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A () or () is a traditional Gaelic arts and culture festival. The plural forms are () and (). The term is commonly used referring to Irish dance competitions and, in Scotland, to immersive teaching courses, specialising in traditional music and culture. In Scottish Gaelic, the accent is important because there is a difference of meaning and pronunciation between and — the word means sexual intercourse. History In Ancient Ireland communities placed great importance on local festivals, where Gaels could come together in song, dance, music, theatre and sport. The largest of these was the , the great festival at Tara, which was then the city of Ireland's , or "High King". These feiseanna were a rich opportunity for storytellers to reach a large audience, and often warriors would recount their exploits in combat, clansmen would trace family genealogies, and bards and balladeers would lead the groups in legends, stories, and song. These gatherings eventually gave rise to athletic and sporting competitions, including horse- and chariot-racing, as well as feats of strength and endurance. Modern (Scottish) Over the past thirty years, the movement has rapidly gained momentum across Scotland. The movement came about when a group of parents and other individuals – including Fr Colin MacInnes, Dr Angus MacDonald, Kenna Campbell and Isbhbel T MacDonald – on the Isle of Barra became concerned that local traditions were dying out and that island children were not being taught traditional music in the context of formal education. To address this issue the first was held on the island in 1981. Inspired by the success of this first , many other communities throughout Scotland established similar events. Today there are 47 , each one community-led and tailored to local needs. The modern is an opportunity for individuals to come together to develop skills in the Gaelic arts – song, dance, drama, and traditional music on a wide range of instruments. Commitment to Gaelic language and culture is central to the ethos, with opportunities for the use and transmission of Gaelic language within each a core aspect. Tuition is accessible and fun, but professional and effective. The focus of activity for most is an annual, week-long festival, but increasingly offer a full programme of year-round follow-on classes to ensure sustained provision. The skills taught at are a highly valued aspect of the informal education of young people, as demonstrated by the level of volunteer commitment and parental support in local areas. Most importantly, the experience is valued by the young participants themselves. At national level, the are seen by many as one of the most successful arts initiatives in Scotland. Modern (Irish) Today the has experienced something of a rebirth, both for ethnic Gaels and for enthusiasts of the Gaelic culture in Ireland and Scotland, as well as throughout the world. are generally centred on Irish dancing. When competitors begin to dance in these competitions, they traditionally wear a dance costume decided on by their dance school. When these students reach a competition level decided on by the dance school, they can design or choose a costume of their own. Girls wear ornate dresses with long sleeves and short skirt. The skirt panels are sometimes stiffened with cardboard inserts, but ballet-like "soft-skirts" have become the norm. They usually wear their hair curled, in a wig, in a bun wig or just down. Boys usually wear a dress shirt, tie and/or waistcoat, and dress trousers or a kilt. The most important in Irish Dance are the competitions. There are regional competitions in Eastern and Western Canada, Northeast, Midwest, Southern and Western US, plus locations in Europe (Especially GB and Ireland) and Australia. Regional are open only to dancers from their defined region, and serve as qualifying competitions for National and World . Important National include North American Nationals (NANs), All Irelands, and All Great Britains. The most prestigious competition for top dancers is the (the World Championships), held each Easter Week and in a different city each year. Dance competition Feiseanna are held all over the world, Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, England, Scotland, Wales, all over Europe, South Africa, Australia, the United States and Canada. Feiseanna are held by all the organisations which oversee Irish dance, with most feiseanna being confined to only those dancers who take lessons with a teacher certified by that particular organisation. However, there are a number of organisations (primarily CRN, CLRG (Coimisiun le Rinci Gaelacha), and WIDA along with its affiliated organisations) who organise 'open feisanna', which are open to any dancer regardless of their teacher's organisation (or if they are self-taught). The organisers of 'closed feiseanna' frown upon dancers from their organisation competing at such open competitions, and there are rumours that organisations may sanction competitors/teachers found to participate in such open feiseanna. This, however, has never been confirmed by any organisations, teachers or dancers and could be construed as a way to keep teachers/dancers within one organisation. There are different levels of competition offered at all feiseanna, however the number of levels, and the names of each level vary by country (and even region within that country). Competitions are offered for both solo and team dancing, and are separated based upon the age of the competitors. At some competitions, ceili categories are offered for teams of 4 or 8 dancers, the ceili dances performed must be done so as espoused in the book 'Ar Rince Foirne' which lays down 30 of the traditional Irish ceili dances. Competitions for teams of 2, 3 and 8–16 dancers, called figure dances, may also be offered, choreography for these dances is made up by the teacher and/or dancers themselves, though must adhere to certain rules and parameters, a notable rule for figure dances being that 'any move in which a dancer is thrown across the stage is prohibited'. The commonly competed dances are reel, slip jig, light jig and single jig, in soft shoe, and heavy/treble jig and hornpipe in hard shoe. Treble reels (hard shoe reels) may be offered as 'special dances', as may traditional set dances and special trophy dances in soft and hard shoe in addition to the regular competition. Grade dances are when competitors dance, are judged and are placed in each dance separately. Championships consist of three rounds, an initial soft (reel or slip jig) round and a heavy (heavy/treble jig or hornpipe) round danced by all entrants, the scores from the soft and heavy round are combined, and a percentage (usually circa 50%) of dancers with the highest combined score dance a third round of a modern set dance, the winner is the dancer with the highest combined score across all three rounds. Championships must be judged by a minimum of three judges, preliminary championships in the UK may offer a recall of the heavy dance not danced in the initial heavy round instead of a modern set dance upon recall. Modern set dances are of the teacher and/or dancers own choreography and are danced to a specific set dance chosen from a list compiled by the overseeing organisation. Modern set dances are rarely offered to dance outside of championship competitions, though may occasionally be present as a 'special' competition. Slip jig is only danced by girls, with the exception of male dancers from the CRN organisation. In CLRG affiliated competitions in the US, Canada and Mexico these levels of competition are offered: beginner, advanced beginner, novice, open/prizewinner, preliminary championship, and championship. The names of categories vary by region. In some regions of the USA there are also special categories for adults, to be eligible the adult dancers must not have competed in the standard age-defined competitions for a stipulated amount of time (usually circa 4 years). Some feiseanna in the US also offer a 'first feis' category for the youngest dancers, to give them a more gentle introduction into the world of competitions. In the UK, Europe, Australia and New Zealand almost all of the organisations separate the competitions into beginner (sometimes referred to as novice), primary, intermediate and open levels. In recent years a preliminary championship level has begun to be introduced at many feiseanna, unlike in the US this level is not compulsory, and is an optional level to bridge the gap between placing out of intermediate and entering the open level. Apart from in the younger age groups, the majority of feiseanna in the UK operate only an open championship competition, rather than open grade dances. The most common way for dancers to advance between levels is through winning a dance when there are 6 or more competitors in the competition, although this depends on organisation. However, in many regions a dancer can only win 3 competitions with fewer than 6 dancers before they must move up to the next level. Teachers may also choose to move a dancer up a level. Once a dancer has met the requirements to move up a level they are no longer allowed to compete at the lower level of competition, however in the UK if a dancer in the open level has not placed in the top 5 for a period of more than a year, they may return to the intermediate level of competition. Competition scoring Competitions for each individual dance are scored on a 100-point system, which indicate the subjective opinion of each different judge. Most scores seem to be in the 60–95 point range, and can vary wildly depending upon the judge. However, each competition is judged in its entirety by the same judge(s), so what really matters is the relative placing of each dancer. Placing of dancers For Individual dance competitions, placing is based entirely on a single judges subjective opinion. Ties are common, and can result in slightly skewed final results. For instance, a tie at 2nd place would result in the 4th best dancer receiving 3rd place (1st, 2nd, 2nd, 3rd, instead of 1st, 2nd, 2nd, 4th). Irish Points Preliminary and Open Championship competitions are judged by at least 3 adjudicators (Judges) and at regional, national and world "Oireachtas" competitions, there can be 5 or more. Because of the subjective nature of judging, the varying scales used by each judge, and fact that the scores of 3 dances must be combined to determine overall placing, an additional [Irish Points] method of scoring is used. Each individual adjudicator derives from their own scoring, a final placing. Ties in these placings are discouraged but do happen. Each of the placings from 1st to 50th are assigned an Irish Point Value, which when combined with the other adjudicators, determines final placing. The Irish Points per individually judged place are vaguely logarithmic, in that 1st == 100 points, 2nd == 75, 3rd == 65 etc., until 50th == 1. This gives higher marks by single judges more weight than average marks by more judges. Complete List of Irish Points: 1st 100 11th 41 21st 30 31st 20 41st 10 2nd 75 12th 39 22nd 29 32nd 19 42nd 9 3rd 65 13th 38 23rd 28 33rd 18 43rd 8 4th 60 14th 37 24th 27 34th 17 44th 7 5th 56 15th 36 25th 26 35th 16 45th 6 6th 53 16th 35 26th 25 36th 15 46th 5 7th 50 17th 34 27th 24 37th 14 47th 4 8th 47 18th 33 28th 23 38th 13 48th 3 9th 45 19th 32 29th 22 39th 12 49th 2 10th 43 20th 31 30th 21 40th 11 50th 1 In a 3 judge competition it is almost impossible to Not get first with 2 judges agreeing that 1st place is warranted, since with 200 Irish points, the 3rd judge would need to place a dance 7th or worse to overcome the 25 point bonus between 1st and 2nd. This scoring method helps ensure that a single bad adjudicator does not unfairly ruin the results. At a standard 3 judge Feis competition, a unanimous 1st place score is 300 (100 from each judge). At Regional Oireachtas competitions, there are 5 judges who rate all three dance programs, creating the possibility of a perfect score of 500. At the CLRG World Championship Oireachtas (Oireachtas Rince na Cruinne), there are 7 judges, which means that 700 would be perfect if all 7 judges agree that one dancer performed the best. Most schools in North America, are registered with An Coimisiun le Rince Gaelacha and its subsidiary the Irish Dance Teacher's Association of North America. However WIDA and Rince Tuatha Nua are also present as are CRN. See also Ardfheis, originally the name of the Conradh na Gaeilge Feis, now used of Irish political party conferences Eisteddfod, the Welsh equivalent of a Feis. Fèisean nan Gàidheal, the Scottish Gaelic arts youth tuition festivals. References External links WorldIrishDancer.com Irish dance community & Annual Online Feis North American Feis Commission Feiseanna for dummies : a comprehensive explanation of the basics of feiseanna FeisWorx.com: Popular website for the registration and results of Irish Dancing Feiseanna FeisKeeper A place to register for NAIDF sponsored feiseanna. eFeis.com: Another popular website for the registration of Irish Dancing Feiseanna Feis Productions: a smaller site to register for several US Western Region feiseanna The Pan-Celtic Festival in Ireland The National Mòd (Am Mòd Nàiseanta Rìoghail) in Scotland Goderich Celtic Roots Festival in Canada Feisean nan Gaidheal – Scottish Gaelic Arts Youth Tuition Festivals Feis Locator Feis/Feiseanna throughout the world Irish culture Scottish culture Irish dance Celtic music festivals Folk festivals Celtic festivals	wiki
Four-cross (4X), also called mountain-cross, not to be confused with fourcross, is a relatively new style of mountain bike racing where four bikers race downhill on a prepared, BMX-like track, simply trying to get down first. These bikes are generally either full suspension with 140mm to 160mm of travel, or hardtails, and typically have relatively strong frames. They run a chainguide on front and gears on the back. They have slack head angles, short chainstays and low bottom brackets for good cornering and acceleration. In recent years the tracks raced on have been rougher and less like those used in BMX. Four-cross was added to the UCI Mountain Bike World Cup and the UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships in 2002, replacing dual slalom. It was removed from the World Cup following the 2011 series. A replacement world series, the 4X Pro Tour, was launched in 2012. The four-cross events were removed from the World Championship after the 2021 edition. See also Mountain Biking Cross-country cycling Freeride (mountain biking) Dirt Jumping Trials Downhill Notable riders Dan Atherton Anneke Beerten Melissa Buhl Eric Carter Cédric Gracia Jared Graves Mike King Jill Kintner Brian Lopes Michal Prokop Roger Rinderknecht Joost Wichman External links International Cycling Union (Union Cycliste International) 4X Pro Tour British Cycling - Get into Downhill and 4Cross BBC News Sport Academy 4Cross About.com What Is Four Cross Four-Cross Course Layout UCI World Cup Course Mountain biking	wiki
This is a list of actors who appeared on the American soap opera Loving. Cast Loving	wiki
Doom Patrol may refer to: Doom Patrol, the DC Comics comic book version of the team Doom Patrol (TV series), a TV series based on the DC Comics team "Doom Patrol" (Titans episode), an episode of Titans Doom Patrol (album), an album by Omar Rodríguez-López	wiki
The East German Republic Day Parade of 1974 was a military parade of the National People's Army on Karl-Marx-Allee in East Berlin on 7 October 1974, the GDR's Republic Day, commemorating the 25th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany. This parade was held in the presence of Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev. Gallery See also 25 Jahre DDR - Ehrenparade der NVA - 1974 Nationale Volksarmee parade rehearsal 1974 Public holidays in Germany References Military parades in East Germany 1974 in East Germany October 1974 events in Europe	wiki
Khapsey are cookies or biscuits in Tibetan cuisine that are deep fried and usually made during celebrations such as the Losar (Tibetan New Year) or weddings. Khapseys are fashioned into many different intricate shapes and textures. Some are sprinkled with powdered sugar, while other shapes, such as the donkey ear-shaped khapseys, decorative. See also List of deep fried foods List of Tibetan dishes References Tibetan cuisine Deep fried foods Biscuits	wiki
Dé-si is a sweet dish in Tibetan cuisine made with rice that is cooked in unsalted butter and mixed with raisins, droma (a tuber found in Tibet), dates and nuts. This dish is usually served only on Losar (Tibetan new year). See also List of Tibetan dishes References Tibetan cuisine Rice dishes	wiki
The River o River puede referirse a: «The River», canción de Good Charlotte. «The River», canción de Liam Gallagher. «The River», canción de Joni Mitchell, versionada por Kesha. «River», lado B de «Love Song», sencillo de Sara Bareilles. The River, álbum de Bruce Springsteen. The River, un rascacielos situado en Bangkok. The River, serie de la cadena ABC. The River , película estadounidense de drama de 1984.	wiki
Polycyathus octuplus est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Caryophylliidae. Description et caractéristiques Habitat et répartition Liens externes Notes et références Caryophylliidae	wiki
A book clasp is a leather or metal element attached to the medieval and early modern book covers, used to protect the book from the penetration of dust and light. External links Fasteners Books Locksmithing	wiki
David Caligaris () on 1956 is a retired Greek American professional basketball player. He played college basketball with Northeastern University. He was selected by the Detroit Pistons in the 5th round of the 1978 NBA Draft, 95th overall. He played from 1978 to 1981 for Sporting in Greece. He is considered to be one of the greatest players in Sporting history. He was the third scorer for the Greek championship in the 1978–79 period scoring 649 points and the second scorer in 1979–80 period scoring 727 points. External links Northeastern University Legends Northeastern University Records Northeastern University Hall of Fame Yesterdays Hero Dave Caligaris 1956 births Living people American people of Greek descent Detroit Pistons draft picks Greek men's basketball players Greek Basket League players Northeastern Huskies men's basketball players Sporting basketball players American men's basketball players	wiki
Denumirea de Kralevo se poate referi la una din următoarele localități din Bulgaria: Kralevo, un sat în comuna Stambolovo, regiunea Haskovo; Kralevo, un sat în comuna Tărgoviște, regiunea Tărgoviște.	wiki
A dependent territory, dependent area, or dependency (sometimes referred as an external territory) is a territory that does not possess full political independence or sovereignty as a sovereign state, yet remains politically outside the controlling state's integral area. A dependent territory is commonly distinguished from a country subdivision by being considered not to be a constituent part of a sovereign state. An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper. A dependent territory, conversely, often maintains a great degree of autonomy from its controlling state. Historically, most colonies were considered to be dependent territories. Not all autonomous entities, though, are considered to be dependent territories. Most inhabited, dependent territories have their own ISO 3166 country codes. Some political entities inhabit a special position guaranteed by an international treaty or another agreement, thereby creating a certain level of autonomy (e.g. a difference in immigration rules). Those entities are sometimes considered to be, or are at least grouped with, dependent territories, but are officially considered by their governing states to be an integral part of those states. Such an example is Åland, an autonomous region of Finland. Summary The lists below include the following: Dependent territories Two states in free association, one dependent territory, and one Antarctic claim in the listing for New Zealand One uninhabited territory and two Antarctic claims in the listing for Norway 13 overseas territories (ten autonomous, two used primarily as military bases, and one uninhabited), three Crown dependencies, and one Antarctic claim in the listing for the United Kingdom 13 unincorporated territories (five inhabited and eight uninhabited) and two claimed but uncontrolled territories in the listing for the United States Similar entities Six external territories (three inhabited and three uninhabited) and one Antarctic claim in the listing for Australia Two special administrative regions in the listing for China Two self-governing territories with autonomy in internal affairs in the listing for Denmark One autonomous region governed according to an act and international treaties in the listing for Finland Five autonomous overseas collectivities, one sui generis collectivity, and two uninhabited overseas territories (one of which includes an Antarctic claim) in the listing for France Three constituent countries with autonomy in internal affairs in the listing for the Netherlands One internal territory with limited sovereignty in the listing for Norway Lists of dependent territories This list includes all territories that have not been legally incorporated into their governing state, including several territories that are not on the list of non-self-governing territories of the General Assembly of the United Nations. All claims in Antarctica are listed in italics. New Zealand New Zealand has two self-governing associated states, one dependent territory, and a territorial claim in Antarctica. Norway Norway has one dependent territory and two Antarctic claims. Norway also possesses the inhabited islands of Svalbard where Norwegian sovereignty is limited (see below). United Kingdom The United Kingdom has three "Crown Dependencies", thirteen "Overseas Territories" (ten autonomous, two used primarily as military bases, and one uninhabited), and one Antarctic claim. United States The United States has 13 "unincorporated" dependent territories under its administration and two claimed territories outside its control. The uninhabited Palmyra Atoll is administered similarly to some of these territories, and is usually included on lists of U.S. overseas territories, but it is excluded from this list because it is classified in the U.S. law as an incorporated territory. The U.S. Constitution does not apply in full to the insular areas. Lists of similar entities The following entities are, according to the law of their state, integral parts of the state but exhibit many characteristics of dependent territories. This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. It generally does not include entities with no unique autonomy, such as the overseas regions of France, the BES islands of the Netherlands, Jan Mayen of Norway, and Palmyra Atoll of the United States. Entities with only limited unique autonomy, such as the autonomous regions of Portugal, the Canary Islands and the autonomous cities of Spain, Barbuda of Antigua and Barbuda, Nevis of Saint Kitts and Nevis, Zanzibar of Tanzania, and Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia are also not included. All claims in Antarctica are listed in italics. Australia Australia has six external territories in its administration and one Antarctic claim. Although all territories of Australia are considered to be fully integrated in its federal system, and the official status of an external territory does not differ largely from that of a mainland territory (except in regards to immigration law), debate remains as to whether the external territories are integral parts of Australia, due to their not being part of Australia in 1901, when its constituent states federated (with the exception of the Coral Sea Islands, which was a part of Queensland). Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 to 2016. The external territories are often grouped separately from Australia proper for statistical purposes. China The People's Republic of China (PRC) has two special administrative regions (SARs) that are governed according to the constitution and respective basic laws. The SARs greatly differ from mainland China in administrative, economic, legislative and judicial terms, including by currency, left-hand versus right-hand traffic, official languages and immigration control. Although the PRC does claim sovereignty over Taiwan (governed by the Republic of China), it is not listed here as the PRC government does not have de facto control of the territory. Denmark The Kingdom of Denmark contains two autonomous territories with their own governments and legislatures, and input into foreign affairs. Finland Finland has one autonomous region that is also subject to international treaties. France France has overseas six autonomous collectivities and two uninhabited territories (one of which includes an Antarctic claim). This does not include its "standard" overseas regions (which are also overseas departments) of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion. Although also located overseas, they have the same status as the regions of metropolitan France. Nonetheless, all of France's overseas territory is considered an integral part of the French Republic. Netherlands The Kingdom of the Netherlands comprises three autonomous "constituent countries" in the Caribbean (listed below) and one constituent country, the Netherlands, with most of its area in Europe but also encompassing three overseas Caribbean municipalities—Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba. (Those three Caribbean municipalities are excluded here because they are directly administered by the Government of the Netherlands.) All Kingdom citizens share the same nationality and are thus citizens of the European Union, but only the European portion of the Netherlands is part of the territory of the Union, the Customs Union and the Eurozone (overseas countries and territory status). Norway Norway has, in the Arctic, one inhabited archipelago with restrictions placed on Norwegian sovereignty — Svalbard. Unlike the country's dependent territory (Bouvet Island) and Antarctic claims (see above), Svalbard is a part of the Kingdom of Norway. Description Three Crown Dependencies are in a form of association with the United Kingdom. They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government. They do not have diplomatic recognition as independent states, but neither are they integrated into the U.K. The U.K. Parliament retains the ability to legislate for the crown dependencies even without the agreement of their legislatures. No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament. Although they are British Overseas Territories, Bermuda and Gibraltar have similar relationships to the U.K. as do the Crown Dependencies. While Britain is officially responsible for their defense and international representation, these jurisdictions maintain their own militaries and have been granted limited diplomatic powers, in addition to having internal self-government. New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm. The Cook Islands and Niue are officially termed associated states. Puerto Rico (since 1952) and the Northern Mariana Islands (since 1986) are non-independent states freely associated with the United States. The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976. The covenant was fully implemented on November 3, 1986, under Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified CNMI residents. Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described as a Commonwealth and Puerto Ricans have a degree of administrative autonomy similar to that of a citizen of a U.S. state. Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917, as a result of the Jones-Shafroth Act. The commonly used name in Spanish of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico", which sounds similar to "free association" particularly when loosely used in Spanish, is sometimes erroneously interpreted to mean that Puerto Rico's relationship with United States is based on a Compact of Free Association and at other times is erroneously held to mean that Puerto Rico's relationship with United States is based on an Interstate compact. This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States. For various reasons Puerto Rico's political status differs from that of the Pacific Islands that entered into Compacts of Free Association with the United States. As sovereign states, these islands have the full right to conduct their foreign relations, while the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has territorial status subject to United States congressional authority under the Constitution's Territory Clause, "to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory… belonging to the United States." Puerto Rico does not have the right to unilaterally declare independence, and at the last referendum (1998), the narrow majority voted for "none of the above", which was a formally undefined alternative used by commonwealth supporters to express their desire for an "enhanced commonwealth" option. This kind of relationship can also be found in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which is termed a federacy. The European continental part is organized like a unitary state. However, the status of its "constituent countries" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or "associated non-independent states." The Kingdom of Denmark also operates similarly, akin to another federacy. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are two self-governing territories or regions within the Kingdom. The relationship between Denmark proper and these two territories is semi-officially termed the Rigsfællesskabet ("Unity of the Realm"). Overview of inhabited dependent territories See also Colonization Colony Gallery of flags of dependent territories Independence referendum Past independence referendums List of administrative divisions by country List of autonomous areas by country List of countries and inhabited areas List of countries by United Nations geoscheme Lists of former colonies, possessions, protectorates, and territories Timeline of national independence Protectorate :Category:Former colonies List of leaders of dependent territories List of sovereign states List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent Minister of the Colonies Ministry of the Colonies Suzerainty Vassal state Protectorate Notes References Citations Sources Bibliography George Drower, Britain's Dependent Territories, Dartmouth, 1992 George Drower, Overseas Territories Handbook, TSO, 1998 Lists of countries Territories Self-governance Sovereignty	wiki
The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. all of the Bible has been translated into 724 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,617 languages, and smaller portions of the Bible have been translated into 1,248 other languages according to Wycliffe Global Alliance. Thus, at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,589 languages. Early translators rendered biblical texts into Syriac, Latin, Ge'ez, Gothic and Slavonic languages, among others. Jerome's 4th-century Latin Vulgate version was dominant in Western Christianity during the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages. English Bible translations have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium. (See List of English Bible translations.) Textual variants in the New Testament include errors, omissions, additions, changes, and alternate translations. In some cases, different translations have been used as evidence for or have been motivated by doctrinal differences. Original text Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century AD, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text contained only consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation; since some words differ only in their vowels their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages. New Testament The New Testament was written in Koine Greek. The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the manuscripts that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text-type, and the Western text-type. Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing or for other reasons. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts. The discovery of older manuscripts which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to argue that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts. Early manuscripts of the Pauline epistles and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text. History Ancient translations Aramaic Targums Some of the first translations of the Torah began during the Babylonian exile, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues. Greek Septuagint By the 3rd century BC, Alexandria had become the center of Hellenistic Judaism, and during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC translators compiled in Egypt a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures in several stages (completing the task by 132 BC). The Talmud ascribes the translation effort to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BC), who allegedly hired 72 Jewish scholars for the purpose, for which reason the translation is commonly known as the Septuagint (from the Latin septuaginta, "seventy"), a name which it gained in "the time of Augustine of Hippo" (354–430 AD). The Septuagint (LXX), the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the accepted text of the Old Testament in the Christian church and the basis of its canon. Jerome based his Latin Vulgate translation on the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the Masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the deuterocanonical books. The translation now known as the Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts; supposedly proving its accuracy. Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books not included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts. Late Antiquity Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament: the Hebrew consonantal text, the Hebrew text transliterated into Greek letters (the Secunda), the Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite, one recension of the Septuagint, and the Greek translation of Theodotion. In addition, he included three anonymous translations of the Psalms (the Quinta, Sexta and Septima). His eclectic recension of the Septuagint had a significant influence on the Old Testament text in several important manuscripts. The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the Book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added), and Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 405. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the Christian New Testament is in Koine Greek, and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text. Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint. The Bible was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by a group of scholars, possibly under the supervision of Ulfilas. In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible using the Armenian alphabet invented by him. Also dating from the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Old Nubian, Ethiopic and Georgian translations. There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate). In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. Middle Ages When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions, additions, and variants (mostly in orthography). The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible in Latin is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in 8th-century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. During the Middle Ages, translation, particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which is said to have been prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in c. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic was started in 863 by Cyril and Methodius. Alfred the Great, a ruler in England, had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the Wessex Gospels. Around the same time, a compilation now called the Old English Hexateuch appeared with the first six (or, in one version, seven) books of the Old Testament. Pope Innocent III in 1199 banned unauthorized versions of the Bible as a reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies. The synods of Toulouse and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of such renderings. There is evidence of some vernacular translations being permitted while others were being scrutinized. The complete Bible was translated into Old French in the late 13th century. Parts of this translation were included in editions of the popular Bible historiale, and there is no evidence of this translation being suppressed by the Church. The entire Bible was translated into Czech around 1360. The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. The Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in 1416. In 1478, a Catalan translation was made in the dialect of Valencia. Many parts of the Bible were printed by William Caxton in his translation of the Golden Legend, and in Speculum Vitae Christi (The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ). Reformation and Early Modern period The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion. During 1517 and 1519 Francysk Skaryna printed a translation of the Bible in Old Belarusian language in twenty-two books. In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he retired to the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. It was printed in September 1522. The first complete Dutch Bible, partly based on the existing portions of Luther's translation, was printed in Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt. The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all"). The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (see Chapters and verses of the Bible) Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament. Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). For reasons of tradition, however, some translators prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Distrust of the textual basis of modern translations has contributed to the King-James-Only Movement. The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible (1522), the Polish Brest Bible (1563), the Spanish "Biblia del Oso" (in English: Bible of the Bear, 1569) which later became the Reina-Valera Bible upon its first revision in 1602, the Czech Melantrich Bible (1549) and Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) and numerous English translations of the Bible. Tyndale's New Testament translation (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536) and his translation of the Pentateuch (1530, 1534) and the Book of Jonah were met with heavy sanctions given the widespread belief that Tyndale changed the Bible as he attempted to translate it. Tyndale's unfinished work, cut short by his execution, was supplemented by Myles Coverdale and published under a pseudonym to create the Matthew Bible, the first complete English translation of the Bible. Attempts at an "authoritative" English Bible for the Church of England would include the Great Bible of 1538 (also relying on Coverdale's work), the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version (the King James Version) of 1611, the last of which would become a standard for English speaking Christians for several centuries. The first complete French Bible was a translation by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, published in 1530 in Antwerp. The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation. The first English translations of Psalms (1530), Isaiah (1531), Proverbs (1533), Ecclesiastes (1533), Jeremiah (1534) and Lamentations (1534), were executed by the Protestant Bible translator George Joye in Antwerp. In 1535 Myles Coverdale published the first complete English Bible also in Antwerp. By 1578 both Old and New Testaments were translated to Slovene by the Protestant writer and theologian Jurij Dalmatin. The work was not printed until 1583. The Slovenes thus became the 12th nation in the world with a complete Bible in their language. The translation of the New Testament was based on the work by Dalmatin's mentor, the Protestant Primož Trubar, who published the translation of the Gospel of Matthew already in 1555 and the entire testament by parts until 1577. Following the distribution of a Welsh New Testament and Prayer Book to every parish Church in Wales in 1567, translated by William Salesbury, Welsh became the 13th language into which the whole Bible had been translated in 1588, through a translation by William Morgan, the bishop of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant. Samuel Bogusław Chyliński (1631–1668) translated and published the first Bible translation into Lithuanian. Nova Vulgata The Nova Vulgata is the most recent translation to Latin. On 29 November 1965, Pope Paul VI instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, in order to prepare a new translation from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek, to Latin. The result was the Nova Vulgata, promulgated by Pope John Paul II in 1979. The purpose was to achieve more precision and clarity in the texts, and to remove the errors and obscure passages that were present in the version of Jerome of Stridon, known as the Vulgate. Modern translation efforts The Bible is the most translated book in the world. The United Bible Societies announced that as of 31 December 2007 the complete Bible was available in 438 languages, 123 of which included the deuterocanonical material as well as the Tanakh and New Testament. Either the Tanakh or the New Testament was available in an additional 1,168 languages, in some kind of translations, like the interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme translation (e.g. some Parallel Bible, with interlinear morphemic glossing). In 1999, Wycliffe Bible Translators announced Vision 2025—a project that intends to commence Bible translation in every remaining language community by 2025. It was realised that, at the rates of Bible translation at that point, it would take until at least 2150 until Bible translation began in every language that was needing a translation. Since the launch of Vision 2025, Bible translation efforts have increased dramatically, in large part due to the technology that is now available. Due to the increase, at current rates, Bible translation will begin in every language by 2038, thus being 112 years faster. As of October 2022, they estimated that around 128.8 million people spoke those 1,680 languages where translation work still needs to begin. This represents 22.7% of all languages (based off an estimate of 7,388 total languages) and 1.7% of the human population (based of a global population of 7.36 billion). In total, there are 3,799 languages without any bible translation at all, but an estimated 1,155 of these (with a population of 10.3 million people) are likely to never need a Bible because they are very similar to other languages, or spoken by very few speakers where the language will die out very soon. Bible translation is currently happening in 2,846 languages in 157 countries. This work impacts 1.11 billion people, or about 15 percent of all language users, who have (or will soon have) new access to at least some portions of Scripture in their first language. Differences in Bible translations Dynamic or formal translation policy A variety of linguistic, philological and ideological approaches to translation have been used. Inside the Bible-translation community, these are commonly categorized as: Dynamic equivalence translation Formal equivalence translation (similar to literal translation) Idiomatic, or paraphrastic translation, as used by the late Kenneth N. Taylor though modern linguists, such as Bible scholar Dr. Joel Hoffman, disagree with this classification. As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, like all languages, have some idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is in some cases an ongoing critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the Douay Rheims Bible, Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible Revised Edition, which are the English language Catholic translations, as well as Protestant translations like the King James Bible, the Darby Bible, the Recovery Version, the Literal Standard Version, the New Revised Standard Version, the Modern Literal Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as more literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation sometimes attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word for word translation, the easier the text becomes to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require. On the other hand, as one gets closer to a word for word translation, the text becomes more literal but still relies on similar problems of meaningful translation at the word level and makes it difficult for lay readers to interpret due to their unfamiliarity with ancient idioms and other historical and cultural contexts. Doctrinal differences and translation policy In addition to linguistic concerns, theological issues also drive Bible translations. Some translations of the Bible, produced by single churches or groups of churches, may be seen as subject to a point of view by the translation committee. For example, the New World Translation, produced by Jehovah's Witnesses, provides different renderings where verses in other Bible translations support the deity of Christ. The NWT also translates kurios as "Jehovah" rather than "Lord" when quoting Hebrew passages that used YHWH. The authors believe that Jesus would have used God's name and not the customary kurios. On this basis, the anonymous New World Bible Translation Committee inserted Jehovah into the New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament) a total of 237 times while the New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) uses Jehovah a total of 6,979 times to a grand total of 7,216 in the entire 2013 Revision New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures while previous revisions such as the 1984 revision were a total of 7,210 times while the 1961 revision were a total of 7,199 times. A number of Sacred Name Bibles (e.g., the Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition) have been published that are even more rigorous in transliterating the tetragrammaton using Semitic forms to translate it in the Old Testament and also using the same Semitic forms to translate the Greek word Theos (God) in the New Testament—usually Yahweh, Elohim or some other variation. Other translations are distinguished by smaller but distinctive doctrinal differences. For example, the Purified Translation of the Bible, by translation and explanatory footnotes, promoting the position that Christians should not drink alcohol, that New Testament references to "wine" are translated as "grape juice". See also Notes References Further reading Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament. External links Repackaging the Bible by Eric Marrapodi, CNN, December 24, 2008 Bible Versions and Translations on BibleStudyTools.com Huge selection of Bibles in Foreign Languages – bibleinmylanguage.com BibleGateway.com (has many translations to select) Translations Translations Translation history	wiki
Kevin Grimes may refer to: Kevin Grimes (ice hockey) (born 1979), Canadian ice hockey player Kevin Grimes (soccer) (born 1967), U.S. soccer defender	wiki
G 1/84 is a decision of the Enlarged Board of Appeal of the European Patent Office (EPO), which was issued on July 24, 1985. The Board held in this decision that: "A notice of opposition against a European patent is not inadmissible merely because it has been filed by the proprietor of that patent." The decision was overruled in G 9/93, a later decision in which the Enlarged Board held that a European patent cannot be opposed by its own proprietor. External links Decision G 1/84 on the "EPO boards of appeal decisions" section of the EPO web site Decision G 1/84 in the Official Journal of the EPO 1985, page 299 G 1984 1 1985 in case law 1985 in Europe	wiki
