponic and aerated gardening systems make use of small neoprene inserts to hold plants in place while propagating cuttings or using net cups. Inserts are relatively small, ranging in size from . Neoprene is a good choice for supporting plants because of its flexibility and softness, allowing plants to be held securely in place without the chance of causing damage to the stem. Neoprene root covers also help block out light from entering the rooting chamber of hydroponic systems, allowing for better root growth and helping to deter the growth of algae.
Face mask
During the COVID-19 global pandemic, Neoprene was identified by some health experts as an effective material to use for home made face masks. Some commercial face mask manufacturers that use Neoprene have claimed 99.9% filtration for particles as small as 0.1 microns. The size of Coronavirus is identified to be on average 0.125 microns.
Other
Neoprene is used for Halloween masks and masks used for face protection, for insulating CPU sockets when extreme overclocking at subzero temperatures, to make waterproof automotive seat covers, in liquid and sheet-applied elastomeric roof membranes or flashings, and in a neoprene-spandex mixture for manufacture of wheelchair positioning harnesses.
In tabletop wargames, neoprene mats printed with grassy, sandy, icy, or other natural features have become popular gaming surfaces. They are durable, firm and stable, and attractive in appearance, and also favoured for their ability to roll up in storage but lie flat when unrolled.
Because of its chemical resistance and overall durability, neoprene is sometimes used in the manufacture of dishwashing gloves, especially as an alternative to latex.
In fashion, neoprene has been used by designers such as Gareth Pugh, Balenciaga, Rick Owens, Lanvin and Vera Wang. This trend, promoted by street style bloggers such as Jim Joquico of Fashion Chameleon, gained traction and trickled down to mainstream fashion around 2014.
Precautions
Some people are allergic to neoprene while others can get dermatitis from thiourea residues left from its production. The most common accelerator in the vulcanization of polychloroprene is ethylene thiourea (ETU), which has been classified as reprotoxic. The European rubber industry project called SafeRubber focused on alternatives to the use of ETU.
See also
Isoprene
References
External links
Historical Files on Neoprene are available at Hagley Museum and Library
American inventions
Brand name materials
Dielectrics
DuPont products
Elastomers
U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program
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Robert of Capua may refer to:
Robert I of Capua (1106–1120)
Robert II of Capua (1127–1135)
Robert III of Capua (1155–1158)
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Sequoia sempervirens () is the sole living species of the genus Sequoia in the cypress family Cupressaceae (formerly treated in Taxodiaceae). Common names include coast redwood, coastal redwood, and California redwood. It is an evergreen, long-lived, monoecious tree living 1,200–2,200 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to in height (without the roots) and up to in diameter at breast height. These trees are also among the longest-living organisms on Earth. Before commercial logging and clearing began by the 1850s, this massive tree occurred naturally in an estimated along much of coastal California (excluding southern California where rainfall is not sufficient) and the southwestern corner of coastal Oregon within the United States.
The name sequoia sometimes refers to the subfamily Sequoioideae, which includes S. sempervirens along with Sequoiadendron (giant sequoia) and Metasequoia (dawn redwood). Here, the term redwood on its own refers to the species covered in this article but not to the other two species.
Description
The coast redwood is known to have reached tall, with a trunk diameter of . It has a conical crown, with horizontal to slightly drooping branches. The trunk is remarkably straight. The bark can be very thick, up to , and quite soft and fibrous, with a bright red-brown color when freshly exposed (hence the name redwood), weathering darker. The root system is composed of shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots.
The leaves are variable, being long and flat on young trees and shaded lower branches in older trees. The leaves are scalelike, long on shoots in full sun in the upper crown of older trees, with a full range of transition between the two extremes. They are dark green above and have two blue-white stomatal bands below. Leaf arrangement is spiral, but the larger shade leaves are twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane for maximum light capture.
The species is monoecious, with pollen and seed cones on the same plant. The seed cones are ovoid, long, with 15–25 spirally arranged scales; pollination is in late winter with maturation about 8–9 months after. Each cone scale bears three to seven seeds, each seed long and broad, with two wings wide. The seeds are released when the cone scales dry out and open at maturity. The pollen cones are ovular and long.
Its genetic makeup is unusual among conifers, being a hexaploid (6n) and possibly allopolyploid (AAAABB).
Both the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of the redwood are paternally inherited.
Taxonomy
Scottish botanist David Don described the redwood as the evergreen taxodium (Taxodium sempervirens) in his colleague Aylmer Bourke Lambert's 1824 work A description of the genus Pinus. Austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher erected the genus Sequoia in his 1847 work Synopsis coniferarum, giving the redwood its current binomial name of Sequoia sempervirens. Endlicher probably derived the name Sequoia from the Cherokee name of George Gist, usually spelled Sequoyah, who developed the still-used Cherokee syllabary. The redwood is one of three living species, each in its own genus, in the subfamily Sequoioideae. Molecular studies have shown that the three are each other's closest relatives, generally with the redwood and giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) as each other's closest relatives. However, Yang and colleagues in 2010 queried the polyploid state of the redwood and speculate that it may have arisen as an ancient hybrid between ancestors of the giant sequoia and dawn redwood (Metasequoia). Using two different single copy nuclear genes, LFY and NLY, to generate phylogenetic trees, they found that Sequoia was clustered with Metasequoia in the tree generated using the LFY gene, but with Sequoiadendron in the tree generated with the NLY gene. Further analysis strongly supported the hypothesis that Sequoia was the result of a hybridization event involving Metasequoia and Sequoiadendron. Thus, Yang and colleagues hypothesize that the inconsistent relationships among Metasequoia, Sequoia, and Sequoiadendron could be a sign of reticulate evolution (in which two species hybridize and give rise to a third) among the three genera. However, the long evolutionary history of the three genera (the earliest fossil remains being from the Jurassic) make resolving the specifics of when and how Sequoia originated once and for all a difficult matter—especially since it in part depends on an incomplete fossil record.
Distribution and habitat
Coast redwoods occupy a narrow strip of land approximately in length and in width along the Pacific coast of North America; the most southerly grove is in Monterey County, California, and the most northerly groves are in extreme southwestern Oregon. The prevailing elevation range is above sea level, occasionally down to 0 and up to about . They usually grow in the mountains where precipitation from the incoming moisture off the ocean is greater. The tallest and oldest trees are found in deep valleys and gullies, where year-round streams can flow, and fog drip is regular. The terrain also made it harder for loggers to get to the trees and to get them out after felling. The trees above the fog layer, above about , are shorter and smaller due to the drier, windier, and colder conditions. In addition, Douglas-fir, pine, and tanoak often crowd out redwoods at these elevations. Few redwoods grow close to the ocean, due to intense salt spray, sand, and wind. Coalescence of coastal fog accounts for a considerable part of the trees' water needs. Fog in the 21st century is, however, reduced from what it was in the prior century, which is a problem that may be compounded by climate change.
The northern boundary of its range is marked by two groves on mountain slopes along the north side of the Chetco River, which is on the western fringe of the Klamath Mountains, near the California-Oregon border. The northernmost grove is located within Alfred A. Loeb State Park and Siskiyou National Forest at the approximate coordinates 42°07'36"N 124°12'17"W. The southern boundary of its range is the Los Padres National Forest's Silver Peak Wilderness in the Santa Lucia Mountains of the Big Sur area of Monterey County, California. The southernmost grove is in the Southern Redwood Botanical Area, just north of the national forest's Salmon Creek trailhead and near the San Luis Obispo County line.
The largest and tallest populations are in California's Redwood National and State Parks (Del Norte and Humboldt counties) and Humboldt Redwoods State Park, with the overall majority located in the large Humboldt County.
The prehistoric fossil range of the genus is considerably greater, with a subcosmopolitan distribution including Europe and Asia until about 5 million years ago. During the last ice age, perhaps as recently as 10,000 years ago, redwood trees grew as far south as the Los Angeles area (coast redwood bark found in subway excavations and at La Brea Tar Pits).
Ecology
This native area provides a unique environment with heavy seasonal rains up to annually. Cool coastal air and fog drip keep this forest consistently damp year round. Several factors, including the heavy rainfall, create a soil with fewer nutrients than the trees need, causing them to depend heavily on the entire biotic community of the forest, and making efficient recycling of dead trees especially important. This forest community includes coast Douglas-fir, Pacific madrone, tanoak, western hemlock, and other trees, along with a wide variety of ferns, mosses, mushrooms, and redwood sorrel. Redwood forests provide habitat for a variety of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Old-growth redwood stands provide habitat for the federally threatened spotted owl and the California-endangered marbled murrelet.
Coast redwoods are resistant to insect attack, fungal infection, and rot. These properties are conferred by concentrations of terpenoids and tannic acid in redwood leaves, roots, bark, and wood. Despite these chemical defenses, redwoods are still subject to insect infestations; none, however, are capable of killing a healthy tree. Redwoods also face herbivory from mammals: black bears are reported to consume the inner bark of small redwoods, and black-tailed deer are known to eat redwood sprouts.
The oldest known coast redwood is about 2,200 years old; many others in the wild exceed 600 years. The numerous claims of older redwoods are incorrect. Because of their seemingly timeless lifespans, coast redwoods were deemed the "everlasting redwood" at the turn of the century; in Latin, sempervirens means "ever green" or "everlasting". Redwoods must endure various environmental disturbances to attain such great ages. In response to forest fires, the trees have developed various adaptations. The thick, fibrous bark of coast redwoods is extremely fire-resistant; it grows to at least a foot thick and protects mature trees from fire damage. In addition, the redwoods contain little flammable pitch or resin. If damaged by fire, a redwood readily sprouts new branches or even an entirely new crown, and if the parent tree is killed, new buds sprout from its base. Fires, moreover, appear to actually benefit redwoods by causing substantial mortality in competing species while having only minor effects on redwood. Burned areas are favorable to the successful germination of redwood seeds. A study published in 2010, the first to compare post-wildfire survival and regeneration of redwood and associated species, concluded fires of all severity increase the relative abundance of redwood and higher-severity fires provide the greatest benefit.
Redwoods often grow in flood-prone areas. Sediment deposits can form impermeable barriers that suffocate tree roots, and unstable soil in flooded areas often causes trees to lean to one side, increasing the risk of the wind toppling them. Immediately after a flood, redwoods grow their existing roots upwards into recently deposited sediment layers. A second root system then develops from adventitious buds on the newly buried trunk and the old root system dies. To counter lean, redwoods increase wood production on the vulnerable side, creating a supporting buttress. These adaptations create forests of almost exclusively redwood trees in flood-prone regions.
The height of S. sempervirens is closely tied to fog availability; taller trees become less frequent as fog becomes less frequent. As S. sempervirens' height increases, transporting water via water potential to the leaves becomes increasingly difficult due to gravity. Despite the high rainfall that the region receives (up to 100 cm), the leaves in the upper canopy are perpetually stressed for water. This water stress is exacerbated by long droughts in the summer. Water stress is believed to cause the morphological changes in the leaves, stimulating reduced leaf length and increased leaf succulence. To supplement their water needs, redwoods utilize frequent summer fog events. Fog water is absorbed through multiple pathways. Leaves directly take in fog from the surrounding air through the epidermal tissue, bypassing the xylem. Coast redwoods also absorb water directly through their bark. The uptake of water through leaves and bark repairs and reduces the severity of xylem embolisms, which occur when cavitations form in the xylem preventing the transport of water and nutrients. Fog may also collect on redwood leaves, drip to the forest floor, and be absorbed by the tree's roots. This fog drip may form 30% of the total water used by a tree in a year.
Reproduction
Coast redwood reproduces both sexually by seed and asexually by sprouting of buds, layering, or lignotubers. Seed production begins at 10–15 years of age. Cones develop in the winter and mature by fall. In the early stages, the cones look like flowers, and are commonly called "flowers" by professional foresters, although this is not strictly correct. Coast redwoods produce many cones, with redwoods in new forests producing thousands per year. The cones themselves hold 90–150 seeds, but viability of seed is low, typically well below 15% with one estimate of average rates being 3 to 10 percent. The low viability may discourage seed predators, which do not want to waste time sorting chaff (empty seeds) from edible seeds. Successful germination often requires a fire or flood, reducing competition for seedlings. The winged seeds are small and light, weighing 3.3–5.0 mg (200–300 seeds/g; 5,600–8,500/ounce). The wings are not effective for wide dispersal, and seeds are dispersed by wind an average of only from the parent tree. Seedlings are susceptible to fungal infection and predation by banana slugs, brush rabbits, and nematodes. Most seedlings do not survive their first three years. However, those that become established grow rapidly, with young trees known to reach tall in 20 years.
Coast redwoods can also reproduce asexually by layering or sprouting from the root crown, stump, or even fallen branches; if a tree falls over, it generates a row of new trees along the trunk, so many trees naturally grow in a straight line. Sprouts originate from dormant or adventitious buds at or under the surface of the bark. The dormant sprouts are stimulated when the main adult stem gets damaged or starts to die. Many sprouts spontaneously erupt and develop around the circumference of the tree trunk. Within a short period after sprouting, each sprout develops its own root system, with the dominant sprouts forming a ring of trees around the parent root crown or stump. This ring of trees is called a "fairy ring". Sprouts can achieve heights of in a single growing season.
Redwoods may also reproduce using burls. A burl is a woody lignotuber that commonly appears on a redwood tree below the soil line, though usually within in depth from the soil surface. Coast redwoods develop burls as seedlings from the axils of their cotyledon, a trait that is extremely rare in conifers. When provoked by damage, dormant buds in the burls sprout new shoots and roots. Burls are also capable of sprouting into new trees when detached from the parent tree, though exactly how this happens is yet to be studied. Shoot clones commonly sprout from burls and are often turned into decorative hedges when found in suburbia.
Cultivation and uses
Coast redwood is one of the most valuable timber species in the lumbering industry. In California, of redwood forest are logged, virtually all of it second growth. Though many entities have existed in the cutting and management of redwoods, perhaps none has had a more storied role than the Pacific Lumber Company (1863–2008) of Humboldt County, California, where it owned and managed over of forests, primarily redwood. Coast redwood lumber is highly valued for its beauty, light weight, and resistance to decay. Its lack of resin makes it absorb water and resist fire.
P.H. Shaughnessy, Chief Engineer of the San Francisco Fire Department wrote:
In the recent great fire of San Francisco, that began April 18th, 1906, we succeeded in finally stopping it in nearly all directions where the unburned buildings were almost entirely of frame construction, and if the exterior finish of these buildings had not been of redwood lumber, I am satisfied that the area of the burned district would have been greatly extended.
Because of its impressive resistance to decay, redwood was extensively used for railroad ties and trestles throughout California. Many of the old ties have been recycled for use in gardens as borders, steps, house beams, etc. Redwood burls are used in the production of table tops, veneers, and turned goods.
The Yurok people, who occupied the region before European settlement, regularly burned off ground cover in redwood forests to bolster tanoak populations from which they harvested acorns, to maintain forest openings, and to boost populations of useful plant species such as those for medicine or basketmaking.
Extensive logging of redwoods began in the early nineteenth century. The trees were felled by ax and saw onto beds of tree limbs and shrubs to cushion their fall. Stripped of their bark, the logs were transported to mills or waterways by oxen or horse. Loggers then burned the accumulated tree limbs, shrubs, and bark. The repeated fires favored secondary forests of primarily redwoods as redwood seedlings sprout readily in burned areas. The introduction of steam engines let crews drag logs through long skid trails to nearby railroads, furthering the reach of loggers beyond the land nearby rivers previously used to transport trees. This method of harvesting, however, disturbed large amounts of soil, producing secondary-growth forests of species other than redwood such as Douglas-fir, grand fir, and western hemlock. After World War II, trucks and tractors gradually replaced steam engines, giving rise to two harvesting approaches: clearcutting and selection harvesting. Clearcutting involved felling all the trees in a particular area. It was encouraged by tax laws that exempted all standing timber from taxation if 70% of trees in the area were harvested. Selection logging, by contrast, called for the removal 25% to 50% of mature trees in the hopes that the remaining trees would allow for future growth and reseeding. This method, however, encouraged growth of other tree species, converting redwood forests into mixed forests of redwood, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock. Moreover, the trees left standing were often felled by windthrow; that is, they were often blown over by the wind.
The coast redwood is naturalized in New Zealand, notably at Whakarewarewa Forest, Rotorua. Redwood has been grown in New Zealand plantations for more than 100 years, and those planted in New Zealand have higher growth rates than those in California, mainly because of even rainfall distribution through the year.
Other areas of successful cultivation outside of the native range include Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Haida Gwaii, middle elevations of Hawaii, Hogsback in South Africa, the Knysna Afromontane forests in the Western Cape, Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve near Swellendam, South Africa and the Tokai Arboretum on the slopes of Table Mountain above Cape Town, a small area in central Mexico (Jilotepec), and the southeastern United States from eastern Texas to Maryland. It also does well in the Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia), far north of its northernmost native range in southwestern Oregon. Coast redwood trees were used in a display at Rockefeller Center and then given to Longhouse Reserve in East Hampton, Long Island, New York, and these have now been living there for over twenty years and have survived at .
This fast-growing tree can be grown as an ornamental specimen in those large parks and gardens that can accommodate its massive size. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Statistics
Fairly solid evidence indicates that coast redwoods were the world's largest trees before logging, with numerous historical specimens reportedly over . The theoretical maximum potential height of coast redwoods is thought to be limited to between , as evapotranspiration is insufficient to transport water to leaves beyond this range. Further studies have indicated that this maximum requires fog, which is prevalent in these trees' natural environment.
A tree reportedly in length was felled in Sonoma County by the Murphy Brothers saw mill in the 1870s, another claimed to be and in diameter was cut down near Eureka in 1914, and the Lindsey Creek tree was documented to have a height of when it was uprooted and felled by a storm in 1905. A tree reportedly tall was felled in November 1886 by the Elk River Mill and Lumber Co. in Humboldt County, yielding 79,736 marketable board feet from 21 cuts. In 1893, a Redwood cut at Eel River, near Scotia, reportedly measured in length, and in girth. However, limited evidence corroborates these historical measurements.
Today, trees over are common, and many are over . The current tallest tree is the Hyperion tree, measuring . The tree was discovered in Redwood National Park during mid-2006 by Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor, and is thought to be the world's tallest living organism. The previous record holder was the Stratosphere Giant in Humboldt Redwoods State Park at (as measured in 2004). Until it fell in March 1991, the "Dyerville Giant" was the record holder. It, too, stood in Humboldt Redwoods State Park and was high and estimated to be 1,600 years old. This fallen giant has been preserved in the park.
As of 2016, no living specimen of other tree species exceeds .
The largest known living coast redwood is Grogan's Fault, discovered in 2014 by Chris Atkins and Mario Vaden in Redwood National Park, with a main trunk volume of at least Other high-volume coast redwoods include Iluvatar, with a main trunk volume of , and the Lost Monarch, with a main trunk volume of .
Albino redwoods are mutants that cannot manufacture chlorophyll. About 230 examples (including growths and sprouts) are known to exist, reaching heights of up to . These trees survive like parasites, obtaining food from green parent trees. While similar mutations occur sporadically in other conifers, no cases are known of such individuals surviving to maturity in any other conifer species. Recent research news reports that albino redwoods can store higher concentrations of toxic metals, going so far as comparing them to organs or "waste dumps".
List of tallest trees
Heights of the tallest coast redwoods are measured yearly by experts. Even with recent discoveries of tall coast redwoods above , it is likely that no taller trees will be discovered.
Diameter is measured at above average ground level (at breast height). Details of the precise locations for most tallest trees were not announced to the general public for fear of causing damage to the trees and the surrounding habitat. The tallest coast redwood easily accessible to the public is the National Geographic Tree, immediately trailside in the Tall Trees Grove of Redwood National Park.
List of largest trees
The following list shows the largest S. sempervirens by volume known as of 2001.
Calculating the volume of a standing tree is the practical equivalent of calculating the volume of an irregular cone, and is subject to error for various reasons. This is partly due to technical difficulties in measurement, and variations in the shape of trees and their trunks. Measurements of trunk circumference are taken at only a few predetermined heights up the trunk, and assume that the trunk is circular in cross-section, and that taper between measurement points is even. Also, only the volume of the trunk (including the restored volume of basal fire scars) is taken into account, and not the volume of wood in the branches or roots. The volume measurements also do not take cavities into account. Most coast redwoods with volumes greater than represent ancient fusions of two or more separate trees, which makes determining whether a coast redwood has a single stem or multiple stems difficult. Starting in 2014, more record-breaking coast redwood trees were discovered. The largest disclosed was a massive redwood called Grogan's Fault/Spartan, which has been measured to have a volume of 38,300 cubic feet.
Details of the precise locations for most tallest trees were not announced to the general public for fear of causing damage to the trees and the surrounding habitat. The largest coast redwood easily accessible to the public is Iluvatar, which stands prominently about 5 meters (16 ft) to the southeast of the Foothill Trail of Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park.
Other notable examples
The Blossom Rock Navigation Trees were two especially tall sequoias located in the Berkeley Hills used as a navigational aid by sailors to avoid the treacherous Blossom Rock near Yerba Buena Island.
The Crannell Creek Giant was documented to have a trunk volume of at least about 32% larger than Grogan's Fault and 17% larger than General Sherman, the current largest tree. It was felled around 1945.
The Lindsey Creek tree was documented to have a height of and a trunk volume of at least when it was uprooted and felled by a storm in 1905. If these measurements are to be believed, the Lindsey Creek tree was about taller than Hyperion, the current tallest tree, 213% larger than Grogan's Fault, and 171% larger than General Sherman.
Old Survivor, also known as the Grandfather, is the last remaining old-growth coastal redwood of the redwood forest that populated the Oakland Hills. The tree was seeded sometime between 1549 and 1554.
One of the largest redwood stumps ever found, measuring in diameter, is in Oakland, California, the Berkeley Hills, in the Roberts Regional Recreation Area section of Redwood Regional Park.
See also
Bury Me in Redwood Country
Save the Redwoods League
Northern California coastal forests
Pacific temperate rainforests
Redwood (color)
Stephen C. Sillett
References
Further reading
Noss, R. F., ed. (2000). The Redwood Forest: history, ecology and conservation of the Coast Redwood. Island Press, Washington, D.C. .
External links
Institute for Redwood Ecology Includes photo gallery, canopy views, epiphytes, and arboreal animals
US National Park Service Redwood
Muir Woods National Monument
Save the Redwoods League Non-profit organization: education, protection and restoration
Sempervirens Fund Non-profit organization
ICT Int. Gallery sensors installation by Dr. Stephen Sillett & team
Coast Redwoods - Largest & Tallest Photos for largest and tallest Coast Redwoods and other information.
Redwood Timelapse California Redwoods, YouTube. This is a short film about the Coastal Redwoods of California.
One Man’s Mission to Revive the Last Redwood Forests | Short Film Showcase, On YouTube by National Geographic. Published on 28 May 2016;
Humboldt Redwoods State Park (CA) Humboldt Redwoods Interpretive Association
Preston, Richard. "Climbing the Redwoods" - 2/14-21/2005 New Yorker article about redwoods and climbing.
More about Sequoia sempervirens
Popular Mechanics, November 1943, Saga of the Redwoods
sempervirens
Endemic flora of the United States
Flora of California
Flora of Oregon
Trees of the West Coast of the United States
Natural history of the California Coast Ranges
Natural history of Del Norte County, California
Natural history of Humboldt County, California
Pacific temperate rainforests
Extant Miocene first appearances
Miocene California
Miocene plants
Neogene life of North America
Redwood National and State Parks
Symbols of California
Trees of mild maritime climate
Trees of the Northwestern United States
Trees of the Southwestern United States
Garden plants of North America
Ornamental trees
Plants described in 1824
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William Norman may refer to:
William Norman (VC), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
William Norman (cricketer), New Zealand cricketer
William Henry Norman, sea captain in Australia
Shin Norman (William Rufus Norman), Negro leagues pitcher
Bill Norman (football manager) (William Lewis Norman), English football manager
Bill Norman (footballer) (William John Norman), Australian rules footballer
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"Life's Too Long (To Live Like This)" is a song written by Lonnie Wilson, John Barlow Jarvis and Don Cook, and recorded by American country music artist Ricky Skaggs. It was released in August 1991 as the first single from the album My Father's Son. The song reached #37 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
Chart performance
References
1991 singles
Ricky Skaggs songs
Songs written by Don Cook
Songs written by John Barlow Jarvis
Songs written by Lonnie Wilson
Song recordings produced by Ricky Skaggs
Epic Records singles
1991 songs
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The Gardeners Dictionary was a widely cited reference series, written by Philip Miller (1691–1771), which tended to focus on plants cultivated in England. Eight editions of the series were published in his lifetime. After his death, it was further developed by George Don as A general system of gardening and botany. Founded upon Miller's Gardener's dictionary, and arranged according to the natural system (1831–1838).
Editions
References
External links
Various scans at The Internet Archive
Gardening books
Dictionaries by subject
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Not Now är en singel från skivan Greatest Hits av Blink-182, utgiven 2005.
Låtlista
"Not Now" 4:24
"Dammit" (single edit) 2:46
"I Miss You" (Live i Minneapolis) 3:58
Externa länkar
Musikvideon till Not Now på Youtube
Musiksinglar 2005
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Julia or Julie Walker may refer to:
Julia Walker (climate scientist) (born 1950), English meteorologist
Julie White Walker, American state librarian of Georgia
Julie Ann Walker, American romantic suspense novelist
Characters
Julia Walker (Brothers & Sisters), television character played by Sarah Jane Morris
Dr. Julia Walker, played by Kyra Zagorsky on the 2014 television series Helix
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In George Gurdjieff's Fourth Way school of thought, Earth Level or Planet Level refers to the level of the Law of Forty-eight on the Ray of Creation, meaning that forty-eight laws govern it.
It corresponds to the Gurdjieff hydrogen number 48 and the musical note mi. Moon Level precedes it and All Planets Level follows it.
See also
48 (number)
Fourth Way terminology
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Cibotium menziesii, the hāpuu ii or Hawaiian tree fern, is a species of tree fern that is endemic to the islands of Hawaii. It is named after the Scottish naturalist Archibald Menzies. It is also known as the male tree fern, and Cibotium glaucum is deemed the female tree fern due to differences in color.
Biology
Hāpuu ii can grow up to tall but are usually in height with a diameter of nearly , making it Hawaii's largest tree fern. The trunk is made of stiff hard fibres surrounding a starchy pith in the centre. The green fronds have yellow midribs and are paler on the underside. They grow to as long as . Stems are covered in red or black bristles. The fronds are singularly divided but divide at the end where the spores form.
Reproduction
This species reproduces through the use of spores, which form at and are released from the end of the fronds. For domestic and commercial reproduction, spores are collected from the lower fronds of the plant, which are heated, treated with water and kept refrigerated. The side shoots off the main trunk are also viable but need to be cut close to the trunk.
Habitat
Cibotium menziesii is endemic to the windward portions of the main Hawaiian islands. It is found in rainforests at elevations of . They can grown on the ground or on trees as an epiphyte. Despite its origin, it is very adaptable and can withstand long cool winters; even without fronds, little heat is needed to stimulate new growth. Due to the effects of invasive species, especially feral pigs, and commercial harvesting, populations of this species are currently in decline.
Uses
Food
The starchy core of the trunk can be cooked (often stewed) and eaten; it was a staple food during times of famine. This part of the trunk is an important food source for feral pigs.
Medicine
The pith of the hāpuu ii is combined with olena (Curcuma longa) roots, pawale (Rumex giganteus), and okolehao liquor to create a 'blood purifier'. A treatment for chest pain is prepared from hāpuu ii and amaumau (Sadleria cyatheoides) piths, kukui (Aleurites moluccana) bark, ohia ai (Syzygium malaccense) bark, ahakea (Bobea spp.) bark, uhaloa (Waltheria indica) root bark, popolo (Solanum americanum), aukoi (Senna occidentalis), noni (Morinda citrifolia) fruit, and ko kea (Saccharum officinarum). Heated fibres from the fronds are used to cure numerous bodily ailments such as muscle pain and joint stiffness.
Other uses
The pulu (frond fibres) are used to absorb bodily fluid from corpses in preparation for traditional burials. These same fibres are also used in handcrafted pillows that are sold as souvenirs on the islands. The trunk was hollowed out by Native Hawaiians and used as a planter for uhi (Dioscorea alata), and this practice continues.
References
External links
Cibotium Menziesii Pictures
menziesii
Endemic flora of Hawaii
Native ferns of Hawaii
Epiphytes
Flora without expected TNC conservation status
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Stenancistrocerus is a Palearctic genus of potter wasps.
References
Vecht, J.v.d. & J.M. Carpenter. 1990. A Catalogue of the genera of the Vespidae (Hymenoptera). Zoologische Verhandelingen 260: 3 - 62.
Biological pest control wasps
Potter wasps
Taxa named by Amédée Louis Michel le Peletier
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The following is about the qualification rules and the quota allocation for the ski jumping events at the 2014 Winter Olympics.
Qualification rules
Quotas
The quotas will be allocated using the Olympic Quota Allocation List, which is calculated using the FIS World Cup standings
and Continental Cup Standings from seasons 2012/13 and 2013/14 added together. The quotas will be distributed by assigning one quota place per athlete downwards on the list until the total of 60 male and 30 female competitors is reached (including the host nation quota). When a nation has received the maximum of 5 male quotas or four female quotas, its athletes won't count on the allocation list. After the 60 male and 30 female quotas are distributed, if there are less than 12 NOCs with at least four competitors allocated quota places, the next nation with three allocated quota places will be allocated an additional quota place. This will continue until there are 12 NOCs with four competitors. Any remaining quotas will be distributed until the quota limit of 70 is reached.
Quota allocation
Final allocation as of February 3, 2014. Alexandra Pretorius of Canada withdrew due to injury and will be replaced by Gyda Enger of Norway.
Current summary
Next eligible NOC per event
If a country rejects a quota spot then additional quotas become available. Countries in bold indicate that country received a rejected quota spot. Here are the top 10 eligible countries per event. Note: a country can be eligible for more than one quota spot per event in the reallocation process. Countries in bold have received a reallocation of a quota spot in the respective event, while countries with a strike have rejected their quota.
