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Mariners Harbor, Staten Island Building and repairing boats and ships was Staten Island's most important industry before the First World War. One of the Island's earliest and most important shipyards belonged to William and James M. Rutan. Their shipyard produced about a 100 schooners and sloops per year. There were 17 shipyards on Staten Island by 1880, located on the North Shore, in Stapleton and in Tottenville. Tugs, propeller yachts and coal barges were built there. US Navy and international shipping in the late 1800s produced a need for large shipyards. They could be found along the Kill van Kull near Mariners Harbor and Port Richmond. In 1901-1902, Townsend and Downey Shipyard built the Meteor III, an imperial yacht for Kaiser Wilhelm. By the 1920s, 18 shipyards employed 6,800 people. The Port Richmond Iron Works was founded in 1895 as a machine shop. The Burlee Drydock Company was founded at about the same time. The two firms consolidated under the Burlee name in 1898 at Port Richmond, Staten Island. Burlee later started a shipyard for the construction of wooden vessels. The firm's name was changed in 1907 to Staten Island Shipbuilding Company. Steel ship construction began in 1916 when a foundry was added. Port Richmond is a neighborhood lying in the south of Kill van Kull in northwestern Staten Island. The area was known for a cemetery of the Dutch Reformed church near the shore on Richmond Avenue and was called the Burial Place in 1700. It was a point of transfer for freight and passengers traveling by boat between New York City (NYC) and New Brunswick, New Jersey. It was also a ferry landing known variously as Ryer's Landing, Mersereau's Landing and Decker's Landing, built as a terminus for a route to Bergen Point (now in Bayonne, NJ). Ferries ran continually until shortly after the Bayonne Bridge was built in 1931. In 1925 activities shifted from Port Richmond to Mariners Harbor. In 1929 the yard consolidated with another and began operations under the name United Drydocks Company. The name changed to United Shipyards, Incorporated, in 1938. Long associated with maritime businesses, Mariners Harbor is a neighborhood in western Staten Island bounded by Kill van Kull to the north, to the east by the approach to the Bayonne bridge, Forest Avenue to the south, and the Goethals Bridge to the west. Commercial fishing and the harvesting of oysters, which was curtailed in the early 1900s due to pollution of the harbor, and shipbuilding. The yard was bought by Bethlehem Steel Company in 1938. Bethlehem Steel, which emerged from World War I in a strong position, retained it prominence in the industry during the depressed years of the 1920s and 1930s. Its yards at Fore River in Quincy, Massachusetts, at Sparrows Point near Baltimore, and on Staten Island still built ships, and repair facilities on both coasts added to its capacity. By 1938 there was an influx of workers brought to the Island by Bethlehem Steel to work in the former United Ship Yards. The number of shipyard workers on Staten Island would soon equal the high of 12,000 that had been reached during World War I. During World War II the huge Bethlehem Steel Plant in Mariners Harbor was working a twenty-four hour period. Bethlehem Steel Corporation had 15 shipyards during World War II. The Bethlehem yards at Staten Island and San Pedro in Los Angeles Harbor launched destroyers. Staten Island also had a foundry that specialized in making propellers for all of Bethlehem's other yards. At its peak during World War II shipbuilding - mostly at Bethlehem Steel Shipyard- as well as boat repair were notable businesses. The Merrell Class Staten Island ferry was designed by Kindlund & Drake and constructed by the Bethlehem Steel Company's Staten Island Shipyard between 1950-51. The largest and fastest ferryboats up until that point, the Pvt. Joseph F. Merrell, Cornelius G. Kolff, and Giovanni da Verrazzano were added to the S.I. Ferry service in order to eliminate the 10 minute wait between trips. These three double-ended boats measured 290 ft. in length, with a 69 ft. beam, and a hull 20 ft. 10 in. deep. Each had a displacement of 2,350 tons with a draft of 13 ft. 2 in. With three decks and three gangways, the Merrell Class ferries were 23 ft. longer and capable of carrying 700 more passengers than those in the Manhattan Class. The Island's shipping business took a hit during the Great Depression. It virtually died off in 1960, when Bethlehem Steel Corp. closed its shipbuilding plant on Richmond Terrace. However, its propeller plant and foundry operated through 1971. Today, Richmond Terrace has addresses that lead to a dry dock and to tug boat companies. But ship building is no longer an industry on Staten Island. May Ship Repair, sits on the side of the Bayonne Bridge. It has 50 people working on three dry docks - and does a lot of new construction, such as a 180-foot-square ferry landing for Battery Park. During World War II, the Bethlehem Steel shipyard occupied the land where May's is now. \|Join the GlobalSecurity.org mailing list\|	<urn:uuid:02302404-f8dc-4e76-94cd-d19282fee8c5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/staten-island.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978138	1,092	2.78125	3
Sediment Cores from Exuma’s Shores By Allison Jacobel In 2012, Superstorm Sandy brought New York City a 14-foot storm surge, the largest in nearly two centuries. High water and strong winds wreaked havoc on the region; damage estimates for New York State alone totaled almost $42 billion. Sandy’s devastating economic and human impacts drove substantial media coverage of the relationship between anthropogenic climate change and hurricanes, as the public asked questions about preventative urban planning and emergency preparedness for future events. The media attention provided an opportunity for scientists to communicate with the public. Numerous researchers, including Adam Sobel of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, stepped up to explain the science behind hurricane forecasts and projections for future hurricane frequency and strength. The emerging consensus among scientists is that as climate warms, the frequency of the strongest hurricanes is likely to increase. However, there are still many unknowns, including what that frequency will be, how different areas might be affected, and how the frequency of less intense hurricanes might change. One reason for this uncertainty is the scarcity of hurricane observations prior to the 19th century. Because we know little about hurricane behavior during periods when Earth was warmer or colder than at present, it’s challenging to construct models to predict future trends in hurricane activity as Earth’s climate changes. To remedy this problem, researchers have been working to reconstruct records of hurricane strikes in the past. This technique, termed paleotempestology, uses geological principles to identify hurricane strikes in the sedimentological record and place them in time. Hurricanes making landfall can cause substantial changes in the sediments deposited in inland basins. Typically, these basins are accumulating terrestrial material—usually fine-grained, organic-rich sediments. During a storm surge event, coarse, sandy marine sediments—such as beach sands—may be suspended by waves and carried landward into these basins. When the storm water retreats, normal sedimentation resumes and these “storm layers” are preserved, sandwiched between terrestrial sediments. Paleotempestologists take sediment cores in these basins, identify layers of different sediment character and relate them to the climate at the time of deposition, providing valuable information for understanding past storm activity. The View from the Beach Before departing for the Bahamas, we used satellite imagery to identify several inland lakes on Exuma that might contain layers representing past hurricane strikes. We looked for basins that are normally dominated by terrestrial sedimentation, but exist in areas that are sensitive to storm surges and are likely to have changes in sediment type (to coarser, marine sediments) during those events. One promising site was an inland lake separated from Sand Dollar Beach by a dune ridge that would likely be breached by a storm surge of 4 meters, which could result from a direct hurricane strike on Exuma. We visited Sand Dollar Beach and retrieved two sediment cores from the shallow, freshwater lake behind the beach dunes. The longer of the two cores was about 4 feet and contained three layers that were lithologically distinct from the rest of the core. These three layers were composed of coarse shell hash with less of the finer ooid sand that dominated the rest of the core. Because the coarse material is heavier and more difficult to suspend and move laterally, it is likely that they represent high-energy deposition events. These are exactly the kinds of depositional layers that are typically associated with storm surges and hurricanes. More detailed analyses and layer dating are required to place these events in time and associate them with individual storm or hurricane events. Nonetheless, a second sediment core from the same site also contained layers of shell hash, suggesting that the event history is reproducible. With these initial results, the area behind Sand Dollar Beach may represent one target for a larger investigation into past hurricane activity in Exuma. The View from the Swamp Mangrove swamps are also a promising environment for reconstructing hurricane activity. These low-energy tidal environments are typically dominated by organic-rich, estuarine deposits, but during high-energy events, water carrying significant amounts of sand can flood the mangroves and leave behind coarse inorganic sediment layers. We selected a mangrove swamp on the southwest side of Exuma for coring, in part because storm surges on that side of the island are typically higher than on the northern edge. This is because storm surges are funneled into two “nooks” on the south side of the island, amplifying their height. Our coring in the Moss Town mangrove swamp was one of the highlights of our trip so far. Not only did we get to observe red mangroves and their associated flora and fauna (including a lemon shark), we also collected an exciting sediment record. The core was relatively short—just 13 inches in length—but was the most compositionally diverse of all the cores we’ve collected thus far. At the base of the core was an organic-rich layer consisting of a dense network of fine, reddish roots, probably representative of mangrove-dominated peat sedimentation. Above that interval was a layer of gastropod shell hash grading up into a fine, carbonate-rich mud. This kind of “fining upwards” sequence is characteristic of high-energy events where sediment from the shelf is ripped up and mixed during transport inland. As the energy dissipates, the coarsest and heaviest sediment settles out first, followed by finer sediments, until the water column is once again inorganic sediment-free and the previous sedimentation regime resumes. Because the core extended down to the underlying beach rock and contained only one high-energy, fining upwards event, we suspect that the estuary records the most recent storm event to strike Exuma, probably Hurricane Irene. Previous deposits were likely removed by erosion during dry intervals or scouring just prior to the deposition of the most recent sediment package. Consequently, this part of the Moss Town mangrove swamp may not be ideal for reconstructing long records of storm activity. Nonetheless, when associated with information about Hurricane Irene, this sediment core can provide important insight into modern depositional processes, which can be used to draw inferences about older sediment packages of similar character. Selecting an area to collect sediment records for paleotempestological reconstructions is a challenging balance between identifying sites with sufficient accommodation space to preserve long records and prioritizing areas with high sedimentation rates that are sensitive to storm surges. The two areas we cored probably represent the end members of these criteria, and we have not yet identified a basin that contains a long record of storm events at high resolution. However, the abundance of inland lakes, mangrove swamps and sinkholes on Exuma suggests that an ideal environment for sedimentary preservation does exist. One possibility is that an area of the Moss Town mangrove swamp, farther from shore, may have sufficient accommodation space to preserve a longer record of past hurricane strikes. The only solution is to continue our search for a goldilocks site! Allison Jacobel is among a group of nine students from the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University spending a week in Exuma, The Bahamas, looking for evidence of past hurricanes. The work is supported by the Extreme Weather and Climate Initiative, Lamont supporter Frank Gumper and other sources.	<urn:uuid:edebfeee-313e-4d5f-bd60-2e1864878665>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2015/06/16/sediment-cores-from-exumas-shores/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938384	1,511	3.5	4
FAIRBANKS - Wolves, bears, hunters and motor vehicles aren't the only moose killers in Alaska. A bale of hay can bring down a moose just as effectively as a pack of wolves or a Suburban. "Last year we had a call about a dead moose on Chena Hot Springs Road, and I went out there to check it out and that moose had about 200 pounds of hay in its gut," said wildlife biologist Tom Seaton at the Alaska Department of Fish and Game here. "It was all in little, mouth-size balls, like someone had stuffed it in there by the fistful. That moose starved to death with 200 pounds of hay in its gut." While hay may be for horses, it is not for moose. Neither are chokecherry, crab apple, mountain ash and other ornamental trees people grow in their yards. But every year moose end up eating them, sometimes with deadly results. Moose have tremendous appetites and will eat just about any plant material that will fit down their throats. But they can't process everything they eat, said Perry Barboza, an associate professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks who specializes in wildlife physiology and nutrition. Moose can't digest hay as cows and horses can. "The question of what a good diet is for a moose and what characterizes that diet chemically has always been a big debate and is still open for questions," Barboza said. Two months ago, biologists euthanized an emaciated cow moose from a residential subdivision here only to discover the moose had a stomach full of chokecherry pits and ornamental flowers. A necropsy showed that the moose had excessive tooth wear, was loaded with parasites, had a scarred and inflamed intestine and was severely deficient in copper - conditions that the biologists said could have resulted from a long-term diet of ornamental trees, plants and human food. Residents said the moose, which was about 12 years old and accompanied by a healthy calf, had lived in the area for at least 10 years and was a regular visitor in yards and gardens. The copper deficiency caused part of the moose's intestine to swell up and stop functioning, which basically killed the moose, said Fish and Game veterinarian Kimberlee Beckman. That's one of the reasons it's illegal to feed moose and other wildlife, biologists said. While people may think they are helping hungry animals get through the winter, they could really be causing them to starve to death by providing them foods that hinder, or even prevent, digestion. "People put human values on moose," Seaton said. "They see them standing out in the cold and think there's nothing for them to eat when in fact they're adapted to the cold, and there are good things for them to eat out there." Moose have two diets. In the summer, they eat soft vegetation such as leaves and sedges they pull from the bottom of ponds, as well as twigs from birch, willow and aspen trees. In the winter, their diet consists almost exclusively of wood. "If they're basically consuming wood chips and you throw in something like an apple that's totally different, you could end up with an explosive fermentation or something that produces a bunch of gas and trauma that might not be a problem in the spring when they're used to eating more of that kind of stuff," Barboza said. When a moose - or any ruminant - eats something, it is deposited in the rumen and reticulum, a kind of internal septic tank where food is broken down by a host of bacteria and protozoa. Scientists suspect the composition of bacteria in a moose's rumen fluctuates with its diet. Once the food is broken down, it is transformed into fatty acids that are absorbed through the rumen and that provide the moose with most of its energy. Any undigested fragments are passed to the omasum, where water is removed, and then on to the abomasum, the moose's true stomach. If food particles are too big to reach the omasum, they remain in the rumen, giving the moose the impression its stomach is full. When that happens, the moose stops eating while it tries to break down the food in its rumen. "If they're not digesting correctly, things just sit there and don't get broken down," Beckman said. Moose gorge themselves until the rumen and reticulum are full and then find a place to lie down and digest by ruminating, which involves regurgitating what they've eaten and chewing it again to make it more digestible. Moose possess built-in defense mechanisms, such as chemicals in their saliva, to deal with toxins in many of the plants they eat, said Terry Bowyer, wildlife professor and moose researcher at the Institute of Arctic Biology. The chemicals will either neutralize the toxins or warn the moose not to eat them. Bowyer, who has studied moose for about 20 years, suspects the sick moose that was put down by biologists two months ago was in poor condition because of tooth wear. Biologists said the moose's teeth looked like those of a 15-year-old moose instead of a 12-year-old. Moose in Fairbanks can live to be 17 if their teeth hold out. "That's a kiss of death for ruminants," Bowyer said. "Once they wear out their teeth, they can't process food."	<urn:uuid:cb648f78-6541-4753-aa90-d7e7cc663e95>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://juneauempire.com/stories/122603/sta_hay.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978411	1,160	2.75	3
Gottlob Frege: Language Gottlob Frege (1848-1925) is most celebrated today for his contributions to mathematical logic and the philosophy of language. The first section below considers why a philosophical investigation of language mattered at all for Frege, the mathematician, and why it should have mattered to him. At the same time, the considerations may serve to illustrate some general motivations that were behind the development of philosophy of language as a separate branch of philosophy in the 20th century. Section 2 deals with Frege's idea of a formal language and the motivations for developing and employing such a language for purposes of logico-philosophical analysis. The shift from Frege's early semantics to his famous distinction between sense and significance is explained in Section 3, as are the motivations for this shift. The section also contains a discussion of the difficulties that scholars have encountered when trying to find a proper English translation of Frege's key semantic terms. Michael Dummett's claim that Frege had brought the modern tradition to an end by replacing epistemology with the theory of meaning as the foundation of philosophy in general has been an influential interpretation, but has increasingly been challenged in the past decades. The present article emphasizes that Frege's philosophy of language should be regarded as a branch of epistemology, even if Frege himself did not fully engage in epistemology in the narrower sense of the term. Table of Contents - Language and Thought - The Formal Language Approach - From Conceptual Contents to Sinn and Bedeutung: The Development of Frege's Semantics - References and Further Reading - Frege's Writings - Other Recommended Literature - General Introductions and Companions to Frege's Work - General Introductions to the Philosophy of Language - On (Various Aspects of) Frege’s Philosophy of Language - Other Philosophy of Language Relevant to or Referenced in this Article - Some Specialized Literature on the Epistemological Dimensions of Frege’s Thought - General Contributions and Companions to the History of Early Analytic Philosophy - Literature on Other Aspects of Frege’s Philosophy - Other Literature Referenced in this Article - Related Entries Long before Frege, it was considered commonplace that language is a necessary vehicle for human thought. In the modern period, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke had assigned two main characteristic uses to language with regard to thought: First, it is used to assist memory, or the representation and recording of one's own thoughts; and second, it is used as a required vehicle of communication of one's own thoughts to other people (Hobbes 1655:192-97; Locke 1690, Bk. III, §1). It was not before the later decades of the 19th century, however, that philosophical method was finally beginning to take a radically "linguistic turn" – investigating language in order to best deal with ontological or conceptual problems – and Frege has been regarded as one of the first and the most innovative thinkers in this respect. For Frege, too, it was the very insight that human thought depends in certain ways on language, or on symbols in general, that compelled him to analyze the workings of language in order to investigate the logical structure of thought. Indeed, it seems that language itself was never the primary object of his philosophical interest. Rather, most of the general philosophical issues upon which Frege reflected, aside from his more specialized projects in the philosophy of mathematics, had to do with the nature of thought in general and its relation to logic, to truth, to language, and to the objects it can be about. In 1918, Frege published a lengthy essay titled "Thoughts," in which he describes his motives for investigating the nature of language: I am not here in the happy position of a mineralogist who shows his audience a rock-crystal: I cannot put a thought in the hands of my readers with the request that they should examine it from all sides. Something in itself not perceptible by sense, the thought is presented to the reader – and I must be content with that – wrapped up in a perceptible linguistic form. The pictorial aspect of language presents difficulties. The sensible always breaks in and makes expressions pictorial and so improper. So one fights against language, and I am compelled to occupy myself with language although it is not my proper concern here. I hope I have succeeded in making clear to my readers what I want to call 'thought' (1997:333f., n.). Frege presents us with a dilemma that lies at the heart of his lifelong attitude toward language. On the one hand, language is indispensable for us in order to get access to thought. On the other hand, language – because of its sensible character – obscures thought (which by itself is insensible). Thus, Frege saw himself forced to deal with language by way of a continuous struggle – fighting the distortions that are imposed on thought by language, and diagnosing as well as clarifying the misunderstandings that result from these distortions. But why is language indispensable for thought, and why did Frege think that it is? These two questions are central for an understanding of the rise of philosophy of language in general, and of Frege's engagement in philosophy of language in particular. They are important because, if it turns out that we cannot find a convincing reason for the indispensability of language for thought, then the struggle with language that Frege is talking about above would not seem necessary for philosophical inquiry: we could just circumvent the obstacle of language and access our concepts and thoughts directly. Historically, dealing with the second question in particular might give us some insight about the extent of Frege's possible indebtedness, or lack thereof, to earlier conceptions of the relations between language and thought and language as such. Thus, it would be worthwhile taking a closer look at the two traditional functions of language with regard to thought that Hobbes and Locke distinguished in the context of their respective epistemological reflections. These were: (a) the indispensable assistance of language to memory, or to the representation and recording of one's own thoughts, and (b) its role as a necessary vehicle of the communication of one's own thoughts to other people. If we take a closer look at those two characteristic functions of language as traditionally distinguished we find that they seem to be intimately connected. For one thing, if we conceive of human communication as essentially intentional – as has been the standard view probably throughout the history of philosophy, and most prominently advocated in the 20th century by Paul Grice – then we must ask just how we could even intend to convey a certain piece of information to someone else if we are not able to represent this information to ourselves in conscious thought. Our communicative intention would be quite void – there would be a missing element in the three-place relation "X intends to convey Y to Z". Even less, it seems, could intentional communication ever succeed if the speaker is not herself aware of what she intends to communicate – unless, perhaps, we also acknowledge the existence of subconscious communicational intentions. But even in this case, it could be argued, the speaker presumably would need to be able to have a representation of what she subconsciously intends to convey in order to do so, and if such a representation is only to be had through language then even the kind of communication that rests on subconscious intentions could not take place without language. To be sure, information may in principle be conveyed even without the conveyor's intention, and perhaps it is merely a matter of terminology whether or not we acknowledge that there is also something like unintentional human communication: slips of the tongue, a blushful face, or mere movements of a face muscle, can only too well convey information about the thoughts or attitudes of the conveyor, and even indirectly about what these thoughts and attitudes are about. However, even if we include such phenomena in the category of "human communication", it still appears that language is required for communication precisely insofar as it is required for the representation and recording of one's own thoughts. For, in such a case, the very act of understanding the piece of information conveyed requires the person to whom it is conveyed to be able to record it for herself in her own memory; and, inasmuch as this requires language, human communication always requires language at least on he side of the receiver of the information - even if communication is to be understood as not presupposing communicational intentions. On this account, language appears as a necessary vehicle of human communication precisely because it is a necessary vehicle to record one's own thoughts. Thus, communication of one's own thoughts to another appears to be entirely dependent on representing and recording one's own thoughts to herself. Why should language be a necessary vehicle to record one's own thoughts? And what does this exactly mean? Does it mean that language constitutes thought, so that the latter could not be without the former? Or does it merely mean that we could not become aware of our thoughts or could not grasp them without language? Let us look at what Frege thought about this matter. His earliest and at the same time most comprehensive attempt to answer the first question above is in his 1882 piece "On the Scientific Justification of a Begriffsschrift". The relevant passages are cited at full length: Our attention is directed by nature to the outside. The vivacity of sense-impressions surpasses that of memory-images to such an extent that, at first, sense-impressions determine almost by themselves the course of our ideas, as is the case in animals. And we would scarcely ever be able to escape this dependency if the outer world were not to some degree dependent on us. Even most animals, through their ability to move about, have an influence on their sense-impressions: They can flee some, seek others. And they can even effect changes in things. Now humans have this ability to a much greater degree; but nevertheless, the course of our ideas would still not gain its full freedom from this ability alone: It would still be limited to that which our hand can fashion, our voice intone, without the great invention of symbols, which call to mind that which is absent, invisible, perhaps even beyond the senses. I do not deny that even without symbols the perception of a thing can gather about itself a group of memory-images; but we could not pursue these further: A new perception would let these images sink into darkness and allow others to emerge. But if we produce the symbol of an idea that a perception has called to mind, we create in this way a firm, new focus about which ideas gather. We then select another idea from these in order to elicit its symbol. Thus we penetrate step by step into the inner world of our ideas and move about there at will, using the realm of sensibles itself to free ourselves from its constraint. Symbols have the same importance for thought that discovering how to use the wind to sail against the wind had for navigation.... Also, without symbols we would scarcely lift ourselves to conceptual thinking. Thus in applying the same symbol to different but similar things, we actually no longer symbolize the individual thing, but rather what the similarities have in common: the concept. This concept is first gained by symbolizing it; for since it is, in itself, imperceptible, it requires a perceptible representative in order to appear to us" (1972:83f. Note, Frege's expression "men" has been changed to "humans"). Frege appears to locate the source of the dependence of human thought on language in the power that sensation exerts on our attention. Based on this he specifies three main characteristic domains of thought for which we need symbols. First, without symbols we could not become aware of things that are physically absent or insensible. Without them we could only become aware of our immediate sensations and some fleeting memory images of these sensations. This view, however – that we could not grasp or become aware of thoughts about invisible things – does not by itself imply that the thoughts themselves could not be without language. The second domain concerns memory in general. Though according to Frege, the mere perception of a physical object can serve as a focus around which memory images gather even without the help of symbols, these would not be stable and lasting, for new perceptual images would soon take their place. Immediate sensations are usually so much stronger than memory images that without the help of a tool by means of which we could regulate the train and content of our thought independently of sensation it would be almost entirely determined by immediate sensory input. Thus, what Frege seems to have in mind here is that only by using symbols do we enable ourselves to memorize ideas in such a way that we can henceforth call them up more or less at will. In this way, symbols – though themselves sensible – are able, to a large extent, to free us from our dependence on the sensible world. Again, this argument leads only to the conclusion that we could not freely call up past thoughts about the world – it does not show that these thoughts could not exist in the first place without language. In any case, why should the memory of symbols be less subject to the overwhelming influence of immediate sensations than the fleeting memory images caused by perception without the help of symbols? Perhaps a later passage in the same paper gives us a clue about how it seemed possible to Frege that due to its very nature language could give us power over the immediate impact of sensation and thus enable us to memorize our thoughts: It is impossible, someone might say, to advance science with a conceptual notation, for the invention of the latter already presupposes the completion of the former. Exactly the same apparent difficulty arises for [ordinary] language. This is supposed to have made reason possible, but how could humans have invented language without reason? Research into the laws of nature employs physical instruments; but these can be produced only by means of an advanced technology, which again is based upon knowledge of the laws of nature. The circle is resolved in each case in the same way: An advance in physics results in an advance in technology, and this makes possible the construction of new instruments by means of which physics is advanced. The application to our case is obvious (1972:89). Here, Frege draws an analogy between language and reason on the one hand, and technology and science on the other. In both cases, each of the two elements in the respective pairs is needed in order to advance the other. Thus, language is needed to develop and/or employ our faculty of reasoning, on the one hand, but at the same time reason has to be presupposed to a certain degree in order for language to be possible. Hence, for Frege there is something which is the condition of possibility of language, even though that something –which he calls reason – may not fully function or be applicable without language as its tool. This suggests that for Frege reason is also what enables us to overcome the power of immediate sensual input by using language as a tool; it enables us to memorize links between symbols and what they symbolize even despite the continuous influx of fleeting sensations and memory images. In effect, Frege appears to propose a non-vicious circle between reason and language such that, roughly, the former enables us – by its very nature – to hold in memory a small initial assortment of symbols, and such that the use of these symbols then expands our rational capacities to allow for the combinations and application of those symbols, which in turn are stored in the memory to lead to further combinations – as well as the possible invention of new symbols or symbolic systems – whose use leads to further mental expansion, etc. This conception seems to rule out that language could be the product of mere sensation, at least if sensation is not to be conceived of as part of reason or as its basis. Frege's third explanation for why we need language in order to think is that without the help of symbols we could never raise ourselves to the level of specifically conceptual thinking. For, according to Frege in the passage above, we acquire concepts only by applying the same symbol to different but similar things, thereby no longer symbolizing the individual things, but rather what they have in common: the concept. Again, this argument does not show that concepts could not exist without language or symbols; rather, it shows that concepts could not become available to us without language. In Frege's own terms, it shows that we could not represent to ourselves what a group of similar things have in common, which is what he calls a concept. Scholars point out that aspects of Frege's 1882 explanation of why we need language in order to think suggest an empiricist, psychologist account (at least of thought content) according to which thought content derives simply from sense impressions via memory images; however, this stands in contrast at least to Frege's later views on the matter (for example, Sluga 2002:82). Indeed, Frege's above admission that at the most basic level sense perception and memory are possible without prior possession of non-sensual conceptual elements seems to stand in direct contrast to rationalist as well as Kantian accounts of the nature of perception. Though, as we saw in the previous section, none of Frege's arguments for the dependency of thought on language explicitly commit him to the view that the very existence of concepts or thought contents depend on language, the idea that at least basic thoughts and memories are possible on the basis of sensation alone raises the question of why then not all thought and memory content may derive – by means of language – from sensual images (which clearly would be an empiricist view). If this assessment of Frege's 1882 view of content is correct, then it might also be relevant to our evaluation of the above argument as an attempt at explaining why language is necessary for thought. For if, by contrast, we assume that the human mind is furnished with innate ideas in addition to the faculty of sensation – as had been the standard view in modern Continental Rationalism – then it might need some more argumentation to show why concepts become available to us only through the application of general symbols to things that we perceive through the senses, or why we could think of invisible, insensible things only by creating symbols for them. After all, innate ideas – if they exist – are in a certain sense continually present in the mind, if not in our consciousness, and this very presence could perhaps already explain why we are able to memorize perceptual experiences, to engage in conceptual thinking, and in general to overcome the continuous impact of sensation on our attention. In other words, if our minds were already furnished with innate ideas then it would need further explanation to understand why reason could not have a direct impact on human consciousness, that is, why it needs language in addition in order to guide and develop our capacity of thinking. If we assume, however, that thought contents are by their very nature entirely made up of sensations and images gained through sensation, then it would seem much more obvious that without the acquisition of general symbols to represent concepts – instead of the individual, elusive images delivered by sensation – there would be no way for us to make use of and memorize them. Thus, if Frege held a rationalist view of thought contents at this early point, his argument above for the indispensability of thought for language would still appear somewhat incomplete, and if he was an empiricist about thought content at the time but changed his view later, he should have been expected to supplement his argument at that later time in order to convince us of the necessity to study language in order to explore concepts and thoughts. So let us take a closer look both at Frege's views of the nature of thought content and at plausible rationalist motivations for the philosophical study of language based on the idea that language is necessary for human thought. Let us first get back to Frege's apparent view – in his 1882 piece – that