text
stringlengths 16
352k
| source
stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|
Northern Foothills () is a line of coastal hills on the west side of Terra Nova Bay, Victoria Land, Antarctica, lying southward of Browning Pass and forming a peninsular continuation of the Deep Freeze Range. It was named by the Northern Party of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13, because during field operations Inexpressible Island, close southward, was originally referred to as the "Southern Foothills."
Hills of Victoria Land
Scott Coast
|
wiki
|
Rasmussen syndrome is a condition characterized by multiple skin growths called trichoepitheliomas.
See also
List of cutaneous neoplasms associated with systemic syndromes
List of cutaneous conditions
References
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts
Syndromes affecting the skin
|
wiki
|
Althea Gibson and Darlene Hard were the defending champions, but Hard did not compete. Gibson partnered with Maria Bueno, and they defeated Margaret duPont and Margaret Varner in the final, 6–3, 7–5 to win the ladies' doubles tennis title at the 1958 Wimbledon Championships.
Seeds
Maria Bueno / Althea Gibson (champions)
Shirley Bloomer / Christine Truman (third round)
Mary Hawton / Thelma Long (semifinals)
Yola Ramírez / Rosie Reyes (semifinals)
Draw
Finals
Top half
Section 1
Section 2
Bottom half
Section 3
Section 4
References
External links
Women's Doubles
Wimbledon Championship by year – Women's doubles
Wimbledon Championships
Wimbledon Championships
|
wiki
|
A variant form may refer to:
Variant Chinese character
Variant form (Unicode)
an alternative spelling. See, for example:
American and British English spelling differences
British and Malaysian English differences
Orthographical variant (in biology)
|
wiki
|
Reguläre Untergruppe steht für:
Reguläre Untergruppe einer Lie-Gruppe
Reguläre Untergruppe einer Permutationsgruppe
|
wiki
|
Just In with Laura Ingraham was an American news program broadcast on the Fox News Channel weekdays at 5:00 p.m. Eastern Time. The show was hosted by conservative talk radio host Laura Ingraham. The show, said to be a limited trial run, lasted only three weeks on the air before being canceled; it was replaced by the same show that preceded it: America's Election Headquarters.
The show received significant public coverage shortly after its cancellation when a tape of off-air excerpts featuring Ingraham was leaked to the internet. In the nine-minute video Ingraham questions Fox News' style, and describes the show as a "train wreck."
See also
The Ingraham Angle
References
External links
Fox News original programming
2000s American television news shows
2008 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings
|
wiki
|
Dave Carpender (January 23, 1950 – September 26, 2007) was an American musician best known as the guitarist for The Greg Kihn Band from 1976 to 1983. They had a #2 US /#63 UK hit in 1983 with "Jeopardy" and a #15 US hit in 1981 with "The Breakup Song (They Don't Write 'Em)". He died of heart failure in 2007, at age 57.
References
External links
AllMusic
Gregkihn.com
1950 births
2007 deaths
Musicians from Berkeley, California
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from California
American male guitarists
The Greg Kihn Band members
20th-century American male musicians
|
wiki
|
Ozothamnus vauvilliersii is a species of shrub in the family Asteraceae.
References
vauvilliersii
Plants described in 1853
|
wiki
|
The Bolaños River is a river in Mexico flowing through the Sierra Madre Occidental, and a tributary of Rio Grande de Santiago. It has a length of 360 km and a watershed of about 10 000 square kilometers.
Geography
The river's origin is in the state of Zacatecas, about 60 km west of the city of Fresnillo, about 40 km south of Tropic of Cancer. It flows south between the Sierra los Huicholes on the west and the Sierra de Morones on the east. It enters the state of Jalisco some 85 km later, eventually draining into the Lerma Santiago River, approximately 40 km northwest of the city of Tequila. The last 32 km of the river form the boundary between the states of Jalisco and Nayarit.
The principal municipalities transversed by the Bolaños River include:
in Zacatecas: San Mateo and Valparaiso;
in Jalisco: Mezquitic, Villa Guerrero, Bolaños, Chimaltitán and San Martín de Bolaños.
See also
List of rivers of Mexico
References
Atlas of Mexico, 1975 (https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas_mexico/river_basins.jpg).
The Prentice Hall American World Atlas, 1984.
Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993.
Rivers of Zacatecas
Rivers of Jalisco
Rivers of Nayarit
Rivers of the Sierra Madre Occidental
Río Grande de Santiago
|
wiki
|
Genetic exceptionalism is the belief that genetic information is special and so must be treated differently from other types of medical data or other personally identifiable information.
For example, patients are able to obtain information about their blood pressure without involving any medical professionals, but to obtain information about their genetic profile might require an order from a physician and expensive counseling sessions. Disclosure of an individual's genetic information or its meaning, such as telling a woman with red hair that she has a higher risk of skin cancer, has been legally restricted in some places, as providing medical advice.
That policy approach has been taken by state legislatures to safeguard individuals' genetic information in the United States from individuals, their families, their employers, and the government. The approach builds upon the existing protection required of general health information provided by such laws as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.
Expert debate
There is ongoing debate over whether or when certain genetic information should be considered exceptional. In some cases, the predictive power of genetic information (such as a risk for a disease like Huntington's disease, which is highly penetrant) may justify special considerations for genetic exceptionalism, in that individuals with a high risk for developing this condition may face a certain amount of discrimination. However, for most common human health conditions, a specific genetic variant only plays a partial role, interacting with other genetic variants and environmental and lifestyle influences to contribute to disease development. In these cases, genetic information is often considered similarly to other medical and lifestyle data, such as smoking status, age, or biomarkers.
See also
Genetic privacy
HIV exceptionalism, similar rules for HIV/AIDS testing
References
External links
Includes a state-by-state summary table on genetic privacy laws, but information is not being updated.
Health policy in the United States
Privacy
Information privacy
Genetics
|
wiki
|
A climbing harness is a device which allows a climber access to the safety of a rope. It is used in rock and ice climbing, abseiling, and lowering; this is in contrast to other activities requiring ropes for access or safety such as industrial rope work (such as window cleaning), construction, and rescue and recovery, which use safety harnesses instead.
Overview
While an improvised harness can be created out of length of rope or nylon webbing, commercially produced harnesses specific to climbing rock and ice are the norm. These characteristically include a dedicated tie-in loop, padding, and amenities such as gear loops. Most commercial climbing harnesses meet the guidelines and manufacturing standards of organizations such as the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UiAA) or European Committee for Standardization.
Harnesses of users involved in climbing should be attached to dynamic (kernmantle) rope, which has natural shock-absorbing stretch. In via ferrata, the harness is attached to metal cables via a shock absorber that can absorb some of the impact of a fall.
The most common knot for attaching a harness to a rope is the figure-eight follow through, characteristically backed up by a stopper knot. Although it is harder to untie after a fall than some alternatives, it is inherently more secure, easier to tie, and easier to verify that it has been tied correctly. There are many variations of the bowline knot, including a variation of the double bowline, and some will untie themselves when repeatedly stressed and unstressed, as is common in climbing.
A harness' gear loops, used for carrying such equipment a protection devices, carabiners, etc., are not weight-bearing; nor are the elastic cords which restrain the leg loops from slipping down while not under load.
History
The invention of the climbing harness has been attributed to Jeanne Immink, a Dutch climber in the late nineteenth century. Some of the first climbing harnesses were devised in the U.K. in the early 1960s by Alan Waterhouse, Paul Seddon and Tony Howard who went on to form the Troll climbing equipment manufacturers. A harness designed by British climber Don Whillans was made by Troll for the 1970 Annapurna South Face Expedition. It went into mass production shortly afterwards and soon became popular worldwide.
The sit or seat harness was invented in the 1960s by Yosemite climbers. The first innovation was the Swami Belt, which was multiple loops of webbing around the waist. Then quickly came the Swami Seat, a sit harness tied from webbing revealed to the climbing world thru an article in Summit Magazine in the mid-60s, which included leg loops and an integrated waist loop. Once the seat/sit harness came to be, suppliers of climbing gear started making them with stitching replacing the knots.
Types
A sit harness consists of a waist belt and two leg loops which are normally connected in the front of the hips through a permanent webbing loop called a belay loop. Belay loops are extremely strong, but nonetheless still a single point of failure that caused at least one notorious death. For rock climbing, the rope typically goes through the two "tie-in loops" that are above and below the "belay loop". The figure-eight knot is mostly used for rock climbing. These are the most commonly used harnesses for recreational activities such as abseiling and rock climbing, as they afford a wide range of movement while still maintaining a high level of safety. Ensuring the harness fits correctly is key to avoiding pain in the upper thigh area caused by the leg loops being too tight around the upper legs and groin area, while at the same time ensuring that a climber flipped over in a fall does not slip out. The waist belt should be tightened snugly.
A chest harness is worn around the shoulders, usually with a sit harness so as to provide an additional attachment point. This attachment point allows for better balance in some situations such as when carrying a heavy pack (as the centre of mass is above the connection to the rope) and when the person in the harness may be unable to maintain an upright position (due to injury or other influences).
Safety
In a study conducted, researchers came to a conclusion that there was no statistically significant evidence revealing a pattern between harness type and severity of climbing accidents. Direct rock contact in rock climbing was the main reason for injury, not the type of climbing harness used.
Materials
Most harnesses are made from nylon webbing, specifically, Nylon 66. Aspects are often tubular rather than flat. Different weaves are used depending on a component's function. These sometimes include polyester. Buckles are typically made of anodized aluminum. Foam and mesh are integrated into the leg loops and waist belt to make them more comfortable. Harness designers adapt increasingly advanced materials such as Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE), aramid fibers (Kevlar, Vectran, etc.), and sailcloth to make harnesses lighter and more comfortable.
See also
Climbing gear
List of climbing knots
Rock climbing
Glossary of climbing terms
References
External links
How to choose a climbing harness?
Climbing equipment
Caving equipment
Mountaineering equipment
|
wiki
|
The quokka () (Setonix brachyurus) is a small macropod about the size of a domestic cat. It is the only member of the genus Setonix. Like other marsupials in the macropod family (such as kangaroos and wallabies), the quokka is herbivorous and mainly nocturnal.
Quokkas are found on some smaller islands off the coast of Western Australia, particularly Rottnest Island just off Perth and Bald Island near Albany. Isolated, scattered populations also exist in forest and coastal heath between Perth and Albany. A small colony inhabits a protected area of Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve, where they co-exist with the critically endangered Gilbert's potoroo.
Description
A quokka weighs and is long with a tail, which is quite short for a macropod. It has a stocky build, well developed hind legs, rounded ears, and a short, broad head. Its musculoskeletal system was originally adapted for terrestrial bipedal saltation, but over its evolution, its system has been built for arboreal locomotion. Although looking rather like a very small kangaroo, it can climb small trees and shrubs up to . Its coarse fur is a grizzled brown colour, fading to buff underneath. The quokka is known to live for an average of 10 years. Quokkas are nocturnal animals; they sleep during the day in Acanthocarpus preissii, using the plants' spikes for protection and hiding.
Quokkas have a promiscuous mating system. After a month of gestation, females give birth to a single baby called a joey. Females can give birth twice a year and produce about 17 joeys during their lifespan. The joey lives in its mother's pouch for six months. Once it leaves the pouch, the joey relies on its mother for milk for two more months and is fully weaned around eight months after birth. Females sexually mature after roughly 18 months. When a female quokka with a joey in her pouch is pursued by a predator, she may drop her baby onto the ground; the joey produces noises which may serve to attract the predator's attention, while the mother escapes.
Discovery and name
The word "quokka" is originally derived from a Noongar word, which was probably . Today, the Noongar people refer to them as ban-gup, bungeup and quak –a.
In 1658, Dutch mariner Samuel Volckertzoon wrote of sighting "a wild cat" on the island. In 1696, Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh mistook them for giant rats, and renamed the Wadjemup island , which means "the rat nest island" in Dutch.
Ecology
During the Pleistocene period, quokkas were more abundant and living on open landscapes. When the Europeans arrived in Australia, they introduced new species, some of which became predators to the quokkas. This caused the habitats of quokkas to eventually shift to islands and forests, where there were minimal predators and more vegetation. In the wild, the quokka's roaming is restricted to a very small range in the South West of Western Australia, with a number of small scattered populations. One large population exists on Rottnest Island and a smaller population is on Bald Island near Albany. The islands are free of certain predators such as red foxes and cats. On Rottnest, quokkas are common and occupy a variety of habitats, ranging from semiarid scrub to cultivated gardens.
Prickly Acanthocarpus plants, which are unaccommodating for humans and other relatively large animals to walk through, provide their favorite daytime shelter for sleeping. Additionally, they are known for their ability to climb trees.
Diet
Like most macropods, quokkas eat many types of vegetation, including grasses, sedges and leaves. A study found that Guichenotia ledifolia, a small shrub species of the family Malvaceae, is one of the quokka's favoured foods. Rottnest Island visitors are urged to never feed quokkas, in part because eating "human food" such as chips can cause dehydration and malnourishment, both of which are detrimental to the quokka's health. Despite the relative lack of fresh water on Rottnest Island, quokkas do have high water requirements, which they satisfy mostly through eating vegetation. On the mainland, quokkas only live in areas that have or more of rain per year. The quokkas chew their cud, similar to cows.
Population
At the time of colonial settlement, the quokka was widespread and abundant, with its distribution encompassing an area of about of the South West of Western Australia, including the two offshore islands, Bald and Rottnest. By 1992, following extensive population declines in the 20th century, the quokka's distribution on the mainland had been reduced by more than 50% to an area of about .
Despite being numerous on the small, offshore islands, the quokka is classified as vulnerable. On the mainland, where it is threatened by introduced predatory species such as red foxes, cats, and dogs, it requires dense ground cover for refuge. Clearfell logging, agricultural development, and housing expansion have reduced their habitat, contributing to the decline of the species, as has the clearing and burning of the remaining swamplands. Moreover, quokkas usually have a litter size of one and successfully rear one young each year. Although they are constantly mating, usually one day after the young are born, the small litter size, along with the restricted space and threatening predators, contributes to the scarcity of the species on the mainland.
An estimated 4,000 quokkas live on the mainland, with nearly all mainland populations being groups of fewer than 50, although one declining group of over 700 occurs in the southern forest between Nannup and Denmark. In 2015, an extensive bushfire near Northcliffe nearly eradicated one of the local mainland populations, with an estimated 90% of the 500 quokkas dying.
In 2007, the quokka population on Rottnest Island was estimated at between 8,000 and 12,000. Snakes are the quokka's only predator on the island. The population on smaller Bald Island, where the quokka has no predators, is 600–1,000. At the end of summer and into autumn, a seasonal decline of quokkas occurs on Rottnest Island, where loss of vegetation and reduction of available surface water can lead to starvation.
This species saw the most significant decline from 1930 to the 1990s, when their distribution was reduced by over half. The quokka markedly declined in its abundance and distribution in the early 1930s, and this tendency has continued till today. Their presence on the mainland has declined to such an extent that they are only found in small groups in bushland surrounding Perth.
The quokka is now listed as vulnerable in accordance with the IUCN criteria.
Human interaction
Quokkas have little fear of humans and commonly approach people closely, particularly on Rottnest Island, where they are abundant. Though quokkas are approachable, there are a few dozen cases annually of quokkas biting people, especially children. There are restrictions regarding feeding. It is illegal for members of the public to handle the animals in any way, and feeding, particularly of "human food", is especially discouraged, as they can easily get sick. An infringement notice carrying a $300 fine can be issued by the Rottnest Island Authority for such an offence. The maximum penalty for animal cruelty is a $50,000 fine and a five-year prison sentence. In addition to restrictions on human interactions with quokkas, they have been tested to be potentially harmful to humans with their high salmonella infection rates, especially in the summer heat. This has been proven and experimented by scientists who have taken blood tests on wild quokkas on Rottnest Island.
Quokkas can also be observed at several zoos and wildlife parks around Australia, including Perth Zoo, Taronga Zoo, Wild Life Sydney, and Adelaide Zoo. Physical interaction is generally not permitted without explicit permission from supervising staff.
Quokka behavior in response to human interaction has been examined in zoo environments. One brief study indicated fewer animals remained visible from the visitor paths when the enclosure was an open or walk-through environment. This may have been due to the quokkas acquiring avoidance behavior of visitors, which the authors propose has implications for stress management in their exhibition to the public.
Quokka selfies
In the mid-2010s, quokkas earned a reputation on the internet as "the world's happiest animals" and symbols of positivity, as frontal photos of their faces make them appear to be smiling (they do not, in fact "smile" in the human sense; this can be attributed to their natural facial structures). Many photos of smiling quokkas have since gone viral, and the "quokka selfie" has become a popular social media trend, with celebrities such as Chris Hemsworth, Shawn Mendes, Margot Robbie, Roger Federer and Kim Donghyuk of iKON taking part in the activity. Tourist numbers to Rottnest Island have subsequently increased.
See also
Pademelon
References
Further reading
External links
Endemic fauna of Southwest Australia
Macropods
Mammals described in 1830
Mammals of Western Australia
Marsupials of Australia
Rottnest Island
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
|
wiki
|
A wallaby is the informal name for any of about thirty species of Australian marsupials.
Wallaby or Wallabies may also refer to:
Wallaby, Japanese fantasy manga
Sopwith Wallaby, British single-engined biplane
The Wallabies, nickname of the Australia national rugby union team
Wallabee, line of shoes manufactured by C. & J. Clark
The Wallaby ULM aeroplane by Fly Synthesis
Adobe Wallaby from Adobe is a Flash-to-HTML5 Conversion Tool
A semantic configuration service for the Condor High-Throughput Computing System, developed by Red Hat
Wallaby (ferry), a ferry that operated on Sydney Harbour from 1879.
The WALLABY (Widefield ASKAP L-Band Legacy All-Sky Blind Survey) astronomical survey with the ASKAP telescope
|
wiki
|
In dance and gymnastics, a turn is a rotation of the body about the vertical axis. It is usually a complete rotation of the body, although quarter (90°) and half (180°) turns are possible for some types of turns. Multiple, consecutive turns are typically named according to the number of 360° rotations (e.g., double or triple turn).
There are many types of turns, which are differentiated by a number of factors. The performer may be supported by one or both legs or be airborne during a turn. When supported by one leg, that leg is known as the supporting leg and the other as the free, raised, or working leg. During airborne turns, the first leg to leave the floor is the leading leg. Trunk, arm and head positions can vary, and in turns with one supporting leg, the free leg may be straight or bent. Turns can begin in various ways as well. For example, ballet turns may begin by rising to relevé (supported on the ball of the foot) or by stepping directly onto relevé.
Some turns can be executed in either of two directions. In ballet, a turn in the direction of the raised leg is said to be en dehors whereas a turn in the opposite direction is en dedans. In ballroom dancing, a natural turn is a clockwise revolution of dance partners around each other, and its mirrored counterpart is the counter-clockwise reverse turn.
In some dance genres and dance notation systems (e.g., Labanotation), a turn in which the performer rotates without traveling is known as a pivot. Pivots may be performed on one or on both feet; the latter is sometimes called a twist turn.
Technique
Spotting is a technique that is often used when executing turns, in which a performer executes a periodic, rapid rotation of the head that serves to fix the performer's gaze on a single spot, thus giving the impression that the head is always facing forward. Spotting prevents dizziness by allowing the head to remain stable during most of the turn. This helps the performer maintain balance and, when executing traveling turns such as tours chaînés and piques, it helps the performer control the direction of travel.
Types of turns
Attitude
An attitude turn is performed with the working leg held in attitude position. In ballet, the performer may be assisted by a partner so that the turn can be performed slowly.
Axel
An axel is a turn in which the performer leaps into the air and, while airborne, tucks both legs underneath and rotates. It is usually executed while traveling across the floor. It is commonly performed in jazz dance and is often immediately preceded by a chaînés in a deep plié (bend of the knees).
Barrel roll
A barrel roll turn, or simply barrel roll, is a turn that involves casting the arms up and leaping into the air and rotating 360 degrees while airborne. While airborne, the performer's back may be arched and the head may be cast back. It starts and ends with the performer facing forward. Barrel roll turns are commonly used in tap, jazz, and contemporary dance.
Chaînés
Chaînés (French, meaning "chain") is a type of two-step turn that is executed repeatedly while the performer travels along a line or curved (often circular or elliptical) path. It is performed quickly on alternating feet and results in a complete rotation for every two steps taken. It is commonly used in ballet, modern, and ballroom dancing.
In the first half-turn, one foot is stepped out to the dancer's side in the direction of travel and placed in releve or en pointe; the dancer then rotates 180° on the placed foot while lifting the other foot so that it crosses over the placed foot. As this happens, the arms are brought together away from the chest and spotting technique is employed so that the dancer's head faces the direction of travel as much as possible. The second half-turn is executed with the feet together. Upon completion of the second half-turn, the first foot is stepped out again to begin another turn.
In ballet, chaînés turns are usually performed at a very fast tempo, with each turn lasting one half or one quarter of a music beat. They can be performed outwards (en dehors), or inwards (en dedans).
Fouetté
A fouetté turn (or fouetté en tournant) begins with the performer standing on one flat foot in plié (with knee bent). The working leg is extended and whipped around (fouetté is French for "whipped") to the side and then, once extended to maximum turnout, bent and pulled in to a passe or retiré position. The foot beats behind the knee and then to the front of the knee of the supporting leg before extending back out to the front. At the same time, the supporting foot transitions to relevé (heel raised), in ballet often rising to en pointe (on toe tips). These movements create the angular momentum needed for one turn, which is executed by rotating in place on the supporting foot.
In classical ballet, particular significance is attached to the successful completion of 32 consecutive fouettés, a feat first performed publicly by Italian ballerina Pierina Legnani in 1893 and since incorporated into the grand pas of Swan Lake and other 20th-century ballets. Jeanne Devereaux, an American prima ballerina in the first half of the 20th century, held the world record of 16 triple fouettés (48 total).
Illusion
An illusion turn (or simply illusion) is performed by keeping the working leg aligned with the torso while, simultaneously, a 360 degree spin is executed while the torso pivots down and then back up at the hip. An illusion can be performed by turning toward or away from the working leg; the latter is known as a reverse illusion. Illusions are commonly performed in jazz dance and rhythmic gymnastics.
Piqué
A piqué turn is begun by stepping directly onto the ball of a relevé (or en pointe) foot, followed by a complete rotation while supported by the relevé (or en pointe) foot before returning to plié position. The working leg is often held in retiré position, but may be held in a variety of other positions, either with or without turnout.
Pirouette
A pirouette (literally "whirl" or "spin") is a type of dance turn on one foot. It is performed with turnout (legs rotated outward at hips) in ballet, and typically without turnout in gymnastics and many other genres of dance, such as jazz and modern. It is often executed by starting with one or both legs in plié (knees bent) and then rising onto demi pointe (heels raised) as the turn commences, or in the case of ballet dancers, en pointe (on toe tips). Pirouettes may be executed singly or in multiple rotations; the latter is commonly performed in the adagio part of a grand pas de deux.
There are many variations of pirouettes. A pirouette can be executed beginning from fifth or fourth position in ballet, whereas artistic gymnasts usually start from fourth position. In ballet, the working leg can be held in retiré position or in attitude, arabesque, or second position. The performer may return to the starting position, finish in arabesque or attitude, or proceed otherwise. A pirouette is most often performed en dehors but can also be performed en dedans.
See also
List of gymnastics terms
Glossary of ballet
Figure skating spins
Whirling
References
Dance moves
Gymnastics
|
wiki
|
Abdullah al-Sooli (né le à Ar-Rustaq) est un athlète omanais, spécialiste du sprint.
Carrière
Son record sur 100 m a été battu lors des Jeux olympiques de Pékin en 10 s 53 (vent 0,9). Il détient également l'actuel record d'Oman du relais 4 × 100 m, obtenu à La Mecque en 2011. Il avait déjà participé aux Championnats du monde juniors à Pékin en 2006.
Palmarès
Liens externes
Athlète omanais
Relayeur (athlétisme)
Athlète (homme) aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2008
Naissance en janvier 1988
|
wiki
|
Minimum maintenance requirement may refer to:
Design of a building to minimise the requirement for maintenance through facility management
The minimum amount of financial collateral required: see Margin (finance)
|
wiki
|
Evidence: The Last Report, ou simplement The Last Report sur PlayStation, est un jeu vidéo sorti en 1996 sur PC, puis porté sur PlayStation.
Accueil
Notes et références
Jeu PlayStation
Jeu DOS
Jeu Windows
Jeu vidéo développé en France
Jeu vidéo sorti en 1996
Jeu d'aventure
Jeu Microïds
|
wiki
|
Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity.
Asian lacquerware, which may be called "true lacquer", are objects coated with the treated, dyed and dried sap of Toxicodendron vernicifluum or related trees, applied in several coats to a base that is usually wood. This dries to a very hard and smooth surface layer which is durable, waterproof, and attractive in feel and look. Asian lacquer is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved, as well as dusted with gold and given other further decorative treatments.
In modern techniques, lacquer means a range of clear or pigmented coatings that dry by solvent evaporation to produce a hard, durable finish. The finish can be of any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss, and it can be further polished as required. Lacquer finishes are usually harder and more brittle than oil-based or latex paints, and are typically used on hard and smooth surfaces.
In terms of modern finishing products, finishes based on shellac dissolved in alcohol are often called shellac or lac to distinguish them from synthetic lacquer, often called simply lacquer, which consists of synthetic polymers (such as nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate butyrate ("CAB"), or acrylic resin) dissolved in lacquer thinner, a mixture of various organic solvents. Although synthetic lacquer is more durable than shellac, traditional shellac finishes are nevertheless often preferred for their aesthetic characteristics, as with French polish, as well as their "all-natural" and generally food-safe ingredients.
Etymology
The English is from the archaic French word "a kind of sealing wax", from Portuguese , itself an unexplained variant of Medieval Latin "resinous substance," from Arabic (), from Persian (), from Hindi (); Prakrit , ), itself from the Sanskrit word () for lac bug, representing the number one hundred thousand (100,000), used as wood finish in ancient India and neighbouring areas.
Sheen measurement
Lacquer sheen is a measurement of the shine for a given lacquer. Different manufacturers have their own names and standards for their sheen. The most common names from least shiny to most shiny are: flat, matte, egg shell, satin, semi-gloss, and gloss (high).
Shellac-based lacquers
In India shellac derived from insect lac was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug (Tachardia lacca Kerr. or Laccifer lacca). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating.
Urushiol-based lacquers
Urushiol-based lacquers differ from most others, being slow-drying, and set by oxidation and polymerization, rather than by evaporation alone. The active ingredient of the resin is urushiol, a mixture of various phenols suspended in water, plus a few proteins. In order for it to set properly it requires a humid and warm environment. The phenols oxidize and polymerize under the action of laccase enzymes, yielding a substrate that, upon proper evaporation of its water content, is hard. These lacquers produce very hard, durable finishes that are both beautiful and very resistant to damage by water, acid, alkali or abrasion. The resin is derived from trees indigenous to East Asia, like lacquer tree Toxicodendron vernicifluum, and wax tree Toxicodendron succedaneum. The fresh resin from the T. vernicifluum trees causes urushiol-induced contact dermatitis and great care is therefore required in its use. The Chinese treated the allergic reaction with crushed shellfish, which supposedly prevents lacquer from drying properly. Lacquer skills became very highly developed in Asia, and many highly decorated pieces were produced.