References
External links
FIS Points List
Qualification for the 2014 Winter Olympics
Qualification
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Spaghetti alla puttanesca (; in Italian) is an Italian pasta dish invented in Naples in the mid-20th century and made typically with tomatoes, olive oil, olives, anchovies, chili peppers, capers, and garlic—with vermicelli or spaghetti pasta.
Origin
Various recipes in Italian cookbooks dating back to the 19th century describe pasta sauces very similar to a modern puttanesca under different names. One of the earliest dates from 1844, when Ippolito Cavalcanti, in his Cucina teorico-pratica, included a recipe from popular Neapolitan cuisine, calling it Vermicelli all'oglio con olive capperi ed alici salse. After some sporadic appearances in other Neapolitan cookbooks, in 1931 the Touring Club Italiano's Guida gastronomica d'Italia lists it among the gastronomic specialties of Campania, calling it "Maccheroni alla marinara", although the proposed recipe is close to that of a modern puttanesca sauce. In Naples, this type of pasta sauce commonly goes under the name aulive e chiapparielle (olives and capers).
The dish under its current name first appears in gastronomic literature in the 1960s. The earliest known mention of pasta alla puttanesca is in Raffaele La Capria’s Ferito a Morte (Mortal Wound), a 1961 Italian novel which mentions "spaghetti alla puttanesca come li fanno a Siracusa (spaghetti alla puttanesca as they make it in Syracuse)". The sauce became popular in the 1960s, according to the Professional Union of Italian Pasta Makers.
Nonetheless, the 1971 edition of the Cucchiaio d’argento (The Silver Spoon), one of Italy's most prominent cookbooks, has no recipe with the name puttanesca, but two recipes that are similar: The Neapolitan spaghetti alla partenopea, is made with anchovies and generous quantities of oregano; while spaghetti alla siciliana is distinguished by the addition of green peppers. Still again there is a Sicilian style popular around Palermo that includes olives, anchovies and raisins.
In a 2005 article from Il Golfo—a daily newspaper serving the Italian islands of Ischia and Procida—Annarita Cuomo asserted that sugo alla puttanesca was invented in the 1950s by Sandro Petti, co-owner of Rancio Fellone, a famous Ischian restaurant and nightspot. According to Cuomo, Petti's moment of inspiration came when—near closing one evening—Petti found a group of customers sitting at one of his tables. He was low on ingredients and told them he did not have enough to make them a meal. They complained that it was late and they were hungry, saying "Facci una puttanata qualsiasi," meaning something like "make for us whatever the fuck you got!" Petti had nothing more than four tomatoes, two olives and some capers—the basic ingredients for the sugo, "So I used them to make the sauce for the spaghetti," Petti told Cuomo. Later, Petti included this dish on his menu as spaghetti alla puttanesca.
Etymology
Because puttana means roughly "whore" or "prostitute" and puttanesca is an adjective derived from that word, the dish may have been invented in one of many bordellos in the Naples working-class neighbourhood of Quartieri Spagnoli as a quick meal taken between servicing clients. Alternatively, food historian Jeremy Parzen suggests: "Italians use puttana (and related words) almost the way we use shit, as an all-purpose profanity, so pasta alla puttanesca might have originated with someone saying, essentially, 'I just threw a bunch of shit from the cupboard into a pan'."
Basic recipe
The sauce alone is called sugo alla puttanesca in Italian. Recipes may differ according to preferences; for instance, the Neapolitan version is prepared without anchovies, unlike the version popular in Lazio. Spices are sometimes added. In most cases, however, the sugo is a little salty (from the capers, olives, and anchovies) and quite fragrant (from the garlic). Traditionally, the sauce is served with spaghetti, although it is also paired with penne, bucatini, linguine, and vermicelli.
Garlic and anchovies (omitted in the Neapolitan version) are sautéed in olive oil. Chopped chili peppers, olives, capers, diced tomatoes, and oregano are added along with salt and black pepper to taste. The cook then reduces this mixture by simmering and pours it over spaghetti cooked al dente. The final touch is a topping of parsley.
See also
Spaghetti dishes
Pasta dishes
Explanatory notes
References
Neapolitan cuisine
Spaghetti dishes
Anchovy dishes
Olive dishes
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Padaek , sometimes known as padek, or Lao fish sauce (Lao: ປາແດກ) (), similar to pla ra in Thailand (), is a traditional Lao condiment made from pickled or fermented fish that has been cured. It is thicker and more seasoned than the fish sauce more commonly seen throughout Thailand and Vietnam, often containing chunks of fish. The fermentation takes a long time, giving padaek an aroma similar to cheeses like Époisses. Unlike other versions of fish sauce in Southeast Asia, padaek is made from freshwater fish, owing to the landlocked nature of the former kingdom of Lan Xang. Padaek is used in many dishes, most notably tam maak hoong, a spicy Lao papaya salad.
See also
External links
Lao cuisine
Lao food
Fish sauces
Umami enhancers
Lao cuisine
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An atmospheric lake is a long-lived pool of water vapor. Currently, the weather phenomenon is only known to exist over the western Indian Ocean.
References
Water in gas
Atmosphere
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Vascular plants with monopodial growth habits grow upward from a single point. They add leaves to the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The word Monopodial is derived from Greek "mono-", one and "podial", "foot", in reference to the fact that monopodial plants have a single trunk or stem.
Orchids with monopodial growth often produce copious aerial roots that often hang down in long drapes and have green chlorophyll underneath the grey root coverings, which are used as additional photosynthetic organs. They do not have a rhizome or pseudobulbs so species adapted to dry periods have fleshy succulent leaves instead. Flowers generally come from the stem between the leaves. With some monopodial species, the stem (the rhizome) might fork into two, but for all monopodial orchids this is not necessary for continued growth, as opposed to orchids with sympodial growth.
References
Plant morphology
Orchid morphology
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Almost all of Nevada is in the Pacific Time Zone (UTC -8). The few exceptions that exist all observe Mountain Time (UTC -7) and are close to the borders of Idaho or Utah. Other than these minor exceptions, Nevada is the only non coastal state to be entirely on Pacific Time, most of Idaho uses Mountain Time, and Arizona is officially on Mountain Time except for the 2/3 of the year when Daylight Saving Time is in effect, which they don't observe (other than the Navajo Nation).
Mountain Time is officially observed close to the border to Utah in:
West Wendover, making Elko County, Nevada one of the few counties in the US that is split between two time zones.
Mountain Time is also unofficially observed in the following Idaho border areas:
Jackpot for the convenience of tourists from Idaho
Owyhee and the rest of the Duck Valley Indian Reservation
Mountain City because of its proximity to Owyhee
Jarbidge due to its proximity to Owyhee
IANA time zone database
The zones for Nevada as given by zone.tab of the IANA time zone database, columns marked * are from the zone.tab:
References
See also
Time in the United States
Nevada
Geography of Nevada
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Music therapy, an allied health profession, "is the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a credentialed professional who has completed an approved music therapy program." It is also a vocation, involving a deep commitment to music and the desire to use it as a medium to help others. Although music therapy has only been established as a profession relatively recently, the connection between music and therapy is not new
MLA 9th Edition (Modern Language Assoc.)
Rachel Darnley-Smith, and Helen M Patey. Music Therapy. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2003.
APA 7th Edition (American Psychological Assoc.)
Rachel Darnley-Smith, & Helen M Patey. (2003). Music Therapy. SAGE Publications Ltd.
Music therapy is a broad field. Music therapists use music-based experiences to address client needs in one or more domains of human functioning: cognitive, academic, emotional/psychological; behavioral; communication; social; physiological (sensory, motor, pain, neurological and other physical systems), spiritual, aesthetics. Music experiences are strategically designed to utilize the elements of music for therapeutic effects, including melody, harmony, key, mode, meter, rhythm, pitch/range, duration, timbre, form, texture, and instrumentation.
Some common music therapy practices include developmental work (communication, motor skills, etc.) with individuals with special needs, songwriting and listening in reminiscence, orientation work with the elderly, processing and relaxation work, and rhythmic entrainment for physical rehabilitation in stroke survivors. Music therapy is used in medical hospitals, cancer centers, schools, alcohol and drug recovery programs, psychiatric hospitals, nursing homes, and correctional facilities.
There is a broad qualitative and quantitative research literature base for music therapy. Music therapy is distinctive from Musopathy, which relies on a more generic and non-cultural approach based on neural, physical, and other responses to the fundamental aspects of sound.
Evidence suggests that music therapy is beneficial for all individuals, both physically and mentally. Benefits of music therapy include improved heart rate, reduced anxiety, stimulation of the brain, and improved learning. Music therapists use their techniques to help their patients in many areas, ranging from stress relief before and after surgeries to neuropathologies such as Alzheimer's disease. One study found that children who listened to music while having an IV inserted into their arms showed less distress and felt less pain than the children who did not listen to music while having an IV inserted. Studies on patients diagnosed with mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia have shown a visible improvement in their mental health after music therapy. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) have claimed that music therapy is an effective method in helping individuals experiencing mental health issues, and more should be done to offer those in need this type of help.
History
The use of music to soothe grief has been used since the time of David and King Saul. In I Samuel, David plays the Lyre in order to make King Saul feel relieved and better. It has since been used all over the world for treatment of various issues, though the first recorded use of official "music therapy" was in 1789 - an article titled "Music Physically Considered" by an unknown author was found in Columbian Magazine. The creation and expansion of music therapy as a treatment modality thrived in the early to mid 1900s and while a number of organizations were created, none survived for long. It wasn't until 1950 that the National Association for Music Therapy was founded in New York that clinical training and certification requirements were created. In 1971, the American Association for Music Therapy was created, though at that time called the Urban Federation of Music Therapists. The Certification Board for Music Therapists was created in 1983 which strengthened the practice of music therapy and the trust that it was given. In 1998, the American Music Therapy Association was formed out of a merger between National and American Associations and as of 2017 is the single largest music therapy organization in the world (American music therapy, 1998–2011).
Ancient flutes, carved from ivory and bone, were found by archaeologists, that were determined to be from as far back as 43,000 years ago. He also states that "The earliest fragment of musical notation is found on a 4,000-year-old Sumerian clay tablet, which includes instructions and tuning for a hymn honoring the ruler Lipit-Ishtar. But for the title of oldest extant song, most historians point to "Hurrian Hymn No. 6," an ode to the goddess Nikkal that was composed in cuneiform by the ancient Hurrian's sometime around the 14th century B.C.".
Western cultures
Music and healing
Music has been used as a healing implement for centuries. Apollo is the ancient Greek god of music and of medicine and his son Aesculapius was said to cure diseases of the mind by using song and music. By 5000 BC, music was used for healing by Egyptian priest-physicians. Plato said that music affected the emotions and could influence the character of an individual. Aristotle taught that music affects the soul and described music as a force that purified the emotions. Aulus Cornelius Celsus advocated the sound of cymbals and running water for the treatment of mental disorders. Music as therapy was practiced in the Bible when David played the harp to rid King Saul of a bad spirit (1 Sam 16:23). As early as 400 B.C., Hippocrates played music for mental patients. In the thirteenth century, Arab hospitals contained music-rooms for the benefit of the patients. In the United States, Native American medicine men often employed chants and dances as a method of healing patients. The Turco-Persian psychologist and music theorist al-Farabi (872–950), known as Alpharabius in Europe, dealt with music for healing in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, in which he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul. In his De vita libri tres published in 1489, Platonist Marsilio Ficino gives a lengthy account of how music and songs can be used to draw celestial benefits for staying healthy. Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.
The rise of an understanding of the body and mind in terms of the nervous system led to the emergence of a new wave of music for healing in the eighteenth century. Earlier works on the subject, such as Athanasius Kircher's Musurgia Universalis of 1650 and even early eighteenth-century books such as Michael Ernst Ettmüller's 1714 Disputatio effectus musicae in hominem (Disputation on the Effect of Music on Man) or Friedrich Erhardt Niedten's 1717 Veritophili, still tended to discuss the medical effects of music in terms of bringing the soul and body into harmony. But from the mid-eighteenth century works on the subject such as Richard Brocklesby's 1749 Reflections of Antient and Modern Musick, the 1737 Memoires of the French Academy of Sciences, or Ernst Anton Nicolai's 1745 Die Verbindung der Musik mit der Arzneygelahrheit (The Connection of Music to Medicine), stressed the power of music over the nerves.
Music therapy: 17th - 19th century
After 1800 some books on music and medicine drew on the Brunonian system of medicine, arguing that the stimulation of the nerves caused by music could directly improve or harm health. Throughout the 19th century an impressive number of books and articles were authored by physicians in Europe and the United States discussing use of music as a therapeutic agent to treat both mental and physical illness.
Music therapy: 1900 - ca1940
From a western viewpoint, music therapy in the 20th and 21st centuries (as of 2021), as an evidence-based, allied healthcare profession, grew out of the aftermath of World Wars I and II, when, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States, musicians would travel to hospitals and play music for soldiers with war-related emotional and physical trauma. Using music to treat the mental and physical ailments of active duty military and veterans was not new. Its use was recorded during the US Civil War and Florence Nightingale used it a decade earlier in the Crimean War. Despite research data, observations by doctors and nurses, praise from patients, and willing musicians, it was difficult to vastly increase music therapy services or establish lasting music therapy education programs or organizations in the early 20th century. However, many of the music therapy leaders of this time period provided music therapy during WWI or to its veterans. These were pioneers in the field such as Eva Vescelius, musician, author, 1903 founder of the short-lived National Therapeutic Society of New York and the 1913 Music and Health journal, and creator/teacher of a musicotherapy course; Margaret Anderton, pianist, World War I music therapy provider for Canadian soldiers, a strong believer in training for music therapists, and 1919 Columbia University musicotherapy teacher; Isa Maud Ilsen, a nurse and musician who was the American Red Cross Director of Hospital Music in World War I reconstruction hospitals, 1919 Columbia University musicotherapy teacher, 1926 founder of the National Association for Music in Hospitals, and author; and Harriet Ayer Seymour, music therapist to World War I veterans, author, researcher, lecturer/teacher, founder of the National Foundation for Music Therapy in 1941, author of the first music therapy textbook published in the United States. Several physicians also promoted music as a therapeutic agent during this time period.
In the United States, the first music therapy bachelor's degree program was established in 1944 at Michigan State College (now Michigan State University.
For history from the early 20th century to the present, see continents or individual countries in section.
Practices
Music therapy practice is working together with clients, through music, to promote healthy change (Bruscia, 1998). The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) has defined the practice of music therapy as "a behavioral science concerned with changing unhealthy behaviors and replacing them with more adaptive ones through the use of musical stimuli".
Interventions
Though music therapy practice employs a large number of intervention techniques, some of the most commonly used interventions include improvisation, therapeutic singing, therapeutic instrumental music playing, music-facilitated reminiscence and life review, songwriting, music-facilitated relaxation, and lyric analysis. While there has been no conclusive research done on the comparison of interventions (Jones, 2005; Silverman, 2008; Silverman & Marcionetti, 2004), the use of particular interventions is individualized to each client based upon thorough assessment of needs, and the effectiveness of treatment may not rely on the type of intervention (Silverman, 2009).
Improvisation in music therapy allows for clients to make up, or alter, music as they see fit. While improvisation is an intervention in a methodical practice, it does allow for some freedom of expression, which is what it is often used for. Improvisation has several other clinical goals as well, which can also be found on the Improvisation in music therapy page, such as: facilitating verbal and nonverbal communication, self-exploration, creating intimacy, teamwork, developing creativity, and improving cognitive skills. Building on these goals, Botello and Krout designed a cognitive behavioral application to assess and improve communication in couples. Further research is needed before the use of improvisation is conclusively proven to be effective in this application, but there were positive signs in this study of its use.
Singing or playing an instrument is often used to help clients express their thoughts and feelings in a more structured manner than improvisation and can also allow participation with only limited knowledge of music. Singing in a group can facilitate a sense of community and can also be used as group ritual to structure a theme of the group or of treatment (Krout, 2005).
Research that compares types of music therapy intervention has been inconclusive. Music Therapists use lyric analysis in a variety of ways, but typically lyric analysis is used to facilitate dialogue with clients based on the lyrics, which can then lead to discussion that addresses the goals of therapy.
Types of music therapy
Two fundamental types of music therapy are receptive music therapy and active music therapy (also known as expressive music therapy). Active music therapy engages clients or patients in the act of making music, whereas receptive music therapy guides patients or clients in listening or responding to live or recorded music. Either or both can lead to verbal discussions, depending on client needs and the therapist's orientation.
Receptive
Receptive music therapy involves listening to recorded or live genres of music such as classical, rock, jazz, and/or country music. In Receptive music therapy, patients are the recipient of the music experience, meaning that they are actively listening and responding to the music rather than creating it. During music sessions, patients participate in song discussion, music relaxation, and are given the ability to listen to their preferred music genre. It can improve mood, decrease stress, decrease pain, enhance relaxation, and decrease anxiety; this can help with coping skills. There is also evidence chemistry in one's body may change, e.g. lowered cortisol levels.
Active
In active music therapy, patients engage in some form of music-making, e.g. vocalizing, rapping, chanting, singing, playing instruments, improvising, song writing, composing, or conducting. Researchers at Baylor, Scott, and White Universities are studying the effect of harmonica playing on patients with COPD in order to determine if it helps improve lung function. Another example of active music therapy takes place in a nursing home in Japan: therapists teach the elderly how to play easy-to-use instruments so they can overcome physical difficulties.
Models and approaches
Music therapist Kenneth Bruscia stated "A model is a comprehensive approach to assessment, treatment, and evaluation that includes theoretical principles, clinical indications and contraindications, goals, methodological guidelines and specifications, and the characteristic use of certain procedural sequences and techniques." In the literature, the terms model, orientation, or approach might be encountered and may have slightly different meanings. Regardless, music therapists use both psychology models and models specific to music therapy. The theories these models are based on include beliefs about human needs, causes of distress, and how humans grow or heal.
Models developed specifically for music therapy include analytical music therapy, Benenzon, the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), community music therapy, Nordoff-Robbins music therapy (creative music therapy), neurologic music therapy, and vocal psychotherapy.
Psychological orientations used in music therapy include psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, humanistic, existential, and the biomedical model.
The Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music
To be trained in this method, students are required to be healthcare professionals. Some courses are only open to music therapists and mental health professionals.
Music educator and therapist Helen Lindquist Bonny (1921–2010) developed an approach influenced by humanistic and transpersonal psychological views, known as the Bonny Method of guided imagery in music (BGIM or GIM). Guided imagery refers to a technique used in natural and alternative medicine that involves using mental imagery to help with the physiological and psychological ailments of patients.
The practitioner often suggests a relaxing and focusing image, and through the use of imagination and discussion, they aim to find constructive solutions to manage their problems. Bonny applied this psychotherapeutic method to the field of music therapy by using music as the means of guiding the patient to a higher state of consciousness where healing and constructive self-awareness can take place. Music is considered a "co-therapist" because of its importance. GIM with children can be used in one-on-one or group settings, and involves relaxation techniques, identification and sharing of personal feeling states, and improvisation to discover the self, and foster growth. The choice of music is carefully selected for the client based on their musical preferences and the goals of the session. The piece is usually classical, and it must reflect the age and attention abilities of the child in length and genre. A full explanation of the exercises must be offered at their level of understanding.
The use of guided imagery with autistic children has been found to decrease stereotypical behaviors and hyperactivity, increase attention and the ability to follow instructions, and increase self-initiated communication, both verbal and non-verbal.
Nordoff-Robbins
Paul Nordoff, a Juilliard School graduate and Professor of Music, was a pianist and composer who, upon seeing disabled children respond so positively to music, gave up his academic career to further investigate the possibility of music as a means for therapy. Clive Robbins, a special educator, partnered with Nordoff for over 17 years in the exploration and research of music's effects on disabled children—first in the UK, and then in the United States in the 1950s and 60s. Their pilot projects included placements at care units for autistic children and child psychiatry departments, where they put programs in place for children with mental disorders, emotional disturbances, developmental delays, and other handicaps. Their success at establishing a means of communication and relationship with children with cognitive impairments at the University of Pennsylvania gave rise to the National Institutes of Health's first grant given of this nature, and the 5-year study "Music therapy project for psychotic children under seven at the day care unit" involved research, publication, training and treatment. Several publications, including Therapy in Music for Handicapped Children, Creative Music Therapy, Music Therapy in Special Education, as well as instrumental and song books for children, were released during this time. Nordoff and Robbins's success became known globally in the mental health community, and they were invited to share their findings and offer training on an international tour that lasted several years. Funds were granted to support the founding of the Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy Centre in Great Britain in 1974, where a one-year graduate program for students was implemented. In the early eighties, a center was opened in Australia, and various programs and institutes for music therapy were founded in Germany and other countries. In the United States, the Nordoff-Robbins Center for Music Therapy was established at New York University in 1989
Today, Nordoff-Robbins is a music therapy Theoretical Model / Approach. The Nordoff-Robbins approach, based on the belief that everyone is capable of finding meaning in and benefiting from musical experience, is now practiced by hundreds of therapists internationally. This approach focuses on treatment through the creation of music by both therapist and client together. The therapist uses various techniques so that even the most low functioning individuals can actively participate.
Orff
Gertrude Orff developed Orff Music Therapy at the Kinderzentrum München. Both the clinical setting of social pediatrics and the Orff Schulwerk (schoolwork) approach in music education (developed by German composer Carl Orff) influence this method, which is used with children with developmental problems, delays, and disabilities. Theodor Hellbrügge developed the area of social pediatrics after the Second World War in Germany. He understood that medicine alone could not meet the complex needs of developmentally disabled children. Hellbrügge consulted psychologists, occupational therapists and other mental healthcare professionals whose knowledge and skills could aid in the diagnostics and treatment of children. Gertrude Orff was asked to develop a form of therapy based on the Orff Schulwerk approach to support the emotional development of patients. Elements found in both the music therapy and education approaches include the understanding of holistic music presentation as involving word, sound and movement, the use of both music and play improvisation as providing a creative stimulus for the child to investigate and explore, Orff instrumentation, including keyboard instruments and percussion instruments as a means of participation and interaction in a therapeutic setting, and the multisensory aspects of music used by the therapist to meet the particular needs of the child, such as both feeling and hearing sound.
Corresponding with the attitudes of humanistic psychology, the developmental potential of the child, as in the acknowledgement of their strengths as well as their handicaps, and the importance of the therapist-child relationship, are central factors in Orff music therapy. The strong emphasis on social integration and the involvement of parents in the therapeutic process found in social pediatrics also influence theoretical foundations. Knowledge of developmental psychology puts into perspective how developmental disabilities influence the child, as do their social and familial environments. The basis for interaction in this method is known as responsive interaction, in which the therapist meets the child at their level and responds according to their initiatives, combining both humanistic and developmental psychology philosophies. Involving the parents in this type of interaction by having them participate directly or observe the therapist's techniques equips the parents with ideas of how to interact appropriately with their child, thus fostering a positive parent-child relationship.
Use with children
Music therapy may be used with adolescent populations to treat disorders usually diagnosed in adolescence, such as mood/anxiety disorders and eating disorders, or inappropriate behaviors, including suicide attempts, withdrawal from family, social isolation from peers, aggression, running away, and substance abuse. Goals in treating adolescents with music therapy, especially for those at high risk, often include increased recognition and awareness of emotions and moods, improved decision-making skills, opportunities for creative self expression, decreased anxiety, increased self-confidence, improved self-esteem, and better listening skills.
Music therapy has multiple benefits that contribute to the maintenance of health and the drive toward rehabilitation for children. Advanced technology that can monitor cortical activity offers a look at how music engages and produces changes in the brain during the perception and production of musical stimuli. Music therapy, when used with other rehabilitation methods, has increased the success rate of sensorimotor, cognitive, and communicative rehabilitation.
Methods
Among adolescents, group meetings and individual sessions are the main methods for music therapy. Both methods may include listening to music, discussing concerning moods and emotions in or toward music, analyzing the meanings of specific songs, writing lyrics, composing or performing music, and musical improvisation.
Private individual sessions can provide personal attention and are most effective when using music preferred by the patient. Using music that adolescents can relate to or connect with can help adolescent patients view the therapist as safe and trustworthy, and to engage in therapy with less resistance. Music therapy conducted in groups allows adolescent individuals to feel a sense of belonging, express their opinions, learn how to socialize and verbalize appropriately with peers, improve compromising skills, and develop tolerance and empathy. Group sessions that emphasize cooperation and cohesion can be effective in working with adolescents.
Music therapy intervention programs typically include about 18 sessions of treatment. The achievement of a physical rehabilitation goal relies on the child's existing motivation and feelings towards music and their commitment to engage in meaningful, rewarding efforts. Regaining full functioning also confides in the prognosis of recovery, the condition of the client, and the environmental resources available. Both techniques use systematic processes where the therapists assist the client by using musical experiences and connections that collaborate as a dynamic force of change toward rehabilitation.
Assessment
Assessment includes obtaining a full medical history, musical (ability to duplicate a melody or identify changes in rhythm, etc.) and non-musical functioning (social, physical/motor, emotional, etc.).
Premature infants
Premature infants are those born at 37 weeks after conception or earlier. They are subject to numerous health risks, such as abnormal breathing patterns, decreased body fat and muscle tissue, as well as feeding issues. The coordination for sucking and breathing is often not fully developed, making feeding a challenge. The improved developmental activity and behavioral status of premature infants when they are discharged from the NICU, is directly related to the stimulation programs and interventions they benefited from during hospitalization, such as music therapy.
Music is typically conducted by a music therapist in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), with five main techniques designed to benefit premature infants:
Live or recorded music: Live or recorded music has been effective in promoting respiratory regularity and oxygen saturation levels, as well as decreasing signs of neonatal distress. Since premature infants have sensitive and immature sensory modalities, music is often performed in a gentle and controlled environment, either in the form of audio recordings or live vocalization, although live singing has been proven to have a greater effect. Live music also reduces the physiological responses in parents. Studies have shown that by combining live music, such as harp music, with the Kangaroo Care, maternal anxiety is reduced. This allows for parents, especially mothers, to spend important time bonding with their premature infants. Female singing voices are also more effective at soothing premature infants. Despite being born premature, infants show a preference for the sound of a female singing voice, making it more beneficial than instrumental music.
Promotion of healthy sucking reflex: By using a pacifier-activated lullaby device, music therapists can help promote stronger sucking reflexes, while also reducing pain perception for the infant. The Gato Box is a small rectangular instrument that stimulates a prenatal heartbeat sound in a soft and rhythmic manner that has also been effective in aiding sucking behaviors. The music therapist uses their fingers to tap on the drum, rather than using a mallet. The rhythm supports movement when feeding and promotes healthy sucking patterns. By improving sucking patterns, babies are able to coordinate the important dual mechanisms of breathing, sucking and swallowing needed to feed, thus promoting growth and weight gain. When this treatment proves effective, infants are able to leave the hospital earlier.
Multimodal stimulation and music: By combining music, such as lullabies and multi-modal stimulation, premature infants were discharged from the NICU sooner than those infants who did not receive therapy. Multi-modal stimulation (MMS) includes the applications of auditory, tactile, vestibular, and visual stimulation that helps aid in premature infant development. The combination of music and MMS helps premature infants sleep and conserve vital energy required to gain weight more rapidly. Studies have shown that girls respond more positively than boys during multimodal stimulation. While the voice is a popular choice for parents looking to bond with their premature infants, other effective instruments include the Remo Ocean Disk and the Gato Box. Both are used to stimulate the sounds of the womb. The Remo Ocean Disk, a round musical instrument that mimics the fluid sounds of the womb, has been shown to benefit decreased heart rate after therapeutic uses, as well as promoting healthy sleep patterns, lower respiratory rates and improve sucking behavior.
Infant stimulation: This type of intervention uses musical stimulation to compensate for the lack of normal environmental sensory stimulation found in the NICU. The sound environment the NICU provides can be disruptive, but music therapy can mask unwanted auditory stimuli and promote a calm environment that reduces the complications for high-risk or failure-to-thrive infants. Parent-infant bonding can also be affected by the noise of the NICU, which in turn can delay the interactions between parents and their premature infants. Music therapy creates a relaxing and peaceful environment for parents to speak and spend time with their babies while incubated.
Parent-infant bonding: Therapists work with parents so they may perform infant-directed singing techniques, as well as home care. Singing lullabies therapeutically can promote relaxation and decrease heart rate in premature infants. By calming premature babies, it allows for them to preserve their energy, which creates a stable environment for growth. Lullabies, such as "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" or other culturally relevant lullabies, have been shown to greatly soothe babies. These techniques can also improve overall sleep quality, calorie intake and feeding behaviors, which aid in development of the baby while they are still in the NICU. Singing has also shown greater results in improving oxygen saturation levels for infants while incubated than has mothers' speech alone. This technique promoted high levels of oxygen for longer periods of time.
Infants in cardiac ICUs
In studies on music therapy with infants in the cardiac intensive care unit, music therapy has been used on infants in hopes of improving their lives during their time in the CICU. Many infants show a decrease in both their average heart and respiratory rates. The infants' average blood pressure typically decreases after the music therapy sessions, as well. Although there are individual differences between each of the infants, most infants show improvements after music therapy interventions.
Use with medical disorders
Music can both motivate and provide a sense of distraction. Rhythmic stimuli has been found to help balance training for those with a brain injury.
Singing is a form of rehabilitation for neurological impairments. Neurological impairments following a brain injury can be in the form of apraxia – loss to perform purposeful movements, dysarthria, muscle control disturbances (due to damage of the central nervous system), aphasia (defect in expression causing distorted speech), or language comprehension. Singing training has been found to improve lung, speech clarity, and coordination of speech muscles, thus, accelerating rehabilitation of such neurological impairments. For example, melodic intonation therapy is the practice of communicating with others by singing to enhance speech or increase speech production by promoting socialization, and emotional expression.