Line S1 of the Taizhou Rail Transit is a suburban rapid transit line in Taizhou, Zhejiang Province, China. It runs from Taizhou Huochezhan to Chengnan. The line started operation on 28 December 2022. The line is in length with 15 stations, including 7 underground stations and 8 elevated stations. Stations References S1 Railway lines opened in 2022 Rapid transit lines in China	wiki
The ARCHOS 70 Internet Tablet is part of the Archos Generation 8 range, distributed between 2010-11. It is a 7 inches (18 cm) tablet computer running Android. See also Archos 43 Archos 101 References Tablet computers Tablet computers introduced in 2010 Touchscreen portable media players Android (operating system) devices	wiki
The rusty catshark (Halaelurus sellus) is a species of catshark in the genus Halaelurus. It is a tropical catshark found around the waters off Australia, in the eastern Indian Ocean. It was named by W.T. White, P.R. Last, and J.D. Stevens in 2007. Male Halaelurus sellus can reach a maximum length of 35.3 centimetres, while females can reach a maximum length of 42.3 centimetres. References rusty catshark Marine fish of Western Australia rusty catshark	wiki
New Age is a term applied to a range of spiritual or religious beliefs and practices that developed in Western nations during the 1970s. New Age or The New Age may also refer to: Music New-age music, a genre of music intended to create artistic inspiration, relaxation, and optimism The New Age (album), a 1973 album by Canned Heat New Age (Eddy Lover album) (2011) New Age (KSI and Randolph album), a 2019 album by KSI and Randolph, or the title song "New Age" (Marlon Roudette song) (2011) "New Age" (The Velvet Underground song) (1969) The New Age, a music group featuring Pat Kilroy Publications The New Age, a British literary magazine 1894–1938 New Age (Bangladesh), an English-language daily newspaper The New Age (Chicago), an American Norwegian–Danish-language newspaper formerly known as Social-Demokraten New Age (South African newspaper), a leftist newspaper (1953–1962) The New Age (South African newspaper), a daily newspaper (2010–2018) New Age Journal, a health and lifestyle magazine renamed Body & Soul New Age Weekly, the organ of the Communist Party of India Other uses The New Age (film), a 1994 film by Michael Tolkin See also New Age communities, places with significant numbers of people with New Age beliefs New Age travellers, New Age and hippie believers who travel between music festivals and fairs New Era (disambiguation) New Wave (disambiguation)	wiki
In molecular biology, protein catabolism is the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides and ultimately into amino acids. Protein catabolism is a key function of digestion process. Protein catabolism often begins with pepsin, which converts proteins into polypeptides. These polypeptides are then further degraded. In humans, the pancreatic proteases include trypsin, chymotrypsin, and other enzymes. In the intestine, the small peptides are broken down into amino acids that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. These absorbed amino acids can then undergo amino acid catabolism, where they are utilized as an energy source or as precursors to new proteins. The amino acids produced by catabolism may be directly recycled to form new proteins, converted into different amino acids, or can undergo amino acid catabolism to be converted to other compounds via the Krebs cycle. Interface with other cycles Protein catabolism produces amino acids that are used to form bacterial proteins or oxidized for to meet the energy needs of the cell. Among the several degrading processes for amino acids are Deamination (removal of an amino group), transamination (transfer of amino group), decarboxylation (removal of carboxyl group), and dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen). The degraded amino acid that they can be processed as fuel for the Krebs/Citric Acid (TCA) Cycle. Protein degradation Protein degradation differs from protein catabolism. Proteins are produced and destroyed routinely as part of the normal operations of the cell. Transcription factors, proteins that help regulate protein synthesis, are targets of such degradations. Their degradation is not a significant contributor to the energy needs of the cell. The addition of ubiquitin (ubiquitylation) marks a protein for degradation via the proteasome. Amino acid degradation Oxidative deamination is the first step to breaking down the amino acids so that they can be converted to sugars. The process begins by removing the amino group of the amino acids. The amino group becomes ammonium as it is lost and later undergoes the urea cycle to become urea, in the liver. It is then released into the blood stream, where it is transferred to the kidneys, which will secrete the urea as urine. The remaining portion of the amino acid becomes oxidized, resulting in an alpha-keto acid. The alpha-keto acid will then proceed into the TCA cycle, in order to produce energy. The acid can also enter glycolysis, where it will be eventually converted into pyruvate. The pyruvate is then converted into acetyl-CoA so that it can enter the TCA cycle and convert the original pyruvate molecules into ATP, or usable energy for the organism. Transamination leads to the same result as deamination: the remaining acid will undergo either glycolysis or the TCA cycle to produce energy that the organism's body will use for various purposes. This process transfers the amino group instead of losing the amino group to be converted into ammonium. The amino group is transferred to alpha-ketoglutarate, so that it can be converted to glutamate. Then glutamate transfers the amino group to oxaloacetate. This transfer is so that the oxaloacetate can be converted to aspartate or other amino acids. Eventually, this product will also proceed into oxidative deamination to once again produce alpha-ketoglutarate, an alpha-keto acid that will undergo the TCA cycle, and ammonium, which will eventually undergo the urea cycle. Transaminases are enzymes that help catalyze the reactions that take place in transamination. They help catalyze the reaction at the point when the amino group is transferred from the original amino acid, like glutamate to alpha-ketoglutarate, and hold onto it to transfer it to another alpha-ketoacid. Factors determining protein half-life Some key factors that determine overall rate include protein half-life, pH, and temperature. Protein half-life helps determine the overall rate as this designates the first step in protein catabolism. Depending on whether this step is short or long will influence the rest of the metabolic process. One key component in determining the protein half-life is based on the N-end rule. This states that the amino acid present at the N-terminus of a protein helps determine the protein's half-life. Further reading See also Amino acid synthesis Anabolism Metabolism Proteolysis References Metabolism Proteins as nutrients	wiki
The Lion King is a 1994 animated Disney film. The Lion King may also refer to: The Lion King (franchise), a media franchise that originated with the film The Lion King The Lion King (1994 soundtrack) The Lion King (video game), a 1994 video game The Lion King (musical), a 1997 Broadway musical The Lion King II: Simba's Pride, a 1998 direct-to-video sequel The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure, a 2000 video game The Lion King 1½, also known as The Lion King 3: Hakuna Matata, a 2004 direct-to-video sequel The Lion King (2019 film), a 2019 photorealistic computer animated remake The Lion King (2019 soundtrack) The Lion King: The Gift, a secondary soundtrack to the 2019 film, curated by Beyoncé MS Rigel III, a ferry known from 1996 to 1998 as the MS Lion King Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, shows a Lion crowned and a Unicorn, representing England and Scotland Coat of arms of the Netherlands Coat of arms of Belgium Coat of arms of Luxembourg Flag of the Republic of Venice Simply Heraldry, which uses elements in which can be considered to be a "Lion King" See also King of the Jungle (disambiguation)	wiki
Anabolism () is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require energy, known also as an endergonic process. Anabolism is the building-up aspect of metabolism, whereas catabolism is the breaking-down aspect. Anabolism is usually synonymous with biosynthesis. Pathway Polymerization, an anabolic pathway used to build macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides, uses condensation reactions to join monomers. Macromolecules are created from smaller molecules using enzymes and cofactors. Energy source Anabolism is powered by catabolism, where large molecules are broken down into smaller parts and then used up in cellular respiration. Many anabolic processes are powered by the cleavage of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Anabolism usually involves reduction and decreases entropy, making it unfavorable without energy input. The starting materials, called the precursor molecules, are joined using the chemical energy made available from hydrolyzing ATP, reducing the cofactors NAD+, NADP+, and FAD, or performing other favorable side reactions. Occasionally it can also be driven by entropy without energy input, in cases like the formation of the phospholipid bilayer of a cell, where hydrophobic interactions aggregate the molecules. Cofactors The reducing agents NADH, NADPH, and FADH2, as well as metal ions, act as cofactors at various steps in anabolic pathways. NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 act as electron carriers, while charged metal ions within enzymes stabilize charged functional groups on substrates. Substrates Substrates for anabolism are mostly intermediates taken from catabolic pathways during periods of high energy charge in the cell. Functions Anabolic processes build organs and tissues. These processes produce growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size, a process that involves synthesis of complex molecules. Examples of anabolic processes include the growth and mineralization of bone and increases in muscle mass. Anabolic hormones Endocrinologists have traditionally classified hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate. The classic anabolic hormones are the anabolic steroids, which stimulate protein synthesis and muscle growth, and insulin. Photosynthetic carbohydrate synthesis Photosynthetic carbohydrate synthesis in plants and certain bacteria is an anabolic process that produces glucose, cellulose, starch, lipids, and proteins from CO2. It uses the energy produced from the light-driven reactions of photosynthesis, and creates the precursors to these large molecules via carbon assimilation in the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle, a.k.a. the Calvin cycle. Amino acid biosynthesis All amino acids are formed from intermediates in the catabolic processes of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. From glycolysis, glucose 6-phosphate is a precursor for histidine; 3-phosphoglycerate is a precursor for glycine and cysteine; phosphoenol pyruvate, combined with the 3-phosphoglycerate-derivative erythrose 4-phosphate, forms tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine; and pyruvate is a precursor for alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine. From the citric acid cycle, α-ketoglutarate is converted into glutamate and subsequently glutamine, proline, and arginine; and oxaloacetate is converted into aspartate and subsequently asparagine, methionine, threonine, and lysine. Glycogen storage During periods of high blood sugar, glucose 6-phosphate from glycolysis is diverted to the glycogen-storing pathway. It is changed to glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase and then to UDP-glucose by UTP--glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen synthase adds this UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain. Gluconeogenesis Glucagon is traditionally a catabolic hormone, but also stimulates the anabolic process of gluconeogenesis by the liver, and to a lesser extent the kidney cortex and intestines, during starvation to prevent low blood sugar. It is the process of converting pyruvate into glucose. Pyruvate can come from the breakdown of glucose, lactate, amino acids, or glycerol. The gluconeogenesis pathway has many reversible enzymatic processes in common with glycolysis, but it is not the process of glycolysis in reverse. It uses different irreversible enzymes to ensure the overall pathway runs in one direction only. Regulation Anabolism operates with separate enzymes from catalysis, which undergo irreversible steps at some point in their pathways. This allows the cell to regulate the rate of production and prevent an infinite loop, also known as a futile cycle, from forming with catabolism. The balance between anabolism and catabolism is sensitive to ADP and ATP, otherwise known as the energy charge of the cell. High amounts of ATP cause cells to favor the anabolic pathway and slow catabolic activity, while excess ADP slows anabolism and favors catabolism. These pathways are also regulated by circadian rhythms, with processes such as glycolysis fluctuating to match an animal's normal periods of activity throughout the day. Etymology The word anabolism is from New Latin, with roots from , "upward" and , "to throw". References Metabolism	wiki
Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy-rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Using oxygen increases ATP production from 4 ATP molecules to about 30 ATP molecules. In anaerobic respiration, oxygen is not required. When oxygen is absent, the generation of ATP continues through fermentation. There are two types of fermentation: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. There are several different types of carbohydrates: polysaccharides (e.g., starch, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose), monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose) and the disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, maltose, lactose). Glucose reacts with oxygen in the following reaction, C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. Carbon dioxide and water are waste products, and the overall reaction is exothermic. The reaction of glucose with oxygen releasing energy in the form of molecules of ATP is therefore one of the most important biochemical pathways found in living organisms. Glycolysis Glycolysis, which means “sugar splitting,” is the initial process in the cellular respiration pathway. Glycolysis can be either an aerobic or anaerobic process. When oxygen is present, glycolysis continues along the aerobic respiration pathway. If oxygen is not present, then ATP production is restricted to anaerobic respiration. The location where glycolysis, aerobic or anaerobic, occurs is in the cytosol of the cell. In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is split into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. These carbon molecules are oxidized into NADH and ATP. For the glucose molecule to oxidize into pyruvate, an input of ATP molecules is required. This is known as the investment phase, in which a total of two ATP molecules are consumed. At the end of glycolysis, the total yield of ATP is four molecules, but the net gain is two ATP molecules. Even though ATP is synthesized, the two ATP molecules produced are few compared to the second and third pathways, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Fermentation Even if there is no oxygen present, glycolysis can continue to generate ATP. However, for glycolysis to continue to produce ATP, there must be NAD+ present, which is responsible for oxidizing glucose. This is achieved by recycling NADH back to NAD+. When NAD+ is reduced to NADH, the electrons from NADH are eventually transferred to a separate organic molecule, transforming NADH back to NAD+. This process of renewing the supply of NAD+ is called fermentation, which falls into two categories. Alcohol Fermentation In alcohol fermentation, when a glucose molecule is oxidized, ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide are byproducts. The organic molecule that is responsible for renewing the NAD+ supply in this type of fermentation is the pyruvate from glycolysis. Each pyruvate releases a carbon dioxide molecule, turning into acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is then reduced by the NADH produced from glycolysis, forming the alcohol waste product, ethanol, and forming NAD+, thereby replenishing its supply for glycolysis to continue producing ATP. Lactic Acid Fermentation In lactic acid fermentation, each pyruvate molecule is directly reduced by NADH. The only byproduct from this type of fermentation is lactate. Lactic acid fermentation is used by human muscle cells as a means of generating ATP during strenuous exercise where oxygen consumption is higher than the supplied oxygen. As this process progresses, the surplus of lactate is brought to the liver, which converts it back to pyruvate. Respiration The Citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) If oxygen is present, then following glycolysis, the two pyruvate molecules are brought into the mitochondrion itself to go through the Krebs cycle. In this cycle, the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are further broken down to harness the remaining energy. Each pyruvate goes through a series of reactions that converts it to acetyl coenzyme A. From here, only the acetyl group participates in the Krebs cycle—in which it goes through a series of redox reactions, catalyzed by enzymes, to further harness the energy from the acetyl group. The energy from the acetyl group, in the form of electrons, is used to reduce NAD+ and FAD to NADH and FADH2, respectively. NADH and FADH2 contain the stored energy harnessed from the initial glucose molecule and is used in the electron transport chain where the bulk of the ATP is produced. Oxidative phosphorylation The last process in aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, also known as the electron transport chain. Here NADH and FADH2 deliver their electrons to oxygen and protons at the inner membranes of the mitochondrion, facilitating the production of ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation contributes the majority of the ATP produced, compared to glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. While the ATP count is glycolysis and the Krebs cycle is two ATP molecules, the electron transport chain contributes, at most, twenty-eight ATP molecules. A contributing factor is due to the energy potentials of NADH and FADH2. A second contributing factor is that cristae, the inner membranes of mitochondria, increase the surface area and therefore the amount of proteins in the membrane that assist in the synthesis of ATP. Along the electron transport chain, there are separate compartments, each with their own concentration gradient of H + ions, which are the power source of ATP synthesis. To convert ADP to ATP, energy must be provided. That energy is provided by the H+ gradient. On one side of the membrane compartment, there is a high concentration of H+ ions compared to the other. The shuttling of H+ to one side of the membrane is driven by the exergonic flow of electrons throughout the membrane. These electrons are supplied by NADH and FADH2 as they transfer their potential energy. Once the H+ concentration gradient is established, a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions. See also cellular respiration References Metabolism	wiki
Doubleheader bezeichnet: Doubleheader (Baseball) Doubleheader (Fernsehen)	wiki
Listed below is a table of historical exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar, at present the most widely traded currency in the world. An exchange rate represents the value of one currency in another. An exchange rate between two currencies fluctuates over time. The value of a currency relative to a third currency may be obtained by dividing one U.S. dollar rate by another. For example, if there are ¥120 to the dollar and €1.2 to the dollar then the number of yen per euro is 120/1.2 = 100. The magnitude of the numbers in the list does not indicate, by themselves, the strength or weakness of a particular currency. For example, the U.S. dollar could be rebased tomorrow so that 1 new dollar was worth 100 old dollars. Then all the numbers in the table would be multiplied by one hundred, but it does not mean all the world's currencies just got weaker. However, it is useful to look at the variation over time of a particular exchange rate. If the number consistently increases through time, then it is a strong indication that the economy of the country or countries using that currency are in a less robust state than that of the United States (see e.g., the Turkish lira). The exchange rates of advanced economies, such as those of Japan or Hong Kong, against the dollar tend to fluctuate up and down, representing much shorter-term relative economic strengths, rather than move consistently in a particular direction. The data are taken at varying times of the year or maybe the average for the whole year. Some of the data for the years 1997-2002 refers to the rate on, or close to, January 1 of that year. Some of the data for 2003 refers to rates on May 28 for countries beginning with A-E, and June 2 for countries listed F-Z. Exchange rates can vary considerably even within a year and so current rates may differ markedly from those shown here. Caveat lector. Table for 1850 to 2000 Table for recent years 2020 Exchange rate USD exchange rate in May 2020 according to XE: See also Bretton Woods system for more exchange rates 1945 to 1971 Gold standard for exchange rates around 1900 for currencies using the gold standard Fixed exchange rates to the euro Currency pair ISO 4217 currency codes Historical exchange rates of Argentine currency Notes References Sources http://investintaiwan.nat.gov.tw/en/env/stats/exchange_rates.html The 2003 data was taken from Pacific Exchange Rate Service The graph back to 1969 was generated using data from the Reserve Bank of Australia External links Historical Exchange Rates (Chart and Table, 1971-present) Foreign Currency Units per 1 U.S. Dollar, 1948 - 2007 Foreign exchange market Currencies of the United States Exchange rates, historical Dollar	wiki
Vocus may refer to: Vocus Group, an Australian communications company Vocus (software), a software company based in Maryland, United States	wiki