It has been confirmed that the lacquer tree has existed in Japan since 12,600 years ago in the incipient Jōmon period. This was confirmed by radioactive carbon dating of the lacquer tree found at the Torihama shell mound, and is the oldest lacquer tree in the world found as of 2011. Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido. The ornaments woven with lacquered red thread were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period. Also, at Kakinoshima "A" Excavation Site, earthenware with a spout painted with vermilion lacquer, which was made 3200 years ago, was found almost completely intact.
During the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), the sophisticated techniques used in the lacquer process were first developed and it became a highly artistic craft, although various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to the Neolithic period. The earliest extant Chinese lacquer object, a red wooden bowl, was unearthed at a Hemudu culture (5000–4500 BC) site in China. By the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), many centres of lacquer production became firmly established. The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the lacquer process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties. Eventually it was introduced to Korea and Japan.
Trade of lacquer objects travelled through various routes to the Middle East. Known applications of lacquer in China included coffins, music instruments, furniture, and various household items. Lacquer mixed with powdered cinnabar is used to produce the traditional red lacquerware from China.
From the 16th century to the 17th century, lacquer was introduced to Europe on a large scale for the first time through trade with Japanese. Until the 19th century, lacquerware was one of Japan's major exports, and European royalty, aristocrats and religious people represented by Marie-Antoinette, Maria Theresa and The Society of Jesus collected Japanese lacquerware luxuriously decorated with maki-e. The terms related to lacquer such as "Japanning", "Urushiol" and "maque" which means lacquer in Mexican Spanish, are derived from Japanese.
The trees must be at least ten years old before cutting to bleed the resin. It sets by a process called "aqua-polymerization", absorbing oxygen to set; placing in a humid environment allows it to absorb more oxygen from the evaporation of the water.
Lacquer-yielding trees in Thailand, Vietnam, Burma and Taiwan, called Thitsi, are slightly different; they do not contain urushiol, but similar substances called laccol or thitsiol. The result is similar but softer than the Chinese or Japanese lacquer. Burmese lacquer sets slower, and is painted by craftsmen's hands without using brushes.
Raw lacquer can be "coloured" by the addition of small amounts of iron oxides, giving red or black depending on the oxide. There is some evidence that its use is even older than 8,000 years from archaeological digs in Japan and China. Later, pigments were added to make colours. It is used not only as a finish, but mixed with ground fired and unfired clays applied to a mould with layers of hemp cloth, it can produce objects without need for another core like wood. The process is called "kanshitsu" in Japan. In the lacquering of the Chinese musical instrument, the guqin, the lacquer is mixed with deer horn powder (or ceramic powder) to give it more strength so it can stand up to the fingering.
There are a number of forms of urushiol. They vary by the length of the R chain, which depends on the species of plant producing the urushiol. Urushiol can also vary in the degree of saturation in the carbon chain. Urushiol can be drawn as follows:
, where:
R = (CH2)14CH3 orR = (CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)5CH3 orR = (CH2)7CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)2CH3 orR = (CH2)7CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH=CHCH3 orR = (CH2)7CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH2
Gallery
Types of lacquer
Types of lacquer vary from place to place but they can be divided into unprocessed and processed categories.
The basic unprocessed lacquer is called raw lacquer (生漆: ki-urushi in Japanese, shengqi in Chinese). This is directly from the tree itself with some impurities filtered out. Raw lacquer has a water content of around 25% and appears in a light brown colour. This comes in a standard grade made from Chinese lacquer, which is generally used for ground layers by mixing with a powder, and a high quality grade made from Japanese lacquer called kijomi-urushi (生正味漆) which is used for the last finishing layers.
The processed form (in which the lacquer is stirred continuously until much of the water content has evaporated) is called guangqi (光漆) in Chinese but comes under many different Japanese names depending on the variation, for example, kijiro-urushi (木地呂漆) is standard transparent lacquer sometimes used with pigments and roiro-urushi (黒呂色漆) is the same but pre-mixed with iron hydroxide to produce a black coloured lacquer. Nashiji-urushi (梨子地漆) is the transparent lacquer but mixed with gamboge to create a yellow-tinged lacquer and is especially used for the sprinkled-gold technique. These lacquers are generally used for the middle layers. Japanese lacquers of this type are generally used for the top layers and are prefixed by the word jo- (上) which means 'top (layer)'.
Processed lacquers can have oil added to them to make them glossy, for example, shuai-urushi (朱合漆) is mixed with linseed oil. Other specialist lacquers include ikkake-urushi (釦漆) which is thick and used mainly for applying gold or silver leaf.
Nitrocellulose lacquers
Solvent-based dipping lacquers that contain nitrocellulose, a resin obtained from the nitration of cotton and other cellulosic materials, debuted in the 19th century along with nitrocellulose's other commercial applications. They were used, for example, on brass items such as musical instruments. Faster-drying and more durable versions of these lacquers were developed in the early 1920s, when the end of the WWI caused a massive overcapacity of nitrocellulose production, and soon greatly displaced much use of the slower-drying paints and lacquers that preceded them; they were extensively used in the automotive industry and others for the next 30 years until further chemical advancements replaced them. Prior to their introduction, mass-produced automotive finishes were limited in colour, damaged easily, and took a long time to dry, with Japan black being the fastest drying and thus the most economical to use.
The problem with using nitrocellulose in lacquers was its high viscosity, which necessitated dilution of the product with large amounts of thinner for application, leaving only a very thin film of finish not durable enough for outdoor use. This problem was overcome by decreasing the viscosity of the polymer (the term actually post-dates the empirical solution, with Staudinger's modern structural theory explaining polymer solution viscosity by length of molecular chains not yet experimentally proven in 1920s) with heat treatments, either with 2% of mineral acid or in an autoclave at considerable pressure.
The first practical nitrocellulose enamel Glossy White S.2567, still for interior use, was introduced in 1919 in the UK by Nobel Explosives. In 1923, General Motors' Oakland brand automobile was the first to introduce one of the new fast-drying nitrocellulose lacquers, a bright blue, produced by DuPont under their Duco tradename. In 1924 the other GM makes followed suit, and by 1925 nitrocellulose lacquers were thoroughly disrupting the traditional paint business for automobiles, appliances, furniture, musical instruments, caskets, and other products. Henry Ford and, in the UK, Herbert Austin were introducing nitrocellulose lacquers at the same time, and soon the market flourished.
Nitrocellulose lacquers are also used to make firework fuses waterproof. The nitrocellulose and other resins and plasticizers are dissolved in the solvent, and each coat of lacquer dissolves some of the previous coat. These lacquers were a huge improvement over earlier automobile and furniture finishes, both in ease of application and in colour retention. The preferred method of applying quick-drying lacquers is by spraying, and the development of nitrocellulose lacquers led to the first extensive use of spray guns. Nitrocellulose lacquers produce a hard yet flexible, durable finish that can be polished to a high sheen. Drawbacks of these lacquers include the hazardous nature of the solvent, which is flammable and toxic, and the hazards of nitrocellulose in the manufacturing process. The lacquer grade of soluble nitrocellulose is closely related to the more highly nitrated form which is used to make explosives. They become relatively non-toxic after approximately a month since, at this point, the lacquer has evaporated most of the solvents used in its production.
Acrylic lacquers
Lacquers using acrylic resin, a synthetic polymer, were developed in the 1950s. Acrylic resin is colourless, transparent thermoplastic, obtained by the polymerization of derivatives of acrylic acid. Acrylic is also used in enamel paints, which have the advantage of not needing to be buffed to obtain a shine. Enamels, however, are slow drying. The advantage of acrylic lacquer is its exceptionally fast drying time. The use of lacquers in automobile finishes was discontinued when tougher, more durable, weather- and chemical-resistant two-component polyurethane coatings were developed. The system usually consists of a primer, colour coat and clear topcoat, commonly known as clear coat finishes.
Water-based lacquers
Due to health risks and environmental considerations involved in the use of solvent-based lacquers, much work has gone into the development of water-based lacquers. Such lacquers are considerably less toxic, more environmentally friendly, and, in many cases, produce acceptable results. While water-based lacquer's fumes are considerably less hazardous, and it does not have the combustibility issues of solvent-based lacquers, the product still dries fairly quickly. Even though its odor is weaker, water-based lacquers can still produce airborne particulates that can get into the lungs, so proper protective wear still needs to be worn. More and more water-based colored lacquers are replacing solvent-based clear and colored lacquers in under-hood and interior applications in the automobile and other similar industrial applications. Water-based lacquers are used extensively in wood furniture finishing as well.
One drawback of water-based lacquer is that it has a tendency to be highly reactive to other fresh finishes such as quick-dry primer (excluding waterborne lacquer primers), caulking and even some paints that have a paint/primer aspect. Tannin bleed-through can also be an issue, depending on the brand of lacquer used. Once it happens, there is no easy fix as the lacquer is so reactive to other products.
Water-based lacquer used for wood finishing is also not rated for exterior wear, unless otherwise specified.
Japanning
Just as china is a common name for porcelain, japanning is an old name to describe the European technique to imitate Asian lacquerware. As Asian lacquer work became popular in England, France, the Netherlands, and Spain in the 17th century, the Europeans developed imitation techniques. The European technique, which is used on furniture and other objects, uses finishes that have a resin base similar to shellac. The technique, which became known as japanning, involves applying several coats of varnish which are each heat-dried and polished. In the 18th century, japanning gained a large popular following. Although traditionally a pottery and wood coating, japanning was the popular (mostly black) coating of the accelerating metalware industry. By the twentieth century, the term was freely applied to coatings based on various varnishes and lacquers besides the traditional shellac.
See also
Lacquerware
Varnish
Acetate disc
Cupping tester
Lacquer painting
References
Further reading
p. 1050
– A concise compilation of technical terms. Attached is a register of all German terms with their corresponding English terms and vice versa, in order to facilitate its use as a means for technical translation from one language to the other.
– A Comprehensive Guide to the Technology and Conservation of Asian and European Lacquer
Michiko, Suganuma. "Japanese lacquer".
Coatings
Decorative arts
Non-timber forest products
Resins
|
wiki
|
Merced station is a proposed California High-Speed Rail station in Merced, California, located in Downtown Merced. The environmentally approved site is on Martin Luther King Jr. Way near the interchange with Route 99/59, placing it about 7 blocks south from the existing Merced Amtrak station. The station was initially intended to be the northern terminus of the system's Initial Construction Segment. As of April 2022 the California High-Speed Rail Authority is studying an alternative location proposed by the City of Merced and other stakeholders, 8 blocks to the west-northwest along 15th Street, between O Street and R Street. The high-speed rail line will run on the south side of the Union Pacific Railroad right-of-way at these locations.
The station is north of the planned Chowchilla Wye, where the high-speed rail splits into two branches. Merced is on the eastern branch, which at the conclusion of Phase II will continue northwards to Sacramento.
History
Southern Pacific
The first railroad through Merced was the Central Pacific Railroad, a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP), which reached the village on January 15, 1872. Charles Henry Huffman, who was the SP's agent for land acquisition, founded Merced and moved there when the railroad opened. The original village was along Bear Creek, but the town center quickly became the SP station. A branch to Oakdale (later extended to Stockton) was completed in 1891. The SP later built a new station off 16th Street at N Street.
The San Francisco and San Joaquin Valley Railroad opened through Merced in 1896, with a station at 24th Street. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (AT&SF) – the SP's main rival – purchased the line in 1899, providing it a parallel competing mainline through the Central Valley.
Passenger service on both branch lines ended in the 1940s. Merced remained an important stop on the two mainlines, serving named trains including the San Francisco Chief and Golden Gate on the AT&SF, and the San Joaquin Daylight and Sacramento Daylight on the SP. On May 1, 1971, Amtrak took over intercity passenger service in the United States from the private railroads. Amtrak chose to run its San Francisco–Los Angeles service over the Coast Line rather than the Central Valley, and passenger service to Merced ended.
Amtrak began the Oakland–Bakersfield San Joaquin on March 5, 1974. The San Joaquin was controversially routed over the AT&SF rather than the SP (which ran through more major cities); the AT&SF station in Merced was used by Amtrak. The SP station was renovated in the 1990s to serve as the city bus terminal.
High-speed rail
The California High-Speed Rail Authority's February 2016 draft business plan said that the Merced station would not begin service at the same time as the initial San Jose to Bakersfield route in 2025, but would likely open in 2029 instead. The Merced City Council vigorously opposed the delay in the station opening, noting that Merced would be a prime area for commuters seeking to use high-speed rail to access jobs in Silicon Valley. In response, the April 2016 revisions to the business plan included Merced in the initial construction segment, initially as a single-track spur connecting only to the westbound track to the Bay Area, with buildout of the full Chowchilla Wye happening later.
The station was chosen as the terminus of the Altamont Corridor Express commuter rail extension into Stanislaus and Merced Counties; the siting of ACE platforms will be dependent on the HSR location selection and may also change accordingly. The line is planned to open to the station in 2030.
Additionally, the San Joaquin Joint Powers Authority has plans to run San Joaquins trains to the station as a feeder line into the Merced to Bakersfield high speed segment. A new rail link connecting the BNSF Stockton Subdivision on the north of Merced to the high speed rail station will facilitate the transfer.
References
External links
Merced Station - California High-Speed
High Speed Rail - City of Merced
Proposed California High-Speed Rail stations
Railway stations in Merced County, California
Future Altamont Corridor Express stations
Railway stations scheduled to open in 2029
Buildings and structures in Merced, California
Future Amtrak stations in the United States
Union stations in the United States
Merced station California High-Speed Rail
|
wiki
|
The Trinidad River (Mexico) is a river of Oaxaca state in Mexico.
It originates in the Sierra de Villa Alta sub-range of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and flows northeastwards onto the Gulf Coastal Plain, where it joins the Lalana River to form the San Juan River. The San Juan is a tributary of the Papaloapan River, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico.
See also
List of rivers of Mexico
References
Atlas of Mexico, 1975 (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas_mexico/river_basins.jpg).
The Prentice Hall American World Atlas, 1984.
Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993.
Rivers of Oaxaca
Papaloapan River
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
|
wiki
|
A mascherata (Italian f., literally 'masquerade') is a dance from the sixteenth century and was particularly popular in Florence. It was performed by costumed dancers, and frequently pantomimed Roman and Greek themes in them. At the time, it was often associated with villanella, and performed at carnivals with the musicians and singers atop floats.
Content
Frequently the performance was satyrical, and many times there were racist undertones in the archetypes or costumes. Generally there wasn't much dramatic content, and most were meant to be humorous.
Etymology
The term mascherata is the past, plural, and feminine version of mascherare which means to mask or hide.
Lassus
Orlande de Lassus was considered the master of mascheratas, and he wrote many of his pieces (mostly madrigals) while in Rome, which saw the birth of madrigals, and more specifically mascheratas.
See also
The wiktionary definition of Mascherata
References
Renaissance dance
|
wiki
|
The 2014 ICC World Cricket League Division Five was a cricket tournament that took place from 6–13 March 2014. It formed part of the ICC World Cricket League and qualification for the 2019 Cricket World Cup.
Teams
The teams that took part in the tournament were decided according to the results of the 2013 ICC World Cricket League Division Six, the 2012 ICC World Cricket League Division Four and the 2012 ICC World Cricket League Division Five.
Squads
Fixtures
Round robin
Points table
Matches
Playoffs
5th place playoff
3rd place playoff
Final
Statistics
Most runs
The top five highest run scorers (total runs) are included in this table.
Most wickets
The following table contains the five leading wicket-takers.
Final Placings
After the conclusion of the tournament the teams were distributed as follows:
References
http://www.espncricinfo.com/wcldiv5-2014/content/series/722647.html
2014, 5
2014 in cricket
Cricket in Malaysia
2014 in Malaysian sport
|
wiki
|
The following is a list of My Super Sweet 16 episodes:
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2005)
Season 2 (2005)
Season 3 (2006)
Season 4 (2007)
Season 5 (2007)
Season 6 (2007–08)
Season 7 (2008)
Season 8 (2008-15)
Season 9 (2009–11)
Season 10 (2017)
References
Lists of American non-fiction television series episodes
Lists of American reality television series episodes
|
wiki
|
Aurica may refer to:
Organizations
Aurica Motors, a company
People
Aurica Barascu, a female Olympic gold medal winner in rowing
Aurica Buia, a retired female long-distance runner
Aurica Nestmile, a fictional character from Ar Tonelico: Melody of Elemia and Cross Edge
Aurica Valeria Motogna-Beșe, a Romanian handball player
Other
Phalanta aurica, another name for the Phalanta alcippe butterfly
One of four proposed supercontinents predicted to form in around 200 million years
|
wiki
|
Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object.
Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior.
Understanding is often, though not always, related to learning concepts, and sometimes also the theory or theories associated with those concepts. However, a person may have a good ability to predict the behavior of an object, animal or system—and therefore may, in some sense, understand it—without necessarily being familiar with the concepts or theories associated with that object, animal, or system in their culture. They may have developed their own distinct concepts and theories, which may be equivalent, better or worse than the recognized standard concepts and theories of their culture. Thus, understanding is correlated with the ability to make inferences.
Definition
Understanding and knowledge are both words without unified definitions so Ludwig Wittgenstein looked past a definition of knowledge or understanding and looked at how the words were used in natural language, identifying relevant features in context. It has been suggested that knowledge alone has little value whereas knowing something in context is understanding, which has much higher relative value but it has also been suggested that a state short of knowledge can be termed understanding.
Someone's understanding can come from perceived causes or non causal sources, suggesting knowledge being a pillar of where understanding comes from. We can have understanding while lacking corresponding knowledge and have knowledge while lacking the corresponding understanding. Even with knowledge, relevant distinctions or correct conclusion about similar cases may not be made suggesting more information about the context would be required, which eludes to different degrees of understanding depending on the context. To understand something implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior.
Understanding could therefore be less demanding than knowledge, because it seems that someone can have understanding of a subject even though they might have been mistaken about that subject. But it is more demanding in that it requires that the internal connections among ones’ beliefs actually be “seen” or “grasped” by the person doing the understanding when found at a deeper level.
Explanatory realism and the propositional model suggests understanding comes from causal propositions but, it has been argued that knowing how the cause might bring an effect is understanding. As understanding is not directed towards a discrete proposition, but involves grasping relations of parts to other parts and perhaps the relations of part to wholes. The relationships grasped helps understanding, but the relationships aren't always causal. So understanding could therefore be expressed by knowledge of dependencies.
Examples
One understands the weather if one is able to predict (e.g. if it is very cloudy, it may rain) and/or give an explanation of some of its features, etc.
A psychiatrist understands another person's anxieties if he/she knows that person's anxieties, their causes, and can give useful advice on how to cope with the anxiety.
One understands a piece of reasoning or an argument if one can consciously reproduce the information content conveyed by the message.
One understands a language to the extent that one can reproduce the information content conveyed by a broad range of spoken utterances or written messages in that language.
Shallow and deep
Someone who has a more sophisticated understanding, more predictively accurate understanding, and/or an understanding that allows them to make explanations that others commonly judge to be better, of something, is said to understand that thing "deeply". Conversely, someone who has a more limited understanding of a thing is said to have a "shallow" understanding. However, the depth of understanding required to usefully participate in an occupation or activity may vary greatly.
For example, consider multiplication of integers. Starting from the most shallow level of understanding, we have (at least) the following possibilities:
A small child may not understand what multiplication is, but may understand that it is a type of mathematics that they will learn when they are older at school. This is "understanding of context"; being able to put an as-yet not-understood concept into some kind of context. Even understanding that a concept is not part of one's current knowledge is, in itself, a type of understanding (see the Dunning–Kruger effect, which is about people who do not have a good understanding of what they do not know).
A slightly older child may understand that multiplication of two integers can be done, at least when the numbers are between 1 and 12, by looking up the two numbers in a times table. They may also be able to memorise and recall the relevant times table in order to answer a multiplication question such as "2 times 4 is what?". This is a simple form of operational understanding; understanding a question well enough to be able to do the operations necessary to be able to find an answer.
A yet older child may understand that multiplication of larger numbers can be done using a different method, such as long multiplication, or using a calculator. This is a more advanced form of operational understanding because it supports answering a wider range of questions of the same type.
A teenager may understand that multiplication is repeated addition, but not understand the broader implications of this. For example, when their teacher refers to multiplying 6 by 3 as "adding up 3 sixes", they may understand that the teacher is talking about two entirely equivalent things. However, they might not understand how to apply this knowledge to implement multiplication as an algorithm on a computer using only addition and looping as basic constructs. This level of understanding is "understanding a definition" (or "understanding the definition" when a concept only has one definition).
A teenager may also understand the mathematical idea of abstracting over individual whole numbers as variables, and how to efficiently (i.e. not via trial-and-error) solve algebraic equations involving multiplication by such variables, such as . This is "relational understanding"; understanding how multiplication relates to division.
An undergraduate studying mathematics may come to learn that "the integers equipped with multiplication" is merely one example of a range of mathematical structures called monoids, and that theorems about monoids apply equally well to multiplication and other types of monoids.
For the purpose of operating a cash register at McDonald's, a person does not need a very deep understanding of the multiplication involved in calculating the total price of two Big Macs. However, for the purpose of contributing to number theory research, a person would need to have a relatively deep understanding of multiplication — along with other relevant arithmetical concepts such as division and prime numbers.
Assessment
It is possible for a person, or a piece of "intelligent" software, that in reality only has a shallow understanding of a topic, to appear to have a deeper understanding than they actually do, when the right questions are asked of it. The most obvious way this can happen is by memorization of correct answers to known questions, but there are other, more subtle ways that a person or computer can (intentionally or otherwise) deceive somebody about their level of understanding, too. This is particularly a risk with artificial intelligence, in which the ability of a piece of artificial intelligence software to very quickly try out millions of possibilities (attempted solutions, theories, etc.) could create a misleading impression of the real depth of its understanding. Supposed AI software could in fact come up with impressive answers to questions that were difficult for unaided humans to answer, without really understanding the concepts at all, simply by dumbly applying rules very quickly. (However, see the Chinese room argument for a controversial philosophical extension of this argument.)
Examinations are designed to assess students' understanding (and sometimes also other things such as knowledge and writing abilities) without falling prey to these risks. They do this partly by asking multiple different questions about a topic to reduce the risk of measurement error, and partly by forbidding access to reference works and the outside world to reduce the risk of someone else's understanding being passed off as one's own. Because of the faster and more accurate computation and memorization abilities of computers, such tests would arguably often have to be modified if they were to be used to accurately assess the understanding of an artificial intelligence.
Conversely, it is even easier for a person or artificial intelligence to fake a shallower level of understanding than they actually have; they simply need to respond with the same kind of answers that someone with a more limited understanding, or no understanding, would respond with — such as "I don't know", or obviously wrong answers. This is relevant for judges in Turing tests; it is unlikely to be effective to simply ask the respondents to mentally calculate the answer to a very difficult arithmetical question, because the computer is likely to simply dumb itself down and pretend not to know the answer.
As a model
Gregory Chaitin, a noted computer scientist, propounds a view that comprehension is a kind of data compression. In his essay "The Limits of Reason", he argues that understanding something means being able to figure out a simple set of rules that explains it. For example, we understand why day and night exist because we have a simple model—the rotation of the earth—that explains a tremendous amount of data—changes in brightness, temperature, and atmospheric composition of the earth. We have compressed a large amount of information by using a simple model that predicts it. Similarly, we understand the number 0.33333... by thinking of it as one-third. The first way of representing the number requires five concepts ("0", "decimal point", "3", "infinity", "infinity of 3"); but the second way can produce all the data of the first representation, but uses only three concepts ("1", "division", "3"). Chaitin argues that comprehension is this ability to compress data.
Religious perspectives
Cognition helps us gain knowledge which can affect our level of understanding or 'right view' as expressed in buddhism. Understanding also is seen in the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit helping an individual with their insight into God's providence.
See also
Active listening
Awareness
Binah (Kabbalah)
Chinese room
Communication
Concept
Epistemology
Hermeneutic circle
Informational listening
Ishin-denshin
Lie-to-children
List of language disorders
Meaning (linguistics)
Natural language understanding
Mental model
Nous
Perception
Thought
References
External links
Cognition
Concepts in epistemology
Concepts in metaphilosophy
Concepts in metaphysics
Concepts in the philosophy of mind
Intelligence
Knowledge
Metaphysics of mind
Ontology
Thought
Virtue
|
wiki
|
Millennio 2. Pepe Carvalho, l'addio è la seconda parte del capitolo conclusivo della saga che ha come protagonista l'investigatore privato Pepe Carvalho, celebre personaggio creato dalla penna di Manuel Vázquez Montalbán. ISBN 978-88-07-81972-8
Detective story
Romanzi di Pepe Carvalho
|
wiki
|
Animals in folklore may refer to:
Animals in Australian folklore
Animals in Russian folklore
Animals in Thai folklore
Animals in Japanese folklore
|
wiki
|
The Renju International Federation (RIF) is an international organization which was founded in Stockholm, Sweden on August 8, 1988. The main purpose of the federation is to unite all the Renju and gomoku national federations all over the world, organize international tournaments such as World Championships, together with other activities in renju and gomoku, and spread renju activities in the world. The federation carry out the General Assembly every two years.
The Central Committee
The Central Committee is responsible to the current status of the Renju International Federation, together with the activities of the officials of the Federation. According to the status, there are 6 positions in the Central Committee.
Members
The Renju International Federation was founded in 1988 by 3 founder members: Japan, Soviet Union and Sweden. Up to 2017, there have been 20 members in the Renju International Federation. The list of members follows.
See also
Renju
Gomoku
World Championships in Renju
RIF rating list
References
Renju
renju
renju
renju
|
wiki
|
Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any one of various substances used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines. They typically consist of base oils enhanced with various additives, particularly antiwear additives, detergents, dispersants, and, for multi-grade oils, viscosity index improvers. The main function of motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge (one of the functions of dispersants) and varnish (detergents). It also neutralizes acids that originate from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant (detergents), improves sealing of piston rings, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.
In addition to the aforementioned basic constituents, almost all lubricating oils contain corrosion and oxidation inhibitors. Motor oil may be composed of only a lubricant base stock in the case of non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency, extreme pressure performance, and ability to inhibit corrosion of engine parts.
Motor oils are blended using base oils composed of petroleum-based hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), or their mixtures in various proportions, sometimes with up to 20% by weight of esters for better dissolution of additives.
History
On 6 September 1866, American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company. While studying the possible healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value, but was intrigued by its potential lubricating properties. He eventually abandoned the medical practice to devote his time to the development of an all-petroleum, high-viscosity lubricant for steam engines – which at the time were using inefficient combinations of petroleum and animal and vegetable fats. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively at high temperatures. This meant fewer gummed up valves and corroded cylinders.