basic forms of sense perception and memory are possible without prior possession of non-sensual thought contents. This view appears to contradict his own later remarks on perception in, for instance, 1918's "Thought". There he emphasizes that: Sense impressions alone do not reveal the external world to us. Perhaps there is a being that has only sense impressions without seeing or touching things....Having visual impressions is certainly necessary for seeing things, but not sufficient. What must still be added is not anything sensible. And yet this is just what opens up the external world for us; for without this non-sensible something everyone would remain shut up in his inner world. So perhaps, since the decisive factor lies in the non-sensible, something non-sensible, even without the cooperation of sense impressions, could also lead us out of the inner world and enable us to grasp thoughts (1997: 342f.). For Frege, forming a thought about the external world -- even the kind of thought involved in the mere perception of an object -- requires more than sense impressions that are available to the human mind. In addition, something non-sensible has to be assumed in order to account for the possibility of perception. The aim of "Thought" was to show that this something is the thought itself -- an entity that, as Frege argues here, belongs neither to the inner world of subjective ideas nor to the world of spatio-temporal, perceivable objects, but rather to a third realm of objective but non-physical things. Indeed, as we read in an earlier passage of the piece, "although the thought does not belong with the contents of the thinker's consciousness, there must be something in his consciousness that is aimed at the thought. But this should not be confused with the thought itself" (ibid.: 342). In this last passage, Frege clearly distinguishes between a conscious act of thinking – which must be in a certain way "aimed at" an abstract, objective thought – and the thought itself at which it is aimed. In addition, Frege explicitly rejects the idea that sense impressions alone could enable our minds to grasp such an objective, non-sensible thought -- rather, what is required is again something "non-sensible." This idea obviously fits in with what he said in his 1882 piece about the relation between language and reason. For according to that remark, language – as a means for grasping thoughts – presupposes reason at least as an independent potential. Reason, then, is a likely candidate for the "something non-sensible" that may be required, according to Frege in 1918, "to lead us out of the inner world and enable us to grasp thoughts." Since language itself consists of and works through the perception and use of sensible symbols, it could not be language that Frege has in mind here. However, Frege does not make use of the term "reason" in his 1918 piece but speaks more concretely of a "special mental capacity, the power of thinking", which is supposed to explain our ability to grasp a thought (ibid.: 341). In any case, these remarks provide clear evidence that Frege in 1918 conceived of thoughts as existing independently of both physical and empirically psychological reality – thereby ruling out an empiricist account of their constitution. They do not provide conclusive evidence that Frege endorsed a rationalist or transcendentalist view of the origin or nature of conceptual entities, if by this we understand a view according to which either a special faculty of reason – or pure understanding – or alternatively a certain normative value or principle that is constitutive of rationality in general serve to provide the conceptual content of our thought episodes. Rather, Frege's 1918 remarks would just as well be compatible with a naive Platonist view about thought contents, according to which their objective existence is a brute fact, that is, not accountable or explainable in terms of anything else. (This still seems to be one of the most dominant readings of the nature of Fregean thoughts, as well as concepts and numbers; see Baker and Hacker 1984, Dummett 1991, Burge 1992, & al.) It seems obvious, however, that Frege favored a broadly rationalist or transcendentalist account of the origin of conceptual entities both in his first monograph Conceptual Notation (1879) and in his second, The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884). For in §23 of Conceptual Notation, Frege claims to have shown "how pure thought, regardless of any content given through the senses or even given a priori through an intuition, is able, all by itself, to produce from the content which arises from its own nature judgments that at first glance seem to be possible only on the grounds of some intuition." What Frege has in mind here by "the content that arises from its [pure thought's] own nature" obviously is the content of the laws of logic, which he also calls the "laws of thought" in his preface to Conceptual Notation. Those judgments, by contrast, which "at first glance seem to be possible only on the grounds of some intuition" presumably are those of arithmetic, which Kant had believed to be grounded on the pure intuition of time. This 1879 metaphor of pure thought as grounding arithmetical judgments by way of "the content that arises from its own nature" not only appears inconsistent with Frege's 1882 seeming slip into psychologism about mental content, but at the same time suggests a rationalist or transcendental approach to the nature of at least some of the contents of our judgments. This is so if we conceive of "pure thought" as referring to a capacity or principle that is constitutive of the rational mind, which is how this expression, and similar ones, had been used by Leibniz, Kant, and their successors. Indeed, in Foundations Frege explicitly sympathizes with Leibniz's view that "the whole of arithmetic is innate and is in virtual fashion in us;" a view according to which even what is innate may need to be learned in order for us to become consciously aware of it (1953, §11). In other passages of Foundations, Frege presents objectivity itself as being constituted by reason, and numbers as its nearest kin: I understand objective to mean what is independent of our sensations, intuition and imagination, and of all construction of mental pictures out of memories of earlier sensations, but not what is independent of the reason, - for what are things independent of the reason? To answer that would be as much as to judge without judging, or to wash the fur without wetting it (1953, §26). [O]bjectivity cannot, of course be based on any sense-impression, which as an affection of our mind is entirely subjective, but only, so far as I can see, on the reason (ibid., §27). On this view of numbers the charm of work on arithmetic and analysis is, it seems to me, easily accounted for. We might say, indeed, almost in the well-known words: The reason's proper study is itself. In arithmetic we are not concerned with objects which we come to know as something alien from without through the medium of the senses, but with objects given directly to our reason and, as its nearest kin, utterly transparent to it. And yet, or rather for that very reason, these objects are not subjective fantasies. There is nothing more objective than the laws of arithmetic" (ibid., §105). The first passage above, in particular, recalls Kant´s idea that objectivity is not a feature of things-in-themselves, but of things as they are constituted and apprehended by means of logical forms of judgment, pure categories of understanding and pure forms of intuition. These latter constitute part of the transcendental as opposed to the subjective, psychological aspect of the mind according to Kant. Scholars who tend to read Frege from the perspective of Neo-Kantianism have therefore taken passages like those above as strong evidence for the thesis that his notion of objectivity was not dogmatically metaphysical but epistemological in the tradition of transcendental philosophy (cf. Sluga 1980:120). In any case, it seems that under the presupposition of either a naive Platonist or a rationalist/transcendentalist account of the origins of objective thought contents, the strength of Frege's 1882 argument for the indispensability of symbols for human thought rests largely on assumptions about the causal influence of sensation on our train of thought. Indeed, as we saw, Frege had initiated this argument with observations about the effect of sense-impressions on our attention. In this he simply followed Leibniz, who – although a rationalist about the origin of thought – had granted that the senses are required to make the mind attentive to truths and to direct it towards some truths rather than others. For this reason, according to Leibniz, even though intellectual ideas and the truths arising from them do not "originate in the senses", without the senses we would never think of them (ibid., I, i, §§5, 11). Similarly, Kant points out in the Critique of Pure Reason that our empirical consciousness must be prompted by sensation or sensible impressions in order to have a beginning in time; hence "all our cognitions commence with experience" (1781/86:B1). Frege obviously agrees with Kant and Leibniz on this point, as he regards sense impressions as necessary – if not sufficient – for perception insofar as they "occasion our judgments" (1924/5, 1979:267; see also Frege's preface to Conceptual Notation, 1972:103). Indeed, with regard to the causality of consciousness we would be "as stupid as rocks" without sense impressions, "and should know nothing either of numbers or of anything else" (1953, §105, n.). Given such presuppositions about the causal role sensation plays in the generation of actual processes of conscious thought, Frege can still make his case for the necessity of language for thinking by arguing as follows: Without sensible symbols, which – due to their intimate connection to reason (perhaps in the form of a set of innate ideas) – are able to draw our attention away from other sensory input and toward conceptual thought, our entire mental life would be largely dictated by the nature of our immediate sensations. Therefore, we would be psychologically unable to rise to higher forms of conscious awareness and contemplation than those provided by immediate sense perception and the fleeting memory images arising from it. This way of arguing would not commit him to the view that concepts or conceptual thought contents themselves depend for their existence on symbols or on any other sensible images. Rather, the dependence of human thought on language could itself be thought of as merely causal (Baker and Hacker 1984:65f.). As we saw before, Frege apparently sympathized with Leibniz's view that what is innate may need to be learned in order for us to become consciously aware of it. But if we need to learn about truths and concepts that have been in our understanding all along – as Leibniz saw it – then this is compatible with the claim that in order to learn them we need to use language. Indeed, in a much later piece written and submitted for publication shortly before his death ("Sources of Knowledge of Mathematics and the Mathematical Natural Sciences"), Frege finally comes to explicitly commit himself to the view that language is necessary not for the existence of thought contents themselves, but only for our conscious awareness of them, that is, for our acts of thinking. In this context, he speaks of a "logical source of knowledge" and a "logical disposition" in us that must be at work in the formation of language, where he made use in 1882 of the ambiguous word "reason" and in 1918 of the expression "power of thinking" to denote a special mental capacity: The senses present us with something external and because of this it is easier to comprehend how mistakes can occur than it is in the case of the logical source of knowledge which is wholly inside us and thus appears to be more proof against contamination. But appearances are deceptive. For our thinking is closely bound up with language and thereby with the world of the senses. Perhaps our thinking is at first a form of speaking which then becomes an imaging of speech. Silent thinking would in that case be speech that has become noiseless, taking place in the imagination. Now we may of course also think in mathematical signs; yet even then thinking is tied up with what is perceptible to the senses. To be sure, we distinguish the sentence as the expression of a thought from the thought itself. We know we can have various expressions for the same thought. The connection of a thought with one particular sentence is not a necessary one; but that a thought of which we are conscious is connected in our mind with some sentence or other is for us humans necessary. But that does not lie in the nature of the thought but in our own nature. There is no contradiction in supposing there to exist beings that can grasp the same thought as we do without needing to clad it in a form that can be perceived by the senses. But still, for us humans there is this necessity. Language is a human creation; and so humans had, it would appear, the capacity to shape it in conformity with the logical disposition alive in them. Certainly the logical disposition of humans was at work in the formation of language but equally alongside this many other dispositions – such as the poetic disposition. And so language is not constructed from a logical "blueprint" (1979:269). Here, Frege explains how it comes about that language in a certain sense "contaminates" the logical source of knowledge – that is, the faculty in us that enables us to have knowledge about logical structures and relations. As he sees it here, this logical disposition in us is not identical to the ability to speak a language, although it is required for the development and acquisition of a language. As he points out in a later passage, If we disregard how thinking occurs in the consciousness of an individual, and attend instead to the true nature of thinking, we shall not be able to equate it with speaking. In that case we shall not derive thinking from speaking; thinking will then emerge as that which has priority and we shall not be able to blame thinking for the logical defects we have noted in language" (ibid.: 270). Accordingly, thoughts are not to be identified with their linguistic expressions, and they do not in principle require any language in order to be accessible to rationally ideal beings that are capable of grasping them in an entirely non-sensible way. Presumably, these beings would possess a logical source of knowledge that is so powerful that it doesn't require language at all in order to produce acts of thought. This idea again recalls Leibniz's account of the nature of thought, and in particular of his admission that God and the angels were exactly such rational beings who do not – like human beings – require language in order to think (Leibniz 1704/1765, Bk. IV, ch. 5, §1). They do not require language precisely because their attention is not distracted or dominated by the continuous impact of sense impressions. As opposed to this, Frege points out human beings require language in order to become conscious of a thought. And this, together with the fact that ordinary language – the kind of language in which human beings normally learn to think – is shaped also by other, less rational aspects of human nature, explains for Frege why actual human thought (as opposed to the bare content of pure thought, or that at which an act of thinking, as part of human consciousness, has to aim in order to be a thought at all) is prone to impurity through the influence of the language in which it is normally clad. These results raise doubts about Michael Dummett's notorious claim that Frege brought the modern tradition to an end by replacing epistemology with the theory of meaning as the foundation of philosophy in general (1981a: 669f.). Dummett's central claim about Frege's philosophy of language is that Frege simply converted traditional problems of epistemology into questions about language (1991: 111-112). The question, for instance, of how "numbers [are] given to us, if we cannot have any ideas or intuitions of them" raised by Frege in §62 of Foundations, is clearly epistemological. However, according to Dummett, it simply becomes the question of how we refer to, that is, succeed in talking about, numbers. And as Dummett understands this question, it is answered simply by Frege's account of the meanings of conventionally introduced expressions. The problem with this interpretation is that, presumably, for Frege any complete account of how expressions can possess meaning at all would have to involve a complete account of how we can grasp and understand pure thoughts – and it does not appear that he thought this question could be sufficiently answered with recourse to language simply because for Frege language itself presupposes certain rational capacities in order to be capable of expressing thoughts. This seems to be precisely why Frege repeatedly takes refuge in various metaphors to indicate the existence of certain rational faculties that enable us to grasp a thought, like the mysterious "power of thinking" that he talks about in "Thought". Indeed, in a draft dating from 1897 he explicitly describes the act of thinking as "perhaps the most mysterious of all", and adds that he regards the question of how it is possible as "still far from being grasped in all its difficulty" (1979:145). At the same time, he explicitly denies that this question could ever be answered in terms of empirical psychology or in terms of logic. Certainly, then, he could not seriously hold that specifying a relation between expressions and what they designate, or between sentences and their truth-values, could ever fully replace the question of how it is possible that we can think of anything at all. Consequently, this also means that a philosophy of language in Frege's view could never be more than a fragment of a complete philosophy of human thought, albeit an important one. Dummett is aware that in this sense, Frege's philosophical account of thought and understanding is still incomplete; however, it is doubtful that Frege would have agreed that it could be completed by reflecting further on the uses and functions of language – which is Dummett's own proposal (1981:413). In fact, whether the question of what thoughts consist in and what their preconditions are could be completely settled within the philosophy of language or not has been one of the major – and most interesting – issues of dispute in 20th century analytic philosophy. (For detailed discussions of Dummett's interpretation of Frege see Dummett and Lotter 2004, chap. 2.4.) We now begin to understand why language was a serious matter to Frege, even though he did not consider it his primary object of interest. His interest in the philosophy of language was based on his firm belief that language is necessary for human thought, and it was triggered in particular by his investigations into the foundations of mathematics, in which he faced a serious problem concerning the symbolic tools that were available at the time for such investigations. In his 1919 "Notes for Ludwig Darmstaedter," he describes the problem that first led him to investigate language as follows: I started out from mathematics. The most pressing need, it seemed to me, was to provide this science with a better foundation. I soon realized that number is not a heap, a series of things, nor a property of a heap either, but that in stating a number that we have arrived at as the result of counting we are making a statement about a concept. The logical imperfections of language stood in the way of such investigations. I tried to overcome these obstacles with my concept-script. In this way I was led from mathematics to logic" (1979:253). Frege Points out that the logical imperfections of language – by which he means the natural language of everyday life, or the "language of life", as he sometimes calls it – had proven to be an obstacle for his investigations into the ontology of numbers and the epistemology of mathematics, especially arithmetic. He was trying to find out whether all arithmetic formulas could be proven on the basis of logical axioms and definitions alone, and whether numbers could therefore be construed as logical objects – a view that later came to be called "logicism." In order to find this out, Frege had to see just "how far one could get in arithmetic by inferences alone, supported only by the laws of thought that transcend all particulars" (1997:48). However, the formula language of arithmetic, in which numbers and their relations are expressed, did not contain expressions for specifically logical relations; and ordinary language proved to be insufficiently transparent with regard to the discovery of logical relations – especially logical consequence – to serve Frege's purposes well. Therefore, Frege decided to create what he regarded as a logically superior notational system for arithmetic – a notational system that was supposed to be as transparent as possible with respect to the logical structure of thought in that area, and one that contained symbols not only for arithmetical entities but also for specifically logical relations and concepts. Moreover, each term contained or introduced into this notational system should be given a precise and fixed meaning by way of definitions in terms of small number of primitive terms. Following Adolf Trendelenburg (in his 1867 essay "On Leibniz's Project of a Universal Characteristic") Frege baptized his new symbolic system "Begriffsschrift". (Although "Begriffsschrift" is usually translated as "concept script" or "conceptual notation", it is sometimes translated differently; in Frege 1952, for example, it is translated as "ideography".) He gives two independent reasons for the choice of this terminology: First – as he explains in the preface to Conceptual Notation – because in it all and only that part of the content of natural language expressions is to be represented that is of significance for logical inference; and this is what Frege called the "conceptual content" of an expression (1997:49). Secondly – as we learn again from his 1882 piece mentioned earlier – Frege means by "Begriffsschrift" a symbolic system in which, contrary to natural language, the written symbols come to express their subject matter directly, that is, without the intervention of speech (1972:88). In this way, expressions of conceptual content could be radically abbreviated; for instance, a simple statement could be accommodated in one line as a formula of the concept script. Frege also decided to represent complex statements of propositional logic – statements linking two or more simple statements – in a two-dimensional manner for reasons of perspicuity. Historically, the idea of a concept script derives from the Leibnizian project of developing a so-called "universal characteristic" (characteristica universalis): A universal symbolic system in which every complex concept is completely defined based on a set of primitive concepts and logical rules of inference and definition, and which thus enables us to make the conceptual structure of our universe explicit. Such a symbolic system would also contain a logical calculus (calculus ratiocinator) consisting of purely syntactic inference rules based on the types of symbols used within the formal language. However, according to the Leibnizian conception, logic itself is not merely a calculus but expressible in an ideal language, that is, in the universal characteristic. Frege certainly adopted this view of logic from Leibniz; his main source of his understanding of Leibniz's conception very likely was again Trendelenburg's essay (Sluga 1980, ch. 2.4). However, 20th and 21st century mainstream analytic philosophy has somewhat misleadingly characterized Frege as regarding logic itself as a universal language rather than a calculus (for example, van Heijenoort, 1967). The latter characterization is misleading for two reasons. The first is that, as we have seen, Frege did not regard language as the source of thought contents; he did regard logic, however, as consisting of (true) thought contents (though this has been recently disputed for the Frege of the Conceptual Notation period in Linnebo 2003). Hence, he could not have regarded logic as being identical with any language. Secondly, Frege did not actually attempt to develop his concept script as a universal language in Leibniz's sense (though he agrees that logic itself contains universally applicable laws of thought). Rather, he held the more cautious belief that if such a language could be developed at all, its development would have to proceed gradually, in a step-by-step manner: "Arithmetical, geometrical and chemical symbols can be regarded as realizations of the Leibnizian conception in particular fields. The concept script offered here adds a new one to these – indeed, the one located in the middle, adjoining all the others. From here, with the greatest prospect of success, one can then proceed to fill in the gaps in the existing formula languages, connect their hitherto separate fields into the domain of a single formula language and extend it to fields that have hitherto lacked such a language" (1997:50). Thus, Frege intended his concept script primarily for the expression of logical relations within the realm of arithmetic – the field that he saw as located in the middle of all other areas of possible inquiry. He did seem optimistic that his concept-script could be successfully applied "wherever a special value has to be placed on the validity of proof" (ibid.); and this seemed appropriate not only with regard to mathematics but also with regard to "fields where, besides conceptual necessity, natural necessity prevails" – that is, the pure theory of motion, mechanics and physics (ibid.). He also expressed – in the 1882 piece mentioned earlier – the belief that in principle the concept-script could be applied wherever logical relations pertain, and that therefore philosophers as well should pay attention to it. However, he was never ambitious or even interested in examining how it could be applied to areas that were remote from arithmetic. Frege's revival of the idea of a universal, logically ideal language for the analysis and advancement of science and human knowledge subsequently became extremely influential especially through the writings of Russell and the early Wittgenstein and it contributed to the development of Logical Positivism in the first half of the 20th century. Rudolf Carnap and other members of the Vienna Circle actually worked on the establishment of a universal formal language of science in which not only every scientific theory could be expressed in a unified way, but also every meaningful philosophical problem would be soluble by way of logical reconstruction (Carnap 1928a and 1928b). Still in the fifties and sixties of the last century, after attempts at establishing a universal formal language of science had eventually proven unsuccessful, Nelson Goodman practiced and endorsed an axiomatic approach -- based on the idea of multiple formal reconstructions of certain areas of philosophical inquiry -- for investigating the conceptual relation between universals and particulars and between the world of phenomenal experience and that of physical objects (Goodman 1951, 1963). Frege, by contrast, never applied his concept-script to fields other than logic and mathematics, choosing an informal, argumentative (rather than formal) and "constructivist" approach to dealing with philosophical issues arising from – or underlying – his logicist project. Some remarks in the preface to Conceptual Notation might give us a clue as to why he did not go so far as Carnap and Goodman in his adherence to formula language in philosophical inquiry. There, Frege uses the analogy of the microscope and the eye in order to explain the relation between ordinary language (or the "language of life", as Frege calls it) and concept-script: The latter (that is, the eye), because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate. On the other hand, the microscope is perfectly suited for just such purposes; but, for this very reason, it is useless for all others" (1972:105). According to Frege, the concept-script is not to replace ordinary language in all its uses; on the contrary, he regards it as "useless" in all contexts but "scientific" ones. Given this belief, it remains undecided whether Frege regarded philosophy itself as an entirely scientific discipline or whether he thought that there are areas of philosophy in which the concept-script would be useless in principle. That he never even considered formalizing his claims about perception, meaning, the nature of thought, or the basis of objectivity may be taken as some evidence for the latter, although it would not be conclusive. What all of these "formal language" approaches have in common is not merely the insight that ordinary language lacks a certain amount of transparency when it comes to exploring the meanings and logical relations between words and sentences. It is moreover the assumption that an artificial formula language is in principle able to capture the logical structure of thought – or even of the world itself as it is reflected in thought – better than any natural language that characterizes the approach to language taken by Frege – and after him Russell, the early Wittgenstein, and the Logical Positivists. The following is a brief survey of what Frege considered the most prominent logical impurities of natural language that stood in the way of his logical investigations into the foundations of arithmetic, and how Frege thought them to be eliminated in a logically perfect language like his concept-script. According to Frege, the difference between concept and object is not generally well observed in natural languages. Often, the same word serves to designate both a concept and an object that falls under it. The word "horse", for instance, sometimes serves to denote a concept, as in "This is a horse", other times a single object, as in "This horse is black", and sometimes also an entire biological species, as in "The horse is an herbivorous animal" (1972:84). Even though we could read the second sentence above as "There is exactly one x at location y such that x is a horse and x is black", thereby maintaining the same logical category for "horse" as in the first sentence, this syntactical structure is not transparent in ordinary language. In a logically ideal language, by contrast, every word or complex expression would have to stand for exactly one object, concept, or relation, and it would have to be clear from the syntax of the language -- that is, from the syntactical categories of the expressions themselves -- to which of those ontological categories the entity designated belongs. Thus, the logical syntax of the language would reflect the logical structure within the realm of entities to which it is applied. The main rationale for Frege's strict distinction between concepts and objects, as well as their corresponding syntactic categories, appears to lie in his understanding of logical unity. In his "Notes for Ludwig Darmstaedter" Frege points out that: [W]here logic is concerned, it seems that every combination of parts results from completing something that is in need of supplementation; where logic is concerned, no whole can consist of saturated parts alone. The sharp separation of what is in need of supplementation from what is saturated is very important" (1983:254). Frege does not think that a logical unit such as a sentence, a thought, or truth value could consist of components all of which are logically complete; such components could not really hang together to constitute a logical whole. Rather, in order to account for the possibility of logically complex units at all, we have to assume that they are composed of a combination of two types of logical components; saturated, complete, self-subsisting ones, on the one hand, and unsaturated, incomplete ones – ones that essentially are in need of supplementation – on the other. On the level of ontology, Frege calls every unsaturated entity a "concept" or "relation", and every saturated one an "object". Up until the very last phase of his intellectual career, he included in the latter category not only physical things, and psychological events, but also abstract entities like sets, numbers, truth values, and even entire thoughts (in his specific sense of that which is grasped in an act of thinking). On the syntactic level, the contrast between saturated and unsaturated entities is reflected in the distinction between proper names, on the one hand, and predicates (which Frege calls "concept-words") on the other. In this sense, we can say that in Frege, syntactic distinctions as well as relations are not only presupposed in the creation of any meaningful linguistic unit but they already have a meaning in themselves. Thus, the mere combination of a proper name with a predicate in a logically ideal language as such already expresses something – namely, it expresses that an object falls under a concept (which was for Frege the most basic logical relation one can think of). A proper name in Frege's sense is any singular expression, that is, a proper name is any expression that serves to designate one and only one particular object; a predicate, by contrast, designates a concept or a relation. Thus, the class of Fregean proper names in ordinary language comprises not only names in the narrow sense like "Aristotle" but also any other expression that is used to refer to one particular object. Notoriously, since at least from 1891 onwards Frege conceives of truth values as objects and of sentences as referring to truth values (1892a), he regards complete sentences of ordinary language as proper names as well – unlike assertions or asserted judgments, which are represented in the concept script by means of an assertion sign (1906a; 1979:195). Besides its lack of exact correspondence between syntactical and ontological categories, another problem of ordinary language – which Frege encountered not only in fictional but also in scientific contexts – is that of empty proper names. These are grammatically well-formed singular expressions that do not happen to denote anything, or that apply to more than one thing and therefore do not actually fulfill their function as singular terms. One example that Frege cites is the syntactically well-formed expression "the celestial body most distant from the Earth"; it is doubtful whether this expression denotes anything at all. This is even more obvious with expressions like "the least rapidly convergent series", which are just as void of an object of designation as is the name "Odysseus" (1892a; 1952:58; 1997:153). In his very late phase, Frege traces back the paradoxes of set theory, which brought about the failure of his logicist project, to this very problem of empty singular terms in natural language, as it had misled him into believing that sets, (that is, extensions of concepts) and numbers were logical objects (1979:269f.; 1997:369f.). In a logically perfect language, by contrast, "every expression grammatically well constructed as a proper name out of signs already introduced shall in fact designate an object, and... no new sign shall be introduced as a proper name without being secured a significance" (1952:70, 1997:163). In addition Frege suggested that, if need be, an artificial significance could be stipulated for all those proper names that turn out to lack reference to an actually existing object (ibid.). According to Frege, while proper names serve to designate objects, concept-words serve to designate concepts, which as such belong to an entirely separate logical category (1892:5). This is also reflected in the use of concept-words, which -- in contrast to proper names -- can refer even if no object falls under the concept they designate (1979:123ff). Nonetheless, a concept-word lacks significance just like an empty proper name if it does not clearly express under which conditions an object falls under the designated concept and under which it doesn't. For Frege, the logic of pure thought cannot acknowledge concepts with undetermined boundaries (1891a, 1891b). It seems obvious that most, if not all, concept-words in natural language lack the kind of semantic precision that Frege expects of a logically perfect language. For instance, do we know exactly under what conditions anyone falls under the concept of baldness and under what conditions s/he does not? If not then – barring the remote possibility that there really is a sharp boundary of which we are more or less ignorant – most if not all ordinary language concept-words have vague meanings in Frege's sense. Hence, strictly speaking most, if not all, concept-words in ordinary language would lack significance, according to Frege's logic. In a logically perfect language – as Frege conceived of it – the vagueness of predicates could be eliminated through their arrangement in an axiomatic system, through logical analysis, as well as informal elucidations and clarification of the primitive terms by way of examples. Frege strictly distinguishes definitions from illustrative examples. The latter, together with other forms of elucidation, merely serve to clarify the meanings of primitive signs (signs whose meanings cannot be analyzed further into logical components). Theoretically, one would never be able to fully clarify the meaning of such an expression by way of examples; however, according to Frege "we do manage to come to an understanding about the meanings of words" in practice. Whether we do, of course, will in this case always depend on a "meeting of minds, on others guessing what we have in mind" (1914/1979:207). Definitions in the proper sense are constructive, in that they introduce a new sign to abbreviate a more complex expression that we have constructed out of its logical components. Frege distinguishes from these purely stipulative definitions cases of what were in his time called "analytic definitions". These display a logical analysis of the sense of a sign that has long been in use before by identifying its sense with that of a complex expression; this sense then is a function of the senses of the latter's logical parts. In this case the meaning equation is not a mere matter of arbitrary stipulation but can only be recognized by "an immediate insight." For Frege, the logician's main goal in her struggle with language is to "separate the logical from the psychological;" that is, the logician's main goal in her struggle with language is to isolate the logically relevant aspects of grammar and meaning from those that are not. Frege defines "logically relevant aspects of grammar" as only those aspects of language that have a bearing on logical inference (1979:4). Accordingly, as philosophers interested in pure thought we "have to turn our backs on" any grammatical distinctions and elements of meaning that are not relevant for logical inferences, or that may