In J.R.R. Tolkien's legendarium, Gondolin was a secret city of Elves in the First Age of Middle-earth. The story of the Fall of Gondolin tells of the arrival there of Tuor, a prince of Men; of the betrayal of the city to Morgoth by the king's nephew, Maeglin; and of its subsequent siege and catastrophic destruction by Morgoth's armies. It also relates the flight of the fugitives to the Havens of Sirion, the wedding of Tuor and Idril, and the childhood of their son Eärendil. Scholars have noted the presence of tank-like iron fighting machines in Morgoth's army in early versions of the story, written soon after Tolkien returned from the Battle of the Somme. They have likened the story of the Fall of Gondolin to the sack of Troy in ancient Greek literature, or to Virgil's Aeneid; the role of Tuor's wife Idril has similarly been compared to that of Cassandra or Helen of Troy in accounts of the Trojan War. City Foundation The city of Gondolin in Beleriand, in the extreme northwest of Middle-earth, was founded with divine inspiration. It was hidden by mountains and endured for centuries before being betrayed and destroyed. It was the mightiest of the elven homes in the Hither Lands. Gondolin was founded by King Turgon in the First Age. It was originally named 'Ondolindë'. According to The Silmarillion, the Vala Ulmo, the Lord of Waters, revealed the location of the Vale of Tumladen to Turgon in a dream. Under this divine guidance, Turgon travelled from his kingdom in Nevrast and found the vale. Within the Encircling Mountains, lay a round level plain with sheer walls on all sides and a ravine and tunnel leading out to the southwest known as the Hidden Way. In the middle of the vale there was a steep hill which was called Amon Gwareth, the "Hill of Watch". There Turgon decided to found a city, designed after the city of Tirion in Valinor that the Noldor had left. Turgon and his people built Gondolin in secret. The Hidden Pass was protected by seven gates, all constantly guarded; the first of wood, then stone, bronze, iron, silver, gold, and steel. After it was completed, he took with him to dwell in the hidden city his entire people in Nevrast—almost a third of the Noldor of Fingolfin's House—as well as nearly three quarters of the northern Sindar. Customs The hidden and isolated city of Gondolin developed its own Elvish dialect. Tolkien stated that "This differed from the standard [Sindarin] (of Doriath) (a) in having Western and some Northern elements, and (b) in incorporating a good many Noldorin-Quenya words in more or less Sindarized forms. Thus the city was usually called Gondolin (from Q. Ondolin(dë)) with simple replacement of g-, not Goenlin or Goenglin [as it would have been in standard Sindarin]". The smiths of Gondolin, using Elven craft, made powerful weapons. In The Hobbit, the swords Orcrist, Glamdring and a long dagger later named Sting were found in a Troll-hoard. Each of these weapons forged in Gondolin had the ability to detect Orcs in the immediate vicinity by glowing. They had the property of striking fear in the hearts of Orcs when used against them. According to The Book of Lost Tales, the city had seven names: "’Tis said and ’tis sung: Gondobar am I called and Gondothlimbar, City of Stone and City of the Dwellers in Stone; Gondolin the Stone of Song and Gwarestrin am I named, the Tower of the Guard, Gar Thurion or the Secret Place, for I am hidden from the eyes of Melko; but they who love me most greatly call me Loth, for like a flower am I, even Lothengriol the flower that blooms on the plain." Houses and heraldry The Book of Lost Tales states that the active male Elves of Gondolin belonged to one of the 11 "Houses" or Thlim plus the bodyguard of Tuor which was accounted the twelfth. Each house had a distinct symbol: a mole, a swallow, the heavens, a pillar, a tower of snow, a tree, a golden flower, a fountain, a harp, a hammer and anvil, and finally the triple symbol of the King, namely the moon, sun, and scarlet heart worn by the Royal Guard. The scholar of heraldry Catalin Hriban writes that the Gondolin emblems are simply figurative, depicting familiar objects, and that similar devices can be found in standard British texts on heraldry. He notes that Maeglin the traitor, of the House of Moles, fittingly has the colour black; like the animal, his people are miners, used to living underground in the dark. Fall The city stood for nearly 400 years until it was betrayed to Morgoth by Maeglin, Turgon's nephew. Maeglin was captured while mining outside the Encircling Mountains against Turgon's orders. Maeglin betrayed the location of Gondolin after he was promised Lordship as well as Turgon's daughter Idril, whom he'd long coveted. Morgoth then sent an army over the Crissaegrim, the northernmost precipitous and dangerous portion of the Encircling Mountains, during The Gates of Summer (a great Gondolin festival), catching them unawares and sacking the city with relative ease. In addition to orcs, Balrogs and dragons, Melkor's (Morgoth's) army, in early versions of the story, included iron machines powered by "internal fires" and used to carry soldiers, to surmount difficult obstacles, and to defeat fortifications. Idril, noted for her intuition, had the foresight to prepare a secret route out of Gondolin prior to the siege. While her father Turgon perished as his tower was destroyed, Idril successfully fled the city, defended by her husband Tuor. Analysis Classical literature Tolkien scholars including Alexander Bruce and David Greenman have compared the Fall of Gondolin to the sack of Troy, noting that the city was famed for its walls, and likening Tolkien's tale to Virgil's Aeneid. Both have frame stories, situated long after the events they narrate; both have "gods" (Tolkien's Valar) in the action; and both involve an escape. Greenman finds it fitting that Tuor, "Tolkien's early quest-hero", escapes from the wreck of an old kingdom and creates new ones, just as Aeneas does, while his later quest-heroes in The Lord of the Rings, the hobbits of the Shire, are made to return to their home, ravaged while they were away, and are obliged to scour it clean, just as Odysseus does in Homer's Odyssey. Greenman compares and contrasts Idril's part in the story to Cassandra and Helen of Troy, two prominent female figures in accounts of the Trojan War: like the prophetess, Idril had a premonition of impending danger and like Helen, her beauty played a major role in instigating Maeglin's betrayal of Gondolin, which ultimately led to its downfall and ruin. Conversely, Greeman notes that Idril's advice to enact a contingency plan for a secret escape route out of Gondolin was heeded by her people, and that she had always rejected Maeglin's advances and remained faithful to Tuor. Bruce writes that Tolkien's tale parallels Virgil's account, but varies the story. Thus, Morgoth attacks while Gondolin's guard is lowered during a great feast, whereas the Trojans were celebrating the Greeks' apparent retreat, with the additional note of treachery. The Trojan Horse carried the Greeks into Troy, where they set fire to it, paralleled by the fire-serpents which carried "Balrogs in hundreds" into Gondolin. Tolkien's serpents are matched by the great serpents with "burning eyes, fiery and suffused with blood, their tongues a-flicker out of hissing maws" which kill the high priest Laocoön and his sons. Aeneas and his wife Creusa become separated during their escape; her ghost pleads with him to leave when he searches for her, and he travels to Italy; in contrast, Tuor and Idril escape to Sirion together, eventually sailing from there to Valinor. Tolkien appears to have based one scene on another classical source, Euripides' play The Trojan Women. Maeglin tries to throw Idril's son Eärendil from the city wall, just as Hector's son Astyanax is thrown down from Troy's walls. Tolkien changes the outcome: Eärendil resists, and Tuor appears just in time to rescue him by throwing Maeglin from the walls instead. According to Hamish Williams, the seven gates of the city of Gondolin may be based on Herodotus's description of the Medean city of Ecbatana with its multi-layered defence on a hill. Williams identifies this as a "perfect space" in the Utopian West of Middle-earth. Tolkien's wartime experience In his book Tolkien and the Great War, John Garth states that Tolkien wrote his 1917 story "The Fall of Gondolin" in hospital after returning to England from the Battle of the Somme. In his view, the tale's first half seems to reflect Tolkien's "slow acceptance of duty" at the start of the war, while the second half "surely reverberates to his collision with war itself." To defeat Gondolin, Melkor (at first called Melko) uses monsters, Orcs and Balrogs, supported by "beasts like snakes and dragons of irresistible might that should overcreep the Encircling Hills and lap that plain and its fair city in flame and death". The monstrous beasts are not of flesh and blood, but are made by "smiths and sorcerers". There are three kinds, Garth explains: heavy, slow, bronze dragons that can break gaps in Gondolin's walls; fiery monsters, unable to climb the steep smooth hill on which the city sits; and iron dragons in which Orc-soldiers can ride, and which travel on "iron so cunningly linked that they might flow ... around and above all obstacles", and are armoured so that they clang hollowly when bombarded or attacked with fire. Garth comments that these are not so much like mythical dragons as "the tanks of the Somme", and that to the story's Elf-narrator, a combustion engine would look like "a metal heart filled with flame". Anthony Appleyard similarly likens the mechanical dragons to vehicles driven by internal combustion engines. References Primary This list identifies each item's location in Tolkien's writings. Secondary Sources Fictional populated places Middle-earth locations	wiki
Snakes, like other reptiles, have skin covered in scales. Snakes are entirely covered with scales or scutes of various shapes and sizes, known as snakeskin as a whole. A scale protects the body of the snake, aids it in locomotion, allows moisture to be retained within, alters the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage, and in some cases even aids in prey capture (such as Acrochordus). The simple or complex colouration patterns (which help in camouflage and anti-predator display) are a property of the underlying skin, but the folded nature of scaled skin allows bright skin to be concealed between scales then revealed in order to startle predators. Scales have been modified over time to serve other functions such as "eyelash" fringes, and protective covers for the eyes with the most distinctive modification being the rattle of the North American rattlesnakes. Snakes periodically moult their scaly skins and acquire new ones. This permits replacement of old worn out skin, disposal of parasites and is thought to allow the snake to grow. The arrangement of scales is used to identify snake species. Snakes have been part and parcel of culture and religion. Vivid scale patterns have been thought to have influenced early art. The use of snake-skin in manufacture of purses, apparel and other articles led to large-scale killing of snakes, giving rise to advocacy for use of artificial snake-skin. Snake scales are also to be found as motifs in fiction, art and films. Functions of scales The scales of a snake primarily serve to reduce friction as it moves, since friction is the major source of energy loss in snake locomotion. The ventral (or belly) scales, which are large and oblong, are especially low-friction, and some arboreal species can use the edges to grip branches. Snake skin and scales help retain moisture in the animal's body. Snakes pick up vibrations from both the air and the ground, and can differentiate the two, using a complex system of internal resonances (perhaps involving the scales). Evolution Reptiles evolved from amphibious ancestors which left the water and became terrestrial. To prevent loss of moisture, reptilian skin lost the softness and moisture of amphibian skin and developed a thick stratum corneum with multiple layers of lipids, which served as an impermeable barrier, as well as providing protection from ultraviolet light. Over time, reptilian skin cells became highly keratinised, horny, sturdy and desiccated. The surfaces of the dermis and epidermis of all reptilian scales form a single contiguous sheet, as can be seen when the snake sheds its skin as a whole. Morphology of scales Snake scales are formed by the differentiation of the snake's underlying skin or epidermis. Each scale has an outer surface and an inner surface. The skin from the inner surface hinges back and forms a free area which overlaps the base of the next scale which emerges below this scale. A snake hatches with a fixed number of scales. The scales do not increase in number as the snake matures nor do they reduce in number over time. The scales however grow larger in size and may change shape with each moult. Snakes have smaller scales around the mouth and sides of the body which allow expansion so that a snake can consume prey of much larger width than itself. Snake scales are made of keratin, the same material that hair and fingernails are made of. They are cool and dry to touch. Surface and shape Snake scales are of different shapes and sizes. Snake scales may be granular, have a smooth surface or have a longitudinal ridge or keel on it. Often, snake scales have pits, tubercles and other fine structures which may be visible to the naked eye or under a microscope. Snake scales may be modified to form fringes, as in the case of the eyelash bush viper, Atheris ceratophora, or rattles as in the case of the rattlesnakes of North America. Certain primitive snakes such as boas, pythons and certain advanced snakes such as vipers have small scales arranged irregularly on the head. Other more advanced snakes have special large symmetrical scales on the head called shields or plates. Snake scales occur in variety of shapes. They may be cycloid as in family Typhlopidae, long and pointed with pointed tips, as in the case of the green vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta, broad and leaf-like, as in the case of green pit vipers Trimeresurus spp. or as broad as they are long, for example, as in rat snake Ptyas mucosus. In some cases, scales may be keeled weakly or strongly as in the case of the buff-striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum. They may have bidentate tips as in some spp of Natrix. Some snakes, such as the short seasnake Lapemis curtus, may have spinelike and juxtaposed scales while others may have large and non-overlapping knobs as in the case of the Javan mudsnake Xenodermus javanicus. Another example of differentiation of snake scales is a transparent scale called the brille or spectacle which covers the eye of the snake. The brille is often referred to as a fused eyelid. It is shed as part of the old skin during moulting. Rattles The most distinctive modification of the snake scale is the rattle of rattlesnakes, such as those of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus. The rattle is made up of a series of loosely linked, interlocking chambers that when shaken, vibrate against one another to create the warning signal of a rattlesnake. Only the bottom is firmly attached to the tip of the tail. At birth, a rattlesnake hatchling has only a small button or 'primordial rattle' which is firmly attached to the tip of the tail. The first segment is added when the hatchling sheds its skin for the first time. A new section is added each time the skin is shed until a rattle is formed. The rattle grows as the snake ages but segments are also prone to breaking off and hence the length of a rattle is not a reliable indicator of the age of a snake. Colour Scales mostly consist of hard beta keratins which are basically transparent. The colours of the scale are due to pigments in the inner layers of the skin and not due to the scale material itself. Scales are hued for all colours in this manner except for blue and green. Blue is caused by the ultrastructure of the scales. By itself, such a scale surface diffracts light and gives a blue hue, while, in combination with yellow from the inner skin it gives a beautiful iridescent green. Some snakes have the ability to change the hue of their scales slowly. This is typically seen in cases where the snake becomes lighter or darker with change in season. In some cases, this change may take place between day and night. Ecdysis The shedding of scales is called ecdysis, or, in normal usage moulting or sloughing. In the case of snakes, the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer. Snake scales are not discrete but extensions of the epidermis hence they are not shed separately, but are ejected as a complete contiguous outer layer of skin during each moult, akin to a sock being turned inside out. Moulting serves a number of functions – firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced, secondly, it helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to allow growth in some animals such as insects, however this view has been disputed in the case of snakes. Moulting is repeated periodically throughout a snake's life. Before a moult, the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old outer skin liquefies. This causes the old outer skin to separate from the new inner skin. After a few days, the eyes clear and the snake "crawls" out of its old skin. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles out aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases the cast skin peels backward over the body from head to tail, in one piece like an old sock. A new, larger, and brighter layer of skin has formed underneath. An older snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year, but a younger, still-growing snake, may shed up to four times a year. The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale pattern and it is usually possible to identify the snake if this discard is reasonably complete and intact. Arrangement of scales Scale arrangements are important, not only for taxonomic utility, but also for forensic reasons and conservation of snake species. Excluding the head, snakes have imbricate scales, overlapping like the tiles on a roof. Snakes have rows of scales along the whole or part of their length and also many other specialised scales, either singly or in pairs, occurring on the head and other regions of the body. The dorsal (or body) scales on the snake's body are arranged in rows along the length of their bodies. Adjacent rows are diagonally offset from each other. Most snakes have an odd number of rows across the body though certain species have an even number of rows e.g. Zaocys spp. In the case of some aquatic and marine snakes, the scales are granular and the rows cannot be counted. The number of rows range from ten in Tiger Ratsnake Spilotes pullatus; thirteen in Dryocalamus, Liopeltis, Calamaria and Asian coral snakes of genus Calliophis; 65 to 75 in pythons; 74 to 93 in Kolpophis and 130 to 150 in Acrochordus. The majority of the largest family of snakes, the Colubridae have 15, 17 or 19 rows of scales. The maximum number of rows are in mid-body and they reduce in count towards the head and on the tail. Nomenclature of scales The various scales on a snake's head and body are indicated in the following paragraphs with annotated photographs of Buff-striped Keelback Amphiesma stolata, a common grass-snake of South Asia and a member of Colubridae, the largest snake family. Head scales Identification of cephalic scales is most conveniently begun with reference to the nostril, which is easily identified on a snake. There are two scales enclosing the nostril which are called the nasals. In colubrids, the nostril lies between the nasals, while in vipers it lies in the centre of a single nasal scale. The outer nasal (near the snout) is called the prenasal while the inner nasal (near the eye) is called the postnasal. Along the top of the snout connecting the nasals on both sides of the head are scales called internasals. Between the two prenasals is a scale at the tip of the snout called the rostral scale. The scales around the eye are called circumorbital scales and are named as ocular scales but with appropriate prefixes. The ocular scale proper is a transparent scale covering the eye which is called the spectacle, brille or eyecap. The circumorbital scales towards the snout or the front are called preocular scales, those towards the rear are called postocular scales, and those towards the upper or dorsal side are called supraocular scales. Circumorbital scales towards the ventral or lower side, if any, are called subocular scales. Between the preocular and the postnasal scales are one or two scales called loreal scales. Loreal scales are absent in elapids. The scales along the lips of the snake are called labials. Those on the upper lip are called supralabials or upper labials, while those on the lower lip are called infralabials or lower labials. On top of the head, between the eyes, adjacent to the supraoculars is the frontal scale. The prefrontal scales are the scales connected to the frontal towards the tip of the snout which are in contact with the internasals. They may have a scale in between them. The back of the top of the head has scales connected to the frontal scale called the parietal scales. At the sides of the back of the head between the parietals above and the supralabials below are scales called temporal scales. On the underside of the head, a snake has an anterior scale called the mental scale. Connected to the mental scale and all along the lower lips are the infralabials or lower labials. Along the chin connected to the infralabials is a pair of shields called the anterior chin shields. Next to the anterior chin shields, further back along the chin is another pair of shields called the posterior chin shields. In some texts the chinshields are referred to as submaxillary scales. Scales in the central or throat region, which are in contact with the first ventral scales of a snake's body and are flanked by the chin shields, are called gular scales. The mental groove is a longitudinal groove on the underside of the head between the large, paired chin shields and continuing between the smaller gular scales. Body scales The scales on the body of the snake are called the dorsal or costal scales. Sometimes there is a special row of large scales along the top of the back of the snake, i.e., the uppermost row, called the vertebral scales. The enlarged scales on the belly of the snake are called ventral scales or gastrosteges. The number of ventral scales can be a guide to the species. In "advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection. Tail scales At the end of the ventral scales of the snake is a cloacal plate that protects the opening to the cloaca (a shared opening for waste and reproductive material to pass) on the underside near the tail. This scale has also been the anal scale, which is a misnomer since it does not cover an anus but a cloaca. This cloacal scale may be single or paired. Most authors have differentiated between single and divided cloacal scales. However, based on the origin of scales during development, a scale does not spontaneously divide, but it originates as paired structures that subsequently overlap. The part of the body beyond the cloacal scale is considered to be the tail. Sometimes snakes have enlarged scales, either single or paired, under the tail; these are called subcaudals or urosteges. These subcaudals may be smooth or keeled as in Bitis arietans somalica. The end of the tail may simply taper into a tip (as in the case of most snakes), it may form a spine (as in Acanthophis), end in a bony spur (as in Lachesis), a rattle (as in Crotalus), or a rudder as seen in many sea snakes. Sources. Details for this section have been sourced from scale diagrams in Malcolm Smith. Details of scales of Buff-striped Keelback have been taken from Daniels. Glossary of scales Scales on the head. Rostral. Nasorostral. Nasal. Prenasal. Postnasal. Supranasal. Fronto-nasal. Internasal. Brille, spectacle, ocular scale, eyecap. Circumorbital. Preocular. Postocular. Supraocular. Subocular. Loreal. Interorbital, Intersupraocular. Frontal. Prefrontal. Parietal. Occipital. Interoccipital. Temporal. Labial. Supralabial, Upper labial. Sublabial, Infralabial, Lower labial. Mental or Symphysial. Chin shield. Anterior chin shield, Anterior genials. Posterior chin shield, Posterior genials. Intergeneial. Gular. Scales on the body. Dorsal. Vertebral. Ventral, Gastrostege. Scales on the tail. Cloacal. Subcaudal, Urostege. Other pertinent terms Canthus, or Canthus rostralis, the angle between the supraocular scale and the rostral scale. Mental groove. Taxonomic importance Scales do not play an important role in distinguishing between the families but are important at generic and specific level. There is an elaborate scheme of nomenclature of scales. Scales patterns, by way of scale surface or texture, pattern and colouration and the division of the anal plate, in combination with other morphological characteristics, are the principal means of classifying snakes down to species level. In certain