Use
Motor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators, and many other machines. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and the friction between the parts wastes otherwise useful power by converting kinetic energy into heat. It also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. Proper lubrication decreases fuel consumption, decreases wasted power, and increases engine longevity.
Lubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing frictional heat and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through conduction as it flows through the engine. In an engine with a recirculating oil pump, this heat is transferred by means of airflow over the exterior surface of the oil pan, airflow through an oil cooler, and through oil gases evacuated by the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system. While modern recirculating pumps are typically provided in passenger cars and other engines of similar or larger in size, total-loss oiling is a design option that remains popular in small and miniature engines.
In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of . In diesel engines, the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over . Motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures.
Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil sludge build-up. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself, rather than leaving it deposited on the internal surfaces. It is a combination of this and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running.
Rubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, causing wear. Because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, including the oil filter. Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type.
In the crankcase of a vehicle engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings (main bearings and big-end bearings) and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase. In some small engines such as lawn mower engines, dippers on the bottoms of connecting rods dip into the oil at the bottom and splash it around the crankcase as needed to lubricate parts inside. In modern vehicle engines, the oil pump takes oil from the oil pan and sends it through the oil filter into oil galleries, from which the oil lubricates the main bearings holding the crankshaft up at the main journals and camshaft bearings operating the valves. In typical modern vehicles, oil pressure-fed from the oil galleries to the main bearings enters holes in the main journals of the crankshaft.
From these holes in the main journals, the oil moves through passageways inside the crankshaft to exit holes in the rod journals to lubricate the rod bearings and connecting rods. Some simpler designs relied on these rapidly moving parts to splash and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. However, in modern designs, there are also passageways through the rods which carry oil from the rod bearings to the rod-piston connections and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. This oil film also serves as a seal between the piston rings and cylinder walls to separate the combustion chamber in the cylinder head from the crankcase. The oil then drips back down into the oil pan.
Motor oil may also serve as a cooling agent. In some engines oil is sprayed through a nozzle inside the crankcase onto the piston to provide cooling of specific parts that undergo high-temperature strain. On the other hand, the thermal capacity of the oil pool has to be filled, i.e. the oil has to reach its designed temperature range before it can protect the engine under high load. This typically takes longer than heating the main cooling agentwater or mixtures thereofup to its operating temperature. In order to inform the driver about the oil temperature, some older and most high-performance or racing engines feature an oil thermometer.
Continued operation of an internal combustion engine without adequate engine oil can cause damage to the engine, first by wear and tear, and in extreme cases by "engine seizure" where the lack of lubrication and cooling causes the engine to cease operation suddenly. Engine seizure can cause extensive damage to the engine mechanisms.
Non-vehicle motor oils
An example is lubricating oil for four-stroke or four-cycle internal combustion engines such as those used in portable electricity generators and "walk behind" lawn mowers. Another example is two-stroke oil for lubrication of two-stroke or two-cycle internal combustion engines found in snow blowers, chain saws, model airplanes, gasoline-powered gardening equipment like hedge trimmers, leaf blowers and soil cultivators. Often, these motors are not exposed to as wide of service temperature ranges as in vehicles, so these oils may be single viscosity oils.
In small two-stroke engines, the oil may be pre-mixed with the gasoline or fuel, often in a rich gasoline:oil ratio of 25:1, 40:1 or 50:1, and burned in use along with the gasoline. Larger two-stroke engines used in boats and motorcycles may have a more economical oil injection system rather than oil pre-mixed into the gasoline. The oil injection system is not used on small engines used in applications like snowblowers and trolling motors as the oil injection system is too expensive for small engines and would take up too much room on the equipment. The oil properties will vary according to the individual needs of these devices. Non-smoking two-stroke oils are composed of esters or polyglycols. Environmental legislation for leisure marine applications, especially in Europe, encouraged the use of ester-based two cycle oil.
Properties
Most motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon atoms per molecule. One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its "thickness" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index.
Motor oil must be able to flow adequately at the lowest temperature it is expected to experience in order to minimize metal to metal contact between moving parts upon starting up the engine. The pour point defined first this property of motor oil, as defined by ASTM D97 as "...an index of the lowest temperature of its utility..." for a given application, but the cold-cranking simulator (CCS, see ASTM D5293-08) and mini-rotary viscometer (MRV, see ASTM D3829-02(2007), ASTM D4684-08) are today the properties required in motor oil specs and define the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) classifications.
Oil is largely composed of hydrocarbons which can burn if ignited. Still another important property of motor oil is its flash point, the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off vapors which can ignite. It is dangerous for the oil in a motor to ignite and burn, so a high flash point is desirable. At a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor oil fraction from other crude oil fractions, removing the more volatile components, and therefore increasing the oil's flash point (reducing its tendency to burn).
Another manipulated property of motor oil is its total base number (TBN), which is a measurement of the reserve alkalinity of an oil, meaning its ability to neutralize acids. The resulting quantity is determined as mg KOH/ (gram of lubricant). Analogously, total acid number (TAN) is the measure of a lubricant's acidity. Other tests include zinc, phosphorus, or sulfur content, and testing for excessive foaming.
The Noack volatility test (ASTM D-5800) determines the physical evaporation loss of lubricants in high temperature service. A maximum of 14% evaporation loss is allowable to meet API SL and ILSAC GF-3 specifications. Some automotive OEM oil specifications require lower than 10%.
Table of thermal and physical properties of typical unused engine oil:
Viscosity grades
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics known as SAEJ300. This standard is commonly used throughout the world, and standards organizations that do so include API and ACEA. The grades include single grades, such as SAE 30, and also multi-grades such as SAE 15W-30. A multi-grade consists of a winter grade specifying the viscosity at cold temperatures and a non-winter grade specifying the viscosity at operating temperatures. An engine oil using a polymeric viscosity index improver (VII) must be classified as multi-grade.
Breakdown of VIIs under shear is a concern in motorcycle applications, where the transmission may share lubricating oil with the motor. For this reason, motorcycle-specific oil is sometimes recommended. The necessity of higher-priced motorcycle-specific oil has also been challenged by at least one consumer organization.
Maintenance
The oil and the oil filter need to be periodically replaced; the process is called an oil change. While there is an entire industry surrounding regular oil changes and maintenance, an oil change is a relatively simple car maintenance operation that many car owners can do themselves. It involves draining the oil from the engine into a drip pan, replacing the filter, and adding fresh oil.
In engines, there is some exposure of the oil to products of internal combustion, and microscopic coke particles from black soot accumulate in the oil during operation. Also, the rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against the part surfaces causing wear. The oil filter removes many of the particles and sludge, but eventually, the oil filter can become clogged, if used for extremely long periods.
The motor oil and especially the additives also undergo thermal and mechanical degradation, which reduces the viscosity and reserve alkalinity of the oil. At reduced viscosity, the oil is not as capable of lubricating the engine, thus increasing wear and the chance of overheating. Reserve alkalinity is the ability of the oil to resist the formation of acids. Should the reserve alkalinity decline to zero, those acids form and corrode the engine.
Some engine manufacturers specify which Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) viscosity grade of oil should be used, but different viscosity motor oil may perform better based on the operating environment. Many manufacturers have varying requirements and have designations for motor oil they require to be used. This is driven by the EPA requirement that the same viscosity grade of oil used in the MPG test must be recommended to the customer. This exclusive recommendation led to the elimination of informative charts depicting climate temperature range along with several corresponding oil viscosity grades being suggested.
In general, unless specified by the manufacturer, thicker oils are not necessarily better than thinner oils; heavy oils tend to stick longer to parts between two moving surfaces, and this degrades the oil faster than a lighter oil that flows better, allowing fresh oil in its place sooner. Cold weather has a thickening effect on conventional oil, and this is one reason thinner oils are manufacturer recommended in places with cold winters.
Motor oil changes are usually scheduled based on the time in service or the distance that the vehicle has traveled. These are rough indications of the real factors that control when an oil change is appropriate, which include how long the oil has been run at elevated temperatures, how many heating cycles the engine has been through, and how hard the engine has worked. The vehicle distance is intended to estimate the time at high temperature, while the time in service is supposed to correlate with the number of vehicle trips and capture the number of heating cycles. Oil does not degrade significantly just sitting in a cold engine. On the other hand, if a car is driven just for very short distances, the oil will not fully heat up, and it will accumulate contaminants such as water, due to lack of sufficient heat to boil off the water. Oil in this condition, just sitting in an engine, can cause problems.
Also important is the quality of the oil used, especially with synthetics (synthetics are more stable than conventional oils). Some manufacturers address this (for example, BMW and VW with their respective long-life standards), while others do not.
Time-based intervals account for the short-trip drivers who drive short distances, which build up more contaminants. Manufacturers advise to not exceed their time or distance-driven interval for a motor oil change. Many modern cars now list somewhat higher intervals for changing oil and filter, with the constraint of "severe" service requiring more frequent changes with less-than-ideal driving. This applies to short trips of under , where the oil does not get to full operating temperature long enough to boil off condensation, excess fuel, and other contamination that leads to "sludge", "varnish", "acids", or other deposits. Many manufacturers have engine computer calculations to estimate the oil's condition based on the factors which degrade it, such as RPM, temperature, and trip length; one system adds an optical sensor for determining the clarity of the oil in the engine. These systems are commonly known as Oil Life Monitors or OLMs.
Some quick oil change shops recommend intervals of , or every three months; this is not necessary, according to many automobile manufacturers. This has led to a campaign by the California EPA against the "3,000-mile myth", promoting vehicle manufacturer's recommendations for oil change intervals over those of the oil change industry.
The engine user can, in replacing the oil, adjust the viscosity for the ambient temperature change, thicker for summer heat and thinner for the winter cold. Lower-viscosity oils are common in newer vehicles.
By the mid-1980s, recommended viscosities had moved down to 5W-30, primarily to improve fuel efficiency. A typical modern application would be Honda motor's use of 5W-20 (and in their newest vehicles, 0W-20) viscosity oil for . Engine designs are evolving to allow the use of even lower-viscosity oils without the risk of excessive metal-to-metal abrasion, principally in the cam and valve mechanism areas. In line with car manufacturers push towards these lower viscosities in search of better fuel economy, on 2 April 2013 the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) introduced an SAE 16 viscosity rating, a break from its traditional "divisible by 10" numbering system for its high-temperature viscosity ratings that spanned from low-viscosity SAE 20 to high-viscosity SAE 60.
Standards
American Petroleum Institute (API)
Engine lubricants are evaluated against the American Petroleum Institute (API), SJ, SL, SM, SN, SP, CH-4, CI-4, CI-4 PLUS, CJ-4, CK, and FA, as well as International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) GF-3, GF-4, and GF-5, and Cummins, Mack and John Deere (and other Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)) requirements. These evaluations include chemical and physical properties using bench test methods as well as actual running engine tests to quantify engine sludge, oxidation, component wear, oil consumption, piston deposits and fuel economy. Originally S for spark ignition and C for compression, as used with diesel engines. Many oil producers still refer these categories in their marketing.
The API sets minimum performance standards for lubricants. Motor oil is used for the lubrication, cooling, and cleaning of internal combustion engines. Motor oil may be composed of only a lubricant base stock in the case of mostly obsolete non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency, extreme pressure performance, and ability to inhibit corrosion of engine parts.
Groups:
Lubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Poorly refined mineral oils that fail to meet the minimum VI of 80 required in group I fit into Group V. Group II base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum that has been hydrocracked to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of either Group II base stocks or hydroisomerized slack wax (a Group I and II dewaxing process by-product). Group IV base stock are polyalphaolefins (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include polyolesters (POE), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), and perfluoropolyalkylethers (PFPAEs) and poorly refined mineral oil. Groups I and II are commonly referred to as mineral oils, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil. Group V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description.
The API service classes have two general classifications: S for "service/spark ignition" (typical passenger cars and light trucks using gasoline engines), and C for "commercial/compression ignition" (typical diesel equipment). Engine oil which has been tested and meets the API standards may display the API Service Symbol (also known as the "Donut") with the service categories on containers sold to oil users.
The latest API service category is API SP for gasoline automobile and light-truck engines. The SP standard refers to a group of laboratory and engine tests, including the latest series for control of high-temperature deposits. Current API service categories include SP, SN, SM, SL and SJ for gasoline engines. All earlier service categories are obsolete. Motorcycle oils commonly still use the SF/SG standard though.
All the current gasoline categories (including the obsolete SH) have placed limitations on the phosphorus content for certain SAE viscosity grades (the xW-20, xW-30) due to the chemical poisoning that phosphorus has on catalytic converters. Phosphorus is a key anti-wear component in motor oil and is usually found in motor oil in the form of zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Each new API category has placed successively lower phosphorus and zinc limits, and thus has created a controversial issue of obsolescent oils needed for older engines, especially engines with sliding (flat/cleave) tappets. API and ILSAC, which represents most of the world's major automobile/engine manufacturers, state API SM/ILSAC GF-4 is fully backwards compatible, and it is noted that one of the engine tests required for API SM, the Sequence IVA, is a sliding tappet design to test specifically for cam wear protection. Not everyone is in agreement with backwards compatibility, and in addition, there are special situations, such as "performance" engines or fully race built engines, where the engine protection requirements are above and beyond API/ILSAC requirements. Because of this, there are specialty oils out in the market place with higher than API allowed phosphorus levels. Most engines built before 1985 have the flat/cleave bearing style systems of construction, which is sensitive to reducing zinc and phosphorus. For example, in API SG rated oils, this was at the 1200–1300 ppm level for zinc and phosphorus, where the current SM is under 600 ppm. This reduction in anti-wear chemicals in oil has caused premature failures of camshafts and other high pressure bearings in many older automobiles and has been blamed for premature failure of the oil pump drive/cam position sensor gear that is meshed with camshaft gear in some modern engines.
The current diesel engine service categories are API CK-4, CJ-4, CI-4 PLUS, CI-4, CH-4, and FA-4. The previous service categories such as API CC or CD are obsolete. API solved problems with API CI-4 by creating a separate API CI-4 PLUS category that contains some additional requirements – this marking is located in the lower portion of the API Service Symbol "Donut".
API CK-4 and FA-4 have been introduced for 2017 model American engines. API CK-4 is backward compatible that means API CK-4 oils are assumed to provide superior performance to oils made to previous categories and could be used without problems in all previous model engines (but see Ford below).
API FA-4 oils are different (that is why API decided to start a new group in addition to API Sx and API Cx). API FA-4 oils are formulated for enhanced fuel economy (presented as reduced greenhouse gas emission). To achieve that, they are SAE xW-30 oils blended to a high temperature high shear viscosity from 2.9 cP to 3.2 cP. They are not suitable for all engines thus their use depends on the decision of each engine manufacturer. They cannot be used with diesel fuel containing more than 15 ppm sulfur.
Cummins reacted to the introduction of API CK-4 and API FA-4 by issuing its CES 20086 list of API CK-4 registered oils and CES 20087 list of API FA-4 registered oils. Valvoline oils are preferred.
Ford does not recommend API CK-4 or FA-4 oils in its diesel engines.
While engine oils are formulated to meet a specific API service category, they in fact conform closely enough to both the gasoline and diesel categories. Thus diesel rated engine oils usually carry the relevant gasoline categories, e.g. an API CJ-4 oil could show either API SL or API SM on the container. The rule is that the first mentioned category is fully met and the second one is fully met except where its requirements clash with the requirements of the first one.
Motorcycle oil
The API oil classification structure has eliminated specific support for wet-clutch motorcycle applications in their descriptors, and API SJ and newer oils are referred to be specific to automobile and light truck use. Accordingly, motorcycle oils are subject to their own unique standards. See JASO below. As discussed above, motorcycle oils commonly still use the obsolescent SF/SG standard.
ILSAC
The International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) also has standards for motor oil. Introduced in 2004, GF-4 applies to SAE 0W-20, 5W-20, 0W-30, 5W-30, and 10W-30 viscosity grade oils. In general, ILSAC works with API in creating the newest gasoline oil specification, with ILSAC adding an extra requirement of fuel economy testing to their specification. For GF-4, a Sequence VIB Fuel Economy Test (ASTM D6837) is required that is not required in API service category SM.
A key new test for GF-4, which is also required for API SM, is the Sequence IIIG, which involves running a , GM 3.8 L V-6 at , 3,600 rpm, and oil temperature for 100 hours. These are much more severe conditions than any API-specified oil was designed for: cars which typically push their oil temperature consistently above are most turbocharged engines, along with most engines of European or Japanese origin, particularly small capacity, high power output.
The IIIG test is about 50% more difficult than the previous IIIF test, used in GF-3 and API SL oils. Engine oils bearing the API starburst symbol since 2005 are ILSAC GF-4 compliant.
To help consumers recognize that an oil meets the ILSAC requirements, API developed a "starburst" certification mark.
A new set of specifications, GF-5, took effect in October 2010. The industry had one year to convert their oils to GF-5 and in September 2011, ILSAC no longer offered licensing for GF-4.
After nearly a decade of GF-5, ILSAC released final GF-6 specifications in 2019, with licensed sales to oil manufacturers and re-branders to begin 1 May 2020. There are two GF6 standards; GF-6A being a progression and fully backwards compatible with GF-5, and GF-6B specifically for SAE 0W-16 viscosity oil.
ACEA
The ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) performance/quality classifications A3/A5 tests used in Europe are arguably more stringent than the API and ILSAC standards. CEC (The Co-ordinating European Council) is the development body for fuel and lubricant testing in Europe and beyond, setting the standards via their European Industry groups; ACEA, ATIEL, ATC and CONCAWE.
ACEA does not certify oils, nor license, nor register, compliance certificates. Oil manufacturers are themselves responsible for carrying out all oil testing and evaluation according to recognised engine lubricant industry standards and practices.
Popular categories include A3/B3 and A3/B4 which are defined as "Stable, stay-in-grade Engine Oil intended for use in Passenger Car & Light Duty Van Gasoline& Diesel Engines with extended drain intervals" A3/B5 is suitable only for engines designed to use low viscosities. Category C oils are designated for use with catalysts and particulate filters while Category E is for heavy duty diesel.
JASO
The Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO) has created their own set of performance and quality standards for petrol engines of Japanese origin.
For four-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO T904 standard is used, and is particularly relevant to motorcycle engines. The JASO T904-MA and MA2 standards are designed to distinguish oils that are approved for wet clutch use, with MA2 lubricants delivering higher friction performance. The JASO T904-MB standard denotes oils not suitable for wet clutch use, and are therefore used in scooters equipped with continuously variable transmissions. The addition of friction modifiers to JASO MB oils can contribute to greater fuel economy in these applications.
For two-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO M345 (FA, FB, FC, FD) standard is used, and this refers particularly to low ash, lubricity, detergency, low smoke and exhaust blocking.
These standards, especially JASO-MA (for motorcycles) and JASO-FC, are designed to address oil-requirement issues not addressed by the API service categories. One element of the JASO-MA standard is a friction test designed to determine suitability for wet clutch usage. An oil that meets JASO-MA is considered appropriate for wet clutch operations. Oils marketed as motorcycle-specific will carry the JASO-MA label.
ASTM
A 1989 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) report stated that its 12-year effort to come up with a new high-temperature, high-shear (HTHS) standard was not successful. Referring to SAE J300, the basis for current grading standards, the report stated:
The rapid growth of non-Newtonian multigraded oils has rendered kinematic viscosity as a nearly useless parameter for characterising "real" viscosity in critical zones of an engine... There are those who are disappointed that the twelve-year effort has not resulted in a redefinition of the SAE J300 Engine Oil Viscosity Classification document so as to express high-temperature viscosity of the various grades ... In the view of this writer, this redefinition did not occur because the automotive lubricant market knows of no field failures unambiguously attributable to insufficient HTHS oil viscosity.
Manufacturer Specifications
Most current engine or vehicle manufacturers require a specific oil formula, known as oil specs, be used to add extra levels of protection for special engine designs, materials and operating conditions. Starting in the late 1990's BMW for example came out with a spec called LL-98 (Long Life 1998) which requires special additives in oils that were approved to meet that spec. BMW regularly develops new specs to meet the increasing demands of the EPA emission standards and MPG requirements as well as new engines. Failure to use the correct specification oil has been known to cause PCV (positive Crankcase Ventilation), VVT (Variable Valve timing) system, Gasket and Sealing system, and other internal combustion component premature clogging and other failures. Some of the additives in those specs are designed to aid in keeping systems lubricated and clean. Some examples of BMW's other specs are: LL-01,LL-01 fe, LL-12, LL-14+, LL-17 fe. European vehicle manufacturers have lead the way for oil specs but Asian and American manufacturers have since joined in creating a need for oil change, repair shops and dealerships to carry many different oils to avoid damages both mechanical and monetarily. Examples of some VW specs are VW 500.00, VW 501.01, VW 502.00, VW 503.00, VW 503.01, VW 504.00, VW 505.00, VW 505.01, VW 506.00, VW 507.00, VW 508.00/509.00. Mercedes Benz specs include MB 226.5, MB 226.51, MB 229.1, MB 229.31, MB 229.5, MB 229.51, MB 229.52.
Other additives
In addition to the viscosity index improvers, motor oil manufacturers often include other additives such as detergents and dispersants to help keep the engine clean by minimizing sludge buildup, corrosion inhibitors, and alkaline additives to neutralize acidic oxidation products of the oil. Most commercial oils have a minimal amount of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as an anti-wear additive to protect contacting metal surfaces with zinc and other compounds in case of metal to metal contact. The quantity of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate is limited to minimize adverse effect on catalytic converters. Another aspect for after-treatment devices is the deposition of oil ash, which increases the exhaust back pressure and reduces fuel economy over time. The so-called "chemical box" limits today the concentrations of sulfur, ash and phosphorus (SAP).
There are other additives available commercially which can be added to the oil by the user for purported additional benefit. Some of these additives include:
Antiwear additives, like zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) and its alternatives due to phosphorus limits in some specifications. Calcium sulfonates additives are also added to protect motor oil from oxidative breakdown and to prevent the formation of sludge and varnish deposits. Both were the main basis of additive packages used by lubricant manufacturers up until the 1990s when the need for ashless additives arose. Main advantage was very low price and wide availability (sulfonates were originally waste byproducts). Currently there are ashless oil lubricants without these additives, which can only fulfill the qualities of the previous generation with more expensive basestock and more expensive organic or organometallic additive compounds. Some new oils are not formulated to provide the level of protection of previous generations to save manufacturing costs.
Some molybdenum disulfide containing additives to lubricating oils are claimed to reduce friction, bond to metal, or have anti-wear properties. MoS2 particles can be shear-welded on steel surface and some engine components were even treated with MoS2 layer during manufacture, namely liners in engines. (Trabant for example). They were used in World War II in flight engines and became commercial after World War II until the 1990s. They were commercialized in the 1970s (ELF ANTAR Molygraphite) and are today still available (Liqui Moly MoS2 10 W-40). Main disadvantage of molybdenum disulfide is anthracite black color, so oil treated with it is hard to distinguish from a soot filled engine oil with metal shavings from spun crankshaft bearing.
In the 1980s and 1990s, additives with suspended PTFE particles were available, e.g., "Slick50", to consumers to increase motor oil's ability to coat and protect metal surfaces. There is controversy as to the actual effectiveness of these products, as they can coagulate and clog the oil filter and tiny oil passages in the engine. It is supposed to work under boundary lubricating conditions, which good engine designs tend to avoid anyway. Also, Teflon alone has little to no ability to firmly stick on a sheared surface, unlike molybdenum disulfide, for example.
Many patents proposed use perfluoropolymers to reduce friction between metal parts, such as PTFE (Teflon), or micronized PTFE. However, the application obstacle of PTFE is insolubility in lubricant oils. Their application is questionable and depends mainly on the engine designone that can not maintain reasonable lubricating conditions might benefit, while properly designed engine with oil film thick enough would not see any difference. PTFE is a very soft material, thus its friction coefficient becomes worse than that of hardened steel-to-steel mating surfaces under common loads. PTFE is used in composition of sliding bearings where it improves lubrication under relatively light load until the oil pressure builds up to full hydrodynamic lubricating conditions.
Some molybdenum disulfide containing oils may be unsuitable for motorcycles which share wet clutch lubrication with the engine.
Environmental effects
Due to its chemical composition, worldwide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor-oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbors and waterways, at per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far the greatest cause of motor-oil pollution in oceans comes from drains and urban street-runoff, much of it caused by improper disposal of engine oil. of used oil can generate a slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms. Motor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants:
contaminating water supplies
contaminating soil
poisoning plants
Used motor-oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may become contaminated.
Synthetic oils
Synthetic lubricants were first made in significant quantities as replacements for mineral lubricants (and fuels) by German scientists in the late 1930s and early 1940s, because of their insufficient quantities of crude needed to fight in World War II. A significant factor in their gain in popularity was the ability of synthetic-based lubricants to remain fluid in very low temperatures, such as those encountered on Germany's eastern front, which caused petroleum-based lubricants to solidify owing to their higher wax content. The use of synthetic lubricants widened through the 1950s and 1960s owing to a property at the other end of the temperature spectrum – the ability to lubricate aviation engines at high temperatures that caused mineral-based lubricants to break down. In the mid-1970s, synthetic motor oils were formulated and commercially applied for the first time in automotive applications. The same SAE system for designating motor oil viscosity also applies to synthetic oils.
Synthetic oils are derived from either Group III, Group IV, or some Group V bases. Synthetics include classes of lubricants like synthetic esters (Group V) as well as "others" like GTL (methane gas-to-liquid) (Group III +) and polyalpha-olefins (Group IV). Higher purity and therefore better property control theoretically means synthetic oil has better mechanical properties at extremes of high and low temperatures. The molecules are made large and "soft" enough to retain good viscosity at higher temperatures, yet branched molecular structures interfere with solidification and therefore allow flow at lower temperatures. Thus, although the viscosity still decreases as temperature increases, these synthetic motor oils have a higher viscosity index over the traditional petroleum base. Their specially designed properties allow a wider temperature range at higher and lower temperatures and often include a lower pour point. With their improved viscosity index, synthetic oils need lower levels of viscosity index improvers, which are the oil components most vulnerable to thermal and mechanical degradation as the oil ages, and thus they do not degrade as quickly as traditional motor oils. However, they still fill up with particulate matter, although the matter better suspends within the oil, and the oil filter still fills and clogs up over time. So periodic oil and filter changes should still be done with synthetic oil, but some synthetic oil suppliers suggest that the intervals between oil changes can be longer, sometimes as long as primarily due to reduced degradation by oxidation.
Tests show that fully synthetic oil is superior in extreme service conditions to conventional oil, and may perform better for longer under standard conditions. But in the vast majority of vehicle applications, mineral oil-based lubricants, fortified with additives and with the benefit of over a century of development, continue to be the predominant lubricant for most internal combustion engine applications.