even obscure them. This includes, but is not limited to, the grammatical distinction between the subject and the predicate of a sentence, which Frege contends misled logicians for centuries. Grammatically speaking, the subject of a sentence is the expression that signifies what the sentence is "about", or as Frege puts it, the subject of the sentence is "the concept with which the judgment is chiefly concerned" (1979:113). The predicate, by contrast, would then be the expression that signifies what is being said about the subject or, alternatively, the concept that is applied to the subject. So, for instance, in the sentence "Archimedes perished at the conquest of Syracuse," the word "Archimedes" appears to be the subject; and "…perished at the conquest of Syracuse, "the predicate. According to Frege, however, the grammatical distinction between subject and predicate, which used to be the model for traditional logic, does not match the logical structure of that part of the content of sentences that is relevant for logic. More precisely, Frege thought the distinction between subject and predicate to be neither necessary nor sufficient to describe the logical structure of thought. It is not necessary because it yields distinctions between sentences that appear to have the same logical power of inference. For instance, the following two sentences obviously are grammatically distinct: (1) "At Plataea the Greeks defeated the Persians." (2) "At Plataea the Persians were defeated by the Greeks." In (1) "the Greeks" appears to be the grammatical subject, while in (2) it is "the Persians". Yet from a logical point of view the two sentences have the same conceptual content, and therefore do not need to be distinguished in a logically perfect language (ibid.:112f.); all the consequences that can be derived from (1) combined with certain others can also be derived from (2) combined with the same others, which means that the logically relevant part of their content, which Frege decides to call "conceptual content", is the same. The second reason why Frege thought the grammatical distinction between subject and predicate is unnecessary for the expression of, or distinction between, conceptual contents and their components is that, logically speaking, the linguistic expression of a judgment or assertion can always be rephrased as a combination of a nominal phrase, which contains the entire conceptual content, and a grammatical predicate like "is a fact" or "is true", which does not add anything to that content. Hence, as Frege points out, "we can imagine a language in which the proposition "Archimedes perished at the conquest of Syracuse" would be expressed in the following way: "The violent death of Archimedes at the conquest of Syracuse is a fact" (1879, §3; 1972:113). In such a case the grammatical subject contains the whole content of the judgment and the predicate serves only to present this content as a judgment; hence, strictly speaking, nothing at the level of conceptual content -- at the level of what is relevant to logical inference -- corresponds to the predicate here. In fact, for Frege a logically ideal language like the concept-script is a language in which the only grammatical predicate is "is a fact", represented by a combination of the so-called judgment stroke " " and the content stroke "~"; and occurring to the left of judgable contents (" ….") (1879, §2). Because Frege conceives of such contents as identical to the contents of nominal phrases and thus all complete expressions in his system are names (or "terms" in Russellian terminology), his sentential logic today is sometimes called "term logic" (for example, Zalta 2004) as opposed to standard propositional logic, in which propositions or sentences are regarded as a logical category distinct from both predicates and terms. Furthermore, even for cases when we do seem to be able to use the distinction between predicate and subject to analyze judgable contents into their components, Frege thought the grammatical opposition of subject and predicate to be insufficient for capturing important logical distinctions that apply to the contents of sentences in a logically ideal language. In particular, it does not appear to suffice for an analysis of the differences between singular, particular, and general propositions. Singular propositions, according to Frege, are those in which an object is subsumed or falls under a concept; this is what he regarded as the fundamental relation in logic to which all others can be reduced (1979:118). Nevertheless, for the purposes of understanding the structure and logical impact of general and existential propositions, Frege distinguishes two other structural relations within conceptual contents: First, that of subordination or bringing something under something else, which pertains between two concepts of the same logical order; and second, that of a concept's falling within a concept of higher order. In a proposition like "All whales are mammals", for instance, the expression "all whales" again appears as grammatical subject, but "all whales" does not seem to denote a particular object, hence it cannot be construed as a proper name. Instead, what we actually mean is this: "If anything is a whale then it is a mammal". This indicates that what the sentence actually is about is a relation between two concepts, that of a whale and that of a mammal. What the sentence says about these concepts is that whatever falls under the first also falls under the second; it thereby subordinates the first under the second concept (1979:119; 1884, §47). However, the second concept is not a property of the first; being a mammal is not a property of the concept of being a whale but rather of the objects falling under that concept, just as being a whale itself is. Hence, the two concepts are of the same logical order – they both apply to objects. This is different in statements that concern the existence of things of a certain kind. If one says "Mammals exist", or "Some mammals are elephants" then one is not talking about about any particular mammal or elephant but rather about the concepts of a mammal or an elephant; and what one means is that these concepts are satisfied in at least one case. Frege, therefore, regards existence as a concept of the second order. A concept of the second order is one that applies to concepts of the first order; that is, a concept of the second order does not apply to objects but to concepts of the first order, and it is concepts of the first order, not concepts of the second order, that apply directly to objects. Thus, contrary to the use of ordinary language, statements like "Caesar exists" turn out to be senseless because they contain a category mistake (1892b/1997:189). By contrast, we could meaningfully say, "There is one man named 'Caesar;'" but in this case one is again ascribing existence to a concept; that is, one is ascribing existence to the concept of being named "Caesar". Moreover, if one rephrases her original singular existence statement as "There is one and only one man named Caesar", she does not only say something false (for surely there have been plenty of people baptized "Caesar") but is again just referring to the concept of being named "Caesar;" that is, one is again incorrectly stating that the name "Caesar" applies to exactly one object. For these reasons, Frege decided to replace the traditional logical distinction between subject and predicate (which in his view is derived from the grammatical distinction between subject and predicate expressions) with the distinction between function and argument a distinction with which he was familiar through his expertise in mathematical analysis. In Conceptual Notation, this distinction is introduced in connection with the notion of judgment. For Frege, "in the expression of a judgment we can always regard the combination of symbols to the right of the turnstile as a function of one of the symbols occurring in it" (1879, §11). As one can see, the terms "function" and "argument" apply to to expressions rather than to what they stand for. In Conceptual Notation those terms in fact are still used for both; only later did Frege reserve them for those entities that a functional expression and an argument expression respectively stand for. Functional expressions typically contain placeholders (or variables), which in singular sentences have to be replaced by an argument in order to determine a definite truth-value. For instance, the expression "2 + x = 5" is functional in the sense that its truth-value depends on the value of the variable "x" that occurs in it. If "x" is replaced by "3" then the expression becomes a true sentence or formula of arithmetic; if it is replaced by any other numeral the resulting sentence or formula will be false. Thus, for Frege a function is what such a functional expression stands for. A potential argument for that function is an entity denoted by an expression that serves to supplement the functional expression so as to yield a complete sentence. On the basis of this distinction between function and argument, Frege achieved a new, mathematically oriented understanding of concepts and relations: a concept simply is a function whose value always is a truth value for any suitable argument, and a relation is a function that has more than one such argument place. This idea of concepts or relations as functions covers even cases of higher-order properties: those are conceived of as functions that take on only other, lower-order functions as arguments so as to determine a truth-value. Finally, by contrast to subject-predicate analyses of expressions and their meanings, the distinction between function and argument can be applied also to those logical components that do not by themselves constitute complete sentences, that is, the distinction can be applied to operations like that expressed by "the father of ( )". The general motivation for Frege's abandonment of logical distinctions that are, in his view, still too close to the grammar of natural language was his conviction that ordinary language grammar "is a mixture of the logical and the psychological" (1979:3) He thought that theses two areas of inquiry should be strictly distinguished both with regard to the questions they raise and to their respective ways of answering them. This anti-psychologism about logic itself extends also to the contents of natural language and thought. As we saw above, one of Frege's reasons for calling his symbolic system "concept-script" was the fact that it was supposed to represent only that part of the content of natural language expressions that is of significance for logical inference. This implies, however, that according to Frege the content of ordinary language expressions comprises more than just their "conceptual content". Frege is quite explicit about this point both in early and in later writings. Concerning the two sentences "At Plataea the Greeks defeated the Persians" and "At Plataea the Persians were defeated by the Greeks" he points out in Begriffsschrift that: Even if one can perceive a slight difference in sense, the agreement still predominates. Now I call the part of the content which is the same in both the conceptual content" (1972, §3:112). It seems clear that the words "sense" and "content" are being used to cover both logically relevant and other aspects of the meaning of a linguistic expression; for the former constitute only part of the content of an expression. The meaning of "sense" (Sinn) in Frege's later writings comes closer to that of "conceptual content" in his earlier works. However, the general word "content" still appears to retain its very broad use in works that were written even after Frege's famous distinction between sense and significance. In a letter to Husserl, for instance, Frege points out that the content of a sentence can include more than just that which can be true or false: for example, a sentence content can also contain "a mood, feelings, and ideas", none of which can be judged as true or false and none of which, therefore, concerns logic (1906b:106). Note that at this point, interestingly, Frege's criterion of the logical relevance of linguistic content is no longer articulated in terms of inference but rather in terms of the capacity to be true or false. Frege here lays the ground for that movement in 20th century philosophy of language that rests on the principle that linguistic meaning consists solely in truth conditions, and that therefore a theory of meaning can either be derived from or is identical to a theory of truth – a movement whose most prominent representative was Donald Davidson. However, the isolated word "content" in Frege's own writings still covers both logically relevant and logically irrelevant aspects of ordinary language meaning. Hence, to distinguish the two, and sort out the latter, is in Frege's view one of the main tasks of the logician. What is also peculiar about Frege's view of natural language content is that he appears to regard all of that part of it which is logically irrelevant as being purely subjective and thus a matter only of psychology, as his mentioning of "moods, feelings, and ideas" already shows. That is, he does not appear to recognize any but subjective and purely psychological meaning elements that are not, strictly speaking, logically relevant. He writes: The task of logic being what it is, it follows that we must turn our backs on anything that is not necessary for setting up the laws of inference. In particular, we must reject all distinctions in logic that are made from a purely psychological standpoint and have no bearing on inference.... In the form in which thinking naturally develops the logical and the psychological are bound up together. The task in hand is precisely that of isolating what is logical" (between 1879 and 1891, in 1979:3). According to Frege, such logically irrelevant distinctions include "all aspects of language that result only from the interaction of speaker and listener" such as all information conveyed to the latter by way of intonation or word-order in order to draw the listener's attention to a particular part of speech (between 1879 and 1891, in 1979:3). They also include merely connotational differences between words denoting the same entities, as exemplified by groups of expressions like "walk", "stroll", and "saunter". Though all of these expressions stand for the same concept, Frege thinks that they all act in different ways on the imagination of the listener, adding to the meaning of the sentences in which they are used an element that is irrelevant to logical inference. Whether one says, "This dog howled the whole night", or one says, "This cur howled the whole night," makes no difference with regard to the logical inferences one can draw from them in connection with sentences, nor with regard to their truth or falsity. One tends to associate with the word "cur" rather unpleasant ideas; however, for Frege, even if one disagrees that these associations match the dog in question, this would still not make the second sentence above false (1979:140). According to how Frege characterizes these extra-logical, yet, rule-governed features of ordinary language meaning, these are not different from the merely arbitrary association of images with certain words in the minds of individual speakers. In other words, the difference between the meanings of the words "dog" and "cur" would be just as intangible and subjective as the difference between the internal image that a horseman, painter, or zoologist may have come to associate with the name "Bucephalus" and which Frege considers just as subjective "coloring and shading" of a piece of linguistic information (1997:154). And while Frege admits that "without some affinity in human ideas art would certainly be impossible," he does not seem to see – or be interested in exploring – the conventional rules that govern the difference in meaning between the pejorative "cur" and the neutral "dog"(1997:155). In other words, Frege does not even seem to acknowledge an entire field of philosophy of language that has been explored subsequently by John Austin, John Searle, Paul Grice and others and that is based on the assumption that we can philosophically – not just psychologically – explore the meaning of utterances as opposed to, or even underlying, the meaning of sentences. Frege reduces this entire area of inquiry to "all aspects of language that result only from the interaction of speaker and listener", and he thereby overlooks that the phenomena described above do not result just from the interaction between two people. Rather, they are either based on conventional rules and maxims – adherence to which is generally rational or even essential for the possibility of linguistic communication – or at least presuppose knowledge of some such maxims or conventions in order to be properly understood. Therefore, solutions of problems connected to speaker meaning and speech acts are not at all just a matter of psychology; rather, they are at least as philosophically important in any comprehensive account of linguistic communication as problems of the relation between expressions and things in the world, or between expression and what they express. The development of Frege's view of the semantics of a logically perfect language can be divided up in two major phases, corresponding to two styles of semantic analysis that Frege consecutively adopted. Following Alberto Coffa, we can regard the first as a form of semantic monism and the second as a form of semantic dualism (1991:79f.). What both styles have in common is a broadly picture-theoretic idea of the relation between language and world, and a corresponding ideal of semantic analysis; to serve its purpose, language has to be partitioned into basic syntactical units, each of which is to be associated with an appropriate semantic correlate, which is conceived as an entity. For this reason, monism and dualism can also be regarded as varieties of an entity theory of meaning as defined more recently by Lycan (2000: 78, 83). This is so at least if we keep in mind that for Frege not all those entities that his semantic theory associates with linguistic expressions are supposed to be "individual things", as Lycan's characterization of an entity theory of meaning suggests. Rather, as we have seen, some semantic entities in Frege are intrinsically incomplete, like concepts and relations. A disagreement between monism and dualism arises with regard to the number and character of the entities that are associated with the logical components of sentences. The monist believes that only one such entity needs to be postulated in order to explain how linguistic expressions mean anything and how sentences can be true or false. The dualist, by contrast, holds that linguistic expressions can have truth value potential only if we assign them not one but two different kinds of values, one of which then becomes our link to extra-linguistic reality (that is, to the entities denoted by expressions of our language). Frege's early account of semantics given in Conceptual Notation and Foundations appears to be monistic in the sense above. Frege's early semantics is based on the notion of a conceptual content, that is, it is based on that part of meaning that is relevant for logical inferences. The class of conceptual contents in turn is divided up into judgable and non-judgable ones, whereby the former are logically composed of and can be decomposed into the latter. What Frege may have had in mind – although he does not put it exactly this way – with his distinction between judgable and non-judgable contents is the following consideration: a judgable content is such that we can reasonably either affirm or deny it: it is acceptable to say "Archimedes's death is/is not true", where one of the two alternatives must be correct. Thus, "Archimedes death" is a judgable content. However, this is different in a statement like "This house is/is not true " – unless we take it to be elliptic for something like "The existence of this house is/is not true". For a house by itself (unlike its existence) does not belong to the category of things for which the question of whether they are true or false is logically appropriate under the law of excluded middle (tertium non datur), since by itself it can be neither true nor false (alternatively, we can say that it is both not true and not false). For this reason, "this house" is a non-judgable content. In Conceptual Notation and Foundations, Frege does not appear to acknowledge any ontological difference between a non-judgable content and the object or function that the expression having this content stands for. There are at least three main pieces of textual as well as theoretical evidence for this. The first has to do with Frege's early account of identity as a relation between signs. Conceptual content in Frege's early account is explained by recourse to the illustrative example of the the two propositions "At Plataea the Greeks defeated the Persians" and "At Plataea the Persians were defeated by the Greeks". This appears to be the first example Frege gives for the relation of "identity of content". The relation then is explicitly introduced in §8 of Conceptual Notation. There it is explained in the following way: Identity of content differs from conditionality and negation by relating to names, not to contents. Although symbols are usually only representative of their contents...they at once appear in propria persona as soon as they are combined by the symbol for identity of content, for this signifies the circumstance that the two names have the same content" (1972:124). As Frege points out, the symbol of content identity has the peculiarity that wherever it is used the resulting judgment no longer is about the contents of the names connected by the identity sign but rather about those names themselves. What such a judgment of identity expresses then is that those names have the same content, whatever this content is. Because Frege considers judgable contents to be fully expressible by nominal phrases of the form "The violent death of Archimedes at the conquest of Syracuse", and as he considers the concept-script to be a symbolism in which every judgable content is so expressed, we can include names and nominal phrases that stand for judgable contents among the symbols that are suitable candidates for the relation of content identity. Somewhat later in the same paragraph, Frege goes on to explain what exactly he means by the content of a name in the context of identity of content. He does so in order to show why the identity sign does not merely serve to state trivial tautologies or to introduce abbreviations for complex expressions. Taking an example from geometry he lets a straight line rotate about a fixed point 'A' on the circumference of a circle. This shows that 'A' can be determined in various ways; for instance, it can be determined either directly through perception, or indirectly, through a description. 'A' is also uniquely determined as the point corresponding to the rotating straight line's being perpendicular to the diameter of the circle on 'A'. Thus, for Frege the need of a special symbol for identity of content rests on the fact that the same content, in this case point 'A', can be determined in different ways and that this fact cannot always be known in advance; rather, it is itself the content of a judgment that requires proof. Thus, what Frege regards as the conceptual content of a geometrical name, that is, of the description of a single object, appears to be the object itself: the same train of thought that he applied to geometrical points, their ways of determination, and their names, can also be applied to physical (or any other) objects. Frege contends that the conceptual content of the name "evening star" is the planet Venus, as is the conceptual content of the name "morning star", though this content is determined in each case in a different way. In the case of names for judgable contents, the object seems to be a true or false circumstance, whereby its truth or falsity are themselves to be regarded as part of the conceptual content in this case. For after his distinction between sense and significance Frege would point out that he has now divided up what he regarded as judgable content in his earlier account into the thought on the one hand and its truth value on the other (1891c:63). Thus, a judgable content in Frege's early semantics comprises both aspects while – at least in the case of names – a non-judgable content does not appear to contain more than the object denoted by the name. It does not, apparently, contain the way this object is determined – instead, this way of being determined is conceived of as part of the name itself: there is, in a certain sense, no clear logical distinction between the name as a purely syntactic string of characters and its symbolic character or force, in virtue of which it is able to pick out the object it denotes, in Frege's early semantics. More concrete evidence for the monistic character of Frege's early semantics arises from the fact that it does not allow for the difference between meaningful sentences that lack a truth-value on the one hand, and sentences that are completely meaningless on the other. In other words, it does not account for the existence of sentences expressing mock thoughts, which are so plentiful both in fiction and everyday life. This would not be so, had Frege's early semantics incorporated a second layer of meaning, which a sentence or expression can possess even if nothing exists to which it actually refers. Frege appears to be quite aware of the advantage that his later distinction between sense and significance in this respect provided. In Foundations he still took it for granted that an expression that fails to denote anything lacks any sense or meaning (1884, §§97: 100-102). After his distinction between sense and significance, however, he is quick to point out that he would now prefer to replace the word "Sinn" ("sense") in those contexts by "Bedeutung" ("reference" or "significance") (1980:63). Finally, objects and concepts – the entities that expressions of a logically perfect notational system would stand for – are discussed in Foundations in the context of Frege's distinction between objective and subjective ideas, a distinction that was supposed to help clarify Kant's "true views": An idea [Vorstellung] in the subjective sense is what is governed by the psychological laws of association; it is of a sensible, pictorial character. An idea in the objective sense belongs to logic and is in principle non-sensible, although the word which refers to an objective idea is often accompanied by a subjective idea, which nevertheless is not its significance. Subjective ideas are often demonstrably different in different people, objective ideas are the same for all. Objective ideas can be divided into objects and concepts. I shall myself, to avoid confusion, use "idea" only in the subjective sense. It is because Kant associated both meanings with the word that his doctrine assumed such a very subjective, idealist complexion, and his true view was made so difficult to discover. The distinction here drawn stands or falls with that between psychology and logic. If only these themselves were to be kept always rigidly distinct!" (1884, §27, n.). Frege claims to have clarified the Kantian view with his distinction between objective and subjective ideas. It is disputable just how serious we are to take this lip service to Kantianism, and it is also doubtful that Kant would have accepted Frege's proposed amendment – for Kant and Frege do not appear to have shared the same notion of objectivity. Nevertheless, Frege's terminological amendment here certainly serves to clarify his own earlier terminology; for in Conceptual Notation, he still uses the expression "combinations of ideas" to refer to judgable contents (1879, §2). In light of this, however, claiming that objective ideas can be divided up into objects and concepts, as Frege does in the above passage, supports the notion that those judgable contents -- as combinations of objective ideas -- were at the same time combinations of objects and concepts. Thus, this too supports the claim that early Fregean linguistic symbols have only one semantic dimension, namely, the objects, concepts, and true or false judgable contents that they designate. One should note that Frege's distinction between subjective and objective ideas (the latter includes physical objects and properties), as well as his later distinction between the inner and the outer realms of entities, suggests that "subjective", inner states of the mind (like acts of thinking) cannot be conceived of in physical terms. This, of course, is in striking contrast to physicalist accounts of "the mental" and may strike many contemporary philosophers of mind as naive. Around 1891, Frege revised his semantics. This revision solves a number of problems that the earlier, monistic account is not able to handle without further expansion. According to Frege's mature account, each expression has a sense ("Sinn"), which contains a unique way in which the object (or function) that the expression stands for is given to us. The sense is a way an object is determined by an expression . (Roughly, "sense" in Frege's 1891 account resembles a way an object is determined by an expression in his earlier account.) The object or function that the expression stands for is the expression's significance ("Bedeutung"), also called "reference" or "referent" both in English translations of Frege's work and in Anglo-Saxon Frege scholarship. It follows that for each particular sense there can be maximally one significance/reference, while numerous distinct senses may correspond to the same significance, representing the various ways the object (or concept) that an expression stands for can be uniquely given to us in thought. For Frege, not only proper names but also concept words and relational expressions possess sense and significance. Their significance then is a concept or relation, not an object, and their sense – though Frege does not say much about it – presumably consists in a logical thought component that contains the necessary and sufficient conditions for an object to fall under the concept (or stand in the relation to another object). Finally, the sense of a complete sentence is a thought, and its significance a truth-value. Although the terms "Sinn" and "Bedeutung" appear already in Foundations of 1884, the distinction itself and the semantic account connected with it do not occur in Frege's writings before 1891. Part of that distinction is a logical bifurcation of what Frege earlier calls the "judgable content" into a truth-value and a thought as the truth-value bearer. At the same time, the new account classifies ways an object is given as logical components of thoughts, while the relation between ways an object can be determined according to his earlier account to the judgable contents of which it is a logical component had never been clarified. Thus, the new account appears more consistent and complete with regard to the question of how semantic wholes are composed of their parts. On both levels, that of sense and that of significance, wholes are conceived of as functionally composite units that depend on the nature of their parts. On each level, moreover, the unit of a whole requires the supplement of a function by a suitable argument. A truth-value for Frege simply is the value of a concept or relation relative to certain arguments. Likewise, a thought is a composite of senses, at least one of which plays the part of a function and the other of its argument. Furthermore, the new account opens up an approach to the semantics of fictional language, that is, it opens up an approach to sentences "about" fictional characters or locations. Such sentences typically contain thoughts that have no truth-value because one or the other of their logical components – senses of fictional terms – lacks a corresponding significance in terms of a real object (or concept). Frege's idea here is based on the dependence of truth-values on arguments and functions – the non-existence of an object corresponding to a specific sense amounts to the lack of an argument for the functional part of the sentence, and therefore leads to the lack of a value for that function in this case. Also, the distinction between sense and significance allows for an expansion of Frege's semantics to belief ascriptions, that is, to sentences of the form "John believed that the earth is flat." The idea is that this sentence may be true independently of whether the embedded part of it ("the earth is flat") is true. But this means that -- since the truth-value of the entire sentence functionally depends on the significance of each part -- what the embedded part stands for cannot be a truth-value. Rather, Frege concludes that in the case of indirect speech and belief ascriptions, embedded sentences take on their original sense – the thought they normally express – as an indirect significance. Thus, while the thought they normally express is their sense in direct speech, it becomes their significance in indirect speech. Finally, the distinction between sense and significance gives a more consistent account of the informative nature of certain kinds of identity statements (like "The evening star is the morning star") than Frege's earlier distinction between what is designated by a name and the way it is determined by means of the name. By introducing this new distinction, Frege no longer needs to regard the concept (or relation) of identity as having the peculiar feature of taking on names rather than objects themselves as its arguments. Thus, within his mature semantics, identity once again becomes an ontological relation in which each object stands to itself (though this has been recently disputed in Caplan & Thau 2001). Identity statements no longer are conceived as being about the fact that two different names have the same conceptual content but rather about the fact that the object given to us in one particular way is the same as the object given in another. The idea is similar to Frege's early solution to the puzzle of informative identity statements: some identity statements are informative insofar as they state that an object determined or given to us in one way is the same as an object determined or given to us in some other way. However, how this idea is theoretically applied and connected to a general account of semantic content appears more consistent in Frege's later semantics than in his earlier one. There have been a number of suggestions as to how to translate "Bedeutung" as opposed to "Sinn" in later Frege into English. Besides "meaning", which in 1970 was officially chosen as the standard translation in all Blackwell editions of Frege's works because of its exegetical neutrality (see Beaney 1997: 36, n. 84), the two main other alternatives that have been proposed are "reference" and "significance", by Dummett and Tugendhat, respectively. Dummett also suggests that we distinguish between "reference" for the relation between an expression and the object it refers to and "referent" for this object itself (1981a:93f.). The term "meaning", by contrast, is problematic as a translation for "Bedeutung" because meaning often is taken to be either something like sense – that is, the thought connected to a sentence in our minds – or something like the rules of use for an expression in any given context: but none of this is what Frege had in mind when he spoke of "Bedeutung". Tugendhat's proposal to translate "Bedeutung" in Frege as "significance" is based on the insight that, while "reference" or "referent" may be regarded as an adequate rendering of "Bedeutung" in the case of proper names, it is quite misleading in that of predicate expressions (Tugendhat 1970:177; cp.. Dummett 1981a:182f.). Indeed, Frege himself points out that in the case of concepts we could not properly speak about the "Bedeutung" – in the sense of "referent" – of the expression, since then we would imply that we were talking about an object, which cannot be the case in light of Frege's distinction between objects and concepts (1997: 177, 365). Thus, rendering "Bedeutung" always as "reference" or "referent" would in fact require us to introduce some general notion of "entity", which comprises both concepts and objects in order to explain just what "Bedeutung" in general is. However, Frege obviously never saw any need for such a general, all-embracing ontological category like "entity". Dummett admits that besides the idea of the name-bearer relation, which he regarded as Frege's prototype relation of reference, a secondary aspect of reference must be acknowledged as well, which consists in the semantic role of the respective expression, that is, in its contribution the truth-values of sentences in which it may occur (1981a:190f.). On this view, predicate expressions behave like proper names in having the function of contributing to the truth-values of sentences in which they occur by means of their respective references, though their semantic role is different from that of proper names. However, Tugendhat (1970) claims that "Bedeutung" in Frege should be understood to always mean primarily the semantic role of an expression, that is, its truth-value potential, and precisely for this reason "Bedeutung" should be translated as "significance" or "importance". The main evidence in favor of this interpretation is that, for Frege, which reference an expression has, and whether it has any at all, is logically significant only for determining the truth-values of the sentences in which it may occur (as well as whether they have a truth-value at all). Thus, for Tugendhat, there appears to be no additional aspect of the reference of proper names that would justify regarding it as the "prototype" semantic relation, that is, as somewhat superior to the relation between predicates and the concepts or relations that they stand for. Unlike "reference", "significance" as a candidate translation for Fregean "Bedeutung" has the advantage that it is generally accepted as a regular connotative aspect of the various meanings of "Bedeutung" in standard German usage, and that it is explicitly used in this meaning by Frege himself (1997:80; cp.. Gabriel 1984:192). Moreover, it seems to be supported by an important principle that Frege endorses, namely, the so-called context principle. According to the context principle, which is most explicitly stated in Foundations – though nowhere called "context principle" by Frege himself – the sense and/or significance of a word cannot be explained or inquired after in isolation but only in the context of a proposition/sentence (1984: x, §106). It has been a matter of scholarly dispute whether Frege understood this principle to be about sense, or about significance, or about both, since at the time of Foundations the distinction between the two had not been made yet. There has also been a long debate about what exactly the principle implies and how it is to be understood, especially since in one of its formulations, Frege goes so far as to state that a word possesses sense and/or significance only in the context of a sentence (ibid., §62). In fact, this latter formulation has received the most attention in the secondary literature, leading to a widespread conviction that Frege proposes a principle of semantic holism. However, some scholars, including Dummett, claim that Frege drops the principle in his later writings while others argue that there are passages even in later writings where Frege seems to articulate semantic or non-semantic versions of it in the light of the distinction between sense and significance. For instance, in "Notes for Ludwig Darmstaedter," Frege points out that one comes at the parts of a thought only by analyzing the whole – which may be taken as a version of the context principle as a holistic principle at the level of sense (1997:362). It is also conceivable to regard the context principle, as some scholars have, as a semantic version of what has been called the "principle of priority of judgments over concepts" (see Bell 1979, Sluga 1980), which figures in Frege's very early writings composed before Foundations. According to this latter principle, which Frege explicitly presents as a novel principle in the history of logic, the judgment and its content are to be regarded as logically primitive while concepts, as components of judgable contents in Frege's early account, are derivative logical entities that can be isolated only by analysis of judgable contents (1979:17, 1983:19). In this respect, Frege is thought to deviate from traditional Aristotelian logic much further than logicians of his time or earlier, who tend to naively presuppose the concepts required to create judgable contents as independently given. Be that as it may, Tugendhat's claim is that the context principle was an early statement by Frege that points to his conception of "Bedeutung" as truth-value potential and thus to "significance" as the most basic and general meaning of that term (1970:182; cp.. Gabriel 1984:189ff.). It is clear from this that he believed Frege to have held the context principle as a principle about the dependency of significance on truth-value, that is, on what is characteristically denoted only by sentences. For why should a word have significance only in the context of a sentence if not for the reason that its significance simply consists in a truth-value potential, and that sentences are the only kind of expressions considered as true or false? From this it naturally follows that the question of whether an expression has significance can only arise in connection with the question of whether a sentence is true or false. And this idea indeed is used extensively in Frege's later writings, especially in the context of his distinction between the realms of art and science (1997:157). "Bedeutung" in this sense is a purely normative term always directed towards an aim or value. And what Frege appears to focus on in "On Sense and Reference" is the question relative to what value or aim the relation of proper names to the objects they stand for - that is, their reference in Dummett's terminology - is significant: namely, relative to the scientific value of truth alone, and this is a value that only sentences can have. However, one should note that the context principle has been perceived to clash with another principle commonly assigned to Frege, namely, that of the principle of functionality or compositionality. According to this principle, as it has been interpreted by some scholars, the senses of sentences are ultimately made up of atomic building blocks. According to this interpretation, then, Frege was an atomist and not a holist about meaning components; and this view -- though irreconcilable with the context principle, at least as it has been commonly understood -- would support Dummett's interpretation of the reference relation between names and objects as the paradigm relation of logical semantics. (For a detailed critical overview and discussion of the debate about the context principle and the principle of compositionality in Frege see Pelletier 2000). - 1879. Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens, Halle: L. Niebert; reprinted in Frege 1998a; trans. as "Begriffsschrift, a Formula Language, Modeled upon that of Arithmetic, for Pure Thought" in From Frege to Gödel, edited by J. van Heijenoort, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1967, and as "Conceptual Notation" in Frege 1972; selections in Frege 1997. - 1879-1891: "Logik", in Frege 1983: 1-8; trans. as "Logic" in Frege 1979: 1-8. - 1880/1: "Booles rechnende Logik und meine Begriffsschrift", in Frege 1983: 9-52; trans. As "Boole's Logical Calculus and the Concept-Script", in Frege 1979: 9-46. - 1882: "Über die wissenschaftliche Berechtigung einer Begriffsschrift", in Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik 81: 48-56; repr. in Frege 1998: 106-14; trans. as "On the Scientific Justification of a Begriffsschrift", in Frege 1972: 83-89. - 1884: Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik, eine logisch mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl, Breslau: W. Koebner; reprinted with an introduction and afterword by J. Schulte, Stuttgart: Reclam 1987; trans. by J. L. Austin as The Foundations of Arithmetic: A Logico-Mathematical Enquiry into the Concept of Number in Frege 1953; selections in Frege 1997. - 1891a: "Funktion und Begriff", Jena: Hermann Pohle, 1891; reprinted in Frege 1990: 125-42; trans. as "Function and Concept" in Frege 1984: 137-56, in Frege 1952: 21-41, and in Frege 1997:130-48. - 1891b: "Über das Trägheitsgesetz", in Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik 98: 145-61; reprinted in Frege 1990: 113-24; trans. as "On the Law of Inertia" in Frege 1984: 123-36. - 1891c: Letter to Husserl of 5/24/1891, in Frege 1976: 94-98; trans. in Frege 1980: 61-64. - 1892a: "Über Sinn und Bedeutung", in Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik 100: 25-50; reprinted in Frege 1990: 143-62; trans. as "On Sense and Meaning" Frege 1984: 157-77, as "On Sinn and Bedeutung" in Frege 1997: 151-71, and as "On Sense and Reference" in Frege 1952: 56-78. - 1892b: "Über Begriff und Gegenstand", in Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205, reprinted in Frege 1990: 167-178; trans. as "On Concept and Object" in Frege 1980: 182-94, in Frege 1952: 42-55, and in Frege 1997: 181-93. - 1892-95: "Ausführungen über Sinn und Bedeutung", in Frege 1983: 128-36; trans. as "Comments on Sense and Meaning" in Frege 1979: 118-25, and as "Comments on Sinn and Bedeutung" in Frege 1997: 172-80. - 1893: Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. I, Jena: Verlag Hermann Pohle; reprinted in Frege 1998b; incomplete translation in Frege 1982. - 1903: Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. II, Jena: Verlag Hermann Pohle; reprinted in Frege 1998b; trans. in Frege 1982. - 1906a: "Einleitung in die Logik", in Frege 1983: 201-18; trans. as "Introduction to Logic" in Frege 1979: 185-96, and in Frege 1997: 293-8. - 1906b: "Brief an Husserl, 9.12.1906", in Frege 1976: 105-6; trans. in Frege 1997: 305-307. - 1914: "Logik in der Mathematik" in Frege 1983: 219-70; trans. as "Logic in Mathematics" in Frege 1979: 203-50. - 1918: "Der Gedanke", in Beiträge zur Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus 1 (1918-9): 58-77, reprinted in Frege 1990: 342-78; trans. as "Thoughts" in Frege 1984: 351-72, and as "Thought" in Frege 1997: 325-45. - 1919a: "Die Verneinung", in Beiträge zur Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus 1 (1918-19): 143-57, reprinted in Frege 1990: 362-78; trans. as "Negation" in Frege 1984: 373-89 and in Frege 1997: 346-61. - 1919b: "Aufzeichnungen für Ludwig Darmstaedter" in Frege 1983: 273-77; trans. as "Notes for Ludwig Darmstaedter" in Frege 1979: 253-57, and in Frege 1997: 362-7. - 1924/5: "Erkenntnisquellen der Mathematik und der mathematischen Naturwissenschaften", in Frege 1983: 286-294; trans. as "Sources of Knowledge of Mathematics and the Mathematical Natural Sciences" in Frege 1979: 267-274. - 1952: Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, ed. by: Geach and M. Black, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. - 1953: The Foundations of Arithmetic: A Logico-Mathematical Enquiry into the Concept of Number/Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik, eine logisch mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. - 1972: Conceptual Notation and Related Articles, ed. by T. W. Bynum. London: Oxford University Press. - 1976: Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel, Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag; trans. as Frege 1980. - 1979: Posthumous Writings, trans. by: Long and R. White, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. - 1980: Philosophical and Mathematical Correspondence, trans. by H. Kaal, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - 1982: The Basic Laws of Arithmetic, ed. and trans. by Montgomery Furth, Berkeley: University of California Press. - 1983: Nachgelassene Schriften, ed. by H. Hermes, F. Kambartel, F. Kaulbach, Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag (2nd ed.). - 1984: Collected Papers on Mathematics, Logic and Philosophy, trans. by M. Black, V. Dudman: Geach, H. Kaal, E.-H. W. Kluge, B. McGuinness, and R. H. Stoothoff, New York: Basil Blackwell. - 1990: Kleine Schriften, ed. by I. Angelelli, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag (2nd ed.); trans. as Frege 1984. - 1997: The Frege Reader, ed. M. Beaney, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. - 1998a: Begriffsschrift und andere Aufsätze, ed. by I. Angelelli, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag (2nd ed. reprint); trans. by T. W. Bynum as Frege 1972. - 1998b: Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik I/II, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag (2nd reprint of the 1893/1903 editions); trans. as Frege 1982. - Baker, G.P. and P.M. S. Hacker, 1984, Frege: Logical Excavations, New York: Oxford University Press. - Comprehensive introduction to and critique of Frege’s work from a Wittgensteinian perspective; takes issue especially with Dummett’s interpretation of Frege. - Beaney, Michael, 1997: "Introduction" in Frege 1997: 1-46. - Good and concise introduction to both Frege’s work and the state of Frege scholarship at the time. - Bynum, Terrell W., 1972: "On the Life and Work of Gottlob Frege", in Frege 1972: 1-54. - Good first source of information on Frege, including biographical information about his life and career. - Currie, Gregory, 1982, Frege: An Introduction to His Philosophy, Sussex: Harvester Press. - Good and well-written general introduction to Frege’s work with emphasis on his epistemological and ontological views and his indebtedness to the Kantian tradition. - Dummett, Michael, 1978: "Frege's Philosophy", in Dummett, M., Truth and Other Enigmas, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; earlier version published in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Volume 3), ed. Edwards, New York: MacMillan, 1967. - One of the first attempts to locate Frege's place within the history of philosophy; good as a very first orientation but opinionated and no longer generally accepted. - Dummett, Michael, 1981b, The Interpretation of Frege's Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. - Is a follow-up to Dummett’s Frege: Philosophy of Language and contains extensive discussions of and defense against Sluga’s critique of that book. - Gabriel, Gottfried and Uwe Dathe (eds.), 2000, Gottlob Frege: Werk und Wirkung, Paderborn: Mentis Verlag. - In German; contains historical assessments of Frege's work and influence on 20th century philosophy on occasion of his 150th birthday; also contains his hitherto unpublished proposals for a reform of the Germanelection law.) - George, Alexander and Richard Heck (1998, 2003): "Frege, Gottlob", In E. Craig (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London: Routledge. - Very concise; good to get a very first overview over Frege’s work, especially in the philosophy of logic and mathematics. - Haaparanta, Leila and Jaakko Hintikka (eds.), 1986, Frege Synthesized. Boston: D. Reidel - Contains specialized articles on various aspects of Frege’s thought. - Ricketts, Thomas G. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Frege, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming. - Contains scholarly articles on all the main aspects of Frege’s thought. - Schirn, Matthias (ed.), 1976, Studien zu Frege, 3 vols., Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Verlag Frommann-Holzboog. - Contains various scholarly interpretations of the core aspects of Frege’s work; articles in German and English. - Schirn, Matthias (ed.), 1996, Frege – Importance and Legacy, Berlin-New York: DeGruyter. - Contains further scholarly interpretations of the core aspects of Frege’s work. - Sluga, Hans, 1980, Gottlob Frege, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. - Comprehensive historical introduction; lays emphasis on the historical roots and background of Frege’s thought in 19th century German philosophy, especially Lotze; good to gain a comprehensive picture of the original historical setting of Frege’s thought. - Sluga, Hans (ed.), 1993, The Philosophy of Frege, 4 vols., New York: Garland Publishing. - Contains specialist papers on various aspects of Frege’s thought. - Weiner, Joan, 1999, Frege (Past Masters), Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Brief and concise; good as first introduction. - Weiner, Joan, 2004, Frege Explained, Open Court Publishing. - Even briefer; good as first introduction. - Wright, Crispin (ed.), 1984, Frege: Tradition and Influence, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. - Contains specialist papers on various aspects of Frege’s thought. - Devitt, Michael and Kim Sterelny, 1999, Language and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language, 2nd edition, The MIT Press. - Decent introduction to the philosophy of language from a naturalistic point of view; may presuppose some familiarity with ‘analytic’ terminology. - Lycan, William, 2000, Philosophy of Language, London/New York: Routledge. - Good overview over the various problems and theories in 20th century analytic philosophy of language; includes questions for discussion and further references; does not presuppose particular familiarity with analytic terminology. - Nye, Andrea, 1998 (ed.), Philosophy of Language: The Big Questions, London: Basil Blackwell. - Comprehensive anthology of text fragments from various sources with introductory essays by the editor. - Beaney, Michael, 1996, Frege: Making Sense. London: Duckworth. - Bell, David, 1979, Frege's Theory of Judgment, Oxford: Clarendon Press. - Burge, Tyler, 1979: "Sinning against Frege", The Philosophical Review 88: 398-432. - Burge, Tyler, 1986: "Frege on Truth", in Haaparanta/Hintikka 1986. - Burge, Tyler, 1990: "Frege on Sense and Linguistic Meaning", in Bell/Cooper 1990. - Caplan, Ben & Mike Thau, 2001: "What's Puzzling Gottlob Frege?", Canadian Journal of Philosophy 31, 2: 159-200. - Carl, Wolfgang, 1994, Frege's Theory of Sense and Reference, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Dummett, Michael, 1981a, Frege: Philosophy of Language, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (2nd ed.). - Gabriel, Gottfried, 1984: "Fregean Connection: Bedeutung, Value and Truth-Value", in Wright 1984. - Greimann, Dirk, 2003, Freges Konzeption der Wahrheit, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. - Pelletier, Francis Jeffry, 2000: "Did Frege Believe Frege's Principle?" Journal of Logic, Language, and Information 10: 87-114. - Sluga, Hans, 2002: "Frege on Truth", in Reck 2002. - Tugendhat, Ernst 1970: "The Meaning of "Bedeutung" in Frege", Analysis 30: 177-189. - Carnap, Rudolph, 1956, Meaning and Necessity, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (2nd ed.). - Grice, Paul, 1989, Studies in the Ways of Words, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. - Russell, Bertrand, 1905: "On Denoting", Mind 14: 479-93; reprinted in Russell, B., 1956, Logic and Knowledge, London. - Searle, John, 1969, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Burge, Tyler, 1992: "Frege on Knowing the Third Realm", Mind 101: 633-650. - Carl, Wolfgang, 1994, Frege's Theory of Sense and Reference, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Lotter, Dorothea, 2004, Logik und Vernunft: Freges Rationalismus im Kontext seiner Zeit, Freiburg: Karl Alber Verlag. - Weiner, Joan, 1990, Frege in Perspective, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. - Bell, David and Neil Cooper (eds.), 1990, The Analytic Tradition, Oxford: Blackwell. - Coffa, Alberto, 1991, The Semantic Tradition from Kant to Carnap to the Vienna Station, L. Wessels (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Dummett, Michael, 1991a, Frege and Other Philosophers, Oxford: Clarendon Press. - Dummett, Michael, 1993, The Origins of Analytical Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. - Reck, Erich (ed.), 2002, From Frege to Wittgenstein: Perspectives on Early Analytic Philosophy, New York: Oxford University Press. - Tait, William W. (ed.), 1997, Early Analytic Philosophy: Essays in Honor of Leonard Linsky, La Salle. - Dummett, Michael, 1991b, Frege: Philosophy of Mathematics, London: Duckworth; repr. 1995. - Linnebo, Øystein, 2003: "Frege's Conception of Logic: From Kant to the Grundgesetze", Manuscrito 26: 2 (2003), 235-252. - Van Heijenoort, Jean, 1967: "Logic as Calculus and Logic as Language", Synthese 17, 324–330. - Carnap, Rudolph, 1928a, Der Logische Aufbau der Welt, Berlin: Weltkreis Verlag; trans. by Rolf A. George as The Logical Structure of the World, in Carnap 2003. - Carnap, Rudolph, 1928b, Scheinprobleme in der Philosophie, Berlin: Weltkreis Verlag; trans. by Rolf A. George as Pseudoproblems in Philosophy in Carnap 2003. - Carnap, Rudolph, 2003, The Logical Structure of the World/Pseudoproblems in Philosophy, Open Court Publishing. - Goodman, Nelson, 1951, The Structure of Appearance, Dordrecht: Reidel. - Goodman, Nelson, 1963: "The Significance of Carnap's Der logische Aufbau der Welt," in Schilpp 1963. - Hobbes, Thomas, 1655, De Corpore, Part I: Computatio Sive Logica, tr. by A. Martinich as Logic, New York: Abaris 1981. - Kant, Immanuel, 1781/1786, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Riga: Johann Friedrich Hartknoch, 1st edition (A), 1781; 2nd edition (B), 1787; ed. and transl. by: Guyer and A. Wood as Critique of Pure Reason, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997. - Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 1704/1765, Nouveaux Essais Sur L'Entendement Humain, ed. and trans. as New Essays on the Human Understanding by: Remnant and J. Bennett, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981. - Locke, John, 1690, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. by P.H. Nidditch, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1975. - Trendelenburg, Friedrich Adolf, 1867: "Über Leibnizens Entwurf einer allgemeinen Charakteristik", Historische Beiträge zur Philosophie, vol. III, Berlin. U. S. A.	<urn:uuid:9a9b7ddf-e971-483b-9b09-e7b192de8fe5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.iep.utm.edu/freg-lan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948982	25,543	3.765625	4
Nicaraguan officials say a meteorite gouged out a crater near the nation's capital city over the weekend, but scientists aren't so sure. A committee formed by the Nicaraguan government determined that a new, 39-foot-wide (12 meters) crater found near the capital Managua's international airport was blasted out by a space rock strike Saturday night (Sept. 6), the Associated Press reported. Some Managua residents reported hearing a loud boom on Saturday, which would be consistent with a meteorite impact. But other details warrant a healthy dose of skepticism, said Bill Cooke, head of the Meteoroid Environment Office at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. [Nicaraguan Crater Possibly Caused by Meteorite (Video)] "Something that produced a crater this big should have also produced an incredibly bright fireball in the night sky," Cooke said. "And no one reports a fireball, even though it was near midnight under scattered clouds." Further, Managua is a big city, with lots of potential witnesses to such a night-sky sight. People saw a bright fireball the last time Cooke can recall a meteorite blasting out a crater on Earth, in September 2007 near the Peruvian village of Carancas — and that impact occurred in broad daylight. A meteorite strike would also likely leave blackened fragments of the impacting body behind as evidence, both Cooke and meteor expert Peter Jenniskens said. "If this crater has anything to do with a meteoroid impact, I would expect meteorites to be found in and around the crater," Jenniskens, of the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) Institute in Mountain View, California, told Space.com via email. No such pieces have been reported, and none are visible in photos of the crater, Cooke said. "So I'm kind of skeptical of a meteoritic origin for this crater," he said. If a space rock did indeed carve out the Nicaraguan crater, the meteorite was likely relatively small — about 3 feet (1 m) wide if made of iron, and somewhat larger if composed of rocky material, Cooke added. Some Nicaraguan officials have speculated that the purported meteorite may be a piece of the asteroid 2014 RC, which flew by Earth on Sunday (Sept. 7), the AP reported. But that is not the case, experts said. "For those wondering, the event in Nicaragua (poss meteorite?) is unrelated to asteroid 2014 RC. Different timing, different directions," NASA officials wrote today (Sept. 8) via the @AsteroidWatchTwitter account, which is run by the space agency's Near-Earth Object Office at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.	<urn:uuid:c03f7457-2a83-4e65-bbe6-a0431659ccc5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.space.com/27071-nicaragua-meteorite-crater-impact-video.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953648	564	2.90625	3
Radio telescopes are instruments for detecting radio waves from the Universe. They usually consist of a parabolic metal bowl which collects and focuses radio waves at the focus of the parabola. Radio telescopes do tend to be much larger than their optical counterparts, as the wavelengths that they are detecting are much longer than the wavelength of light. Unfortunately they also don't "see" as well for the size. To remedy this problem, they are often arranged in arrays. Radio astronomers study the radio waves emitted from the hot gases within stars and electrons that spiral within magnetic fields. It all began in 1932 when Karl Jansky detected the first radio wave from the centre of our galaxy. Following the Second World War, astronomers began to map the spiral structure of the galaxy and to detect individual radio sources within our Galaxy and beyond. It was decided to use radio astronomy for SETI as this is the most likely source of "intelligent" communication. Unfortunately, you cannot "hear" messages form the stars with headphones, as the astronomer in the film Contact attempted to do! How do we define what we mean by intelligence? And how do we communicate with a race or species that we have never seen, heard or probably even imagined? These are some of the problems that scientists working on the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence face. It's possible that we have been unintentionally communicating with other civilisations since the invention of radio. Hundreds and thousands of radio and TV signals are pumped out of transmitters every single day and they don't just arrive at the receivers for which they were intended. What on earth must our little green friends think of us! Any practical search for distant intelligent life must involve looking for evidence of distant technology. Searching for radio signals from these civilisations has long been considered the most promising approach to this project. The SETI Institute applies high quality research to the problem of looking for these civilisations and, more importantly, how it’s possible to know when they have been found. How do you know if you've detected an intelligent, extraterrestrial signal? One of the ways is to look at the bandwidth - the range of radio frequencies that they take up. If it is less than a few Hertz it is probably produced artificially. Such narrow-band signals are what all SETI experiments look for. Other tell-tale characteristics include the existence of coded information on the signal. Many have believed that they have detected signs of intelligent alien life before. In 1877 Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli was the first to see what we now know to be the optical illusions of dark channels stretching across the Martian landscape. From his private observatory in Arizona Percival Lowell mapped more than 500 of these canals. Despite objections from other astronomers that they could see nothing, Lowell depicted, in books such as Mars as the Abode of Life, an advanced but dying Martian civilisation, combating the drying out of their world with global irrigation. Is it Science? Since the search for extraterrestrial intelligence began, there have been those that have argued that it is not truly scientific. That observation of phenomena that have never been seen is not the same as looking at a real effect and trying to decide how it came about. But what is science anyway? It’s the systematic study of a subject through experimentation, observation and deduction, to produce reliable explanation of phenomena. One area of debate is whether the study of alien life forms of whose existence we have no proof, can really be a science. Can we predict anything about extraterrestrials? One of the ways in which SETI has countered this charge is by using the Drake equation to show that it might be possible to predict something about the likelihood of other intelligent life being out there. SETI uses observations to sweep the heavens for signals in a systematic and scientific way, but how do they perform experiments? The nearest that they come to experimentation is the sending of signals into outer space via radio transmitters and space craft. In 1978, the American government decided to remove much of the financial backing that it had given to SETI and the project nearly floundered for a while. The well known American astronomer, Carl Sagan, helped to give SETI back some of its funding through a series of television debates and petitions. Then, about four years ago, NASA had its funding removed. However, SETI is still flourishing. The debate over whether SETI is science will carry on. But one thing is certain, if they do detect a signal from the stars, scientists will be the first on the scene. The Milky Way galaxy contains over 400 billion stars (and is only one of billions of other galaxies). Could it be that ours is the only planet where life arose? Perhaps. Or maybe life is common, but too often destroys itself as technology becomes too powerful to handle. But we should also consider that the sheer vastness of space and the great number of stars and planets has given rise to a number of technological civilizations capable of communication. The Drake Equation gives a means for estimating how many communicating civilizations may be out there. The results can vary widely, depending on the optimism of the numbers you yourself plug in. The equation computes N: the potential number of communicative intelligent civilizations in our galaxy. It is computed using the following equation... N = R* x fs x fp x ne x fl x fi x fc x L ... using the following factors: R* is the rate of formation of stars in the galaxy fs is the fraction of stars that are suitable suns for planetary systems fp is the fraction of those stars with planets (thought to be around 1/2) ne is the number of "earths" per planetary system -- planets suitable for liquid water fl is the fraction of those planets where life develops fi is the fraction of planets with life where intelligence develops fc is the fraction of those planets that achieve technology which releases detectable signals into space L is the lifetime of such communicative civilizations Depending on the numbers used, the Drake equation can yield wildly differing results. Possibilities range from a few (relatively) short-lived technological civilizations scattered far apart among the stars, never contacting each other before they disappear, to a more probable (considering the vastness of the cosmos) large number of life-bearing planets. There are over 400 billion stars in our galaxy alone, and it is estimated that approximately 1/2 of all suitable suns have planetary systems of some sort. It is not known how likely it is for life to develop on a suitable planet. Once life does exist, however, it is quite evident from our own evolutionary history that it is quite adaptable and tenacious. The jury is still out, however, on how long species survive once they have developed intelligence and powerful technology. The problems of deliberately communicating with an alien intelligence are enormous. Imagine trying to write a letter to someone the other side of the world who you don't know personally. Imagine that the person might not speak English and that you are not sure what language they do speak. Also, you are not sure of their address or even which country they are in. It's also possible they are not even a person but a tiger or even a dolphin! The best sort of signal to send into space is perhaps pictorial. It should then be possible to contact other beings and to show them about our civilisation by showing pictures. This is a person. This is our Sun etc. That way it would also be possible to teach our language as well as demonstrating our basic form. To send the message as far as possible, it needs to be as simple as possible, which reduces the possibility of it becoming garbled: it needs to be a binary signal. Where do you start? Some of the messages that we have sent have both pictures and sounds. The Voyager Interstellar Recording was attached to both the Voyager 1 and 2 space crafts, which were launched on August 20 and September 5, 1977. The Record is a gold-plated record encased in aluminium. The instructions on how to play the record are engraved on the case. Included on the record is music from different cultures, greetings in over fifty languages and various animal noises including the songs of the humpback whales. There is also an hour long recording of the electrical activity of a person's body. A cartridge and stylus are included and the recording should last for one billion years. Pioneers 10 and 11 were launched in 1972 and 1973 respectively and both carry six-by-nine inch gold plaques. Designed by Carl Sagan’s wife, Linda Salzman Sagan, the finished picture shows a nude man with his hand raised in greeting, with a nude woman by his side. Both figures are of average height and their features are a mixture of various racial characteristics. They are stood in front of a scale model of the Pioneer space craft and have a pulsar map to the left. There is also a map of the Sun and planets with the trajectory of the Pioneer from earth. Pioneer 10 is now 6.6 billion miles away and transmitted as recently as 1998. Pioneer 11 is no longer transmitting. On November 16, 1974 a message was sent from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. It consisted of 1,679 bits. That was the upper limit for the message because 10 bits per second would give a total transmission time of three minutes and any longer might have bored the audience at the transmission ceremony! The total number of bits, 1679, is divisible by 73 rows of 23 characters, both prime numbers. This suggests that the receiver should lay out the message in those dimensions, revealing an image. The message was aimed at the M13 globular cluster. It will reach its destination in about 25,000 years. The final picture shows our chemical makeup, our population, our height, our planetary system, and the location of the telescope transmitting the message. So far, we have not received any messages from outer space. The closest that we think we have come is when, on a hot August night in 1977, Franklin astronomy professor Jerry Ehman recorded a signal on the 21-centimetre wavelength. “Wow” was what he said, and what he wrote in the margin of his computer print out. The signal was thirty times stronger than the background noise and was on a wavelength that was not for use by terrestrial and satellite sources. Its pattern of movement through the recording devices suggests that it was from the stars and it turned itself on and off. But what it was and if it meant anything we may never know. The signal has never been detected since. This article was first published in 1999	<urn:uuid:a4cb8e95-3097-4b7c-8ae9-f92b0e5c8de1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/physics-and-astronomy/physics/making-contact	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962842	2,196	4.1875	4
Is The US Coal Industry in Trouble? From Al Jazeera It is the fuel that has powered the US, the world’s largest economy, for centuries, and while coal is still the country’s main source of electricity, the industry’s peak has passed. That decline has been attributed to several factors. American utility companies are abandoning coal plants in favor of natural gas – which is becoming cheaper and more accessible due to the use of hydraulic fracturing or fracking. Supporters of the coal industry also blame tighter regulations. The US Environmental Protection Agency is now requiring coal-fired power plants to reduce their pollution. That pollution, according to the environmental advocacy group, the Sierra Club, is responsible for nearly 30 percent of CO2 emissions in the US. Coal mining has also been responsible for other disasters. Four years ago in the state of Tennessee a massive coal-ash-sludge spill left hundreds of acres polluted and two rivers contaminated. By posting your comment, you agree to abide by our Posting rules	<urn:uuid:cbc0fbb2-a8ba-4e82-9606-977f9432d49e>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.energytribune.com/68935/is-the-us-coal-industry-in-trouble	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950901	212	2.65625	3
Lucky Bamboo Care I feel the need to reveal a secret about the lucky bamboo. Although for hundreds of years it has been associated with the Far East, lucky bamboo is not bamboo at all. It is actually a member of the lily family. It grows in the lush, tropical forest of Southeast Asia and Africa. Proper lucky bamboo care, which is very fast and easy, makes you the fortunate recipient of this mis-named wonder. Lucky bamboo makes the perfect house or office plant. It requires little care. A mere inch of clean water and sunlight are its two main requirements. To manage the care of lucky bamboo plant, keep the water fresh and pure. The best way to do this is by using distilled or filtered water. This is probably the single biggest area of mistakes in the care of lucky bamboo plants. Many novices over-water, or use water than had high amounts of other substances like lead or ammonia. Like most indoor bamboo plants, lucky is picky about water. Only keep the water about an inch from the base of the plant cane. The next area of care is feeding the plant. The care of lucky bamboo plants involves a small amount of plant fertilizer. Unlike true bamboos, lucky bamboo does not grow like crazy. This is one of the distinctions between lucky bamboo and true bamboo plants. Occasionally feeding the lucky plant a small amount of plant fertilizer, such as of the African violet variety, will provide nutrients. This will also keep the size desirable for you. Sometimes during the lucky bamboo plant care learning phase you may experience a very common phenomenon - yellow leaves. The two factors that affect the lucky bamboo and cause this are quite simple. They are too much direct sunlight and salty water. Water containing large fluoride content will cause the yellowing as well. This is very common in cities where fluoride is added to public water supplies. To avoid this, and have excellent lucky bamboo care, simply use spring water, or bottled water to refresh your plant. Avoid leaving the plant in the path of the hot sun; it loves an indirect location best. Along with easy care and growth, lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of Feng Shui, the bringing of natural elements of water, fire, earth, wood and metal into balance within the living space. Lucky bamboo is believed to be an ideal example of the wood and water forces, with the addition of a red ribbon tied around the stalks – this "fires" the positive flow of energy (chi) in the room. The number of stalks also has significance: three for happiness; five stalks for wealth; six stalks for health. Four stalks are always avoided since the word "four" in Chinese sounds too similar to the Chinese word for "death"! Sign Up for Your Free Mini Course Now! Search This Site: FREE Mini Course! Your kind donations will keep this Free Website and its related Newsletter going & growing... HOME \| About Me \| Contact Me \| The Bamboo Plant Care Book \| Privacy & Disclaimer \| Sitemap \| FAQ \| Recommendations \| Search Website	<urn:uuid:eaed190b-3725-4a1d-ad26-258a0eae1345>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bamboo-plant-care.com/lucky-bamboo-care.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945609	641	2.515625	3