Autism
Music has played an important role in the research of dealing with autism, mainly in diagnosis, therapy, and behavioral abilities according to a scientific article written by Thenille Braun Janzen and Michael H. Thaut. This article concluded that music can help autistic patients hone their motor and attention skills as well as healthy neurodevelopment of socio-communication and interaction skills. Music therapy also resulted in positive improvement in selective attention, speech production, and language processing and acquisition in autistic patients
Music therapy is thought to be helpful with autistic children by providing repetitive stimuli that aim to "teach" the brain other possible ways to respond that might be more useful as they grow older. Studies on the long term effects on music therapy in children with autism indicate many positive effects in children. Some of these effects include increased communication skills, decreased stress, increased social interaction, and the ability to be creative and to express themselves. Music therapy not only benefits the child with autism, but the family as a whole. Many of the mothers of children with autism claim that music therapy sessions have allowed their child to interact more with the family and the world. Music therapy is also beneficial in that it gives children an outlet to use outside of the sessions. Many children after participating in music therapy want to keep making music long after the sessions end.
Heart disease
According to a 2013 Cochrane review, listening to music may improve heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure in those with coronary heart disease (CHD). Furthermore, research has been done on children with simple congenital heart disease. In a study conducted in Fuzhou, China, it was discovered that preoperative music therapy lead to a decrease in anxiety around surgery, reduced the psychological impact on the patient, stabilized vital signs, and improved patient cooperation with anesthesia induction.
Stroke
Music is useful in the recovery of motor skills. In a study on stroke patients in the recovery phase, music therapy was used in addition to other types of therapy in one group of patients and was not used in the other group. While both groups showed an increase in their standard of living, the group that used the music therapy showed more of an increase than the group that didn't. The group that used music therapy also showed less anxiousness and depression after the therapy. While both groups showed an increase in the strength of their non-dominant hands, the group with music therapy showed a much larger increase. Also, patients that underwent music therapy were able to regulate their emotions better and showed increased communication as a whole.
Dementia
Like many of the other disorders mentioned, some of the most common significant effects of the disorder can be seen in social behaviors, leading to improvements in interaction, conversation, and other such skills. A study of over 330 subjects showed that music therapy produces highly significant improvements in social behaviors, overt behaviors like wandering and restlessness, reductions in agitated behaviors, and improvements to cognitive defects, measured with reality orientation and face recognition tests. The effectiveness of the treatment seems to be strongly dependent on the patient and the quality and length of treatment.
A group of adults with dementia participated in group music therapy. In the group, these adults engaged in singing, drumming, improvisation, and movement. Each of these activities engaged the adults in different ways. The singing aided with memory, as these adults improved memorization skills in by taking out specific words in the chorus of a song and by repeating phrases back to the music therapist when the therapist sang a phrase of a song to them. Drumming led to increased socialization of the group, as it allowed the patients collaborate in order to create particular rhythms. Improvisation allowed the patients to get out of their comfort zone and taught them how to better deal with anxiety. Lastly, movement with either one arm or two increased social interaction between the patients.
Another meta-study examined the proposed neurological mechanisms behind music therapy's effects on these patients. Many authors suspect that music has a soothing effect on the patient by affecting how noise is perceived: music renders noise familiar, or buffers the patient from overwhelming or extraneous noise in their environment. Others suggest that music serves as a sort of mediator for social interactions, providing a vessel through which to interact with others without requiring much cognitive load.
Aphasia
Broca's aphasia, or non-fluent aphasia, is a language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area and surrounding regions in the left frontal lobe. Those with non-fluent aphasia are able to understand language fairly well, but they struggle with language production and syntax.
Neurologist Oliver Sacks, studied neurological oddities in people, trying to understand how the brain works. He concluded that people with some type of frontal lobe damage often "produced not only severe difficulties with expressive language (aphasia) but a strange access of musicality with incessant whistling, singing and a passionate interest in music. For him, this was an example of normally suppressed brain functions being released by damage to others". Sacks had a genuine interest in trying to help people affected with neurological disorders and other phenomena associated with music, and how it can provide access to otherwise unreachable emotional states, revivify neurological avenues that have been frozen, evoke memories of earlier, lost events or states of being and attempts to bring those with neurological disorders back to a time when the world was much richer for them. He was a firm believer that music has the power to heal.
Melodic intonation therapy (MIT), developed in 1973 by neurological researchers Sparks, Helm, and Albert, is a method used by music therapists and speech–language pathologists to help people with communication disorders caused by damage to the left hemisphere of the brain by engaging the singing abilities and possibly engaging language-capable regions in the undamaged right hemisphere.
While unable to speak fluently, patients with non-fluent aphasia are often able to sing words, phrases, and even sentences they cannot express otherwise. MIT harnesses the singing ability of patients with non-fluent aphasia as a means to improve their communication. Although its exact nature depends on the therapist, in general MIT relies on the use of intonation (the rising and falling of the voice) and rhythm (beat/speed) to train patients to produce phrases verbally. In MIT, common words and phrases are turned into melodic phrases, generally starting with two step sing-song patterns and eventually emulating typical speech intonation and rhythmic patterns. A therapist will usually begin by introducing an intonation to their patient through humming. They will accompany this humming with a rhythm produced by the tapping of the left hand. At the same time, the therapist will introduce a visual stimuli of the written phrase to be learned. The therapist then sings the phrase with the patient, and ideally the patient is eventually able to sing the phrase on their own. With much repetition and through a process of "inner-rehearsal" (practicing internally hearing one's voice singing), a patient may eventually be able to produce the phrase verbally without singing. As the patient advances in therapy, the procedure can be adapted to give them more autonomy and to teach them more complex phrases. Through the use of MIT, a non-fluent aphasic patient can be taught numerous phrases which aid them to communicate and function during daily life.
The mechanisms of this success are yet to be fully understood. It is commonly agreed that while speech is lateralized mostly to the left hemisphere (for right-handed and most left-handed individuals), some speech functionality is also distributed in the right hemisphere. MIT is thought to stimulate these right language areas through the activation of music processing areas also in the right hemisphere Similarly, the rhythmic tapping of the left hand stimulates the right sensorimotor cortex in order to further engage the right hemisphere in language production. Overall, by stimulating the right hemisphere during language tasks, therapists hope to decrease dependence on the left hemisphere for language production.
While results are somewhat contradictory, studies have in fact found increased right hemispheric activation in non-fluent aphasic patients after MIT. This change in activation has been interpreted as evidence of decreased dependence on the left hemisphere. There is debate, however, as to whether changes in right hemispheric activation are part of the therapeutic process during/after MIT, or are simply a side effect of non-fluent aphasia. In hopes of making MIT more effective, researchers are continually studying the mechanisms of MIT and non-fluent aphasia.
Cancer
There is tentative evidence that music interventions led by a trained music therapist may have positive effects on psychological and physical outcomes in adults with cancer. The effectiveness of music therapy for children with cancer is not known.
Adults
There is weak evidence to suggest that people with schizophrenia may benefit from the addition of music therapy along with their other standard treatment regieme. Potential improvements include decreased aggression, less hallucinations and delusions, social functioning, and quality of life of people with schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like disorders. In addition, moderate-to-low-quality evidence suggests that music therapy as an addition to standard care improves the global state, mental state (including negative and general symptoms). Further research using standardized music therapy programs and consistent monitoring protocols are necessary to understand the effectiveness of this approach for adults with schizophrenia. Music therapy may be a useful tool for helping treat people with post-traumatic stress disorder however more rigorous empirical study is required.
For adults with depressive symptoms, there is some weak evidence to suggest that music therapy may help reduce symptoms and recreative music therapy and guided imagery and music being superior to other methods in reducing depressive symptoms.
In the use of music therapy for adults, there is "music medicine" which is called for listening to prerecorded music as treated like a medicine. Music Therapy also uses "Receptive music therapy" using "music-assisted relaxation" and using images connecting to the music.
Children
For children and adolescents with major depressive or anxiety disorders, there is moderate to low quality evidence that music therapy added to the standard treatment may reduce internalizing symptoms and may be more effective than treatment as usual (without music therapy).
Mental wellness
There is some discussion on the process of change facilitated by musical activities on mental wellness. Scholars proposed a six-dimensional framework, which contains emotional, psychological, social, cognitive, behavioral and spiritual aspects. Through conducting interview sessions with mental health service users (with mood disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders), their study showed the relevance of the six-dimensional framework.
Impact of Music Therapy on General Mental Health
Music therapy has been used to help bring improvements to mental health among people of all age groups. It has been used as far back as the 1830s. One example of a mental hospital that used music therapy to aid in the healing process of their patients includes the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum. This mental hospital provided "music and movement sessions and musical performances" as well as "group and individual music therapy for patients with serious mental illness or emotional problems." Two main categories of music therapy were used in this study; analytic music therapy and Nordoff-Robbins music therapy. Analytic music therapy involves both words and music, while Nordoff-Robbins music therapy places great emphasis on assessing how clients react to music therapy and how the use of this type of therapy can be constantly altered and shifted to allow it to benefit the client the most.
Treatment of bereavement
The DSM-IV TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) lists bereavement as a mental health diagnosis when the focus of clinical attention is related to the loss of a loved one and when symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder are present for up to two months. Music therapy models have been found to be successful in treating grief and bereavement (Rosner, Kruse & Hagl, 2010).
Diagnosing bereavement
As of 2017, bereavement is listed as its own diagnosis in the DSM-IV TR, but proposed changes in the DSM-V may impact the way bereavement is diagnosed. The DSM-IV TR states the following about bereavement:
This category can be used when the focus of clinical attention is a reaction to the death of a loved one. As part of their reaction to the loss, some grieving individuals present with symptoms characteristic of a Major Depressive Episode (e.g., feelings of sadness and associated symptoms such as insomnia, poor appetite, and weight loss). The bereaved individual typically regards the depressed mood as "normal," although the person may seek professional help for relief of associated symptoms such as insomnia or anorexia. The duration and expression of "normal" bereavement vary considerably among different cultural groups. The diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder is generally not given unless the symptoms are still present 2 months after the loss. However, the presence of certain symptoms that are not characteristic of a "normal" grief reaction may be helpful in differentiating bereavement from a Major Depressive Episode. These include 1) guilt about things other than actions taken or not taken by the survivor at the time of the death; 2) thoughts of death other than the survivor feeling that he or she would be better off dead or should have died with the deceased person; 3) morbid preoccupation with worthlessness; 4) marked psychomotor retardation; 5) prolonged and marked functional impairment; and 6) hallucinatory experiences other than thinking that he or she hears the voice of, or transiently sees the image of, the deceased person.
In many countries, including the United States, music therapists do not diagnose, therefore diagnosing a bereavement-related disorder would not be within their scope of practice.
Grief treatment
It has become well known in the music therapy field that music can be an effective tool in the treatment of grief and bereavement but Francesca Albergato-Muterspaw looked at how music actually played a role in the healing from grief. In her study, three primary themes presented themselves from the interviews and observation of the participants. She found firstly that, music has a significant connection with emotion. Music can be used to express oneself, keep a client distracted when there is a need for distraction, and can help clients reflect on themselves and past experiences leading to changes in identity. Secondly, a sense of community, culture, and spirituality was found when music was used in treatment. Employing the ides of community, culture, and spirituality have shown to be vital in the process of dealing with grief so using music to elicit these concepts makes it a powerful tool indeed. Lastly, it was found that music was important to clients as a way to give tribute to the deceased. On top of these areas of note, it was also discussed that the participants had a better understanding of each other - more so than they had simply by talking with each other.</ref name=a-m> It appears that music allows for context and meta messages to be more easily and successfully communicated between a group, an important point for therapists in any field, and also especially important when working with the bereaved. In 2008, Kathryn Lindenfelser and colleagues looked at the experiences parents of terminally ill children had with music therapy. They found that music therapy was effective in altering perceptions in the midst of adversity, was a strong component of remembrance, provided a multifaceted treatment, and as the other study also mentioned, increased communication and expression in both the adults and children (Lindenfelser Grocke & McFerran, 2008). In a separate study that explored the effects of music therapy on pain in children and families, it was found that music therapy can be used to reduce physical pain and anxiety, enhance relaxation, and promote positive moods and compliance. There was also an inverse relationship found between music therapy and behavioral distress (Whitehead-Pleaux, Baryza & Sheridan, 2007). Since bereavement is diagnosed when elements of depression are found, and since music therapy has shown to be effective in enhancing mood and lowering distress, one could conclude that elements of music therapy could also be effective in the treatment of depression and other adjustment disorders, though further research would need to be done to make that conclusion.
Grief Treatment for Adolescents
Grief treatment is also very valuable within the adolescent age group. Just as adults and the elderly struggle with grief from loss, relationship issues, job-related stress, and financial issues, so do adolescents also experience grief from disappointments that occur early on in life, however different these disappointing life events may be. For example, many people of adolescent age experience life-altering events such as parental divorce, trauma from emotional or physical abuse, struggles within school, and loss. If this grief is not acted upon early on through the use of some kind of therapy, it can alter the entire course of an adolescent's life. In one particular study on the impact of music therapy on grief management within adolescents used songwriting to allow these adolescents to express what they were feeling through lyrics and instrumentals. In the article Development of the Grief Process Scale through music therapy songwriting with bereaved adolescents, the results of the study demonstrate that in all of the treatment groups combined, the mean GPS (grief process scale) score decreased by 43%. The use of music therapy songwriting allowed these adolescents to become less overwhelmed with grief and better able to process it as demonstrated by the decrease in mean GPS score.
Empirical evidence
Since 2017, providing evidence-based practice is becoming more and more important and music therapy has been continuously critiqued and regulated in order to provide that desired evidence-based practice. A number of research studies and meta-analyses have been conducted on, or included, music therapy and all have found that music therapy has at least some promising effects, especially when used for the treatment of grief and bereavement. The AMTA has largely supported the advancement of music therapy through research that would promote evidenced-based practice. With the definition of evidence-based health care as "the conscientious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services, current best evidence is up-to-date information from relevant, valid research about the effects of different forms of health care, the potential for harm from exposure to particular agents, the accuracy of diagnostic tests, and the predictive power of prognostic factors".
Both qualitative and quantitative studies have been completed and both have provided evidence to support music therapy in the use of bereavement treatment. One study that evaluated a number of treatment approaches found that only music therapy had significant positive outcomes where the others showed little improvement in participants (Rosner, Kruse & Hagl, 2010). Furthermore, a pilot study, which consisted of an experimental and control group, examined the effects of music therapy on mood and behaviors in the home and school communities. It was found that there was a significant change in grief symptoms and behaviors with the experimental group in the home, but conversely found that there was no significant change in the experimental group in the school community, despite the fact that mean scores on the Depression Self-Rating Index and the Behavior Rating Index decreased (Hilliard, 2001). Yet another study completed by Russel Hilliard (2007), looked at the effects of Orff-based music therapy and social work groups on childhood grief symptoms and behaviors. Using a control group that consisted of wait-listed clients, and employing the Behavior Rating Index for Children and the bereavement Group Questionnaire for Parents and Guardians as measurement tools, it was found that children who were in the music therapy group showed significant improvement in grief symptoms and also showed some improvement in behaviors compared to the control group, whereas the social work group also showed significant improvement in both grief and behaviors compared to the control group. The study concludes with support for music therapy as a medium from bereavement groups for children (Hilliard, 2007).
Though there has been research done on music therapy, and though the use of it has been evaluated, there remain a number of limitations in these studies and further research should be completed before absolute conclusions are made, though the results of using music therapy in the treatment have consistently shown to be positive.
Cultural aspects
Through the ages music has been an integral component of rituals, ceremonies, healing practices, and spiritual and cultural traditions. Further, Michael Bakan, author of World Music: Traditions and Transformations, states that "Music is a mode of cultural production and can reveal much about how the culture works," something ethnomusicologists study.
Cultural considerations in music therapy services, education, and research
The 21st century is a culturally pluralistic world. In some countries, such as the United States, an individual may have multiple cultural identities that are quite different from the music therapist's. These include race; ethnicity, culture, and/or heritage; religion; sex; ability/disability; education; or socioeconomic status. Music therapists strive to achieve multicultural competence through a lifelong journey of formal and informal education and self-reflection. Multicultural therapy "uses modalities and defines goals consistent with the life experiences and cultural values of clients" rather than basing therapy on the therapist's worldview or the dominant culture's norms.
Empathy in general is an important aspect of any mental health practitioner and the same is true for music therapists, as is multicultural awareness. It is the added complexity to cultural empathy that comes from adding music that provides both the greater risk and potential to provide exceptional culturally sensitive therapy (Valentino, 2006). An extensive knowledge of a culture is really needed to provide this effective treatment as providing culturally sensitive music therapy goes beyond knowing the language of speech, the country, or even some background about the culture. Simply choosing music that is from the same country of origin or that has the same spoken language is not effective for providing music therapy as music genres vary as do the messages each piece of music sends. Also, different cultures view and use music in various ways and may not always be the same as how the therapist views and uses music. Melody Schwantes and her colleagues wrote an article that describes the effective use of the Mexican "corrido" in a bereavement group of Mexican migrant farm workers (Schwantes, Wigram, Lipscomb & Richards, 2011). This support group was dealing with the loss of two of their coworkers after an accident they were in and so the corrido, a song form traditionally used for telling stories of the deceased. An important element that was also mentioned was that songwriting has shown to be a large cultural artifact in many cultures, and that there are many subtle messages and thoughts provided in songs that would otherwise be hard to identify. Lastly, the authors of this study stated that "Given the position and importance of songs in all cultures, the example in this therapeutic process demonstrates the powerful nature of lyrics and music to contain and express difficult and often unspoken feelings" (Schwantes et al., 2011).
Usage by region
African continent
In 1999, the first program for music therapy in Africa opened in Pretoria, South Africa. Research has shown that in Tanzania patients can receive palliative care for life-threatening illnesses directly after the diagnosis of these illnesses. This is different from many Western countries, because they reserve palliative care for patients who have an incurable illness. Music is also viewed differently between Africa and Western countries. In Western countries and a majority of other countries throughout the world, music is traditionally seen as entertainment whereas in many African cultures, music is used in recounting stories, celebrating life events, or sending messages.
Australia
Music for healing in ancient times
One of the first groups known to heal with sound were the aboriginal people of Australia. The modern name of their healing tool is the didgeridoo, but it was originally called the yidaki. The yidaki produced sounds that are similar to the sound healing techniques used in modern day. The sound of the didgeridoo produces a low, bass frequency. For at least 40,000 years, the healing tool was believed to assist in healing "broken bones, muscle tears and illnesses of every kind".
However, here are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age. Archaeological studies of rock art in Northern Australia suggest that the people of the Kakadu region of the Northern Territory have been using the didgeridoo for less than 1,000 years, based on the dating of paintings on cave walls and shelters from this period. A clear rock painting in Ginga Wardelirrhmeng, on the northern edge of the Arnhem Land plateau, from the freshwater period (that had begun 1500 years ago) shows a didgeridoo player and two songmen participating in an Ubarr ceremony.
Music Therapy in modern times - An allied health profession
1949 in Australia, music therapy (not clinical music therapy as understood today) was started through concerts organized by the Australian Red Cross along with a Red Cross Music Therapy Committee. The key Australian body, the Australian Music Therapy Association (AMTA), was founded in 1975.
Canada
History: ca1940 - present
For earlier history related to western traditions, see sub-section.
In 1956, Fran Herman, one of Canada's music therapy pioneers, began a 'remedial music' program at the Home For Incurable Children, now known as the Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, in Toronto. Her group 'The Wheelchair Players' continued until 1964, and is considered to be the first music therapy group project in Canada. Its production "The Emperor's Nightingale" was the subject of a documentary film.
Composer/pianist Alfred Rosé, a professor at the University of Western Ontario, also pioneered the use of music therapy in London, Ontario at Westminster Hospital in 1952 and at the London Psychiatric Hospital in 1956.
Two other music therapy programs were initiated during the 1950s; one by Norma Sharpe at St. Thomas Psychiatric Hospital in St. Thomas, Ontario, and the other by Thérèse Pageau at the Hôpital St-Jean-de-Dieu (now Hôpital Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine) in Montreal.
A conference in August 1974, organized by Norma Sharpe and six other music therapists, led to the founding of the Canadian Music Therapy Association, which was later renamed the Canadian Association for Music Therapy (CAMT). As of 2009, the organization had over 500 members.
Canada's first music therapy training program was founded in 1976, at Capilano College (now Capilano University) in North Vancouver, by Nancy McMaster and Carolyn Kenny.
China
The relationship between music therapy and health has long been documented in ancient China.
It is said that in ancient times, really good traditional Chinese medicine did not use acupuncture or traditional Chinese medicine, but music: at the end of a song, people were safe when they were discharged. As early as before the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the Yellow Emperor's Canon of internal medicine believed that the five tones (Palace, Shang, horn, emblem and feather) belonged to the five elements (gold, wood, water, fire and earth), and were associated with five basic emotions (joy, anger, worry, thought and fear), that is, the five chronicles. Different music such as palace, Shang, horn, micro and feather were used to target different diseases.
More than 2000 years ago, the book Yue Ji also talked about the important role of music in regulating life harmony and improving health; "Zuo Zhuan" recorded the famous doctors of the state of Qin and the discussion that music can prevent and treat diseases: "there are six or seven days, the hair is colorless, the emblem is five colors, and sex produces six diseases." It is emphasized that silence should be controlled and appropriate in order to have a beneficial regulating effect on the human body; The book "the soul and the body flow, the spirit also flows"; Zhang Jingyue and Xu Lingtai, famous medical experts in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, also specially discussed phonology and medicine in the "classics with wings" and "Yuefu Chuansheng".
For example, Liu Xueyu, one of the emperors of the Tang Dynasty, cured some stubborn diseases through the records of music in the Tang Dynasty.
Chinese contemporary music therapy began in the 1980s. In 1984, Professor Zhang Boyuan of the Department of psychology of Peking University published the experimental report on the research of physical and mental defense of music, which was the first published scientific research article on music therapy in China; In 1986, Professor Gao Tian of Beijing Conservatory of music published his paper "Research on the relieving effect of music on pain";
In 1989, the Chinese society of therapeutics was officially established; In 1994, pukaiyuan published his monograph music therapy; In 1995, he Huajun and Lu Tingzhu published a monograph music therapy; In 2000, Zhang Hongyi edited and published fundamentals of music therapy; In 2002, fan Xinsheng edited and published music therapy; In 2007, Gao Tian edited and published the basic theory of music therapy.
In short, Chinese music therapy has made rapid progress in theoretical research, literature review and clinical research. In addition, the music therapy methods under the guidance of ancient Chinese music therapy theory and traditional Chinese medicine theory with a long history have attracted worldwide attention. The prospect of Chinese music therapy is broad.
Germany
The Germany Music Therapy Society defines music therapy as the "targeted use of music as part of a therapeutic relationship to restore, maintain and promote mental, physical and cognitive health []."
India
The roots of musical therapy in India can be traced back to ancient Hindu mythology, Vedic texts, and local folk traditions. It is very possible that music therapy has been used for hundreds of years in Indian culture. In the 1990s, another dimension to this, known as Musopathy, was postulated by Indian musician Chitravina Ravikiran based on fundamental criteria derived from acoustic physics.
The Indian Association of Music Therapy was established in 2010 by Dr. Dinesh C. Sharma with a motto "to use pleasant sounds in a specific manner like drug in due course of time as green medicine". He also published the International Journal of Music Therapy (ISSN 2249-8664) to popularize and promote music therapy research on an international platform.
Suvarna Nalapat has studied music therapy in the Indian context. Her books Nadalayasindhu-Ragachikitsamrutam (2008), Music Therapy in Management Education and Administration (2008) and Ragachikitsa (2008) are accepted textbooks on music therapy and Indian arts.
The Music Therapy Trust of India is another venture in the country. It was started by Margaret Lobo. She is the founder and director of the Otakar Kraus Music Trust and her work began in 2004.
Lebanon
In 2006, Hamda Farhat introduced music therapy to Lebanon, developing and inventing therapeutic methods such as the triple method to treat hyperactivity, depression, anxiety, addiction, and post traumatic stress disorder. She has met with great success in working with many international organizations, and in the training of therapists, educators, and doctors.
Norway
Norway is recognized as an important country for music therapy research. Its two major research centers are the Center for Music and Health with the Norwegian Academy of Music in Oslo, and the Grieg Academy Centre for Music Therapy (GAMUT), at University of Bergen. The former was mostly developed by professor Even Ruud, while professor Brynjulf Stige is largely responsible for cultivating the latter. The center in Bergen has 18 staff, including 2 professors and 4 associate professors, as well as lecturers and PhD students. Two of the field's major international research journals are based in Bergen: Nordic Journal for Music Therapy and Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Norway's main contribution to the field is mostly in the area of "community music therapy", which tends to be as much oriented toward social work as individual psychotherapy, and music therapy research from this country uses a wide variety of methods to examine diverse methods across an array of social contexts, including community centers, medical clinics, retirement homes, and prisons.
Nigeria
The origins of Musical therapy practices in Nigeria is unknown, however the country is identified to have a lengthy lineage and history of musical therapy being utilized throughout the culture. The most common people associated with music therapy are herbalists, Witch doctors, and faith healers according to Professor Charles O. Aluede of Ambrose Alli University (Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria). Applying music and thematic sounds to the healing process is believed to help the patient overcome true sickness in his/her mind which then will seemingly cure the disease. Another practice involving music is called "Igbeuku", a religious practice performed by faith healers. In the practice of Igbeuku, patients are persuaded to confess their sins which cause themselves serve discomfort. Following a confession, patients feel emotionally relieved because the priest has announced them clean and subjected them to a rigorous dancing exercise. The dancing exercise is a "thank you" for the healing and tribute to the spiritual greater beings. The dance is accompanied by music and can be included among the unorthodox medical practices of Nigerian culture. While most of the music therapy practices come in the medical field, musical therapy is often utilized in the passing of a loved one. The use of song and dance in a funeral setting is very common across the continent but especially in Nigeria. Songs allude to the idea the finally resting place is Hades (hell). The music helps alleviate the sorrows felt by the family members and friends of the lost loved one. Along with music therapy being a practice for funeral events, it is also implemented to those dying as a last resort tactic of healing. The Esan of Edo State of Nigeria, in particular, herbalists perform practices with an Oko – a small aerophone made of elephant tusk which is blown into dying patients' ears to resuscitate them. Nigeria is full of interesting cultural practices in which contribute a lot to the music therapy world.
South Africa
There are longstanding traditions of music healing, which in some ways may be very different than music therapy.
Mercédès Pavlicevic (1955-2018), an international music therapist, along with Kobie Temmingh, pioneered the music therapy program at the University of Pretoria, which debuted with a master's degree program in 1999. She noted the differences in longstanding traditions and other ways of viewing healing or music. A Nigerian colleague felt "that music in Africa is healing, and what is music therapy other than some colonial import?" Pavlicevic noted that "in Africa there is a long tradition of music healing" and asked "Can there be a synthesis of these two music-based practices towards something new?... I am not altogether convinced that African music healing and music therapy are especially closely related [emphasis added]. But I am utterly convinced that music therapy can learn an enormous amount from the African worldview and from music-making in Africa - rather than from African music-healing as such."
The South African Music Therapy Association can provide information to the public about music therapy or educational programs in South Africa.
South Africa was selected to host the 16th World Congress of Music Therapy in July 2020, a triennial World Federation of Music Therapy event. Due to the coronavirus pandemic (SARS-CoV-2) the congress was moved to an online event.
United States
Credential
National board certification (current as of 2021): MT-BC (Music Therapist-Board Certified, also written as Board Certified Music Therapist)
State license or registration: varies by state, see below
The credentials listed below were previously conferred by the former national organizations AAMT and NAMT; these credentials have not been available since 1998.
CMT (Certified Music Therapist)
ACMT (Advanced Certified Music Therapist)
RMT (Registered Music Therapist). There are other countries that use RMT as a credential, such as Australia, that is different from the U.S. credential.
The states of Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, North Dakota, Nevada, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Virginia have established licenses for music therapists, while in Wisconsin, music therapists must be registered, and in Utah hold state certification. In the State of New York, the Creative Arts Therapy license (LCAT) incorporates the music therapy credential within their licensure, a mental health license that requires a master's degree and post-graduate supervision. The states of California and Connecticut have title protection for music therapists, meaning only those with the MT-BC credential can use the title "Board Certified Music Therapist".
Professional Association
The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA).
Education
A music therapy degree candidate can earn an undergraduate, master's or doctoral degree in music therapy. Many AMTA approved programs offer equivalency and certificate degrees in music therapy for students that have completed a degree in a related field. Some practicing music therapists have held PhDs in fields related music therapy. A music therapist typically incorporates music therapy techniques with broader clinical practices such as psychotherapy, rehabilitation, and other practices depending on client needs. Music therapy services rendered within the context of a social service, educational, or health care agency are often reimbursable by insurance or other sources of funding for individuals with certain needs.
A degree in music therapy requires proficiency in guitar, piano, voice, music theory, music history, reading music, improvisation, as well as varying levels of skill in assessment, documentation, and other counseling and health care skills depending on the focus of the particular university's program. 1200 hours of clinical experience are required, some of which are gained during an approximately six-month internship that takes place after all other degree requirements are met.
After successful completion of educational requirements, including internship, music therapists can apply to take, take, and pass the Board Certification Examination in Music Therapy.
Board Certification Examination in Music Therapy
The current national credential is MT-BC (Music Therapist-Board Certified). To be eligible to apply to take the Board Certification Examination in Music Therapy, an individual must successfully complete a music therapy degree from a program accredited by AMTA at a college or university (or have a bachelor's degree and complete all of the music therapy course requirements from an accredited program), which includes successfully completing a music therapy internship. To maintain the credential, 100 units of continuing education must be completed every five years. The board exam is created by and administered through The Certification Board for Music Therapists.
History: ca1900-present
For earlier history related to western traditions, see sub-section.