Bio-based oils
Bio-based oils existed prior to the development of petroleum-based oils in the 19th century. They have become the subject of renewed interest with the advent of bio-fuels and the push for green products. The development of canola-based motor oils began in 1996 in order to pursue environmentally friendly products. Purdue University has funded a project to develop and test such oils. Test results indicate satisfactory performance from the oils tested. A review on the status of bio-based motor oils and base oils globally, as well as in the U.S, shows how bio-based lubricants show promise in augmenting the current petroleum-based supply of lubricating materials, as well as replacing it in many cases.
The USDA National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research developed an Estolide lubricant technology made from vegetable and animal oils. Estolides have shown great promise in a wide range of applications, including engine lubricants. Working with the USDA, a California-based company Biosynthetic Technologies has developed a high-performance "drop-in" biosynthetic oil using Estolide technology for use in motor oils and industrial lubricants. This biosynthetic oil American Petroleum Institute (API) has the potential to greatly reduce environmental challenges associated with petroleum. Independent testing not only shows biosynthetic oils to be among the highest-rated products for protecting engines and machinery; they are also bio-based, biodegradable, non-toxic and do not bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Also, motor oils and lubricants formulated with biosynthetic base oils can be recycled and re-refined with petroleum-based oils. The U.S.-based company Green Earth Technologies manufactures a bio-based motor oil, called G-Oil, made from animal oils.
Future
A new process to break down polyethylene, a common plastic product found in many consumer containers, converts it into a paraffin-like wax with the correct molecular properties for conversion into a lubricant, avoiding the expensive Fischer–Tropsch process. The plastic is melted and then pumped into a furnace. The heat of the furnace breaks down the molecular chains of polyethylene into wax. Finally, the wax is subjected to a catalytic process that alters the wax's molecular structure, leaving a clear oil.
Biodegradable motor oils based on esters or hydrocarbon-ester blends appeared in the 1990s followed by formulations beginning in 2000 which respond to the bio-no-tox-criteria of the European preparations directive (EC/1999/45). This means, that they not only are biodegradable according to OECD 301x test methods, but also the aquatic toxicities (fish, algae, daphnia) are each above 100 mg/L.
Another class of base oils suited for engine oil are the polyalkylene glycols. They offer zero-ash, bio-no-tox properties, and lean burn characteristics.
Re-refined motor oil
The oil in a motor oil product does break down and burns as it is used in an engineit also gets contaminated with particles and chemicals that make it a less effective lubricant. Re-refining cleans the contaminants and used additives out of the dirty oil. From there, this clean "base stock" is blended with some virgin base stock and a new additives package to make a finished lubricant product that can be just as effective as lubricants made with all-virgin oil. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines re-refined products as containing at least 25% re-refined base stock, but other standards are significantly higher. The California State public contract code defines a re-refined motor oil as one that contains at least 70% re-refined base stock.
Packaging
Motor oils were sold at retail in glass bottles, metal cans, and metal-cardboard cans, before the advent of the current polyethylene plastic bottle, which began to appear in the early 1980s. Reusable spouts were made separately from the cans; with a piercing point like that of a can opener, these spouts could be used to puncture the top of the can and to provide an easy way to pour the oil.
Today, motor oil in the US is generally sold in bottles of and on a rarity in as well as in larger plastic containers ranging from approximately due to most small to mid-size engines requiring around of engine oil. In the rest of the world, it is most commonly available in 1L, 3L, 4L, and 5L retail packages.
Distribution to larger users (such as drive-through oil change shops) is often in bulk, by tanker truck or in drums.
See also
Waste oil
References
External links
Table of SAE and ISO viscosity gradings
Measuring free radicals in used engine oil
Oil for high mileage
Oil
Engine lubrication systems
Tribology
|
wiki
|
Hassan II was King of Morocco from 1961 until his death in 1999.
Hassan II or Hasan II may also refer to:
Hassan II of Alamut, or Ḥasan ʿAlā Zikrihi's-Salām, Nizari imam (leader) of the Assassins from 1162 until 1166
Hassan II of the Maldives, fifth Sultan to ascend the throne of Maldives from the Hilaaly Dynasty
Hassan II of the Maldives, Sultan of the Maldives
Hasan II (Bavandid ruler), or Fakhr el Dawlah Hasan, ruler of the Bavand dynasty from 1334 to 1349
Hasan II or Hasan-Jalal Dawla, Armenian feudal prince and namesake of the House of Hasan-Jalalyan
|
wiki
|
Toxic waste is any unwanted material in all forms that can cause harm (e.g. by being inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin). Mostly generated by industry, consumer products like televisions, computers, and phones contain toxic chemicals that can pollute the air and contaminate soil and water. Disposing of such waste is a major public health issue.
Classifying toxic materials
Toxic materials are poisonous byproducts as a result of industries such as manufacturing, farming, construction, automotive, laboratories, and hospitals which may contain heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Toxic waste has become more abundant since the industrial revolution, causing serious global issues. Disposing of such waste has become even more critical with the addition of numerous technological advances containing toxic chemical components. Products such as cellular telephones, computers, televisions, and solar panels contain toxic chemicals that can harm the environment if not disposed of properly to prevent the pollution of the air and contamination of soils and water. A material is considered toxic when it causes death or harm by being inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin.
The waste can contain chemicals, heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Even households generate hazardous waste from items such as batteries, used computer equipment, and leftover paints or pesticides. Toxic material can be either human-made and others are naturally occurring in the environment. Not all hazardous substances are considered toxic.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified 11 key substances that pose a risk to human health:
Arsenic: used in making electrical circuits, as an ingredient in pesticides, and as a wood preservative. It is classified as a carcinogen.
Asbestos: is a material that was once used for the insulation of buildings, and some businesses are still using this material to manufacture roofing materials and brakes. Inhalation of asbestos fibers can lead to lung cancer and asbestosis.
Cadmium: is found in batteries and plastics. It can be inhaled through cigarette smoke or digested when included as a pigment in food. Exposure leads to lung damage, irritation of the digestive tract, and kidney disease.
Chromium: is used as brick lining for high-temperature industrial furnaces, as a solid metal used for making steel, and in chrome plating, manufacturing dyes and pigments, wood preserving, and leather tanning. It is known to cause cancer, and prolonged exposure can cause chronic bronchitis and damage lung tissue.
Clinical wastes: such as syringes and medication bottles can spread pathogens and harmful microorganisms, leading to a variety of illnesses.
Cyanide: a poison found in some pesticides and rodenticides. In large doses, it can lead to paralysis, convulsions, and respiratory distress.
Lead: is found in batteries, paints, and ammunition. When ingested or inhaled can cause harm to the nervous and reproductive systems, and kidneys.
Mercury: used for dental fillings and batteries. It is also used in the production of chlorine gas. Exposure can lead to birth defects and kidney and brain damage
PCBs, or polychlorinated biphenyls, are used in many manufacturing processes, by the utility industry, and in paints and sealants. Damage can occur through exposure, affecting the nervous, reproductive, and immune systems, as well as the liver.
POPs, persistent organic pollutants. They are found in chemicals and pesticides and may lead to nervous and reproductive system defects. They can bio-accumulate in the food chain or persist in the environment and be moved great distances through the atmosphere.
Strong acids and alkalis used in manufacturing and industrial production. They can destroy tissue and cause internal damage to the body.
The most overlooked toxic and hazardous wastes are the household products in everyday homes that are improperly disposed of such as old batteries, pesticides, paint, and car oil. Toxic waste can be reactive, ignitable, and corrosive. In the United States, these wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Reactive wastes are those that can cause explosions when heated, mixed with water or compressed. They can release toxic gases into the air. They are unstable even in normal conditions. An example is lithium–sulfur batteries.
Ignitable wastes have flash points of less than 60 degrees Celsius. They are very combustible and can cause fires. Examples are solvents and waste oils.
Corrosive wastes are liquids capable of corroding metal containers. These are acids or bases that have pH levels of less than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 12.5. An example is battery acid.
With the increase of worldwide technology, there are more substances that are considered toxic and harmful to human health. Technology growth at this rate is extremely daunting for civilization and can eventually lead to more harm/negative outcomes. Some of this technology includes cell phones and computers. Such items have been given the name e-waste or EEE, which stands for Electrical and Electronic Equipment. This term is also used for goods such as refrigerators, toys, and washing machines. These items can contain toxic components that can break down into water systems when discarded. The reduction in the cost of these goods has allowed for these items to be distributed globally without thought or consideration to managing the goods once they become ineffective or broken.
In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies develop and enforce regulations on the storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste. The EPA requires that toxic waste be handled with special precautions, and be disposed of in designated facilities around the country. Also, many US cities have collection days where household toxic waste is gathered. Some materials that may not be accepted at regular landfills are ammunition, commercially generated waste, explosives/shock sensitive items, hypodermic needles/syringes, medical waste, radioactive materials, and smoke detectors.
Health effects
Toxic wastes often contain carcinogens, and exposure to these by some route, such as leakage or evaporation from the storage, causes cancer to appear at increased frequency in exposed individuals. For example, a cluster of the rare blood cancer polycythemia vera was found around a toxic waste dump site in northeast Pennsylvania in 2008.
The Human & Ecological Risk Assessment Journal conducted a study that focused on the health of individuals living near municipal landfills to see if it would be as harmful as living near hazardous landfills. They conducted a 7-year study that specifically tested for 18 types of cancers to see if the participants had higher rates than those that don't live around landfills. They conducted this study in western Massachusetts within a 1-mile radius of the North Hampton Regional Landfill.
People encounter these toxins buried in the ground, in stream runoff, in groundwater that supplies drinking water, or in floodwaters, as happened after Hurricane Katrina. Some toxins, such as mercury, persist in the environment and accumulate. As a result of the bioaccumulation of mercury in both freshwater and marine ecosystems, predatory fish are a significant source of mercury in human and animal diets. Toxic Waste." National Geographic. National Geographic, 2010. Web. 26 Apr 2010.
Prevalence of Toxic Waste Sites in the United States'
In the United States today millions of Americans live near a toxic waste site that is in a radius of three miles of where they currently reside. For example, In February 2022 it was found that “75 percent of Black Americans more likely to live near waste-producing facilities.” Residents that live in or near communities that are 1.8 miles around a Superfund or hazardous site have a “high risk for life-long and long-term mental health and physical health challenges, including cancer, birth defects, and developmental disabilities.” There are an estimated 21 million people that reside within a mile of these sites allowing the harsh chemicals and toxins, such as lead and mercury, that have escaped to enter nearby water supplies, to affect the air quality, and ground conditions resulting in destructive environmental surroundings. In the past, recent years' climate change increasing severe rainstorms, flooding, and winds from hurricanes have a greater possibility to disrupt the content of these toxic waste sites allowing unstable organic compounds to go back into the environment.
Toxic Lead Waste and Disease in Three Latin American Countries
It can be seen that in Argentina, Mexico, and Uruguay there has been an increase in industrial development, urbanization, and socioeconomic forces. As these industries grow there is an underlying consequence of pollution that comes from environmental exposure to hazardous waste. When people are exposed to this pollution, they suffer negative health effects. With diseases on the rise, the disability-adjusted life year (DALY) starts to decline, so the time the average person lives decreases, especially in low to middle-income countries.
These low to middle-income countries (LMIC) have minimal resources to deal with toxic waste, such as “inadequate regulation, the informality of many industries, poor surveillance, and improper disposal of contaminants.” For example, “lead is still used for glazing artisanal ceramics despite the availability of less hazardous alternatives.” Lead enters the soil and water sources if not kept under control. Children are more susceptible than adults to absorbing more lead if exposed early on, causing them to have “behavioral problems in adolescence, IQ decrements, cognitive impairment, and decreased visuospatial skills.” If adults are exposed occupationally, they can have higher rates of hypertension than the average person. Men can result in low sperm count and females can result in miscarriages.
In order to further quantify the burden of diseases caused by toxic wastes TSIP, Toxic Sites Identification Program, “ identifies active and abandoned hazardous waste sites resulting from both formal and informal industrial activities in LMICs”. As an investigation begins a key pollutant is sought out and identified. For example, “Heavy metals are the most commonly occurring key pollutant, with ingestion of contaminated soils being the most commonly occurring route of exposure listed in the TSIP database”. Argentina, Mexico, and Uruguay were chosen since they had more available data after meeting certain criteria. As of now, there are five criteria that have to be met in order for a hazardous waste site to be included in the analysis; " a biological or environmental sample had to be present; a population at risk had to be specified; the location of the site was represented by GPS coordinates, and a description of the activities leading to contamination were outlined.” To measure the amount of lead in the soil a handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer was used. When this method seemed unavailable and an area was suspected of having to lead contamination, the blood of individuals was tested to show the amount the people who were exposed to lead.
The exposure data were collected from a total of 129 hazardous waste sites distributed across Argentina (n = 23), Mexico (n = 62), and Uruguay (n = 44). In Figs. 1 and 2 the sites of geographical distributions are shown. An estimated population of 316,703 individuals were at risk of exposure (mean = 2455; median = 250 per site), which is approximately 0.19% of the total population of all three countries. There was an estimation of 80,021 individuals who were women of childbearing age (15–49 years of age), and 122,084 individuals who were younger than 18 years of age.
Dioxins and Solid Waste Disposal in Campania, Italy
In recent years in the region of Campania, Italy there has been a rise in illegal dumping and burning of toxic and solid waste. In response to this, there has been a rise of dangerous chemical molecules like dioxins that are carcinogenic, which implies that they have the potential to cause cancer, that is appearing in humans and animals. For example, there has been a recent increase in sheep that have been born in contaminated areas that have, “higher rates of chromosome fragility, higher mortality, and a higher incidence of abnormal fetal development when compared with sheep raised in non-contaminated areas.”
To assess the causal relations between cancer mortality and congenital malformations in humans coming from illegal dumping a map was drawn using the geographical locations of the sites.
As one can see most of these sites are located in Campania where Naples and Caserta are based.
The spread of dioxin through food consumption is primarily due to the animal products from the animals that were raised in the geographical locations where dioxins were the highest. Researchers tested mammalian milk from these areas and saw that the levels of dioxin were over the suggested amount. This was greatly seen as an issue because humans have the highest capability to concentrate the dioxin in their fat tissues. To test this, 94 women in Campania who were breastfeeding had samples of their breast milk tested and it was found that every woman had dioxin in their breastmilk. A correlation was also discovered that the older you were the more dioxin was in your breastmilk.
Handling and disposal
One of the biggest problems with today's toxic material is how to dispose of it properly. Before the passage of modern environmental laws (in the US, this was in the 1970s), it was legal to dump such wastes into streams, rivers, and oceans, or bury them underground in landfills. The US Clean Water Act, enacted in 1972, and RCRA, enacted in 1976, created nationwide programs to regulate the handling and disposal of hazardous wastes.
The agriculture industry uses over 800,000 tons of pesticides worldwide annually that contaminate soils, and eventually infiltrate into groundwater, which can contaminate drinking water supplies. The oceans can be polluted from the stormwater runoff of these chemicals as well. Toxic waste in the form of petroleum oil can either spill into the oceans from pipe leaks or large ships, but it can also enter the oceans from everyday citizens dumping car oil into the rainstorm sewer systems. Disposal is the placement of waste into or on the land. Disposal facilities are usually designed to permanently contain waste and prevent the release of harmful pollutants to the environment.
The most common hazardous waste disposal practice is placement in a land disposal unit such as a landfill, surface impoundment, waste pile, land treatment unit, or injection well. Land disposal is subject to requirements under EPA's Land Disposal Restrictions Program. Injection wells are regulated under the federal Underground Injection Control program.
Organic wastes can be destroyed by incineration at high temperatures. However, if the waste contains heavy metals or radioactive isotopes, these must be separated and stored, as they cannot be destroyed. The method of storage will seek to immobilize the toxic components of the waste, possibly through storage in sealed containers, inclusion in a stable medium such as glass or a cement mixture, or burial under an impermeable clay cap. Waste transporters and waste facilities may charge fees; consequently, improper methods of disposal may be used to avoid paying these fees. Where the handling of toxic waste is regulated, the improper disposal of toxic waste may be punishable by fines or prison terms. Burial sites for toxic waste and other contaminated brownfield land may eventually be used as greenspace or redeveloped for commercial or industrial use.
History of US toxic waste regulation
The RCRA governs the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), also enacted in 1976, authorizes the EPA to collect information on all new and existing chemical substances, as well as to control any substances that were determined to cause unreasonable risk to public health or the environment. The Superfund law, passed in 1980, created a cleanup program for abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.
There has been a long ongoing battle between communities and environmentalists versus governments and corporations about how strictly and how fairly the regulations and laws are written and enforced. That battle began in North Carolina in the late summer of 1979, as EPA's TSCA regulations were being implemented. In North Carolina, PCB-contaminated oil was deliberately dripped along rural Piedmont highways, creating the largest PCB spills in American history and a public health crisis that would have repercussions for generations to come. The PCB-contaminated material was eventually collected and buried in a landfill in Warren County, but citizens' opposition, including large public demonstrations, exposed the dangers of toxic waste, the fallibility of landfills than in use, and EPA regulations allowing landfills to be built on marginal, but politically acceptable sites.
Warren County citizens argued that the toxic waste landfill regulations were based on the fundamental assumption that the EPA's conceptual dry-tomb landfill would contain the toxic waste. This assumption informed the siting of toxic waste landfills and waivers to regulations that were included in EPA's Federal Register. For example, in 1978, the base of a major toxic waste landfill could be no closer than five feet from groundwater, but this regulation and others could be waived. The waiver to the regulation concerning the distance between the base of a toxic waste landfill and groundwater allowed the base to be only a foot above ground water if the owner/operator of the facility could demonstrate to the EPA regional administrator that a leachate collection system could be installed and that there would be no hydraulic connection between the base of the landfill and groundwater. Citizens argued that the waivers to the siting regulations were discriminatory mechanisms facilitating the shift from scientific to political considerations concerning the siting decision and that in the South this would mean a discriminatory proliferation of dangerous waste management facilities in poor black and other minority communities. They also argued that the scientific consensus was that permanent containment could not be assured. As resistance to the siting of the PCB landfill in Warren County continued and studies revealed that EPA dry-tomb landfills were failing, EPA stated in its Federal Register that all landfills would eventually leak and should only be used as a stopgap measure.
Years of research and empirical knowledge of the failures of the Warren County PCB landfill led citizens of Warren County to conclude that the EPA's dry-tomb landfill design and regulations governing the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste were not based on sound science and adequate technology. Warren County's citizens concluded also that North Carolina's 1981 Waste Management Act'' was scientifically and constitutionally unacceptable because it authorized the siting of toxic, hazardous, and nuclear waste facilities prior to public hearings, preempted local authority over the siting of the facilities, and authorized the use of force if needed.
In the aftermath of the Warren County protests, the 1984 Federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act focused on waste minimization and phasing out land disposal of hazardous waste as well as corrective action for releases of hazardous materials. Other measures included in the 1984 amendments included increased enforcement authority for EPA, more stringent hazardous waste management standards, and a comprehensive underground storage tank program.
The disposal of toxic waste continues to be a source of conflict in the U.S. Due to the hazards associated with toxic waste handling and disposal, communities often resist the siting of toxic waste landfills and other waste management facilities; however, determining where and how to dispose of waste is a necessary part of economic and environmental policy-making.
The issue of handling toxic waste has become a global problem as international trade has arisen out of the increasing toxic byproducts produced with the transfer of them to less developed countries. In 1995, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights began to notice the illicit dumping of toxic waste and assigned a Special Rapporteur to examine the human rights aspect to this issue (Commission resolution 1995/81). In September 2011, the Human Rights Council decided to strengthen the mandate to include the entire life-cycle of hazardous products from manufacturing to the final destination (aka cradle to grave), as opposed to only movement and dumping of hazardous waste. The title of the Special Rapporteur has been changed to “Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes."(Human Rights Council 18/11). The Human Rights Council has further extended the scope of its mandates as of September 2012 due to the result of the dangerous implications occurring to persons advocating environmentally sound practices regarding the generation, management, handling, distribution, and final disposal of hazardous and toxic materials to include the issue of the protection of the environmental human rights defenders.
Mapping of toxic waste in the United States
TOXMAP was a geographic information system (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that used maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund and Toxics Release Inventory programs. The chemical and environmental health information was taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET) and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources. The database was removed from the internet by the Trump Administration in December 2019.
See also
Agent Orange
Environmental dumping
Environmental racism
Environmental remediation
List of Superfund sites in the United States
Pollution
Radioactive waste
Red mud, a caustic byproduct of alumina production
Toxic colonialism
References
External links
Information on toxic waste from the CDC
TOXMAP: Environmental Health e-maps from the US National Library of Medicine
Toxic waste Argentinian law
Burden of Disease Resulting from Lead Exposure at Toxic Waste Sites in Argentina, Mexico and Uruguay.
Illegal Dumping of Toxic Waste and Its Effect on Human Health in Campania, Italy
Millions of Americans live near toxic waste sites. how does this affect their health?
Waste
Pollution
de:Giftmüll
|
wiki
|
Griot (, ) is a dish in Haitian cuisine. It consists of pork shoulder marinated in citrus, which is braised and then fried. It is commonly served at parties. Griot along with diri ak pwa wouj (red beans and rice) is considered by some to be Haiti's "national dish."
Etymology
Griot may also be spelled griyo, or grillots.
Preparation
Griot is usually made from pork shoulder. The meat is first washed then put in a mixture of citrus juices to add flavor. After being soaked in the citrus juices, the meat is marinated in epis, which is a mixture of Haitian herbs, vegetables, and spices. Next, the meat is either braised or roasted until tender. The cooking liquid produced is used in the preparation of an accompanying sauce, known as sòs ti-malis. Finally, the meat is deep-fried until golden-brown and crispy. Griot is almost always served with pikliz as well as rice or bannann peze.
See also
List of pork dishes
References
Haitian cuisine
Deep fried foods
Pork dishes
Citrus dishes
Snack foods
|
wiki
|
Old Dorm may refer to any of the buildings on numerous college campuses with, or previously having, the proper name, including:
Brossman Center, which has the 1889 Old Dorm facade at the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia
Pennsylvania Hall (Gettysburg, Pennsylvania), of 1838 at Gettysburg College
Schmucker Hall of 1832 at the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg
McCormick Road Dormitories at the University of Virginia, generally referred to as "Old Dorms"
|
wiki
|
The Santa Maria River is a river in Mexico. It originates on the Mexican Plateau in the states of San Luis Potosí and Guanajuato, and flows westwards. For much of its length, it forms the border between San Luis Potosí and Guanajuato. It carves a canyon through the Sierra Madre Oriental, where it is joined by the Rio Verde. The Gallinas River merges into it via the 105-meter Tamul Waterfall, downstream of which its name changes to the Tampaón River. The Tampaón continues westwards to join the Moctezuma River and form the Pánuco River, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico at Ciudad Madero.
See also
List of rivers of Mexico
References
Atlas of Mexico, 1975 (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas_mexico/river_basins.jpg).
The Prentice Hall American World Atlas, 1984.
Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993.
Rivers of San Luis Potosí
Rivers of Querétaro
Tributaries of the Pánuco River
|
wiki
|
The Santa Maria River (Chihuahua) is a river in the state Chihuahua of Mexico. It drains from the Sierra Madre Occidental but is an endorheic basin, i.e. it doesn't flow into a river, sea or ocean. It is popular for rafting.
See also
List of rivers of Mexico
References
Atlas of Mexico, 1975 (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas_mexico/river_basins.jpg).
The Prentice Hall American World Atlas, 1984.
Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993.
Rivers of Chihuahua (state)
|
wiki
|
A pancreatic pseudocyst is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in pancreatic enzymes, blood, and non-necrotic tissue, typically located in the lesser sac of the abdomen. Pancreatic pseudocysts are usually complications of pancreatitis, although in children they frequently occur following abdominal trauma. Pancreatic pseudocysts account for approximately 75% of all pancreatic masses.
Signs and symptoms
Signs and symptoms of pancreatic pseudocyst include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite.
Complications
Complications of pancreatic pseudocysts include infection, hemorrhage, obstruction and rupture. For obstruction, it can cause compression in the GI tract from the stomach to colon, compression in urinary system, biliary system, and arteriovenous system.
Causes
Pancreatic pseudocyst can occur due to a variety of reasons, among them pancreatitis (chronic), pancreatic neoplasm and/or pancreatic trauma.
Pathophysiology
Pancreatic pseudocysts are sometimes called false cysts because they do not have an epithelial lining. The wall of the pseudocyst is vascular and fibrotic, encapsulated in the area around the pancreas. Pancreatitis or abdominal trauma can cause its formation. Treatment usually depends on the mechanism that brought about the pseudocyst. Pseudocysts take up to 6 weeks to completely form.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of pancreatic pseudocyst can be based on cyst fluid analysis:
Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and CA-125 (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors);
Fluid viscosity (low in pseudocysts and elevated in tumors);
Amylase (usually high in pseudocysts and low in tumors)
The most useful imaging tools are:
Ultrasonography – the role of ultrasonography in imaging the pancreas is limited by patient habitus, operator experience and the fact that the pancreas lies behind the stomach (and so a gas-filled stomach will obscure the pancreas).
Computerized tomography – this is the gold standard for initial assessment and follow-up.
Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) – to establish the relationship of the pseudocyst to the pancreatic ducts, though not routinely used
Treatment
Pancreatic pseudocyst treatment should be aimed at avoiding any complication (1 in 10 cases become infected). They also tend to rupture, and have shown that larger cysts have a higher likelihood to become more symptomatic, even needing surgery. If no signs of infection are present, initial treatment may include conservative measures such as bowel rest (NPO), parenteral nutrition (TPN), and observation. If symptoms do not improve, then endoscopic drainage may be necessary. The majority of pseudocysts can be treated endoscopically; surgical intervention is rarely necessary.
In the event of surgery:
Cystogastrostomy: In this surgical procedure a connection is created between the back wall of the stomach and the cyst such that the cyst drains into the stomach.
Cystojejunostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the cyst and the small intestine so that the cyst fluid directly into the small intestine.
Cystoduodenostomy: In this procedure a connection is created between the duodenum (the first part of the intestine) and the cyst to allow drainage of the cyst content into duodenum. The type of surgical procedure depends on the location of the cyst. For pseudocysts that occur in the head of the pancreas a cystoduodenostomy is usually performed.
See also
Pancreas
References
Further reading
External links
Pancreas disorders
|
wiki
|
Chevrolet Cheyenne may refer to:
Chevrolet C/K (a trim package for this truck line)
Chevrolet Silverado (post-C/K Silverado marketed in Mexico)
Chevrolet Cheyenne (concept car)
Cheyenne
Pickup trucks
|
wiki
|
Web buttons, badges or stickers are small images in some World Wide Web pages which are typically used to promote programs that were used to create or host the site (for example, MediaWiki sites often have a "Powered by Mediawiki" button on the bottom right corner of the page). They may also be used to promote compliance with web standards such as passing World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) HTML validation or to comply with an application's terms of service.
These were first popularized as "Best viewed in..." buttons by Netscape and Microsoft during the browser wars.