areas in North America, where the diversity of snakes is not too large, easy keys based on simple identification of scales have been devised for the lay public to distinguish venomous snakes from non-venomous snakes. In other places with large biodiversity, such as Myanmar, publications caution that venomous and non-venomous snakes cannot be easily distinguished apart without careful examination. The scales patterning may also be used for individual identification in field studies. Clipping of specific scales, such as the subcaudals, to mark individual snakes is a popular approach to population estimation by mark and recapture techniques. Distinguishing between venomous and non-venomous snakes There is no simple way of differentiating a venomous snake from a non-venomous one merely by using a scale character. Finding out whether a snake is venomous or not is correctly done by identification of the species of a snake with the help of experts, or in their absence, close examination of the snake and using authoritative references on the snakes of the particular geographical region to identify it. Scale patterns help to indicate the species and from the references, it can be verified if the snake species is known to be venomous or not. Species identification using scales requires a fair degree of knowledge about snakes, their taxonomy, snake-scale nomenclature as well as familiarity with and access to scientific literature. Distinguishing by using scale diagrams whether a snake is venomous or not in the field cannot be done in the case of uncaught specimens. It is not advisable to catch a snake to check whether it is venomous or not using scale diagrams. Most books or websites provide an array of traits of the local herpetofauna, other than scale diagrams, which help to distinguish whether a snake in the field is venomous or not. In certain regions, presence or absence of certain scales may be a quick way to distinguish non-venomous and venomous snakes, but used with care and knowledge of exceptions. For example, in Myanmar, the presence or absence of loreal scales can be used to distinguish between relatively harmless Colubrids and lethally venomous Elapids. The rule of hand for this region is that the absence of a loreal scale between the nasal scale and pre-ocular scale indicates that the snake is an Elapid and hence lethal. This rule-of-thumb cannot be used without care as it cannot be applied to vipers, which have a large number of small scales on the head. A careful check would also be needed to exclude known poisonous members of the Colubrid family such as Rhabdophis. In South Asia, it is advisable to take the snake which has bitten a person, if it has been killed, and carry it along to the hospital for possible identification by medical staff using scale diagrams so that an informed decision can be taken them as to whether and which anti-venom is to be administered. However, attempts to catch it or kill the venomous snake are not advised as the snake may bite more people. Cultural significance Snakes have been a motif in human culture and religion and an object of dread and fascination all over the world. The vivid patterns of snake scales, such as the Gaboon Viper, both repel and fascinate the human mind. Such patterns have inspired dread and awe in humans from pre-historic times and these can be seen in the art prevalent to those times. Studies of fear imagery and psychological arousal indicate that snake scales are a vital component of snake imagery. Snake scales also appear to have affected Islamic art in the form of tessellated mosaic patterns which show great similarity to snake-scale patterns. Snakeskin, with its highly periodic cross-hatch or grid patterns, appeals to people's aesthetics and have been used to manufacture many leather articles including fashionable accessories. The use of snakeskin has however endangered snake populations and resulted in international restrictions in trade of certain snake species and populations in the form of CITES provisions. Animal lovers in many countries now promote the use of artificial snakeskin instead, which are easily produced from embossed leather, patterned fabric, plastics and other materials. Snake scales occur as a motif regularly in computer action games. A snake scale was portrayed as a clue in the 1982 film Blade Runner. Snake scales also figure in popular fiction, such as the Harry Potter series (desiccated Boomslang skin is used as a raw material for concocting the Polyjuice potion), and also in teen fiction. See also Anatomical terms of location Canthus (snake) Fish scale Keratin Moult Reptile scale Snake Scale (zoology) Notes References Bibliography (1943) The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma including the whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region, Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol I – Loricata and Testudines, Vol II-Sauria, Vol III-Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London. Further reading , (1890), The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London. , , , , , (2003) The Dangerously Venomous Snakes of Myanmar, Illustrated Checklist with Keys. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 54 (24):407–462. PDF at Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Division of Amphibians and Reptiles. , , (2003). True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 359 pp. . (2005) The Serpent's Cast: A Guide to the Identification of shed skins from snakes of the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States. The Center for North American Herpetology Monograph Series no. 1.Serpent's Tale Natural History Book Distributors, Lanesboro, Minnesota. External links Are snakes slimy – Singapore Zoological Garden's Docent site Microscopic structure of smooth and keeled scales in snakes General Snake Information – Division of Wildlife, South Dakota Reptiles – Snake facts. Columbus Zoo & Aquarium. North Carolina State Wildlife Damage Notes – Snakes Pennsylvania State University – Wildlife Damage Control 15 (pdf) ZooPax Scales Part 3 Species in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) – accessed on 14 August 2006. The Endangered Species Handbook – Trade (chapter) Reptile Trade – Snakes and Lizards (section) – accessed on 15 August 2006.	wiki
Varnish is a clear transparent hard protective coating or film. It is not a stain. It usually has a yellowish shade due to the manufacturing process and materials used, but it may also be pigmented as desired. It is sold commercially in various shades. Varnish is primarily used as a wood finish where, stained or not, the distinctive tones and grains in the wood are intended to be visible. Varnish finishes are naturally glossy, but satin/semi-gloss and flat sheens are available. History The word "varnish" comes from Mediaeval Latin vernix, meaning odorous resin, perhaps derived from Middle Greek berōnikón or beroníkē, meaning amber or amber-colored glass. A false etymology traces the word to the Greek Berenice, the ancient name of modern Benghazi in Libya, where the first varnishes in the Mediterranean area were supposedly used and where resins from the trees of now-vanished forests were sold. Early varnishes were developed by mixing resin—pine pitch, for example—with a solvent and applying them with a brush to get the golden and hardened effect one sees in today's varnishes. Varnishing was a technique well known in ancient Egypt. Varnishing is also recorded in the history of East and South Asia; in India, China and Japan, where the practice of lacquer work, a species of varnish application, was known at a very early date. The Tang Chinese used medieval chemistry experiments to produce a varnish for clothes and weapons, employing complex chemical formulas applied to silk clothes of underwater divers, a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors, and other formulas. Safety Because of flammability concerns, many product containers list safety precautions for storage and disposal for varnishes and drying oils as they are flammable, and materials used to apply the varnishes may spontaneously combust. Many varnishes contain plant-derived oils (e.g. linseed oil), synthetic oils (e.g. polyurethanes) or resins as their binder in combination with organic solvents. These are flammable in their liquid state. All drying oils, certain alkyds (including paints), and many polyurethanes produce heat (an exothermic reaction) during the curing process. Thus, oil-soaked rags and paper can smolder and ignite into flames, even several hours after use if proper precautions are not taken. Therefore, many manufacturers list proper disposal practices for rags and other items used to apply the finish, such as disposal in a water filled container. Components of varnish Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent plus a metal drier to accelerate the drying. However, different types of varnish have different components. After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly, as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent through curing processes, primarily chemical reaction between oils and oxygen from the air (autoxidation) and chemical reactions between components of the varnish. Resin varnishes dry by evaporation of the solvent and harden quickly on drying. Acrylic and waterborne varnishes dry by evaporation of the water but will experience an extended curing period for evaporation of organic solvents absorbed on the latex particles, and possibly chemical curing of the particles. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy varnishes remain liquid even after evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure, undergoing successive stages from liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry gummy, to dry to the touch, to hard. Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a large role in the drying and curing times of varnishes. In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type of oil used and, to some extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The drying and curing time of all varnishes may be sped up by exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet light, or heat. Drying oil There are many different types of drying oils, including linseed oil, tung oil, and walnut oil. These contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Drying oils cure through an exothermic reaction between the polyunsaturated portion of the oil and oxygen from the air. Originally, the term "varnish" referred to finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in suitable solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or turpentine. The advantage to finishes in previous centuries was that resin varnishes had a very rapid cure rate compared to oils; in most cases they are cured practically as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated. By contrast, untreated or "raw" oils may take weeks or months to cure, depending on ambient temperature and other environmental factors. In modern terms, boiled or partially polymerized drying oils with added siccatives or dryers (chemical catalysts) have cure times of less than 24 hours. However, certain non-toxic by-products of the curing process are emitted from the oil film even after it is dry to the touch and over a considerable period of time. It has long been a tradition to combine drying oils with resins to obtain favourable features of both substances. Resin Many different kinds of resins may be used to create a varnish. Natural resins used for varnish include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin (colophony or pine resin), sandarac, balsam, elemi, mastic, and shellac. Varnish may also be created from synthetic resins such as acrylic, alkyd, or polyurethane. A varnish formula might not contain any added resins at all since drying oils can produce a varnish effect by themselves. Solvent Originally, turpentine or alcohol was used to dissolve the resin and thin the drying oils. The invention of petroleum distillates has led to turpentine substitutes such as white spirit, paint thinner, and mineral spirit. Modern synthetic varnishes may be formulated with water instead of hydrocarbon solvents. Types Violin Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the following: primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some systems use a drying oil varnish as described below, while others use spirit varnish made of resin(s) dissolved in alcohol. Touchup in repair or restoration is only done with solvent based varnish. Drying oil such as walnut oil or linseed oil may be used in combination with amber, copal, rosin or other resins. Traditionally the oil is prepared by cooking or exposure to air and sunlight, but modern stand oil is prepared by heating oil at high temperature without oxygen. The refined resin is sometimes available as a translucent solid and is then "run" by cooking or melting it in a pot over heat without solvents. The thickened oil and prepared resin are then cooked together and thinned with turpentine (away from open flame) into a brushable solution. The ingredients and processes of violin varnish are very diverse, with some highly regarded old examples showing defects (e.g. cracking, crazing) associated with incompatible varnish components. Some violin finishing systems use vernice bianca (egg white and gum arabic) as a sealer or ground. There is also evidence that finely powdered minerals, possibly volcanic ash, were used in some grounds. Some violins made in the late 18th century used ox blood to create a very deep-red coloration. Today this varnish would have faded and currently be a very warm, dark orange. Resin Most resin or gum varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol, turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e. mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, elemi, benzoin, mastic, balsam, shellac, and a multitude of lacquers. Synthetic resins such as phenolic resin may be employed as a secondary component in certain varnishes and paints. Over centuries, many recipes were developed which involved the combination of resins, oils, and other ingredients such as certain waxes. These were believed to impart special tonal qualities to musical instruments and thus were sometimes carefully guarded secrets. The interaction of different ingredients is difficult to predict or reproduce, so expert finishers were often prized professionals. Shellac Shellac is a very widely used single-component resin varnish that is alcohol-soluble. It is not used for outdoor surfaces or where it will come into repeated contact with water, such as around a sink or bathtub. The source of shellac resin is a brittle or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria lacca, found in the forests of Assam and Thailand and harvested from the bark of the trees where she deposits it to provide a sticky hold on the trunk. Shellac is the basis of French polish, which for centuries has been the preferred finish for fine furniture. Specified "dewaxed" shellac has been processed to remove the waxy substances from original shellac and can be used as a primer and sanding-sealer substrate for other finishes such as polyurethanes, alkyds, oils, and acrylics. Prepared shellac is typically available in "clear" and "amber" (or "orange") varieties, generally as "three-pound cut" or three pounds dry shellac to one US gallon of alcohol. Other natural color shades such as ruby and yellow are available from specialty pigment or woodworker's supply outlets. Dry shellac is available as refined flakes, "sticklac," "button lac," or "seedlac." "White pigmented" shellac primer paint is widely available in retail outlets, billed as a fast-drying interior primer "problem solver", in that it adheres to a variety of surfaces and seals off odors and smoke stains. Shellac clean-up may be done either with pure alcohol or with ammonia cleansers. Alkyd Modern commercially produced varnishes employ some form of alkyd for producing a protective film. Alkyds have good solvent, moisture and UV light resistance. Alkyds are chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well in a wide range of conditions and can be engineered to speed up the cure rate and thus harden faster. Usually this is by the use of metal salt driers such as cobalt salts. Better (and more expensive) exterior varnishes employ alkyds made from high performance oils and contain UV-absorbers; this improves gloss-retention and extends the lifetime of the finish. Various resins may also be combined with alkyds as part of the formula for typical "oil" varnishes that are commercially available. Spar varnish Spar varnish (also called marine varnish or yacht varnish) was originally intended for use on ship or boat spars, to protect the timber from the effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under the load of their sails. The primary requirements were water resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the spars flexed. Elasticity was a pre-condition for weatherproofing too, as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, even if the remaining film was impermeable. Appearance and gloss was of relatively low value. Modified tung oil and phenolic resins are often used. When first developed, no varnishes had good UV-resistance. Even after more modern synthetic resins did become resistant, a true spar varnish maintained its elasticity above other virtues, even if this required a compromise in its UV-resistance. Spar varnishes are thus not necessarily the best choice for outdoor woodwork that does not need to bend in service. Despite this, the widespread perception of "marine products" as "tough" led to domestic outdoor varnishes being branded as "Spar varnish" and sold on the virtue of their weather- and UV-resistance. These claims may be more or less realistic, depending on individual products. Only relatively recently have spar varnishes been available that can offer both effective elasticity and UV-resistance. Drying oils Drying oils, such as linseed and tung oil, are not true varnishes though often in modern terms they accomplish the same thing. Polyurethane Polyurethane varnishes are typically hard, abrasion-resistant, and durable coatings. They are popular for hardwood floors but are considered by some wood finishers to be difficult or unsuitable for finishing furniture or other detailed pieces. Polyurethanes are comparable in hardness to certain alkyds but generally form a tougher film. Compared to simple oil or shellac varnishes, polyurethane varnish forms a harder, decidedly tougher and more waterproof film. However, a thick film of ordinary polyurethane may de-laminate if subjected to heat or shock, fracturing the film and leaving white patches. This tendency increases with long exposure to sunlight or when it is applied over soft woods like pine. This is also in part due to polyurethane's lesser penetration into the wood. Various priming techniques are employed to overcome this problem, including the use of certain oil varnishes, specified "dewaxed" shellac, clear penetrating epoxy sealer, or "oil-modified" polyurethane designed for the purpose. Polyurethane varnish may also lack the "hand-rubbed" lustre of drying oils such as linseed or tung oil; in contrast, however, it is capable of a much faster and higher film build, accomplishing in two coats what may require multiple applications of oil. Polyurethane may also be applied over a straight oil finish, but because of the relatively slow curing time of oils, the emission of certain chemical byproducts, and the need for exposure to oxygen from the air, care must be taken that the oils are sufficiently cured to accept the polyurethane. One of the disadvantages of a polyurethane-based varnish is the tendency to yellow over time. This is because the hydroxyl groups of a regular alkyd are reacted with TDI to produce a urethane-alkyd. This introduces a high degree of aromaticity and hence tendency to yellow. Unlike drying oils and alkyds which cure after evaporation of the solvent and upon reaction with oxygen from the air, true polyurethane coatings cure after evaporation of the solvent and then either by a variety of reactions of chemicals within the original mix, or by reaction with moisture from the air. Certain polyurethane products are "hybrids" and combine different aspects of their parent components. "Oil-modified" polyurethanes, whether water-borne or solvent-borne, are currently the most widely used wood floor finishes. Exterior use of polyurethane varnish may be problematic due to its heightened susceptibility to deterioration through ultra-violet light exposure. All clear or translucent varnishes, and indeed all film-polymer coatings (e.g. paint, stain, epoxy, synthetic plastic, etc.) are susceptible to this damage in varying degrees. Pigments in paints and stains protect against UV damage. UV-absorbers are added to polyurethane and other varnishes (e.g. spar varnish) to work against UV damage but are decreasingly effective over the course of 2–4 years, depending on the quantity and quality of UV-absorbers added, as well as the severity and duration of sun exposure. Water exposure, humidity, temperature extremes, and other environmental factors affect all finishes. Lacquer The word lacquer refers to quick-drying, solvent-based varnishes or paints. Although their names may be similarly derived, lacquer is not the same as shellac and is not dissolved in alcohol. Lacquer is dissolved in lacquer thinner, which is a highly flammable solvent typically containing butyl acetate and xylene or toluene. Lacquer is typically sprayed on, within a spray booth that evacuates overspray and minimizes the risk of combustion. The rule of thumb is that a clear wood finish formulated to be sprayed is a lacquer, but if it is formulated to be brushed on then it is a varnish. Thus, by far most pieces of wooden furniture are lacquered. Lacquer may be considered different from varnish because it can be re-dissolved later by a solvent (such as the one it was dissolved in when it was applied) and does not chemically change to a solid like other varnishes. Acrylic Acrylic resin varnishes are typically water-borne varnishes with the lowest refractive index of all finishes and high transparency. They resist yellowing. Acrylics have the advantage of water clean-up and lack of solvent fumes, but typically do not penetrate into wood as well as oils. They sometimes lack the brushability and self-leveling qualities of solvent-based varnishes. Generally they have good UV-resistance. In the art world, varnishes offer dust-resistance and a harder surface than bare paint – they sometimes have the benefit of ultraviolet light resistors, which help protect artwork from fading in exposure to light. Acrylic varnish should be applied using an isolation coat (a permanent, protective barrier between the painting and the varnish, preferably a soft, glossy gel medium) to make varnish removal and overall conservation easier. Acrylic varnishes used for such a final removable art protection layer are typically mineral-spirit–based acrylic, rather than water-based. Two-part epoxy Various epoxy resin systems have been formulated as varnishes or floor finishes whereby two components are mixed directly before application. Sometimes, the two parts are of equal volume and referred to as 1:1 but not always, as 2:1, 3:1, 4:1 and even 5:1 mixing ratios are commercially available. The individual components are usually referred to as Part A and Part B. All two-part epoxies have a pot-life or working time during which the mixed material can be used. Usually the pot-life is a matter of a few hours or less, but this is highly temperature dependent. Both water-borne and solvent-based epoxies are used. Epoxies do have a tendency to yellow over a fairly short period of time. Conversion Used when a fast-curing, tough, hard finish is desired, such as for kitchen cabinets and office furniture. Comes in two parts: a resin and an acid catalyst. The first is a blend of an amino resin and an alkyd. The acid catalyst is added right before application in a set ratio determined by the manufacturer. Most produce minimal yellowing. There are, however, two downsides to this finish. The first is that as the finish cures, it gives off formaldehyde, which is toxic and carcinogenic. The second is that the finish can crack or craze if too many coats are applied. See also Alkyd The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques Brightwork Desert varnish Tack cloth UV coating – print finishing References Bob Flexner (1993). Understanding Wood Finishing: How to Select and Apply the Right Finish. Rodale Press: Emmaus, PA. External links Tung and Linseed Oils by Steven D. Russel Varnish for musical instruments Varnish for Violins and similar instruments (archive.org) Instructions for Making an Acoustically Proven Varnish Using only Five Ingredients by Keith Hill Chinese inventions Painting materials Printing materials Tang dynasty Visual arts materials Wood finishing materials	wiki