From a western viewpoint, music therapy in the 20th and 21st centuries (as of 2021), as an evidence-based, allied healthcare profession, grew out of the aftermath of World Wars I and II, when, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States, musicians would travel to hospitals and play music for soldiers suffering from with war-related emotional and physical trauma. Using music to treat the mental and physical ailments of active duty military and veterans was not new. Its use was recorded during the U.S. Civil War and Florence Nightingale used it a decade earlier in the Crimean War. Despite research data, observations by doctors and nurses, praise from patients, and willing musicians, it was difficult to vastly increase music therapy services or establish lasting music therapy education programs or organizations in the early 20th century. However, many of the music therapy leaders of this time period provided music therapy during WWI or to its veterans. These were pioneers in the field such as Eva Vescelius, musician, author, 1903 founder of the short-lived National Therapeutic Society of New York and the 1913 Music and Health journal, and creator/teacher of a musicotherapy course; Margaret Anderton, pianist, WWI music therapy provider for Canadian soldiers, a strong believer in training for music therapists, and 1919 Columbia University musicotherapy teacher; Isa Maud Ilsen, a nurse and musician who was the American Red Cross Director of Hospital Music in WWI reconstruction hospitals, 1919 Columbia University musicotherapy teacher, 1926 founder of the National Association for Music in Hospitals, and author; and Harriet Ayer Seymour, music therapist to WWI veterans, author, researcher, lecturer/teacher, founder of the National Foundation for Music Therapy in 1941, author of the first music therapy textbook published in the US. Several physicians also promoted music as a therapeutic agent during this time period.
In the 1940s, changes in philosophy regarding care of psychiatric patients as well as the influx of WWII veterans in Veterans Administration hospitals renewed interest in music programs for patients. Many musicians volunteered to provide entertainment and were primarily assigned to perform on psychiatric wards. Positive changes in patients' mental and physical health were noted by nurses. The volunteer musicians, many of whom had degrees in music education, becoming aware of the powerful effects music could have on patients realized that specialized training was necessary. The first music therapy bachelor's degree program was established in 1944 with three others and one master's degree program quickly following: "Michigan State College [now a University] (1944), the University of Kansas [master's degree only] (1946), the College of the Pacific (1947), The Chicago Musical College (1948) and Alverno College (1948)." The National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT), a professional association, was formed in 1950. In 1956 the first music therapy credential in the US, Registered Music Therapist (RMT), was instituted by the NAMT.
The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) was founded in 1998 as a merger between the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT, founded in 1950) and the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT, founded in 1971).
United Kingdom
Live music was used in hospitals after both World Wars as part of the treatment program for recovering soldiers. Clinical music therapy in Britain as it is understood today was pioneered in the 1960s and 1970s by French cellist Juliette Alvin whose influence on the current generation of British music therapy lecturers remains strong. Mary Priestley, one of Juliette Alvin's students, created "analytical music therapy". The Nordoff-Robbins approach to music therapy developed from the work of Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins in the 1950/60s.
Practitioners are registered with the Health Professions Council and, starting from 2007, new registrants must normally hold a master's degree in music therapy. There are master's level programs in music therapy in Manchester, Bristol, Cambridge, South Wales, Edinburgh and London, and there are therapists throughout the UK. The professional body in the UK is the British Association for Music Therapy In 2002, the World Congress of Music Therapy, coordinated and promoted by the World Federation of Music Therapy, was held in Oxford on the theme of Dialogue and Debate. In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues again found that music therapy helped the outcomes of schizophrenic patients.
Military: Active duty, veterans, family members
History
Music therapy finds its roots in the military. The United States Department of War issued Technical Bulletin 187 in 1945, which described the use of music in the recovery of military service members in Army hospitals. The use of music therapy in military settings started to flourish and develop following World War II and research and endorsements from both the United States Army and the Surgeon General of the United States. Although these endorsements helped music therapy develop, there was still a recognized need to assess the true viability and value of music as a medically based therapy. Walter Reed Army Medical Center and the Office of the Surgeon General worked together to lead one of the earliest assessments of a music therapy program. The goal of the study was to understand whether "music presented according to a specific plan" influenced recovery among service members with mental and emotional disorders. Eventually, case reports in reference to this study relayed not only the importance but also the impact of music therapy services in the recovery of military service personnel.
The first university sponsored music therapy course was taught by Margaret Anderton in 1919 at Columbia University. Anderton's clinical specialty was working with wounded Canadian soldiers during World War II, using music-based services to aid in their recovery process.
Today, Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom have both presented an array of injuries; however, the two signature injuries are posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). These two signature injuries are increasingly common among millennial military service members and in music therapy programs.
A person diagnosed with PTSD can associate a memory or experience with a song they have heard. This can result in either good or bad experiences. If it is a bad experience, the song's rhythm or lyrics can bring out the person's anxiety or fear response. If it is a good experience, the song can bring feelings of happiness or peace which could bring back positive emotions. Either way, music can be used as a tool to bring emotions forward and help the person cope with them.
Methods
Music therapists work with active duty military personnel, veterans, service members in transition, and their families. Music therapists strive to engage clients in music experiences that foster trust and complete participation over the course of their treatment process. Music therapists use an array of music-centered tools, techniques, and activities when working with military-associated clients, many of which are similar to the techniques used in other music therapy settings. These methods include, but are not limited to: group drumming, listening, singing, and songwriting. Songwriting is a particularly effective tool with military veterans struggling with PTSD and TBI as it creates a safe space to, "... work through traumatic experiences, and transform traumatic memories into healthier associations".
Programs
Music therapy in the military is seen in programs on military bases, VA healthcare facilities, military treatment facilities, and military communities. Music therapy programs have a large outreach because they exist for all phases of military life: pre-mobilization, deployment, post-deployment, recovery (in the case of injury), and among families of fallen military service personnel.
Resounding Joy, Inc., a San Diego, California-based music therapy program, is a pioneer for the use of music therapy in the military. Its Semper Sound program specializes in providing music therapy services to active duty military service members and veterans diagnosed with PTSD, TBI, substance abuse, and other trauma-related diagnoses. It features different programs such as The Semper Sound Band, based in San Diego, California, and the GI Jams Band, based in Chelsea, Massachusetts.
Walter Reed Army Medical Center located in Bethesda, Maryland, is another pioneer for the use of music therapy in the military. All patients at the medical center are eligible to receive music therapy services; therefore, the range of clients is wide: TBI, stroke, psychological diagnoses (anxiety, depression, PTSD), autism spectrum disorder, and more.
The Exceptional Family Member Program (EFMP) also exists to provide music therapy services to active duty military families who have a family member with a developmental, physical, emotional, or intellectual disorder. Currently, programs at the Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Resounding Joy, Inc., and the Music Institute of Chicago partner with EFMP services to provide music therapy services to eligible military family members.
Music therapy programs primarily target active duty military members and their treatment facility in order to provide reconditioning among members convalescing in Army hospitals. Although, music therapy programs not only benefit the military but rather a wide range of clients including the U.S. Air Force, American Navy, and U.S. Marines Corp. Individuals exposed to trauma benefit from their essential rehabilitative tools in order to follow the course of recovery from stress disorders. Music therapists are certified professionals who possess the abilities to determine appropriate interventions to support one recovering from a physically, emotionally, or mentally traumatic experience. In addition to their skills, they play an integral part throughout the treatment process of service members diagnosed with post-traumatic stress or brain injuries. In many cases, self-expression through songwriting or utilizing instruments help restore emotions that can be lost following trauma. Music has a significant effect on troops traveling overseas or between bases because many soldiers view music to be an escape from war, a connection to their homeland and families, or as motivation. By working with a certified music therapist, marines undergo sessions re-instituting concepts of cognition, memory attention, and emotional processing. Although programs primarily focus on phases of military life, other service members such as the U.S. Air Force are eligible for treatment as well. For instance, during a music therapy session, a man begins to play a song to a wounded Airmen. The Airmen says " [music] allows me to talk about something that happened without talking about it". Music allows the active duty airmen to open up about previous experiences while reducing his anxiety level.
See also
References
Bibliography
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
Hilliard, R. E. (2001). The effects of music therapy-based bereavement groups on mood and behavior of grieving children: A pilot study. Journal of Music Therapy, 38(4), 291–306.
Hilliard, R. E. (2007). The effects of orff-based music therapy and social work groups on childhood grief symptoms and behaviors. Journal of Music Therapy, 44(2), 123–38.
Jones, J. D. (2005). A comparison of songwriting and lyric analysis techniques to evoke emotional change in a single session with people who are chemically dependent, journal of Music Therapy, 42, 94–110.
Krout, R. E. (2005). Applications of music therapist-composed songs in creating participant connections and facilitating goals and rituals during one-time bereavement support groups and programs. Music Therapy Perspectives, 23(2), 118–128.
Lindenfelser, K. J., Grocke, D., & McFerran, K. (2008). Bereaved parents' experiences of music therapy with their terminally ill child. Journal of Music Therapy, 45(3), 330–48.
Rosner, R, Kruse, J., & Hagl, M. (2010). A meta‐analysis of interventions for bereaved children and adolescents. Death Studies, 34(2), 99 – 136.
Schwantes, M., Wigram, T., McKinney, C., Lipscomb, A., & Richards, C. (2011). The Mexican corrido and its use in a music therapy bereavement group. The Australian Journal of Music Therapy, 22, 2-20.
Silverman, M. J. (2008). Quantitative comparison of cognitive behavioral therapy and music therapy research: A methodological best-practices analysis to guide future investigation for adult psychiatric patients. Journal of Music Therapy, 45(4), 457–506.
Silverman, M. J. (2009). The use of lyric analysis interventions in contemporary psychiatric music therapy: Descriptive results of songs and objectives for clinical practice. Music Therapy Perspectives, 27(1), 55–61.
Silverman, M. J., & Marcionetti, M. J. (2004). Immediate effects of a single music therapy intervention on persons who are severely mentally ill. Arts in Psychotherapy, 31, 291–301.
Valentino, R. E. (2006). Attitudes towards cross-cultural empathy in music therapy. Music Therapy Perspectives, 24(2), 108–114.
Whitehead-Pleaux, A. M., Baryza, M.J., & Sheridan, R.L. (2007). Exploring the effects of music therapy on pediatric pain: phase 1. The Journal of Music Therapy, 44(3), 217–41.
== Further reading ==
Aldridge, David ( 2000). Music Therapy in Dementia Care, London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Boynton, Dori, compiler (1991). Lady Boynton's "New Age" Dossiers: a Serendipitous Digest of News and Articles on Trends in Modern Day Mysticism and Decadence. New Port Richey, Flor.: Lady D. Boynton. 2 vol. N.B.: Anthology of reprinted articles, pamphlets, etc. on New Age aspects of speculation in psychology, philosophy, music (especially music therapy), religion, sexuality, etc.
Bruscia, Kenneth E. "Frequently Asked Questions About Music Therapy". Boyer College of Music and Dance, Music Therapy Program, Temple University, 1993.
Bunt, Leslie; Stige, Brynjulf (2014). Music Therapy: An Art Beyond Words. (Second edition.) London: Routledge. .
Davis, William B., Kate E. Gfeller, and Michael H. Thaut (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy: Theory and Practice. Third ed. Silver Springs, MD: American Music Therapy Association.
Erlmann, Veit (ed.) Hearing Cultures. Essays on Sound, Listening, and Modernity, New York: Berg Publishers, 2004. Cf. especially Chapter 5, "Raising Spirits and Restoring Souls".
Gold, C., Heldal, T.O., Dahle, T., Wigram, T. (2006). "Music therapy for schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses", Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 4.
Harbert, Wilhelmina K., (1947). "Some principles, practices and techniques in musical therapy". University of the Pacific Dissertations.
Hart, Hugh. (March 23, 2008) The New York Times "A Season of Song, Dance and Autism". Section: AR; p. 20.
La Musicothérapie: thémathèque. Montréal, Bibliothèque du personnel, Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, 1978.
Levinge, Alison (2015). The Music of Being: Music Therapy, Winnicott and the School of Object Relations. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. .
Marcello Sorce Keller, "Some Ethnomusicological Considerations about Magic and the Therapeutic Uses of Music", International Journal of Music Education, 8/2 (1986), 13–16.
Pellizzari, Patricia y colaboradores: Flavia Kinisberg, Germán Tuñon, Candela Brusco, Diego Patles, Vanesa Menendez, Julieta Villegas, y Emmanuel Barrenechea (2011). "Crear Salud", aportes de la Musicoterapia preventiva-comunitaria. Patricia Pellizzari Ediciones. Buenos Aires
Ruud, Even (2010). Music Therapy: A Perspective from the Humanities. Barcelona Publishers. .
Vladimir Simosko. Is Rock Music Harmful? Winnipeg: 1987
Vladimir Simosko. Jung, Music, and Music Therapy: Prepared on the Occasion of the "C.G. Jung and the Humanities" Colloquium, 1987. Winnipeg: The Colloqium
Vomberg, Elizabeth. Music for the Physically Disabled Child: a Bibliography. Toronto: 1978.
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Tree trunk is the stem and main wooden axis of a tree.
Tree trunk, or variants, may refer to:
"Treetrunk" (song), by The Doors, 1972
Tree Trunks, a fictional character in the American animated TV series Adventure Time
"Tree Trunks" (Adventure Time), an episode of the series
See also
Trunk (disambiguation)
Cyanea copelandii, a flowering plant known as treetrunk cyanea
Tree trunk spider
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Dak-ttongjip (), literally "chicken gizzard", is a Korean dish made by stir-frying chicken gizzard with spices. It is a popular anju (accompaniment to alcoholic drinks). The dish can also be called dak-ttongjip-bokkeum (), as it is a bokkeum (stir-fried dish).
Etymology and translations
Dak-ttongjip () is a vernacular term for "chicken gizzard", with its components dak () meaning "chicken", and ttongjip () normally meaning "big intestine" or "stomach". However, as ttong and jip can be (mistakenly) parsed as "waste" and "house" respectively, mistranslations such as "chicken poo house" or "chicken asshole house" are not uncommon.
History
In 1972, dak-ttongjip was a giveaway side dish for day laborers visiting Sama Tongdak, a fried chicken restaurant at Pyeonghwa Market in Daegu. Due to its positive reception, it became a regular menu item. Soon, it became the most popular food at Pyeonghwa Market, where there is a "dak-ttongjip alley" today. Dak-ttongjip is now considered the local specialty of Daegu.
References
South Korean chicken dishes
Offal
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Ichneumon may refer to:
Ichneumon (genus), a genus of wasps
Ichneumon, species of wasps in the family Ichneumonidae
Ichneumon, an alternative name for the Egyptian mongoose
Ichneumon (medieval zoology), the enemy of the dragon in medieval literature
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Stumped is a method of dismissing a batsman in cricket, which involves the wicket-keeper putting down the wicket while the batsman is out of his ground. (The batsman leaves his ground when he has moved down the pitch beyond the popping crease, usually in an attempt to hit the ball). The action of stumping can only be performed by a wicket-keeper, and can only occur from a legitimate delivery (i.e. not a no-ball), while the batsman is not attempting a run; it is a special case of a run out.
Being "out of his ground" is defined as not having any part of the batsman's body or his bat touching the ground behind the crease – i.e., if his bat is slightly elevated from the floor despite being behind the crease, or if his foot is on the crease line itself but not completely across it and touching the ground behind it, then he would be considered out (if stumped). One of the fielding team (such as the wicket-keeper himself) must appeal for the wicket by asking the umpire. The appeal is normally directed to the square-leg umpire, who would be in the best position to adjudicate on the appeal.
Stumping
Stumping is the fifth most common form of dismissal after caught, bowled, leg before wicket and run out, though it is seen more commonly in Twenty20 cricket because of its more aggressive batting. It is governed by Law 39 of the Laws of Cricket. It is usually seen with a medium or slow bowler (in particular, a spin bowler), as with fast bowlers a wicket-keeper takes the ball too far back from the wicket to attempt a stumping. It often includes co-operation between a bowler and wicket-keeper: the bowler draws the batsman out of his ground (such as by delivering a ball with a shorter length to make the batsman step forward to hit it on the bounce), and the wicket-keeper catches and breaks the wicket before the batsman realises he has missed the ball and makes his ground, i.e. places the bat or part of his body on the ground back behind the popping crease. If the bails are removed before the wicket-keeper has the ball, the batsman can still be stumped if the wicket-keeper removes one of the stumps from the ground, while holding the ball in his hand. The bowler is credited for the batsman's wicket, and the wicket-keeper is credited for the dismissal. A batsman may be out stumped off a wide delivery but cannot be stumped off a no ball as bowler is credited for the wicket.
Notes:
The popping crease is defined as the back edge of the crease marking (i.e. the edge closer to the wicket. Therefore, a batsman whose bat or foot is on the crease marking, but does not touch the ground behind the crease marking, can be stumped. This is quite common if the batsman's back foot is raised so that only his toe is on the ground.
The wicket must be properly put down in accordance with Law 29 of the Laws of cricket: using either the ball itself or a hand or arm that is in possession of the ball. Note that since the ball itself can legally put down the wicket, a stumping is still valid even if the ball merely rebounds from the 'keeper and breaks the wicket, even though never controlled by him.
The wicket-keeper must allow the ball to pass the stumps before taking it, unless it has touched either the batsman or his bat first (Law 21.9). If the wicket-keeper fails to do this, the delivery is a "no ball", and the batsman cannot be stumped (nor run out, unless he attempts to run to the other wicket. ).
Records
MS Dhoni holds the world's fastest stumping record in cricket. He stumped out Keemo Paul of the West Indies in only 0.08 seconds.
References
External links
Cricket laws and regulations
Cricket terminology
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Motion control (film), een montagetechniek bij film.
Motion control (regeltechniek), een term uit de regeltechniek.
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Drop shotting is a highly finesse angling technique using plastic baits, consisting of a small thin-wire hook with a weight (sinker) attached to the tag end of the line. This is in contrast to the more traditional Texas Rig, where the weight slides inline, resting on the nose of the bait; or the Carolina Rig, where the weight is fixed above the bait. The dropshot rig provides the ability to keep a hook and lure off the bottom with a more "weightless"-looking posture. Usually the bait is fished by letting the weight hit the bottom and then twitch the rod tip, causing the lure to shake in a jumping-like action, but can also be flipped, dragged, hopped or jigged along the bottom. This simple but versatile technique has endless combinations with the different hooks, soft plastics and weights that can be used.[1] The aim is to present a free floating, slow twitching lure to induce a strike from non-aggressive fish. This rig is commonly used in bass fishing for catching smallmouth, largemouth and spotted bass, but can be used for a variety of other bottom-dwelling fish species, as well.
How to fish
The Drop Shot Rig can be used in any place that looks like it could hold a bass. Similar to jig fishing the weight will need to hit the bottom, and fished along the bottom by twitching the rod. Another commonly used application of this rig is on deep suspended fish. The rig can be dropped down onto a school of fish directly under the boat. Because the bait is above the weight it is held up off the bottom, it makes for an easier target for fish that are suspended. Usually when throwing the bait the user will want to target harder bottoms having rock or gravel. Another place the drop shot rig is thrown, is in and around brush found on the bottom either man made or natural. The drop shot rig can even be fished from shore. Casting out away from the bank and letting the rig fall til it hits bottom or the line goes slack. Once the lure is on the bottom reel the line till it is taut and shake the rig in place.
Due to the drop shot rig being a finesse rig the gear used when fishing the drop shot rig is spinning gear and light line. The line usually consist of 8-10 lb fluorocarbon or mono-filament. The hook used is usually a light wire octopus or round bend style hook. The weights are usually pretty light, and some have a swivel to prevent line twist. Some weights have a wire attached to the swivel that is used to pinch the line. The snap also makes it efficient for getting the lure free from a snag, because the line can be pulled through the snap retrieving the lure.
One of the more commonly used knots when using the dropshotting technique is the palomar knot. The tag end of the knot is then placed through the eye of the hook to keep the hook out at a ninety degree angle. Once the tag line is put through the eye of the hook the weight is applied at the desired length from the lure and is ready to be fished. The common hookset used when drop shotting is a reel set. This is where the fishermen feels the bite and starts reeling while lifting the rod. Causing the thin wire hook to slide up into the top of the fish's mouth. This hook set is commonly used with the drop shot due to the thin wire hook. If the hook is set too hard then it could cause the hook to bend and lose the fish. Another important reason for this hookset is to keep from breaking the light line usually associated with this form of fishing.
References
Weekend Bass Pro article on dropshotting
Tips for Fishing Arizona Using a drop shot rig
Fishing equipment
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Bulbophyllum whitfordii é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Robert Allen Rolfe em 1905.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1905
Bulbophyllum
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In Christian denominations that practice infant baptism, confirmation is seen as the sealing of the covenant created in baptism. Those being confirmed are known as confirmands. For adults, it is an affirmation of belief. It involves laying on of hands.
Catholicism views confirmation as a sacrament. The sacrament is called chrismation in the Eastern Christianity. In the East it is conferred immediately after baptism. In Western Christianity, confirmation is ordinarily administered when a child reaches the age of reason or early adolescence. When an adult is baptized, the sacrament is conferred immediately after baptism in the same ceremony. Among those Christians who practice teen-aged confirmation, the practice may be perceived, secondarily, as a "coming of age" rite.
In many Protestant denominations, such as the Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist and Reformed traditions, confirmation is a rite that often includes a profession of faith by an already baptized person. Confirmation is required by Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant denominations for full membership in the respective church. In Catholic theology, by contrast, it is the sacrament of baptism that confers membership, while "reception of the sacrament of Confirmation is necessary for the completion of baptismal grace". The Catholic and Methodist denominations teach that in confirmation, the Holy Spirit strengthens a baptized individual for their faith journey.
Confirmation is not practiced in Baptist, Anabaptist and other groups that teach believer's baptism. Thus, the sacrament or rite of confirmation is administered to those being received from those aforementioned groups, in addition to those converts from non-Christian religions. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not practice infant baptism, but individuals can be baptized after they reach the "age of accountability". Confirmation in the LDS Church occurs shortly following baptism, which is not considered complete or fully efficacious until confirmation is received.
There is an analogous ceremony also called confirmation in Reform Judaism.
Scriptural foundation
The roots of confirmation are found in the Church of the New Testament. In the Gospel of John 14, Christ speaks of the coming of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles (). Later, after his Resurrection, Jesus breathed upon them and they received the Holy Spirit (), a process completed on the day of Pentecost (). That Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirit was the sign of the messianic age foretold by the prophets (cf. Ezek 36:25–27; Joel 3:1–2). Its arrival was proclaimed by Apostle Peter. Filled with the Holy Spirit the apostles began to proclaim "the mighty works of God" (Acts 2:11; Cf. 2:17–18). After this point, the New Testament records the apostles bestowing the Holy Spirit upon others through the laying on of hands.
Three texts make it certain that a laying on of hands for the imparting of the Spirit – performed after the water-bath and as a complement to this bath – existed already in the earliest apostolic times. These texts are: Acts 8:4–20 and 19:1–7, and Hebrews 6:1–6.
In the Acts of the Apostles 8:14–17 different "ministers" are named for the two actions. It is not deacon Philip, the baptiser, but only the apostles who were able to impart the pneuma through the laying on of hands.
Now when the apostles in Jerusalem heard that Samaria had accepted the word of God, they sent them Peter and John, who went down and prayed for them, that they might receive the holy Spirit, for it had not yet fallen upon any of them; they had only been baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then they laid hands on them and they received the holy Spirit.
Further on in the text, connection between the gift of the Holy Spirit and the gesture of laying on of hands appears even more clearly. Acts 8:18–19 introduces the request of Simon the magician in the following way: "When Simon saw that the Spirit was given through the laying on of the apostles' hands ... ."
In Acts 19, baptism of the disciples is mentioned in quite general terms, without the minister being identified. If we refer to 1 Cor 1:17 we may presume that Paul left the action of baptising to others. But then Acts 19:6 expressly states that it was Apostle Paul who laid his hands upon the newly baptised.
Hebrews 6:1–6 distinguishes "the teaching about baptisms" from the teaching about "the laying on of hands". The difference may be understood in the light of the two passages in Acts 8 and 19.
Christian denominational views
Roman Catholic Church
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, confirmation, known also as chrismation, is one of the seven sacraments instituted by Christ for the conferral of sanctifying grace and the strengthening of the union between the individual and God.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church in its paragraphs 1302–1303 states:
In the Latin (i.e., Western) Catholic Church, the sacrament is customarily conferred only on persons old enough to understand it, and the ordinary minister of confirmation is a bishop. "If necessity so requires", the diocesan bishop may grant specified priests the faculty to administer the sacrament, although normally he is to administer it himself or ensure that it is conferred by another bishop. In addition, the law itself confers the same faculty on the following:
within the confines of their jurisdiction, those who in law are equivalent to a diocesan Bishop (for example, a vicar apostolic);
in respect of the person to be confirmed, the priest who by virtue of his office or by mandate of the diocesan Bishop baptises an adult or admits a baptized adult into full communion with the Catholic Church;
in respect of those in danger of death, the parish priest or indeed any priest.
"According to the ancient practice maintained in the Roman liturgy, an adult is not to be baptized unless he receives Confirmation immediately afterward, provided no serious obstacles exist." Administration of the two sacraments, one immediately after the other, to adults is normally done by the bishop of the diocese (generally at the Easter Vigil) since "the baptism of adults, at least of those who have completed their fourteenth year, is to be referred to the Bishop, so that he himself may confer it if he judges this appropriate" But if the bishop does not confer the baptism, then it devolves on the priest whose office it then is to confer both sacraments, since, "in addition to the bishop, the law gives the faculty to confirm to the following, ... priests who, in virtue of an office which they lawfully hold, baptize an adult or a child old enough for catechesis or receive a validly baptized adult into full communion with the Church."
In Eastern Catholic Churches, the usual minister of this sacrament is the parish priest, using olive oil consecrated by a bishop (i.e., chrism) and administering the sacrament immediately after baptism. This corresponds exactly to the practice of the early Church, when at first those receiving baptism were mainly adults, and of the non-Roman Catholic Eastern Churches.
The practice of the Eastern Churches gives greater emphasis to the unity of Christian initiation. That of the Latin Church more clearly expresses the communion of the new Christian with the bishop as guarantor and servant of the unity, catholicity and apostolicity of his Church, and hence the connection with the apostolic origins of Christ's Church.
Rite of Confirmation in the West
The main reason why the West separated the sacrament of confirmation from that of baptism was to re-establish direct contact between the person being initiated with the bishops. In the Early Church, the bishop administered all three sacraments of initiation (baptism, confirmation and Eucharist), assisted by the priests and deacons and, where they existed, by deaconesses for women's baptism. The post-baptismal Chrismation in particular was reserved to the bishop. When adults no longer formed the majority of those being baptized, this Chrismation was delayed until the bishop could confer it. Until the 12th century, priests often continued to confer confirmation before giving Communion to very young children.
After the Fourth Lateran Council, Communion, which continued to be given only after confirmation, was to be administered only on reaching the age of reason. Some time after the 13th century, the age of confirmation and Communion began to be delayed further, from seven, to twelve and to fifteen. In the 18th c. in France the sequence of sacraments of initiation was changed. Bishops started to impart confirmation only after the first Eucharistic communion. The reason was no longer the busy calendar of the bishop, but the bishop's will to give adequate instruction to the youth. The practice lasted until Pope Leo XIII in 1897 asked to restore the primary order and to celebrate confirmation back at the age of reason. That didn't last long. In 1910 his successor, Pope Pius X, showing concern for the easy access to the Eucharist for children, in his Letter lowered the age of first communion to seven. That was the origin of the widespread custom in parishes to organise the First Communion for children at .
The 1917 Code of Canon Law, while recommending that confirmation be delayed until about seven years of age, allowed it be given at an earlier age. Only on 30 June 1932 was official permission given to change the traditional order of the three sacraments of Christian initiation: the Sacred Congregation for the Sacraments then allowed, where necessary, that confirmation be administered after first Holy Communion. This novelty, originally seen as exceptional, became more and more the accepted practice. Thus, in the mid-20th century, confirmation began to be seen as an occasion for professing personal commitment to the faith on the part of someone approaching adulthood.
However, the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1308) warns: "Although Confirmation is sometimes called the 'sacrament of Christian maturity,' we must not confuse adult faith with the adult age of natural growth, nor forget that the baptismal grace is a grace of free, unmerited election and does not need 'ratification' to become effective."
On the canonical age for confirmation in the Latin or Western Catholic Church, the present (1983) Code of Canon Law, which maintains unaltered the rule in the 1917 Code, lays down that the sacrament is to be conferred on the faithful at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is a danger of death or, in the judgement of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The Code prescribes the age of discretion also for the sacraments of Reconciliation and first Holy Communion.
In some places the setting of a later age, e.g. mid-teens in the United States, early teens in Ireland and Britain, has been abandoned in recent decades in favor of restoring the traditional order of the three sacraments of Christian initiation, Even where a later age has been set, a bishop may not refuse to confer the sacrament on younger children who request it, provided they are baptized, have the use of reason, are suitably instructed and are properly disposed and able to renew the baptismal promises (letter of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments published in its 1999 bulletin, pages 537–540).
Effects of confirmation
The Roman Catholic Church and some Anglo-Catholics teach that, like baptism, confirmation marks the recipient permanently, making it impossible to receive the sacrament twice. It accepts as valid a confirmation conferred within churches, such as the Eastern Orthodox Church, whose Holy Orders it sees as valid through the apostolic succession of their bishops. But it considers it necessary to administer the sacrament of confirmation, in its view for the only time, to Protestants who are admitted to full communion with the Catholic Church.
One of the effects of the sacrament is that "it gives us a special strength of the Holy Spirit to spread and defend the faith by word and action as true witnesses of Christ, to confess the name of Christ boldly, and never to be ashamed of the Cross" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1303). This effect was described by the Council of Trent as making the confirmed person "a soldier of Christ".
The same passage of the Catechism of the Catholic Church also mentions, as an effect of confirmation, that "it renders our bond with the Church more perfect". This mention stresses the importance of participation in the Christian community.
The "soldier of Christ" imagery was used, as far back as 350, by St Cyril of Jerusalem. In this connection, the touch on the cheek that the bishop gave while saying "" (Peace be with you) to the person he had just confirmed was interpreted in the Roman Pontifical as a slap, a reminder to be brave in spreading and defending the faith: "" (Then he strikes him lightly on the cheek, saying: Peace be with you). When, in application of the Second Vatican Council's Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, the confirmation rite was revised in 1971, mention of this gesture was omitted. However, the French and Italian translations, indicating that the bishop should accompany the words "Peace be with you" with "a friendly gesture" (French text) or "the sign of peace" (Italian text), explicitly allow a gesture such as the touch on the cheek, to which they restore its original meaning. This is in accord with the Introduction to the rite of confirmation, 17, which indicates that the episcopal conference may decide "to introduce a different manner for the minister to give the sign of peace after the anointing, either to each individual or to all the newly confirmed together."