External links
, web badges generator tool based on Antipixel's
Silkscreen, font often used in Web badges
Makebutton.com, Make your own free web buttons and banners with an online tool
lifehacker.com: Create your own web buttons, 11 May 2007
Steal These Buttons, a collection of over 3700 buttons since 2003
Web design
Computer icons
|
wiki
|
Rebel Inc. may refer to:
Rebel Inc. (magazine), a Scottish literary magazine
Rebel Inc. (video game), a 2018 video game
|
wiki
|
"When the going gets tough, the tough get going" is a popular witticism in American English.
The phrase is an example of antimetabole.
The origin of the phrase has been attributed to various sources. It appears to come from American football parlance, with the earliest published sources in the 1950s, including an article in the Corpus Christi Times quoting local football coach John Thomas in 1953, and from a 1954 article in the Santa Cruz Sentinel-News quoting coach Francis William Leahy.
In the early 21st century, the phrase is used as a management motivational talk and is popular in many self-help books.
References
Oral tradition
Cultural anthropology
|
wiki
|
The Lost World, Lost World en Lost Worlds kunnen verwijzen naar:
Literatuur:
The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle), een boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (Michael Crichton), een roman van Michael Crichton uit 1995
The Lost World (Randall Jarrell), een dichtcollectie van Randall Jarrell
Lost World (manga), een mangaserie van Osamu Tezuka
Lost Worlds (Clark Ashton Smith), een korte verhalen collectie uit 1944 van Clark Ashton Smith
Lost Worlds (spelboek), een spelboek uit 1983
Lost Worlds (Lin Carter), een korte verhalen collectie uit 1980 van Lin Carter
Film en televisie:
The Lost World (1925), een film uit 1925, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (1960), een film uit 1960, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (1992), een film uit 1992, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (1998), een film uit 1998, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (1999), een film uit 1999, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World (2001), een film uit 2001, gebaseerd op het boek van Arthur Conan Doyle
The Lost World: Jurassic Park, een film van Steven Spielberg gebaseerd op het boek van Michael Crichton
The Lost World (televisieserie), een Australische televisieserie
Lost Worlds (televisieserie), een televisieserie van The History Channel
Muziek:
The Lost World (album), een album uit 1995 van Michael Stearns
Lost World (band), een Duitse punkband.
|
wiki
|
RaaS can be an abbreviation for:
Ransomware as a service
Recovery as a Service
Robot as a Service
|
wiki
|
Cervical dislocation is a common method of animal euthanasia. It refers to a technique used in physical euthanasia of small animals by applying pressure to the neck and dislocating the spinal column from the skull or brain. The aim is to quickly separate the spinal cord from the brain so as to provide the animal with a fast and painless death; however, research on this method has shown it does not consistently concuss the brain and may not cause instantaneous insensibility.
Technique
Firm pressure is applied at the base of the skull, along with a sharp pinching and twisting of the thumb and forefinger. At the same time, the tail is pulled backward. This severs the spinal cord at the base of the brain or within the cervical spine area (the upper third of the neck). According to the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC), cervical dislocation is normally only conducted on small animals.
Ethics
The University of Iowa and some veterinary associations consider the technique to be an ethically acceptable method for killing small rodents such as rats, mice, squirrels, etc.
See also
Cervical fracture
Blunt trauma
Slaughter (livestock)
References
Animal euthanasia
Medical terminology
|
wiki
|
A pro-style offense in American football is any offensive scheme that resembles those predominantly used at the professional level of play in the National Football League (NFL), in contrast to those typically used at the collegiate or high school level. Pro-style offenses are fairly common at top-quality colleges but much less used at the high school level. The term should not be confused with a pro set, which is a specific formation that is used by some offenses at the professional level.
Generally, pro-style offenses are more complex than typical college or high school offenses. They are balanced, requiring offensive lines that are adept at both pass and run blocking, quarterbacks (QBs) with good decision-making abilities, and running backs (RBs) who are capable of running between the tackles. Offenses that fall under the pro-style category include the West Coast offense, the Air Coryell offense, and the Erhardt-Perkins offensive system.
Often, pro style offenses use certain formations much more commonly than the air raid, run and shoot, flexbone, spread, pistol, or option offenses. Pro-style offenses typically use the fullback (FB) and TEs much more commonly than offenses used at the collegiate or high school levels.
Part of the complexity of the offense is that teams at the professional level often employ multiple formations and are willing to use them at any point during an actual game. One example might be that a team uses a Strong I formation run (FB lined up where the TE is located on the line of scrimmage) on 1st Down followed up by a running play out of the Ace formation on second down before attempting a pass on 3rd down out of a two-WR shotgun formation.
Another aspect of the complexity is that the running game is primarily built on zone blocking or involves a power run scheme. Both of these require an offensive line that is very athletic, one play they could be trying to zone block a Linebacker, and the following one could be power blocking a defensive line. Most of the blocking schemes involve a series of rules, or a system in which they operate their blocks. The passing game as a result often employs play-action, often with the QB dropping back from under center, as a means of passing the ball while building on the running game.
Coaches who make the transition from the NFL to the NCAA as head coaches often bring with them their pro-style offenses. Such examples include Charlie Weis (former HC at Kansas), Dave Wannstedt (former HC at Pittsburgh), Bill O'Brien (former HC at Penn State). One positive aspect of employing a pro-style offense is that it can help players make transitions from the college level to the professional level quicker as a result of their familiarity with the system's complexity.
Typical pro-style formations
Single set back formation: Is probably the most prominent Pro-Style offensive formation, often being referred to as an Ace formation. It typically involves 1 running back in the backfield with a Tight End lined up on the line of scrimmage with 3 receivers out wide. There are variations of the formation where a secondary Tight End or a flanked full back can replace one of the Receivers.
I formation: Another standard formation with 2 WRs on the outside and a RB lined up behind a FB and the QB who is under center. Tweaks including shifting the FB to the left or right side behind the guard.
Shotgun formation: One difference is that often the shotgun is used as a three-WR formation with a TE lined up inside to help block in pass protection. RBs can also line up next to the QB to help pick up blitzes.
NFL teams that used the pro-style offense
References
American football formations
American football strategy
|
wiki
|
In baseball, hitting mechanics studies the biomechanical motion that governs the swing of a baseball player. The goal of biomechanics in hitting during baseball training is to study and improve upon the physics involved in hitting. This includes optimizing a player's swing for either maximizing their "bat speed" or time for plate coverage. There is a wide range of batting stances and mechanics that are developed through individual preferences. However, when comparing among experienced baseball players, their batting mechanics approach are almost similar.
Hitting analysis
Hitters have a wide variation of swings, but in the end staying balanced and having stable posture is the most important aspect of hitting a baseball. If the hitter becomes unbalanced throughout the swing the chance of making solid contact with the baseball is very slim. Once balanced throughout the swing, bat speed comes into the next most important aspect of the baseball swing. The faster the bat speed, the faster the ball will come off the bat. Furthermore, researchers have long established that home run hits are dependent on swing speed. Most notably, one can logically assume that a faster swing will result in the ball traveling farther. A 3-6% increase in bat speed can significantly affect the distance a ball travels after contact in competition (7). In terms of simple physics and mathematics, the conservation of momentum (E1) and a kinematic equation (E2) also reinforces this idea.
(E1): (Mass1*Velocity1 = Mass2*Velocity2)
(E2): (distance = Velocity (initial) *time + 0.5 *acceleration *time^2)
A study used an intensive mathematical program (finite element analysis software) to confirm that ball exit velocity is indeed dependent on linear bat velocity. These findings and observations confirm that a faster swing will be beneficial to a baseball player. In a research done by Welsh and et al. for the Journal of Orthopaedic and Sport Physical Therapy, they found that every baseball player goes through three critical phases during their swing. The three phases are foot off, foot down, and ball contact. In addition, they found that maximum hip rotation (around 714 degrees per second) happens right after foot down and maximum bat velocity (around 31 meters per second) before ball contact. These are significant markers since the hips generate the power needed for the bat speed which determines the distance the ball travels. Most biomechanics research hypothesis involving baseball takes those parameters as key values that can determine the success of a hitter. Furthermore, a hitter's mechanics will also includes an initial short “windup” motion and a final follow through phase that completes the motion.
Biomechanic description of hitting
From the anatomic position, a common baseball player batting from the right side will exhibit these movements before the pitch. The hitter will start with both knees, ankles, and elbows in flexion and adducted. In addition, the shoulder will be slightly elevated, hand medially rotated, right arm abducted, left arm adducted, fingers full flexed around the bat, and neck externally rotated towards the pitcher. During the pitcher's windup, the hitter will continue to flex his/her left knee and extend their left ankle off the ground while rotating their hips away from the pitcher. After the pitch is thrown, the hitter will then fully extend their elbows, left knee, and left ankle while rotating their hips towards the pitcher. After perceived ball contact, the hips continue to rotate along with continue extension towards hyperextension of the elbow.
Hitting Phases
Baseball hitting mechanics are far more complex than many believe. It is a science of best utilizing the kinetic chain in order to travel energy from lower body to upper body, and then using that energy when making contact with the ball. There are several phases of the baseball swing. First is the Preparatory Phase, second the Stance Phase, third the Stride Phase, fourth the Drive Phase, fifth Bat Acceleration Phase, and last Follow-Through Phase. Mastering these six phases allows for a baseball player to have their best possible swing. The baseball swing is all about creating and transferring the maximum amount of energy from your body into the ball. This leads to higher velocity and higher success.
The Preparatory Phase involves the stance of the hitter prior to the hitting cycle. The stance of the batter tends to be based on batter preference and comfort. This then leads into the Stance Phase.
This phase involves coiling as much energy as possible onto the back leg while staying balanced. The hitter doesn’t not want to load with too much extent, because it can cause them to lose balance and lose that energy. This then leads into the Stride Phase.
The Stride Phase is when the hitter takes the energy coiled onto their back leg and begin transferring it forward toward the incoming ball. Stride length and timing is crucial. One must strive linear to the ball and also stride far enough that the maximum amount of energy is being transferred. The timing is also important as a too long or too short stride may effect the hitters balance and contact timing with the baseball. It’s important the stride timing is accurate to ensure proper connection with the ball. The next phase is the Drive Phase.
This is phase is associated with the bat lag. As the batter is transferring energy forward they are keeping their arms extending back and the bat to be “lagged” or delayed from the rest of the body. The arms of the batter should have a sort of rubber band effect as the back elbow increases flexion versus the front elbow. The baseball bat should also be 45 degrees in the frontal plane, or the knob of the bat should be facing the catcher. The next phase is the Bat Acceleration Phase.
In this phase the hips will turn first towards the pitcher, with the bat following behind. This is where the body begins to uncoil as it releases all of the built up energy from the loading phase and transferring it all into the baseball upon contact. This motion allows for the maximum velocity of the baseball swing and transfers the most velocity to the baseball on contact. On contact, the elbows should be extended with the top hand facing up and the bottom hand facing downward. This then leads into our next phase, the Follow-Through Phase.
In this phase the hips are fully rotated towards the pitcher. The bat then makes a full rotation around the body. At the end of the swing the batters laces of the rear shoe should be facing toward the pitcher. Though these steps are very complex and contain many important details, all of this happens within seconds as the batter swings. Hence, the difficulty and undervalued complexity of this motion.
References
External links
Basic Hitting Mechanics
Batting (baseball)
Biomechanics
|
wiki
|
Tractate Miqwaʾoth (Hebrew: מקואות, lit. "Pools of Water"; in Talmudic Hebrew: Miqwaʾoth) is a section of the Mishna discussing the laws pertaining to the building and maintenance of a mikvah, a Jewish ritual bath. Like most of Seder Tohorot, Mikva'ot is present only in its mishnaic form and has no accompanying gemara in either the Babylonian or Jerusalem Talmud. It contains 10 chapters, with 83 paragraphs total.
References
External links
Online text of Mishna Mikvaot (in Hebrew)
|
wiki
|
Exercise-induced nausea is a feeling of sickness or vomiting which can occur shortly after exercise has stopped as well as during exercise itself. It may be a symptom of either over-exertion during exercise, or from too abruptly ending an exercise session. People engaged in high-intensity exercise such as aerobics and bicycling have reported experiencing exercise-induced nausea.
Cause
A study of 20 volunteers conducted at Nagoya University in Japan associated a higher degree of exercise-induced nausea after eating.
Lack of hydration during exercise is a well known cause of headache and nausea. Exercising at a heavy rate causes blood flow to be taken away from the stomach, causing nausea.
Another possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.
See also
Exercise intolerance
Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction
Exercise-induced urticaria
Exercise-associated hyponatremia
Heat intolerance
Ventilatory threshold
References
External links
Erowid: Health water poisoning
Symptoms
Exercise physiology
Vomiting
|
wiki
|
was a Japanese statutory corporation that existed from 2003 to 2007, offering postal and package delivery services, banking services, and life insurance. It's the nation's largest employer, with over 400,000 employees, and runs 24,700 post offices throughout Japan. One third of all Japanese government employees work for Japan Post. As of 2005, the President of the company was Masaharu Ikuta, formerly Chairman of Mitsui O.S.K. Lines Ltd.
Japan Post ran the world's largest postal savings system and is often said to be the largest holder of personal savings in the world: with ¥224 trillion ($2.1 trillion) of household assets in its yū-cho savings accounts, and ¥126 trillion ($1.2 trillion) of household assets in its kampo life insurance services; its holdings account for 25 percent of household assets in Japan. Japan Post also holds about ¥140 trillion (one fifth) of the Japanese national debt in the form of government bonds.
On October 1, 2007, Japan Post was privatized following a fierce political debate that was settled by the general election of 2005. The major concern was Japan Post, with government backing, stymieing competition and giving politicians access to postal savings to fund pet projects. Japan post was split into three companies in 2007, intending to be privatized by 2017. Following privatization, Japan Post Holdings operate the postal business.
In 2010, the privatization was put on hold, with the Japanese Ministry of Finance remaining the 100% shareholder. However, on October 26, 2012, the Japanese government unveiled plans to list shares of Japan Post Holdings within three years, partly to raise money for the reconstruction of areas devastated by the earthquake and tsunami of 2011. As of 2020, the government still holds 57% of shares, and March 2028 was announced as the target date of privatization. In October 2021, the Japanese government completed its majority privatisation process of Japan Post Holdings, but also still maintained control of most of the company's stock.
Postal privatization
The company was born on April 2, 2003, as a government-owned corporation, replacing the old . Japan Post's formation was part of then Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's long-term reform plan and was intended to culminate in the full privatization of the postal service. The privatization plan encountered both support and opposition across the Japanese political spectrum, including the two largest parties, the LDP and the DPJ. Opponents claimed that the move would result in the closure of post offices and job losses at the nation's largest employer. However, proponents contended that privatization would allow for a more efficient and flexible use of the company's funds, which would help revitalize Japan's economy. Proponents also claimed that Japan Post had become an enormous source of corruption and patronage. Koizumi called the privatization a major element in his efforts to curb government spending and the growth of the national debt. Most opposition parties supported postal privatization in principle, but criticized Koizumi's bill. Many considered the bill deeply flawed because it provided for too long a period for full implementation and included too many loopholes that might create a privatization in name only.
In September 2003, Koizumi's cabinet proposed splitting Japan Post into four separate companies: a bank, an insurance company, a postal service company, and a fourth company to handle the post offices as retail outlets for the other three entities. Each of these companies would be privatized in April 2007. In 2005, the Lower House of the Japanese legislature passed the bill to complete this reform by a handful of votes, with many members of Koizumi's LDP voting against their own government. The bill was subsequently defeated in the Upper House because of scores of defections from the ruling coalition. Koizumi immediately dissolved the lower house and scheduled a general election to be held on September 11, 2005. He declared the election to be a referendum on postal privatization. Koizumi won this election, gaining the necessary supermajority in the lower house, which he took as a mandate for reform.
The final version of the bill to privatize Japan Post in 2007 was passed in October 2005. It officially abolished Japan Post, with its branches broken up into a shareholding company and four other companies for postal service, postal savings, postal life insurance, and post office service networks. The legislation provided a 10-year transition period wherein the savings and insurance companies would be fully privatized while the government would still continue to be involved with the three other companies. The law also stated that Japan Post Bank and Japan Post Insurance are to go public in 2010 and their shares would be made available to the market two years later. However, the majority privatisation process, which nonetheless saw the Japanese government still maintain control of one-third of the company's stock, was completed in October 2021. The Japanese government also still remains the company's largest stockholder.
Concerns and opportunities
There were fears that the postal service branch of the Japan Post would be disadvantaged after its break from the banking and insurance branches. It is believed that it was losing money and is merely subsidized by the two financial divisions, which are more profitable. To cover a lack of financial resources, many observers advocated for diversification in order to attain profitability. This includes a potential entry into the logistics business, which Japan Post itself has signified it would pursue post-privatization. Studies also revealed that the new companies are poised to gain from emerging opportunities in the market. Aside from international logistics, there are also securitization, consumer lending, and health care, among others.
See also
Postage stamps and postal history of Japan
Japanese addressing system
Package delivery
Notes
References
Japan Post Annual Report 2006 (Wayback Machine archive)
Koizumi Loses Postal Reform Vote in Upper House, Calls for New Elections
Koizumi Wins Postal Reform Vote in Lower House
External links
Japan Post Holding Group
Japan Post Bank
Japan Post Insurance
Yahoo! – Japan Post Company Profile
Postal organizations
Japan Post Holdings
Government-owned companies based in Tokyo
Transport companies established in 2003
Transport companies disestablished in 2007
|
wiki
|
Pinball arcade may refer to:
Amusement arcade, a place with pinball machines
The Pinball Arcade, a pinball video game developed by FarSight Studios
Microsoft Pinball Arcade, a pinball video game from Microsoft
Pinball Arcade (video game), a 1994 game by Spidersoft
See also
Arcade Pinball
|
wiki
|
Vildsvin was a Swedish rock band from Varberg. They are known for their hits Saga utan lyckligt slut and Vi ses igen.
Members
Fredrik Thomander - vocals, bass
Roger Öjersson - guitar
Peter Månsson - drums
Albums
Grisfesten (1995)
Till Eder Tjänst (1996)
Iskallt Begär (1997)
References
Swedish rock music groups
|
wiki
|
Iron(III) chromate is the iron(III) salt of chromic acid with the chemical formula Fe2(CrO4)3.
Discovery
Iron(III) chromate was discovered by Samuel Hibbert-Ware in 1817 while visiting Shetland.
Production
It may be formed by the reaction of potassium chromate and iron(III) nitrate. This reaction forms iron(III) chromate and potassium nitrate. It also can be formed by the oxidation by air of iron and chromium oxides in a basic environment:
4 Fe2O3 + 6 Cr2O3 + 9 O2 → 4 Fe2(CrO4)3
References
Chromates
Iron(III) compounds
Oxidizing agents
|
wiki
|
Alburnoides kubanicus is a species of freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is endemic to the Kuban and Laba River drainages in Russia.
References
Alburnoides
Fish described in 1964
Taxa named by Petre Mihai Bănărescu
Fish of Russia
|
wiki
|
"Switch" is a 1997 song by Howie B. It made #62 on the UK Singles Chart. A music video for the song, directed by Run Wrake, was produced.
References
1997 singles
1997 songs
Polydor Records singles
|
wiki
|
Vina (snaarinstrument), de algemene benaming voor een snaarinstrument in India
Vina (Alabama), een plaats in de Amerikaanse staat Alabama
Vina (Californië), een plaats in de Amerikaanse staat Californië
Vina (rivier), een rivier in Kameroen
Vina (Adamaoua), een departement in Kameroen
|
wiki
|
Farney may refer to:
Farney, Monaghan - a barony based on a mediaeval Gaelic kingdom, in County Monaghan, Ireland
Dick Farney (1921–1987), Brazilian (jazz) pianist
Marsha Farney (born 1958), American businesswoman and former educator from Georgetown, Texas
A nickname for the Monaghan GAA team, Clones, Ireland
An imaginary voice in the head of Ryan Freel, baseball player
|
wiki
|
A good's price elasticity of demand (, PED) is a measure of how sensitive the quantity demanded is to its price. When the price rises, quantity demanded falls for almost any good, but it falls more for some than for others. The price elasticity gives the percentage change in quantity demanded when there is a one percent increase in price, holding everything else constant. If the elasticity is −2, that means a one percent price rise leads to a two percent decline in quantity demanded. Other elasticities measure how the quantity demanded changes with other variables (e.g. the income elasticity of demand for consumer income changes).
Price elasticities are negative except in special cases. If a good is said to have an elasticity of 2, it almost always means that the good has an elasticity of −2 according to the formal definition. The phrase "more elastic" means that a good's elasticity has greater magnitude, ignoring the sign. Veblen and Giffen goods are two classes of goods which have positive elasticity, rare exceptions to the law of demand. Demand for a good is said to be inelastic when the elasticity is less than one in absolute value: that is, changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity demanded. Demand for a good is said to be elastic when the elasticity is greater than one. A good with an elasticity of −2 has elastic demand because quantity falls twice as much as the price increase; an elasticity of −0.5 has inelastic demand because the quantity response is half the price increase.
At an elasticity of 0 consumption would not change at all, in spite of any price increases.
Revenue is maximised when price is set so that the elasticity is exactly one. The good's elasticity can be used to predict the incidence (or "burden") of a tax on that good. Various research methods are used to determine price elasticity, including test markets, analysis of historical sales data and conjoint analysis.
Definition
The variation in demand in response to a variation in price is called price elasticity of demand. It may also be defined as the ratio of the percentage change in quantity demanded to the percentage change in price of particular commodity. The formula
for the coefficient of price elasticity of demand for a good is:
where is the price of the good demanded, is how much it changed, is the quantity of the good demanded, and is how much it changed. In other words, we can say that the price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in demand for a commodity due to a given percentage change in the price. If the quantity demanded falls 20 tons from an initial 200 tons after the price rises $5 from an initial price of $100, then the quantity demanded has fallen 10% and the price has risen 5%, so the elasticity is (−10%)/(+5%) = −2.
The price elasticity of demand is ordinarily negative because quantity demanded falls when price rises, as described by the "law of demand". Two rare classes of goods which have elasticity greater than 0 (consumers buy more if the price is higher) are Veblen and Giffen goods. Since the price elasticity of demand is negative for the vast majority of goods and services (unlike most other elasticities, which take both positive and negative values depending on the good), economists often leave off the word "negative" or the minus sign and refer to the price elasticity of demand as a positive value (i.e., in absolute value terms). They will say "Yachts have an elasticity of two" meaning the elasticity is −2. This is a common source of confusion for students.
Depending on its elasticity, a good is said to have
elastic demand (> 1),
inelastic demand (< 1), or
unitary elastic demand (= 1). If demand is elastic, the quantity demanded is very sensitive to price, e.g. when a 1% rise in price generates a 10% decrease in quantity. If demand is inelastic, the good's demand is relatively insensitive to price, with quantity changing less than price. If demand is unitary elastic, the quantity falls by exactly the percentage that the price rises. Two important special cases are perfectly elastic demand (= ∞), where even a small rise in price reduces the quantity demanded to zero; and perfectly inelastic demand (= 0), where a rise in price leaves the quantity unchanged.
The above measure of elasticity is sometimes referred to as the own-price elasticity of demand for a good, i.e., the elasticity of demand with respect to the good's own price, in order to distinguish it from the elasticity of demand for that good with respect to the change in the price of some other good, i.e., an independent, complementary, or substitute good. That two-good type of elasticity is called a cross-price elasticity of demand. If a 1% rise in the price of gasoline causes a 0.5% fall in the quantity of cars demanded, the cross-price elasticity is
As the size of the price change gets bigger, the elasticity definition becomes less reliable for a combination of two reasons. First, a good's elasticity is not necessarily constant; it varies at different points along the demand curve because a 1% change in price has a quantity effect that may depend on whether the initial price is high or low. Contrary to common misconception, the price elasticity is not constant even along a linear demand curve, but rather varies along the curve. A linear demand curve's slope is constant, to be sure, but the elasticity can change even if is constant. There does exist a nonlinear shape of demand curve along which the elasticity is constant: , where is a shift constant and is the elasticity.
Second, percentage changes are not symmetric; instead, the percentage change between any two values depends on which one is chosen as the starting value and which as the ending value. For example, suppose that when the price rises from $10 to $16, the quantity falls from 100 units to 80. This is a price increase of 60% and a quantity decline of 20%, an elasticity of for that part of the demand curve. If the price falls from $16 to $10 and the quantity rises from 80 units to 100, however, the price decline is 37.5% and the quantity gain is 25%, an elasticity of for the same part of the curve. This is an example of the index number problem.
Two refinements of the definition of elasticity are used to deal with these shortcomings of the basic elasticity formula: arc elasticity and point elasticity.
Arc elasticity
Arc elasticity was introduced very early on by Hugh Dalton. It is very similar to an ordinary elasticity problem, but it adds in the index number problem. Arc Elasticity is a second solution to the asymmetry problem of having an elasticity dependent on which of the two given points on a demand curve is chosen as the "original" point will and which as the "new" one is to compute the percentage change in P and Q relative to the average of the two prices and the average of the two quantities, rather than just the change relative to one point or the other. Loosely speaking, this gives an "average" elasticity for the section of the actual demand curve—i.e., the arc of the curve—between the two points. As a result, this measure is known as the arc elasticity, in this case with respect to the price of the good. The arc elasticity is defined mathematically as:
This method for computing the price elasticity is also known as the "midpoints formula", because the average price and average quantity are the coordinates of the midpoint of the straight line between the two given points. This formula is an application of the midpoint method. However, because this formula implicitly assumes the section of the demand curve between those points is linear, the greater the curvature of the actual demand curve is over that range, the worse this approximation of its elasticity will be.
Point elasticity
The point elasticity of demand method is used to determine change in demand within the same demand curve, basically a very small amount of change in demand is measured through point elasticity. One way to avoid the accuracy problem described above is to minimize the difference between the starting and ending prices and quantities. This is the approach taken in the definition of point elasticity, which uses differential calculus to calculate the elasticity for an infinitesimal change in price and quantity at any given point on the demand curve:
In other words, it is equal to the absolute value of the first derivative of quantity with respect to price multiplied by the point's price (P) divided by its quantity (Qd). However, the point elasticity can be computed only if the formula for the demand function, , is known so its derivative with respect to price, , can be determined.
In terms of partial-differential calculus, point elasticity of demand can be defined as follows: let be the demand of goods as a function of parameters price and wealth, and let be the demand for good . The elasticity of demand for good with respect to price is
History
Together with the concept of an economic "elasticity" coefficient, Alfred Marshall is credited with defining "elasticity of demand" in Principles of Economics, published in 1890. Alfred Marshall invented price elasticity of demand only four years after he had invented the concept of elasticity. He used Cournot's basic creating of the demand curve to get the equation for price elasticity of demand. He described price elasticity of demand as thus: "And we may say generally:— the elasticity (or responsiveness) of demand in a market is great or small according as the amount demanded increases much or little for a given fall in price, and diminishes much or little for a given rise in price". He reasons this since "the only universal law as to a person's desire for a commodity is that it diminishes ... but this diminution may be slow or rapid. If it is slow... a small fall in price will cause a comparatively large increase in his purchases. But if it is rapid, a small fall in price will cause only a very small increase in his purchases. In the former case... the elasticity of his wants, we may say, is great. In the latter case... the elasticity of his demand is small." Mathematically, the Marshallian PED was based on a point-price definition, using differential calculus to calculate elasticities.