Visitors to the Museum's Festival of Trees in recent years may remember seeing a jaunty (and well-decorated) red MasseyHarris tractor with gray wooden bins on each side. Agricultural workers in San Joaquin County once used this tractor, and they loaded its bins with harvested asparagus. Harvesting asparagus in an earlier age required a lot of skilled hand labor. Workers cut each spear individually using long asparagus knives expertly plunged into the soil to cut below the surface. The cut needed to be low enough to include some of the spear's fibrous lower end. Doing so helped preserve moisture during transit. Before the use of tractors in the 1910s and 1920s, cut asparagus spears were picked up in the fields with a horse-drawn cart that carried an asparagus "sled." Loaded with their harvest, the sleds were rolled into sheds, where workers washed, trimmed, and graded the asparagus. Then they boxed the spears in distinctive "pyramid" wooded crates. After the shift to mechanization, workers set the tires of modified small tractors like the Museum's deep in the furrows of the asparagus field to keep them running straight. The operator, sometimes called the "sled boy," set the throttle and trotted behind picking up cut spears and putting them into the sleds. A variety of immigrant farm workers harvested asparagus through the yearsChinese, Japanese, and Mexicansbut immigrants from the Philippines provided most of the skilled labor during the County's heyday of asparagus. In 1930, more than 350 asparagus campswith about seven thousand harvest workersdotted the San Joaquin Delta. They moved across the light, loose soil, teams of men, bent low, moving steadily as a tide. The men probed the soil with long steel knives, found the tender shoots, sliced them cleanly. The workers were covered, protected, head to foot. Straw hats worn low across the face. Bandanas across the mouth, tied behind the head. Shirts closed to the highest button. Pants stuffed into boots, or even taped to them. Often the peat soil would swirl around the men and the fine dust would invade their hair, noses, even their throats. Still the men moved forward, gathering the green stalks. During the early years, for the pinoys, the young Filipino immigrants, Stockton was the center, the place to be. By 1930, Stockton was home, for at least part of the year, to perhaps a third of all the Filipinos in the United States. A pinoy could feel comfortable in Stockton. (Richard Hammer, "From the Philippines to the Delta," Stockton Record.) In 1935, a federal law limited Filipino immigration to fifty per year and changed the status of all Filipinos previously admitted as U.S. nationals back to foreign aliens. A law in 1936 granted Filipinos free passage back to the Philippineswhich encouraged them to leave the United Statesbut more than 90 per cent of California's Filipinos chose to stay. The Filipinos of San Joaquin County supported each other in fraternal and civic groups such as the Legionnarios del Trabajo. Many Filipinos served gallantly in World War II, which encouraged the majority society to accept them, and were allowed to become citizens. To this day, they call San Joaquin County "home." The Museum is developing an exhibition on the history of asparagus growing and processing. If you have ideas, stories, photos, or artifacts you would like included, please comment or e-mail me at email@example.com. David Stuart is the executive director and CEO of the San Joaquin County Historical Society and Museum.	<urn:uuid:fad54e64-5215-45cb-be0b-e5fa7e456396>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sanjoaquinhistory.org/blog/?p=1390	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950336	776	3.703125	4
America's Abandoned Ally Nelson Mandela with Jonas Savimbi Angola's Jonas Savimbi, legendary guerrilla leader of UNITA (the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), was killed by communist MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) forces in combat last month. Jonas Savimbi's death follows the assassination of another renowned guerrilla leader in Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Masood, the Lion of Panjsher, two days prior to the terrorist attacks of September 11. These remarkable leaders, along with Enrique Bermudez of the Nicaraguan Contras, also assassinated years ago, were direct beneficiaries of the Reagan Doctrine, a critical component of the effort by President Reagan to defeat the Soviet empire by rolling back Soviet-backed regimes in the Third World. The Reagan Doctrine was a stunning success. The Red Army was bloodied and forced to quit Afghanistan, and the Sandinistas were replaced by a democraticall y elected government in Nicaragua. Also, covert U.S. military aid to UNITA allowed the group to expel the 60,000-strong Cuban occupation force in Angola and helped turn the tide of war, forcing a peace settlement. The end of the Cold War and the fall of the Berlin Wall relegated these conflicts to the back burner. The first Bush administration, consumed by its own bleak re-election prospects, turned Angola's first elections over to the United Nations for oversight and, in turn, a biased United Nations let the MPLA count the ballots. A leaked in ternal U.N. document proved the balloting rife with fraud. The run-off election between Eduardo Dos Santos and Jonas Savimbi was never held. While negotiating the run-off, under a white flag of truce, the MPLA launched a holocaust against UNITA and other opposition parties, in a mass killing spree Australian reporter Jill Joliffe labeled the "night of the long knives," carnage unsurpassed until the more recent Rwandan ethnic cleansing. UNITA diplomats, party officers and activists were slaughtered nationwide, with the body count estimated in the tens of thousands. The prominent, Western-educated Vice President Jeremias Chitunda, well-known and regarded by high-level Reagan officials, was executed trying to escape the capital, Luanda, along with other top diplomats. Chitunda worked successfully to repeal the Clark Amendment in 1985, paving the way for the covert-aid program. The new Clinton administration quickly sided with the MPLA and, along with the United Nations, imposed sanctions on UNITA for refusing to submit to fraudulent elections. Today, duly elected UNITA parliamentarians are hostages in Luanda. Abel Chivukuvuku, the charismatic UNITA foreign minister, wounded and captured trying to escape Luanda in 1992, twice has been the target of assassination in Luanda. True to their Stalinist roots, the MPLA methodically bought or co-opted its political opposition, and whom it could not buy, it killed. Regrettably, the new Bush administration perpetuated the Clinton administration's executive orders against UNITA, which shut down UNITA's diplomatic offices and unconstitutionally prohibited even U.S. citizens from representing UNITA. The State Department's Africa Bureau for years has been compromised by American oil companies operating in Angola -- who were appropriately kept at arm's length under Reagan and Bush I -- which explains the perpetuation of the Clinton Angola policy. (Editor's note: Chevron has oil interests in Angola. The oil company named a tanker after National Security Adviser Condoleeza Rice, who served on Chevron's board of directors. Shortly after Savimbi's murder, Rice arranged a meeting between President Bush and the MPLA leader of Angola). Insight magazine described the problem as a "revolving door" syndrome fraught with conflicts of interest: State Department Africa officials leaving government service for lucrative MPLA lobbying contracts, then lobbying their former co-workers, and in at least one case, returning to Foggy Bottom to work on Angola. Jonas Savimbi knew the United States was an unreliable ally -- and that the State Department and CIA could not be trusted. (In the midst of one MPLA offensive, UNITA, desperately short of bullets and other munitions, received shipments of sanitary napkins and boots.) But Jonas Savimbi and UNITA fought on with determination, rejecting lives of comfort and safety in exile, and enduring the rigors of combat and the harsh deprivation of life in the bush. UNITA faced impossible odds, with no foreign government left on its side, all corrupted by billions of dollars worth of Angolan crude, and an army of lobbyists paid for by oil proceeds. President Bush, last June, along with South Africa's president, urged direct negotiations between UNITA and the MPLA. The MPLA's Dos Santos and his kleptocratic communist cadres have never been willing to negotiate until facing military overthrow. The murder of Jonas Savimbi was a slap in the face to Mr. Bush, after his call for peace talks. The U.S. response should be to repeal the Clinton executive orders on Angola, to call for an end to the killings, to forge a genuine national reconciliation, to re-exert political control over the State Department's Africa Bureau -- and to ensure that U.S. foreign policy is not undermined by our dependency on foreign oil. Dos Santos has plundered the nation's resources and emerged as Africa's richest tyrant, while his people remain deeply impoverished and disenfranchised. Jonas Savimbi, responding once to a journalist who asked why we couldn't assume he would be just another bloody dictator if he won the civil war, said: "Bec ause I know that no one can rule Angola without a government of compromise." That is still to be the country's fate, even without Jonas Savimbi's strong leadership. The MPLA feared and hated Jonas Savimbi because of his magnetism, his brilliant oratory and the devotion he won from the Angolan people. As a result, he became subject to one of the most vicious character assassination campaigns in Cold War history. He stood in sharp contrast to the colorless and untelegenic Communist Party bureaucrats in Luanda. Isolating Jonas Savimbi through Western sanctions, which deprived UNITA of free speech and contacts in the Free World, was the MPLA's ultimate coup -- as his message of peace and national reconciliation was silenced. But Jonas Savimbi, as a martyr, becomes an ever more powerful force. His death reminds us that the Cold War never ended -- and that we neglect our international friends and commitments at our peril. The United States forgot Afghanistan and was rudely awakened to the consequences of that neglect on September 11th. Foremost, Jonas Savimbi's murder should prompt a revived Reagan Doctrine, dedicated to aiding with diplomatic and military support those who share our democratic principles and are willing to fight with us in f uture conflicts -- particularly in what portends to be a difficult and protracted war against terrorism. By Margaret Hemenway and Martin James The Battle in Angola Freedom vs. Communism Read Howard Phillips' NewsMax Article on Savimbi Assassination Chevron & Bush vs. Savimbi & Freedom in Angola News Release on Savimbi Assassination Excerpted from Howard Phillips Issues & Strategy Bulletin of March 15, 2002 BUSH CONTINUES SUPPORT OF ANGOLA’S COMMUNIST KLEPTOCRAT KILLERS "Making peace will not be easy…. [S]ince the government’s soldiers habitually kill their prisoners, UNITA’s men will need some reassurance. … "Angola is heavily in debt. Its oil, which accounts for almost 90% of the government’s income, is pumped by western companies and sold mainly in the West. America would have by far the most influence, if it chose to wield it. Not only is it Angola’s biggest trading partner; it is also the source of most of its sophisticated military technology. Without surveillance equipment from America and its ally, Israel, the Angolan army could probably not have tracked down and killed Mr Savimbi. … "The Americans ditched Mr Savimbi, and started coddling Mr dos Santos, chiefly because huge deposits of oil had been found off the Angolan coast. In the past ten years or so, America has put little or no pressure on the dos Santos regime to become less crooked or despotic. "George Bush met Mr Dos Santos this week and urged him to end the war. But he stopped short of demanding that he should declare a unilateral ceasefire, and Mr dos Santos said that the onus was on UNITA to make the first concessions." Source: The Economist, 3/2/02, pp. 14-15 Excerpted from Howard Phillips Issues & Strategy Bulletin of February 28, 2002 GEORGE W. BUSH DISGRACES HIMSELF AND DISHONORS THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY MEETING WITH DR. JONAS SAVIMBI’S ASSASSIN, JOSE EDUARDO DOS SANTOS, WHILE SAVIMBI’S BLOOD IS STILL ON THE FINGERS OF ANGOLA’S CORRUPT LENINIST TYRANT On Monday, February 25, The Conservative Caucus hosted a news conference at which I delivered the following statement (The complete conference, including media questions is recorded on a Visions of Victory audiocassette which is available on request to anyone who returns the enclosed reply envelope asking for a complimentary copy. Recorded on the cassette are remarks by Frank Gaffney, President of the Center for Security Policy; Brad Phillips, President of the Persecution Project Foundation; and Jardo Muekalia, Dr. Savimbi’s last official representative in the United States): Dr. Jonas Savimbi was a great Angolan patriot, truly a man who served as a loving, self-sacrificing father to those of his countrymen who shared his love of freedom and who were willing to die to escape the bonds of Portuguese colonialism and Communist tyranny. In the war against Soviet imperialism America had no more faithful and courageous ally. Unfortunately, many Americans betrayed Savimbi’s heroic friendship. Chevron and other oil companies and their minions in the top ranks of both major political parties degraded themselves for filthy lucre, even consenting to have their employees in Angola guarded by Fidel Castro’s Cuban Communist troops. At the State Department, Ronald Reagan’s Assistant Secretary for African Affairs, Chester Crocker, consistently strove to undercut the Reagan Doctrine and to undermine Dr. Savimbi’s UNITA freedom fighters. Herman Cohen who, under George Bush the elder, succeeded Crocker as Assistant Secretary for Africa, was such a despicable traitor to the cause of freedom and to America’s national interests that he hired himself out as a foreign agent to the Leninist tyrants who still rule in Luanda, Angola. In 1992, Savimbi won a popular election, which victory was stolen from him even more blatantly than Mayor Daley stole Illinois for John F. Kennedy in 1960. KENNEDY PAYOFF On September 27, 1993, Bill Clinton issued an Executive Order and sent a message to Congress which asserted "I have exercised my statutory authority to declare a national emergency with respect to the actions and policies of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)…. These actions are mandated in part by United Nations Security Council Resolution No. 864 of September 13, 1993." COUNSELLORS FROM CHEVRON Disgracefully, on September 24, 2001, George Bush the younger extended Clinton’s outrageous Executive Order, demonstrating that, while the names of the players change, nonetheless, under both Democratic and Republican governance, considerations of commercial profit override commitments to liberty, or, indeed, to the larger national interest. G.W. Bush’s affirmation of the Crocker-Cohen-Clinton policy concerning Angola was a signal to the assassins who hold power in Luanda that, while pro-Communist terrorist Yasser Arafat enjoys the protection of the U.S. government, the anti-Communist hero Jonas Savimbi was fair game. ACCESSORIES BEFORE THE FACT No word of caution or indication of concern issued from either the White House or Foggy Bottom, despite repeated statements of the Jose Eduardo dos Santos government that the murder of Dr. Savimbi was its prime strategic objective, necessary to the consolidation of power by its corrupt Leninist tyranny. AN INCONVENIENT PATRIOT Thus, with no fear of rebuke from those who govern the New World Order of socially respectable international opinion, the Angolan Reds targeted Dr. Savimbi to be hunted down and murdered. His death is a tragic loss. DISHONOR His blood is on the hands of the government of the United States, as well as on the hands of the Angolan gangster government which directly gave the orders. If President Bush meets on Tuesday with Jose Eduardo dos Santos, the President of Angola, as is now planned, within days of the murder of Dr. Savimbi, it will be a grievous, unforgettable insult to all Americans who are grateful for the sacrifices Dr. Savimbi made throughout his life and for the extraordinary assistance he provided to freedom’s cause at a crucial time in America’s epochal struggle with international Communism. GWB ALIGNS U.S. WITH KLEPTOCRATS IN LUANDA AGAINST THE PEOPLE OF ANGOLA Joseph Curl reports (Washington Times, 2/27/02, p. A4) that "The Bush administration sees Mr. [Jose Eduardo] dos Santos, who took power 27 years ago, as its best option." A SUMMARY REVIEW OF HOW AMERICA BETRAYED ITS FRIENDS AND AIDED OUR ENEMIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 1. During the Presidency of Gerald Ford, Henry Kissinger pressured the then anti-Communist government of South Africa (RSA) (working through the traitor, Pik Botha) to halt its imminently successful drive on the Cuban troops which were helping to install a Communist regime to succeed the Portuguese in Luanda, Angola. 2. Ronald Reagan’s Assistant Secretary of State for Africa, Chester Crocker, consistently undercut the Reagan Doctrine, pushing policies designed to facilitate Communist takeovers in RSA and Namibia, as well as in Angola. 3. Mitch Daniels, then Ronald Reagan’s White House Political Director, blocked efforts to sustain President Reagan’s veto of sanctions on the anti-Communist RSA government. 4. Gulf, Chevron, Texaco, and Conoco learned quickly how to entangle prominent Republicans in support of their alliance with Angola’s Communist tyranny. GOP cabinet Secretaries George Shultz and Carla Hills served on the Chevron board, and Condoleezza Rice, now GWB’s National Security Adviser, was not only awarded a seat on the Chevron board, an oil tanker was named after her, which carried oil from Angola to the United States. 5. Taking a bipartisan approach, the Angolan Reds awarded millions of dollars in oil concessions to the family of Senator Ted Kennedy and his nephews, Joseph and Michael Kennedy, each of whom received many hundreds of thousands of dollars in salaries from an Angola-funded entity called the Citizens Energy Corporation. 6. George Bush the elder’s Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Herman Cohen collaborated with the Kennedy-controlled U.S.-Angolan Chamber of Commerce to legitimate the theft of Jonas Savimbi’s election victory in 1992, and to prevent the holding of a Constitutionally required run-off election. Cohen was rewarded after he left the State Department with a $500,000 annual retainer as a registered foreign agent for the Angolan Leninists. 7. Maurice Tempelsman, a diamond broker who served as an agent of influence for the Angolan Communist regime, secured the companionship of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who, for a number of years served as his mistress. Tempelsman was able to use this relationship, in combination with the Angolan oil payoffs to the Kennedy family to secure a completely pro-Communist Angolan policy by the new administration of Bill Clinton, which arranged for U.N. sanctions and follow-up U.S. sanctions on the anti-Communist UNITA freedom fighters led by Jonas Savimbi. 8. As soon as he had the opportunity, President George W. Bush embraced the Kissinger-Crocker-Cohen-Kennedy-Clinton policy on Angola. As with Enron, corruption and betrayal of the innocent is bipartisan. By the way, I neglected to mention that Dick Cheney’s Halliburton reportedly had a $200 million contract with the Angolan Reds. - Howard Phillips FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE National Press Club, Zenger Room, 4:00 PM, Monday, February 25, 2002 STATEMENT OF HOWARD PHILLIPS, CHAIRMAN, The Conservative Caucus PRESIDENT BUSH SHOULD NOT MEET TOMORROW WITH SAVIMBI’S ASSASSIN Dr. Jonas Savimbi was a great Angolan patriot, truly a man who served as a loving, self-sacrificing father to those of his countrymen who shared his love of freedom and who were willing to die to escape the bonds of Portuguese colonialism and Communist tyranny. In the war against Soviet imperialism America had no more faithful and courageous ally. Unfortunately, many Americans betrayed Savimbi’s heroic friendship. Chevron and other oil companies and their minions in the top ranks of both major political parties degraded themselves for filthy lucre, even consenting to have their employees in Angola guarded by Fidel Castro’s Cuban Communist troops. At the State Department, Ronald Reagan’s Assistant Secretary for African Affairs, Chester Crocker, consistently strove to undercut the Reagan Doctrine and to undermine Dr. Savimbi’s UNITA freedom fighters. Herman Cohen who, under George Bush the elder, succeeded Crocker as Assistant Secretary for Africa, was such a despicable traitor to the cause of freedom and to America’s national interests that he hired himself out as a foreign agent to the Leninist tyrants who still rule in Luanda, Angola. In 1992, Savimbi won a popular election, which victory was stolen from him even more blatantly than Mayor Daley stole Illinois for John F. Kennedy in 1960. On September 27, 1993, Bill Clinton issued an Executive Order and sent a message to Congress which asserted "I have exercised my statutory authority to declare a national emergency with respect to the actions and policies of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)…. These actions are mandated in part by United Nations Security Council Resolution No. 864 of September 13, 1993." Disgracefully, on September 24, 2001, George Bush the younger extended Clinton’s outrageous Executive Order, demonstrating that, while the names of the players change, nonetheless, under both Democratic and Republican governance, considerations of commercial profit override commitments to liberty, or, indeed, to the larger national interest. G.W. Bush’s affirmation of the Crocker-Cohen-Clinton policy concerning Angola was a signal to the assassins who hold power in Luanda that, while pro-Communist terrorist Yasser Arafat enjoys the protection of the U.S. government, the anti-Communist hero Jonas Savimbi was fair game. No word of caution or indication of concern issued from either the White House or Foggy Bottom, despite repeated statements of the Jose Eduardo dos Santos’s government that the murder of Dr. Savimbi was its prime strategic objective, necessary to the consolidation of power by its corrupt Leninist tyranny. Thus, with no fear of rebuke from those who govern the New World Order of socially respectable international opinion, the Angolan Reds targeted Dr. Savimbi to be hunted down and murdered. His death is a tragic loss. His blood is on the hands of the government of the United States, as well as on the hands of the Angolan gangster government which directly gave the orders. If President Bush meets on Tuesday with Jose Eduardo dos Santos, the President of Angola, as is now planned, within days of the murder of Dr. Savimbi, it will be a grievous, unforgettable insult to all Americans who are grateful for the sacrifices Dr. Savimbi made throughout his life and for the extraordinary assistance he provided to freedom’s cause at a crucial time in America’s epochal struggle with international Communism. Excerpted from Howard Phillips Issues & Strategy Bulletin of January 31, 2000 CHESTER CROCKER'S LEGACY: COMMUNIST ANGOLANS AND COMMUNIST NAMIBIANS SLAUGHTER THE INNOCENT As reported in The Washington Post (1/27/00, p. A21), "Angola's civil war raged on for 26 years without bothering or involving this hard-scrabble town just across the Cubango River, which forms the Namibian border with Angola. That is until last month, after a recent Angolan government offensive left its army without enough soldiers to chase the rebels from their strongholds." REAGAN'S ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF STATE AIDED COMMUNIST VICTORIES IN ANGOLA, MOZAMBIQUE, NAMIBIA, AND SOUTH AFRICA "Angola's military crossed the border to recruit destitute Namibians, such as Immanuen Ndumba, winning him over with the promise of a paycheck. "But Ndumba, 21, didn't last two weeks as a mercenary. The 360 Namibian recruits in his regiment were fed only once a day. Some were beaten and abused. And Namibians returning from battle warned Ndumba that they had been misled about their pay. Their only compensation, they said, was whatever cash or valuables they could scavenge from the pockets of dead or captured rebels, or from their raided camps. "So Ndumba and five other Namibian recruits swam home across the river a week ago, fugitives evading a foreign army in their own country. " We are in hiding because if they find us they will take us back to Angola and make us fight, or they will kill us,' said Ndumba, the father of a 3-year-old boy. 'Many of our friends have been taken back and beaten. Some have been shot for desertion. Namibia should never have gotten involved in this awful war.' "With the complicity and collaboration of Namibian authorities, the Angolan army is using deceit and force to conscript Rundu's young men and women into a foreign army, according to peasants, political organizers and clergy here. They say the forced recruitment began in December, when the Namibian government began permitting the Angolan military to use Namibian soil for its stepped-up attacks on retreating insurgents as part of an army offensive that began in September. "The accounts here contradict denials from both governments that Namibian civilians have been hired to fight the rebel movement, which is known by its Portuguese acronym UNITA. Anton Arthur said he watched Namibian police help 16 armed and uniformed Angolans soldiers last week round up eight Namibian deserters at an open-air market and a convenience store in a village just outside Rundu. "'"We don't want to return to Angola,"' Arthur recalled one young man saying to a soldier. '"We have not been paid."' "The soldier did not flinch, Arthur said. '"You cannot change your position now,"' he said. '"If you do not return to Angola, we will force your family to go to Angola,"' Anton said the soldier told the man before hauling him away in a military vehicle. 'It didn't take long,' Arthur said. 'It was done openly so people could see what was happening---like they wanted to make an example of these men.' "Angola's civil war erupted in 1974 after the country gained independence from Portugal. The Marxist governing party, known by its Portuguese acronym MPLA, was supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba, while the UNITA guerrillas were supported by the United States and South Africa in what became a proxy war waged by the Cold War superpowers. ..." CHEVRON AND TEXACO SUBSIDIZE THE RED WARLORDS "A rise in oil prices last summer nearly doubled the government's revenues from state-owned refineries, financing a renewed MPLA effort to resolve its military impasse with UNITA. Since September, the MPLA has recaptured virtually all rebel-held territory and pushed the retreating rebels to Namibia. .... "Peasants in the impoverished fishing town of Rundu, in Namibia's northeastern corner, say that they are paying the price for a war they did not ask for. Land mines have already been laid in the once peaceful villages that surround Rundu, and peasants say they have been harassed and followed by Angolan soldiers and Namibian authorities searching for rebel sympathizers. "The soldiers 'are freely doing whatever they want to do,' said Robert Mupira, a political organizer here. 'We have Angolan soldiers asking Namibians they pass on the street to show their identity [cards]. How do they have the right to do that on Namibian soil?'. ... "Kashera Bonifance Kanyetu said that he knows at least 12 Namibians, including his brother-in-law, who joined the Angolan army after they were promised pay as high as $3,000 a month. Ndumba said his Angolan commander told him that there were 600 Namibians in two army camps near Rundu; neither knew of any mercenary who has been paid. "'I would say it is the poverty that makes people join,' said Kanyetu. 'Most people here are not able to make even $5 a day, and the [Angolan army] knows that. They lie to them and then force them to fight UNITA. Excerpted from Howard Phillips Issues & Strategy Bulletin of January 31, 1998 DO ANGOLAN COMMUNIST PAYOFFS TO THE KENNEDY FAMILY DICTATE CLINTON'S CAMPAIGN TO EXTERMINATE UNITA? One of the great "failures" of America's media monopolists is their unreadiness to expose the financial corruption and bribery which undergirds U.S. foreign policy towards southern Africa. Insider financial considerations have taken precedence over strategic concerns since the Reagan administration, when Rockefeller-protégé Chester Crocker was Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs. All too consistently, the U.S. national interest has been defined as that which benefits major energy, banking, and mineral enterprises which profit from close ties to African Communist despots. THE LOVE OF MONEY IS THE ROOT OF MUCH EVIL President Clinton has continued this bipartisan tradition, and has indeed intensified the Big Oil-Big Business-Big Bank campaign against the anti-Communist freedom fighters in Angola, in a manner consistent with the fact that Clinton's close political ally, Ted Kennedy, is the leader of a family which has received many millions of dollars in benefits from the Leninist tyrants who rule Angola. KENNEDYS' "CITIZENS ENERGY CORPORATION" IS FUELED BY RED OIL Aided by Maurice Tempelsman, to whom Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis served as mistress during the final years of her life, and who himself has grown wealthy on diamond concessions in Angola and elsewhere in southern Africa, the Kennedy family, operating through "next generation" representatives Joseph Kennedy and Michael Kennedy, was granted its own oil concession from the Marxist-Leninist government of Angola to something called the Citizens Energy Corporation. ANGOLAN OIL IS A MAJOR SOURCE OF INCOME FOR THE KENNEDYS As reported in the American Spectator (December, 1997, p. 43), "Citizens Energy is a key player in an unfolding foreign policy debacle in which the Clinton administration has sold out long-term friends of the United States to unlikely coalitions of old Marxists and corporate hustlers. But the Kennedys' operation is so carefully shielded behind good works that its dimensions might not have come to view at all if not for a family split partly stemming from the still-unsolved murder, twenty-two years ago, of a teenage girl in a fashionable New York suburb...." A FINANCIAL CONSPIRACY WITH NATIONAL SECURITY IMPLICATIONS "Its for-profit subsidiaries include Citizens Gas Supply Corp., Citizens Power and Light Corp., Citizens Energy International, and Citizens Lehman Power LP, a partnership with the well-known Lehman Brothers investment-banking firm. The directory is actually out of date, since many of these dependencies have recently been spun off or sold in multi-million dollar deals, with six-figure bonuses for Citizens Energy executives...." ROGER TAMRAZ IS A KENNEDY BENEFACTOR "Citizens Energy very soon crossed the path of Roger Tamraz, the international financier who recently stunned the Thompson Committee hearings when he bluntly admitted making large campaign donations to buy access.... "Earlier this year, Tamraz emerged as not only a major fundraiser for [Congressman Joseph Patrick Kennedy III]'s uncle, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, but as a client of Teddy's wife. For the 1994 Senate campaign, Teddy's stiffest challenge in years, Tamraz personally contributed $5,000 and raised another $25,000. He also approached Victoria Reggie Kennedy, a lawyer who married Teddy in 1992, for legal help in claiming assets seized by a foreign government...." THE LATE MICHAEL KENNEDY WAS PAID $622,000 PER YEAR FOR HIS GOOD WORKS "[A]fter 1986...he made his long-expected move into politics to take over former House Speaker Tip O'Neill's congressional seat. Joe turned over the chairmanship of the non-profit business to his younger brother Michael LeMoyne Kennedy....According to a Boston Globe analysis...Michael Kennedy's paycheck...hit $622,000....By the 1995 report...net assets showed a striking growth to more than $26 million. "These figures mask wild fluctuations in the value of the money-making parts of the empire, grouped under a holding company called Citizens Corporation.... Financial statements for the eight or so outfits reporting to Citizens Corporation simply don't come into public view...." U.S.-ANGOLA CHAMBER OF COMMERCE IS A FRONT FOR KENNEDYS AND COMMUNISTS "Perhaps the most interesting of these hidden subsidiaries is Citizens Energy International Inc. Formed in 1991, CEII plunged right into the classic vortex of oil and international intrigue, seeking exploration and production concessions...Michael Kennedy took a strong personal interest in war-torn Angola, the resource-rich former Portuguese colony on the southwest coast of Africa. The Kennedy support for the faction once backed by the Soviet Union and a Cuban expeditionary force has helped create a Frankenstein monster now rampaging through central Africa. Within recent months, Kennedy's allies have overthrown American friends in two neighboring countries and introduced a dangerous new streak of instability.... "[Michael] Kennedy was instrumental in founding the U.S.-Angola Chamber of Commerce, described by critics as a front for the MPLA [Angolan Communist Party]. The Luanda regime was fighting a bigger civil war with its main rival Jonas Savimbi's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)...." COMMUNISTS PAID BUSH APPOINTEE TO BE THEIR FOREIGN AGENT "The MPLA's Cuban allies guarded American oil facilities in the Cabinda enclave against attacks by the U.S.-supported UNITA forces. Major oil companies like Gulf, Chevron, and Texaco managed to wean the Bush administration from UNITA after intense attacks against Savimbi orchestrated by the pubic relations firm Hill & Knowlton. Although in 1992 U.S. policy seemed to achieve its long-standing goal of ‘free and fair’ elections in Angola, the MPLA tilt produced a disaster...." "PEACE PROCESS" MARRED BY FRAUD AND ASSASSINATION "Two days later, almost as if on cue, the MPLA launched a savage attack on the UNITA negotiators, killing among others UNITA vice president Jeremias Chitunda...By the end of this ‘Night of Long Knives,’ say UNITA partisans, the MPLA had slaughtered some 50,000 of Savimbi's supporters.... "The Kennedy interests stepped up their support of the MPLA....In 1996, Michael led a Citizens Energy delegation to Luanda to announce a $1.5 million commitment to build the Catholic University of Angola. His group assisted in assembling a University Board of Directors that read more like an oil industry convention...." TEMPELSMAN TOOK HILLARY AND BILL FOR A RIDE WITH JACKIE O. "CEII has a three-percent stake in the highly promising offshore oil exploration run by Continental Oil Co. Its other interests in the region are hidden behind the philanthropy curtain, but it may be no coincidence that an old family friend, the international diamond broker Maurice Tempelsman, has reemerged as a player on the scene....Tempelsman is chief executive of Lazare Kaplan Inc., headquartered on New York's Fifth Avenue, which supplied diamonds to Tiffany and Cartier. Another family business, Leon Tempelsman & Son, has global mining interests, with heavy emphasis on west Africa. For more than three decades Tempelsman gave money and advice to the political elite of black Africa's governments and liberation movements. He was the constant companion of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis in her last years, and in 1993 he and Jackie entertained President and Mrs. Clinton at Martha's Vineyard on his 70-foot yacht, the Relemar. Like Roger Tamraz, Tempelsman gave lavishly to Democratic Party organs, by one count $145,000 for the 1996 cycle." WITH SUPPORT FROM CLINTON AND KENNEDY, ANGOLA HAS BECOME AN IMPERIAL POWER Recently, the Angolan Communists, who have received U.S. government foreign aid payoffs since the days of President Bush, have been imposing their Marxist imperialism in surrounding states, including the former Zaire (DROC), Congo-Brazzaville, Namibia, and Zambia (where their pressure resulted in the removal of the country's Christian, anti-Communist Vice President). ALBRIGHT SHOWERS PRAISE ON CONGO'S COMMUNIST THUG FRONTMAN The latest public example of Clinton's pro-Communist policy for southern Africa was Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright's groveling visit to Kinshasa, the capital of the country formerly known as Zaire, now labeled "Congo" (or DROC---Democratic Republic of the Congo). (Editor's Note: Secretary Albright is reportedly Maurice Tempelsman's latest influential girlfriend.) According to The New York Times (12/13/97, p. A3), in "the highest-level American visit to Congo since a rebel army seized power in May, Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright applauded the leadership of President Laurent Kabila today and pledged to increase American aid. "Although Ms. Albright repeatedly alluded to a need for democracy and the rule of law here, her message seemed intended to play down concerns over political repression, violence and official corruption...." WORLD CLASS HYPOCRISY AND MISREPRESENTATION MAKE A MOCKERY OF HUMAN RIGHTS "Nonetheless, Ms. Albright said she hoped that with a ‘commitment to open markets, honest government and the rule of law,’ this huge Central African nation would emerge as an ‘engine of regional growth.’ With the new leader standing at her side at a news conference, she added, ‘President Kabila has made a strong start toward these goals.’ "Many in Congo, from ordinary citizens to political opposition leaders to members of the business community, would strongly dispute that assessment, but Ms. Albright's tightly packed schedule offered her no opportunity for a significant exchange with anyone but the President and senior officials, with whom she met for more than an hour this morning...." KABILA SAYS U.S. TAXPAYERS MUST FORK OVER MORE FOREIGN AID "Ms. Albright said at the news conference that the Clinton Administration was seeking about $35 million for Congo next year but warned that Congress would be attentive to human rights issues. "Mr. Kabila, for his part, complained in an interview recently published here that American aid to his country, about $10 million this year, was ‘insignificant, absolutely [insignificant].’ He added the hope that whatever aid was delivered would come ‘without conditions.’" FREEDOM OF SPEECH, PRESS, AND ASSEMBLY NOT ON MADELEINE'S AGENDA "Ms. Albright seemed to be caught off guard by a question about a Congolese political leader, Arthur Zahidi Ngoma, who was arrested two weeks ago and reportedly beaten. Mr. Ngoma remains in detention without charge. "Picking up the question himself, Mr. Kabila challenged the journalist who asked it, saying of Mr. Ngoma, ‘He is not a politician, but a writer of incendiary tracts that call the people into the streets.’" HEAR NO EVIL, SEE NO EVIL "The Secretary's visit here, the cornerstone of a seven-nation African tour, comes as opposition leaders are frequently being jailed and their parties prevented from operating freely. Business executives grumble increasingly about growing corruption." KABILA'S RESUMÉ: KIDNAPPER, DRUNK. WOMANIZER, THUG, COMMUNIST According to Newsweek (12/15/97, p. 37), "A contemporary of the Congolese revolutionary leader Patrice Lumumba, Kabila for years financed a sputtering Marxist-Leninist rebellion by trafficking in gold from an enclave in eastern Zaire. On a visit, Che Guevara wrote him off as a womanizer and a drunk. In 1975 his forces held three young Stanford University researchers and a Dutch academic for ransom in a remote jungle camp. The victim's families paid $500,000 for their freedom. In the 1980s, Kabila ran a seedy bar in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, according to U.S. sources." ALL THE WORLD'S A STAGE---BUT WHO'S PULLING THE STRINGS? "How he got from there to the October 1996 press conference at which he declared himself head of the four-party rebel coalition remains a mystery, and Western reporters were kept off the battlefield. But it later became clear that he had been backed by an assertive new coalition: Tanzania, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Rwanda and Angola." BIPARTISAN AFRICA POLICY HAS BROUGHT COMMUNISTS TO POWER IN ANGOLA, BENIN, BRAZZAVILLE, KINSHASHA, MOZAMBIQUE, NAMIBIA, AND SOUTH AFRICA Newsweek (12/15/97, p. 37) reported that on "the ground, the Angolan role was critical. Newsweek has learned that the Luanda government established an air bridge to Rwanda and eastern Zaire within the first month of the rebellion. Using chartered transports flown by foreign pilots, Angolan President Jose Edward dos Santos sent in more than 3,000 men with heavy weapons. They were decisive in the battle for Kisangani, the only real confrontation of the war. Rwandan President Paul Kagame has since publicly claimed credit for putting Kabila in power." "As Michael Radu, a senior fellow at the Foreign Policy Research Institute in Philadelphia, recently observed: ‘What is to be concluded from...events in which Congo-Brazzaville, once seen as an example of the "democratic wave," is now in the hands of a former(?) Marxist president; former Marxist dictator Mathieu Kerekou has been re-elected in Benin; an old pro-Soviet, pro-Cuban leadership is still in power in Angola; and ex(?)