Eastern Churches
The Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches refer to this sacrament (or, more properly, Sacred Mystery) as chrismation, a term which Roman Catholics also use; for instance, in Italian the term is . Eastern Christians link chrismation closely with the sacred mystery of baptism, conferring it immediately after baptism, which is normally on infants.
The sacred tradition of the Orthodox Church teaches that the Apostles themselves established the practice of anointing with chrism (consecrated oil) in place of the laying on of hands when bestowing the sacrament. As the numbers of converts grew, it became physically impossible for the apostles to lay hands upon each of the newly baptized. So the Apostles laid hands upon a vessel of oil, bestowing the Holy Spirit upon it, which was then distributed to all of the presbyters (priests) for their use when they baptized. This same chrism is in use to this day, never being completely depleted but newly consecrated chrism only being added to it as needed (this consecration traditionally is performed only by the primates of certain autocephalous churches on Great Thursday) and it is believed that chrism in use today contains some small amount of the original chrism made by the apostles.
When Roman Catholics and traditional Protestants, such as Lutherans, Anglicans and Methodists, convert to Orthodoxy, they are often admitted by chrismation, without baptism; but, since this is a matter of local episcopal discretion, a bishop may require all converts to be admitted by baptism if he deems it necessary. Depending upon the form of the original baptism, some Protestants must be baptized upon conversion to Orthodoxy. A common practice is that those persons who have been previously baptized by triple immersion in the name of the Trinity do not need to be baptized. However, requirements will differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and some traditional Orthodox jurisdictions prefer to baptize all converts. When a person is received into the church, whether by baptism or chrismation, they will often take the name of a saint, who will become their patron saint. Thenceforward, the feast day of that saint will be celebrated as the convert's name day, which in traditional Orthodox cultures is celebrated in lieu of one's birthday.
The Orthodox rite of chrismation takes place immediately after baptism and clothing the "newly illumined" (i.e., newly baptized) in their baptismal robe. The priest makes the sign of the cross with the chrism (also referred to as myrrh) on the brow, eyes, nostrils, lips, both ears, breast, hands and feet of the newly illumined, saying with each anointing: "The seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit. Amen." Then the priest will place his epitrachelion (stole) over the newly illumined and leads them and their sponsors in a procession, circling three times around the Gospel Book, while the choir chants each time: "As many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ. Alleluia" ().
The reason the Eastern Churches perform chrismation immediately after baptism is so that the newly baptized may receive Holy Communion, which is commonly given to infants as well as adults.
An individual may be baptized in extremis (in a life-threatening emergency) by any baptized member of the church; however, only a priest or bishop may perform the mystery of chrismation. If someone who has been baptized in extremis survives, the priest then performs the chrismation.
The Roman Catholic Church does not confirm converts to Catholicism who have been chrismated in a non-Catholic Eastern church, considering that the sacrament has been validly conferred and may not be repeated.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church the sacrament may be conferred more than once and it is customary to receive returning or repentant apostates by repeating chrismation.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
When discussing confirmation, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) uses the term "ordinance" owing to their origins in a Protestant environment, but the actual doctrine describing their ordinances and their effects is sacramental. Church ordinances are understood as administering grace and must be conducted by properly ordained clergy members through apostolic succession reaching back through Peter to Christ, although the line of authority differs from Catholics and Eastern Orthodox. Baptism by water is understood as representing the death of the old person and their resurrection from that death into a new life in Christ. Through baptism by water, sin, and guilt are washed away as the old sinner dies and the new child of Christ emerges. Confirmation is understood as being the baptism by fire wherein the Holy Spirit enters into the individual, purges them of the effects of the sin from their previous life (the guilt and culpability of which were already washed away), and introduces them into the church as a new person in Christ. Through confirmation, the individual receives the Gift of the Holy Ghost, granting the individual the permanent companionship of the Holy Ghost as long as the person does not willfully drive Him away through sin.
The ceremony is significantly simpler than in Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches and is performed by an ordained clergyman as follows:
Lays his hands upon the individual's head and states the person's full name.
States that the ordinance is performed by the authority of the Melchizedek Priesthood.
Confirms the person a member of the LDS Church.
Bestows the gift of the Holy Ghost by saying, "Receive the Holy Ghost."
Gives a priesthood blessing as the Spirit directs.
Closes in the name of Jesus Christ.
Other actions typically associated with confirmation in Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy, such as the reception of a Christian name, anointing of body parts with chrism, and the clothing of the confirmant in a white garment or chiton are conducted separately as part of a ceremony called the Initiatory.
Lutheran Churches
Lutheran confirmation is a public profession of faith prepared for by long and careful instruction. In English, it is called "affirmation of baptism", and is a mature and public profession of the faith which "marks the completion of the congregation's program of confirmation ministry". The German language also uses for Lutheran confirmation a different word () from the word used for the sacramental rite of the Catholic Church ().
Lutheran churches do not treat confirmation as a dominical sacrament of the Gospel, considering that only baptism and the Eucharist can be regarded as such. Some popular Sundays for this to occur are Palm Sunday, Pentecost and Reformation Sunday (last Sunday in October).
Anglican Communion
Article 25 of The 16th Century 39 Articles lists confirmation among those rites "commonly called Sacraments" which are "not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel" (a term referring to the dominical sacraments, i.e. baptism and the Holy Eucharist), because they were not directly instituted by Christ with a specific matter and form, and they are not generally necessary to salvation. The language of the Articles has led some to deny that confirmation and the other rites are sacraments at all. Others maintain that "commonly called Sacraments" does not mean "wrongly called Sacraments".
Many Anglicans, especially Anglo-Catholics, count the rite as one of seven sacraments. This is the official view in several Anglican provinces. While most provinces of the Anglican Communion do not make provision for ministers other than bishops to administer confirmation, presbyters can be authorized to do so in certain South Asian provinces, which are united churches. Similarly, the American Episcopal Church recognizes that "those who have previously made a mature public commitment in another Church may be received by the laying on of hands by a Bishop of this Church, rather than confirmed." Furthermore, at its General Convention in 2015 a resolution advancing presbyteral confirmation was referred to committee for further review.
"[T]he renewal of the baptismal vows, which is part of the Anglican Confirmation service, is in no way necessary to Confirmation and can be done more than once. [...] When Confirmation is given early, candidates may be asked to make a fresh renewal of vows when they approach adult life at about eighteen." The 1662 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England employs the phrase "ratify and confirm" with respect to these vows which has led to the common conception of confirmation as the renewal of baptismal vows. While such a view closely aligns to the doctrine of confirmation held by Lutherans, the dominant Anglican position is perhaps better evidenced in the attempt to replace "ratify and confirm" with "ratify and confess" in the proposed 1928 prayer book, which was defeated in the House of Commons 14 June of that year. Anglicanism includes a range of approaches to the theology of confirmation.
Methodist Churches
In the Methodist Church, as with the Anglican Communion, Confirmation is defined by the Articles of Religion as one those "Commonly called Sacraments but not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel", also known as the "five lesser sacraments". The Methodist theologian John William Fletcher stated that "it was a custom of the Apostles and elders in the primitive Church, adopted by our own church, to pray that young Believers might be filled with the Spirit through the laying on of hands." As such, the Methodist Worship Book declares that
By Water and Spirit, an official United Methodist publication, states that "it should be emphasized that Confirmation is what the Holy Spirit does. Confirmation is a divine action, the work of the Spirit empowering a person 'born through water and the Spirit' to 'live as a faithful disciple of Jesus Christ'." As with its Anglican patrimony, in Methodism, confirmation is a means of grace. Furthermore, confirmation is the individual's first public affirmation of the grace of God in baptism and the acknowledgment of the acceptance of that grace by faith. For those baptized as infants, it often occurs when youth enter their 6th through 8th grade years, but it may occur earlier or later. For youth and adults who are joining the Church, "those who are baptized are also confirmed, remembering that our ritual reflects the ancient unity of baptism, confirmation (laying on of hands with prayer), and Eucharist." Candidates to be confirmed, known as confirmands, take a class which covers Christian doctrine, theology, Methodist Church history, stewardship, basic Bible study and other topics.
Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Continental Reformed Churches
The Presbyterian Church in America has a process of confirmation, but it is not necessarily public, and depends on the congregation as to the nature of confirmation. In practice, many churches do require and offer classes for Confirmation.
The PC(USA) has a confirmation process. This is a profession of faith that "seeks to provide youth with a foundational understanding of our faith, tradition and Presbyterian practices".
Irvingian Churches
In the New Apostolic Church, the largest of the Irvingian denominations, Confirmation is a rite that "strengthens the confirmands in their endeavour to keep their vow to profess Jesus Christ in word and deed." Confirmation is celebrated within the Divine Service and in it, confirmands take the following vow:
Following the recitation of the vow, "young Christians receive the confirmation blessing, which is dispensed upon them through laying on of hands."
United Protestant Churches
In United Protestant Churches, such as the United Church of Canada, Church of North India, Church of Pakistan, Church of South India, Uniting Church in Australia and United Church of Christ in Japan, confirmation is a rite that is "understood as a Christian person assuming the responsibilities of the promises made at baptism."
Confirmation name
In many countries, it is customary for a person being confirmed in some dioceses of Roman Catholic Church and in parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism to adopt a new name, generally the name of a biblical character or saint, thus securing an additional patron saint as protector and guide. This practice is not mentioned in the official liturgical book of the rite of confirmation and is not in use in Spanish and French-speaking lands, nor in Italy or the Philippines. Although some insist on the custom, it is discouraged by others and in any case is only a secondary aspect of confirmation.
As indicated by the different senses of the word "christening", baptism and the giving of a personal name have traditionally been linked. At confirmation, in which the intervention of a godparent strengthens a resemblance with baptism, it became customary to take a new name, as was also the custom on other occasions, in particular that of religious profession. King Henry III of France (1551–1589) was christened Edouard Alexandre in 1551, but at confirmation received the name Henri, by which he afterwards reigned. Today usually no great use is made of the confirmation name, although some treat it as an additional middle name. For example, A Song of Ice and Fire author George R. R. Martin was born George Raymond Martin, but added his confirmation name Richard as a second middle name. However, even after the English Reformation, the legal system of that country admitted the lawfulness of using one's confirmation name in, for instance, purchasing land.
Repetition of the sacrament or rite
The Catholic Church sees confirmation as one of the three sacraments that no one can receive more than once (see sacramental character). It recognizes as already confirmed those who enter the Catholic Church after receiving the sacrament, even as babies, in the churches of Eastern Christianity, but it confers the sacrament (in its view, for the first and only time) on those who enter the Catholic Church after being confirmed in Protestant churches, seeing these churches as lacking properly ordained ministers.
In the Lutheran Churches, those individuals who received the sacrament of baptism according to the Trinitarian formula in a non-Lutheran church are confirmed as Lutherans, ordinarily during the Easter Vigil—the first liturgy of Eastertide. The rite of confirmation is preceded by a period of catechetical instruction.
In the Anglican Communion, a person who was previously confirmed in another denomination by a bishop or priest recognized as validly ordained is "received" rather than confirmed again. Some dioceses of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America recognize non-episcopal Confirmations as well and these individuals are received into the Anglican Communion rather than re-confirmed. In other dioceses, confirmations of those Christian denominations are recognized if they have a valid apostolic succession in the eyes of the Anglican Communion (e.g. Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Roman Catholic Church, etc.).
Eastern Orthodox churches occasionally practise what is seen by other Christians as "re-Chrismation", in that they usually chrismate/confirm – and sometimes rebaptize – a convert, even one previously confirmed in other churches. The justification is that the new Chrismation (or baptism) is the only valid one, the earlier one being administered outside of the Church and hence being little more than a symbol. The Eastern Orthodox will also chrismate an apostate from the Orthodox Church who repents and re-enters communion. According to some interpretations, the Eastern churches therefore view confirmation/Chrismation as a repeatable sacrament. According to others, the rite is understood as "part of a process of reconciliation, rather than as a reiteration of post-baptismal chrismation".
Analogous ceremonies in non-Christian practice
Judaism
In the 1800s Reform Judaism developed a separate ceremony, called confirmation, loosely modeled on Christian Confirmation ceremonies. This occurred because, at the time, Reform Jews believed that it was inappropriate for bar/bat mitzvah age children to be considered mature enough to understand what it means to be religious. It was held that children of this age were not responsible enough to understand what it means to observe religious practices. Israel Jacobson developed the confirmation ceremony to replace bar/bat mitzvah. Originally this ceremony was for 13-year-old boys. In later decades, the Reform movement modified this view, and now much of Reform Judaism in the United States encourages children to celebrate becoming Bar/Bat mitzvah at the traditional age, and then has the confirmation at the later age as a sign of a more advanced completion of their Jewish studies.
Today, many Reform Jewish congregations hold confirmation ceremonies as a way of marking the biblical festival of Shavuot and the decision of young adults to embrace Jewish study in their lives and reaffirm their commitment to the Covenant. The confirmands represent "the first fruits of each year's harvest. They represent the hope and promise of tomorrow." Confirmation is typically held in tenth grade after a year of study, but some synagogues celebrate it in other years of high school.
Confirmation, in the context of Reform Judaism, was mentioned officially for the first time in an ordinance issued by the Jewish consistory of the kingdom of Westphalia at Cassel in 1810. There it was made the duty of the rabbi "to prepare the young for confirmation, and personally to conduct the ceremony." At first only boys were confirmed, on the Sabbath ("Shabbat") that they celebrated becoming Bar Mitzvah; the ceremony was performed at the home or in the schoolroom. In Berlin, Jewish girls were confirmed for the first time in 1817, in Hamburg in 1818.
Confirmation was at first excluded from the synagogue, because, like every innovation, it met with stern opposition from more traditional rabbis. Gradually, however, it found more favor; Hebrew school classes were confirmed together, and confirmation gradually became a solemn celebration at the synagogue. In 1822 the first class of boys and girls was confirmed at the Hamburg Temple, and in 1831 Rabbi Samuel Egers, a prominent traditional rabbi of his time, began to confirm boys and girls at the synagogue of Brunswick. While in the beginning some Shabbat, frequently during Chanukah or Passover, was selected for confirmation, it became increasingly customary, following the example of Egers, to perform the ceremony during the biblical festival of Shavuot ("Feast of Weeks"). It was felt that Shavuot was well suited for the rite, as it celebrated the occasion when the Israelites on Mount Sinai declared their intention to accept the yoke of God's Law, so those of every new generation should follow the ancient example and declare their willingness to be faithful to the Sinaitic covenant transmitted by their ancestors.
Confirmation was introduced in Denmark as early as 1817, in Hamburg 1818, and in Hessen and Saxony in 1835. The Prussian government, which showed itself hostile to the Reform movement, prohibited it as late as 1836, as did Bavaria as late as 1838. It soon made its way, however, into all progressive congregations of Germany. In 1841 it was introduced in France, first in Bordeaux and Marseilles, then in Strasburg and Paris, under the name . The first Israelitish synod in 1869 at Leipsic adopted a report on religious education, the 13th section of which contains an elaborate opinion on confirmation, recommending the same to all Jewish congregations. In America the annual confirmation of boys and girls was first resolved upon by the congregation of Temple Emanu-El of New York in 1847. The ceremony soon gained so firm a foothold in America that soon there was no progressive Jewish congregation in which it did not occur during Shavuot.
Secular confirmations
Several secular, mainly Humanist, organizations direct civil confirmations for older children, as a statement of their life stance that is an alternative to traditional religious ceremonies for children of that age.
Some atheist regimes have as a matter of policy fostered the replacement of Christian rituals such as confirmation with non-religious ones. In the historically Protestant German Democratic Republic (East Germany), for example, "the Jugendweihe (youth dedication) gradually supplanted the Christian practice of Confirmation." A concept that first appeared in 1852, the is described as "a solemn initiation marking the transition from youth to adulthood that was developed in opposition to Protestant and Catholic Churches' Confirmation."
See also
Rite of passage
References
Further reading
External links
The Rite of Confirmation Resource Site
Waking Up Catholic – RCIA and Adult Confirmation
Church Fathers on Confirmation
Catholic Sacrament of Confirmation – Initiation
Information and Forum for Roman Catholics About to Receive0 Confirmation
Catholic Encyclopedia – Catholic teaching on Confirmation
Catechism of Filaret, 307–314 – Eastern Orthodox teaching on Confirmation/Unction with Chrism/Chrismation
Anglican teaching on Confirmation
Judaism 101: Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah, and Confirmation
My Jewish Learning: Jewish Confirmation
Sacraments
Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism
Rites of passage
Holy Spirit
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Fugu chiri is a pufferfish soup. It is also known as tetchiri.
See also
Fugu
List of Japanese soups and stews
References
Japanese soups and stews
Fish dishes
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The Tarte al d'jote is the culinary speciality of the city of Nivelles, Belgium.
The main ingredient is chard (d'jote in the local dialect of Walloon), cream cheese (the boulette of Nivelles), and butter.
In 1980, the Confrérîye dèl Târte al D'jote (Brotherhood of the Tarte al D'jote) was founded with the objective of preserving the cultural, folkloric and gastronomic heritage of Nivelles. One of the missions of the Confrérîye is to promote this speciality, whose first mention traces back to 1218. All year long, its members meet and through blind tasting and well defined criteria, give grades to each producer (grades go from one to five stars). The ceremony of the awarding of the quality labels happens yearly at the beginning of February.
References
Confrérîye dèl Tarte al D'jote (FR)
Belgian cuisine
Tarts
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A naming firm is a type of marketing service that specializes in the linguistic art and science of product and company onomastics.
Naming firms develop brand names and product names that are typically categorized as evocative, descriptive, invented or experiential. They often suggest taglines or positioning statements, and might also consult on logo design and corporate identity. Some agencies also include market research and consumer focus group testing.
Most naming professionals provide trademark services as part of their process, vetting names through a global trademark screening. Legal counsel is generally secured for trademark registration and application activities.
References
Branding companies
Naming
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"Wondering" is a song by the band Dirty Pretty Things. It was released as a single on 25 September 2006 and was the third to be released from the band's debut album Waterloo to Anywhere. Early versions were generally titled "If You Were Wondering", the single-word title being settled upon for the final release of the album.
Single track listings
CD
"Wondering"
"No Signal. No Battery" (Demo)
"The Gentry Cove" (Live)
"Wondering" (Video)
7" (1)
"Wondering"
"Chinese Dogs" (Demo)
7" (2)
"Wondering"
"Last Of The Small Town Playboys" (Live At 02 Wireless Festival)
Chart performance
References
External links
Single info
Official Lyrics The Lyrics of the official Dirty Pretty Things website.
2006 singles
Dirty Pretty Things (band) songs
Song recordings produced by Dave Sardy
2006 songs
Songs written by Carl Barât
Mercury Records singles
Songs written by Anthony Rossomando
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M2A1 peut faire référence à :
une variante du char M2 de la seconde guerre mondiale,
Howitzer 105 mm M2A1, un obusier américain.
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William South may refer to:
William South (photographer), American photographer and inventor
William South (jockey), British jockey
William Garnet South, police officer in Alice Springs , Australia
William Howard South, political figure in Nova Scotia
Will South, member of the British band Thirteen Senses
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CJRA may refer to:
Civil Justice Reform Act
Crime and Justice Research Alliance
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Apple stem grooving virus is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Betaflexiviridae.
External links
ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database: Apple stem grooving virus
Family Groups - The Baltimore Method
Betaflexiviridae
Viral plant pathogens and diseases
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Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming, the current climate change, especially its effects. It was established in 2011 as the continuation of Nature Reports Climate Change, itself established in 2007. Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2020 impact factor of 21.722.
References
External links
Nature Research academic journals
Publications established in 2011
Climatology journals
Monthly journals
English-language journals
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Matchs de la campagne 2011
Le tableau suivant liste les rencontres de l'équipe de France de handball masculin de l'année 2011.
Statistiques de la campagne 2011
Équipe de France masculine de handball
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Pali: Manta; Mantra is a religious syllable or poem, typically from the Pali or Sanskrit languages.
Mantra or Manthra may also refer to:
Film, TV and entertainment
Mantra (actor), Mumbai based actor, television presenter, model, radio jockey and voice over artist
Mantra (actress), South Indian actress
Mantra (comics), a comic book series written by Mike Barr and published by Malibu Comics in the mid-1990s
Mantra (2007 film), a Telugu language film
Mantra (2016 film), a Hindi-language drama
Mantram (film)
Mantra Films, Inc., the film company that produces and distributes Girls Gone Wild DVD series
Music
Mantra Recordings, a subsidiary of Beggars Banquet Records
Classical compositions
Mantra (Stockhausen), a 1970 musical composition by the German avant garde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen
"Mantra", a 2004 work by Romano Crivici
Three Mantras Op.61, by John Foulds
Mantra, choral work by Robert Moran
Albums
Mantra (Faakhir Mehmood album)
Mantra (Shelter album)
Mantra (In Vain album)
Songs
"Mantra" (Dave Grohl song), 2013
"Mantra" (Material song), by Bill Laswell as Material and The Orb, 1993
"Mantra" (Bring Me the Horizon song), 2018
"Mantra", a song by Anggun, from the album Luminescence, 2005
"Mantra", a song by King Crimson from the album In the Court of the Crimson King, 1969
"Mantra", an instrumental by Santana from Welcome, 1973
"Mantra", a song by Terence Blanchard from A Tale of God's Will (A Requiem for Katrina), 2007
"Mantra", a song by Tool from their album Lateralus, 2001
Other
Mantra (restaurant), a Fusion cuisine restaurant in Boston
"Mantra", a commercial software renderer for producing computer-generated imagery; part of the Houdini suite
Mantra Group, an Australian hotel company acquired in 2017 by AccorHotels
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TV Man or Five Piece Cube with Strange Hole is a 1993 mountain rose colored granite and steel sculpture by David Bakalar, installed on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) campus, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The five abstract, organic elements of the sculpture reflect the influences of Constructivism and Surrealism on the artist's style. The geometric forms use negative space to help compose an anthropomorphic ensemble.
See also
1993 in art
References
1993 sculptures
Granite sculptures in Massachusetts
Massachusetts Institute of Technology campus
Outdoor sculptures in Cambridge, Massachusetts
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A disposition is a tendency to act in a specified way.
Disposition may also refer to:
Disposition (law), a final decision or settlement
Disposition (harpsichord), the set of choirs of strings on a harpsichord
"Disposition" (song), a 2001 progressive metal song by Tool
Testamentary disposition, any gift of any property by a testator under the terms of a will
"Disposition" (math), an uncommon way to refer to permutation of n elements over k positions.
Disposition of human corpses, such as burial or cremation
See also
Disposal (disambiguation)
Dispose
Dispositionalism
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Best Leftovers Ever! is a 2020 streaming television series. The premise revolves around a cooking competition where the goal is to use leftovers and turn them into something great. It was released on December 30, 2020 on Netflix.
Cast
Jackie Tohn
David So
Rosemary Shrager
Shawn Niles
Nate Wood
Malikah Shavonne
Jim Purvis
References
External links
2020 American television series debuts
English-language Netflix original programming
2020s American reality television series
Food reality television series
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A minesweeper is a military vessel used to destroy naval mines.
Minesweeper may also refer to:
Minesweeper (film), a 1943 American film by William Berke
Minesweeper (video game)
Microsoft Minesweeper, the Windows version of the game
Jean-Luc Dehaene or The Minesweeper, Belgian Prime Minister from 1992 to 1999
"The Sweepers" (poem), also known as "Mine Sweepers", by Rudyard Kipling
See also
Demining
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Nilsen Island () is a small island lying 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km) west of the north part of Novosilski Bay, off the south coast of South Georgia. The island has appeared on charts since the 1930s. It was recharted by SGS in the period 1951–57, and named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee (UK-APC) for Nochart Nilsen, gunner of the Compania Argentina de Pesca, Grytviken, 1939–40 and 1946–48, and of the South Georgia Whaling Company, Leith Harbor, for several years beginning in 1949.
See also
List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands
Islands of South Georgia
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Michels syndrome is a syndrome characterised by intellectual disability, craniosynostosis, blepharophimosis, ptosis, epicanthus inversus, highly arched eyebrows, and hypertelorism. People with Michels syndrome vary in other symptoms such as asymmetry of the skull, eyelid, and anterior chamber anomalies, cleft lip and palate, umbilical anomalies, and growth and cognitive development.
See also
Malpuech facial clefting syndrome, another condition in the 3MC spectrum
References
External links
Syndromes with craniofacial abnormalities
Congenital disorders
Autosomal recessive disorders
Rare syndromes
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Santa Monica is a city in western Los Angeles County, California, U.S.
Santa Monica may also refer to:
Places
Santa Mônica, Paraná, Brazil
Santa Mônica in Lages, Brazil
Santa Monica, Tlalnepantla de Baz, Mexico
Santa Monica, Surigao del Norte, Philippines
US
Santa Monica, Florida, U.S.
Santa Monica Airport, Santa Monica, California, U.S.
Santa Monica Boulevard, a major avenue in Los Angeles County, U.S.
Songs
"Santa Monica" (Everclear song), by Everclear, 1995
"Santa Monica" (Savage Garden song), 1998
"Santa Monica" (Theory of a Deadman song), 2005
"Santa Monica", a song by Bedouin Soundclash from their album Root Fire (2001)
Other uses
Santa Monica Parish Church (disambiguation), name of several churches
Santa Monica Studio, an American video game developer, known for God of War
University of Santa Monica, Santa Monica, California, U.S.
See also
Saint Monica (film), a 2002 Canadian film
Saint Monica (c. 331/2 − 387), also known as Monica of Hippo, an early Christian saint
Sainte-Monique, Quebec (disambiguation), several places in Canada
San Monique (fictional location) from James Bond
Monica (disambiguation)
Monika (disambiguation)
Monique (disambiguation)
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Interstate 391 (I-391) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway located entirely within the US state of Massachusetts. It runs from the I-91/I-391 interchange in Chicopee to the center of Holyoke, a distance of about . It runs near the Connecticut River throughout its journey in Chicopee, crosses into Holyoke, and abruptly ends at High Street south of US Route 202 (US 202).
Route description
I-391 begins at an interchange with I-91 (at exit 9) in southern Chicopee, just north of the Atwater Park and the Calvary Cemetery. Initially running parallel to the Connecticut River, it intersects with Route 116 in Chicopee center and crosses the Chicopee River. I-391 then has another junction with Route 116 in the Sandy Hill section of town, and, in less than one mile (1.6 km), it crosses underneath the Massachusetts Turnpike without an interchange. I-391 continues north through the rest of northern Chicopee, intersecting Route 141 along the way and then passing just east of Rivers Park. I-391 then crosses the Connecticut River into the city of Holyoke, where it has two closely spaced exits for local streets in the town. I-391 officially comes to an end at High Street in Holyoke, with the road continuing as Resnic Boulevard, which connects to US 202 after .
History
Plans for the highway originated from the Master Highway Plan for the Springfield metropolitan area in 1953, which planned for a "major street improvement" to Route 116. By the 1960s, freeway access was needed between Chicopee and Holyoke to improve traffic flow which prompted a spur route of I-91 to be built. I-391's planned six lanes were built to handle up to 50,000 vehicles every day, and the total cost of the proposed highway was estimated at about $35 million (equivalent to $ in ). In 1965, an alignment of the highway had been set, along with two alternative alignments. Construction for I-391 began in 1967 with a short highway, which was completed in 1970. After years of no progress, construction started again in 1978. The highway was completed in 1982 after about 15 years of planning and construction.
An interchange with the Massachusetts Turnpike (I-90) was part of the original proposal, as it would have connected the turnpike to Chicopee and Holyoke, though it was never built.
Exit list
All exit numbers in Massachusetts were to eventually be renumbered to mileage-based numbers under a future project, but that project was postponed. On November 18, 2019, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation announced that I-391's exit numbers would not be changed because its exits were so tightly spaced.
References
Further reading
External links
I-391 Historical Overview from bostonroads.com
Mass. I-391 Current and Future Exit Numbers List
91-3
91-3
3
Transportation in Hampden County, Massachusetts
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The Oriental Longhair is a variety of domestic cat. It is closely related to the Oriental Shorthair. The Oriental Longhair in some registries, such as The International Cat Association (TICA), is a separate breed. In others, such as the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA), it is a division, along with the short-haired variety, of a merged breed, the Oriental. With no globally recognized naming convention, other cat fanciers may refer to this type as Foreign Longhair or Mandarin. It was formerly known as the British Angora before being renamed in 2002 by British cat fanciers in order to avoid confusion with the Turkish Angora.
Description
Oriental Longhairs feature a long, tubular, Oriental-style body but with a longer silky coat. The range of possible coat colours includes everything from self-coloured (black, blue, chocolate, lilac, cinnamon, caramel, fawn, red, cream and apricot), tortoiseshell, smoke (silver undercoat), shaded or tipped, tabby or white. The eyes are almond shaped. The preferred eye color for Oriental Longhairs is green; except for the whites, which may have green or blue eyes, or be odd-eyed (two different colored eyes).
If an Oriental Longhair is bred to an Oriental shorthair or a Siamese, the kittens will all be short-haired. This is because the gene for long hair is recessive. The kittens will, however, be a variant, a carrier of the long-hair gene. If such a "variant" is bred to a cat with long hair, or to another variant, they may produce both short-haired and long-haired kittens. Variants may have a slightly longer coat than Oriental Shorthairs, but this is not always the case.
Behavior
The Oriental Longhair is an active cat that likes to play. If the owner does not have the time to do so, it will find a toy to play on its own. This breed enjoys jumping and does it really well, usually without breaking any objects due to its agility and elegance. The oriental longhair is extremely intelligent and are ideal companions for people who like their pets always around. Some have been known to follow their owners everywhere. They are very loyal and most get along well with other cats, especially if they are of the same breed group. These cats are not adapted to a life of living alone and prefer an interactive home. Some Oriental tend to gravitate to one person in the home. Oriental Longhairs, like their cousin breed the Siamese, have loud and expressive voices that are used often. They are smart cats, with some being quite willful in getting their own way. Many Orientals take to leash training quickly if started young. They have been known to open cabinets, doors and even refrigerators. This breed group is often recommended for more experienced cat keepers.