Determinants
The overriding factor in determining the elasticity is the willingness and ability of consumers after a price change to postpone immediate consumption decisions concerning the good and to search for substitutes ("wait and look"). A number of factors can thus affect the elasticity of demand for a good:
Availability of substitute goods The more and closer the substitutes available, the higher the elasticity is likely to be, as people can easily switch from one good to another if an even minor price change is made; There is a strong substitution effect. If no close substitutes are available, the substitution effect will be small and the demand inelastic.
Breadth of definition of a good The broader the definition of a good (or service), the lower the elasticity. For example, Company X's fish and chips would tend to have a relatively high elasticity of demand if a significant number of substitutes are available, whereas food in general would have an extremely low elasticity of demand because no substitutes exist. Specifical foodstuffs (Ice cream, meat, spinach) or families of them (dairy, meat, sea products) may be more elastic.
Percentage of income The higher the percentage of the consumer's income that the product's price represents, the higher the elasticity tends to be, as people will pay more attention when purchasing the good because of its cost; The income effect is substantial. When the goods represent only a negligible portion of the budget the income effect will be insignificant and demand inelastic,
Necessity The more necessary a good is, the lower the elasticity, as people will attempt to buy it no matter the price, such as the case of insulin for those who need it.
Duration For most goods, the longer a price change holds, the higher the elasticity is likely to be, as more and more consumers find they have the time and inclination to search for substitutes. When fuel prices increase suddenly, for instance, consumers may still fill up their empty tanks in the short run, but when prices remain high over several years, more consumers will reduce their demand for fuel by switching to carpooling or public transportation, investing in vehicles with greater fuel economy or taking other measures. This does not hold for consumer durables such as the cars themselves, however; eventually, it may become necessary for consumers to replace their present cars, so one would expect demand to be less elastic.
Brand loyalty An attachment to a certain brand—either out of tradition or because of proprietary barriers—can override sensitivity to price changes, resulting in more inelastic demand.
Who pays Where the purchaser does not directly pay for the good they consume, such as with corporate expense accounts, demand is likely to be more inelastic.
Addictiveness
Goods that are more addictive in nature tend to have an inelastic PED (absolute value of PED < 1). Examples of such include cigarettes, heroin and alcohol. This is because consumers treat such goods as necessities and hence are forced to purchase them, despite even significant price changes.
Relation to marginal revenue
The following equation holds:
where
R′ is the marginal revenue
P is the price
Proof:
Define Total Revenue as R
On a graph with both a demand curve and a marginal revenue curve, demand will be elastic at all quantities where marginal revenue is positive. Demand is unit elastic at the quantity where marginal revenue is zero. Demand is inelastic at every quantity where marginal revenue is negative.
Effect on entire revenue
A firm considering a price change must know what effect the change in price will have on total revenue. Revenue is simply the product of unit price times quantity:
Generally, any change in price will have two effects:
The price effect For inelastic goods, an increase in unit price will tend to increase revenue, while a decrease in price will tend to decrease revenue. (The effect is reversed for elastic goods.)
The quantity effect An increase in unit price will tend to lead to fewer units sold, while a decrease in unit price will tend to lead to more units sold.
For inelastic goods, because of the inverse nature of the relationship between price and quantity demanded (i.e., the law of demand), the two effects affect total revenue in opposite directions. But in determining whether to increase or decrease prices, a firm needs to know what the net effect will be. Elasticity provides the answer: The percentage change in total revenue is approximately equal to the percentage change in quantity demanded plus the percentage change in price. (One change will be positive, the other negative.) The percentage change in quantity is related to the percentage change in price by elasticity: hence the percentage change in revenue can be calculated by knowing the elasticity and the percentage change in price alone.
As a result, the relationship between elasticity and revenue can be described for any good:
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is perfectly inelastic (Ed = 0), changes in the price do not affect the quantity demanded for the good; raising prices will always cause total revenue to increase. Goods necessary to survival can be classified here; a rational person will be willing to pay anything for a good if the alternative is death. For example, a person in the desert weak and dying of thirst would easily give all the money in his wallet, no matter how much, for a bottle of water if he would otherwise die. His demand is not contingent on the price.
When the price elasticity of demand is relatively inelastic (−1 < Ed < 0), the percentage change in quantity demanded is smaller than that in price. Hence, when the price is raised, the total revenue increases, and vice versa.
When the price elasticity of demand is unit (or unitary) elastic (Ed = −1), the percentage change in quantity demanded is equal to that in price, so a change in price will not affect total revenue.
When the price elasticity of demand is relatively elastic (−∞ < Ed < −1), the percentage change in quantity demanded is greater than that in price. Hence, when the price is raised, the total revenue falls, and vice versa.
When the price elasticity of demand is perfectly elastic (Ed is − ∞), any increase in the price, no matter how small, will cause the quantity demanded for the good to drop to zero. Hence, when the price is raised, the total revenue falls to zero. This situation is typical for goods that have their value defined by law (such as fiat currency); if a five-dollar bill were sold for anything more than five dollars, nobody would buy it [unless there is demand for economical jokes], so demand is zero (assuming that the bill does not have a misprint or something else which would cause it to have its own inherent value).
Hence, as the accompanying diagram shows, total revenue is maximized at the combination of price and quantity demanded where the elasticity of demand is unitary.
It is important to realize that price-elasticity of demand is not necessarily constant over all price ranges. The linear demand curve in the accompanying diagram illustrates that changes in price also change the elasticity: the price elasticity is different at every point on the curve.
Effect on tax incidence
Demand elasticity, in combination with the price elasticity of supply can be used to assess where the incidence (or "burden") of a per-unit tax is falling or to predict where it will fall if the tax is imposed. For example, when demand is perfectly inelastic, by definition consumers have no alternative to purchasing the good or service if the price increases, so the quantity demanded would remain constant. Hence, suppliers can increase the price by the full amount of the tax, and the consumer would end up paying the entirety. In the opposite case, when demand is perfectly elastic, by definition consumers have an infinite ability to switch to alternatives if the price increases, so they would stop buying the good or service in question completely—quantity demanded would fall to zero. As a result, firms cannot pass on any part of the tax by raising prices, so they would be forced to pay all of it themselves.
In practice, demand is likely to be only relatively elastic or relatively inelastic, that is, somewhere between the extreme cases of perfect elasticity or inelasticity. More generally, then, the higher the elasticity of demand compared to PES, the heavier the burden on producers; conversely, the more inelastic the demand compared to supply, the heavier the burden on consumers. The general principle is that the party (i.e., consumers or producers) that has fewer opportunities to avoid the tax by switching to alternatives will bear the greater proportion of the tax burden. In the end the whole tax burden is carried by individual households since they are the ultimate owners of the means of production that the firm utilises (see Circular flow of income).
PED and PES can also have an effect on the deadweight loss associated with a tax regime. When PED, PES or both are inelastic, the deadweight loss is lower than a comparable scenario with higher elasticity.
Optimal pricing
Among the most common applications of price elasticity is to determine prices that maximize revenue or profit.
Constant elasticity and optimal pricing
If one point elasticity is used to model demand changes over a finite range of prices, elasticity is implicitly assumed constant with respect to price over the finite price range. The equation defining price elasticity for one product can be rewritten (omitting secondary variables) as a linear equation.
where
is the elasticity, and is a constant.
Similarly, the equations for cross elasticity for products can be written as a set of simultaneous linear equations.
where
and , and are constants; and appearance of a letter index as both an upper index and a lower index in the same term implies summation over that index.
This form of the equations shows that point elasticities assumed constant over a price range cannot determine what prices generate maximum values of ; similarly they cannot predict prices that generate maximum or maximum revenue.
Constant elasticities can predict optimal pricing only by computing point elasticities at several points, to determine the price at which point elasticity equals −1 (or, for multiple products, the set of prices at which the point elasticity matrix is the negative identity matrix).
Non-constant elasticity and optimal pricing
If the definition of price elasticity is extended to yield a quadratic relationship between demand units () and price, then it is possible to compute prices that maximize , , and revenue. The fundamental equation for one product becomes
and the corresponding equation for several products becomes
Excel models are available that compute constant elasticity, and use non-constant elasticity to estimate prices that optimize revenue or profit for one product or several products.
Limitations of revenue-maximizing strategies
In most situations, such as those with nonzero variable costs, revenue-maximizing prices are not profit-maximizing prices. For these situations, using a technique for Profit maximization is more appropriate.
Selected price elasticities
Various research methods are used to calculate the price elasticities in real life, including analysis of historic sales data, both public and private, and use of present-day surveys of customers' preferences to build up test markets capable of modelling such changes. Alternatively, conjoint analysis (a ranking of users' preferences which can then be statistically analysed) may be used. Approximate estimates of price elasticity can be calculated from the income elasticity of demand, under conditions of preference independence. This approach has been empirically validated using bundles of goods (e.g. food, healthcare, education, recreation, etc.).
Though elasticities for most demand schedules vary depending on price, they can be modeled assuming constant elasticity. Using this method, the elasticities for various goods—intended to act as examples of the theory described above—are as follows. For suggestions on why these goods and services may have the elasticity shown, see the above section on determinants of price elasticity.
Cigarettes (US)
−0.3 to −0.6 (general)
−0.6 to −0.7 (youth)
Alcoholic beverages (US)
−0.3 or −0.7 to −0.9 as of 1972 (beer)
−1.0 (wine)
−1.5 (spirits)
Airline travel (US)
−0.3 (first class)
−0.9 (discount)
−1.5 (for pleasure travelers)
Livestock
−0.5 to −0.6 (broiler chickens)
Oil (World)
−0.4
Car fuel
−0.09 (short run)
−0.31 (long run)
−0.085 to −0.13 (non-linear with price change in the short-run for Saudi Arabia in 2013)
Medicine (US)
−0.31 (medical insurance)
−0.03 to −0.06 (pediatric visits)
Patents
−0.30 to −0.50
Rice
−0.47 (Austria)
−0.8 (Bangladesh)
−0.8 (China)
−0.25 (Japan)
−0.55 (US)
Cinema visits (US)
−0.87 (general)
live performing arts (theater, etc.)
−0.4 to −0.9
Transport
−0.20 (bus travel US)
−2.8 (Ford compact automobile)
−0.52 (commuter parking)
Cannabis (US)
−0.655
Soft drinks
−0.8 to −1.0 (general)
−3.8 (Coca-Cola)
−4.4 (Mountain Dew)
Steel
−0.2 to −0.3
Telecommunications
−0.405 (mobile)
−0.434 (broadband)
Eggs
−0.1 (US: household only)
−0.35 (Canada)
−0.55 (South Africa)
Golf
−0.3 to −0.7
University education
near 0
See also
Arc elasticity
Cross elasticity of demand
Income elasticity of demand
Price elasticity of supply
Supply and demand
Notes
References
Working paper on RePEc
Working paper on RePEc
External links
A Lesson on Elasticity in Four Parts, Youtube, Jodi Beggs
Price Elasticity Models and Optimization
Approx. PED of Various Products (U.S.)
Approx. PED of Various Home-Consumed Foods (U.K.)
Elasticity (economics)
Demand
Pricing
|
wiki
|
A weed of cultivation is any plant that is well-adapted to environments in which land is cultivated for growing some other plant.
Many such weeds are quite specialised and can only thrive and reproduce where the ground has been broken by plough or spade. They are invariably annual and reproduction is by seed alone, which can in many species lie dormant for years in the soil until brought to the surface during cultivation. They have fast reproduction cycles, usually in one year from seed to seed, though some species can have more than one generation in one season. A few species such as groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), red deadnettle (Lamium purpureum) and chickweed (Stellaria media) can survive unharmed through very cold weather and are often able to seed even in winter.
See also
Crop weed
References
Weeds
Agronomy
Horticulture
|
wiki
|
L'hippopotamours is a 1976 French film. The plot follows three women who escape from a psychiatric facility and cause mayhem.
References
1976 films
1970s French-language films
|
wiki
|
In the United States, Workamping (a portmanteau word) is a combination of work and camping. A Workamper combines part-time or full-time paid or volunteer work with RV or tent camping. Workampers generally receive compensation in the form of a free campsite, usually with free utilities and additional wages. Workamping positions can include working at campgrounds, RV resorts, mobile home communities, Christmas tree or pumpkin sales lots, amusement parks, motels/hotels, national parks, state parks, U.S. Army Corps of Engineer locations, national monuments, lighthouses, retail stores, food service, sales and more. Workamping is particularly popular among retirees. While year round Workamping jobs do exist, many Workamping positions are seasonal.
See also
Fulltiming
Housetrucker
Perpetual traveler
References
External links
Bureau of Land Management
Forest Service Volunteers Page
Volunteer.gov
Camping in the United States
|
wiki
|
Käsekrainer is a type of lightly smoked Brühwurst containing roughly torn bits of pork and 10% to 20% cheese (for example Emmentaler) cut into small cubes. They are sold all over Austria at Würstelstand outlets.<ref>Fast Food: Echt fett. Was ist "gesünder"? Burger, Burenwurst, Kebab oder Käsekrainer?, Profil #38/2007, p. 118.</ref> It is a variety of Carniolan sausage. Käsekrainer was invented by two people from Upper Austria, chef Herbert Schuch from Buchkirchen and Franz Thalhammer in the late 1960s.
Preparation and variants
Käsekrainer can be cooked, roasted or grilled.
The original Käsekrainer is served with mustard and freshly cut horseradish, other varieties with mustard and ketchup, optionally sprinkled with curry powder.
A popular dish is the Käsekrainer hot dog, where a Käsekrainer is served in a hollow piece of white bread with mustard and/or ketchup. The Käsekrainer Bosna sandwich, resembling a sandwich, is known as a "Kafka" in the Linz area.
Käsekrainer should not be confused with the Berner sausage, a Vienna sausage (Austrian: Frankfurter) cut lengthways, filled with Emmentaler cheese and wrapped in roast bacon.
Controversy about name
In April 2012 Slovenia announced it would seek to have the product name "Krainer" (after Krain, the German name for the Slovenian area of Carniola) to be protected by the EU. This would have caused this Austrian sausage to be renamed. On 15 June 2012 Austria and Slovenia reached a compromise. Slovenia could have the term "Kranjska Klobasa" protected by the EU. The same sausages could still be called "Krainer Wurst" or "Käsekrainer" in Austria.
Use in the Viennese dialect
In Vienna, where Käsekrainer is a very popular dish, according to urban legend, it is customary to give an order at a Würstelstand outlet as: "a Eitrige mit an Schoafn, an Bugel und an 16er-Blech" (Viennese dialect German for: "a Käsekrainer with strong mustard, a bread loaf edge and a glass of Ottakringer beer"), where the use of this phrase, in reality uncommon in actual Viennese parlance, inspired by its frequent utterance in tourist guides and television as the typical Viennese expression, can quickly mark its user as an inexperienced tourist.Alois Maria Simcha alias Dr. Seicherl: Heiß und fettig, Evolver. Die Netzzeitung., 25 March 2010. Accessed on 29 August 2012. In modern times, the addition "owa Tschenifer" ("and quickly"), a cacography of the name of the singer Jennifer Rush ("Tschenifer" being the German pronunciation of the name Jennifer, corresponding to the similarity between the surname Rush and the German language word rasch'', meaning "quickly") has appeared.
References
External links
Cooked sausages
Austrian cuisine
|
wiki
|
A unitary state is a sovereign state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority. The central government may create (or abolish) administrative divisions (sub-national units). Such units exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Although political power may be delegated through devolution to regional or local governments by statute, the central government may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail (or expand) their powers.
Unitary states stand in contrast to federations, also known as federal states. A large majority of the world's sovereign states (166 of the 193 UN member states) have a unitary system of government.
Devolution compared with federalism
A unitary system of government can be considered to be the opposite of federalism. In federations, the provincial/regional governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the sub-national units have a right to existence and powers that cannot be unilaterally changed by the central government.
There are, however, similarities between federalism and devolution. Devolution within a unitary state, like federalism, may be symmetrical, with all sub-national units having the same powers and status, or asymmetric, with sub-national units varying in their powers and status. Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy. In such countries, sub-national regions cannot decide their own laws. Examples are Romania, Ireland and Norway.
List of unitary states
Italics: States with limited recognition from other sovereign states or intergovernmental organizations.
Unitary republics
(limited recognition)
Unitary monarchies
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have a degree of autonomous devolved power, but such power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally altering or abolishing devolution.
Similarly in Spain, the devolved powers are delegated through the central government.
Unitary states with a unique form of government
(emirate)
See also
Centralized government
Constitutional economics
Political economy
Regional state
Rule according to higher law
Unicameralism
Unitary authority
References
External links
Unitary state at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Constitutional state types
Political geography
|
wiki
|
Shikanjvi or Shikanjabeen is a lemon-based drink originating in the northern part of India and Pakistan. Alternative names include shikanji, shikanjbi and shikanjbeen. Shikanjvi is distinct from lemonade, and often contains other ingredients such as salt, saffron and cumin. It is similar to the Iranian beverage Sekanjabin.
Preparation
An example recipe for making a glass of Shikanjvi:
Ingredients: two lemons (squeezed to make lemon juice), one little chunk of ginger, one or two teaspoons of sugar (raw if possible), half a teaspoon of salt and half a teaspoon of pepper.
Process: Pour cold drinking water in a glass. Add the lemon juice, ginger, sugar, salt and pepper. Shake it vigorously. This is a traditional recipe; however, people can experiment using mint leaves, rose water, etc.
See also
List of Indian drinks
List of lemonade topics
List of lemon dishes and beverages
Lemonade
Limeade
Banta
References
Non-alcoholic drinks
Pakistani drinks
Indian drinks
Lemonade
|
wiki
|
Immediately upon arrival, in legal usage, is a phrase appearing in directions to a factor to sell goods: as soon after arrival as a sale can be made, irrespective of loss, the factor being precluded from exercising his discretion. See, e.g., Courcier v Ritter (CC Pa) F Cas No 3282.
Legal terminology
|
wiki
|
Mohnyin Tjin, ( ; also Mon Nyin Jin, Mohn-hnyin Gyin) is a popular Burmese cuisine fermented food dish of vegetables preserved in rice wine and various seasonings. It is similar to Korean Kimchi and Japanese Takana Tsukemono. Mohnyin Tjin is popularly associated with the Shan and is a ubiquitous condiment for Shan dishes such as meeshay and shan khauk swè.
Mohnnyin tjin is refers to a wide number of pickled and fermented vegetables. The name means "sour mustard green" and pickled white radish leaves are also used in the most common version.
Generically 'a-chin' (pickle) can be made from almost any vegetable.
Main Ingredients
The most common form of mohnyin tjin is actually a mix of mainly white radish leaves, with mustard greens, carrots, leek bulbs, ginger and Garlic chives. These vegetables are pickled in glutinous rice, rice wine, fresh crushed chillis, spices and cane sugar.
The variety is achieved by substituting the vegetables. Other popular 'a-chin' are made with baby elephant garlic, white radish stems, garlic chives, cabbage, cauliflower, chili pepper, bean sprouts, unripe mangoes and bamboo shoots.
See also
External links
Shan Pickle - EatingAsia recipe
Burmese cuisine
Pickles
Plant-based fermented foods
|
wiki
|
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest-ranking judicial body in the United States. Its membership, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869, consists of the chief justice of the United States and eight associate justices, any six of whom constitute a quorum. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants plenary power to the President of the United States to nominate, and with the advice and consent of the United States Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court; justices have life tenure.
Background
The Supreme Court was created by Article III of the United States Constitution, which stipulates that the "judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court," and was organized by the 1st United States Congress. Through the Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress specified the Court's original and appellate jurisdiction, created thirteen judicial districts, and fixed the number of justices at six (one chief justice and five associate justices).
Since 1789, Congress has occasionally altered the size of the Supreme Court, historically in response to the country's own expansion in size. An 1801 act would have decreased the Court's size to five members upon its next vacancy. However, an 1802 act negated the effects of the 1801 act upon the Court before any such vacancy occurred, maintaining the Court's size at six members. Later legislation increased its size to seven members in 1807, to nine in 1837, and to ten in 1863. An 1866 act was to have reduced the Court's size from ten members to seven upon its next three vacancies, and two vacancies did occur during this period. However, before a third vacancy occurred, the Judiciary Act of 1869 intervened, restoring the Court's size to nine members, where it has remained ever since.
While the justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, many have retired or resigned. Beginning in the early 20th century, many justices who left the Court voluntarily did so by retiring from the Court without leaving the federal judiciary altogether. A retired justice, according to the United States Code, is no longer a member of the Supreme Court, but remains eligible to serve by designation as a judge of a U.S. Court of Appeals or District Court, and many retired justices have served in these capacities. Historically, the average length of service on the Court has been less than 15 years. However, since 1970 the average length of service has increased to about 26 years.
List of justices
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 116 people have served on the Court. The length of service on the Court for the 106 non-incumbent justices ranges from William O. Douglas's to John Rutledge's as associate justice and, separated by a period of years off the Court, his as chief justice. As of , the length of service for the nine incumbent justices ranges from Clarence Thomas's to Ketanji Brown Jackson's . Five individuals, who were confirmed for associate justice, were later appointed chief justice separately: John Rutledge, Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan F. Stone and William Rehnquist. While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:
Notes
Timeline of justices
This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the U.S. Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice's predecessors, successors, and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court, can be gleaned (and comparisons between justices drawn) from it. There are no formal names or numbers for the individual seats of the associate justices, which are listed in the table below simply by number. Additionally, the progression of U.S. presidents is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context.
See also
Law of the United States
List of courts of the United States
List of supreme courts by country
References
External links
Biographies of Justices
Visual Overview of US Supreme Court Justices 1789–2019
Articles which contain graphical timelines
United States
|
wiki
|
Una nuova visione del mondo è l'EP che segna la svolta solista di Tormento, dopo la fine dell'esperienza con i Sottotono.
Tracce
|
wiki
|
Mustrak (în ) este un sat în comuna Svilengrad, regiunea Haskovo, Bulgaria.
Demografie
La recensământul din 2011, populația satului Mustrak era de locuitori. Din punct de vedere etnic, majoritatea locuitorilor (%) erau bulgari, existând și minorități de turci (%) și romi (%). Pentru % din locuitori nu este cunoscută apartenența etnică.
Note
Sate din regiunea Haskovo
|
wiki
|
Bulbophyllum nigriflorum é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie em 1937.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1937
Bulbophyllum
|
wiki
|
Tomme Vaudoise is a Swiss soft cheese from the French part of Switzerland. It is a soft, unpasteurised cows' milk cheese from the cantons of Vaud and Geneva.
See also
Culinary Heritage of Switzerland
List of Swiss cheeses
References
External links
http://culturecheesemag.com/cheese-library/tomme-vaudoise
Swiss cheeses
Canton of Vaud
Cow's-milk cheeses
Culinary Heritage of Switzerland
|
wiki
|
Regal Theater or Regal Theatre may refer to:
Regal Theater, Chicago
New Regal Theater, Chicago
Regal Theatre, New Delhi, India
Regal Theatre, Perth, Western Australia
Regal Theatre, Adelaide, South Australia
See also
Regal Entertainment Group
Regal Cinema (disambiguation)
Regal (disambiguation)
|
wiki
|
Bulbophyllum nodosum é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Robert Allen Rolfe e Johannes Jacobus Smith em 1912.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1912
Bulbophyllum
|
wiki
|
Hasib may refer to:
Hasib (name)
Names of God in Islam
Names of God in Islam
|
wiki
|
Amazon wild rice refers to either of the two native (endemic) species of rice (Oryza) found in the Amazon region of South America and adjacent tropical areas, Oryza glumaepatula and Oryza latifolia. It also can refer to the cultivated form Oryza sp. (unnamed rice species) which was domesticated from one or both of the wild forms some 4,000 years ago by the indigenous people of the Amazon region.
References
A
Crops originating from South America
Grasses of South America
Tropical agriculture
|
wiki
|
Footi is a vegetable and tomato sauce from Senegal (Senegalese cuisine). It is also eaten in Guinean cuisine.
References
Senegalese cuisine
|
wiki
|
Scott Michael "Scotty" Kilmer is an American YouTuber, author, and auto mechanic. His self-titled YouTube channel, Scotty Kilmer, has over 5 million subscribers and his videos have over 2 billion views.
Early life
Scotty Kilmer was born on October 2, 1953 in Niagara Falls, New York. At age 14, he learned to be a mechanic from his grandfather, Elmer Kilmer, who was the chief mechanic at the Texaco gas station which Scotty's father owned. He studied at York University for his undergraduate degree and then attended the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, receiving a master's degree in anthropology. He was in the process of working towards his Ph.D., but eventually quit due to his dissatisfaction with the university tenure system. Kilmer would then go on to become a mechanic and move to Houston in 1980. Upon the suggestion of his wife, Kilmer wrote a book, Everyone's Guide to Buying a Used Car and Car Maintenance, originally published in 1994. Its release led Kilmer to be on the front page of the Houston Chronicle, which attracted the attention of the local CBS affiliate KHOU.
Career
Before YouTube, Kilmer had a television show on KHOU titled Crank it Up with Scotty. In this series, he showed the audience how to diagnose minor automotive mechanical problems, offered opinions on vehicle engineering, and provided solutions to low-profile problems. In 2004, Crank It Up earned a Regional Emmy Award for "Outstanding Interactivity"; Kilmer subsequently received an Emmy for "Best Interactive Car Talk Host." His YouTube channel is much the same, and he answers questions about car problems and the vehicle industry, and gives advice. Kilmer typically uses his customers' cars in his videos as a point of comparison or other demonstrations with various products he uses as a mechanic.
Publications
References
Living people
American YouTubers
1953 births
YouTube channels launched in 2007
DIY YouTubers
|
wiki
|
This is a list of American prime time animated television series which were typically broadcast during prime time. This list does not include animated short films and videos that were shown on television variety shows, such as "The Ambiguously Gay Duo" on Saturday Night Live and "Dr. N!Godatu" on The Tracey Ullman Show. However, the fact The Simpsons originated as part of the latter show is noted.
Pre-1990
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
References
External links
A Look at The Simpsons' Failed Prime Time Cartoon Competitors
'The Simpsons' and the Birth of the Modern Animated TV Comedy
Animated TV in the 2000s: DVD Resurrection, Adult Swim, and the MacFarlane Empire
Animation-related lists
Lists of animated television series
|
wiki
|
Zaljev Gonâve, Haiti
Gonâve (otok), otok u zaljevu
Mikroploča Gonâve
|
wiki
|
A mnemonic is a memory aide.