V-Blocks are precision metalworking jigs typically used to hold round metal rods or pipes for performing drilling or milling operations. They consist of a rectangular steel or cast iron block with a 120 degree channel rotated 45-degrees from the sides, forming a V-shaped channel in the top. A small groove is cut in the bottom of the "V". They often come with screw clamps to hold the work. There are also versions with internal magnets for magnetic work-holding. V-blocks are usually sold in pairs. External links How to make a V-block Boilermaking Metalworking The inventor of an improved magnetic V-block was Harold Arlington Spanker http://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US2449255.pdf	wiki
Coral bush may refer to various flowering plants: Ardisia crenata Ardisia japonica Jatropha multifida Templetonia retusa Cockspur coral bush (Erythrina crista-galli)	wiki
The governor of Minnesota is the head of government of the U.S. state of Minnesota. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Minnesota's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. There have been 41 governors of the state; one, Rudy Perpich, served non-consecutive terms. Minnesota Territory had three governors appointed by the President of the United States; the first, Alexander Ramsey, would later be state governor. The current governor is Tim Walz, a member of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party, who took office on January 7, 2019. Governors of Minnesota Territory Minnesota Territory was organized on March 3, 1849. Governors of the State of Minnesota Minnesota was admitted to the Union on May 11, 1858. The Minnesota Constitution of 1858 created the offices of governor and lieutenant governor, elected separately to two-year terms; these were lengthened to four years starting in 1963. As of 1972, the governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket. See also List of Minnesota gubernatorial elections List of lieutenant governors of Minnesota First ladies and gentlemen of Minnesota Notes References General Specific Lists of state governors of the United States Governors of Minnesota Governors Governors	wiki
This is a list of copper production by company. 2020 2016 2012 2010 See also List of countries by copper production List of copper mines References Copper mining companies Mining-related lists Lists of companies	wiki
A permanent representative is a diplomat who is the head of a country’s diplomatic mission to an international organisation. Organizations that receive permanent representatives from their member states include the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, NATO, the European Union, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the Organization of American States. Permanent representatives can be sent to subunits or field offices of an organization. For example, in addition to the permanent representatives sent to the United Nations headquarters in New York City, UN member states also appoint permanent representatives to other UN offices, such as those in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. Permanent representatives are often informally described as ambassadors. However, although a permanent representative typically holds the diplomatic rank of an ambassador, because they are accredited to an international organisation, their official title is permanent representative. For example, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is technically called the Permanent Representative to the UN, even though they are widely referred to as an ambassador. Diplomatic representatives of the Pope are titled apostolic nuncio or papal nuncio, which is equivalent to permanent representative. Some international organizations, such as UNESCO, use the title permanent delegate to refer to the head of a diplomatic mission accredited to them. References See also Permanent Representative to the United Nations List of current Permanent Representatives to the United Nations Committee of Permanent Representatives (of the European Union) OIC Committee of Permanent Representatives Ministers Deputies Observer status Diplomats by role Diplomatic ranks Government occupations	wiki
Distancing may refer to: Distancing, a martial arts term describing the proper placement of one's self with respect to an opponent. Distancing (psychology), a technique used in psychological therapy and special education to encourage the early stages of cognition, particularly identity and the separation of one's self from other objects. Distancing effect, a technique used in theatre and film	wiki
Triunia youngiana, commonly known as red nut or spice bush, is a shrub of the family Proteaceae native to New South Wales and Queensland. References Flora of Queensland Flora of New South Wales youngiana Plants described in 1864 Taxa named by Ferdinand von Mueller	wiki
Może dotyczyć następujących kompilacji zespołu The Doors: The Very Best of The Doors (album 2001) – album z roku 2001 The Very Best of The Doors (album 2007) – album z roku 2007 Zobacz też: The Best of The Doors (album 1973) – album z roku 1973 The Best of The Doors (album 1985) – album z roku 1985 The Best of The Doors (album 2000) – album z roku 2000	wiki
Boys Don't Cry kan verwijzen naar: Boys Don't Cry (film), een film uit 1999 Boys Don't Cry (single), een single van The Cure	wiki
Shosha, also known as churul or churu, is a type of soft cheese in Tibetan cuisine. Tibetan cheese is a staple food and is often made from animals suited to the climate such as yak and goat. It is a pungent cheese compared with blue cheese. It is used to make beef dish, and churu cheese soup. See also List of Tibetan dishes References Tibetan cheeses Tibetan cuisine	wiki
Churul may refer to: Churul (cheese), a type of cheese in Tibetan cuisine Offering of Churul, a ritual of the Ayyavazhi religion	wiki
John Robert (Robert) Somers-Smith (Walton-on-Thames 15 december 1887 – Gommecourt, 1 juli 1916) was een Brits roeier. Somers-Smith won tijdens de Olympische Zomerspelen 1908 een gouden medaille in de discipline vier-zonder-stuurman. Somers-Smith kwam om het leven tijdens de eerste dag van de slag aan de Somme. Resultaten Olympische Zomerspelen 1908 in Londen in de vier-zonder-stuurman Brits roeier Brits olympisch kampioen Brits militair in de Eerste Wereldoorlog	wiki
No ship of the United States Navy has ever borne the name USS Tiger Shark or Tigershark, but the name is popular for fictional submarines (although real submarines have been named ). Fictional submarines USS Tiger Shark is the setting for the 1951 movie Submarine Command, starring William Holden as a submarine captain haunted by a life and death decision made during wartime. USS Tiger Shark is the setting for the 16th episode of the second season (1958) of the syndicated television anthology series The Silent Service. Tiger Shark is a submarine featured in the 1959 sci-fi movie The Atomic Submarine. USS Tigershark (SSN-28) is featured in the 1995 episode of the TV series JAG. USS Tiger Shark is the setting for the 2002 suspense/horror movie Below. See also List of fictional ships Ice Station Zebra (film), with a fictional U.S. Navy submarine named USS Tigerfish Tigershark	wiki
The Rough Guide to World Roots is a world music compilation album originally released in 1999. Part of the World Music Network Rough Guides series, the album gives broad coverage to global folk and roots revival music. Five of the fourteen tracks come from The Americas (Ecuador, Cuba [2], USA, & Brazil), three from Asia (Uzbekistan, Indonesia, Pakistan), three from Europe (Belgium, Italy, Hungary), and three from Africa (South Africa and Senegal [2]). The compilation was produced by Phil Stanton, co-founder of the World Music Network. Critical reception Writing for AllMusic, Heather Phares claimed the album "delivers what its title promises", calling it a "solid grounding" in world roots music. Track listing References 1999 compilation albums World Music Network Rough Guide albums	wiki
This is a list of largest cities in the Arab world. The Arab world is here defined as the 22 member states of the Arab League. Largest cities Largest cities in the Arab world by official cities proper: See also List of largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East List of Arab countries by population List of largest cities in the Levant region by population References Cities Arab League Cities,largest Arab world Cities,largest	wiki
1959 Major League Baseball All-Star Game may refer to: The 1959 Major League Baseball All-Star Game (first game), a 5–4 victory for the National League over the American League, played in Pittsburgh The 1959 Major League Baseball All-Star Game (second game), a 5–3 victory for the American League over the National League, played in Los Angeles	wiki
Puss moth may refer to: Megalopyge opercularis, a North American moth Cerura vinula, a European moth de Havilland Puss Moth, an aeroplane built between 1929 and 1933 Animal common name disambiguation pages	wiki
Transition matrix may refer to: The matrix associated with a change of basis for a vector space. Stochastic matrix, a square matrix used to describe the transitions of a Markov chain. State-transition matrix, a matrix whose product with the state vector at an initial time gives at a later time .	wiki
The Musée – Librairie du Compagnonnage is a museum devoted to French trade guilds. It is located in the 6th arrondissement at 10, rue Mabillon, Paris, France, and open weekday afternoons; entry is free. The museum is operated by the Compagnons du Tour de France in the former seat of the Compagnons Charpentiers du Devoir de Liberté ("Indiens"), and documents the history of French trade guilds () from their medieval origins to the present day. It contains artifacts, tools, photographs, and documents pertaining to these diverse associations of skilled craftsmen in fields such as cooking, pastry, plumbing, ironworks, masonry, cabinetmaking, carpentry, etc. Since medieval times, these craftsmen have made a Tour de France as they acquire their knowledge from masters (maîtres) and progress from apprenti to compagnon and perhaps ultimately to maître. To become a master of the Compagnons du Devoir (founded 1347), each must create a masterpiece (chef d'œuvre) which is then judged by a college of masters; the museum contains some of these impressive pieces. See also List of museums in Paris References External links Musée - Librairie du Compagnonnage Paris.org entry ParisInfo entry UnderstandFrance.org description Museums in Paris Buildings and structures in the 6th arrondissement of Paris History museums in France Industry museums in France	wiki
Sha Shingbee is a stir-fry type dish of sliced mutton with green beans in Tibetan cuisine. See also List of lamb dishes List of Tibetan dishes References Tibetan cuisine Lamb dishes	wiki
In chemistry, a hemihydrate (or semihydrate) is a hydrate whose solid contains one molecule of water of crystallization per two other molecules, or per two unit cells. An example of this is or , which is the hemihydrate of . References Hydrates	wiki
This article lists political parties in Canada. Federal parties In contrast with the political party systems of many nations, Canadian parties at the federal level are often only loosely connected with parties at the provincial level, despite having similar names. One exception is the New Democratic Party. The NDP is organizationally integrated, with most of its provincial counterparts including a shared membership. Provincial and territorial parties Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Northwest Territories From approximately 1897 to 1905, political parties were active; however, legislative government was eliminated when the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created out of the heavily populated area of NWT. Elected legislative government was re-established in 1951. Like Nunavut, NWT elects independent candidates and operates by consensus. Some candidates in recent years have asserted that they were running on behalf of a party, but territorial law does not recognize parties. Historical parties 1897–1905 Northwest Territories Liberal Party Northwest Territories Liberal-Conservative Party Nova Scotia Nunavut The territory, established in 1999, has a legislature that runs on a consensus government model, candidates running as independents, and no parties are represented in the Legislative Assembly. Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Yukon Municipal parties The majority of municipal politics in Canada are non-partisan, but the municipal governments of Vancouver and Montreal operate on a party system. Burnaby Burnaby Citizens Association - 4 Burnaby Green Party - 1 There are four independents. Montreal Surrey Safe Surrey Coalition - 5 Surrey First - 4 Vancouver Canada Political party	wiki
The 1892 Kentucky Derby was the 18th running of the Kentucky Derby. The race took place on May 11, 1892. Full results Winning breeder: George J. Long (KY) Payout The winner received a purse of $4,230. Second place received $300. Third place received $150. References 1892 Kentucky Derby Derby May 1892 sports events	wiki
Gummi Bears may refer to: Gummy bear, a soft, chewy candy Gummi Bears, the proprietary Disney animated cartoon Gummibar, a viral character band See also Gummy Bear (disambiguation)	wiki
Guthuk (Tibetan: , English: 'Gu= 9, Thuk= stew soup ' or 29 date of Bot calendar celebrate so called Guthuk) is a stew soup which has various types of ingredients like beans, vegetables, meat etc, or left over harvested grains is used for preparing in Sherpa or Tibetan cuisine. It is eaten two days before Losar, the Bot or Tibetan New Year and is a variation on thukpa bhatuk. The Tibetan religious ceremony Gutor (), literally meaning 'offering of the 29th', is held on the 29th of the 12th Bot or Tibetan month, and is focused on driving out all negativity, including evil spirits and misfortunes of the past year, and starting the new year in a peaceful and auspicious way. It is made with barley and other ingredients. Banishing evil spirits day The temples and monasteries throughout Tibet hold grand religious dance ceremonies, with the largest at Potala Palace in Lhasa. Families clean their houses on this day, decorate the rooms and eat . In the evening, the people carry torches, calling out the words of exorcism. On that day the monasteries do a protector deities' puja (a special kind of ritual) and begin preparations for the Losar celebrations. The custom that day is to make of nine different ingredients including dried cheese and various grains. Also, dough balls are given out with various ingredients hidden in them such as chilies, salt, wool, rice and coal. The ingredients one finds hidden in one's dough ball are supposed to be a lighthearted comment on one's character. If a person finds chilies in their dough, it means they are talkative. If white-colored ingredients like salt, wool or rice are inside the dough it is considered a good sign. If a person finds coal in the dough it has much the same meaning as finding coal in one's Christmas stocking; it means one has a "black heart". See also List of soups List of Tibetan dishes Notes References Further reading Exorcising Ghost Day Tibet Travel Noodle soups Tibetan noodle dishes	wiki
South Africa sent a team to compete at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing, China and finished 6th on the medal table. Natalie du Toit, five time gold medallist at the Athens Paralympics in 2004, competed in six swimming events. She also represented South Africa at the Beijing Olympics. Other members of the swim team included Charl Bouwer, Kevin Paul, Tadgh Slattery, Achmat Hassiem, Shireen Sapiro, Emily Gray, Sarah Shannon, Adri Visser and Beth Nothling. South Africa also sent a swimming official, Sharief Gamiet, to the games. Oscar Pistorius represented South Africa in athletics. South African representatives also competed in wheelchair basketball. Medalists The following South African athletes won medals at the games: Sports Athletics Men's track Men's field Women's track Women's field Cycling Men's road Women's road Men's track Women's track Equestrian Individual events Team * Indicated the three best individual scores that count towards the team total. Powerlifting Women Rowing Swimming Men Women Table Tennis Men Women Wheelchair Basketball Players Justin Govender Marcus Retief David Curle Grant Waites Jeremiah Nel Marius Papenfus Nick Taylor Ralph Taylor Richard Nortje Shaun Hartnick Siphamandla Gumbi Thandile Zonke William Reichart Tournament Group A Matches Classification 9-12 Ninth place Wheelchair Tennis Men Women See also South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics South Africa at the Paralympics External links Beijing 2008 Paralympic Games Official Site International Paralympic Committee References Nations at the 2008 Summer Paralympics 2008 Paralympics	wiki
The Northern Bank £5 note was a banknote issued by Northern Bank for circulation in Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. It was the smallest denomination note issued by the bank. Following the takeover of Northern Bank by Danske Bank in 2004, production of the note ended and it was slowly removed from circulation. History In October 1999 a special polymer version featuring an illustration of the Space Shuttle was issued in celebration of the millennium. It was the first polymer banknote used in the United Kingdom. After the Northern Bank robbery in which £26.5 million was stolen, Northern Bank reprinted all of its banknotes with different designs apart from the £5 note which was not replaced. Design List of historical designs References External links Danske Bank Banknotes The Association of Commercial Banknote Issuers Banknotes of Northern Ireland Five-base-unit banknotes	wiki
A rift is a linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart. Chasm or The Chasm may also refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Games Chasm (video game), a 2018 video game released by Bit Kid, Inc. Chasm: The Rift, a 1997 computer game released by GT Interactive Music Chasm (Delta-S album), 2005 Chasm (Ryuichi Sakamoto album), 2004 "Chasm" (song), a 2010 song by Flyleaf The Chasm (band), a death metal band originally from Mexico City, Mexico Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media The Chasm (novel), a 1947 novel by Victor Canning Chasm City, a 2001 science fiction novel "The Chasm" (Sliders), a television episode Places Chasm, British Columbia Chasm Provincial Park, adjacent to Chasm, British Columbia The Chasm, a feature of Sandymount, Otago Peninsula, New Zealand Other uses Abyss (religion) Canyon or gorge Chaos (cosmogony)	wiki
Microceratops may refer to: Microceratops Seyrig, 1952, an invalid junior synonym of Neopimpla, an ichneumonid wasp genus Microceratops Bohlin, 1953, an invalid junior synonym of Microceratus, a ceratopsian genus	wiki
Mike or Michael Powers may refer to: Mike Powers (baseball) (1906–1983), American right fielder in Major League Baseball Mike Powers (soccer) (born 1957), retired American soccer midfielder Mike Powers (politician) (born 1962), American politician in Wisconsin Doc Powers (Michael Riley Powers, 1870–1909), American Major League Baseball player Michael R. Powers (born 1959), American professor of insurance and author Mike Powers, county executive officer in the Ventura County, California#Government.	wiki
The Colorado River (, ) is a river of Chile. See also List of rivers of Chile References EVALUACION DE LOS RECURSOS HIDRICOS SUPERFICIALES EN LA CUENCA DEL RIO BIO BIO Rivers of Chile Rivers of Valparaíso Region	wiki
In Mandaeism, Giu () is a demon in the World of Darkness (alma ḏ-hšuka) or underworld. Hibil Ziwa encounters Giu during his descent to the World of Darkness in Chapter 1 of Book 5 in the Right Ginza. References Demons in Mandaeism	wiki
This is a list of video games considered controversial. The list includes games that have earned controversies for violence, sexual content, LGBT themes, racism, and review bombing from fans. Some of the video games on this list have been banned or regionally censored. Video game series 1970s–1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s See also List of banned video games List of regionally censored video games List of video games notable for negative reception References External links Sexual Moments in Video Game History from I-Mockery The Top 7... Controversies Waiting to Happen: Sex! Murder! Godless blasphemy and animal abuse! How could the media possibly miss these button-pushing games? by GamesRadar The Top 7... Most Evil Games: See the most racist, hateful and tasteless titles you wouldn't touch with a 10 foot pole by GamesRadar Controversial Video games	wiki
Sarita Handa is an Indian online marketplace for furniture and home décor. The company was founded in 1992 and headquartered in Delhi. The company started with a bank loan of INR 10 lakh from Canara Bank. History Sarita Handa was founded by Sarita Handa in February 1992. In 2004, The company opened its first retail store in Delhi. Later, Handa opened 3 retail stores in Mumbai and Chennai. Awards Sarita Handa invited to be part of Cannes Lions Festival, 2014, and joint winner of EDIDA's Award 2017 in bedroom category. References Furniture retailers of India Retail companies established in 1992	wiki
Sing Sing is a prison in New York State. Sing Sing may also refer to: Music Sing-Sing (band), a British band Sing Sing (1984–1994), a 1997 album by The Honeymoon Killers "Sing Sing" (song), a 1978 song by Gaz "Sing Sing", a song from the Marianas Trench album Masterpiece Theatre Other uses Sing Sing (film), a 1983 Italian comedy film Sing Sing (horse) (1957-72), a British thoroughbred racehorse Sing-sing (New Guinea), a cultural event in Papua New Guinea Sing Sing, historic name of the village of Ossining, New York See also Sing (disambiguation) Sing Sing Sing (disambiguation)	wiki
Dođi i uzmi me (Come and Get Me) is the third studio album by Bosnian-Serbian pop-folk recording artist Seka Aleksić. It was released 30 July 2005 through the record label Grand Production. Track listing References 2005 albums Seka Aleksić albums Grand Production albums	wiki
Empress Hotel may refer to: Empress Hotel, Fitzroy North, Melbourne Empress Hotel (Toronto), destroyed by fire The Empress (hotel), Victoria, British Columbia The Empress Hotel (New Jersey), in Asbury Park	wiki
General Hartley may refer to: Alan Hartley (1882–1954), British Indian Army general Harold Hartley (chemist) (1878–1972), British Army brigadier general James Hartley (East India Company officer) (1745–1799), East India Company major general John Hartley (general) (born 1943), Australian Army major general	wiki