References
External links
Iams website: Oriental Longhair cat
Oriental Longhair Colour Overview (with photos)
Cat breeds
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Leave It Alone – EP dei NOFX del 1995
Leave It Alone – singolo di Hayley Williams del 2020
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Fest may refer to:
Fest, Danish/German/Norwegian/Swedish/Breton for party
Fest, a type of festival
The Fest, music festival in Gainesville, Florida
Joachim Fest (1926–2006), German historian and journalist
Fest Magazine, is an Edinburgh Festival review magazine
Fest, a fictional planet in the Star Wars franchise
FEST may refer to:
FEST (Faculty of Moscow State Forest University)
Federation of Engineering and Shipbuilding Trades
FEST (film festival), an annual film festival in Belgrade, Serbia
Foreign Emergency Support Team, a U.S. government short-notice anti-terrorism unit
See also
Festschrift, a book honoring a respected person, especially an academic, presented during his or her lifetime
Festuca, a genus of about 300 species of perennial tufted grasses, belonging to the grass family Poaceae (subfamily Pooideae)
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A hook is a tool with a curved end.
Hook may also refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Hook, East Riding of Yorkshire, a village and civil parish
Hook, Hart, Hampshire, a small town and civil parish
Hook railway station
Hook, Fareham, Hampshire, a village
Hook, London, a suburban area
Hook, Pembrokeshire, a village
Hook, Wiltshire, a small village
Other
Hook Island, Queensland, Australia
Hook Point, Queensland, Australia
Hook Peninsula, County Wexford, Ireland
Hook, New Zealand
Hook River, New Zealand
Hook of Holland or The Hook, a port town in the Netherlands
Hook granite massif, Zambia
Language
Hook (diacritic), a diacritical mark attached to letters in various alphabets
Hook above, a diacritical mark above letters in the Vietnamese alphabet
Rhotic hook, a diacritical mark attached to symbols in the International phonetic alphabet
Arts and entertainment
Characters
Hook (Transformers), several characters in the Transformers universe
Captain Hook, a fictional pirate in J. M. Barrie's play Peter Pan and other works
Mr. Hook, a character in several 1940s American animated cartoon shorts produced for the US Navy
Trooper Hook, the title character of Trooper Hook, a 1957 Western film, played by Joel McCrea
Television and film
Hook (film), a 1991 fantasy film by Steven Spielberg continuing J. M. Barrie's Peter and Wendy
The Hook (1963 film), a 1963 Korean War war film
The Hook (1976 film), a 1976 giallo film
The Hook (2004 film), a 2004 French thriller film
Hook (2022 TV series), a program broadcast by ARY Digital
Other arts and entertainment
Narrative hook, a literary technique designed to grab the reader's interest
The Hook (album), by Jukka Tolonen
"Hook" (Blues Traveler song), from their 1994 album, Four
Hook (music), a catchy musical passage
The Hook (screenplay), an unproduced screenplay by playwright Arthur Miller
Hook (video game), four video games based on the Spielberg film
Sports
Hook (bowling), a curving ball
Hook (boxing), a boxing punch
Hook (cricket), a shot in cricket
Hook shot, a type of shot in basketball
Hooking (ice hockey), a penalty
Hook, part of the hook and ladder trick play in football
Hook shot, in a type of misplayed golf shot
Curveball, a type of baseball pitch
People
Hook (surname), a list of people
Hook (nickname), a list of people
Hook., author abbreviation of English botanist William Jackson Hooker (1785–1865)
Hook.f., author abbreviation of English botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911), the son of William Jackson Hooker
Other uses
Hook (computer programming), a computer programming technique
Telephone hook, an electrical switch which indicates when the telephone has been hung up
Mil Mi-6, a Soviet/Russian heavy transport helicopter nicknamed "Hook"
The Hook, a classic urban legend
The Hook (newspaper), a weekly Virginia newspaper from 2002 to 2013
WFFM, a radio station licensed to Ashburn, Georgia, formerly branded "Hook FM"
Angle (journalism)
See also
Hooke (disambiguation)
Hooked (disambiguation)
Hooks (disambiguation)
Hook echo, a feature visible on radar indicative of tornadic rotation in a thunderstorm
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The National Whistleblower Center (NWC) is a nonprofit, nonpartisan, tax exempt, educational and advocacy organization based in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1988 by the lawyers Kohn, Kohn & Colapinto, LLP. As of March 2019, John Kostyack is the executive director. Since its founding, the center has worked on whistleblower cases relating to environmental protection, nuclear safety, government and corporate accountability, and wildlife crime.
Programs
NWC operates three main programs: (1) providing whistleblowers with legal assistance, (2) advocating for policies that protect and reward whistleblowers such as the Dodd–Frank Act, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, and the Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act, and (3) educating the public about the importance of whistleblowers to preserving democracy and the rule of law. The NWC strongly opposes efforts to weaken existing laws and pushes for strengthening laws protecting whistleblowers across sectors.
Starting in 2013, the U.S. Senate has recognized National Whistleblower Appreciation Day each year on July 30 at the urging of Senator Chuck Grassley, a founding member of the Whistleblower Protection Caucus in Congress. National Whistleblower Day Appreciation honors the anniversary of the United States' first whistleblower law, passed on July 30, 1778, during the height of the Revolutionary War. The National Whistleblower Center has hosted an annual celebration on the day to honor and celebrate the contributions of whistleblowers. Past speakers have included prominent members of Congress, agency heads, whistleblowers, and whistleblower advocates.
NWC Accomplishments
In addition to protecting the jobs and careers of numerous whistleblowers, the center's victories include the following:
Winning reinstatement for the highest ranking nuclear whistleblower;
Collecting millions of dollars in damages on behalf of whistleblowers;
Using the Freedom of Information Act (United States) to force government agencies to release hundreds of thousands of pages of information documenting government misconduct;
Exposing misconduct at the World Trade Center and the 9/11 crime scenes, including theft by FBI agents and the mishandling of evidence;
Documenting deficiencies in the FBI's counterterrorism program;
Requiring the FBI to create whistleblower protection for FBI agents for the first time in U.S. history;
Forcing the FBI to accredit its crime lab;
Forcing the United States Attorney General to withdraw gag orders on government employees who desired to expose ethical violations to Members of Congress;
Successfully worked with Congress to ensure passage of critical whistleblower protection laws, such as the No-FEAR Act, the Sarbanes-Oxley Corporate Whistleblower Protection Act, and the Civil Rights Tax Relief Act;
Forcing President Bush to withdraw his nomination for head of enforcement at the United States Environmental Protection Agency due to former retaliation against whistleblowers;
Preventing federal agencies from gagging employee speech critical of agency policies;
Banning "hush money" payments for all environmental and nuclear federal safety cases;
Exposing the vulnerabilities of U.S. nuclear power plants to airborne terrorist attacks and forcing reforms in the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission;
Ensuring that military whistleblowers are informed of their rights by the Department of Defense;
Establishing numerous legal precedents strengthening whistleblower protections for public and private sector employees, including expanding the scope of protected whistleblower speech, enjoining government regulations which restricted whistleblowing, and expanding the use of the Privacy Act to prevent the government from smearing its critics.
Prominent NWC whistleblowers
Bradley (Brad) Birkenfeld
Brad Birkenfeld is a former banker and wealth manager with UBS who exposed massive tax evasion in the Swiss banking system. He made history in 2012 when he received the largest ever whistleblower reward of $104 million from the IRS Office of the Whistleblower for reporting tax fraud. His disclosures resulted in unprecedented recoveries for US taxpayers with over $5 billion collected from US citizens with illegal "undeclared" offshore accounts and $780 million paid in fines and penalties by UBS.
Marrita Murphy
In Murphy v. IRS, whistleblower Marrita Murphy (represented by David K. Colapinto, general counsel for the National Whistleblower Center) challenged the constitutionality of taxing compensatory damages in civil rights/whistleblower cases. In August 2006, a unanimous panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled in favor of Ms. Murphy, and declared unconstitutional a special tax Congress had passed in 1996, which targeted civil rights victims who received compensation for emotional distress damages. However, in July 2007, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit reversed itself on the case, holding that the IRS can tax damage awards based solely on compensating victims who suffer emotional injuries.
Bunnatine (Bunny) Greenhouse
Bunny Greenhouse, former chief contracting officer of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, testified in June 2005 before a Democratic party public committee. Her testimony included allegations against Halliburton of instances of waste, fraud and other abuses with regards to its operations in the Iraq War. After standing up and "blowing the whistle", she was demoted and removed from her position as the chief civilian contracting authority of the Corps. In July 2011, she won close to $1 million in full restitution of lost wages, compensatory damages, and attorney fees.
Jane Turner
In 1999, former FBI special agent Jane Turner brought to the attention of her management team serious misconduct concerning failures to investigate and prosecute crimes against children in Indian Country and in the Minot, North Dakota community. Turner also reported on misconduct related to the potential criminal theft of property from the 9/11 Ground Zero crime scene in New York City by Minneapolis FBI personnel. Although she was considered one of the best agents working in Indian Country, Turner's twenty-five year career with the FBI was brought to a halt when she was forced from service as retaliation for what FBI management termed as "tarnishing" the image of the FBI.
Dr. Frederic Whitehurst
Dr. Frederic Whitehurst is the executive director of the NWC's Forensic Justice Project. Whitehurst received a Ph.D. in chemistry from Duke University, and a J.D. from Georgetown University. He joined the FBI in 1982 and served as a Supervisory Special Agent in the FBI crime lab from 1986 - 1998. In the lab, he observed procedural errors and misconduct by agents and as a result went public as a whistleblower. He retired after winning the first-ever whistleblower case against the FBI.
Dr. Marsha Coleman-Adebayo
Dr. Marsha Coleman-Adebayo was a senior policy analyst for the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). She founded two employee-rights groups, EPA Employees Against Racial Discrimination and the No FEAR coalition. Through her leadership, the No FEAR Coalition, working closely with Representative James Sensenbrenner, organized a successful grass-roots campaign and obtained overwhelming Congressional support for the "Notification of Federal Employees Anti-discrimination and Retaliation Act". The Act was signed into law by President Bush in 2002.
Dr. Jonathan Fishbein
The center has championed the case of one of the highest ranking drug whistleblowers in American history, Dr. Jonathan Fishbein. Fishbein exposed a series of unethical and improper medical problems within the National Institutes of Health's drug safety clinical trials program. In the wake of Fishbein's allegations, the United States Department of Health and Human Services enacted sweeping conflict of interest reforms and promised protection of senior ranking employees who blow the whistle. Additionally, drug companies have instituted voluntary reforms in an effort to circumvent congressional acts. Regardless of the scandals that have rocked the drug agency, Congress has still not enacted federal protection for drug whistleblowers.
References
External links
National Whistleblower Center
Whistleblower support organizations
Legal advocacy organizations in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Organizations established in 1988
United States federal labor legislation
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Brava!, pubblicato nel 1990, è una raccolta (solo CD) della cantante italiana Mina.
Tracce
Collegamenti esterni
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Review of Books' may refer to:
Caribbean Review of Books
Claremont Review of Books
Jewish Review of Books
London Review of Books
Los Angeles Review of Books
The New York Review of Books
The New York Times Book Review
San Francisco Review of Books
Scottish Review of Books
Shanghai Review of Books
See also
Book Review (disambiguation)
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Picture bible or Picture Bible may refer to:
Bible moralisée, a form of Medieval illustrated bible
The Picture Bible, 1978, a comic-strip version of the Christian bible
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Book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content, style, and merit.
Book Review may refer to:
American Book Review
Australian Book Review
Black Issues Book Review
Electronic Book Review
Midwest Book Review
Swedish Book Review
The New York Times Book Review
Weekly Comic Book Review
Wenhui Book Review
See also
Book Revue (cartoon short), later re-issued as Book Review, a Looney Tunes cartoon short featuring Daffy Duck
Book Review Index
Review of Books (disambiguation)
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An Institute of Molecular Medicine, or IMM for short, may refer to a scientific research institution in molecular medicine:
Norway
Department of Cancer research and Molecular Medicine at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
Portugal
Instituto de Medicina Molecular (Institute of Molecular Medicine), a research institution of the University of Lisbon, in Lisbon, Portugal.
United States
The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases, molecular medicine institute of The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston.
United Kingdom
The Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, at the University of Oxford.
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Horse riding or horseback riding refers to:
Equestrianism
Horse Riding (EP), an EP by The Hiatus
See also
Equestrian (disambiguation)
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Nestlé Munch is a chocolate bar made by Nestlé and primarily sold in India. It is a long chocolate bar filled with wafers.
Variants
Munch's variants are Munch Nuts, which includes groundnuts with wafers and Munch Crunch O'Nuts, which includes peanuts.
References
External links
Official website 1
Official website 2
Munch Nuts official website
Chocolate bars
Nestlé brands
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"Chapter Seventy-Nine: Graduation" is the third episode of the fifth season of the American television series Riverdale. The episode was written by Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa and directed by Gabriel Correa. It originally aired on The CW in the United States on February 3, 2021.
The plot revolves around the main high school student characters of the show graduating from high school and moving on with their lives outside of the titular town of Riverdale. The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews, with several reviewers noting the emotional impact of the graduation and the grounded nature of the episode compared to other episodes of the series. In its initial broadcast, it was watched by 0.557 million viewers.
Plot
Following the revelation in the previous episode that Jellybean Jones was the person creating the mysterious videotapes that had been showing up around Riverdale, her father FP decides to take her back to live with her mom in Toledo, Ohio. He also resigns as sheriff of Riverdale and says he will be staying with her in Toledo. While Jellybean's brother Jughead says he wants to come with them, FP rebuffs him and tells him to focus on college, as he had recently been accepted to the University of Iowa.
On their last day at Riverdale High School, the seniors reminisce over their yearbooks and reflect on the time they've spent at the school. A time capsule buried in 1945 is opened and one of the items is a photograph of four seniors taken right before the four were deployed to war. Meanwhile, Mr. Weatherbee, the principal, tells Archie Andrews that he will be unable to graduate and will have to retake his senior year of high school. However, he still allows Archie to participate in the graduation ceremony and asks him to record a song for the event. Later that night, Veronica Lodge visits Archie and, although the two of them had broken up several weeks earlier, they spend the night together. At the graduation ceremony, Betty Cooper gives a valedictorian speech talking about the events that the seniors have gone through and how she has hope for a better future in Riverdale and for the graduating seniors. The ceremony occurs with Archie's recording of "Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)". Meanwhile, Cheryl Blossom's mother Penelope, who clandestinely attended the ceremony, tells her daughter that she is turning herself over to the police for some of the crimes she had earlier committed.
After graduation, Archie, Betty, Cheryl, Jughead, Veronica, Kevin Keller, Reggie Mantle, and Toni Topaz bury a time capsule with some of their own personal items. Archie, inspired by the photograph, talks to some Army recruiters and enlists, and when he reveals this to Betty, Jughead, and Veronica, Veronica leaves, saying she cannot support his decision. Later, Jughead reveals how he has noticed how odd their friends have been since prom. Realizing that Archie must've confessed to Veronica, Betty finally tells Jughead that she and Archie had kissed, which led to their breakup. The next morning, Jughead drives Archie to the bus stop for him to go to basic training. At the same time, Betty and Veronica talk about what happened and, deciding to talk to Archie before he leaves, go to the bus stop, but Jughead tells them the bus had just left. The three of them catch up to the bus and say their goodbyes to Archie, with he and Veronica saying they love each other, before he boards the bus again.
Over the summer, Veronica leaves Riverdale to live with her mother in the Hamptons, while Betty leaves to go to Yale University and Jughead departs to Iowa. One year later, honoring a vow the four had made, Jughead returns to Riverdale to meet with his friends at Pop's Chock'lit Shoppe, though they do not come. In a voiceover just before the end credits, Jughead reveals that it would be six years before the four of them would see each other again.
Cast and characters
Starring
KJ Apa as Archie Andrews
Lili Reinhart as Betty Cooper
Camila Mendes as Veronica Lodge
Cole Sprouse as Jughead Jones
Marisol Nichols as Hermione Lodge
Madelaine Petsch as Cheryl Blossom
Mark Consuelos as Hiram Lodge
Casey Cott as Kevin Keller
Skeet Ulrich as F.P. Jones
Charles Melton as Reggie Mantle
Vanessa Morgan as Toni Topaz
Drew Ray Tanner as Fangs Fogarty
Mädchen Amick as Alice Cooper
Guest starring
Nathalie Boltt as Penelope Blossom
Doreen Calderon as Nana Topaz
Jordan Connor as Sweet Pea
Martin Cummins as Tom Keller
Molly Ringwald as Mary Andrews
Peter James Bryant as Waldo Weatherbee
Trinity Likins as Jellybean Jones
Jordan Robinson as Toby
Alvin Sanders as Pop Tate
Barbara Wallace as Rose Blossom
Co-starring
Chris Cannon as Dr. Beaker
Marion Eisman as Doris Bell
Marlon Kazadi as Malcolm Moore
Gaston Norrison as Bus Driver
Klarc Wilson as Officer Bradshaw
Production
The episode was originally intended to serve as the season finale for season 4. However, production on the final three scheduled episodes for season 4 was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, "Chapter Seventy-Nine: Graduation" aired as the third episode of the fifth season.
Reception
Critical reception
The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews. Film website CinemaBlend ranked it number 10 on their list of the best episodes of Riverdale (as of December 5, 2021). In their review of the episode, they highlighted the emotional impact of the characters' graduations and cited the episode as the best of an otherwise bad season of the show. However, they stated that the characters returning to Riverdale shortly afterwards deflates some of the emotional intensity of the episode. The A.V. Club gave the episode an A− rating, praising KJ Apa's performance. Den of Geek gave the episode 5 out of 5 stars, calling the episode "arguably the most grounded episode the show has ever done…and maybe the best". In further discussing this, the reviewer states, "But what feels revolutionary here is that this episode is excellent while still being rooted firmly in reality. Riverdale can still be compelling by just focusing on the friendships that bind these characters without relying on narrative gimmicks."
Ratings
The episode was watched by 0.557 million viewers and received a television rating of 0.1 in the key demographic of 18- to 49-year-olds.
References
External links
2021 American television episodes
Riverdale (2017 TV series) episodes
Fiction set in 2020
Fiction set in 2021
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television
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Hið íslenska kvenfélag was an Icelandic women's organization, founded in Reykjavík in 1894.
The purpose of the society was to work for the improvement in women's rights, and inform women of already existing rights and encourage them to use them. The society was founded by a group of educated and wealthy women after the king had turned down a request to found a university in Iceland, and one of its main goals was to improve educational and cultural possibilities for women. It was not the first women's organization in Iceland - that was the charity organization Thorvaldsensfélagið in 1875 - but it was the first women's organization devoted to women's rights in Iceland and somewhat of a starting point of the women's movement. It worked alongside Kvenréttindafélag Íslands to introduced women's suffrage.
References
1894 establishments
Women's organizations based in Iceland
1894 in Iceland
Women's rights in Iceland
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Pneuma: Breath of Life is a first-person puzzle video game developed and published by Deco Digital and Bevel Studios. The game uses a narrated story focused on self-discovery and the fundamental nature of reality. The game was designed to test the Unreal Engine 4 and Physically Based Rendering. The game intends players to think outside of the box to solve a series of environmental challenges.
Pneuma: Breath of Life uses the Unreal Engine 4 and was released on February 27, 2015 for the Xbox One and Windows. On Xbox One, it was released for free on Xbox Live to Gold members from November 1, 2015 to November 30, 2015.
Towards the end of 2015, Deco Digital and Bevel Studios merged to form Bulkhead Interactive, the developer of The Turing Test.
Reception
Pneuma: Breath of Life received mixed reviews from critics.
References
2015 video games
PlayStation 4 games
Puzzle video games
Single-player video games
Unreal Engine games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Windows games
Xbox One games
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Copper(I) sulfate, also known as cuprous sulfate, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Cu2SO4. It is a white solid, in contrast to copper(II) sulfate, which is blue in hydrous form. It is an unusual example of a copper(I) compound derived from an oxyanion, illustrated also by the non- or fleeting existence of cuprous nitrate and cuprous perchlorate.
Structure
Cu2SO4 crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group Fddd. Each oxygen in a sulfate anion is bridged to another sulfate by a copper atom, and the Cu-O distances are 196 pm.
Synthesis
Cuprous sulfate is produced by the reaction of copper metal with sulfuric acid at 200 °C:
2Cu + 2 H2SO4 -> Cu2SO4 + SO2 + 2 H2O
Cu2SO4 can also be synthesized by the action of dimethyl sulfate on cuprous oxide:
Cu2O + (CH3O)2SO2 -> Cu2SO4 + (CH3)2O
The material is stable in dry air at room temperature but decomposes rapidly in presence of moisture or upon heating. It decomposes into copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate upon contact with water.
Cu2SO4 + 5 H2O -> Cu + CuSO4*5(H2O)
It can also be produced by the reaction of copper(II) sulfate and a reducing agent such as sodium thiosulfate.
References
Copper(I) compounds
Sulfates
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Tom Harris (born 1 January 1940) is a former Australian politician. He was the Country Liberal Party member for Port Darwin in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from 1977 to 1990.
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He was a minister in the Everingham, Tuxworth, Hatton and Perron governments, serving as Minister for Education (1983–1986), Minister for Health and Minister for Housing (1986–1987), Minister for Labour and Administrative Services (1987), Minister for Education and Minister Assisting the Chief Minister on Constitutional Development (1988–1989) and Minister for Education, the Arts and Cultural Affairs (1989–1990).
References
1940 births
Living people
Members of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly
Country Liberal Party members of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly
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Station to Station (film) may refer to:
Station to Station (2015 film), 2015 experimental documentary; screened at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival
Station to Station (2021 film), 2021 psychological drama; opened the 2021 Las Vegas International Film and Screenwriting Festival
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Jess Lee may refer to:
Jess Lee (Canadian singer), Canadian Métis country music singer-songwriter
Jess Lee (Malaysian singer) (born 1988), Malaysian singer
Jess Lee (business) (born 1982), partner at Sequoia Capital and the former chief executive officer of Polyvore
See also
Jess Lee Brooks (1894–1944), American actor
Jessica Lee (disambiguation)
Jesse Lee (disambiguation)
Jessie Lee (disambiguation)
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East Fork Falls is a waterfall along East Fork Pine Creek in the U.S. state of Oregon just east of Baker City in the south stretch of the Wallowa–Whitman National Forest.
East Fork Falls are a short distance north of the ghost town of Cornucopia along the Oregon-Idaho border. Access to East Fork in the Southern Wallowa Mountains starting at the Cornucopia trailhead up trail East Fork #1865.
See also
List of waterfalls in Oregon
References
Waterfalls of Oregon
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Monetary discipline is a phrase used by some economists when speaking of monetary policy, generally meaning limiting the money supply of an economy in some way.
Definitions
One definition of monetary discipline is a central bank matching the money supply to the level of production or reserves in an economy. This definition holds that money printing should have a relationship to a particular economic equation, rather than being influenced by politics.
Another definition is constraining the money supply, limiting inflation, and growing an economy by increasing the velocity of money.
Another way of achieving monetary discipline is by keeping a pegged exchange rate, thereby matching a money supply to a foreign currency.
References
Monetary policy
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Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera (). With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats are more agile in flight than most birds, flying with their very long spread-out digits covered with a thin membrane or patagium. The smallest bat, and arguably the smallest extant mammal, is Kitti's hog-nosed bat, which is in length, across the wings and in mass. The largest bats are the flying foxes, with the giant golden-crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus), reaching a weight of and having a wingspan of .
The second largest order of mammals after rodents, bats comprise about 20% of all classified mammal species worldwide, with over 1,400 species. These were traditionally divided into two suborders: the largely fruit-eating megabats, and the echolocating microbats. But more recent evidence has supported dividing the order into Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera, with megabats as members of the former along with several species of microbats. Many bats are insectivores, and most of the rest are frugivores (fruit-eaters) or nectarivores (nectar-eaters). A few species feed on animals other than insects; for example, the vampire bats feed on blood. Most bats are nocturnal, and many roost in caves or other refuges; it is uncertain whether bats have these behaviours to escape predators. Bats are present throughout the world, with the exception of extremely cold regions. They are important in their ecosystems for pollinating flowers and dispersing seeds; many tropical plants depend entirely on bats for these services.
Bats provide humans with some direct benefits, at the cost of some disadvantages. Bat dung has been mined as guano from caves and used as fertiliser. Bats consume insect pests, reducing the need for pesticides and other insect management measures. They are sometimes numerous enough and close enough to human settlements to serve as tourist attractions, and they are used as food across Asia and the Pacific Rim. However, fruit bats are frequently considered pests by fruit growers. Due to their physiology, bats are one type of animal that acts as a natural reservoir of many pathogens, such as rabies; and since they are highly mobile, social, and long-lived, they can readily spread disease among themselves. If humans interact with bats, these traits become potentially dangerous to humans. Some bats are also predators of mosquitoes, suppressing the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases.
Depending on the culture, bats may be symbolically associated with positive traits, such as protection from certain diseases or risks, rebirth, or long life, but in the West, bats are popularly associated with darkness, malevolence, witchcraft, vampires, and death.
Etymology
An older English name for bats is flittermouse, which matches their name in other Germanic languages (for example German Fledermaus and Swedish fladdermus), related to the fluttering of wings. Middle English had bakke, most likely cognate with Old Swedish natbakka ("night-bat"), which may have undergone a shift from -k- to -t- (to Modern English bat) influenced by Latin blatta, "moth, nocturnal insect". The word "bat" was probably first used in the early 1570s. The name "Chiroptera" derives from cheir, "hand" and πτερόνpteron, "wing".
Phylogeny and taxonomy
Evolution
The delicate skeletons of bats do not fossilise well; it is estimated that only 12% of bat genera that lived have been found in the fossil record. Most of the oldest known bat fossils were already very similar to modern microbats, such as Archaeopteropus (32 million years ago). The extinct bats Palaeochiropteryx tupaiodon (48 million years ago) and Hassianycteris kumari (48 million years ago) are the first fossil mammals whose colouration has been discovered: both were reddish-brown.
Bats were formerly grouped in the superorder Archonta, along with the treeshrews (Scandentia), colugos (Dermoptera), and primates. Modern genetic evidence now places bats in the superorder Laurasiatheria, with its sister taxon as Fereuungulata, which includes carnivorans, pangolins, odd-toed ungulates, even-toed ungulates, and cetaceans. One study places Chiroptera as a sister taxon to odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla).
The flying primate hypothesis proposed that when adaptations to flight are removed, megabats are allied to primates by anatomical features not shared with microbats and thus flight evolved twice in mammals. Genetic studies have strongly supported the monophyly of bats and the single origin of mammal flight.
Inner systematic
Genetic evidence indicates that megabats originated during the early Eocene, and belong within the four major lines of microbats. Two new suborders have been proposed; Yinpterochiroptera includes the Pteropodidae, or megabat family, as well as the families Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, Craseonycteridae, Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae. Yangochiroptera includes the other families of bats (all of which use laryngeal echolocation), a conclusion supported by a 2005 DNA study. A 2013 phylogenomic study supported the two new proposed suborders.
The 2003 discovery of an early fossil bat from the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation, Onychonycteris finneyi, indicates that flight evolved before echolocative abilities. Onychonycteris had claws on all five of its fingers, whereas modern bats have at most two claws on two digits of each hand. It also had longer hind legs and shorter forearms, similar to climbing mammals that hang under branches, such as sloths and gibbons. This palm-sized bat had short, broad wings, suggesting that it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, Onychonycteris probably alternated between flaps and glides in the air. This suggests that this bat did not fly as much as modern bats, but flew from tree to tree and spent most of its time climbing or hanging on branches. The distinctive features of the Onychonycteris fossil also support the hypothesis that mammalian flight most likely evolved in arboreal locomotors, rather than terrestrial runners. This model of flight development, commonly known as the "trees-down" theory, holds that bats first flew by taking advantage of height and gravity to drop down on to prey, rather than running fast enough for a ground-level take off.
The molecular phylogeny was controversial, as it pointed to microbats not having a unique common ancestry, which implied that some seemingly unlikely transformations occurred. The first is that laryngeal echolocation evolved twice in bats, once in Yangochiroptera and once in the rhinolophoids. The second is that laryngeal echolocation had a single origin in Chiroptera, was subsequently lost in the family Pteropodidae (all megabats), and later evolved as a system of tongue-clicking in the genus Rousettus. Analyses of the sequence of the vocalization gene FoxP2 were inconclusive on whether laryngeal echolocation was lost in the pteropodids or gained in the echolocating lineages. Echolocation probably first derived in bats from communicative calls. The Eocene bats Icaronycteris (52 million years ago) and Palaeochiropteryx had cranial adaptations suggesting an ability to detect ultrasound. This may have been used at first mainly to forage on the ground for insects and map out their surroundings in their gliding phase, or for communicative purposes. After the adaptation of flight was established, it may have been refined to target flying prey by echolocation. Analyses of the hearing gene Prestin seem to favour the idea that echolocation developed independently at least twice, rather than being lost secondarily in the pteropodids, but ontogenic analysis of the cochlea supports that laryngeal echolocation evolved only once.
Classification
Bats are placental mammals. After rodents, they are the largest order, making up about 20% of mammal species. In 1758, Carl Linnaeus classified the seven bat species he knew of in the genus Vespertilio in the order Primates. Around twenty years later, the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave them their own order, Chiroptera. Since then, the number of described species has risen to over 1,400, traditionally classified as two suborders: Megachiroptera (megabats), and Microchiroptera (microbats/echolocating bats). Not all megabats are larger than microbats. Several characteristics distinguish the two groups. Microbats use echolocation for navigation and finding prey, but megabats apart from those in the genus Rousettus do not. Accordingly, megabats have a well-developed eyesight. Megabats have a claw on the second finger of the forelimb. The external ears of microbats do not close to form a ring; the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear. Megabats eat fruit, nectar, or pollen, while most microbats eat insects; others feed on fruit, nectar, pollen, fish, frogs, small mammals, or blood.