-Marxists still reign in Mozambique? Only that the easy slogans of "democratization" and "Africanization" should be seen as hollow.’" (Washington Times, 12/11/97, p. A19) SAVIMBI PRESSED TO SURRENDER MILLIONS OF BLACK AFRICANS TO COMMUNIST TYRANNY Frank Gaffney, director of the Center for Security Policy, has written (Washington Times, 12/11/97, p. A19) that Angola is "demonstrating once again the validity of the most damning indictment of American foreign policy since World War II: It is better to be America's enemy than its friend. "Secretary Albright's whistle-stop visit to Luanda [is] the latest evidence of the abandonment by the United States of a longtime ally, Jonas Savimbi, and the pro-Western movement known as UNITA that he has led for decades in opposition to the Soviet- and Cuban-backed dos Santos regime...Mrs. Albright [met] only with Mr. dos Santos and members of his regime. Although the secretary of state belatedly extended an offer to Mr. Savimbi, [Red Boss Dos Santos insisted] on having the meeting take place in Angola's capital – tantamount to an invitation for him to commit suicide in view of the government's demonstrated willingness in 1992 to murder UNITA officials in the capital for diplomatic reasons." CLINTON SHUTS DOWN UNITA'S OFFICE IN AMERICA "Further evidence of Washington's present antipathy toward UNITA can be found in U.S. support for ever-more stringent international sanctions being imposed on it by the United Nations. The latest tightening of the screws involves travel restrictions for senior UNITA officials, closure of UNITA's foreign offices and prohibition of critical air support. The justification? Mr. Savimbi has not been sufficiently acquiescent in the liquidation of his organization as the only democratic opposition to the Angolan regime...." MURDER OF NON-COMBATANTS IS STANDARD PRACTICE OF KENNEDY'S BENEFACTORS "Unfortunately, these measures are not simply a potential threat to the physical safety of UNITA's partisans. Regular and irregular units of the government are engaged in a campaign of terror and intimidation against those who support the opposition. Just last month, 10 UNITA members died – apparently, by suffocation – while detained by Angolan police. (A U.N. spokesman called their deaths ‘an act of barbaric cruelty,’ and opined that ‘the police should preserve life and the rights of persons under their jurisdiction.’)" ANGOLAN REDS HAVE INVADED ZAIRE AND CONGO-BRAZZAVILLE TO TOPPLE ANTI-COMMUNIST GOVERNMENTS According to Gaffney, "The Angolan government has also been utilizing its forces to threaten and in some cases actually to attack Mr. Savimbi's bases of operations and logistical supply routes. Specifically it has deployed troops so as to choke off diamond mining operations in UNITA-administered areas in the north of the country. It also has employed Angolan army forces, transport aircraft and other matériel in offensive operations in neighboring countries for the purpose of overthrowing governments and destroying networks that have supported Mr. Savimbi's pro-Western rebels. Excerpted from Howard Phillips Issues & Strategy Bulletin of August 31, 1997 WILL AMERICA GO TO WAR IN ANGOLA -- ON THE COMMUNIST SIDE? Thomas W. Lippman reports in The Washington Post (8/24/97, p. A25) that "to salvage the shaky peace in Angola, the Clinton administration will support new United Nations sanctions on longtime rebel leader Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement and is prepared to sell military transport planes to the Angolan government, according to senior officials." "KING KOFI" WANTS UNITA TO OBEY U.N., SURRENDER ITS GUNS, AND COMMIT SUICIDE "The sanctions, which U.S. officials expect to be imposed by the U.N. Security Council this week, and the aircraft sale reflect the administration's exasperation with Savimbi, a former Cold War ally whom Washington holds largely responsible for the growing tension in Angola. "Washington's view was hardened earlier this month after U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan issued a blistering report accusing Savimbi and UNITA of ‘totally unacceptable’ practices – including failure to demobilize troops – that threaten to restart Africa's longest civil war." DR. SAVIMBI REFUSED TO KISS CLINTON'S RING "During the Cold War Savimbi was Washington's proxy in a struggle against the government of Jose Eduardo dos Santos, which was backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba. But Savimbi has long since outlived his usefulness to Washington, and U.S. anger at his tactics has been apparent since October, when he refused to travel to Luanda, the Angolan capital, to meet then-Secretary of State Warren Christopher. "Administration officials portrayed the forthcoming U.N. sanctions against UNITA and the planned sale of six C-130 cargo planes to the dos Santos government as intended to persuade Savimbi that he must comply with his commitments under the 1994 peace agreement known as the Lusaka Protocol. "But both moves have come under bipartisan fire from key members of Congress, who said they would unfairly punish UNITA while failing to recognize violations of the Lusaka agreement by the dos Santos government, and would undermine U.S. credibility as a neutral mediator. EVEN DEMOCRAT FEINGOLD OPPOSES AID TO LENINIST DOS SANTOS "Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman Jesse Helms (R-N.C.) and African Affairs subcommittee Chairman John D. Ashcroft (R-Mo.) wrote Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright that ‘It would be extremely unwise for the United States to abandon its policy of neutrality in Angola and become militarily involved on the side of the [dos Santos] government[’]. "They said it is dos Santos and his MPLA party who are preparing to resume the war, hoping to take advantage of the downfall of Savimbi's longtime patron, Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire, to gain the final military victory that has eluded them for 20 years. Senator Russell Feingold (D-Wisc.) says the proposed Clinton policy "‘could add to the impression that the United States no longer wishes to be a neutral arbiter in Angola.’ "Similar warnings came from Rep. Ed Royce (R-Calif.), chairman of the House International Relations subcommittee on Africa, and the subcommittee's senior Democrat, Rep. Robert Menendez (N.J.)...." U.S. AIDS COMMUNISTS IN CHINA AND SOUTH AFRICA WHILE PUNISHING ANTI-COMMUNISTS WHO ALLIED THEMSELVES WITH THE U.S. "Senior administration officials said most of the blame for the tension clearly lies with Savimbi and that the development of bilateral relations – including military relations – with the Luanda government ‘cannot be held hostage,’ as one put it, to Savimbi's delaying tactics.... "[T]he atmosphere soured rapidly after the downfall of Mobutu. UNITA soldiers who fought on Mobutu's losing side in Zaire returned home frustrated and angry, and government troops moved into UNITA-held areas.... "UNITA is already under U.N. sanctions that include a ban on arms transfers, a ban largely ignored by UNITA's suppliers. According to U.S. officials, the additional sanctions to be imposed this week are aimed at undermining UNITA economically, militarily and politically. "They are expected to include requirements that member countries refuse visas to UNITA officials, close UNITA offices and cut off air traffic."	<urn:uuid:56d99515-dbaf-4b6e-8377-a7fa2d51c028>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://jonas-savimbi.com/4.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947753	10,192	2.578125	3
Cooling can help full-term infants with low flow of oxygen and blood to the brain A new study suggests a medical therapy known as "cooling" can help full-term infants born with low flow of oxygen and blood to the brain. This condition is thought to occur in about 1 out of every one-thousand babies born in the United States. Cooling is thought to be one way to protect the brain. Doctors in this study used an infant blanket connected to a cooling system. Dr. Seetha Shankaran is Director of Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine at Children's Hospital of Michigan in Detroit and the lead author of the study. She says infants with this condition who received cooling during their first 3 days of life had better outcomes at seven years of age compared to those who were not cooled. "This new study is really reassuring because it has shown both the safety and the efficacy of cooling carried out from the intervention up to seven years of age. The mortality rate was lower in the hypothermia group and what was extremely encouraging was that there was no increase in disabilities." She says that these results reassure doctors that currently use cooling, but more work needs to be done. Cooling can cost about $6000 and requires close monitoring at specialized childrens' hospitals. -Nishant Sekaran, Michigan Radio Newsroom	<urn:uuid:7676423c-7aff-455c-9c41-922d0dfa8a3b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://michiganradio.org/post/cooling-can-help-full-term-infants-low-flow-oxygen-and-blood-brain	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.979285	276	3.15625	3
- NHL Treatment - Hodgkin's Treatment - Clinical Trials - Monoclonal Antibodies - Types of NHL Lymphoma and Pets Hodgkin's Lymphoma Stage Four Prognosis Also known as Hodgkin's disease, Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) is a cancer of the white blood cells, or lymphocytes. Characterized by swelling in the lymph nodes, HL is most frequently treated with chemotherapy, especially in its later, more advanced stages. Like many cancers, the spread of Hodgkin's lymphoma can be measured on a scale of four stages, with Stage I being least severe and Stage 4 being most. The following are characteristics of the four stages: - Stage I involves only a single lymph node, generally in the neck region, or one site outside the lymphatic system. It and Stage II can sometimes be treated with radiation therapy alone. - Stage II is the involvement of two or more nodes on the same side of the diaphragm. - Stage III has nodal involvement on both sides of the diaphragm, with possible involvement of the spleen. - Stage IV, the most serious phase of the disease, finds cancerous involvement of widespread extralymphatic organs (i.e., organs outside the system of lymph nodes). While a diagnosis of Stage IV Hodgkin's lymphoma is a very serious diagnosis, HL remains one of the most treatable of cancers. It responds well to treatment, whether radiation or chemotherapy. About 60 percent of Stage IV patients will be cured of the disease. Using the staging of the disease is not, however, always a reliable method of assessing survivability. An international effort in 1998 produced a list of seven factors that are intended to provide a more accurate measure of an individual person's likelihood of responding to treatment. The scale is based on five-year freedom from progression (FFP), or the percentage of patients whose disease has been successfully halted within five years. Patients with zero factors have an 84 percent FFP. Each of the following factors reduces the 5-year FFP by seven percent: - Age greater than 44 years - Stage IV - Hemoglobin less than 10.5 g/dl - Lymphocyte count less than eight percent - Patient is male - Albumin less than 4.0 g/dl - White blood count of 15,000 per microlitre or higher The reliability of the criteria declines with more than five factors, so for five or more factors, the 5-year FFP is said to be 42 percent. The Hodgkin's lymphoma Stage IV prognosis is therefore reasonably positive. As one of the "best" cancers to have, Hodgkin's lymphoma is less likely to pose a threat to a patient's life, even in its more advanced stages, than many other diseases.	<urn:uuid:2a120d35-7ba6-4294-9645-ff99960a3bd1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.lymphomainfo.net/articles/hodgkins-lymphoma/hodgkins-lymphoma-stage-four-prognosis	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943862	591	2.6875	3
For as long as America has had soldiers, its army has been scrutinizing information about its enemies to gain an advantage on the battlefield. George Washington advised his commanders to maintain logs of intelligence on British forces detailing the sizes of their regiments, arms and food supplies among other things [source: Central Intelligence Agency]. Weapons have changed since the Revolutionary War, but the role of the Army intelligence analyst remains no less important. Essentially, the intelligence analyst is a soldier who compiles timely facts about an enemy from as many sources as possible, interprets the information and relays that analysis to commanding officers to help them determine strategy on the battlefield [source: U.S. Army]. The role is like an assistant coach on a football team who pores through film and scouting reports to prepare a strategy for an upcoming game. In the war in Iraq, intelligence analysts organized data about the date, time and nature of insurgent attacks on military convoys, which led analysts to make educated guesses on future attacks, as well as determine the specific insurgent groups conducting them [source: Meeks and Brundige]. Intelligence analysts don't make restrictive predictions on what will happen in a particular combat scenario. Instead, they examine all available sources of information -- which could include weather conditions, intercepted enemy communications and facts acquired from interrogations and interviews -- place the information into context and provide their commanders with a full scope of threats and potential courses of action to help them make informed decisions. Useful intelligence exploits enemy weaknesses using immediately available forces and can save lives [source: House]. Let's take a closer look at what intelligence analysts do and what they need to know. We'll also learn about a few of the jobs that require similar skills.	<urn:uuid:54a080c3-531b-453f-acc6-4faa9c4519db>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://science.howstuffworks.com/military/army-careers/how-to-become-army-intelligence-analyst.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962222	345	3.078125	3
Cancer Monthly Self Exam A testicular self exam is best performed after a warm bath or shower. Heat relaxes the scrotum, making it easier to spot anything abnormal. The National Cancer Institute recommends following these steps every month: - Stand in front of a mirror. Check for any swelling on the scrotum skin. - Examine each testicle with both hands. Place the index and middle fingers under the testicle with the thumbs placed on top. Roll the testicle gently between the thumbs and fingers. Don't be alarmed if one testicle seems slightly larger than the other. That's - Find the epididymis, the soft, tubelike structure behind the testicle that collects and carries sperm. If you are familiar with this structure, you won't mistake it for a suspicious lump. Cancerous lumps usually are found on the sides of the testicle but can also show up on the front. - If you find a lump, see a doctor right away. The abnormality may not be cancer, but if it is, the chances are great it can spread if not stopped by treatment. Only a physician can make a Would you like information on how to receive a free monthly reminder to perform a self exam? If so, please click here. The video below shows how to perform a testicular is from the Channel 4 Embarrassing Bodies website.	<urn:uuid:6dd1fe98-a0f6-43fb-ad33-3aeb5194e1a4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.tc-cancer.com/about/self-exam.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.885755	304	2.53125	3
Children and young people's learning will progress through six curricular levels from the ages of 3 to 18. Each of the levels generally spans 3 years. However, children progress at different rates and some may take longer or need additional support, while others will achieve confident learning skills sooner. Effective transition arrangements are especially important in Curriculum for Excellence to ensure continuity of learning for each pupil. Key transitions are from nursery to primary, from primary to secondary and during the Senior Phase to ensure a positive destination into higher education, work, training or college. The curriculum will help children and young people develop skills for learning, skills for life and skills for work. Curriculum for Excellence is an approach to teaching which is interactive between teachers and those children and young people with whom they are working. Curriculum for Excellence provides increased opportunities to link learning across different curricular areas for example, planet earth draws on sciences but could also include geography and mathematics. Children and young people will experience a broad range of learning at an appropriate level of challenge and have opportunities to apply their skills and knowledge in a variety of situations. Education & Schools Kilncraigs, Greenside Street, Alloa, FK10 1EB Tel: 01259 450000	<urn:uuid:bc57e5db-9374-4d69-9dc6-e6284b926321>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.clacks.gov.uk/learning/cfe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949634	256	3.15625	3
Model Predicts the Progress of Disease Detection By Calla Cofield Many groups at the APS March Meeting presented their work on new devices for disease detection. Three groups presented work on more robust TB detectors. Another company revealed proof of concept for a handheld device that could do everything from monitoring white blood cells to identifying bacteria in drinking water. John X. J. Zhang and researchers from the University of Texas at Austin want to improve on current technologies to identify tumor cells that appear in the bloodstream long before tumors become visible through imaging techniques. They are engineering sensors that go out and look for the cancer cells in the sample, in contrast to current technology in which the sensors remain stationary and wait for the cells to pass by. In this way Zhang and his group have changed the relationship between the number of disease indicators in a volume and the time it takes for them to reach the sensor. According to Ashram Alam, a professor of electrical and computer engineering at Purdue University, this is the underlying challenge for all biosensor technologies. “On the surface, these technologies, protocols and approaches look very different,” said Alam. “But they all use different manifestations of the same principles. They all rely on how the molecules diffuse to the sensors. [Our work] along with others from Naval Research Lab (led by P.E. Sheehan) and MIT (led by T.M. Squires) speaks mostly to the physics of sensitivity and how far you can go based on the physical principles of how molecules are detected.” Alam spoke at a press conference at the meeting in Portland and related the task of disease detection to a game of cops and robbers. New technologies hope to increase their ability to find the elusive robbers (disease indicators in large sample volumes) and create better cops (more effective means of capturing and identifying those indicators). Alam and his group, including postdoctoral researcher Pradeep Nair, studied the zoo of biosensors and disease detection techniques and put the parameters that govern the “cops and the robbers” into a basic model. Those parameters include how well a team’s engineered nanoparticles bind to the disease indicators, the device’s signal to noise ratio, or a detector’s ability to handle a cell gently enough that it doesn’t destroy it in the capture process. The Purdue researchers are calling their model a “periodic table” because it provides a kind of map of all the current biosensors based on their unique values for each of the individual parameters. The map then reveals gaps in the current technology, and provides developers with the opportunity to fill in those gaps with new devices. The team first developed their model based on technology available in the 1970’s, and found that they could successfully predict technologies available today. Alam says they have already begun to see some of their current model predictions fulfilled. “All these parameters can now be understood in a global context, so you don’t just start changing one without understanding the others,” said Alam. The model also predicts that current biosensor technology will reach a wall of sensitivity, limited by the density of disease indicators in a volume, and the amount of time the researchers are willing to wait for the results. The wall can be overcome by new techniques such as amplifying the signal from the disease indicator. “There really are a huge number of things depending on this kind of understanding,” he said. “And in the end we hope something significant and wonderful will come out of it.” ©1995 - 2016, AMERICAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY APS encourages the redistribution of the materials included in this newspaper provided that attribution to the source is noted and the materials are not truncated or changed. Editor: Alan Chodos	<urn:uuid:4f938de5-108b-4425-a38b-c68bbdb24ba5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201006/diseasedetec.cfm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937289	787	2.53125	3
What is File Extension SB? Did someone email you a SB file and you're not sure how to open it? Maybe you have found a SB file on your computer and wondering what it's for? Windows might tell you that you can't open it, or in the worst case, you might encounter a SB file related error message. Before you can open a SB file, you'll need to figure out what kind of file the SB file extension refers to. Tip: Incorrect SB file association errors can be a symptom of other underlying issues within your Windows operating system. These invalid entries can also produce associated symptoms such as slow Windows startups, computer freezes, and other PC performance issues. Therefore, it highly recommended that you scan your Windows registry for invalid file associations and other issues related to a fragmented registry. SB files are Audio Files primarily associated with Small Basic Source Code (Microsoft Corporation). SB files are also associated with Audio, SpinnerBaker eXtractor Compressed Archive (SpinnerBaker Software), Raw Signed Byte (8-bit) Data and FileViewPro. Additional types of files may also be using the SB file extension. If you are aware of any other file formats using the SB file extension, please contact us so that we can update our information accordingly. How To Open Your SB File: The fastest and easiest way to open your SB file is to double-click it. This allows the intelligence of Windows to decide the correct software application to open your SB file. In the case that your SB file doesn't open, it is highly likely that you do not have the correct software application installed on your PC to view or edit SB file extensions. If your PC opens the SB file, but it's the wrong application, you'll need to change your Windows registry file association settings. In other words, Windows is associating SB file extensions with the wrong software program. We highly recommend scanning your Windows registry for invalid file associations and other related registry issues. Software Downloads Associated with File Extension SB: - FileViewPro* (free trial download) - Small Basic Source Code (Microsoft Corporation) * Some SB file extension formats can be opened in binary format only. SB File Analysis Tool™ Unsure about which type of SB file you have? Do you want to know exactly what it is, who created it, and how to open it? Finally, you can now discover everything you need to know about your SB file... instantly! The revolutionary SB File Analysis Tool™ scans, analyzes, and reports back every detail about your SB file. Our patent-pending algorithm quickly analyzes your file, and within moments, presents this information to you in an elegant, easy-to-read format.† In seconds, you will learn exactly what type of SB file you have, the software program associated with your file, the publisher who created it, its security safety status, and a variety of other useful information. To begin your free file analysis, simply drag-and-drop your SB file inside the dotted lines below, or click "Browse My Computer" and select your file. Your SB file analysis report will then be displayed directly below in this browser window. Drag & Drop Your SB File Here To Begin Analysis Please also scan my file for viruses † SB File Analysis Tool utilizes third-party software components. Click here to read the legal disclaimer. - 3D Image Files - Audio Files - Backup Files - CAD Files - Compressed Files - Data Files - Database Files - Developer Files - Disk Image Files - Encoded Files - Executable Files - Font Files - Game Files - GIS Files - Misc Files - Music Files - Page Layout Files - Plugin Files - Raster Image Files - Settings Files - Spreadsheet Files - System Files - Text Files - Vector Image Files - Video Files - Web Files - Uncommon Files	<urn:uuid:e1cdf6c3-8fbe-4469-8a23-df580ad83e61>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.solvusoft.com/en/file-extensions/file-extension-sb/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.889443	820	2.625	3
Dirty mnemonic creatorThese mnemonics can be very simple or complex to remember but the easiest to remember are the usually the 'dirty ones'. Dirty dares for a girl; Multiplying and dividing rational expressions calculator Mnemonic Generator This program uses a modified form of the Franklin Method for defining & coding mnemonics. Zill's Mnemonic Generator Version 2 Enter Anatomical Terms (up to 12) Below: Term 1: Term 2: Term 3: Term 4: Term 5 Simple online mnemonic device maker. Mnemonics : Tom Swifties : Word Records : Nym Words. Lesley Lovett-Doust I used to say: Lady Zebras Pack Dirty. Acrostic mnemonic creatorTo remember the presidents I use a mnemonic: this mnemonic. Tube download An acrostic generator is a process or set of tools that helps a person construct an acrostic poem. As a form of constrained writing, an acrostic can be used as a mnemonic device. An apparatus and method of generating acrostic mnemonic devices from finite data. Often the ease of detectability of an acrostic can depend on the intention of its creator. Word mnemonic creatorSometimes lateral thinking is required, such as 'nun', which sounds like 'none', as a. A mnemonic device is a sentence that helps us to memorize a string of words. Zill's Mnemonic Generator Version 2 Enter Anatomical Terms (up to 12) Below: Term 1: Term 2: Term 3: Term 4: Term 5 Popular Software for Mnemonic maker. Humour Research: State of the Art. 17. 5.3 Elmo, the Natural Language Robot. 18. 5.4 The Light Bulb Joke Generator. 18. 5.5 The Mnemonic Sentence Generator.	<urn:uuid:10e07c81-9bd4-4cae-9cb8-165bcc1715e3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://rebableu.jimdo.com/2012/07/01/dirty-mnemonic-creator/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.786298	384	2.875	3
Independent and Dependent Variables Examples Tara throws a party every month. She's a little desperate for attention. The number of cupcakes she bakes for her guests depends on how many kids will be at the party. Tara likes to have two cupcakes per kid. She would also like to have some adult friends, but good luck with that, Tara. How should we express this situation algebraically? Fred and John are brothers. John, who is the older of the two and was largely deprived of attention as a young boy, is constantly trying to one-up Fred. Both brothers enjoy clothes shopping. However, because of John's competitiveness, every time Fred buys a new pair of jeans, John will go out and buy a pair that's exactly $10 more expensive. Express in symbols the relationship between the amount of money Fred spends on a pair of jeans and the amount of money John spends on a pair of jeans. Let F be the amount of money Fred spends, and J the amount of money John spends.	<urn:uuid:854146fd-226b-44ae-9601-2a634c8f724f>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.shmoop.com/algebraic-expressions/independent-dependent-variables-examples.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.976545	209	3.234375	3
Course outline: Levels 2 (Intermediate) and 2.5 (Higher Intermediate) Byzantine Greek Summer School 2015 Centre for Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Greek Studies Department of Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology University of Birmingham This course follows on from the Summer School Level-1 course, and assumes that students have successfully completed the Level-1 course or acquired an equivalent level of competence in Greek. Through 60 hours of teaching over a two-week period, Level-2 introduces them to remaining morphology and syntax of Byzantine Greek, while continuing to revise and reinforce the material covered by the Level-1 course. By “Byzantine Greek” we mean the dominant form of Greek written during the period of the Byzantine Empire (AD 330–1453). The spoken language continued to develop throughout the Byzantine period, and when the vernacular becomes visible to us in the twelfth century as a language for new forms of literature it is already recognizably Modern Greek. However most Byzantine historical, theological, rhetorical and literary writers, both before and after the twelfth century, use a conservative and almost static form of Greek based directly or indirectly on the established idea of Attic Greek of the fifth century BC, but influenced by the Hellenistic Koine and Biblical Greek, with additional Latin-derived vocabulary, particularly in matters of administration and law. The purpose of the course is to enable students to develop their ability to read Greek texts of the Byzantine period, through exposure to writing in various genres. However, as with the Level-1 course, since the morphology and syntax which is taught is not, for the most part, distinguishable from that of Classical Greek, this course is also a suitable preparation for reading Classical texts. In this course, though, we may introduce students to samples of late Byzantine vernacular literature, which exhibit elements of the morphology and syntax of Modern Greek. Texts studied usually include selections from a historical chronicle (the Chronographia of Theophanes) and excerpts from the Liturgy of John Chrysostom, and from a Saint’s Life, as well as examples of Biblical and Classical Greek. While some of the vocabulary students acquire is specific to the period, the greater part of it is equally useful in approaching pre-Byzantine Greek texts, including the New Testament. By the end of the course students should be equipped to continue their study of Greek texts and to enlarge the necessarily limited vocabulary they will have acquired in this short but intensive course. This course involves constant review and revision of the basic morphology covered in Level 1, and covers more thoroughly the future and perfect tenses and the subjunctive mood, which are merely introduced in the earlier course; reference is made to the optative mood, though its use is infrequent in Byzantine texts. In this course we assume knowledge of basic syntax taught in Level 1 and concentrate on principles of sentence construction, the uses of conjunctions and particles, and the subtleties and complexities of the participial system. We try to lead students towards an appreciation of the differences in style of the various texts studied. Students are encourage to bring with them their own copy of the Liddell and Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. For those unable to do so, we have a limited number of copies that may be borrowed for the duration of the course. Please note that a paperback edition is now available. It is currently priced at 22.50 GBP+ postage on www.amazon.co.uk. . We shall have copies of the paperback reprint for sale during the Summer School. As in the Level-1 course, we use modern Greek pronunciation, since all the evidence indicates that this is closer to the pronunciation of Greek in the Byzantine period than is the Erasmian pronunciation (in any of its variants) generally used in the teaching of Classical Greek. However, students who wish to go on to further study in contexts where Erasmian pronunciation is in use can be introduced to that system towards the end of the course. Students get constant practice in reading Greek aloud. Having learned modern pronunciation they have a head start if they wish at some stage to learn the modern form of the language. For those starting at Level 2 and unfamiliar with Modern Greek pronunciation, there will be additional pronunciation sessions in the first two days of the course. The principle is for two teachers to be involved, one teaching the morning sessions which concentrate on formal grammar and the learning and revision of paradigms, and the other teaching the afternoon sessions where we work on Byzantine texts. In practice, all of the teachers involved in the Summer School will make some contribution to Level 2. There are occasional short written tests, which are corrected by the teachers and returned to the students, during the course. At the end of the course there is written exam paper (three hours) and students who pass this are given a certificate to say that they have successfully completed the course. Level-2.5 (Higher Intermediate) This course is not offered as a confirmed option in advance, but if the number of Level-2/2.5 applicants warrants it, as it did in 2012, 2013 and 2014, we will divide them into two groups. Those who were beginners at the beginning of Level-1 and are continuing to Level-2, together with others starting at Level-2 with roughly the same existing knowledge of Greek, will constitute Level-2. Those with a more advanced knowledge of Greek but not sufficient for Level-3 will be assigned to Level 2.5. Level 2.5 covers some of the same types of material as Level 2 (Theophanes, the Liturgy) but at greater speed and with additional texts of greater complexity. All applicants to Levels 2/2.5 (other than those who will have just completed Level-2) and all applicants to Level 3 will take a diagnostic translation test on the first morning of the course. The results of this test will be the basis for final allocations to Levels 2, 2.5 (if available), and Level 3. The application of the test results is not rigid; if your result is on the borderline between levels, a decision will be made in consultation with you.	<urn:uuid:d94984d2-8009-4014-a8dc-0cee9fdc809c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/bomgs/events/summerschool/level-2.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.948663	1,263	3.015625	3
William Morris, St. George cabinet 1861-1862 - designed by his friend Philip Webb and painted by Morris himself and his friends, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones for Red House, Morris's first married home Before Roycroft and Stickley... Before the term "mission-style" increased the price of anything with slats, there was the English Arts and Crafts movement, there was William Morris, and with him the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. William Morris patterns have been popular since the end of the 19th century and have never lost their appeal. With Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Arthur Hughes, his lifelong friend, Edward Burne-Jones, and the other Pre-Raphaelites, he changed the direction of English art, architecture, and design -- and began a return to values of craftsmanship and quality materials that continue to enjoy a renaissance in these areas. I write more about this in my article, On William Morris: The Soul of Arts and Crafts. I also love Terri Windling's article on the Pre-Raphaelites and Writers of Fantasy and recommend it to you highly. The first William Morris Tiles were created for Red House, Morris's first married home. He handpainted the porch tiles himself for Red House: The tiles in the image are faded. Although each tile was painted individually, and hence there is some vriation, they probably looked more like: Other tiles from Red House were blue and white farm birds, and were represented in yellow and black in stained glass in the upstairs corridor. These birds, designed by architect Philip Webb, were also painted by hand. Later Morris & Co. tile offerings included an expanded set of bird tiles by Philip Webb. Red House was designed for Morris by his friend, architect Philip Webb. Its location was along the path that the pilgrims would have walked in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Morris professed that Chaucer was his chief master in poetry, and much of Morris's poetry (particularly, The Earthly Paradise follows Chaucerian meter and other subtle patterns. Morris created Red House as a Chaucerian home, with medieval tapestries and themes throughout. Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Company ('the Firm') was created over an amiable dinner at the Morris home, Red House. Founding members included William Morris himself, Edward Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Ford Maddox Brown, Philip Webb, and Charles Faulkner. Marshall, a friend of Ford Maddox Brown, took little part in the artistic activities of the firm and served as accountant. The first tiles were non-pictoral flower patterns: but became more ornate and included story tiles such as the fairy tale fireplacepanels: (click the images to see the whole panel) These are seamless (or pretty close) William Morris wallpaper patterns. To save, position your mouse over the image, right click and choose Save As. Please don't link directly to these images on your own page. (If you don't know what that means, then you probably won't.) If you have any questions, you can ask me. The forest is not a quiet place in the summer. Small birds roar together, the coded sounds of squirrels tapping their little feet resonate, and the screeches from the occasional colony of peacocks would travel for a mile. Leaves rustle as deer pass through a clearing. Eyes follow visitors from the shadows. Add to this a pony and a proper suit of armor and you can imagine the world through the eyes of an eight-year-old. Such a boy was William Morris. By 1842, his family had.... Read More Arts & Crafts is more a philosophy of design than a set of characteristics. At the center of the Arts and Crafts Movement is something holy, a reactionary vision standing against materialism. The the spirit of Arts and Crafts is a kind of kairos, the moment when the spiritual breaks through or incarnates the spiritual into the material worlds of architecture, furnishings and the decorative arts -- and it is from that center of understanding that we can trace its lineage and its future.... Read More William De Morgan originally oversaw the stained glass efforts at Morris & Co. He was interested in, and had a talent for, ceramics. He went on to start his own tile works. Morris & Co. stopped producing their own tiles and De Morgan eventually produced all of Morris & Co.'s tile and ceramics, until he closed his Fulham tileworks some 30 years later. Arts and Crafts as a style is a 20th century invention; for Victorians, it was a philosophy, even a world view. Arts and Crafts for Ruskin, Morris, De Morgan and their circle described the manner in which a thing was produced. A mass-produced Arts and Crafts style would have been a contradiction in terms.... Read More Images will appear in their own page when you follow these links:Orange Acanthus Blue Acanthus Artichoke Blue Wandle Daisy Peaches Leaves Small Wandle Irises Wallpaper Wallpaper Marigold Medway Flowertile Flowerpot Chrysanthemums Trellis Dye Book: 1882 - 1891 Book of Verse 1870 The Pre-Raphaelites are moving to their own page: Please stand by.... If you have your heart set on a particular print, I'll try to help if I can. You can download a demo version of many Scriptorium's fonts in Zip format or Stuffit for MacOS. (Pick up extraction utilities here.) Installation instructions are included. You can also download a sample version of the font of the month. Where to Buy William Morris Prints: You can find Morris & Co. art prints at Artsy Craftsy. About Art Passions: Art Passions began a tribute to artists whose work I grew up, and whose work has meaning for me personally. The list of artists on artpassions.net, including recent additions to the site, as well as other information are availble on the home page. Important: Please do not link directly to images at artpassions or download the entire site. This makes me sad. See the FAQ for why this is a problem. If you download the entire site with an offline webstripper, you will take down the site. This will make me very grumpy and I will ban your IP address, entire domain or country, depending on how bad it was.	<urn:uuid:80693a9d-92d4-4f0a-b2f6-2ea840897b3b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://morris.artpassions.net/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965122	1,336	2.96875	3
Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years ago. Since that time, sharks have diversified into 440 species, ranging in size from the small dwarf lanternshark, Etmopterus perryi, a deep sea species of only 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in length, to the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, the largest fish, which reaches approximately 12 metres (39 ft 4 in) and which feeds only on plankton, squid, and small fish by filter feeding. Sharks are found in all seas and are common down to depths of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). They generally do not live in freshwater, with a few exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can live both in seawater and freshwater. They breathe through five to seven gill slits. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and parasites, and improves their fluid dynamics so the shark can move faster. They have several sets of replaceable teeth. Well-known species such as the great white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark, and the hammerhead are apex predators, at the top of the underwater food chain. Their extraordinary skills as predators fascinate and frighten humans, even as their survival is under serious threat from fishing and other human activities. Teethgums rather than directly affixed to the jaw, and are constantly replaced throughout life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth grow in a groove on the inside of the jaw and steadily move forward as in a "conveyor belt"; some sharks lose 30,000 or more teeth in their lifetime. The rate of tooth replacement varies from once every 8–10 days to several months. In most species teeth are replaced one at a time, except in cookiecutter sharks the entire row of teeth is replaced simultaneously. Tooth shape depends on diet: sharks that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense flattened teeth for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are smaller and non-functional.	<urn:uuid:1db496d5-9f38-424d-9fbd-c6b8a60b8393>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sandyfish-sandy.blogspot.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955815	500	3.84375	4
II. Because of its mythic, spiritual, and cosmogonic associations Chaco canyon may have assumed an importance in the region exceeding its value for agriculture or trade. III. Due to its growing ideological importance, perhaps in the few decades before A. D. 1050, Chaco became a base for scheduled regional festivals drawing visitors from an increasingly large geographical area. These festivals, for which participation was voluntary and primarily ideological in character, should have involved many other activities, such as trade, courtship, athletic contests, and other forms of social bonding. The permanent residents of the canyon would have obtained economic benefit and ritual power by providing both material and spiritual services to the visitors. IV. As the complexity, ideological significance, and importance of these regional festivals grew, the events may have taken on more of the characteristics of normative pilgrimage, involving periodic visits by groups of individuals who travel in search of a place or state of mind that embodies a spiritual ideal. Judging from other pilgrimage events in the world, pilgrims could have built and/or visited shrines along the route and within in the canyon. Shrines and other ritual features along the roads, such as herraduras, avanzadas, and stone circles are predicted features of the model. V. The north-south alignments of the north road and of structures in the Canyon may be ideological expressions of connections to the place of origin or to the stable north point of the macrocosm. VI. Those communities from which pilgrims traveled to Chaco defined the boundary of the regional system, a periphery which would have fluctuated with time as various voluntary affiliations with the center waxed and waned. VII. Based upon complexity theory, a large scale self-organized system, such as that of Chaco, could have developed rapidly (within several decades) through non-linear processes and positive feedback. The resulting complex system may not have been adaptive, as it could have been established primarily by initial conditions and the amplified idiosyncratic events that often initiate pilgrimage traditions. VIII. Road segments that were vectored from outlying communities in the approximate direction of Chaco may have symbolized the commitment of the community to the regional system. Similar evidence of commitment may have been construction of local great houses which mimicked the great houses in the Canyon. Construction of wide road segments especially when approaching a great house near the Canyon such as Pueblo Alto would have been a natural consequence of the parade-like display associated with pilgrimage. Based upon traditions of load carrying elsewhere in the world, the width and elaborate nature of the roads are inconsistent with exclusively economic function. IX. Within the Canyon, great houses would have acquired multiple function and meaning: residences for permanent inhabitants, elites, and priests, habitation for visitors, storage of gifts, and sites for festivals. Great kivas as well as the mounds in front of Pueblo Bonito may have served as gathering places for ceremony. Based upon other pilgrimage traditions, it is reasonable that the great houses, great kivas, and roads were constructed by voluntary labor of the visitors and donations of patrons. The road-related units attached to houses such as Pueblo Alto, Chetro Ketl, Pueblo Bonito may have been associated with servicing the practical needs of visitors and pilgrims. X. A ritual infrastructure may have grown as Canyon residents took increasing responsibility for organizing the regional festivals. Participants who walked 1-2 weeks into the Canyon would have expected effective organization and precise scheduling of festivals. Residential specialists may have traveled outward from the Canyon to announce the dates of festivals, to encourage participation at outliers, and to provide travel advice. XI. A necessary requirement of such regional festivals is a calendar with an accuracy of 1-2 days. On-time arrival at a festival is essential, and the demands for accuracy on such a festival calendar are much more severe than for an agricultural calendar, for which experienced agriculturists will draw upon a complex set of data including soil moisture, movement of animals, and the flowering of plants in preference to precise solar time. It is likely that the important dates of the festival calendar were solar-lunar, an example of which is the full moon at winter solstice, which is a time of symbolic as well as practical importance involving major transitional events in the life of sun and moon. XII. Detailed knowledge of the cycles of the sun and moon could have developed naturally out of calendrical observations, and it is conceivable that observations by alert individuals would have led to considerable depth of knowledge of the complex lunar cycles including the ability to predict lunar eclipses. Such esoteric astronomical knowledge may have led to additional power of elites living in the Canyon. The growth of astronomical knowledge throughout the Southwest may have been primarily inspired by the needs of the Chaco festival calendar. 1 Cosmology describes the structure of the universe while cosmogony considers its creation. 2 Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return J. McKim Malville Dubey, D. P. (ed). 1995. Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions. Allahabad: The Society of Pilgrimage Studies. Eliade, Mircea. 1954. The Myth of the Eternal Return. Princeton: Princeton University Press. _____. 1958. Patterns in Comparative Religion. New York: World Publishing. Gopal, L. and D. P. Dubey (ed). 1990. Pilgrimage Studies: Text and Context. Allahabad: The Society of Pilgrimage Studies. Jha, Makhan (ed) 1985. Dimensions in Pilgrimage: An anthropological appraisal. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Malville, J. McKim and Nancy J. Malville. 1995. "Pilgrimage and Astronomy at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico." Presented at the International Seminar on Pilgrimage, Society of Pilgrimage Studies, January 21-23, Ardha Kumbha Mela, Allahabad, India. Morinis, Alan (ed). 1992. Sacred Journeys. The Anthropology of Pilgrimage. Westport: Greenwood Press. Preston, James J. 1992. "Spiritual Magnetism: An organizing principle for the study of pilgrimage," in Sacred Journeys. Edited by A. Morinis, pp. 31-46. Westport: Greenwood Press. Turner, Victor and Edith Turner. 1978. Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press. Return to main conference page Return to main conference page	<urn:uuid:29b13490-fc7b-41f7-98d4-80069acb4d92>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.colorado.edu/Conferences/chaco/malville.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.94258	1,356	3.671875	4
Stuart petitions and the failure of ``good rule'' protests of commoners over administrative corruption: 1603--1642 This study describes how ordinary or common people perceived administrative corruption and how the early Stuarts had failed to encourage "good rule." England in this period lends itself well to this political analysis because the seventeenth century was the age of constitutional collision. Theorists including King James I held diverse notions on the history of the constitution and on the interrelationship between the king and the people. Within popular politics, there existed a strong regard for legitimate authority coterminous with an expectation that those in power would respect rights based upon ancient custom, thereby engendering the trust on which the constitution rested. When the government transgressed this standard of good rule, resistance could ensue, which would include complaint.^ This study focuses on one such customary right and its transgression by the government: the principle of private property. While the issue of private property revolved around the taxation controversy, ship money, it also found inclusion in other controversial matters such as billeting, purveyance, land confiscation for fen draining, and even monopolies, for the same circumstance prevailed: Englishmen had a proprietary right in maintaining their goods (including their homes) without suffering their forced confiscation. The right of private property or subjects' possessions (which James I listed among the fundamental laws of the kingdom) formed a main element within the subjects' liberties that were in question as Stuart tendencies toward absolutism advanced.^ While endeavoring to determine the views of English commoners, this study relies on petitions (and other sources) from individuals or groups addressed to the government: the king, his officials, the privy council, or the Houses of Parliament. As a resource for information about ordinary people, petitions have been under used, yet provide an opportunity for reconstituted historiographic analysis. The petitions show that the commoners believed the attack on their right to hold private property damaged them economically, fractured local relationships, and contributed to the failure of good rule. ^ History, European\|History, Modern Marianne Felletter LaPointe, "Stuart petitions and the failure of ``good rule'' protests of commoners over administrative corruption: 1603--1642" (January 1, 1997). ETD Collection for Fordham University.	<urn:uuid:875eadc8-3556-4a55-a718-a16ab2e4334d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://fordham.bepress.com/dissertations/AAI9730098/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93833	485	2.890625	3
\|Oracle® Database Administrator's Guide 11g Release 2 (11.2) Part Number E17120-05 Integrity constraints are rules that restrict the values for one or more columns in a table. Constraint clauses can appear in either CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE statements, and identify the column or columns affected by the constraint and identify the conditions of the constraint. This section discusses the concepts of constraints and identifies the SQL statements used to define and manage integrity constraints. The following topics are contained in this section: Oracle Database Concepts for a more thorough discussion of integrity constraints Oracle Database Advanced Application Developer's Guide for detailed information and examples of using integrity constraints in applications You can specify that a constraint is enabled ( ENABLE) or disabled ( DISABLE). If a constraint is enabled, data is checked as it is entered or updated in the database, and data that does not conform to the constraint is prevented from being entered. If a constraint is disabled, then data that does not conform can be allowed to enter the database. Additionally, you can specify that existing data in the table must conform to the constraint ( VALIDATE). Conversely, if you specify NOVALIDATE, you are not ensured that existing data conforms. An integrity constraint defined on a table can be in one of the following states: For details about the meaning of these states and an understanding of their consequences, see the Oracle Database SQL Language Reference. Some of these consequences are discussed here. To enforce the rules defined by integrity constraints, the constraints should always be enabled. However, consider temporarily disabling the integrity constraints of a table for the following performance reasons: When loading large amounts of data into a table When performing batch operations that make massive changes to a table (for example, changing every employee's number by adding 1000 to the existing number) When importing or exporting one table at a time In all three cases, temporarily disabling integrity constraints can improve the performance of the operation, especially in data warehouse configurations. It is possible to enter data that violates a constraint while that constraint is disabled. Thus, you should always enable the constraint after completing any of the operations listed in the preceding bullet list. While a constraint is enabled, no row violating the constraint can be inserted into the table. However, while the constraint is disabled such a row can be inserted. This row is known as an exception to the constraint. If the constraint is in the enable novalidated state, violations resulting from data entered while the constraint was disabled remain. The rows that violate the constraint must be either updated or deleted in order for the constraint to be put in the validated state. You can identify exceptions to a specific integrity constraint while attempting to enable the constraint. See "Reporting Constraint Exceptions". All rows violating constraints are noted in an EXCEPTIONS table, which you can examine. When a constraint is in the enable novalidate state, all subsequent statements are checked for conformity to the constraint. However, any existing data in the table is not checked. A table with enable novalidated constraints can contain invalid data, but it is not possible to add new invalid data to it. Enabling constraints in the novalidated state is most useful in data warehouse configurations that are uploading valid OLTP data. Enabling a constraint does not require validation. Enabling a constraint novalidate is much faster than enabling and validating a constraint. Also, validating a constraint that is already enabled does not require any DML locks during validation (unlike validating a previously disabled constraint). Enforcement guarantees that no violations are introduced during the validation. Hence, enabling without validating enables you to reduce the downtime typically associated with enabling a constraint. Using integrity constraint states in the following order can ensure the best benefits: Perform the operation (load, export, import). Enable novalidate state. Some benefits of using constraints in this order are: No locks are held. All constraints can go to enable state concurrently. Constraint enabling is done in parallel. Concurrent activity on table is permitted. When an integrity constraint is defined in a CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE statement, it can be enabled, disabled, or validated or not validated as determined by your specification of the DISABLE clause. If the DISABLE clause is not specified in a constraint definition, the database automatically enables and validates the constraint. CREATE TABLE emp ( empno NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY DISABLE, . . . ; ALTER TABLE emp ADD PRIMARY KEY (empno) DISABLE; ALTER TABLE statement that defines and disables an integrity constraint never fails because of rows in the table that violate the integrity constraint. The definition of the constraint is allowed because its rule is not enforced. CREATE TABLE emp ( empno NUMBER(5) CONSTRAINT emp.pk PRIMARY KEY, . . . ; ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp.pk PRIMARY KEY (empno); ALTER TABLE statement that defines and attempts to enable an integrity constraint can fail because rows of the table violate the integrity constraint. If this case, the statement is rolled back and the constraint definition is not stored and not enabled. When you enable a PRIMARY KEY constraint an associated index is created. Note:An efficient procedure for enabling a constraint that can make use of parallelism is described in "Efficient Use of Integrity Constraints: A Procedure". You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to enable, disable, modify, or drop a constraint. When the database is using a PRIMARY KEY index to enforce a constraint, and constraints associated with that index are dropped or disabled, the index is dropped, unless you specify otherwise. While enabled foreign keys reference a UNIQUE key, you cannot disable or drop the UNIQUE key constraint or the index. ALTER TABLE dept DISABLE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey; ALTER TABLE dept DISABLE PRIMARY KEY KEEP INDEX, DISABLE UNIQUE (dname, loc) KEEP INDEX; ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE NOVALIDATE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey; ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE NOVALIDATE PRIMARY KEY, ENABLE NOVALIDATE UNIQUE (dname, loc); The following statements enable or validate disabled integrity constraints: ALTER TABLE dept MODIFY CONSTRAINT dname_key VALIDATE; ALTER TABLE dept MODIFY PRIMARY KEY ENABLE NOVALIDATE; ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey; ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE PRIMARY KEY, ENABLE UNIQUE (dname, loc); To disable or drop a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY constraint and all dependent FOREIGN KEY constraints in a single step, use the CASCADE option of the DROP clauses. For example, the following statement disables a PRIMARY KEY constraint and any FOREIGN KEY constraints that depend on it: ALTER TABLE dept DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE; ALTER TABLE...RENAME CONSTRAINT statement enables you to rename any currently existing constraint for a table. The new constraint name must not conflict with any existing constraint names for a user. The following statement renames the dname_ukey constraint for table ALTER TABLE dept RENAME CONSTRAINT dname_ukey TO dname_unikey; When you rename a constraint, all dependencies on the base table remain valid. RENAME CONSTRAINT clause provides a means of renaming system generated constraint names. You can drop an integrity constraint if the rule that it enforces is no longer true, or if the constraint is no longer needed. You can drop the constraint using the ALTER TABLE statement with one of the following clauses: The following two statements drop integrity constraints. The second statement keeps the index associated with the PRIMARY KEY constraint: ALTER TABLE dept DROP UNIQUE (dname, loc); ALTER TABLE emp DROP PRIMARY KEY KEEP INDEX, DROP CONSTRAINT dept_fkey; FOREIGN KEYs reference a PRIMARY KEY, you must include the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS clause in the DROP statement, or you cannot drop the constraint. When the database checks a constraint, it signals an error if the constraint is not satisfied. You can defer checking the validity of constraints until the end of a transaction. When you issue the SET CONSTRAINTS statement, the SET CONSTRAINTS mode lasts for the duration of the transaction, or until another SET CONSTRAINTS statement resets the mode. You cannot issue a SET CONSTRAINT statement inside a trigger. Deferrable unique and primary keys must use nonunique indexes. Within the application being used to manipulate the data, you must set all constraints deferred before you actually begin processing any data. Use the following DML statement to set all deferrable constraints deferred: SET CONSTRAINTS ALL DEFERRED; SET CONSTRAINTSstatement applies only to the current transaction. The defaults specified when you create a constraint remain as long as the constraint exists. The ALTER SESSION SET CONSTRAINTSstatement applies for the current session only. You can check for constraint violations before committing by issuing the SET CONSTRAINTS ALL IMMEDIATE statement just before issuing the COMMIT. If there are any problems with a constraint, this statement fails and the constraint causing the error is identified. If you commit while constraints are violated, the transaction is rolled back and you receive an error message. If exceptions exist when a constraint is validated, an error is returned and the integrity constraint remains novalidated. When a statement is not successfully executed because integrity constraint exceptions exist, the statement is rolled back. If exceptions exist, you cannot validate the constraint until all exceptions to the constraint are either updated or deleted. To determine which rows violate the integrity constraint, issue the ALTER TABLE statement with the EXCEPTIONS option in the ENABLE clause. The EXCEPTIONS option places the rowid, table owner, table name, and constraint name of all exception rows into a specified table. You must create an appropriate exceptions report table to accept information from the EXCEPTIONS option of the ENABLE clause before enabling the constraint. You can create an exception table by executing the UTLEXCPT.SQL script or the Note:Your choice of script to execute for creating the EXCEPTIONStable is dependent upon the type of table you are analyzing. See the Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for more information. Both of these scripts create a table named EXCEPTIONS. You can create additional exceptions tables with different names by modifying and resubmitting the script. The following statement attempts to validate the PRIMARY KEY of the dept table, and if exceptions exist, information is inserted into a table named ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE PRIMARY KEY EXCEPTIONS INTO EXCEPTIONS; If duplicate primary key values exist in the dept table and the name of the PRIMARY KEY constraint on sys_c00610, then the following query will display those exceptions: SELECT * FROM EXCEPTIONS; The following exceptions are shown: fROWID OWNER TABLE_NAME CONSTRAINT ------------------ --------- -------------- ----------- AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAB SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610 AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAG SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610 A more informative query would be to join the rows in an exception report table and the master table to list the actual rows that violate a specific constraint, as shown in the following statement and results: SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept, EXCEPTIONS WHERE EXCEPTIONS.constraint = 'SYS_C00610' AND dept.rowid = EXCEPTIONS.row_id; DEPTNO DNAME LOC ---------- -------------- ----------- 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK 10 RESEARCH DALLAS All rows that violate a constraint must be either updated or deleted from the table containing the constraint. When updating exceptions, you must change the value violating the constraint to a value consistent with the constraint or to a null. After the row in the master table is updated or deleted, the corresponding rows for the exception in the exception report table should be deleted to avoid confusion with later exception reports. The statements that update the master table and the exception report table should be in the same transaction to ensure transaction consistency. To correct the exceptions in the previous examples, you might issue the following transaction: UPDATE dept SET deptno = 20 WHERE dname = 'RESEARCH'; DELETE FROM EXCEPTIONS WHERE constraint = 'SYS_C00610'; COMMIT; When managing exceptions, the goal is to eliminate all exceptions in your exception report table. Note:While you are correcting current exceptions for a table with the constraint disabled, it is possible for other users to issue statements creating new exceptions. You can avoid this by marking the constraint ENABLE NOVALIDATEbefore you start eliminating exceptions. See Also:Oracle Database Reference for a description of the Oracle Database provides the following views that enable you to see constraint definitions on tables and to identify columns that are specified in constraints: See Also:Oracle Database Reference contains descriptions of the columns in these views	<urn:uuid:4a43e5aa-95fb-48e7-b33b-e2c98a95bc86>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E18283_01/server.112/e17120/general005.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.793576	2,906	3.25	3
A kidney stone is a small stone shaped buildup or concretion that forms within the kidney as a result of a calcium or other buildups within the urinary tract, ureter, or other area within the bodies digestive system. The concretions are also known as calculi, which is a crystal aggregation. There are a few different types of kidney stones and vary according to what mineral is primarily found in the buildup. Alternative Names for Kidney Stones Nephrolithiasis is the name given to the condition of having kidney stones. Ureterolithiasis is the physician’s term for having a calcium buildup in the tube that connects the bladder and the kidneys. This tube is called the ureter. Urolithiasis is the term for the condition of having a calcium buildup in the urinary tract, including within the kidneys or in the urinary bladder. The condition of having kidney stones in other animals, such as cats and dogs, is often called bladder stones and is similar to urolithiasis. Symptoms That Accompany Kidney Stones The most common symptom associated with kidney stones is a severe pain in the groin area that can extend into the body and across the lower back. This pain may be continuous or come and go in spurts. This pain will typically increase in degree and become more defined with time. Other symptoms associated with kidney stones include: - Nausea and vomiting as the result of the intestine becoming infected. - Small amounts of pus in the urine. - Reduced amount of urine which is caused by the kidney stone obstructing the urinary tract. - Hydronephrosis is the dilation of the renal pelvis and can often accompany kidney stones. - A burning sensation while urinating. This symptom can also be the cause of many other urinary disorders such as a urinary tract infection. - Small traces of blood can be found in the urine of a person who has kidney stones. If the kidney stones are small enough, the person may not feel any of these symptoms and can pass the kidney stone through the urinary tract without even noticing any pain. Other symptoms may also be present that are not directly caused by kidney stones but can be the result of an infection or other problem. These symptoms can include a high fever, diarrhea, trouble sleeping, and severe headaches. Causes of Kidney Stones Kidney stones and calcium crystals within the kidney can be caused by some condition such as renal acidosis, medullary sponge kidney, or Dent’s disease. If a person is known to have one of these disorders or a similar one, they may be subjected to recurring kidney stones. The most common form of kidney stones is a buildup that consists of calcium oxalate crystals and is caused by excessive calcium intakes or an inability of the kidneys to digest this calcium. Some activities may cause kidney stones, besides a health disorder. These activities might include not drinking enough water or a sudden change in diet. When your body does not get enough water, the kidneys are less able to pass salts, minerals, and other substances through the urine. This will cause a buildup that eventually forms kidney stones. Uric acid is another cause of many kidney stones. Uric acid is a chemical that is produced from purine and is the final oxidation product of purine metabolism. This acid is typically excreted in the urine, but if it is unable to be released may cause a buildup that will eventually form a kidney stone. This form of kidney stones is more common in mammals other than humans. It is common to have kidney stones occur in members of the same family for several generations. Tests are still being performed to determine how kidney stones may be part of a persons genetics. Risk Factors for Kidney Stones Family history plays one of the largest roles in determining whether or not a person may contract kidney stones. If someone in your family has a strong history of kidney stones, you are more likely to develop the problem, also. If a person has had kidney stones in the past, they are more likely to get them again at some point in the future. Adults are much more likely to have kidney stones than children. Also, adults over the age of 40 are at the greatest risk of having kidney stones. Men are much more likely to have kidney stone problems then women, and race is not known to play a factor in kidney stone development. A person who becomes dehydrated on a regular basis or has a history of dehydration is at a high risk of developing kidney stones. This is due to the important role that water plays in the digestive system and organs such as kidneys. People who have a high BMI (Body Mass Index) or are generally obese and overweight are linked to having an increased risk of kidney stones. A person who has been diagnosed with one of several digestive diseases or has recently had a surgery that is related to the digestive system may develop kidney stones. Some of the digestive diseases that may be related to kidney stones include inflammatory bowel disease and chronic diarrhea. Surgeries such as gastric bypass surgery may cause kidney stones. How to Prevent Kidney Stones The best way to prevent the presence of kidney stones is to eat a healthy diet and to be involved in regular exercise. A good diet to avoid kidney stones should not be excessively high in protein, sodium, or sugar. The diet should also follow a few of the following tips: - A diet high in fiber will help to have a healthy digestive system with properly functioning kidneys. Oats, beans, wheat, cabbage, and carrots are all examples of foods that are rich in fiber. - Do not eat meat excessively, especially beef and pork. - Get the recommended amounts of calcium. Try to get your calcium intake from dairy products such as milk, cheese, and yogurt. - Avoid dark green vegetables, nuts, chocolates, and other foods that are known to be high in oxalate. Vegetables are healthy, but do not eat them excessively. - Cut back on salt intake. Salt buildup is one of the most common ways in which kidney stones begin to form. Another recommendation given by scientists and physicians is to drink more fluids. The more fluids you drink the clearer your urine becomes. If you notice clear urine, it is a sign that your kidneys are functioning properly. Most physicians recommend 8 to 10 glasses of water every day. If your body is not used to this much water then you should not immediately begin drinking 8 to 10 glasses per day, begin by increasing your water intake by 1 or 2 glasses per day until you can handle adequate amounts of water. If you notice that urine is a dark yellow color then this might be a sign of not enough water entering the kidneys. Tests and Diagnosis Considerations when Dealing with Kidney Stones Urine and blood tests are the most common methods of diagnosing kidney stones. Doctors will look for blood, calcium, and high amounts of protein in the urine, which can denote the presence of an obstruction or irritation within the urinary tract. X-ray and radiological imaging techniques are also used to diagnose kidney stones. Because calcium is very dense, they can be detected by most hospital X-ray machines. The X-ray will show a buildup within the kidney, ureters, and bladder. A physician may also perform an Intravenous Pyelogram, or IVP. This test requires that a special dye be injected into the patient’s bloodstream just passed the kidneys. An image can be taken following the injection of the dye which will reveal any buildup locations. Computed tomography, or CT scans can be used to detect the presence of a kidney stone. This is a method that is used only in extreme cases and not when other methods can be used because of the relatively high cost associated with CT scans. Another drawback of using CT scans is that the patient is exposed to small amounts of radiation. Ultrasound imaging is another useful tool when diagnosing kidney stones. Ultrasounds can detect the presence of a swollen kidney, which suggests that there is some type of obstruction in the bloodstream just past the kidney. Many hospitals and physicians will use ultrasound techniques first when diagnosing kidney stones because it is relatively inexpensive and poses no severe risks. Herbal and Home Remedies to Treat Kidney Stones Kidney beans have long been regarded as one of the most effective home remedies for kidney problems. A common mixture is to boil the inside pods of the beans in water for six hours and then straining the liquid and allowing it to be cooled. Patients should drink this mixture every two hours for 1 to 2 days. Basil and celery are vegetables that are helpful in fighting against kidney stones and other kidney related problems. Apples, grapes, pomegranates, and watermelon are fruits that have essential vitamins and minerals used to keep your kidneys healthy. Scientists have shown that vitamin B6 and pyridoxine are effective treatments of kidney stones. Physicians recommend doses of roughly 100 milligrams of vitamin B6 and other forms of vitamin B be taken to cure kidney ailments. Pharmaceutical Treatments for Kidney Stones Kidney stones are generally known to pass through the body’s digestive system within 48 to 72 hours on their own, though often cause excruciating pain. Because kidney stones can pass through the body without help, most medications prescribed to patients are pain killers. Narcotics can be prescribed to help reduce pain if over-the-counter medicines do not allow for pain relief. Scientists have been able to create several medications that can speed up the process of passing a kidney stone. The most common form of prescription medication is what is known as a “calcium channel blocker”, typically nifedipine. Nifedipine is known by product names such as Adalat, Procardia, and Nifediac. Alpha-blockers are also used in treatment of kidney stones. A common alpha-blocker is the prescription drug Flomax. A non-invasive procedure called lithotripsy is often used to break up larger kidney stones. Lithotripsy involves the use of shock waves to break large kidney stones into smaller pieces that can be more easily passed through the urinary tract and urinary system. Surgical Treatments for Kidney Stones Several surgical techniques can be used to treat kidney stones, but are typically only used in the case of extremely large buildups accompanied by intolerable pain. The operation is often avoided because of the costs of performing any type of surgery. Kidney stone surgery allows the surgeon to enter the urinary tract through a small incision in the skin and remove the crystalline buildup and kidney stones. An instrument that is called an ureteroscope is allowed to enter the ureter through the urethra and bladder. Risks associated with this type of operation are small compared to other types of surgeries, because it is not extremely invasive. However, as with any surgery there is always the risk of complications due to heavy bleeding or a poor reaction to anesthesia.	<urn:uuid:0d2e92ba-4d5e-4c4d-a1e7-53d9287e8d7a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.naturalremedies.org/?s=stones	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.958591	2,263	3.75	4