Mnemonic(s) may also refer to:
Mnemonic (assembly language), an operation code mnemonic used in assembly language programming
Mnemonic (band), a rock band currently based in London, UK
Mnemonic (company), a Norwegian IT security company
Mnemonics (keyboard), the use of underlined characters in software user interfaces
Mnemonic (play), a 1999 play created by Complicite
"Mnemonics" (short story), a 1951 short story written by Kurt Vonnegut
See also
"Johnny Mnemonic", a 1981 short story by William Gibson
Johnny Mnemonic (film), a 1995 cyberpunk film adapted from the short story
|
wiki
|
Toothfriendly International is a non-profit association which was established in 1989 in Basel, Switzerland. The purpose of the association is to advance oral health, particularly through preventive measures which include regular oral hygiene (toothbrushing with a fluoridated toothpaste), appropriate dietary habits (avoidance of frequent intake of sugary foods) and regular check-ups by a dentist. It is governed by an executive board of dental professionals.
Since 1989, Toothfriendly International grants the rights for the Toothfriendly quality mark. The Toothfriendly label distinguishes products that are demonstrably not harmful for teeth. The association has national groups in Switzerland, Germany, Turkey, Japan, Korea and Thailand.
The members of the organization are dental professionals, dental and public health institutions, confectionery and oral care manufacturers.
References
External links
Toothfriendly.org
Dentistry
Confectionery
Medical and health organisations based in Switzerland
Dental organizations
Organizations established in 1989
Consumer symbols
|
wiki
|
Block floating point (BFP) is a method used to provide an arithmetic approaching floating point while using a fixed-point processor. BFP assigns a group of significands (the non-exponent part of the floating-point number) to a single exponent, rather than single significand being assigned its own exponent. BFP can be advantageous to limit space use in hardware to perform the same functions as floating-point algorithms, by reusing the exponent; some operations over multiple values between blocks can also be done with a reduced amount of computation.
The common exponent is found by data with the largest amplitude in the block. To find the value of the exponent, the number of leading zeros must be found (count leading zeros). For this to be done, the number of left shifts needed for the data must be normalized to the dynamic range of the processor used. Some processors have means to find this out themselves, such as exponent detection and normalization instructions.
Block floating-point algorithms were extensively studied by James Hardy Wilkinson.
BFP can be recreated in software for smaller performance gains.
See also
Binary scaling
Fast Fourier transform (FFT)
Digital signal processor (DSP)
References
Further reading
Floating point
Computer arithmetic
|
wiki
|
Western Uttar Pradesh is a region in India that comprises the western districts of Uttar Pradesh state, including the areas of Rohilkhand and those where Khariboli, Braj and Kannauji are spoken. The region has some demographic, economic and cultural patterns that are distinct from other parts of Uttar Pradesh, and more closely resemble those of Haryana and Rajasthan states. Western Uttar Pradesh has experienced rapid economic growth, in a fashion similar to Haryana and Punjab, due to the successes of the Green Revolution. A significant part of western Uttar Pradesh is a part of National Capital Region of India. The largest city of the region is Ghaziabad, while the second-largest city, Agra, is a major tourist destination.
Demographics
The population of Western Uttar Pradesh is composed of a varied set of communities and tribes, including Jats, Rajputs, Kayasthas, Tyagis, Ahirs, Brahmins, Kachhi, Kahar, Gadaria, Kumhar, Bania, Khatik, Lodha, Valmikis, Nai, Gurjars, Jatav, Kurmis and Rohilla Pashtuns. Brahmins, including Tyagis, constitute 17% of the population. Generally a myth is propagated that West UP has a Jat majority; in reality Jats are a small community in Western Uttar Pradesh outnumbered by other communities.
The unique setup of Western UP arises largely from the dominance of intermediate castes engaged in agriculture like the Brahmins with Tyagis, Jats (7%), Yadavs, Gurjars, Gadariyas and Rajputs , the region in 1980s and 1990s was witness to the sugarcane mafia led by the above mentioned communities. Yadavs have very small presence in this region.
As per 2011 Census, the total population of Western Uttar Pradesh is 71,217,132, out of which 72.29% is Hindu and 26.21% is Muslim. The population in Khariboli region is 29,669,035, (Hindu 59.19% and Muslim 39.17%) and the population of Braj region is 29,754,755 (Hindu 82.78% and Muslim 16%). Muslim population share in eight districts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor, Moradabad, Rampur, Jyotiba Phule Nagar, Meerut and Bareilly has increased from 29.93% in 1951 to 40.43% in 2011. This has been point of contention in politics with demands for population control bill being raised from Hindu groups.
The percentage of Muslims in Western Uttar Pradesh (~26%) is higher than the whole state of Uttar Pradesh(where it is 19.3%). Out of 77 assembly seats in this region, Muslim candidates won 26 seats in the 2012 assembly elections. Several communities are bi-religious.
The region's Rohillas are descended from immigrant groups from centuries ago, and a large subregion of Western Uttar Pradesh, Rohilkhand, takes its name from that Pashtun tribe.
Sikhs from West Punjab, who came from Pakistan after partition, also migrated to the area in large numbers.
Western Uttar Pradesh has gained notoriety for accounting for 30 per cent of the total honor killings in the country, according to a survey done by AIDWA.
Geography
Western Uttar Pradesh shares borders with the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, as well as a brief international border with Nepal in Pilibhit district. Major cities and towns include Baghpat, Bareilly, Badaun, Agra, Mathura, Moradabad, Sambhal, Amroha, Ghaziabad, Noida, Bulandshahr, Meerut, Hapur, Saharanpur, Aligarh, Hathras, Kasganj, Muzaffarnagar, Rampur, Shahjahanpur, Etah, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Shamli, Bijnor, Najibabad, Farrukhabad, Etawah and Auraiya.
Soil conditions
Western Uttar Pradesh's soil and relief has marked differences from that of the eastern part of the state. The soil tends to be lighter-textured loam, with some occurrences of sandy soil. Some loess soil is continuously deposited by winds blowing eastwards from Rajasthan's Thar Desert.
Precipitation
Western Uttar Pradesh receives rain through the Indian Monsoon and the Western Disturbances. The Monsoon carries moisture northwards from the Indian Ocean, occurs in late summer and is important to the Kharif or autumn harvest. Western Disturbances, on the other hand, are an extratropical weather phenomenon that carry moisture eastwards from the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. They primarily occur during the winter season and are critically important for the main staple of the region, wheat, which is part of the Rabi or spring harvest.
Administrative divisions
Western Uttar Pradesh includes 30 districts in six divisions:
Meerut division
Saharanpur division
Moradabad division
Bareilly division
Agra division
Aligarh division
Some districts of Kanpur Division
Districts : Meerut, Bulandshahr, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Ghaziabad, Hapur, Baghpat, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Shamli, Moradabad, Bijnor, Rampur, Amroha, Sambhal, Bareilly, Badaun, Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Mathura, Aligarh, Etah, Hathras, Kasganj, Etawah, Auraiya and Farrukhabad.
Demands for statehood
In Uttar Pradesh, "the cultural divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas (easterners) often being clubbed with Biharis." Also, while the green revolution resulted in a rapidly rising standard of living in Western Uttar Pradesh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh (like Bihar) did not benefit to the same extent. These cultural and economic disparities are believed to have fueled the demand for separate statehood in Western Uttar Pradesh. A separate entity would likely become a prosperous smaller state similar to Haryana and Punjab, under greater political control of local ethnic groups.
Some politicians and parties have demanded that Western Uttar Pradesh be granted statehood under the name Harit Pradesh. Braj Pradesh and Pashchim Pradesh are alternative names that have been proposed, because the region incorporates the historic region of Braj and is the western (pashchim in Hindi) part of Uttar Pradesh respectively.
Religious riots
Western Uttar Pradesh has a history of religious riots happening frequently. Many Hindu and Muslim riots happened in Meerut and Muzaffarnagar. Beginning on 27 August 2013, clashes between the Hindu and Muslim communities of the Muzaffarnagar district have claimed 43 lives and injured 93.
A girl from the Hindu Jat community was stalked by a Muslim youth in Kawal village. In retaliation, a Muslim youth named Shahnawaz Qureshi was killed by two brothers of the girl, Sachin Singh and Gaurav Singh. The two brothers were lynched by a Muslim mob when they were trying to escape.
Another major riot in Meerut took place on 22 May 1987, during the Hindu-Muslim riots in Meerut city in Uttar Pradesh state, India, when 19 personnel of the Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC) allegedly rounded up 42 Muslim youth from the Hashimpura mohalla (locality) of the city, took them in truck to the outskirts, near Murad Nagar, in Ghaziabad district, where they were shot and their bodies were dumped in water canals. A few days later dead bodies were found floating in the canals. In May 2000, 16 of the 19 accused surrendered, and were later released on bail, while 3 were already dead. The trial of the case was transferred by the Supreme Court of India in 2002 from Ghaziabad to a Sessions Court at the Tis Hazari complex in Delhi, where it is the oldest pending case.
A Riot broke out in Kanth Village of Moradabad on 27 June 2014, over installation of loud speakers at a religious place, which was objected to by another community. The tension prevailed for over a week accompanied by frequent clashes. Another riot occurred between the Sikh and Muslim communities in Saharanpur over a land dispute, killing three and injuring many people. As much as 13 companies of the Rapid Action Force, the PAC and CRPF were conveyed by the government to take control of the situation after imposing curfew in riot-hit areas of Saharanpur.
Highway connectedness
Major highways running through the region include NH 2, NH 3, NH 11, NH 24, NH 58, NH 73, NH 74, NH 87, NH 91, NH 93, NH 119, NH 235, NH 709A, NH 709B, NH 709AD,
Noida Greater Noida Expressway
Yamuna Expressway
Agra Lucknow Expressway
Eastern Peripheral Expressway
Delhi-Meerut Expressway
Ganga Expressway.
Notable people
Politics and law
S. P. Singh Baghel
Ram Chandra Vikal
Sanjeev Balyan
Shafiqur Rahman Barq
Madan Bhaiya
Vedram Bhati
B. S. Chauhan
Choudhary Virender Singh
Jayant Chaudhary
Santosh Gangwar
Nand Kishor Gurjar
Azam Khan
Suresh Kumar Khanna
Satya Pal Malik
Imran Masood
Mayawati
Iqbal Mehmood
Rajesh Pilot
Surendra Singh Nagar
Malook Nagar
Vedram Bhati
Kadir Rana
Mahesh Sharma
Shrikant Sharma
Ajit Singh
Ch. Charan Singh
Chaudhary Laxmi Narayan Singh
Narain Singh
Prakash Vir Shastri
Hukum Singh
Kalyan Singh
Manish Sisodia
Mahavir Tyagi
Nitin Tyagi
Rajiv Tyagi
K. C. Tyagi
Satyavir Tyagi
Somendra Tomar
Ashok Katariya
Robert Vadra
Kumar Vishwas
Akhilesh Yadav
Akshay Yadav
D. P. Yadav
Dharmendra Yadav
Mulayam Singh Yadav
Ram Gopal Yadav
Shivpal Singh Yadav
Arts and Music
Rati Agnihotri
Vishal Bhardwaj
Bharat Bhushan
Mahima Chaudhry
Priyanka Chopra
Lara Dutta
Arun Govil
Boney Kapoor
Kailash Kher
Dushyant Kumar
Mandakini
Disha Patani
Naseeruddin Shah
Nawazuddin Siddiqui
Chitrangada Singh
Sushant Singh
Parag Tyagi
Roopal Tyagi
Sucharita Tyagi
Rajpal Yadav
Kumar Vishwas
Armed Forces
Rakesh Kumar Singh Bhadauria
Zameer Uddin Shah
Jas Ram Singh
Kushal Pal Singh
Asaram Tyagi
Shashindra Pal Tyagi
Yogendra Singh Yadav
Academics/Research
Shyam Swarup Agarwal
Javed Agrewala
Girjesh Govil
Anu Garg
Abhaya Indrayan
S. C. Jain
Shahid Jameel
Vinod Johri
Amitabh Joshi
Atma Ram
Anil Kumar Tyagi
Akhilesh Kumar Tyagi
Deep Tyagi
Yogesh Kumar Tyagi
Sports
Rahul Chaudhari
Dharampal Singh Gudha
Saurabh Chaudhary
Piyush Chawla
Kavita Devi
Bhuvneshwar Kumar
Praveen Kumar
Nishu Kumar
Satish Kumar
Seema Punia
Suresh Raina
Annu Rani
Sumit Rathi
Varun Singh Bhati
Parvinder Awana
Shahzar Rizvi
Saniya Shaikh
Chandro Tomar
Nitin Tomar
Prakashi Tomar
Harsh Tyagi
Kartik Tyagi
Sudeep Tyagi
References
Regions of Uttar Pradesh
|
wiki
|
Fried sweet potato features in a variety of dishes and cuisines including the popular sweet potato fries, a variation of French fries using sweet potato instead of potato. Fried sweet potatoes are known as patates in Guinean cuisine, where they are more popular than potatoes and more commonly used to make fries.
Recipes for fried sweet potatoes in the United States go back to the nineteenth century. Some suggest parboiling the sweet potatoes before frying, while others call for frying them with sugar.
Goguma twigim is a fried sweet potato dish in Korean cuisine. Kananga phodi-tawa is a dish of lightly battered and fried sweet potato in Indian cuisine.
Nutrition
In comparison to french fries made using potatoes, both contain similar levels of macro-nutrients, calories, carbohydrates, fiber, and fat (before cooking). Sweet potato fries are higher in fiber, calcium, and vitamin A, while potato fries contain more iron, potassium, and vitamin C. When deep fried both will contain very similar levels of fat, but if the sweet potato "fries" have actually been baked they will have much less fat.
See also
Cactus fries
List of sweet potato dishes
Sweet potato pie
Sweet potato soup
Vegetable tempura
References
Deep fried foods
Sweet potatoes
Cuisine of the Southern United States
|
wiki
|
Anne Herbert may refer to:
Anne Herbert (writer) (born 1952)
Anne Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, née Anne Parr, sister to Henry VIII's sixth wife, Katherine Parr, c.1514–1552
Lady Anne Clifford married name Anne Herbert, 1590–1676
|
wiki
|
Autumn Roses may refer to:
Autumn Roses (1931 film), a 1931 Argentine short musical film
Autumn Roses (1943 film), a 1943 Argentine film
|
wiki
|
The following is a list of 2022 box office number-one films in South Korea by week. When the number-one film in gross is not the same as the number-one film in admissions, both are listed.
Highest-grossing films
See also
List of South Korean films of 2022
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema
List of 2021 box office number-one films in South Korea
2022 in South Korea
References
External links
2022
South Korea
2022 in South Korean cinema
|
wiki
|
Le GSG5 est un pistolet mitrailleur allemand, copie du MP5 en .22 Long Rifle et fabriqué par German Sport Guns.
Pistolet-mitrailleur
|
wiki
|
222 (two hundred [and] twenty-two) is the natural number following 221 and preceding 223.
In mathematics
It is a decimal repdigit and a strobogrammatic number (meaning that it looks the same turned upside down on a calculator display). It is one of the numbers whose digit sum in decimal is the same as it is in binary.
222 is a noncototient, meaning that it cannot be written in the form n − φ(n) where φ is Euler's totient function counting the number of values that are smaller than n and relatively prime to it.
There are exactly 222 distinct ways of assigning a meet and join operation to a set of ten unlabelled elements in order to give them the structure of a lattice, and exactly 222 different six-edge polysticks.
References
Integers
|
wiki
|
Death sentence usually refers generally to capital punishment.
It may also refer to:
"Death Sentence" (short story), a 1943 short story by Isaac Asimov
Death Sentence, a 1948 French novella (L'Arrêt du mort) by Maurice Blanchot (translated by Lydia Davis, 1998)
Death Sentence (1968 film), a 1968 Italian film
Death Sentence (1974 film), 1974 television film starring Nick Nolte
Death Sentence (novel), a 1975 novel by Brian Garfield
Death Sentence (2007 film), a 2007 film adaptation of the Brian Garfield novel
Death Sentence (band), a Canadian punk band formed in 1984
Mrityudand or The Death Sentence, a 1997 Indian film
Death Sentence: The True Story of Velma Barfield's Life, Crimes, and Execution, a 1998 non-fiction book by Jerry Bledsoe
Death Sentence: The Decay of Public Language, a 2003 book by Don Watson
Death Sentence (album), a 2014 album from American Christian metal band Those Who Fear
See also
Sentenced to Death (film), a 1989 Hungarian film
Sentence of Death (EP), a 1984 thrash metal record by German band Destruction
Sentence of Death (TV episode), a 1964 British TV episode of the Doctor Who serial The Keys of Marinus
|
wiki
|
A baby bottle, nursing bottle, or feeding bottle is a bottle with a teat (also called a nipple in the US) attached to it, which creates the ability to drink via suckling. It is typically used by infants and young children, or if someone cannot (without difficulty) drink from a cup, for feeding oneself or being fed. It can also be used to feed non-human mammals.
Hard plastic is the most common material used, being transparent, light-weight, and resistant to breakage. Glass bottles have been recommended as being easier to clean, less likely to retain formula residues, and relatively chemically inert. Hybrid bottles using plastic on the outside and glass inside have also been developed. Other materials used for baby bottles include food-grade stainless steel and silicone rubber.
Baby bottles can be used to feed expressed breast milk, infant formula, or pediatric electrolyte solution.
A 2020 review reports that healthy term infants, when breastfeeding or bottle‐feeding, "use similar tongue and jaw movements, can create suction and sequentially use teat compression to obtain milk, with minimal differences in oxygen saturation and SSB patterns" (suck–swallow–breath patterns). Sick or pre-term babies may not be able to breastfeed or take a bottle effectively and may need specialized care.
The design characteristics of the bottle and teat have been found to affect infant feeding and milk intake. Interactions between the infant and the caregiver feeding them affect the infant's milk intake during feeding. Whether the caregiver or the infant controls the feeding appears to affect the infant's ability to learn to self‐regulate their milk intake.
Proper cleaning and sterilization of bottles are recommended to avoid bacterial contamination and illness, particularly in areas where water quality and sanitary conditions are not good.
Design considerations
A typical baby bottle typically has four components: the first is the main container or body of the bottle. A teat, or nipple, is the flexible part of the bottle that the baby will suck from, and contains a hole through which the milk will flow. The collar goes over the nipple and typically screws onto the neck of the bottle, forming a seal. Most, but not all baby bottles will also have a cap or travel cover that goes over the teat to keep it clean and to prevent small spills.
Some bottles may optionally have a disposable liner.
Design concerns for the making of baby bottles often reflect safety or comfort.
A safe baby bottle should not break, should not come apart easily into small or potentially harmful components, should not be made of materials that pose a health risk, and should be easy to clean so as to avoid bacterial contamination and illness.
A bottle should also be comfortable for both caregiver and baby to use. Bottles that are lightweight and easy to hold can be desired by both babies and mothers. A variety of shapes are available. The design of containers, nipples or teats may mimic the shape of the mother's breast. Designers may try to mimic the flow rate of breastfeeding: the baby should be able to get enough nourishment, but at the same time not be overwhelmed or overfed.
Materials
Over time a wide variety of materials have been used for infant feeding vessels (see History). The materials now most commonly used in baby bottle containers are glass and some types of plastics. Food-grade stainless steel and silicone rubber are also used. Each of these four materials—plastic, glass, silicone and stainless steel—has advantages and disadvantages. The standard materials used in teats/nipples are latex rubber and silicone.
A number of countries have regulations about allowable food contact materials. Ideally, the material making up the bottle should react as little as possible with the material in the bottle. No material is completely inert, but glass and stainless steel are relatively neutral materials which tend to remain stable and not interact with foods. The disadvantages of glass are that it tends to be heavy and can break more easily.
Plastics are lightweight and resistant to breaking. Manufacturers find them easy to form into a variety of shapes. A wide variety of plastics have been developed, some of which are not well understood in terms of reactivity. Some plastics have been found to be reactive with fluids such as breast milk and infant formula. Chemicals such as Bisphenol A (BPA) may "leach" from a bottle into the substance it holds. In addition, plastics may be more likely to break down when heated or cooled, for example, when being heated in a microwave or being boiled to sterilize them.
Polycarbonate plastic was frequently used in baby bottles before 2011, and is still used in some countries. Polycarbonates contain Bisphenol A. Since 2008, at least 40 countries have banned the use of plastics containing Bisphenol A in baby bottles due to safety concerns (see Regulation). Bottles made of polycarbonate may be marked as "#7 PC".
Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) have been used as substitutes for BPA. They are structurally similar. Comparisons of BPA, BPS and BPF have found that these chemicals have similar potency and action to BPA and may pose similar dangers in terms of endocrine-disrupting effects.
This has led to criticisms of the chemical industry and for calls to deal with bisphenols in groups, not individually. In 2021, the Canadian government agencies Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) and Health Canada (HC) held consultations with the goal of grouping 343 known BPA analogs and functional alternatives.
Polyethersulfone plastic (PES) does not contain BPA but does include Bisphenol S (BPS). An assessment of a variety of different baby bottles in use in 2016, reported 4 bottles to be of "high concern", 14 bottles to be of "concern"; and only 6 bottles to be of "no concern" These of "no concern" included two polyamide (PA) and two polyethersulfone (PES) bottles, a stainless steel bottle, and one of the 17 polypropylene (PP) bottles tested.
Phthalates, found in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are another area of concern. Referred to as "everywhere chemicals" because they are so common, phthalates make plastic more flexible, and have been used in pacifiers and nipples or teats for bottles.
Phthalates have been banned from use in feeding bottles in the EU. In the USA, there have been repeated calls for the removal of phthalates by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and others. Their use in children's toys and products was somewhat restricted by the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008. Plastics labeled #3 may leach phthalates.
Latex rubber nipples may contain phthalates, so silicone nipples may be recommended instead. Packaging may indicate whether a product is "BPA-free" or "phthalate-free".
Plastics may degrade over time in other ways, There are concerns that small beads of plastic may be released into fluids from some types of plastic bottles. In 2020 researchers reported that infant feeding bottles made out of polypropylene caused microplastics exposure to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day in 48 regions with contemporary preparation procedures. Microplastics release is higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products such as lunchboxes.
In 2022, the first study to examine the presence of plastic polymers in human blood found plastics of multiple types in the blood samples of 17 out of 22 healthy adults tested (nearly 80%).
Medical experts have suggested reducing exposure to microplastics by not shaking plastic bottles or exposing them to high temperatures. Some recommend using alternative materials such as glass, silicone, or stainless steel.
Baby bottle nipples (also called teats) are typically made from either silicone or latex rubber. When used for nipples, silicone is clear, durable, and slightly harder than latex. Natural rubber latex teats are elastic, tear resistant, and may feel softer. Latex can absorb odors, while silicone does not. Latex can break down if exposed to sunlight. Some people have allergies to latex.
Size
Bottles tend to come in standard sizes, often
and .
Smaller bottles may be lighter and easier to hold and are often used with younger, smaller infants. There are concerns that larger bottles may lead to over-feeding, since parents are likely to encourage a baby to "finish" a bottle during a feeding.
The height-to-width ratio of bottles is high (relative to adult cups) because it is needed to ensure the contents flood the teat when used at normal angles; otherwise the baby will drink air. However, if the bottle is too tall, it easily tips. There are asymmetric bottles that ensure the contents flood the teat if the bottle is held at a certain direction.
Shape
The shape of the bottle is related to both ease of use and ease of cleaning (see History). Designers sometimes suggest that naturalistic designs will mean that babies can transition between breast or bottle without issues. Other bottles have been invented with unique shapes designed to speed up the warming and cooling of breast milk, saving time, reducing bacterial growth, and reducing exposure to temperatures that can damage the nutrients in breast milk.
"Anti-colic" bottles have been put forward with the goal of reducing "gassiness" and distress when feeding. Designs often seek to minimize the sucking in of air by the baby while feeding. Some bottles try to minimize the mixing of air into the milk within the bottle. At the same time, it is desirable to avoid creating an internal vacuum as the infant sucks out fluids, since this will make it harder to feed. Designs may rely on the bottle's shape or incorporate different types of "venting".
Some vented bottles, as well as bottles which use a collapsible liner collapses as the formula is drained, have been assessed favorably. They were reported to be comparable to a breastfeeding group in terms of milk intake, sucking patterns, and oxygenation.
A 2012 study comparing two types of vented bottles with anti-vacuum features found no differences in infant growth between randomized groups. "Bottle A", a partial anti-vacuum design, was rated by parents as easier to assemble and clean. Infants fed using "Bottle A" were reported to engage in less "fussing", but no difference were found in "crying" or "colic" or in rates of ear infection.
Health recommendations for the storage and handling of human milk typically focus on preventing the growth of dangerous bacteria, but some research is also being done on nutrition. Experimental studies have shown a degradation of retinol (Vitamin A) and α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) content dependent upon the formation of bubbles in expressed breast milk and in formula. Seven models of bottles were studied, from six companies. Less degradation occurred when using a bottle feeding system designed to minimize the mixing of air with the bottle's contents.
Teat flow rate
Teat characteristics can also have important implications for infant's sucking pattern and milk intake. Milk flow rate is defined as "the rate at which milk moves from the bottle nipple into the infant's mouth during bottle-feeding." Characteristics such as the shape of the nipple and the way it is perforated may impact flow rate and the coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing during feeding.
Unfortunately, categorization and labeling of teats to indicate flow rate is neither standardized nor consistent. There is significant variability between and within brands and models. In one study, nipples labeled "Slow" or "Newborn" (0–3 months) had flow rates ranging from 1.68 mL/min to 15.12 mL/min."The name assigned to the nipple type does not provide clear information to parents attempting to choose a nipple". This may be of extra concern in the case of fragile infants. Specialized teats are available for infants with cleft palate.
Variations and accessories
Bottles may be designed to attach directly to a breast pump for a complete "feeding system" that maximizes the reuse of the components. Such systems include a variety of drinking spouts for when the child is older. This converts the bottle into a sippy cup, a cup with lid and spout for toddlers, which is intermediate between a baby bottle and an open top cup. Bottles that are part of a feeding system may include handles that can be attached. The ring and teat may be replaced by a storage lid.
Accessories for bottles include cleaning brushes, or bottle brushes, sterilizers, and drying racks. Brushes may be specially designed for a specific manufacturer's bottles and teats. Bottle sterilizers use different techniques for sterilization, including ultraviolet light, boiling water, and hot steam.
Bottle warmers warm previously made and refrigerated formula. Coolers designed to fit a specific manufacturer's bottles are available to keep refrigerated formula cold. Special formula powder containers are available to store pre-measured amounts of formula so that caregivers can pre-fill bottles with sterile water and mix in the powder easily. The containers are typically designed to stack together so that multiple pre-measured amounts of formula powder may be transported as a unit.
Institutions can purchase ready-to-feed formula in containers that can be used as baby bottles. The lid screws off and is replaced by a disposable teat when the formula is ready to be used. This avoids storing the formula with the teat and possibly clogging the teat holes when formula is splashed within the bottle and dries.