Below is a table chart following the bat classification of families recognized by various authors of the ninth volume of Handbook of the Mammals of the World published in 2019:
Anatomy and physiology
Skull and dentition
The head and teeth shape of bats can vary by species. In general, megabats have longer snouts, larger eye sockets and smaller ears, giving them a more dog-like appearance, which is the source of their nickname of "flying foxes". Among microbats, longer snouts are associated with nectar-feeding. while vampire bats have reduced snouts to accommodate large incisors and canines.
Small insect-eating bats can have as many as 38 teeth, while vampire bats have only 20. Bats that feed on hard-shelled insects have fewer but larger teeth with longer canines and more robust lower jaws than species that prey on softer bodied insects. In nectar-feeding bats, the canines are long while the cheek-teeth are reduced. In fruit-eating bats, the cusps of the cheek teeth are adapted for crushing. The upper incisors of vampire bats lack enamel, which keeps them razor-sharp. The bite force of small bats is generated through mechanical advantage, allowing them to bite through the hardened armour of insects or the skin of fruit.
Wings and flight
Bats are the only mammals capable of sustained flight, as opposed to gliding, as in the flying squirrel. The fastest bat, the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis), can achieve a ground speed of .
The finger bones of bats are much more flexible than those of other mammals, owing to their flattened cross-section and to low levels of calcium near their tips. The elongation of bat digits, a key feature required for wing development, is due to the upregulation of bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps). During embryonic development, the gene controlling Bmp signalling, Bmp2, is subjected to increased expression in bat forelimbsresulting in the extension of the manual digits. This crucial genetic alteration helps create the specialized limbs required for powered flight. The relative proportion of extant bat forelimb digits compared with those of Eocene fossil bats have no significant differences, suggesting that bat wing morphology has been conserved for over fifty million years. During flight, the bones undergo bending and shearing stress; the bending stresses felt are smaller than in terrestrial mammals, but the shearing stress is larger. The wing bones of bats have a slightly lower breaking stress point than those of birds.
As in other mammals, and unlike in birds, the radius is the main component of the forearm. Bats have five elongated digits, which all radiate around the wrist. The thumb points forward and supports the leading edge of the wing, and the other digits support the tension held in the wing membrane. The second and third digits go along the wing tip, allowing the wing to be pulled forward against aerodynamic drag, without having to be thick as in pterosaur wings. The fourth and fifth digits go from the wrist to the trailing edge, and repel the bending force caused by air pushing up against the stiff membrane. Due to their flexible joints, bats are more maneuverable and more dexterous than gliding mammals.
The wings of bats are much thinner and consist of more bones than the wings of birds, allowing bats to maneuver more accurately than the latter, and fly with more lift and less drag. By folding the wings in toward their bodies on the upstroke, they save 35 percent energy during flight. The membranes are delicate, tearing easily, but can regrow, and small tears heal quickly. The surface of the wings is equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called Merkel cells, also found on human fingertips. These sensitive areas are different in bats, as each bump has a tiny hair in the center, making it even more sensitive and allowing the bat to detect and adapt to changing airflow; the primary use is to judge the most efficient speed at which to fly, and possibly also to avoid stalls. Insectivorous bats may also use tactile hairs to help perform complex maneuvers to capture prey in flight.
The patagium is the wing membrane; it is stretched between the arm and finger bones, and down the side of the body to the hind limbs and tail. This skin membrane consists of connective tissue, elastic fibres, nerves, muscles, and blood vessels. The muscles keep the membrane taut during flight. The extent to which the tail of a bat is attached to a patagium can vary by species, with some having completely free tails or even no tails. The skin on the body of the bat, which has one layer of epidermis and dermis, as well as hair follicles, sweat glands and a fatty subcutaneous layer, is very different from the skin of the wing membrane. Depending on the bat species the presence of hair follicles and sweat glands will vary in the patagium. This patagium is an extremely thin double layer of epidermis; these layers are separated by a connective tissue center, rich with collagen and elastic fibers. In some bat species sweats glands will be present in between this connective tissue. Furthermore, if hair follicles are present this supports the bat in order to adjust sudden flight maneuvers. For bat embryos, apoptosis (cell death) affects only the hindlimbs, while the forelimbs retain webbing between the digits that forms into the wing membranes. Unlike birds, whose stiff wings deliver bending and torsional stress to the shoulders, bats have a flexible wing membrane that can resist only tension. To achieve flight, a bat exerts force inwards at the points where the membrane meets the skeleton, so that an opposing force balances it on the wing edges perpendicular to the wing surface. This adaptation does not permit bats to reduce their wingspans, unlike birds, which can partly fold their wings in flight, radically reducing the wing span and area for the upstroke and for gliding. Hence bats cannot travel over long distances as birds can.
Nectar- and pollen-eating bats can hover, in a similar way to hummingbirds. The sharp leading edges of the wings can create vortices, which provide lift. The vortex may be stabilized by the animal changing its wing curvatures.
Roosting and gaits
When not flying, bats hang upside down from their feet, a posture known as roosting. The femurs are attached at the hips in a way that allows them to bend outward and upward in flight. The ankle joint can flex to allow the trailing edge of the wings to bend downwards. This does not permit many movements other than hanging or clambering up trees. Most megabats roost with the head tucked towards the belly, whereas most microbats roost with the neck curled towards the back. This difference is reflected in the structure of the cervical or neck vertebrae in the two groups, which are clearly distinct. Tendons allow bats to lock their feet closed when hanging from a roost. Muscular power is needed to let go, but not to grasp a perch or when holding on.
When on the ground, most bats can only crawl awkwardly. A few species such as the New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat and the common vampire bat are agile on the ground. Both species make lateral gaits (the limbs move one after the other) when moving slowly but vampire bats move with a bounding gait (all limbs move in unison) at greater speeds, the folded up wings being used to propel them forward. Vampire bat likely evolved these gaits to follow their hosts while short-tailed bats developed in the absence of terrestrial mammal competitors. Enhanced terrestrial locomotion does not appear to have reduced their ability to fly.
Internal systems
Bats have an efficient circulatory system. They seem to make use of particularly strong venomotion, a rhythmic contraction of venous wall muscles. In most mammals, the walls of the veins provide mainly passive resistance, maintaining their shape as deoxygenated blood flows through them, but in bats they appear to actively support blood flow back to the heart with this pumping action. Since their bodies are relatively small and lightweight, bats are not at risk of blood flow rushing to their heads when roosting.
Bats possess a highly adapted respiratory system to cope with the demands of powered flight, an energetically taxing activity that requires a large continuous throughput of oxygen. In bats, the relative alveolar surface area and pulmonary capillary blood volume are larger than in most other small quadrupedal mammals. During flight the respiratory cycle has a one-to-one relationship with the wing-beat cycle. Because of the restraints of the mammalian lungs, bats cannot maintain high-altitude flight.
It takes a lot of energy and an efficient circulatory system to work the flight muscles of bats. Energy supply to the muscles engaged in flight requires about double the amount compared to the muscles that do not use flight as a means of mammalian locomotion. In parallel to energy consumption, blood oxygen levels of flying animals are twice as much as those of their terrestrially locomoting mammals. As the blood supply controls the amount of oxygen supplied throughout the body, the circulatory system must respond accordingly. Therefore, compared to a terrestrial mammal of the same relative size, the bat's heart can be up to three times larger, and pump more blood. Cardiac output is directly derived from heart rate and stroke volume of the blood; an active microbat can reach a heart rate of 1000 beats per minute.
With its extremely thin membranous tissue, a bat's wing can significantly contribute to the organism's total gas exchange efficiency. Because of the high energy demand of flight, the bat's body meets those demands by exchanging gas through the patagium of the wing. When the bat has its wings spread it allows for an increase in surface area to volume ratio. The surface area of the wings is about 85% of the total body surface area, suggesting the possibility of a useful degree of gas exchange. The subcutaneous vessels in the membrane lie very close to the surface and allow for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The digestive system of bats has varying adaptations depending on the species of bat and its diet. As in other flying animals, food is processed quickly and effectively to keep up with the energy demand. Insectivorous bats may have certain digestive enzymes to better process insects, such as chitinase to break down chitin, which is a large component of insects. Vampire bats, probably due to their diet of blood, are the only vertebrates that do not have the enzyme maltase, which breaks down malt sugar, in their intestinal tract. Nectivorous and frugivorous bats have more maltase and sucrase enzymes than insectivorous, to cope with the higher sugar contents of their diet.
The adaptations of the kidneys of bats vary with their diets. Carnivorous and vampire bats consume large amounts of protein and can output concentrated urine; their kidneys have a thin cortex and long renal papillae. Frugivorous bats lack that ability and have kidneys adapted for electrolyte-retention due to their low-electrolyte diet; their kidneys accordingly have a thick cortex and very short conical papillae. Bats have higher metabolic rates associated with flying, which lead to an increased respiratory water loss. Their large wings are composed of the highly vascularized membranes, increasing the surface area, and leading to cutaneous evaporative water loss. Water helps maintain their ionic balance in their blood, thermoregulation system, and removal of wastes and toxins from the body via urine. They are also susceptible to blood urea poisoning if they do not receive enough fluid.
The structure of the uterine system in female bats can vary by species, with some having two uterine horns while others have a single mainline chamber.
Senses
Echolocation
Microbats and a few megabats emit ultrasonic sounds to produce echoes. Sound intensity of these echos are dependent on subglottic pressure. The bats' cricothyroid muscle controls the orientation pulse frequency, which is an important function. This muscle is located inside the larynx and it is the only tensor muscle capable of aiding phonation. By comparing the outgoing pulse with the returning echoes, bats can gather information on their surroundings. This allows them to detect prey in darkness. Some bat calls can reach 140 decibels. Microbats use their larynx to emit echolocation signals through the mouth or the nose. Microbat calls range in frequency from 14,000 to well over 100,000 Hz, extending well beyond the range of human hearing (between 20 and 20,000 Hz). Various groups of bats have evolved fleshy extensions around and above the nostrils, known as nose-leaves, which play a role in sound transmission.
In low-duty cycle echolocation, bats can separate their calls and returning echoes by time. They have to time their short calls to finish before echoes return. The delay of the returning echoes allows the bat to estimate the range to their prey. In high-duty cycle echolocation, bats emit a continuous call and separate pulse and echo in frequency using the Doppler effect of their motion in flight. The shift of the returning echoes yields information relating to the motion and location of the bat's prey. These bats must deal with changes in the Doppler shift due to changes in their flight speed. They have adapted to change their pulse emission frequency in relation to their flight speed so echoes still return in the optimal hearing range.
In addition to echolocating prey, bat ears are sensitive to sounds made by their prey, such as the fluttering of moth wings. The complex geometry of ridges on the inner surface of bat ears helps to sharply focus echolocation signals, and to passively listen for any other sound produced by the prey. These ridges can be regarded as the acoustic equivalent of a Fresnel lens, and exist in a large variety of unrelated animals, such as the aye-aye, lesser galago, bat-eared fox, mouse lemur, and others. Bats can estimate the elevation of their target using the interference patterns from the echoes reflecting from the tragus, a flap of skin in the external ear.
By repeated scanning, bats can mentally construct an accurate image of the environment in which they are moving and of their prey. Some species of moth have exploited this, such as the tiger moths, which produces aposematic ultrasound signals to warn bats that they are chemically protected and therefore distasteful. Moth species including the tiger moth can produce signals to jam bat echolocation. Many moth species have a hearing organ called a tympanum, which responds to an incoming bat signal by causing the moth's flight muscles to twitch erratically, sending the moth into random evasive manoeuvres.
Vision
The eyes of most microbat species are small and poorly developed, leading to poor visual acuity, but no species is blind. Most microbats have mesopic vision, meaning that they can detect light only in low levels, whereas other mammals have photopic vision, which allows colour vision. Microbats may use their vision for orientation and while travelling between their roosting grounds and feeding grounds, as echolocation is effective only over short distances. Some species can detect ultraviolet (UV). As the bodies of some microbats have distinct coloration, they may be able to discriminate colours.
Megabat species often have eyesight as good as, if not better than, human vision. Their eyesight is adapted to both night and daylight vision, including some colour vision.
Magnetoreception
Microbats make use of magnetoreception, in that they have a high sensitivity to the Earth's magnetic field, as birds do. Microbats use a polarity-based compass, meaning that they differentiate north from south, unlike birds, which use the strength of the magnetic field to differentiate latitudes, which may be used in long-distance travel. The mechanism is unknown but may involve magnetite particles.
Thermoregulation
Most bats are homeothermic (having a stable body temperature), the exception being the vesper bats (Vespertilionidae), the horseshoe bats (Rhinolophidae), the free-tailed bats (Molossidae), and the bent-winged bats (Miniopteridae), which extensively use heterothermy (where body temperature can vary). Compared to other mammals, bats have a high thermal conductivity. The wings are filled with blood vessels, and lose body heat when extended. At rest, they may wrap their wings around themselves to trap a layer of warm air. Smaller bats generally have a higher metabolic rate than larger bats, and so need to consume more food in order to maintain homeothermy.
Bats may avoid flying during the day to prevent overheating in the sun, since their dark wing-membranes absorb solar radiation. Bats may not be able to dissipate heat if the ambient temperature is too high; they use saliva to cool themselves in extreme conditions. Among megabats, the flying fox Pteropus hypomelanus uses saliva and wing-fanning to cool itself while roosting during the hottest part of the day. Among microbats, the Yuma myotis (Myotis yumanensis), the Mexican free-tailed bat, and the pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) cope with temperatures up to by panting, salivating, and licking their fur to promote evaporative cooling; this is sufficient to dissipate twice their metabolic heat production.
Bats also possess a system of sphincter valves on the arterial side of the vascular network that runs along the edge of their wings. When fully open, these allow oxygenated blood to flow through the capillary network across the wing membrane; when contracted, they shunt flow directly to the veins, bypassing the wing capillaries. This allows bats to control how much heat is exchanged through the flight membrane, allowing them to release heat during flight. Many other mammals use the capillary network in oversized ears for the same purpose.
Torpor
Torpor, a state of decreased activity where the body temperature and metabolism decreases, is especially useful for bats, as they use a large amount of energy while active, depend upon an unreliable food source, and have a limited ability to store fat. They generally drop their body temperature in this state to , and may reduce their energy expenditure by 50 to 99%. Tropical bats may use it to avoid predation, by reducing the amount of time spent on foraging and thus reducing the chance of being caught by a predator. Megabats were generally believed to be homeothermic, but three species of small megabats, with a mass of about , have been known to use torpor: the common blossom bat (Syconycteris australis), the long-tongued nectar bat (Macroglossus minimus), and the eastern tube-nosed bat (Nyctimene robinsoni). Torpid states last longer in the summer for megabats than in the winter.
During hibernation, bats enter a torpid state and decrease their body temperature for 99.6% of their hibernation period; even during periods of arousal, when they return their body temperature to normal, they sometimes enter a shallow torpid state, known as "heterothermic arousal". Some bats become dormant during higher temperatures to keep cool in the summer months.
Heterothermic bats during long migrations may fly at night and go into a torpid state roosting in the daytime. Unlike migratory birds, which fly during the day and feed during the night, nocturnal bats have a conflict between travelling and eating. The energy saved reduces their need to feed, and also decreases the duration of migration, which may prevent them from spending too much time in unfamiliar places, and decrease predation. In some species, pregnant individuals may not use torpor.
Size
The smallest bat is Kitti's hog-nosed bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai), which is long with a wingspan and weighs . It is also arguably the smallest extant species of mammal, next to the Etruscan shrew. The largest bats are a few species of Pteropus megabats and the giant golden-crowned flying fox, (Acerodon jubatus), which can weigh with a wingspan of . Larger bats tend to use lower frequencies and smaller bats higher for echolocation; high-frequency echolocation is better at detecting smaller prey. Small prey may be absent in the diets of large bats as they are unable to detect them. The adaptations of a particular bat species can directly influence what kinds of prey are available to it.
Ecology
Flight has enabled bats to become one of the most widely distributed groups of mammals. Apart from the Arctic, the Antarctic and a few isolated oceanic islands, bats exist in almost every habitat on Earth. Tropical areas tend to have more species than temperate ones. Different species select different habitats during different seasons, ranging from seasides to mountains and deserts, but they require suitable roosts. Bat roosts can be found in hollows, crevices, foliage, and even human-made structures, and include "tents" the bats construct with leaves. Megabats generally roost in trees. Most microbats are nocturnal and megabats are typically diurnal or crepuscular. Microbats are known to exhibit diurnal behaviour in temperate regions during summer when there is insufficient night time to forage, and in areas where there are few avian predators during the day.
In temperate areas, some microbats migrate hundreds of kilometres to winter hibernation dens; others pass into torpor in cold weather, rousing and feeding when warm weather allows insects to be active. Others retreat to caves for winter and hibernate for as much as six months. Microbats rarely fly in rain; it interferes with their echolocation, and they are unable to hunt.
Food and feeding
Different bat species have different diets, including insects, nectar, pollen, fruit and even vertebrates. Megabats are mostly fruit, nectar and pollen eaters. Due to their small size, high-metabolism and rapid burning of energy through flight, bats must consume large amounts of food for their size. Insectivorous bats may eat over 120 percent of their body weight, while frugivorous bats may eat over twice their weight. They can travel significant distances each night, exceptionally as much as in the spotted bat (Euderma maculatum), in search of food. Bats use a variety of hunting strategies. Bats get most of their water from the food they eat; many species also drink from water sources like lakes and streams, flying over the surface and dipping their tongues into the water.
The Chiroptera as a whole are in the process of losing the ability to synthesise vitamin C. In a test of 34 bat species from six major families, including major insect- and fruit-eating bat families, all were found to have lost the ability to synthesise it, and this loss may derive from a common bat ancestor, as a single mutation. At least two species of bat, the frugivorous bat (Rousettus leschenaultii) and the insectivorous bat (Hipposideros armiger), have retained their ability to produce vitamin C.
Insects
Most microbats, especially in temperate areas, prey on insects. The diet of an insectivorous bat may span many species, including flies, mosquitos, beetles, moths, grasshoppers, crickets, termites, bees, wasps, mayflies and caddisflies. Large numbers of Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) fly hundreds of metres above the ground in central Texas to feed on migrating moths. Species that hunt insects in flight, like the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), may catch an insect in mid-air with the mouth, and eat it in the air or use their tail membranes or wings to scoop up the insect and carry it to the mouth. The bat may also take the insect back to its roost and eat it there. Slower moving bat species, such as the brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) and many horseshoe bat species, may take or glean insects from vegetation or hunt them from perches. Insectivorous bats living at high latitudes have to consume prey with higher energetic value than tropical bats.
Fruit and nectar
Fruit eating, or frugivory, is found in both major suborders. Bats prefer ripe fruit, pulling it off the trees with their teeth. They fly back to their roosts to eat the fruit, sucking out the juice and spitting the seeds and pulp out onto the ground. This helps disperse the seeds of these fruit trees, which may take root and grow where the bats have left them, and many species of plants depend on bats for seed dispersal. The Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis) has been recorded carrying fruits weighing or even as much as .
Nectar-eating bats have acquired specialised adaptations. These bats possess long muzzles and long, extensible tongues covered in fine bristles that aid them in feeding on particular flowers and plants. The tube-lipped nectar bat (Anoura fistulata) has the longest tongue of any mammal relative to its body size. This is beneficial to them in terms of pollination and feeding. Their long, narrow tongues can reach deep into the long cup shape of some flowers. When the tongue retracts, it coils up inside the rib cage. Because of these features, nectar-feeding bats cannot easily turn to other food sources in times of scarcity, making them more prone to extinction than other types of bat. Nectar feeding also aids a variety of plants, since these bats serve as pollinators, as pollen gets attached to their fur while they are feeding. Around 500 species of flowering plant rely on bat pollination and thus tend to open their flowers at night. Many rainforest plants depend on bat pollination.
Vertebrates
Some bats prey on other vertebrates, such as fish, frogs, lizards, birds and mammals. The fringe-lipped bat (Trachops cirrhosus,) for example, is skilled at catching frogs. These bats locate large groups of frogs by tracking their mating calls, then plucking them from the surface of the water with their sharp canine teeth. The greater noctule bat can catch birds in flight. Some species, like the greater bulldog bat (Noctilio leporinus) hunt fish. They use echolocation to detect small ripples on the water's surface, swoop down and use specially enlarged claws on their hind feet to grab the fish, then take their prey to a feeding roost and consume it. At least two species of bat are known to feed on other bats: the spectral bat (Vampyrum spectrum), and the ghost bat (Macroderma gigas).
Blood
A few species, specifically the common, white-winged, and hairy-legged vampire bats, feed only on animal blood (hematophagy). The common vampire bat typically feeds on large mammals such as cattle; the hairy-legged and white-winged vampires feed on birds. Vampire bats target sleeping prey and can detect deep breathing. Heat sensors in the nose help them to detect blood vessels near the surface of the skin. They pierce the animal's skin with their teeth, biting away a small flap, and lap up the blood with their tongues, which have lateral grooves adapted to this purpose. The blood is kept from clotting by an anticoagulant in the saliva.
Predators, parasites, and diseases
Bats are subject to predation from birds of prey, such as owls, hawks, and falcons, and at roosts from terrestrial predators able to climb, such as cats. Low-flying bats are vulnerable to crocodiles. Twenty species of tropical New World snakes are known to capture bats, often waiting at the entrances of refuges, such as caves, for bats to fly past. J. Rydell and J. R. Speakman argue that bats evolved nocturnality during the early and middle Eocene period to avoid predators. The evidence is thought by some zoologists to be equivocal so far.
As most mammals, bats are hosts to a number of internal and external parasites. Among ectoparasites, bats carry fleas and mites, as well as specific parasites such as bat bugs and bat flies (Nycteribiidae and Streblidae). Bats are among the few non-aquatic mammalian orders that do not host lice, possibly due to competition from more specialised parasites that occupy the same niche.
White nose syndrome is a condition associated with the deaths of millions of bats in the Eastern United States and Canada. The disease is named after a white fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, found growing on the muzzles, ears, and wings of affected bats. The fungus is mostly spread from bat to bat, and causes the disease. The fungus was first discovered in central New York State in 2006 and spread quickly to the entire Eastern US north of Florida; mortality rates of 90–100% have been observed in most affected caves. New England and the mid-Atlantic states have, since 2006, witnessed entire species completely extirpated and others with numbers that have gone from the hundreds of thousands, even millions, to a few hundred or less. Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick have witnessed identical die offs, with the Canadian government making preparations to protect all remaining bat populations in its territory. Scientific evidence suggests that longer winters where the fungus has a longer period to infect bats result in greater mortality. In 2014, the infection crossed the Mississippi River, and in 2017, it was found on bats in Texas.
Bats are natural reservoirs for a large number of zoonotic pathogens, including rabies, endemic in many bat populations, histoplasmosis both directly and in guano, Nipah and Hendra viruses, and possibly the ebola virus, whose natural reservoir is yet unknown. Their high mobility, broad distribution, long life spans, substantial sympatry (range overlap) of species, and social behaviour make bats favourable hosts and vectors of disease. Reviews have found different answers as to whether bats have more zoonotic viruses than other mammal groups. One 2015 review found that bats, rodents, and primates all harbored significantly more zoonotic viruses (which can be transmitted to humans) than other mammal groups, though the differences among the aforementioned three groups were not significant (bats have no more zoonotic viruses than rodents and primates). Another 2020 review of mammals and birds found that the identify of the taxonomic groups did not have any impact on the probability of harboring zoonotic viruses. Instead, more diverse groups had greater viral diversity.
They seem to be highly resistant to many of the pathogens they carry, suggesting a degree of adaptation to their immune systems. Their interactions with livestock and pets, including predation by vampire bats, accidental encounters, and the scavenging of bat carcasses, compound the risk of zoonotic transmission. Bats are implicated in the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in China, since they serve as natural hosts for coronaviruses, several from a single cave in Yunnan, one of which developed into the SARS virus. However, they neither cause nor spread COVID-19.
Behaviour and life history
Social structure
Some bats lead solitary lives, while others live in colonies of more than a million. For instance, the Mexican free-tailed bat fly for more than one thousand miles to the wide cave known as Bracken Cave every March to October which plays home to an astonishing twenty million of the species, whereas a mouse-eared bat lives an almost completely solitary life. Living in large colonies lessens the risk to an individual of predation. Temperate bat species may swarm at hibernation sites as autumn approaches. This may serve to introduce young to hibernation sites, signal reproduction in adults and allow adults to breed with those from other groups.
Several species have a fission-fusion social structure, where large numbers of bats congregate in one roosting area, along with breaking up and mixing of subgroups. Within these societies, bats are able to maintain long-term relationships. Some of these relationships consist of matrilineally related females and their dependent offspring. Food sharing and mutual grooming may occur in certain species, such as the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), and these strengthen social bonds.
Communication
Bats are among the most vocal of mammals and produce calls to attract mates, find roost partners and defend resources. These calls are typically low-frequency and can travel long distances. Mexican free-tailed bats are one of the few species to "sing" like birds. Males sing to attract females. Songs have three phrases: chirps, trills and buzzes, the former having "A" and "B" syllables. Bat songs are highly stereotypical but with variation in syllable number, phrase order, and phrase repetitions between individuals. Among greater spear-nosed bats (Phyllostomus hastatus), females produce loud, broadband calls among their roost mates to form group cohesion. Calls differ between roosting groups and may arise from vocal learning.
In a study on captive Egyptian fruit bats, 70% of the directed calls could be identified by the researchers as to which individual bat made it, and 60% could be categorised into four contexts: squabbling over food, jostling over position in their sleeping cluster, protesting over mating attempts and arguing when perched in close proximity to each other. The animals made slightly different sounds when communicating with different individual bats, especially those of the opposite sex. In the highly sexually dimorphic hammer-headed bat (Hypsignathus monstrosus), males produce deep, resonating, monotonous calls to attract females. Bats in flight make vocal signals for traffic control. Greater bulldog bats honk when on a collision course with each other.
Bats also communicate by other means. Male little yellow-shouldered bats (Sturnira lilium) have shoulder glands that produce a spicy odour during the breeding season. Like many other species, they have hair specialised for retaining and dispersing secretions. Such hair forms a conspicuous collar around the necks of the some Old World megabat males. Male greater sac-winged bats (Saccopteryx bilineata) have sacs in their wings in which they mix body secretions like saliva and urine to create a perfume that they sprinkle on roost sites, a behaviour known as "salting". Salting may be accompanied by singing.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Most bat species are polygynous, where males mate with multiple females. Male pipistrelle, noctule and vampire bats may claim and defend resources that attract females, such as roost sites, and mate with those females. Males unable to claim a site are forced to live on the periphery where they have less reproductive success. Promiscuity, where both sexes mate with multiple partners, exists in species like the Mexican free-tailed bat and the little brown bat. There appears to be bias towards certain males among females in these bats. In a few species, such as the yellow-winged bat and spectral bat, adult males and females form monogamous pairs. Lek mating, where males aggregate and compete for female choice through display, is rare in bats but occurs in the hammerheaded bat.
For temperate living bats, mating takes place in late summer and early autumn. Tropical bats may mate during the dry season. After copulation, the male may leave behind a mating plug to block the sperm of other males and thus ensure his paternity. In hibernating species, males are known to mate with females in torpor. Female bats use a variety of strategies to control the timing of pregnancy and the birth of young, to make delivery coincide with maximum food ability and other ecological factors. Females of some species have delayed fertilisation, in which sperm is stored in the reproductive tract for several months after mating. Mating occurs in late summer to early autumn but fertilisation does not occur until the following late winter to early spring. Other species exhibit delayed implantation, in which the egg is fertilised after mating, but remains free in the reproductive tract until external conditions become favourable for giving birth and caring for the offspring. In another strategy, fertilisation and implantation both occur, but development of the foetus is delayed until good conditions prevail. During the delayed development the mother keeps the fertilised egg alive with nutrients. This process can go on for a long period, because of the advanced gas exchange system.
For temperate living bats, births typically take place in May or June in the northern hemisphere; births in the southern hemisphere occur in November and December. Tropical species give birth at the beginning of the rainy season. In most bat species, females carry and give birth to a single pup per litter. At birth, a bat pup can be up to 40 percent of the mother's weight, and the pelvic girdle of the female can expand during birth as the two-halves are connected by a flexible ligament. Females typically give birth in a head-up or horizontal position, using gravity to make birthing easier. The young emerges rear-first, possibly to prevent the wings from getting tangled, and the female cradles it in her wing and tail membranes. In many species, females give birth and raise their young in maternity colonies and may assist each other in birthing.
Most of the care for a young bat comes from the mother. In monogamous species, the father plays a role. Allo-suckling, where a female suckles another mother's young, occurs in several species. This may serve to increase colony size in species where females return to their natal colony to breed. A young bat's ability to fly coincides with the development of an adult body and forelimb length. For the little brown bat, this occurs about eighteen days after birth. Weaning of young for most species takes place in under eighty days. The common vampire bat nurses its offspring beyond that and young vampire bats achieve independence later in life than other species. This is probably due to the species' blood-based diet, which is difficult to obtain on a nightly basis.
Life expectancy
The maximum lifespan of bats is three-and-a-half times longer than other mammals of similar size. Six species have been recorded to live over thirty years in the wild: the brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), the Siberian bat (Myotis sibiricus), the lesser mouse-eared bat (Myotis blythii) the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), and the Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus). One hypothesis consistent with the rate-of-living theory links this to the fact that they slow down their metabolic rate while hibernating; bats that hibernate, on average, have a longer lifespan than bats that do not.
Another hypothesis is that flying has reduced their mortality rate, which would also be true for birds and gliding mammals. Bat species that give birth to multiple pups generally have a shorter lifespan than species that give birth to only a single pup. Cave-roosting species may have a longer lifespan than non-roosting species because of the decreased predation in caves. A male Siberian bat was recaptured in the wild after 41 years, making it the oldest known bat.