Magdalen College, Oxford, like all Oxford colleges, may elect certain distinguished old members of the college, or benefactors and friends, as 'Honorary Fellows' as an honour and sign of respect or appreciation. This is a list of those so elected: Anatole Abragam Montek Singh Ahluwalia Julian Barnes Stephen Breyer Peter Brook Nicolas Browne-Wilkinson, Baron Browne-Wilkinson Harry Christophers Sir David Clary Cecil Clementi Sir John Eccles Bill Emmott Gareth Evans James Fenton Howard Florey, Baron Florey Malcolm Fraser Christopher Geidt, Baron Geidt A. D. Godley Keith Griffin William Hague, Baron Hague of Richmond Seamus Heaney John Hemming Alan Hollinghurst Michael Jay, Baron Jay of Ewelme Dame Frances Kirwan Donald Knuth Harold Hongju Koh Sir Anthony Leggett C.S. Lewis Sir Kit McMahon Sir Peter Medawar J. H. C. Morris Kumi Naidoo Patrick Neill, Baron Neill of Bladen Sir Walter Parratt Sir Jonathan Porritt Sir Shridath Ramphal Matt Ridley, Viscount Ridley Anthony Smith David Souter Michael Spence Strobe Talbott A.J.P. Taylor Sir Michael Wheeler-Booth Simon Woolley, Baron Woolley of Woodford John Zachary Young Magdalen	wiki
The Bayer designation Theta Crucis (θ Cru / θ Crucis) is shared by two star systems, in the constellation Crux: θ1 Crucis θ2 Crucis Crucis, Theta Crux (constellation)	wiki
Flagstaff Park is a park in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. A two-way path for bicyclists and pedestrians was added in 2016. References External links Cambridge Common/Flagstaff Park Project, Community Development Department, City of Cambridge, Massachusetts CAMBRIDGE COMMON/FLAGSTAFF PARK IMPROVEMENTS, Harvard Square Business Association Geography of Cambridge, Massachusetts Parks in Massachusetts Tourist attractions in Cambridge, Massachusetts	wiki
In partner dancing, closed position is a category of positions in which partners hold each other while facing at least approximately toward each other. Closed positions employ either body contact or body support, that is, holding each other is not limited to handhold. If the partners are comfortable with each other and the dance style allows it, body contact increases the connection between the partners. Some dances, such as Balboa and Collegiate Shag are only done in body contact. Routine The most commonly used kind of closed position comes from the waltz, and is very commonly used in ballroom dance. The leader's right hand is on the follower's back (or, rarely, on the left upper arm near the shoulder); its exact placement on the back ranges from the waist to the left shoulder blade. The follower's left hand is on the leader's right shoulder, or the upper arm near the shoulder. The other two hands are clasped together at or near chest or shoulder height. Unlike the ballroom style, in social fast turning (or Viennese-style tempos) waltz, the follower's left hand usually is completely around the leader's right shoulder in a firm mutually supporting close or contact embrace. Each partner alternately but smoothly assists in the half turn with body leads while continuously right turning in line of direction in a "V" position. A similar close embrace position but with both hands around each other can be seen in smooth turning polka and other folk dances. Similar dances Some specific varieties of this kind of closed position are used in specific categories of ballroom dance. For instance, in the American tradition and the older European traditions, the joined hands are usually held lower than the shoulder, with the elbows low and often sharply bent. In the international standard ballroom dances the joined hands are held at or just above shoulder height, with the arms outstretched and the elbows bent at obtuse angles. In the latter style the leader's right hand stays on the left side of the follower's back and (except in the tango) is placed on the shoulder blade, while the follower's left hand is placed on the leader's right upper arm (or, in the tango, underneath the upper arm). Many other kinds of closed positions are used in folk dance. In closed shoulder-waist position the leader holds the follower's waist with both hands, while the follower places both hands on the leader's shoulders. In Scandinavian folk dance (e.g. the polska, pols, and hambo) there are variations on shoulder-waist position in which the leader's left hand is on the follower's shoulder, upper arm, or elbow, and in the latter case the follower's right arm is outstretched with the hand just above the leader's sharply bent elbow. The lavolta, one of the more famous Renaissance dances, used a distinctive kind of closed position in which the follower faced to one side from the leader and put the near hand on top of the leader's shoulder, while the leader used both hands to hold the follower under the busk. See also Slow dance Open position Close embrace Frame Connection Ballroom dance for a list of partner dances, including non-ballroom styles. Partner dance technique	wiki
Dreyfus is an American investment management company that deals with investment products and strategies. It was established in 1951 and is currently headquartered in New York City. Dreyfus currently is a subsidiary of BNY Mellon Investment Management. History The firm's origin dates back to 1947, when investor Jack Dreyfus founded a brokerage house in New York City named Dreyfus & Co. In 1951, attracted by the concept of mutual funds, Dreyfus & Co. purchased a small management company named John G. Nesbett & Co., Inc. with a small common stock fund called The Nesbett Fund Incorporated. Nesbett & Co. was renamed The Dreyfus Corporation, and The Nesbett Fund became The Dreyfus Fund Incorporated. Going public in 1965, Dreyfus was among the first money management firms to tap into the stock market for additional capital. In 1976, Dreyfus was among the first fund companies to introduce an incorporated tax-exempt municipal bond fund. In 1994, Dreyfus completed its landmark merger with Mellon Bank Corporation, and became a wholly owned subsidiary of Mellon Financial Corporation. The merger, a milestone in the history of financial services in the United States, was at the time the largest-ever combination of a bank and mutual fund company. On July 1, 2007, The Bank of New York Company, Inc. and Mellon Financial Corporation merged to form a new company The Bank of New York Mellon, one of the world's largest global asset management and securities services companies. The reach of Dreyfus' distribution capabilities now extends to the resources of BNY Mellon and its exclusive network of institutional asset managers. Current operations As a BNY Mellon company, Dreyfus provides access to its global network of asset managers, delivering investment insight and products — equity, fixed income, global/international and money market mutual funds, separately managed accounts, retirement and cash management strategies, asset allocation solutions and brokerage services. Dreyfus products are delivered through a variety of distribution channels: intermediary (advisor-sold), institutional, and retail direct. References Investment management companies of the United States	wiki
Sepen is a Tibetan cuisine hot sauce made with chillies as the primary ingredient and other spices depending on the recipe. It can be made on a tomato base or can include vegetables like onion and celery. It exists in both thick and chunky versions as well as smooth ones. It can be served with all meals and is used to spice the usually mild Tibetan food. See also List of Tibetan dishes References Tibetan cuisine Sauces	wiki
Funplex may refer to: Funplex, an album by the B-52's "Funplex" (song), the title track of this album Fun-Plex, an amusement park in Omaha, Nebraska The Funplex, an amusement park/center with two locations in Mount Laurel and East Hanover, New Jersey, United States	wiki
The Victorian slide bracelet was a fashion accessory formerly worn by many women in nineteenth century England. Before the creation of the wrist watch, Victorian women wore their time piece on a neck chain that stayed in place with a decorative station that supported the watch (just under it). With a variety of these "stations" to wear with different outfits, they needed some use for all that jewelry after the wrist watch came into fashion. The various pieces were lined up on a 6 or 7 inch (15-18 cm) double chain with little gold balls for spacing them called slide bracelets. Even old stick pin heads were mounted on "blank slides" to add into these bracelets. References Slide bracelet History of clothing (Western fashion)	wiki
A backpacker is a person who participates in any of several forms of backpacking. Backpacker or backpackers may also refer to: Backpacker (magazine), an American magazine about wilderness hiking and adventure Backpacker (video game series), a series of Swedish computer games in which the player travels the world and answers questions about each locale Backpackers (TV series), an Australian TV series following travelling backpackers in Europe Backpackers (web series), a Canadian comedy web series, later adapted for American television Backpacker, Australian and New Zealander slang for inexpensive sleeping accommodations, such as a hostel See also Mochilero (drug courier), Spanish for "backpacker"	wiki
The Kiss of the Sphinx is an oil on canvas painting of 1895 by the German symbolist artist Franz Stuck. It was painted in the same year that Stuck became a professor at Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. The iconography of a sensuous, dangerous femme fatale is a recurring item in Stuck's work. References 1895 paintings Paintings by Franz von Stuck Paintings in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)	wiki
A tea bag, or the compound teabag, is a small, porous, sealed bag or packet, typically containing tea leaves or the leaves of other herbs, which is immersed in water to steep and make an infusion. Originally used only for tea (Camellia sinensis), they are now made with other tisanes ("herbal teas") as well. Tea bags are commonly made of filter paper or food-grade plastic, or occasionally of silk cotton or silk. The tea bag performs the same function as a tea infuser. Tea bags can be used multiple times until there is no extraction left. Some tea bags have an attached piece of string with a paper label at the top that assists in removing the bag, while also displaying the brand or variety of tea. History Tea bag patents date from 1903 when Roberta Lawson and Mary Molaren, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, were granted US patent 723287 for a Tea Leaf Holder, which they had filed for in 1901. The first modern tea bags were hand-sewn fabric bags. Appearing commercially around 1904, tea bags were successfully marketed in about 1908 by Thomas Sullivan, a tea and coffee importer from New York, who shipped his silk tea bags around the world. A popular legend states that this was accidental; the loose tea was intended to be removed from the bags by customers, but they found it easier to brew the tea with the tea leaves still enclosed in the porous bags. The first tea bag packing machine was invented in 1929 by Adolf Rambold for the German company Teekanne. The heat-sealed paper fiber tea bag was patented in 1930 by William Hermanson. The now-common rectangular tea bag was not invented until 1944. Prior to that, tea bags resembled small sacks. Production Teas A broad variety of teas as well as other infusions like herbal teas, are available in tea bags. Typically, tea bags use fannings, the left-overs after larger leaf pieces are gathered for sale as loose tea, but some companies sell teabags containing whole-leaf tea. Shapes and material Traditionally, tea bags have been square or rectangular in shape. They are usually made of filter paper, a blend of wood and vegetable fibers related to paper found in milk and coffee filters. The latter is bleached pulp abaca hemp, a plantation banana plant grown for its fiber, mostly in the Philippines and Colombia. Some bags have a heat-sealable thermoplastic such as PVC or polypropylene as a component fiber on the inner tea bag surface, making them not fully biodegradable. Some newer paper tea bags are made in a circular shape. Tetrahedral tea bags were introduced by the PG Tips brand in 1997. They are typically made of nylon, soilon (PLA mesh made from corn starch), or silk. Nylon is non-biodegradable, so silk is preferred by environmentalists. PLA on the other hand is biodegradable, but is not compostable. Empty tea bags are also available for consumers to fill with tea leaves themselves. These are typically open-ended pouches with long flaps. The pouch is filled with an appropriate quantity of leaf tea and the flap is closed into the pouch to retain the tea. Such tea bags combine the ease of use of a commercially produced tea bag with the wider tea choice and better quality control of loose leaf tea. Plastics In 2017, Mike Armitage, a gardener in Wrexham, UK, found that tea bags left a plastic residue after being composted. He started a petition urging Unilever to remove plastic from bag production. In January 2018, Co-op Food announced that they were removing plastic from their own brand 99 tea bags in conjunction with their supplier Typhoo. In February 2018, PG Tips announced that their pyramid bags would now use corn starch adhesive in place of polypropylene. Microplastics may be found in the tea meant for human consumption. A 2019 study showed that "steeping a single plastic teabag at brewing temperature (95 °C) releases approximately 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup of the beverage". A 2021 study analyzed purportedly cellulose tea bags and found that 15 of the 22 bags tested also contained polyester, polyethylene or polypropylene, which are known to shed microplastic fibers. Although cellulose is considered to be biodegradable, the plastic components are not and release microplastics to the environment when composted. Tea bag-related activities Decorative tea bags have become the basis for large collections and many collectors collect tea bags from around the world. Tea bag collector clubs are widely spread around the world and members consist of people interested in items related to teas. Online collector clubs often include catalogs of tea bags, as well as collection tracking tools. In addition, tea bag collectors often collect other tea-related items such as labels. These websites also provide forums for discussions and trade arrangements between collectors. Teabag folding began in the Netherlands and is often credited to Tiny van der Plas. It is a form of origami in which identical squares of patterned paper (cut from the front of tea bag wrappers) are folded, and then arranged in rosettes. These rosettes are usually used to decorate gift cards and it has become a popular craft in both the US and UK since 2000. Soil scientists used standardized tea bags to measure the decomposition rate of organic materials in different soils. See also 3-MCPD, a chemical compound that is carcinogenic, and can occur in some resin-reinforced tea bag materials Builder's tea, refers to a basic method of preparing tea in a mug with tea bags Tea leaf grading Tea strainer, a small mesh utensil that can filter out stray tea leaves when whole-leaf tea is poured from a teapot Tetley, the British tea company that introduced tea bags in the United Kingdom in 1953 References External links Products introduced in 1904 American inventions Bags German inventions Single-serve containers Tea	wiki
The NWF World Tag Team Championship was the top tag team championship in the National Wrestling Federation from 1970 to 1974, the entire life of the promotion. Title history Footnotes References National Wrestling Federation championships Tag team wrestling championships	wiki
Navel-gazing or omphaloskepsis is the contemplation of one's navel as an aid to meditation. The word derives from the Ancient Greek words (, ) and (, ). Actual use of the practice as an aid to contemplation of basic principles of the cosmos and human nature is found in the practice of yoga or Hinduism and sometimes in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In yoga, the navel is the site of the manipura (also called nabhi) chakra, which yogis consider "a powerful chakra of the body". The monks of Mount Athos, Greece, were described as Omphalopsychians by J.G. Millingen, writing in the 1830s, who says they "...pretended or fancied that they experienced celestial joys when gazing on their umbilical region, in converse with the Deity". However, phrases such as "contemplating one's navel" or "navel-gazing" are frequently used, usually in jocular fashion, to refer to self-absorbed pursuits. See also Hesychast controversy Kundalini Meditative qigong Palamism Self-hypnosis Trance References Meditation Philosophical phrases Quotations from philosophy Navel	wiki
Like minds (Gary Burton), een studioalbum Like Minds (2006), een Brits-Australische psychologische thriller uit 2006	wiki
An engine test stand is a facility used to develop, characterize and test engines. The facility, often offered as a product to automotive OEMs, allows engine operation in different operating regimes and offers measurement of several physical variables associated with the engine operation. A sophisticated engine test stand houses several sensors (or transducers), data acquisition features and actuators to control the engine state. The sensors would measure several physical variables of interest which typically include: crankshaft torque and angular velocity intake air and fuel consumption rates, often detected using volumetric and/or gravimetric measurement methods air-fuel ratio for the intake mixture, often detected using an exhaust gas oxygen sensor environment pollutant concentrations in the exhaust gas such as carbon monoxide, different configurations of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter temperatures and gas pressures at several locations on the engine body such as engine oil temperature, spark plug temperature, exhaust gas temperature, intake manifold pressure atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity Information gathered through the sensors is often processed and logged through data acquisition systems. Actuators allow for attaining a desired engine state (often characterized as a unique combination of engine torque and speed). For gasoline engines, the actuators may include an intake throttle actuator, a loading device for the engine such as an induction motor. The engine test stands are often custom-packaged considering requirements of the OEM customer. They often include microcontroller-based feedback control systems with following features: closed-loop desired speed operation (useful towards characterization of steady-state or transient engine performance) closed-loop desired torque operation (useful towards emulation of in-vehicle, on-road scenarios, thereby enabling an alternate way of characterization of steady-state or transient engine performance) Engine test stand applications Research and Development of engines, typically at an OEM laboratory Tuning of in-use engines, typically at service centers or for racing applications End of production line at an OEM factory. The changing of the engines to be tested takes place automatically, and fluid, electrical and exhaust gas lines are connected to the test stand and engine and disconnected from them by means of docking systems. When the engine docks in the test stand the mechanical drive shaft is automatically connected to it. Engine testing for research and development Research and Development (R&D) activities on engines at automobile OEMs have necessitated sophisticated engine test stands. Automobile OEMs are usually interested in developing engines that meet the following threefold objectives: to provide high fuel efficiency to improve drivability and durability to be in compliance to relevant emission legislation Consequently, an R&D engine test stands allow for a full-fledged engine development exercise through measurement, control and record of several relevant engine variables. Typical tests include ones that: determine fuel efficiency and drivability: torque-speed performance test under steady-state and transient conditions determine durability: ageing tests, oil and lubrication tests determine compliance to relevant emission legislations: volumetric and mass emission tests over stated emission test cycles gain further knowledge about the engine itself: engine mapping exercise or development of multidimensional input-output maps among different engine variables. e.g. a map from intake manifold pressure and engine speed to intake air flow rate. Magnifying LDV sensors in engine testing Laser technology adds useful tools to improve engine design during engine testing. Lasers sensors using laser Doppler velocimetry with magnifying LDV sensors can record the movements of gas particles during the entire 2-stroke, 4-stroke or rotary combustion cycle. These spark plug velocimeter (SPV) sensors can be inserted into the spark plug hole of the combustion chamber of the engine. The sensors can be adjusted to all depth levels of the pistons movement - typically ranging from 0 - 50mm. The magnifying LDV sensors will record the velocity and direction of the movement of gas particles. Engine design can then be optimised with the recorded data and the visualisation of the combustion cycle. The flow and direction of the gas particles can be improved by changing shape and sizes of the chamber, valves, spark plug, injectors and pistons resulting in improved combustion and performance and in reduced emissions. Engine heads with two spark plug holes per cylinder can be used to record the velocity and direction of the movement of gas particles in an engine running under live, firing conditions. SPVs can also be added to the intake and the exhaust to record flow of particles in these areas to further improve engine design. Magnifying LDV sensors have been used in even more extreme situations to measure particle flow in rocket engines. See also Air flow meter Driveshaft Driving cycle Dynamometer Electromagnetic brake Article about eddy current dynos Emission standard Emission test cycle Engine cart Iron bird (aviation) Rocket engine test facility Testbed aircraft References Engine Testing 5th edition A.Martyr, D. Rogers Laser technology in engine testing and development see: Endoscopic 2D particle image velocimetry (PIV) flow field measurements in IC engines Optical access and diagnostic techniques for internal combustion engine development First imaging Fourier-transform spectral measurements of detonation in an internal combustion engine Holographic Particle Image Velocimetry and its Application in Engine Development Flow field measurements in an optically accessible, direct-injection spray-guided internal combustion engine using high-speed PIV Engine Test Stands Christopher I. Moir, Miniature laser doppler velocimetry systems (Proceedings Paper), SPIE Proceedings Vol. 7356, 2009. Engines Engine technology Mechanical tests Test equipment	wiki
A dialect is a variety of spoken or written language. Dialect(s) may also refer to: Dialect continuum Dialect (computing) Di•a•lects, a 1986 album by Joe Zawinul See also Dialectic, a method of argument Eye dialect	wiki
Jermaine Taylor peut désigner : Jermaine Taylor (1986-), basketteur américain ; Jermaine Taylor (1985-), footballeur jamaïcain.	wiki
POB or Pob may refer to: Parti Ouvrier Belge (Belgian Workers Party), forerunner of the Socialist Party (Belgium) Place of birth Pob, central character of Pob's Programme, a British children's TV programme (ran 1985–1990) Patrick O'Brian, novelist and author Poblacion or Pop, a term for the central business district of a Philippine city Pope Field (IATA: POB), Fayetteville, North Carolina, U.S., a military air base Positive Organizational Behavior, an application of psychology Professional Oversight Board, independent oversight of professional organizations in the United Kingdom Personnel on board, an abbreviation in oil and gas exploration and production and in shipbuilding "Pilot on board", by which the time of the pilot's boarding the ship is understood Person overboard, a gender-neutral equivalent of the expression "Man overboard" "Pob", an episode of Folklore “Pop off Boyz” Glassboro New Jersey street gang started in 2009	wiki