Use
Cleaning and sterilization
Sterilization is a standard practice to prevent development of bacteria and resulting illness, that is more effective than sanitization. The Australian government and the United Kingdom's National Health Service guidelines recommend sterilization of baby bottles and other equipment either by using a cold water sterilizing solution such as by Milton sterilizing fluid, by steam sterilizing, or by boiling. It is important to clean and sterilize all parts of a bottle including containers, teats, and screw caps.
The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suggests that it may be sufficient to clean bottles with soap and water, in a dishwasher or by hand. This recommendation is based on the assumption that water supplies are clean and sanitation standards are high.
Some states, such as Illinois, continue to recommend sterilization in addition to washing. Alberta, Canada recommends sterilizing bottles until an infant is at least 4 months old.
However, there is evidence that bacteria such as E. coli can thrive in biofilms which form on the interior walls of the bottles. Gentle rinsing is not enough to prevent this. Even in developed areas, contamination continues to be a concern. In 2009 in the United Kingdom, researchers found contamination with Staphylococcus aureus in 4% of the baby bottles that parents reported were ready to fill after cleaning and disinfecting.
In lower-resource settings, risks of exposure to dangerous respiratory and enteric infections are higher.
A study of children admitted to hospital in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, found that 52.1% of the bottles their caregivers considered clean were actually contaminated. This occurred even though caregivers reportedly followed many of the recommended cleaning practices for cleaning and sterilizing bottles. The most common mistake was to boil the bottles for less than the minimum time recommended by WHO.
Research into the preparation of infant formula in South Korea indicates significant levels of contamination can be transmitted through the handling of spoons and other utensils. Spoons, after being touched, were often left in the formula container, allowing bacteria to spread to the formula in the container. C. sakazakii, S. enterica, and S. aureus, all of which are potentially fatal, were able to surviving for weeks in contaminated infant formula.
Understanding how recommendations are interpreted is important: in one study, leaving a bottle in water that had been previously boiled in a kettle was believed to be "boiling" the bottle. Researchers emphasize that health providers need to better educate caregivers; and that practical methods of bottle hygiene need to be suited to use in field settings.
For example, in Peru, easy-to-adopt practices like using a bottle brush and detergent gave greater advantages than difficult-to-achieve procedures like boiling a bottle. WHO (which strongly recommends breastfeeding) notes that in cases where bottle feeding is to occur, much better education is needed on how to use bottles.
Age-appropriate use
Nipples (teats) are typically subdivided by flow rate, with the slowest flow rate recommended for premature infants and infants with feeding difficulties. However, flow rates are not standardised and vary considerably between brands.
The NHS recommends a sippy cup or beaker be introduced by 6 months and the use of bottles discontinued by 1 year. The AAP recommends that the cup be introduced by one year of age and that the use of the bottle by discontinued by 18 months.
The use of bottles is discouraged beyond two years of age by most health organisations as prolonged use can cause tooth decay. Early childhood caries (ECC) is also a concern when considering how long breastfeeding should continue.
Regulation
While infant formula is highly regulated in many countries, baby bottles are not. Only the materials of the teat and bottle itself are specifically regulated in some countries (e.g. British Standards BS 7368:1990 "Specification for babies' elastomeric feeding bottle teats").
In the USA, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates teats and the bottle materials.
In 1985 the FDA restricted allowable levels of nitrosamines (many of which are carcinogens) released from bottle teats. Tests of bottle nipples available in the USA, Singapore, West Germany, England, Japan and Korea suggest that levels of nitrosamines in most rubber baby bottle teats are within recommended standards.
Another chemical that has been regulated is Bisphenol A (BPA), described as an endocrine disruptor in 1991. Ongoing research into the possible effects of BPA at levels of exposure far below the U.S. government's BPA safety standards has led to concerns about the safety of plastics, including baby bottles. A 1999 Consumer Reports study showed that some polycarbonate baby bottles released unsafe amounts of BPA.
Concerns about BPA have been supported by further work.
(Research into the effects of BPA has frequently been hotly contested and controversial and issues have been raised over research biases due to industry funding and conflicts of interest due to close ties between government consultants and BPA manufacturers.) One result has been proposals to change the testing paradigm for assessment of endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
Research and public pressure have led to bans on the use of Bisphenol A in bottles and cups to be used by children. In 2008 Walmart announced that it would stop selling baby bottles and food containers containing BPA.
As of 2017, these were applied in at least 40 countries.
Canada classified BPA as "toxic" in 2008 under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act.
In 2011 use of bisphenol A in baby bottles was forbidden in all EU countries, in China,
in Malaysia, and South Africa.
In July 2012, the FDA stated that BPA would no longer used in baby bottles and sippy cups, in response to a petition from the American Chemistry Council stating that this was now in line with industry practice. Other countries such as Argentina and Brazil followed suit by prohibiting bisphenol A in baby bottles. Korea has extended its BPA ban to include all children's utensils, containers and packaging as of January 2020.
There are calls for increased regulation of BPA in India.
History
Throughout most of human history, infant nutrition has primarily depended on the availability of the child's mother or a wet nurse to breastfeed the infant. Beliefs and behaviors relating to infant feeding also vary widely across countries, cultures and times. Mothers and caregivers have also sought additional ways to feed children, sometimes referred to as "hand feeding". As early as , Egyptian pottery shows images of women breastfeeding their babies and also using animal horns to feed them.
Containers with hard spouts date to early in recorded time, as evidence by archeological finds (see image). The first vessels known to be used for feeding infants had an opening at one end for filling the bottle, and a second at the other to be put into the baby's mouth.
Examination of the organic residues on ancient ceramic baby bottles shows that they were used as early as to feed babies with animal milk.
Around to the Egyptians developed the ability to blow glass and the Romans blew clear feeding bottles of glass, but these did not obtain long-term popularity. Leather and wood were also used.
By the 1700s infant-feeding vessels such as the feeding-cups, bubby-pots, and sucking-pots were also being made from materials that included pewter, tin, and silver.
In the 19th century, artificial feeding begin to replace wet nursing, and by 1900, wet nursing no longer existed as an organized profession. Changes to the feeding of infants were both socially and technologically driven. With industrialization, more mothers worked outside the home and could less easily breastfeed their children. Technological changes including the design of artificial feeding methods and the preparation of animal milks and other milk substitutes supported a transition to artificial feeding, but with mixed success. Understanding of both nutrition and sanitation lagged behind the introduction of artificial feeding methods, contributing to extremely high infant mortality rates in the Victorian era.
In the United States, the first glass nursing bottle was patented by C.M. Windship in 1841. It was intentionally shaped like the mother's breast. In 1845 the Alexandra Feeder was marketed in England. In Paris, the "Biberon" was introduced by M. Darbo: it was reported to be quite popular in a review from 1851.
As the group American Collectors of Infant Feeders notes, by "the late 1800s a large variety of glass nursing bottles were produced in the United States", and the U.S. Patent Office had issued more than 200 patents for various designs of nursing bottles by the 1940s—designed to lie flat or stand up straight, with openings on their sides or ends, with detachable or permanently attached nipples, etc.
The design of baby bottles and particularly the ease of cleaning them had potentially serious consequences for the health of the children using them. Estimates of infant mortality suggest that 20-30% of infants died in the first year of life during the late Victorian era. During the 1890s, at a time when England's childhood mortality rates (ages 1-5) were declining, infant mortality rates actually rose. A bottle with a long Indian rubber tube ending in a teat remained popular until the 1920s because even very young babies could feed independently. The feeding tubes could be bought separately and were sometimes used with empty whiskey or medicine bottles. Almost impossible to keep clean, this type has been nicknamed the "murder bottle".
Allen and Hanbury introduced a new bottle design with a removable valve and teat on the two ends in 1894, and an improved model, the Allenbury, in 1900. This "banana" bottle was easier to clean. Sometimes referred to as the "hygienic bottle", it helped to improve survival rates. Similar bottles were introduced by other manufacturers and remained popular from the 1900s to the 1950s. Eventually increased understanding of the causes and transmission of disease and improvements in medicine and public health began to reduce infant mortality.
Heat-resistant Pyrex bottles were introduced to the American and British markets at different times. Pyrex bottles were first introduced in the United States by Corning Inc. in 1922. They were offered in three shapes (narrow neck, wide mouth, and flat) and multiple sizes, for a total of ten varieties. By 1925, the product line had been limited to a small subset of the original shapes and sizes.
In the 1950s a upright Pyrex bottle with a narrow neck was introduced. In the 1960s a wide-neck version was finally introduced to the UK market. The design of upright bottles with a wider mouth meant that they could be more easily cleaned, and sterilized in batches.
Soft nipples of various materials were introduced early in the history of feeding (e.g., leather, cork, sponge, dried cow's teat filled with cloth). Many were very difficult to clean and when unsanitary could pose a serious threat to infant health.
Although Elijah Pratt of New York patented the first rubber nipple in 1845, it took until the 20th century before materials and technology improved sufficiently to allow manufacture of a soft nipple that was practical for use. The invention of rubber (1840s) provided a material that was soft. Early black Indian rubber "had a very strong pungent smell", and did not survive repeated exposures to hot water. However, by the early 1900s more pleasing rubber nipples could be manufactured in volume and could withstand the heat of sterilization.
During the 1940s nurse Adda M. Allen filed for multiple patents relating to the design of baby bottles, including the first disposable collapsible liner for a baby bottle.
Her patent was one of many attempts to design a bottle to limit swallowing of air during feeding, and reduce gastric upset and spitting up. A plastic bottle with a disposable liner was eventually tested at George Washington University Hospital and marketed by Playtex.
Innovations such as the introduction of a working check valve in the nipple (to provide unidirectional flow of the liquid food) appeared as early as 1948 in a patent to J.W. Less. This technology was picked up by others including Owens-Illinois Glass, eventually making its way into Gerber and all modern pressure-balancing bottle designs. It is also used for adult drinking cups and various other products requiring fluid flow under vacuum.
The modern business of producing bottles in the developed world is substantial. For 2018, the global baby bottle market was valued at 2.6 billion USD.
In 1999 it was reported that the UK "feeding and sterilising equipment sector ... stands at £49m… [where] [s]ales of feeding bottles account for 39%" or £19.1m of that market.
Controversy
The 2014 summary policy statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) makes no specific mention of bottle feeding, but makes clear that "[b]reastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition", and refers to decisions regarding the supply of infant nutrition as "a public health issue and not only a lifestyle choice… [g]iven the documented short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding". The AAP policy recommends breastfeeding exclusively for six months, continuing it with introduction of complementary foods, with an overall duration of "1 year or longer as mutually desired by mother and infant". The body of the policy statement notes and cites literature indicating that, in addition to the importance of mother's milk, the manner of the food delivery has implications: that "breastfed infants self-regulate intake volume", whereas bottle-fed infants receiving expressed breast milk or formula have "increased bottle emptying, poorer self-regulation, and excessive weight gain in late infancy", and that such early practice of self-regulation correlate with adult patterns of weight gain (ibid.).
The AAP policy notes that "[m]edical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare". The transmission of some viral diseases through breastfeeding is reportedly preventable, e.g., by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurization.
In response to public pressure felt from policies de-emphasizing bottle- and formula-feeding, efforts have arisen to support mothers experiencing physiologic or other difficulties in breastfeeding, and sites include individual views that attempt to weaken the scientific case of the AAP policy; a book of the personal experiences and views of one mother committed to bottle/formula feeding, Bottled Up, by Suzanne Barston, has appeared.
See also
Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative
Breastfeeding promotion
Breastfeeding contraindications
Haberman Feeder
Infant formula
International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes
List of bottle types, brands and companies
References
External links
Bottles
Bottles
Infancy
Infant feeding
|
wiki
|
Lista meczów finałowych US Open w grze podwójnej kobiet.
Mecze finałowe (1889–2022)
Bibliografia
US Open
US Open
|
wiki
|
Celerena vulgaris is een vlinder uit de familie van de spanners (Geometridae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1876 door Butler.
vulgaris
|
wiki
|
A schedule is a time management tool consisting of a list of times at which events are to occur, or an order in which they are to occur.
Schedule may also refer to:
Business and work
Schedule (project management), including activities not related to time such as resource or risk management
Schedule (workplace), means of planning resource schedules for work
Scheduling (production processes), methods of planning for manufacturing purposes
Master production schedule, a plan for individual commodities to produce
Scheduled maintenance, list of routine maintenance activities, usually with point at which they should be performed
Executive Schedule, pay scales within the U.S. government
General Schedule, pay scales within the U.S. government
Transport scheduling, calculation of public transport timetables.
Computing
Scheduling (computing), the assignment of tasks to computing resources. For example: the assignment of processes to machines.
Schedule (computer science), a list of actions from a set of transactions in databases
Key schedule, cryptographic method and setup of code key
Other uses
Instrument Schedule, a listing of show equipment and information such as location and gear plan
Drug schedule, listing drugs into different categories
Schedule of reinforcement, selection of method for training
Integrated Master Schedule, a supplement to Integrated Master Plan with durations, relationships, and links to WBS and SOW
Schedules of concessions in international trade law
See also
Scheduler (disambiguation)
Calendar (disambiguation)
|
wiki
|
A kneeboard is a board ridden in a kneeling stance. Kneeboards are ridden in ocean surf, or while being towed behind a boat on a lake or river.
Background
Kneeboard riders generally wear life jackets or wet suits and catch the wave by paddling and kicking or dipping their hand in the water . Advantages to kneeboarding include an extremely low center of gravity, less wind resistance, the ability to ride higher and farther back in the tubes, and taking off on a steeper part of the wave.
Towed kneeboarding is an offshoot of kneeboard surfing; kneeboard riders compete tricks, and expression session events. Towed kneeboards have a padded deck contoured to the shape of the shins and knees and a strap holds the rider to the board. Towed kneeboarding declined in popularity with the advent of wakeboarding and other modern watersports; however, it still enjoys popularity among water skiers and newer models of the kneeboard are still in production. A kneeboard is a good piece of equipment to start out on for boat-towed sports—the low center of gravity often makes it easier to get up on than a waterski or wakeboard, which both require standing up.
Surf kneeboard innovators include George Greenough, Steve Lis, Peter Crawford and Ron Romanosky. Till Wipperfuerth is one of the actual top performers in kneeboarding, since he became champion of the Tunilake Kneeboard Masters.
Kneeboarding is also a very easy alternative weight boarding
See also
Surfing
Barefoot skiing
Sit-down hydrofoil
References
External links
Towed water sports
Surfing equipment
Kneeling
|
wiki
|
Rhyssomatus lineaticollis, also known by its common name Milkweed stem weevil is a species of weevil whose adults feed on the stems of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca. It is also destructive to the rare and threatened milkweed species Asclepias meadii.
References
Molytinae
Beetles of North America
Beetles described in 1824
|
wiki
|
In economics, economic rent is any payment (in the context of a market transaction) to the owner of a factor of production in excess of the cost needed to bring that factor into production. In classical economics, economic rent is any payment made (including imputed value) or benefit received for non-produced inputs such as location (land) and for assets formed by creating official privilege over natural opportunities (e.g., patents). In the moral economy of neoclassical economics, economic rent includes income gained by labor or state beneficiaries of other "contrived" (assuming the market is natural, and does not come about by state and social contrivance) exclusivity, such as labor guilds and unofficial corruption.
Overview
In the moral economy of the economics tradition broadly, economic rent is opposed to producer surplus, or normal profit, both of which are theorized to involve productive human action. Economic rent is also independent of opportunity cost, unlike economic profit, where opportunity cost is an essential component. Economic rent is viewed as unearned revenue while economic profit is a narrower term describing surplus income earned by choosing between risk-adjusted alternatives. Unlike economic profit, economic rent cannot be theoretically eliminated by competition because any actions the recipient of the income may take such as improving the object to be rented will then change the total income to contract rent. Still, the total income is made up of economic profit (earned) plus economic rent (unearned).
For a produced commodity, economic rent may be due to the legal ownership of a patent (a politically enforced right to the use of a process or ingredient). For education and occupational licensing, it is the knowledge, performance, and ethical standards, as well as the cost of permits and licenses that are collectively controlled as to their number, regardless of the competence and willingness of those who wish to compete on price alone in the area being licensed. In regard to labor, economic rent can be created by the existence of mass education, labor laws, state social reproduction supports, democracy, guilds, and labor unions (e.g., higher pay for some workers, where collective action creates a scarcity of such workers, as opposed to an ideal condition where labor competes with other factors of production on price alone). For most other production, including agriculture and extraction, economic rent is due to a scarcity (uneven distribution) of natural resources (e.g., land, oil, or minerals).
When economic rent is privatized, the recipient of economic rent is referred to as a rentier.
By contrast, in production theory, if there is no exclusivity and there is perfect competition, there are no economic rents, as competition drives prices down to their floor.
Economic rent is different from other unearned and passive income, including contract rent. This distinction has important implications for public revenue and tax policy. As long as there is sufficient accounting profit, governments can collect a portion of economic rent for the purpose of public finance. For example, economic rent can be collected by a government as royalties or extraction fees in the case of resources such as minerals and oil and gas.
Historically, theories of rent have typically applied to rent received by different factor owners within a single economy. Hossein Mahdavy was the first to introduce the concept of "external rent", whereby one economy received rent from other economies.
Definitions
Late 1800s thinkers conceptualized economic rent as "incomes analogous to land rents in the sense of rewarding control over persistently scarce or monopolised assets, rather than labour or sacrifice." Over time, economists shifted their definition of the term. Neoclassical economists defined economic rent as "income in excess of opportunity cost or competitive price."
According to Robert Tollison (1982), economic rents are "excess returns" above the "normal levels" that are generated in competitive markets. More specifically, a rent is "a return in excess of the resource owner's opportunity cost".
Henry George, best known for his proposal for a single tax on land, defines rent as "the part of the produce that accrues to the owners of land (or other natural capabilities) by virtue of ownership" and as "the share of wealth given to landowners because they have an exclusive right to the use of those natural capabilities."
The law professors Lucian Bebchuk and Jesse Fried define the term as "extra returns that firms or individuals obtain due to their positional advantages."
In simple terms, economic rent is an excess where there is no enterprise or costs of production.
Classical rent (land rent)
In political economy, including physiocracy, classical economics, Georgism, and other schools of economic thought, land is recognized as an inelastic factor of production. Land, in this sense, means exclusive access rights to any natural opportunity. Rent is the share paid to freeholders for allowing production on the land they control.
David Ricardo is credited with the first clear and comprehensive analysis of differential land rent and the associated economic relationships (law of rent).
Johann Heinrich von Thünen was influential in developing the spatial analysis of rents, which highlighted the importance of centrality and transport. Simply put, it was density of population, increasing the profitability of commerce and providing for the division and specialization of labor, that commanded higher municipal rents. These high rents determined that land in a central city would not be allocated to farming but be allocated instead to more profitable residential or commercial uses.
Observing that a tax on the unearned rent of land would not distort economic activities, Henry George proposed that publicly collected land rents (land value taxation) should be the primary (or only) source of public revenue, though he also advocated public ownership, taxation, and regulation of natural monopolies and monopolies of scale that cannot be eliminated by regulation.
Neoclassical Paretian rent
Neoclassical economics extends the concept of rent to include factors other than natural resource rents.
"The excess earnings over the amount necessary to keep the factor in its current occupation."
"The difference between what a factor of production is paid and how much it would need to be paid to remain in its current use."
"A return over and above opportunity costs, or the normal return necessary to keep a resource in its current use."
The labeling of this version of rent as "Paretian" may be a misnomer in that Vilfredo Pareto, the economist for whom this kind of rent was named, may or may not have proffered any conceptual formulation of rent.
Monopoly rent
Monopoly rent refers to those economic rents derived from monopolies, which can result from (1) denial of access to an asset or (2) the unique qualities of an asset. Examples of monopoly rent include: rents associated from legally enforced knowledge monopolies derived from intellectual property like patents or copyrights; rents associated with 'de facto' monopolies of companies like Microsoft and Intel who control the underlying standards in an industry or product line (e.g. Microsoft Office); rents associated with 'natural monopolies' of public or private utilities (e.g. telephone, electricity, railways, etc.); and rents associated with network effects of platform technologies controlled by companies like Facebook, Google, or Amazon.
An antitrust probe described Google Play and Apple App Store fees as "monopoly rents".
Labour
The generalization of the concept of rent to include opportunity cost has served to highlight the role of political barriers in creating and privatizing rents. For example, a person seeking to become a member of a medieval guild makes a huge investment in training and education, which has limited potential application outside of that guild. In a competitive market, the wages of a member of the guild would be set so that the expected net return on the investment in training would be just enough to justify making the investment. In a sense, the required investment is a natural barrier to entry, discouraging some would-be members from making the necessary investment in training to enter the competitive market for the services of the guild. This is a natural "free market" self-limiting control on the number of guild members and/or the cost of training necessitated by certification. Some of those who would have opted for a particular guild may decide to join a different guild or occupation.
However, a political restriction on the number of people entering into the competitive market for services of the guild has the effect of raising the return on investments in the guild's training, especially for those already practicing, by creating an artificial scarcity of guild members. To the extent that a constraint on entrants to the guild actually increases the returns to guild members as opposed to ensuring competence, then the practice of limiting entrants to the field is a rent-seeking activity, and the excess return realized by the guild members is economic rent.
The same model explains the high wages in some modern professions that have been able to both obtain legal protection from competition and limit their membership, notably medical doctors, actuaries, and lawyers. In countries where the creation of new universities is limited by legal charter, such as the UK, it also applies to professors. It may also apply to careers that are inherently competitive in the sense that there is a fixed number of slots, such as football league positions, music charts, or urban territory for illegal drug selling. These jobs are characterised by the existence of a small number of rich members of the guild, along with a much larger surrounding of poor people competing against each other under very poor conditions as they "pay their dues" to try to join the guild. (Reference: "Freakonomics: Why do drug dealers live with their Moms?").
Terminology relating to rent
Gross rent Gross rent refers to the rent paid for the services of land and the capital invested on it. It consists of economic rent, interest on capital invested for improvement of land, and reward for the risk taken by the landlord in investing his or her capital.
Scarcity rent Scarcity rent refers to the price paid for the use of homogeneous land when its supply is limited in relation to demand. If all units of land are homogeneous but demand exceeds supply, all land will earn economic rent by virtue of its scarcity.
Differential rent Differential rent refers to the rent that arises owing to differences in fertility of land. The surplus that arises due to difference between the marginal and intra-marginal land is the differential rent. It is generally accrued under conditions of extensive land cultivation. The term was first proposed by David Ricardo.
Contract rent Contract rent refers to rent that is mutually agreed upon between the landowner and the user. It may be equal to the economic rent of the factor.
Information rent Information rent is rent an agent derives from having information not provided to the principal.
See also
Georgism
Ground rent
Land (economics)
List of economics topics
Quasi-rent
Rent-seeking
FIRE economy (finance, insurance and real estate)
Rentier state
Hotelling's rule
Law of rent
Schumpeterian rent
Johann Heinrich von Thünen
Differential and absolute ground rent
Property income
Unearned income
References
Further reading
See also:
External links
Definition of economic rent at Economist.com
The Art of Rent, a series of seminars at Queen Mary University of London.
Rent-Seeking Network Rent-Seeking papers by Behrooz Hassani
Agricultural economic rent
Renting
Public choice theory
Scarcity
|
wiki
|
Episcopal Church may refer to various churches in the Anglican, Methodist and Open Episcopal traditions.
An episcopal church has bishops in its organisational structure (see episcopal polity). Episcopalian is a synonym for Anglican in Scotland, the United States and several other locations.
Anglicanism
Anglican Communion
Episcopal Church (United States) in the United States, Honduras, Taiwan, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, the British Virgin Islands and parts of Europe
Scottish Episcopal Church
Igreja Episcopal Anglicana do Brasil (Brazil)
Iglesia Episcopal de Cuba
Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East
Episcopal Church in the Philippines
Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church
Episcopal Church of the Sudan
Episcopal Church of Taiwan
Continuing Anglican Movement
Anglican Episcopal Church, U.S.
Episcopal Missionary Church, U.S.
Traditional Protestant Episcopal Church, U.S.
Southern Episcopal Church, U.S.
United Episcopal Church of North America, U.S.
Independent Anglican
Free Protestant Episcopal Church, North America
Reformed Episcopal Church, North and South America, Asia, Europe. Now closely associated with some of the Continuing Anglican churches.
Lutheranism
Church of Norway
Methodism
Methodist
African Methodist Episcopal Church, U.S.
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, North America
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, North America
the former Methodist Episcopal Church, now part of the United Methodist Church
Convergence Movement
Charismatic Episcopal Church
Communion of Evangelical Episcopal Churches
Independent Catholic
Independent Catholic (inter-denominational)
Open Episcopal Church
Apostolic Sacramental Church
See also
St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India
Anglicanism
Continuing Anglican movement
Convergence Movement
Church of England
Church of Ireland
Episcopal polity
Lutheranism
Methodism
Roman Catholic Church
Eastern Orthodox Church
Oriental Orthodox Church
Anglican Communion church bodies
Continuing Anglican movement
Ecclesiology
Christian terminology
|
wiki
|
Bulbophyllum quadricaudatum é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Schltr. em 1911.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1911
Bulbophyllum
|
wiki
|
In jurisprudence, procedural defenses are forms of defense challenging the legitimacy of the legal proceeding. A party argues that it should not be held liable for a legal charge or claim brought against them by some legal process, because it has been found such a process is illegitimate. Procedural defenses are built into legal systems as incentives for systems to follow their own rules. In common law jurisdictions the term has applications in both criminal law and civil law. Procedural defenses do not settle questions of guilt or innocence in a criminal proceeding, and are independent of substantive findings for or against a plaintiff or defendant in a civil proceeding. As examples: Defendants might claim there is something about the method of bringing them to be judged, that is unable to result in justice done to someone in their situation. They might claim the process is incompatible with the goals of the justice system.
In the United States, procedural defenses include:
collateral estoppel
denial of a speedy trial
double jeopardy
entrapment
prosecutorial misconduct
selective prosecution
exclusionary rule
facts found by judge rather than jury
denial or neglect of public counsel appointment
no opportunity to impugn witnesses against you
breaches of due process, such as precedent established in Rhode Island v. Innis (1980) or Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
denial of a jury trial in a civil case
Traditional procedural defenses in "equity" in the U.S. and other common law jurisdictions:
laches
estoppel
See also
legal technicality
procedural justice
Criminal defenses
|
wiki
|
Behavior analysis or behavior analytics may refer to:
Applied behavior analysis
Behavior analysis of child development
Behavioral analytics, in business analytics
Behaviorism, where behavior analysis is practiced
Clinical behavior analysis
Licensed behavior analyst
Professional practice of behavior analysis
Quantitative analysis of behavior
User behavior analytics, in cybersecurity
|
wiki
|
General McIntosh may refer to:
James M. McIntosh (1828–1862), Confederate States Army brigadier general
John Baillie McIntosh (1829–1888), Union Army brigadier general
Lachlan McIntosh (1725–1806), Continental Army brigadier general
Robert A. McIntosh (born 1943), U.S. Air Force major general
|
wiki
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.