Interactions with humans
Conservation
Groups such as the Bat Conservation International aim to increase awareness of bats' ecological roles and the environmental threats they face. In the United Kingdom, all bats are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Acts, and disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.
In Sarawak, Malaysia, "all bats" are protected under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998, but species such as the hairless bat (Cheiromeles torquatus) are still eaten by the local communities. Humans have caused the extinction of several species of bat in modern history, the most recent being the Christmas Island pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi), which was declared extinct in 2009.
Many people put up bat houses to attract bats. The 1991 University of Florida bat house is the largest occupied artificial roost in the world, with around 400,000 residents. In Britain, thickwalled and partly underground World War II pillboxes have been converted to make roosts for bats, and purpose-built bat houses are occasionally built to mitigate damage to habitat from road or other developments. Cave gates are sometimes installed to limit human entry into caves with sensitive or endangered bat species. The gates are designed not to limit the airflow, and thus to maintain the cave's micro-ecosystem. Of the 47 species of bats found in the United States, 35 are known to use human structures, including buildings and bridges. Fourteen species use bat houses.
Bats are eaten in countries across Africa, Asia and the Pacific Rim. In some cases, such as in Guam, flying foxes have become endangered through being hunted for food. There is evidence that wind turbines create sufficient barotrauma (pressure damage) to kill bats. Bats have typical mammalian lungs, which are thought to be more sensitive to sudden air pressure changes than the lungs of birds, making them more liable to fatal rupture. Bats may be attracted to turbines, perhaps seeking roosts, increasing the death rate. Acoustic deterrents may help to reduce bat mortality at wind farms.
Cultural significance
Since bats are mammals, yet can fly, they are considered to be liminal beings in various traditions. In many cultures, including in Europe, bats are associated with darkness, death, witchcraft, and malevolence. Among Native Americans such as the Creek, Cherokee and Apache, the bat is identified as a trickster. In Tanzania, a winged batlike creature known as Popobawa is believed to be a shapeshifting evil spirit that assaults and sodomises its victims. In Aztec mythology, bats symbolised the land of the dead, destruction, and decay. An East Nigerian tale tells that the bat developed its nocturnal habits after causing the death of his partner, the bush-rat, and now hides by day to avoid arrest.
More positive depictions of bats exist in some cultures. In China, bats have been associated with happiness, joy and good fortune. Five bats are used to symbolise the "Five Blessings": longevity, wealth, health, love of virtue and peaceful death. The bat is sacred in Tonga and is often considered the physical manifestation of a separable soul. In the Zapotec civilisation of Mesoamerica, the bat god presided over corn and fertility.
The Weird Sisters in Shakespeare's Macbeth used the fur of a bat in their brew. In Western culture, the bat is often a symbol of the night and its foreboding nature. The bat is a primary animal associated with fictional characters of the night, both villainous vampires, such as Count Dracula and before him Varney the Vampire, and heroes, such as the DC Comics character Batman. Kenneth Oppel's Silverwing novels narrate the adventures of a young bat, based on the silver-haired bat of North America.
The bat is sometimes used as a heraldic symbol in Spain and France, appearing in the coats of arms of the towns of Valencia, Palma de Mallorca, Fraga, Albacete, and Montchauvet. Three US states have an official state bat. Texas and Oklahoma are represented by the Mexican free-tailed bat, while Virginia is represented by the Virginia big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus).
Economics
Insectivorous bats in particular are especially helpful to farmers, as they control populations of agricultural pests and reduce the need to use pesticides. It has been estimated that bats save the agricultural industry of the United States anywhere from $3.7billion to $53billion per year in pesticides and damage to crops. This also prevents the overuse of pesticides, which can pollute the surrounding environment, and may lead to resistance in future generations of insects.
Bat dung, a type of guano, is rich in nitrates and is mined from caves for use as fertiliser. During the US Civil War, saltpetre was collected from caves to make gunpowder. At the time, it was believed that the nitrate all came from the bat guano, but it is now known that most of it is produced by nitrifying bacteria.
The Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas, is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats. About 100,000 tourists a year visit the bridge at twilight to watch the bats leave the roost.
See also
Bat detector
Explanatory notes
References
Sources
External links
of UK Bat Conservation Trust
Tree of Life
Microbat Vision
Analyses of several kinds of bat echolocation
Animal flight
Animals that use echolocation
Articles containing video clips
Cave mammals
Extant Ypresian first appearances
Nocturnal animals
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
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Sigle
Reform Party of Syria – Partito politico siriano filo-israeliano con sede negli USA
Royal Philharmonic Society – Società musicale britannica
Royal Photographic Society – Società di promozione fotografica britannica
RPS – real person slash, termine usato nelle comunità fandom per le storie a contenuto erotico, spesso omoerotico
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Andersonia leptura is a species of catfish (order Siluriformes) of the family Amphiliidae, and is the only species of the genus Andersonia. This fish grows to about 50.0 cm (19.7 in) in total length; it is found in the Omo, Niger, and Upper Nile Rivers and the Lake Chad basin, and is also known from Lake Debo. Although previously considered to be toothless on the lower jaw, dentition has been found on the premaxilla and the dentary. The teeth are embedded in the mucous sheath that covers the head and extends into the oral cavity, which makes the teeth difficult to see with the naked eye.
References
Amphiliidae
Freshwater fish of West Africa
Fish of Chad
White Nile
Taxa named by George Albert Boulenger
Fish described in 1900
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Wolf of New York is a 1940 American crime film directed by William C. McGann and written by Gordon Kahn and Lionel Houser. The film stars Edmund Lowe, Rose Hobart, James Stephenson, Jerome Cowan, William Demarest and Maurice Murphy. The film was released on January 23, 1940, by Republic Pictures.
Plot
Cast
Edmund Lowe as Chris Faulkner
Rose Hobart as Peggy Nolan
James Stephenson as Hiram Rogers
Jerome Cowan as Cosgrave
William Demarest as Bill Ennis
Maurice Murphy as Frankie Mason
Charles D. Brown as Const. Nolan
Edward Gargan as W. Thornton Upshaw
Andrew Tombes as Sylvester Duncan
Ben Welden as Owney McGill
Ann Baldwin as Gladys
Roy Gordon as Governor
References
External links
1940 films
American crime films
1940 crime films
Republic Pictures films
Films directed by William C. McGann
Films scored by William Lava
American black-and-white films
1940s English-language films
1940s American films
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Truck bedliner, or simply Bedliner, is a protector applied or installed into a truck bed. It can be used to protect the bed of the truck from impact and abrasive damage. There are two broad classifications of bedliners: "Drop-in" and "Spray-on/in". "Drop-in" bedliners are installed into a truck bed with limited preparation work, and are removable for cleaning. Spray-in bedliners require specific preparation to allow the coating to adhere correctly to the bed. How well the coating adheres will determine how long it will last.
History
Protecting the bed of trucks has been around since the inception of the modern pick-up truck in the early 1950s with simple modifications being made such as installing planks of wood to the beds. Ford's F100 series featured such options, now done only for cosmetic purposes or restoration. People have also been known to install a simple sheet of wood as a means to protect the floor from being scratched or dented.
As pick-up trucks were designed to haul cargo, a more advanced method was created. Thermoforming, a technique that has been around since the 1940s in acrylics and styrene, would eventually through advances in development and research create the first plastic drop-in bedliner. In 1972, G. Fred Lorenzen filed a patent for "protective inner liner of cargo box or body of pickup truck". In 1976, Robert J. Zeffero filed a patent regarding the protection of truck beds with a "cargo box liner for pick-up trucks". In 1983, Penda Corporation along with others would soon figure out a way to replicate the design and start to manufacture their own design of a bed liner.
Drop-in bedliners
Drop-in or plastic bedliners are the most commonly found type, although with the spray-on bedliner industry garnered recognition, drop-ins have lost some value in market share. Drop-ins can usually be installed rather quickly with no major modification made to the bed of the truck except drilling small holes in key areas to hold it in place in certain applications. Typically made of a polyethylene composite, drop-ins are a rigid structure formed to the contours of a specific vehicle model. A newer version of a drop-in bedliner, recently introduced, is composed of separate sides and a rubber mat for the floor made by DualLiner.
Spray-on bedliners
"Sprayed-on","Sprayed-in","Spray-on", "Spray-in" (these terms are used interchangeably in the industry) come in varying formulations and process methods such as high or low pressure, aromatic or aliphatic, polyurea or polyurethane, or hybrid and solvent base. Performance greatly relies on the initial surface preparation done on the bed. It is possible to have the color of the bedliner match that of the vehicle, but with time, color fade from ultraviolet radiation is inevitable.
Aromatic is generally used for black and darker colors, and is the least expensive option.
Aliphatic can be a better option for colors because its color is more stable over time in ultraviolet light. It is produced with pure polyurethane, which drives up the cost approximately 35%. Aliphatic materials can be sprayed in a wide variety of colors, including metallic finishes.
Spray-on bedliners can be applied by roller, low pressure, cartridge driven by an air compressor or high pressure machine.
Environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature, wind, and elevation can affect the cure process of a spray-in bedliner. Nozzle aperture, thinners, and spray pressure can be modified to allow proper distribution of the spray lining chemicals.
Differences in spray-on bedliners
Spray-on bedliner material can vary in texture as well as color. Texture can be smooth for easy cleaning or rough to prevent skidding.
Polyurethane can be sprayed from 1/16 inch to 1/4 inches, depending on the application. Thinner coatings may cost less but can chip and crack. Thicker coatings will alter the shape and size of the truck bed somewhat. For trucks with the most rugged use, ArmorThane sets optimum thickness for bedliners as 1/4 inch on the bed and wheel wells and 1/8 inch on the sides.
When applied correctly, the value of a truck bedliner is that it resists denting, scratching, and holds shape firmly, yet is flexible enough to not crack when navigating through rough terrain. Unlike a metal bed, it absorbs vibration to protect cargo. Whereas painted metal will chip and rust under rough conditions, polyurethane coatings prevent damage from scratching and from most chemicals, and therefore avoid rusting.
Spray on truck bedliners require a professional applicator who has the training and experience to follow the process and deliver a smooth, even surface. The process requires sanding to create a surface for the polyurethane to attach. This allows the polyurethane to bond permanently so it will not bubble even in extreme weather.
The choice of colors is virtually unlimited. A color matching system sprays to OEM specs or owners can choose custom colors. Adding an ultraviolet stabilizer maintains the appearance even in prolonged direct sunlight.
Spray-on bedliner material for other uses
These spray-on polyurethane coatings are not just for truck bedliners. They also protect fenders, bumpers, floor boards, nerf bars and trim. In fact, whole vehicles have been sprayed. The same polyurethane spray can be applied to emergency vehicles, commercial transport, heavy construction, agriculture equipment and boats.
Spraying polyurethane serves two purposes. First, it adds years of service by preventing scratching, rusting, and chemical contamination from deteriorating standard OEM paint. Second, it can create a roughed up, anti-skid or anti-slip surface.
Some polyurea coatings, using a similar spray system, have been applied to military and private vehicles for blast mitigation.
The MythBusters tested myths about the toughness of spray-on truck bedliner resin in 2011 and confirmed it to be an adequate protection against dents in minor crashes (applied on a car), dog bites (applied on a jacket) and explosive blasts (applied on a wooden or brick wall).
Polyurethane spray bedliners
The bedliner industry has created confusion with regard to all the custom polyurea, polyurethane and polyurea formulations. Each company boasts of its superior durability and profitable dealer opportunities. The reality is that they are all very similar, barring low-quality do-it-yourself products. If you want to learn about the differences between spray bedliners, it is important to understand the differences between polyurethane and polyurea, as well as what is required to achieve different textures and physical properties. Polyureas and polyurethanes have significant differences chemically, but act similarly in many applications. For the purpose of bedliners, the big difference is in the application process and the level of isocyanates and VOCs. This is an important aspect of the bedliner industry, as the presence of VOCs and isocyanates prevents the application of spray bedliners in many states, or places restrictions on how the material can be applied.
Other applications
Only two types of coatings are mentioned so far but additives can be added to coatings to provide different characteristics, Although this is about Truck Bedliners, the protective coatings can be applied in many other environments have a variety of needs and purposes besides a simple truck bedliner.
In recent years it has become more popular to use bedliner to coat the exterior of vehicles as well. This trend is, among other things, due to an increased availability and greater variety of colors offered. Due to the waterproof and anti-corrosive nature of these polyurethane blends, they are also used as a coating for the interior of boats
HMW/UHMW Medium to heavy duty poly dump bedliners
Super heavy duty UHMW asphalt liner
The “most versatile” dump bedliner can handle hot asphalt one day and rock/concrete the next, maximizing the usage of your dump equipment and lowering maintenance costs.
Heavy duty UHMW liner
“Heavy Duty” dump body bedliners allow for low scope dumping, less sticking and freezing while protecting the bed from heavy, abrasive loads in steel and aluminum dump bodies and trailers.
Origin of the polyurethane liner
It was created in 1983, by American Made Liner Systems, now a division of American Made Systems, Inc.
Purpose of the original dump bedliner
Permanent protection for dump bodies
Lower scope dumping reduces chances of roll-over
Less sticking and freezing of loads
Higher profits with less carry-backs and more hauls per day
References
Trucks
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Cowboys and Angels may refer to:
"Cowboys and Angels" (George Michael song), from the album Listen Without Prejudice Vol. 1
"Cowboys and Angels" (Dustin Lynch song)
Cowboys & Angels, a 2003 film
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A professional golfer is somebody who receives payments or financial rewards in the sport of golf that are directly related to their skill or reputation. A person who earns money by teaching or playing golf is traditionally considered a "golf pro," most of whom are teachers/coaches. The professional golfer status is reserved for people who play, rather than teach, golf for a career.
In golf, the distinction between amateurs and professionals is rigorously maintained. An amateur who breaches the rules of amateur status may lose their amateur status. A golfer who has lost their amateur status may not play in amateur competitions until amateur status has been reinstated; a professional may not play in amateur tournaments unless the Committee is notified, acknowledges and confirms the participation. It is very difficult for a professional to regain their amateur status; simply agreeing not to take payment for a particular tournament is not enough. A player must apply to the governing body of the sport to have amateur status reinstated.
History
Historically, the distinction between amateur and professional golfers had much to do with social class. In 18th and 19th century Britain, golf was played by the rich, for pleasure. The early professionals were working-class men who made a living from the game in a variety of ways: caddying, greenkeeping, clubmaking, and playing challenge matches. When golf arrived in America at the end of the 19th century, it was an elite sport there, too. Early American golf clubs imported their professionals from Britain. It was not possible to make a living solely from playing tournament golf until some way into the 20th century (Walter Hagen is sometimes considered to have been the first man to have done so).
In the developed world, the class distinction is now almost entirely irrelevant. Golf is affordable at public courses to a large portion of the population, and most golf professionals are from middle-class backgrounds, which are often the same sort of backgrounds as the members of the clubs where they work or the people they teach the game, and educated to university level. Leading tournament golfers are very wealthy; upper class in the modern U.S. usage of the term. However, in some developing countries, there is still a class distinction. Often golf is restricted to a much smaller and more elite section of society than is the case in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom. Professional golfers from these countries are quite often from poor backgrounds and start their careers as caddies, for example, Ángel Cabrera of Argentina, and Zhang Lian-wei who is the first significant tournament professional from the People's Republic of China.
In various countries, Professional Golfers' Associations (PGAs) serve either or both of these categories of professionals. There are separate LPGAs (Ladies Professional Golf Associations) for women.
Rules
Under the rules of golf and amateur status, except for hole in one prizes, the maximum value of a prize an amateur can accept is £500, or $750. If an amateur accepts a prize of greater than this they forfeit their amateur status, and are therefore by definition a professional golfer.
Professional golfers are divided into two main groups, with a limited amount of overlap between them:
The great majority of professional golfers make their living from teaching the game, running golf clubs and courses, and dealing in golf equipment. In golf pro refers to individuals involved in the service of other golfers. The senior professional golfer at a golf club is usually referred to as the club professional, but at a large golf club or resort with several courses his job title is likely to be director of golf. If they have assistants who are registered professional golfers, they are known as assistant professionals. A golfer who concentrates wholly or nearly so on giving golf lessons is a teaching professional, golf instructor or golf coach. Most of these people will enter a few tournaments against their peers each year, and occasionally they may qualify to play in important tournaments with the other group of professional golfers mentioned below. Many club and teaching professionals working in the golf industry start as caddies, or a general interest in the game, finding employment at golf courses and eventually moving on to certifications in their chosen profession. These programs include independent institutions and universities, and those that eventually lead to a Class A golf professional certification.
Note that the USGA defines "instruction" strictly as teaching the physical aspects of golf. Instruction in the psychological aspects of the game is explicitly excluded from this definition.
A much smaller but higher profile group of professional golfers earn a living from playing in golf tournaments, or aspire to do so. Their income comes from prize money, and sometimes, even endorsements. These individuals are referred to as tournament pros, tour professionals, or pro golfers.
PGA of America
In the United States, the PGA of America has 31 distinct member classifications for professionals. Many of the classifications also have corresponding apprenticeship positions.
See also
Lists of golfers - lists of professional (and amateur) golfers
PGA Tour
References
External links
The Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland)
PGA of America
Golf terminology
Sports occupations and roles
Golf people
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Fenoxycarb is a carbamate insect growth regulator. It has a low toxicity for bees, birds, and humans, but is toxic to fish. The oral LD50 for rats is greater than .
Fenoxycarb is non-neurotoxic and does not have the same mode of action as other carbamate insecticides. Instead, it prevents immature insects from reaching maturity by mimicking juvenile hormone.
External links
References
Carbamate insecticides
Phenol ethers
Ethyl esters
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Ean Lewis (born 25 February 1991) is a Belizean professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for the Belize national team.
International career
He debuted internationally on 8 September 2019, in a CONCACAF Nations League match against Grenada in a 1-2 defeat.
On 17 November 2019, Lewis scored his first goal for Belize against non-FIFA member French Guiana in a 2–0 victory.
References
External links
1991 births
Living people
Belizean footballers
Belize international footballers
Association football midfielders
Belize Defence Force FC players
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Le HC Vita Hästen est un club de hockey sur glace de Norrköping en Suède. Il évolue en Allsvenskan, le deuxième échelon suédois.
Historique
Le club est créé en 1967.
Palmarès
Aucun titre.
Joueurs
Lien externe
Site officiel
Vita Hästen
Sport à Norrköping
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Historia Anglorum ("History of the English") is the title of two medieval works on the history of England:
by Henry of Huntingdon (c. 1154)
by Matthew Paris (c. 1255)
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Hildólfr (Old Norse "war-wolf") is a son of Odin according to the Nafnaþulur list of the Prose Eddas Skáldskaparmál.
Modern influence
A tank in Mobile Suit Gundam MS IGLOO is named Hildolfr after the figure.
Heroes in Norse myths and legends
Sons of Odin
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Cacoo is web-based software for designing and drawing diagrams.
History
Cacoo was launched in 2009 by Nulab, Inc. In 2013, the on-premise Enterprise version of the software was launched.
Cacoo is written in HTML5 and runs on major Window browsers and Mac operating systems.
Usage
Cacoo is used for creating flowcharts, wireframes, UML diagrams, Organizational charts, and network diagrams.
See also
Web design
Unified Modeling Language
Computer network diagram
References
External links
https://cacoo.com/
Web software
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About 60% of Kentucky lies in the Eastern Time Zone, with the rest in the Central Time Zone, as follows:
Counties to the north and east of this boundary are in the Eastern Time Zone, while counties to the south and west are in the Central Time Zone. 30% of the area in Eastern Time Zone is further west than areas to the south. This progression to the west is further continued into Indiana.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Kentucky is covered by four time zones, columns marked " * " contain the data from the file zone.tab:
Notable clocks
The Floral Clock in Frankfort is a working clock that has a face planted with flowers, and is an attraction in its own right.
The Colgate Clock in Clarksville, Indiana, is the second-largest timepiece in the world. It faces the Ohio River to its south, and is most typically viewed from across the river in Louisville.
Louisville formerly featured a notable clock known as the Louisville Clock or the Derby Clock, which was high and decorated with mechanized sculptures. It was first installed in 1976 and after several relocations and various mechanical problems, was dismantled in 2015.
See also
Time in the United States
References
Kentucky
Geography of Kentucky
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Le nuruk (누룩) est un ingrédient traditionnel coréen pour débuter un processus de fermentation alcoolique. On l'utilise pour différents breuvages comme le takju, cheongju, et le soju.
Le blé, le riz et l'orge peuvent être utilisés pour faire du nuruk. La variante à base de blé est la plus répandue : les graines sèches sont humidifiées et moulées en forme de gros pâton, qui est laissé à fermenter à l'air libre pendant 2 à 4 semaines dans un ondol. Le pâton mature à une température fixe, jusqu'à la formation d'une moisissure.
Références
Fermentation
Cuisine coréenne
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Professional Golfers Association may refer to:
Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland)
Professional Golfers' Association of America
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David Silverman puede referirse a cualquiera de estas personalidades homónimas:
David Silverman, productor de cine y televisión, reconocido por las caricaturas Los Simpson.
David Silverman, activista ateo y expresidente de la organización American Atheists.
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The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce that serves as the President's principal adviser on telecommunications policies pertaining to the United States' economic and technological advancement and to regulation of the telecommunications industry.
Among its stated goals are:
Working to ensure that all Americans have affordable phone and cable TV service.
Helping to bring the benefits of advanced telecommunications technologies to millions of Americans in rural and underserved urban areas through its information infrastructure grants.
Providing the hardware that enables public radio and television broadcasters to extend and maintain the reach of their programming.
Advocating competition and liberalization of telecommunications policies around the world.
Participating in international government-to-government negotiations to open markets for U.S. companies.
Negotiating with foreign governments to ensure adequate spectrum for national defense, public safety, and U.S. business needs.
Promoting efficient use of federal radio spectrum and encouraging the development and implementation of new and emerging telecommunications technologies.
Performing long-term research to explore uses of higher frequency spectrum.
Working with Federal, state, and local public safety agencies to address future spectrum requirements.
Main offices
Office of Policy Analysis and Development (OPAD)
The Office of Policy Analysis and Development (OPAD) is the domestic policy division of the NTIA. OPAD is responsible for executing and managing research and analysis and preparing policy recommendations for the Executive Branch. The domestic policy office is responsible for creating policies that promote innovation and growth, both politically and economically, that provide for American businesses and consumers, alike.
These policies affect how Americans use and gain access to the wireless services like the Internet, telephone service and video programming. Issues the OPAD deals with include making sure all Americans have access to integrated broadband services, content is regulated to keep children safe on the Internet, competition in the telecommunication and information industries are cooperative and that users privacy is protected.
Additionally, OPAD carries out research, files reports, letters and formal comments, and proposes and responds to federal legislation for the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and other regulatory committees.
Office of International Affairs (OIA)
The Office of International Affairs (OIA) is responsible for developing and the implementation of policies to strengthen U.S. companies' ability to compete worldwide in both the Information Technology and Communications sectors. In consultation with other U.S. agencies and the U.S. private sector, OIA partakes in both international and regional conferences and conventions to advocate for policies that open information and communication technology (ICT) markets and boost competition.
The two main goals of the OIA are to:
Formulate international ICT policy, goals, and strategies:
By leveraging the knowledge of the Office of Spectrum Management, Office of Policy Analysis and Development, Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications, and the Institute for Telecommunications Sciences, the OIA can provide important policy and technical breakdowns to the U.S. negotiators and interagency consignments.
The OIA also provides long-lasting advice to the Executive Branch contemplating the management of the Internet's domain name and numbering system (DNS), which is critical to the overall infrastructure.
Advocate U.S. policy interests
The goal of the OIA here is to foster pro-competitive and flexible policy environments that:
Carry the profits of ICTs to the global community
Open up foreign market opportunities for U.S. Telecommunications and Information Technology companies
Observe the esteemed role of all stakeholders in the production and facilitation of the Internet as well as telecommunications policy issues occurring in the ICT community
The OIA staff helps to participate in U.S. delegations of many different meetings in which global telecommunications and information policy is discussed and developed by providing the negotiators critical policy and expertise advice.
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS)
The Institute for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS) is the research and engineering laboratory of the NTIA. ITS provides technical support to NTIA by further advancing telecommunications and information infrastructure development, strengthening domestic competition, enhancing U.S. telecommunications trade deals, as well as promoting a more effective use of the radio spectrum. Additionally, ITS serves as a key federal appliance in investigating the current telecommunications’ challenges of other federal agencies, state and local governments, private corporations and associations, and international organizations.
Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications (OTIA)
The Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications (OTIA) collaborates public and non-profit entities in productively using telecommunications and information technologies to complete national goals in addition to adequately providing public services. The OTIA is also currently administering programs that are helping people switch to digital television, the Broadband Technology Opportunity Program (BTOP), and Public Safety Interoperable Communications (PSIC) Grant Program.
Additionally, the OTIA is involved with the Public Telecommunications Facilities Program (PTFP), a competitive grant program that assists public broadcasting stations, state and local governments, Indian tribes, and non-profit organizations construct facilities to bring educational and cultural programs to the American public using telecommunication broadcast technologies. Funds are allocated to support the Pan-Pacific Educational and Cultural Experiments by Satellite (PEACESAT) project, which provides satellite-delivered education, medical, and environmental emergency telecommunications to numerous small-island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean area.
The OTIA is also involved with the New York City 9/11 Program and the Technology Opportunities Program (TOP). The NYC 9/11 Program provided the Metropolitan Television Alliance (MTA) with $29.5 million for the creation and classification costs of the temporary digital television broadcast system in the NYC area until a more permanent facility is finished atop the Freedom Tower. The TOP program, which was last awarded grants in 2004, plays a significant role in understanding the vision of an information society by providing logical applications of innovative telecommunications and information technologies in both the public and non-profit sectors.
Office of Spectrum Management (OSM)
The NTIA's Office of Spectrum Management is in charge of regulating use of spectrum allocated to the federal government. It serves in a manner equivalent to the Federal Communications Commission for this purpose.
The OSM carries out the responsibilities of managing the radio frequency spectrum by:
Establishing and issuing policy overlooking allocations and administrations governing the Federal spectrum use
Assigning plans for both peacetime and wartime use of the spectrum
Preparing for, participating in, and establishing the results of international radio conferences
Maintaining spectrum use databases
Participating in all aspects of the federal government’s communications regarding emergency readiness activities and automated information security systems
The NTIA Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management, also known as the "Red Book," is a publication of the OSM, and is the official source for all technical regulations relating to the use of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum. The NTIA is the regulating agency for all Federal spectrum use.
Broadband USA
In February 2009, the United States Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, including a $7.2 billion grant to the NTIA and U.S. Department of Agriculture's Rural Utilities Service to bolster broadband access across the United States. Of the grant, $4.7 billion was allocated to provide for the implementation of broadband infrastructure, develop and amplify public computer centers, encourage reasonable adoption of broadband service, and create and sustain a nationwide map of broadband proficiency and availability.
This project, known as the Broadband Technology Opportunities Program is being administered by the NTIA in three levels. The secondary purpose of this project is to reduce the digital gap between the various generation demographics.
Comprehensive Community Infrastructure is the first of three projects in the BTOP. It aims to develop and unfold new or improved broadband internet facilities as well as to network with schools, libraries, hospitals, public safety facilities and other community anchor institutions.
The BTOP will also focus on Public Computer centers and will create new public computer facilities or enhance existing facilities that already offer broadband services to the general public or specific vulnerable populations.
The third project that the BTOP plans to address is Sustainable Broadband Adoption. This project will center in on increasing broadband internet usage, specifically in areas where broadband technology has been unavailable or underutilized. This includes digital literacy training and outreach campaigns to educate the general public on the importance and relevance of broadband in everyday life.
In 2009, the NTIA also launched the State Broadband Data and Development Program to carry out the missions of both the Recovery Act and the Broadband Data Improvement Act to establish an encompassing project that sustains the integration of broadband technology into the economy.
Since the program commenced, NTIA allocated $293 million to 56 grantees, which include one from each state, five territories and the District of Columbia. Grantees are responsible for funding the creation, expansion and maintenance, as well as supporting and encouraging the use of, broadband technology. These efforts are made to aid small businesses and community institutions in the efficient and effective use of technology as well as to conduct research as to the boundaries in broadband expansion and innovation of broadband technology in the future.
National Broadband Map
These programs collected data used by the NTIA to refurbish a public interactive National Broadband Map that was released in February 2011. The map was authorized by Congress with the 2008 Broadband Data Improvement Act and was funded through the 2009 economic stimulus bill. The map will continue to be updated every six months with help from grantees and the general public.
The National Broadband Map is the foundation for efforts to expand and improve broadband internet access around the United States in under-equipped communities as well as assisting businesses and consumers to educate them on broadband internet options. The NTIA's findings show that while strides were made in broadband development and implementation, many people and institutions lack the broadband availability and capability needed for full internet engagement. In the last year, broadband access in households has increased nearly five percent and the number of people not using the internet is down over three percent. Yet, lower demographic groups continue to lack behind in internet capability.
The NTIA also found that many community anchor institutions are generally underserved in broadband connectivity. The data showed that two-thirds of the surveyed schools were signed up for broadband service that provide less than half the speed that educational technology studies recommend and only four percent of libraries subscribe to recommended broadband speeds.
Along with the continuous update of the National Broadband Map, the NTIA will sustain its state-driven efforts to increase broadband implementation and will move to expand its collaboration efforts to serve as an expansive network to empower broadband developers.
2020 data breach
In 2020, the NTIA suffered a data breach following a cyberattack likely conducted by a nation state adversary, possibly Russia.
See also
First Responder Network Authority (FirstNet)
White Spaces
References
External links
National Telecommunications and Information Administration official site
NTIA's BTOP website
National Telecommunications and Information Administration in the Federal Register
Broadband Equity, Access, and Deployment Program account on USAspending.gov
Broadband Connectivity Fund account on USAspending.gov
FCC Broadband Map (NTIA's National Broadband Map is no longer available)
Government agencies established in 1978
1978 establishments in the United States
United States communications regulation
United States Department of Commerce agencies
Telecommunications
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