The Olympus Zuiko Digital 35mm 1:3.5 Macro is an interchangeable macro lens for the Four Thirds system. It was announced by Olympus Corporation on September 26, 2005. References External links specs 035mm f 3.5 Macro Macro lenses Camera lenses introduced in 2005	wiki
The FIFA World Cup, sometimes called the Football World Cup or the Soccer World Cup, but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the men's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946, due to World War II. The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the Finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the Finals. The current format of the Finals involves 32 teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 tournament final. Iceland made its debut at the FIFA World Cup in 2018 after having failed 12 consecutive qualification campaigns from 1974 to 2014. The nation first attempted to qualify for the tournament back in 1958. The 2018 FIFA World Cup was Iceland's second major international tournament, having also qualified for UEFA Euro 2016. Iceland is the smallest nation to reach the World Cup Group Stage, breaking the record set by Trinidad and Tobago. Record at the FIFA World Cup *Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out. Russia 2018 Following a 2–0 home win over Kosovo in the final round of the qualifiers, Iceland secured their spot in Russia 2018, finishing top of Group I by two points over Croatia, who had defeated Iceland in the World Cup play-offs four years earlier. Despite finishing bottom of the group, Iceland drew against Argentina 1–1 in the opening match of the group. Group stage Players with most appearances Nine players were fielded in all three of Iceland's FIFA World Cup matches in 2018. Goalscorers In the match against Argentina on 16 June 2018, Alfreð Finnbogason scored the first goal for Iceland in FIFA World Cup history. See also Iceland at the UEFA European Championship References External links Iceland at FIFA.com Countries at the FIFA World Cup Iceland national football team	wiki
The Bayer designation Tau Gruis (τ Gru / τ Gruis) is shared by two stars and a star system, in the constellation Grus: τ¹ Gruis (HD 216435) τ² Gruis (HD 216656) τ³ Gruis (HD 216823) Gruis, Tau Grus (constellation)	wiki
"The Lumberjack" is a song by American rock group Jackyl. It was released in 1992 as the band's debut single. History The song is noted for a chainsaw solo played by Dupree. William Phillips and Brian Cogan in the Encyclopedia of Heavy Metal Music referred to it as a "somewhat corny novelty hit". The song's music video features John David Kaldoner, then the A&R executive of Geffen Records, portraying a lumberjack. Greg Vernon was the video's director. Chart performance Weekly charts Year-end charts References External links 1992 debut singles 1992 songs Jackyl songs Geffen Records singles Song recordings produced by Brendan O'Brien (record producer)	wiki
The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, LLC è una multinazionale statunitense che opera nel campo degli hotel di lusso con la catena principale The Ritz-Carlton. Possiede 101 hotel e resort di lusso in 30 paesi con una offerta totale di 27 650 stanze. L'azienda attuale fu fondata nel 1983, quando i precedenti proprietari vendettero il marchio Ritz-Carlton e il Ritz-Carlton hotel a Boston, Massachusetts. Il marchio si diffuse poi in altre città. L'azienda è una sussidiaria di Marriott International. Note Altri progetti Collegamenti esterni Ritz Ritz Marriott International	wiki
C. ursinus may refer to: Callorhinus ursinus, a seal species Canis ursinus, a prehistoric canine species in the genus Canis Centropogon ursinus, a plant species See also Ursinus (disambiguation)	wiki
An orthopedic pillow is a pillow designed to correct body positioning in bed or while lying on any other surface. Its design conforms to orthopedic guidelines to ensure the right placement and support of one or more specific parts of the body to provide safe and healthy rest to the sleeper. Pillows have been traditionally made of foam and fiber, but other types now exist, such as pillows made of memory foam, a heat sensitive material that can acquire the shape of the body lying upon it. It may or may not recover its original shape immediately when the body is removed from the pillow. Orthopedic pillows are regarded as therapeutic pillows based on claims that they can help relieve various conditions including sleep apnoea, snoring, insomnia, breathing difficulty, blood circulation problems, acid reflux, gastroesophageal reflux disease, lower back pain, sciatica pain, neck pain, whiplash, and rotator cuff injury, amongst others. There are many types of orthopedic pillows for almost every part of the human body, as well as orthopedic beds, mattresses, top mattresses, supports and cushions for different orthopedic problems. Some of them have multi-purpose and multi-position designs for different physical ailments and sleep disorders. Types Cervical pillow or contour pillow: A sleep pillow with a curved design that adapts to head, neck and shoulder contour for back sleepers and side sleepers. May relieve neck pain, frozen shoulder, stiff neck and headaches, and may help breathing to reduce snoring and sleep apnoea symptoms. Neck pillow or travel pillow: Pillow shaped like a horseshoe to fit around the neck, mostly used by travelers to keep their necks straight while sleeping sitting up on board planes or other vehicles. Wedge pillow: triangle-shaped pillow that gives a slope for placing the body in a diagonal position. It can be used in an upright or downright position. This pillow is multipurpose; however, they are mainly used to relieve the symptoms of acid reflux and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) during sleep. Lumbar pillow: Half-moon shaped pillow used at the lower back to comfort and relief lumbar pain and keep a correct sitting-down position. Likewise, they are used underneath knees for leg elevation and as a neck support for relax and massage. Knee pillow: Also known as contour leg pillow. Hourglass shaped pillow that when placed between the legs allows the lower body to keep a straight side-sleeping position. Some leg wedge pillows can be unfolded and turned into leg spacers to boost blood circulation in the legs. Body pillow: Long curved pillow for total body support that cradles head, neck, shoulders, back, lower back, legs and knees. Replaces other pillows and supports side sleepers. Buckwheat pillow: A bed pillow filled with buckwheat hulls. Buckwheat pillows have a moldable shape, so they can be adjusted to the shape of the head, neck and shoulders. Spinal support pillow: Orthopedic back pillow used for cervical support while sleeping. Sleep positions The most common sleep positions people adopt in bed are: Side sleeping Side sleeping is the most common of the three. According to the Sleep Assessment and Advisory Service, two out of three people sleep on their sides. This position is considered the most suitable because it reduces the incidences of snoring, sleep apnoea and obstructive sleep apnoea; it helps release breathing airways; and it is the most helpful position for pregnant women to reduce the pressure of their wombs. It is twice as common in women as in men. The inconvenience of this position is that most of the body's pressure relies over arms and shoulders which produce neck stiffness and frozen shoulder. This can be solved with a side sleeper pillow that allows the correct placement of neck, arms and shoulders. Back sleeping Unlike side sleeping, this position may favour episodes of snoring and sinusitis, as well as back pain. This position requires a soft but firm support for three critical curves of the body: behind the neck, in the middle of the back and lower back. For this, an orthopedic pillow with neck contour and a wedge under knees can allow the back sleeper to lie with safety and comfort. Stomach sleeping More common in infants and small children than in adults, this sleep position is considered harmful for the neck (neck strain, neck pain and stiffness) and responsible of the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in babies as small children, according to a study by the U.S. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), the National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. See also Orthopedic mattress References Pillows	wiki
The Bayer designation Eta Hydri (η Hyi / η Hydri) is shared by two stars, in the constellation Hydrus: η¹ Hydri η² Hydri Hydri, Eta Hydrus (constellation)	wiki
P. ursinus may refer to: Papio ursinus, a baboon species Paruromys ursinus, a rat species See also Ursinus (disambiguation)	wiki
The Samyang Reflex 300mm f/6.3 UMC CS is an interchangeable camera lens announced by Samyang on April 28, 2014. References http://www.dpreview.com/products/samyang/lenses/samyang_300_6p3_slr/specifications Camera lenses introduced in 2014 300	wiki
An artwork, or work of art, is an aesthetic item or artistic creation. Artwork or Artworks may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Artwork (album), by The Used, 2009 Artworks (album), by Art Pepper, 1984 Artwork (musician), a member of Magnetic Man Artworks (film), a 2003 crime film Other uses Artwork (graphic arts), a graphical representation of an image used in the printing process Cover art, the illustration or photograph on the outside of a published product Album cover, front of the packaging of a commercially released audio recording ArtWorks, a software package See also Art (disambiguation) Work (disambiguation) Work of art (disambiguation)	wiki
An experience point (often abbreviated as exp or XP) is a unit of measurement used in some tabletop role-playing games (RPGs) and role-playing video games to quantify a player character's life experience and progression through the game. Experience points are generally awarded for the completion of missions, overcoming obstacles and opponents, and successful role-playing. In many RPGs, characters start as fairly weak and untrained. When a sufficient amount of experience is obtained, the character "levels up", achieving the next stage of character development. Such an event usually increases the character's statistics, such as maximum health, magic and strength, and may permit the character to acquire new abilities or improve existing ones. Levelling up may also give the character access to more challenging areas or items. In some role-playing games, particularly those derived from Dungeons & Dragons, experience points are used to improve characters in discrete experience levels; in other games, such as GURPS and the World of Darkness games, experience points are spent on specific abilities or attributes chosen by the player. In most games, as the difficulty of the challenge increases, the experience rewarded for overcoming it also increases. As players gain more experience points, the amount of experience needed to gain abilities typically increases. Alternatively, some games keep the number of experience points per level constant but progressively lower the experience gained for the same tasks as the character's level increases. Thus, as the player character strengthens from gaining experience, they are encouraged to accept new tasks that are commensurate with their improved abilities in order to advance. Types Level-based progression In games derived from Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), an accumulation of a sufficient number of experience points (XP) increases a character's "level", a number that represents a character's overall skill and experience. To "level" or "level up" means to gain enough XP to reach the next level. By gaining a level, a character's abilities or stats will increase, making the character stronger and able to accomplish more difficult tasks, including safely battling stronger enemies, gaining access to more powerful abilities (such as spells or combat techniques), and to make, fix or disable more complex mechanical devices, or resolve increasingly difficult social challenges. Typically, levels are associated with a character class, and many systems allow combinations of classes, allowing a player to customize how their character develops. Some systems that use a level-based experience system also incorporate the ability to purchase specific traits with a set amount of experience; for example, D&D 3rd Edition bases the creation of magical items around a system of experience expenditure (known as burning xp) and also uses a system of feat selection which closely matches the advantages of systems such as GURPS or the Hero System. The d20 System also introduced the concept of prestige classes which bundle sets of mechanics, character development and requirements into a package which can be "leveled" like an ordinary class. Some games have a level cap, or a limit of levels available. For example, in the online game RuneScape, no player can currently get higher than level 120 which needs a combined 104,273,167 experience points to gain, nor can any one skill gain more than 200 million experiences. Some games have a dynamic level cap, where the level cap is dependent upon the levels of the average player (so it gradually increases). Activity-based progression In some systems, such as the classic tabletop role-playing games Traveller, Call of Cthulhu and Basic Role-Playing, and the role-playing video games Dungeon Master, Final Fantasy II, The Elder Scrolls, the SaGa series, and Grandia series, progression is based on increasing individual statistics (skills, rank and other features) of the character, and is not driven by the acquisition of (general) experience points. The skills and attributes are made to grow through exercised use. Some authors believe that activity-based progression encourages tedious grinding processes, like intentionally taking damage and attacking allied characters to increase health in Final Fantasy II. Free-form advancement Free-form advancement is used by many role-playing systems including GURPS, Hero System or the World of Darkness series. It allows the player to select which skills to advance by allocating "points". Each character attribute is assigned a price to improve, so for example it might cost a character 2 points to raise an archery skill one notch, 10 points to raise overall dexterity by one, or it might cost 20 points to learn a new magic spell. Players are typically free to spend points however they choose, which greatly increases the control that a player has over the character's development, but also usually causes players to find that complexity increases as well. Some games therefore simplify character creation and advancement by suggesting packages or templates of pre-selected ability sets, so for example a player could have their character become an "investigator" by purchasing a package deal which includes many skills and abilities, rather than buying them each separately. Cash-in advancement A cash-in experience advancement system uses experience points to "purchase" such character advancements as class levels, skill points, new skills, feats or increasing saving throw bonuses or base attribute points each of which has a set cost in experience points with set limits on the maximum bonuses that can be purchased at a given time usually once per game session. Once experience points are used thus they are "spent" and are erased from the character record or marked as spent and cannot be used again. Final Fantasy XIII and Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay are examples of games that use a cash-in advancement system. Hybrid systems Some games use advancement systems which combine elements from two or more of the above types. For example, in the third edition of Dungeons & Dragons, whenever a level is gained in a character class, it provides a number of skill points (the exact number is calculated based on the class and the character's intelligence statistic), which can be spent to raise various skills. Character level (generally the sum of a character's total levels in all classes) is used to calculate how high skills can be raised, when an ability score can be raised and when a character can gain new feats (a class of special abilities which include special attacks, proficiencies in various weapons and bonuses on the dice rolls used to determine the outcome of various actions) and how many experience points are needed to advance in level. In Ragnarok Online, experience points are divided into two categories: base experience and job experience. Gaining base experience increases a character's base level, which is used to calculate a character's maximum HP and SP, increasing base level also provides points which can be spent to increase stats such as strength, agility and intelligence. Gaining job experience increases a character's job level, each job level provides a skill point which can be spent in the job's skill tree to gain a new ability, such as a spell, special attack or passive bonus, or improve an existing ability. Video games Since many early role-playing video games are derived from Dungeons & Dragons, most use a level-based experience system. In many games, characters must obtain a minimum level to perform certain actions, such as wielding a particular weapon, entering a restricted area, or earning the respect of a non-player character. Some games use a system of "character levels", where higher-level characters hold an absolute advantage over those of lower level. In these games, statistical character management is usually kept to a minimum. Other games use a system of "skill levels" to measure advantages in terms of specific aptitudes, such as weapon handling, spell-casting proficiency, and stealthiness. These games allow the players to customize their characters to a greater extent. Some games, particularly among MUDs and MMORPGs, place a limit on the experience a character gains from a single encounter or challenge, to reduce the effectiveness of power-leveling. Perks "Perks" are special bonuses that video game players can add to their characters to give special abilities. The term refers to the general usage of "perk" as an abbreviation of "perquisite". Perks are permanent rather than temporary and are progressively unlocked through experience points. The first video game to use the term "perks" to refer to such a mechanic was the 1997 role-playing video game Fallout. Besides RPGs, perks have been used in various other video games in recent times, including first-person shooters such as Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare (2007), Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009), and Killing Floor (2009), as well as action games such as Metal Gear Online (2008). Remorting "Remorting" (also known as "rebirth", "ascending/ascension", "reincarnating", or "new game plus") is a game mechanic in some role-playing games whereby, once the player character reaches a specified level limit, the player can elect to start over with a new version of the character. The bonuses that are given are dependent on several factors, which generally involve the stats of the character before the reincarnation occurs. The remorting character generally loses all levels, but gains an advantage that was previously unavailable, usually access to different races, avatars, classes, skills, or otherwise inaccessible play areas within the game. A symbol often identifies a remorted character. The term "remort" comes from MUDs, in some of which players may become immortal characters—administrative staff—simply by advancing to the maximum level. These users are generally expected to distance themselves from gameplay, and interaction with players may be severely limited. When an immortal chooses to vacate his or her position to resume playing the game—usually from level one just as with any new character—he or she is said to have remorted, "becoming mortal again". A MUD called Arcane Nites, formerly Nitemare, claims to have created the first remort system and coined the term. Grinding Grinding refers to the process of repeating one specific activity over and over. This is done, for example, by repeatedly participating in challenges, quests, tasks and events which reward experience points for performing repetitive, often menial challenges. This definition can also be used in multi-player games, but it is typically displaced by a much more charged meaning. A term intended to describe this style of play without pejorative connotation is optimization, also known as "XP farming". Power-leveling Power-leveling is using the help of another, stronger player to level a character more quickly than is possible alone. Sharing Games, that allow several characters participating in a single event (such as battle or quest completion), implement various methods of determining how and when experience gets shared between participants. These methods include: only last-hitting character, whose hit killed the enemy, getting experience (as in Fire Emblem series); unconditionally sharing experience among characters (as in D&D system); and giving experience based on each character's actions (as in Final Fantasy Tactics). In some online games, it is possible to join a group and gain experience, loot or other rewards, while providing little or no contribution to the group. This type of behaviour is referred to as leeching, particularly when it is done without the permission of other group members. In games which allow players to gain rewards by kill stealing, this is also considered a form of leeching. This is extremely common in games such as Dungeon Defenders, in which all players receive the same rewards regardless of their contributions. Botting Some players of online games use automated programs known as bots to grind or leech for them in order to progress with minimal effort. This practice often violates the terms of service. Bots are also commonly used in commercial operations in order to powerlevel a character, either to increase the sale value of the account, or to allow the character to be used for commercial gold farming. See also Grinding (gaming) Virtual economy Virtual world References External links Game terminology MUD terminology Player progress tracking in video games Role-playing game terminology Video game terminology	wiki
Green Acres is an American sitcom starring Eddie Albert and Eva Gabor as a couple who move from New York City to a rural country farm. The series was first broadcast on CBS, from September 15, 1965, to April 27, 1971. All the episodes were filmed in color. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (1965–66) Season 2 (1966–67) Season 3 (1967–68) Season 4 (1968–69) Season 5 (1969–70) Season 6 (1970–71) TV movie (1990) See also List of Petticoat Junction episodes List of The Beverly Hillbillies episodes References Episodes Green Acres	wiki
Destroyer escort is the US Navy classification for a smaller, lightly armed warship designed to be used to escort convoys of merchant marine ships. Destroyer escort may also refer to: , a destroyer escort class of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force , a designation given to 78 frigates of the Royal Navy, constructed in the United States , a destroyer escort class of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force , a class of fleet escorts used by the Kriegsmarine roughly comparable to American destroyer escorts , a destroyer escort class of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force , a destroyer escort class of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force , a class of four escort destroyers operated by the Royal Canadian Navy , a class of seven escort destroyers operated by the Royal Canadian Navy , a class of six escort destroyers operated by the Royal Australian Navy , a class of seven escort destroyers operated by the Royal Canadian Navy , a class of destroyer built for the Royal Navy under the War Emergency Programme of the First World War , a destroyer escort class of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force See also Escort destroyer (disambiguation) Ocean escort, type of United States Navy warship Frigate, any of several types of warship	wiki

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