Getting food and drink into space comes with a number of compromises. Everything has to be lightweight and have a very long shelf life while remaining edible for the astronauts. One area where the experience doesn’t come anywhere close to what we get on Earth is coffee. Everyone likes their coffee a particular way. Black coffee is easy, but start adding milk and sugar, and you have a problem in space. That problem stems from the fact everything is premixed and freeze dried, so astronauts don’t get to choose how sugary or milky their coffee is, and this has always been a big complaint of those returning from a mission. Bad coffee in space is a problem of the past, though, as a group of students at Rice University have solved it using a couple of pouches and a 3D printed roller. The system is explained in the video below: The main difference with this and what has gone before is the fact astronauts get to mix the coffee, creamer, and sugar the way they like it (the roller system can accurately dispense sugar or creamer in 10ml shots). And this is done while staying within the existing restrictions of no liquid leaks and everything remaining lightweight. Sure, it’s going to take a few minutes longer to make the beverage, but if there’s a great cup of coffee at the end of the process it’s worth it and astronauts won’t mind doing it. Creating this new coffee making system was made possible by the Texas Space Grant Consortium, which runs the TSGC Design Challenge. One of the challenges this year was making coffee better on the International Space Station. The Rice University engineering student team of Robert Johnson, Colin Shaw and Benjamin Young took on the challenge, and are hopeful their solution now makes it on board the ISS.	<urn:uuid:7e0ce725-4438-49bb-8c31-a81ff8b5e55a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.geek.com/science/students-devise-a-way-to-make-great-coffee-in-space-1553638/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95597	370	2.90625	3
b.Abt 1609 Leiden, Zuid-Holland, Netherlands d.31 Oct 1683 Barnstable, Barnstable, Massachusetts, United States m. abt 1605 m. 8 Apr 1635 Facts and Events Caution: there are many Samuel Fullers. This is Samuel Fuller of Scituate and Barnstable, who was a passenger on the Mayflower with his father Edward Fuller and his uncle, the Dr. Samuel Fuller. Samuel Fuller came to New England, a passenger on the Mayflower in 1620. He was left an orphan soon after the arrival of the ship at Plymouth, MA and made his home in the family of his Uncle Samuel Fuller, the physician who gave him "loving care and affection: throughout his first years in the colony, and remembered him generously in his will, proved Oct ober 28, 1633. Samuel Fuller "the younger" shared in the division of lands in the colony in 1623 receiving three acres on the south side of the town brook. His neighbors were John Howland, Stephen Hopkins, Edward Winslow and Gilbert Winslow. He became a freeman of the colony in 1634 and settled in the nearby town of Scituate where he married, April 8, 1635 Jane Lothrop, daughter of Rev John Lothrop, pastor of the Scituate church, which Samuel Fuller joined receiving his letter of dismissal from the church at Plymouth. In 1636 he built a house on Green field street. The walls were made of poles filled between with stones and clay, the roof thatched, the chimney to the mantel of rough stone, and above of cob work, the windows of oiled paper and the floors of hand-sawed planks. In 1639 Rev Lothrop, his father-in-law and many members of his church removed and founded the town of Barnstable probably at that time the most easterly settlement on Cape Cod, whither Samuel Fuller and his young wife followed and together with his cousin Matthew Fuller who came to Barnstable about this time, purchased of the Indian Secunke, that portion of Scorton or Sandy Neck which lies within the town of Barnstable. Samuel Fuller also bought other lands and lived in the northwest angle of the town in a secluded spot where few had occasion to pass. He was eminently pious and retired in his habits and not much mentioned in public affairs, but his name appears as constable at Scituate and as a juryman or on committees to settle difficulties with the Indians at Barnstable. He was the only one of the Mayflower passengers to settle permanently at Barnstable and one of the last survivors of that company. He died October 31, 1683 and was buried if not on his own estate, in the ancient burial place at Lothrop Hill in Barnstable, near the site of the first meeting house. A deed by which the Mayflower Passenger, Samuel Fuller, son of Edward Fuller, sold his house and land at Scituate, on 25 March, 1650, to Peter Collamore of Scituate. [MD 16:129] As Samuel Fuller, the grantor in this deed, is called "of Scittuate" and had a wife Jane, who consented to the sale, it is certain that he was identical with the Samuel2 Fuller who came over with his father, Edward1 Fuller, in the Mayflower, and married Jane, the daughter of Rev. John Lothrop of Scituate, in 1635. "[On the back of the deed] this 16th of may 1650 Jane ffuler the wife of Samuell ffuler did com befor me Timothy hatherly asistant to the governer of new plimoth in new England and did freely acknowlidge her willingnes of the within mensioned sale and did freely resign up her right to Peter collemer Timothy hatherly" Will of Samuel Fuller [MD 2:237] The last Will and Testament of Samuell ffuller of Barnstable Late Deaceased Exhibited to the Court held att Plymouth the fift of June 1684 on the oath of Capt: Josepth Laythorp and Mr Samuell Allin as followeth. The nine and twentyeth Day of October in the yeer of our Lord one thousand six hundred eighty and three; I Samuell ffuller seni'r of the Towne of Barnstable in the Gov'rment of New Plymouth being ancient and very weake in body but of good and Compitent memory thankes be unto allmighty God; and Calling to remembrance the uncertaine state of this transitory life and that all fflesh muste yeild unto Death when it shall please God to Call, Doe make ordaine and & Constitute & Declare this my last will and Testament in Manor and form following; Revoking and Anulling by these presents all and every Testament and Testaments will and wills heertofore by mee made and declared either by word or wrighting; and this to be taken onely for my last will and Testament and none other; and first I give and Comitt my soule unto almighty God my Saviour in whom and by the merritts of Jesus Christ I trust and beleive assuredly to be saved; and my body to the earth; from whence it was taken to be buried in such Decent and Christian manor as to my executors heerafter Named shalbe thought meet and Convenient; and Now for the settleing of my temporall estate and such goods Cattles and Debts as it hath pleased god farr above my Deserts to bestow upon mee; I Doe order Give and Dispose the same in Manor and forme following; That is to say first I will that all those Debts and Dutyes as I owe in right or Consience to any manor of p'rson or p'rsons whatsoever shalbe well and truely Contented and payed or ordained to be payed within Convenient time after my Decease by my executors heerafter Named; Item I Give and bequeath unto my eldest son Samuell ffuller two p'rsells of Marsh one of them I bought of mr Samuell house Decease and the other I bought of Captaine Matthew ffuller Deceased that hee had of mr John ffreeman; Item I give and bequeath to my son John ffuller four acrees of Marsh and one halfe which I bought of Peter Blossome Item I Give and bequeath that p'rsell of Marsh that lyes by Ralph Jones, his Marsh, To my two sones Samuell ffuller and John Ffuller to be equally Devided betwixt and one p'rsell of Marsh that lyeth on this side Scoton ffeildes to be Devided as abovesaid and the angle Lotts of Marsh att Scoton point to be equally Devided between them alsoe and alsoe the Eelcreik Lott of Marsh to be alike Devided as above specifyed and the Lott of Marsh att Sandy neck upon the same accoumpt alsoe; and all my upland upon Scoton Neck to be equally Devided betwixt them as the other above Mensioned Item I give to my son Samuell ffuller all my upland that lyeth above my uppermost ffeild and to range quite Crosse my land upon one and the same lyne as the uppermost ffence as my upmost feild Now ranges, but alwaies to allow Cart wayes to the Comons into the Comons for his brother John ffuller his heires and assignes Item I give and bequeath unto my son John fuller my now Dwellinghouse orchyard and all outhousing and all the rest of my upland wherever it doth lye, but alwaies to allow a Cart way into the meddowes for his brother Samuell ffuller his heires and assignes Item I Give and bequeath to my son John ffuller one three yeer old horse running in the woods; Samuell ffuller and a seal Witnesse / Joseph Laythorp / Samuell Allin	<urn:uuid:bfaad33c-3fd2-43aa-9e59-9d0888f505e7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Samuel_Fuller_(2)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963909	1,749	2.546875	3
Brooklyn Bridge, Water and Dock Streets, Brooklyn 1936 Berenice Abbott Born: Springfield, Ohio 1898 Died: Monson, Maine 1991 gelatin silver print sheet: 18 x 14 3/8 in. (45.7 x 36.6 cm.) Smithsonian American Art Museum Transfer from the Evander Childs High School, Bronx, New York through the General Services Administration 1975.83.10 Not currently on view Berenice Abbott returned home in 1929 after nearly eight years abroad and found herself fascinated by the rapid growth of New York City. She saw the city as bristling with new buildings and structures that seem to her as solid and as permanent as a mountain range. Aiming to capture “the past jostling the present,” Abbott spent the next five years on a project she called Changing New York. In Brooklyn Bridge, Water and Dock Streets, Brooklyn, Abbott presented a century of history in a single image. The Brooklyn Bridge, once a marvel of modern engineering, seems dark and heavy compared with the skeletal structure beneath it. The construction site at center suggests the never-ending cycle of death and regeneration. And the Manhattan skyline, veiled and weightless, hangs just out of reach, its shape accommodating the ambitious spirit of American modernism. A Democracy of Images: Photographs from the Smithsonian American Art Museum, 2013 Architecture - bridge - Brooklyn Bridge Architecture - industry Cityscape - New York - Brooklyn Cityscape - New York New York Cityscape - street - Dock Street Cityscape - street - Water Street New Deal - Works Progress Administration, Federal Art Project - New York photography - photoprint	<urn:uuid:6b76b691-5d35-4763-ae1e-79db9f983a50>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.885578	342	2.90625	3
Inquiry in aid of legislation The congressional power of investigation, which is also known as the "inquiry in aid of legislation", is one of the three categories under its oversight powers (see Congressional oversight). - 1 Constitutional basis - 2 Rationale of the power of inquiry - 3 Function under the separation of powers - 4 Coverage of the power of inquiry - 5 Limitations and exemptions - 6 Availability of judicial review - 7 Distinctions - 8 Power to cite in contempt - 9 See also - 10 External Links - 11 References The Congressional power of inquiry is expressly recognized in Section 21 of Article VI of the Constitution: SECTION 21. The Senate or the House of Representatives or any of its respective committees may conduct inquiries in aid of legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of procedure. The rights of persons appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected. Even without this express Constitutional provision, the power of inquiry is inherent in the power to legislate. The power of inquiry, with process to enforce it, is grounded on the necessity of information in the legislative process. If the information possessed by executive officials on the operation of their offices is necessary for wise legislation on that subject, by parity of reasoning, Congress has the right to that information and the power to compel the disclosure thereof. Rationale of the power of inquiry The Supreme Court discussed the rationale of the Congressional power of inquiry in Arnault vs. Nazareno, thus: "the power of inquiry — with process to enforce it — is an essential and appropriate auxiliary to the legislative function. A legislative body cannot legislate wisely or effectively in the absence of information respecting the conditions which the legislation is intended to effect or change; and where the legislative body does not itself possess the requisite information — which is not infrequently true — recourse must be had to others who do possess it. Experience has shown that mere requests for such information are often unavailing, and also that information which is volunteered is not always accurate or complete; so some means of compulsion is essential to obtain what is needed."<ref>Arnault vs. Nazareno, G.R. No. L-3820, 18 July 1950, citations omitted</ref> Function under the separation of powers Under the separation of powers, Congress has the right to obtain information from any source - even from officials of departments and agencies in the executive branch. It is this very separation that makes the congressional right to obtain information from the executive so essential, if the functions of the Congress as the elected representatives of the people are adequately to be carried out. Coverage of the power of inquiry The power of inquiry is broad enough to cover officials of the executive branch. The power of inquiry is co-extensive with the power to legislate. The matters which may be a proper subject of legislation and those which may be a proper subject of investigation are one. It follows that the operation of government, being a legitimate subject for legislation, is a proper subject for investigation. Since Congress has authority to inquire into the operations of the executive branch, it would be incongruous to hold that the power of inquiry does not extend to executive officials who are the most familiar with and informed on executive operations. Limitations and exemptions The power of Congress, both the Senate and the House of Representatives, to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation is not absolute or unlimited. The investigation must be "in aid of legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of procedure" and that "the rights of persons appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected," as provided in the Constitution. The rights of persons under the Bill of Rights must be respected, including the right to due process and the right not to be compelled to testify against one's self. <ref>Bengzon, Jr. vs. Senate Blue Ribbon Committee, G.R. No. 89914, 20 November 1991</ref> As now contained in the 1987 Constitution (Section 21, Article VI), the power of Congress to investigate is circumscribed by three limitations, namely: - (a) It must be in aid of its legislative functions. - (b) It must be conducted in accordance with duly published rules of procedure. - (c) The persons appearing therein are afforded their constitutional rights, including the right to be represented by counsel and the right against self-incrimination. Executive Privilege as a limitation The President, on whom executive power is vested, is beyond the reach of Congress, except through the power of impeachment. It is based on the President's position as the highest official of the executive branch, and the due respect accorded to a co-equal branch of government which is sanctioned by a long-standing custom. See Executive privilege. The Supreme Court Members of the Supreme Court are exempt from this power of inquiry on the basis not only of separation of powers but also on the fiscal autonomy and the constitutional independence of the judiciary. Publication of Rules of Procedure Section 21, Article VI of the Constitution states that: "The Senate or the House of Representatives or any of its respective committees may conduct inquiries in aid of legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of procedure. The rights of person appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected" In the case of Neri,<ref>Neri v. Senate Committee on Accountability of Public Officers and Investigations, G.R. No. 180643, 4 September 2008</ref>, involving the Senate, the Supreme Court stated that "the language of Section 21, Article VI of the Constitution requiring that the inquiry be conducted in accordance with the duly published rules of procedure is categorical. It is incumbent upon the Senate to publish the rules for its legislative inquiries in each Congress or otherwise make the published rules clearly state that the same shall be effective in subsequent Congresses or until they are amended or repealed to sufficiently put public on notice." Availability of judicial review The power of [[Congress] to conduct an inquiry in aid of legislation may be subjected to judicial review pursuant to the Supreme Court's certiorari powers under Section 1, Article VIII of the Constitution. Since the right of Congress to conduct an inquiry in aid of legislation is, in theory, no less susceptible to abuse than executive or judicial power. Between the power of inquiry in aid of legislation and question hour No. Section 21 (inquiry in aid of legislation) and Section 22 (question hour) of Article VI of the Constitution are closely related and complementary to each other, but they do not pertain to the same power of Congress. One specifically relates to the power to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation, the aim of which is to elicit information that may be used for legislation, while the other pertains to the power to conduct a question hour, the objective of which is to obtain information in pursuit of Congress' oversight function. While attendance was meant to be discretionary in the question hour, it was compulsory in inquiries in aid of legislation. Power to cite in contempt A person may be cited in contempt and imprisoned in relation to the Congressional exercise of inquiry in aid of legislation, how long will the imprisonment last? This is tackled by the Supreme Court in Arnault vs. Nazareno, where the petitioner argued that the Senate lacks authority to commit him for contempt for a term beyond its period of legislative session. According to the Supreme Court: That investigation has not been completed because of the refusal of the petitioner as a witness to answer certain questions pertinent to the subject of the inquiry. The Senate has empowered the committee to continue the investigation during the recess. By refusing to answer the questions, the witness has obstructed the performance by the Senate of its legislative function, and the Senate has the power to remove the obstruction by compelling the witness to answer the questions thru restraint of his liberty until he shall have answered them. That power subsists as long as the Senate, which is a continuing body, persists in performing the particular legislative function involved. To hold that it may punish the witness for contempt only during the session in which investigation was begun, would be to recognize the right of the Senate to perform its function but at the same time to deny to it an essential and appropriate means for its performance. Aside from this, if we should hold that the power to punish for contempt terminates upon the adjournment of the session, the Senate would have to resume the investigation at the next and succeeding sessions and repeat the contempt proceedings against the witness until the investigation is completed-an absurd, unnecessary, and vexatious procedure, which should be avoided. As against the foregoing conclusion it is argued for the petitioner that the power may be abusively and oppressively exerted by the Senate which might keep the witness in prison for life. But we must assume that the Senate will not be disposed to exert the power beyond its proper bounds. And if, contrary to this assumption, proper limitations are disregarded, the portals of this Court are always open to those whose rights might thus be transgressed.	<urn:uuid:8125cc23-5b10-4d2d-8edd-3057c6fe9c6c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://wiki.lawcenter.ph/index.php?title=Inquiry_in_aid_of_legislation	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956499	1,843	2.859375	3
C-SPAN has archived their program on “Cartographia: Mapping Civilizations” for your viewing pleasure. This book has also been reviewed in The Washington Post. Description from the C-SPAN website: [Vincent Virga] worked for eight years with the staff of the Library of Congress to create this book on the history of maps and how they reveal civilizations. John Hebert’, Chief of the Geography and Maps division and Ronald Grim, retired curator of the Maps Division contributed to the book and joined the author for a presentation at the Library of Congress. Following the talk, take an exclusive look inside the “treasures vault” of the Library of Congress Geography and Map division to examine and learn more about their holdings and some of the maps included in the book. [The author] is a photography editor who has contributed to over 150 books. He has written three novels and is the co-author of “Eyes of the Nation: A Visual History of the United States.” Thanks to Pam and Beth for this entry.	<urn:uuid:3ef36503-e1f9-4c25-b591-85d6c2f94910>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://kelsocartography.com/blog/?p=113	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968242	223	2.578125	3
There are hundreds of plants used all over the world, which are used in herbal medicine as treatments for viral infections. Some of the most accessible and reliable natural antiviral herbs: Astragalus (astragalus membranaceus): has been in the Chinese Materia Medica for centuries and has shown to have immune boosting properties. This classic energy tonic has a warming and toning effect. Although not used as a treatment for acute illnesses, astragalus is believed to be very useful as an herbal remedy for treating viral infections, including those that cause the common cold and flu. Echinacea (eucalyptus globulus): has long been used as an antiviral remedy for colds and flu. It appears to work by boosting production of interferon, the body’s own antiviral fighter, as well as, stimulating infection-fighting white blood cells. Echinacea has three compounds, which are chicoric acid, caffeic acid, and echinacin. These three compounds have specific antiviral properties that can resist viruses. Forsythia (Forsythia suspensa) and Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) are the top choice in the Chinese Materia Medica for addressing heat toxins. Often used together, these flowers are the main ingredient in a formula called Yin Qiao San for treating viruses causing upper respiratory infections. Garlic (allium sativum): Compounds that are rich in sulfur content are found in abundance in garlic and are active against the virus responsible for flu. These sulfur-based compounds have shown to be effective in clinical studies. A similar but less effective antiviral action is also found in the common onion, which is a close relative of the garlic plant. Ginger (zingiber officinale): Phenolic compounds are responsible for relaxing the muscles of the stomach, and explains ginger’s effect in easing motion sickness. Fresh or dried, the root has been shown to minimize vomiting. In addition, the phenolic ingredients act within the stomach as a sedative and painkiller, which helps to reduce over-activity of the gut. In stomach infections, the oil acts as an antiseptic and an anti-inflammatory. The gingerols alone are thought to be responsible for ginger’s action as a liver protective. Goldenseal (hydrastis canadensis): Berberine is the active compound in goldenseal that stimulates the immune system. douche of goldenseal is excellent for reducing yeast infection. Berberine increases blood flow to the spleen and stimulate the activity of macrophages, blood cells that are an important part of the immune system. Licorice (glycyrrhiza glabra): also used for centuries and found in the Chinese Materia Medica, this herb’s potent antiviral action works against a wide range of viral agents. With eight active antiviral compounds, the most recognized being glycyrrhizin, these compounds inhibit as well as block the viral penetration of the body’s cells and the multiplication of genetic material from the viral particle. Milk Thistle (silybum marinum): is the top choice for all kinds of liver disorders such as hepatitis, cirrhosis as well as mushroom poisoning. Silymarin, the active ingredient, is also helpful in gall bladder disease. Sangre de Drago or Dragon’s Blood (croton lechleri): The antiviral properties of this herb have shown to help with viral sores caused during infection from the herpes virus. The compounds in this herb, including ds taspine and dimethylcedrusine have the ability to heal wounds and are have antiviral properties. Essential Oils with Antiviral Properties Use these oils externally by blending a few drops into a base oil of vegetable, sunflower, safflower or canola oils and massage into pulse points, chest, tops of feet and wrists. Do not digest these oils internally. Tea tree can be added to a half a cup of warm water and gargled then spit out for treating sore throats. Eucalyptus (eucalyptus globulus): this oil has compounds which include quercitrin, hyperoside, and tannic acid, which help eliminate viruses. Juniper (juniperus): has an antiviral agent. Juniper contains a potent antiviral compound called deoxypodophyllotoxi n. The herpes virus, flu and many other types of viruses seem to be inhibited by extracts from juniper. Lemon Balm (melissa officinalis): is a potent inhibitor on the herpes virus, among other viruses that lead to infection. Tea Tree Oil (melaleuca alternifolia): used for everything from earache to athlete’s foot, as well as gum inflammation and skin infections, this antiviral oil can be applied directly to an infected area, three times daily. Tea tree can be added to a half a cup of warm water and gargled then spit out for treating sore throats. Editor’s note: Now that we have listed the natural antiviral herbs, let me recommend 2 natural antiviral remedies to you. ImmunityPlus and FluGo have both been tested by our editors and found to be very effective at boosting the immune system, speeding recovery time from viral infections and warding off further viral infections. I, personally, use both ImmunityPlus and FluGo natural antiviral formulas for myself and my children during cold and flu season for their outstanding antiviral and immune system strengthening action. These natural remedies are manufactured by Native Remedies. We thoroughly researched this company that makes these natural antiviral herbal and natural antiviral homeopathic formulas and have found that all of their products are created using their Full Spectrum Approach (FSA), a set of standards and processes that combines the best quality, laboratory-tested, raw ingredients, good manufacturing practices and a Full Spectrum manufacturing method to guarantee you products of the highest quality, safety and effectiveness. All Native Remedies’ formulas, including these two natural antiviral remedies, contain no animal products, gluten, artificial colors, flavors or preservatives, are not tested on animals, and backed by our One Year Unconditional Money Back Guarantee. Plus, individual homeopathic ingredients are listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States (HPUS). Also, they only use WHOLE HERB herbal extracts, the purest form of the herb with the highest quality and therapeutic benefits. Stay Informed!Fill out the form below to sign up to our free natural health and healing newsletter and e-zine and stay up to date on our latest articles and informed about holistic healing therapies and effective home remedies for common ailments. As a thank you for joining our newsletter, we'll also send you The Healing Art of Reflexology mini-course - at absolutely no cost!	<urn:uuid:ce84e247-78fd-4c28-b9cb-7bec801e8234>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.natural-holistic-health.com/natural-antiviral-herbs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.925166	1,436	3	3
We took the opportunity to learn about something kind of creepy since it was Halloween. We learned a lot about bats last week. After showing them pictures of baby bats, most of the students decided they thought bats were cute... and not so creepy after all! I asked a fabulous lady to make some "Synonym Rolls" to go with this activity. This made this something for my kids to never forget, especially since she made them homemade! They were delicious! The only thing I will add next time is Reynold's Wrap for the pan on the bottom of the "Synonym Rolls". (pictured below) I just laminated some gray cardstock. This was probably the best Noun Town my Firsties have ever done! They were super creative! We basically reviewed everything we have learned about nouns, then I just gave them the task of drawing a noun and labeling it. As we cut them out, they would decide where to place them. Then we would stand back, looking at our picture, and they would decide what else they thought the town needed! I especially loved this Spiderman! It was one of my favorite parts! I also loved the moon with the martians and the lazer! So YUCK soup took a whole new swing this year...I have some wonderful aides in my room this year. One of them loved the idea so much that she asked if she could make cupcakes for a treat. Of course! So, she had a surprise in store for the kids. She told them to find the CK words in the treat. They were sticks (pretzel sticks), the work YUCK written on the cupcake, a rock made from fondant, black from the sprinkles, and the trick word--- a snack! So smart! She had my super smarties really thinking on the last one! I LOVE it! It will become something I add to this study every year! Had to include the last one...Gotta love kids and their artwork! This was a SUPER fun activity which we have been able to repeat twice as we learn more about blends. I saw this idea on Pinterest one day, and I just did my own spin on it. We talked about blends for two days in large group. Then, on the third day, I drew a blender on the board while my students drew one on their paper. They brainstormed all the words they could think of with R blends. I have a few examples of their work below. Then, as they were creating their own blender- I went around and had them to write one of our brainstormed words on an index card. This week, we followed up with L blends, and they went to town with their ideas and it was even better that the first time we did it. I can't wait to see next week's blenders when we talk about S Blends. FUN!	<urn:uuid:51afa732-4712-4bba-9303-b8cc1dc0ebeb>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://prayersandpurpleelephants.blogspot.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.990684	587	2.609375	3
Why do active galactic nuclei differ? In some galaxies, including our own, the black hole sits inconspicuously in the middle. But in others, the black hole is orbited by a thick toroidal disk of hot gas. As material in the disk spirals toward the black hole's event horizon, the disk's inner region becomes so agitated and hot that it radiates copiously (see the accompanying artist's impression). Such systems are known as active galactic nuclei, of which there are two broad classes. Type 1 AGNs have broad emission lines characteristic of hot, fast-moving matter. Type 2 AGNs have narrow lines characteristic of cool, slow-moving matter. Given that a thick torus shrouds the AGN engine, the two AGN types could conceivably differ only by viewing angle: Type 1s afford a face-on view of the hot, swirling inner disk; type 2s, an obscured view. Known as AGN unification, that appealing explanation can account for some of the differences between the two AGN types, but not all of them. Now Beatriz Villarroel and her thesis adviser Andreas Korn of Uppsala University in Sweden have shown that another factor is at play. Using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Villarroel and Korn looked at the neighboring galaxies of a sample of 11 334 type 1 and 53 416 type 2 AGNs. If viewing angle were the sole discriminant, the properties of galaxies in an AGN's vicinity would have no bearing on its type. But that's not the case. Compared with the neighbors of type 1s, the neighbors of type 2s are significantly bluer and seem to be making more stars. Although viewing angle does influence an AGN's outward appearance, Villarroel and Korn's findings indicate that type 1s and type 2s are intrinsically different, perhaps because of their collision histories. (B. Villarroel, A. J. Korn, Nat. Phys., in press, doi:10.1038/nphys2951.)	<urn:uuid:af566ab3-5e44-431f-b8f9-9e50b6275070>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/news/10.1063/PT.5.7072	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941607	418	3.671875	4
Million gallons of oil a day gush into Gulf of Mexico Interviews with surviving Deepwater Horizon rig workers show how explosions led to what may be the world’s worst oil spill By David Randall Sunday, 9 May 2010 An extraordinary account of how the Deepwater Horizon disaster occurred emerged yesterday in leaked interviews with surviving workers from the rig. They said that a methane gas bubble had formed, rocketed to the surface and caused a series of fires and explosions which destroyed the rig and began the gushing of millions of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, threatening wildlife and coastal livelihoods. Oil-covered birds caught by the outer edges of the 135-mile slick are now being found. Word also came yesterday that the oil spill may be five times worse than previously thought. Ian MacDonald, a biological oceanographer at Florida State University, said he believed, after studying Nasa data, that about one million gallons a day were leeching into the sea, and that the volume discharged may have already exceeded the 11 million gallons of the 1989 Exxon Valdez disaster, widely regarded as the world’s worst marine pollution incident. Mr MacDonald said there was, as of Friday, possibly as much as 6,178 square miles of oil-covered water in the Gulf.	<urn:uuid:77d3510c-2735-4857-9e4c-44d336484bf8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://revolutionradio.org/?p=211	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963672	260	2.796875	3
The Power That I Get Each Time I Read02282_000_028 Nephi, a Book of Mormon prophet, loved the scriptures. He spent time reading them, thinking about them, and teaching them. Nephi knew that the scriptures would bring happiness. Alma, another Book of Mormon prophet, learned that the Zoramites were not keeping the commandments. This made Alma sad. He wanted to help. He went on a mission and taught them the gospel. Because of the power of the word of God, many Zoramites repented and began to live the commandments. Just like Nephi and Alma, you can have the power of the word of God each day by reading the scriptures. (“Scripture Power,” 2006 Outline for Sharing Time and the Children’s Sacrament Meeting Presentation, 10–11) You are blessed to have the scriptures. As you read them, you will learn what the commandments are and how to keep them. You will be reminded that you are a child of God and He loves you. Remove page F4, and mount it on heavy paper. Cut out the bookmark on the solid black lines. Fold on the dotted line, and glue the back sides of the bookmark together. Use the bookmark to help you keep your place as you read the scriptures. Mark the chart each day when you read the scriptures. Note: If you do not wish to remove pages from the magazine, this activity may be copied or printed from the Internet at www.lds.org. For English, click on “Gospel Library.” For other languages, click on “Languages.” Sharing Time Ideas Show a journal, and ask the children what it is. A journal is a record of the thoughts, feelings, and events we want to remember. Show Gospel Art Picture Kit 122 (Jacob Blessing His Sons), and briefly tell the story of Jacob, including the names of his 12 sons. Ask the children to listen for two of those names as you read Ezekiel 37:16. Explain to the children that Judah and Joseph and their descendants were told to keep records of important events that occurred. Read Ezekiel 37:15–17. Show Gospel Art Picture Kit 326 (The Bible and Book of Mormon: Two Witnesses), and explain that the Bible is the stick of Judah and the Book of Mormon is the stick of Joseph. Help the children memorize Ezekiel 37:17. Ask them to think of ways to become more familiar with the scriptures (marking the scriptures, memorizing scriptures, having personal and family scripture study, and so on). Testify of the blessing of having the Bible and the Book of Mormon “become one” as they testify of Christ (see also 2 Nephi 3:12). Prepare a matching activity using My Gospel Standards and scriptures from the Doctrine and Covenants. (Examples: “I will honor my parents and do my part to strengthen my family” and D&C 88:123; “I will seek good friends and treat others kindly” and D&C 4:6.) Write the words Doctrine and Covenant on the chalkboard, and discuss the meaning of both words. Turn to the Explanatory Introduction of the Doctrine and Covenants, and read the first sentence together. Talk about the unique characteristics of the Doctrine and Covenants (for example, it is divided into sections, not chapters, and it consists of revelations given in this dispensation). Write the scripture references for the activity on the chalkboard, and display My Gospel Standards. Assign children to look up the scriptures and match them to one of the standards. Invite several children to read a scripture and standard of their choice and share an example of how they can live that standard.	<urn:uuid:a2e714a5-1ec4-458c-909e-eedd434fac5b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.lds.org/liahona/2008/02/the-power-that-i-get-each-time-i-read?lang=eng	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938452	780	3.125	3
ABI Brother and myself were given electronic morse code machines for christmas I suppose, when we were kids. Before wireless and bluetooth, our morse code machines had to connect with wires. We had a lot of fun with them before they failed to proceed, as many electronic toys did back then. Our walkie talkies did not work for long either. The tin cans with string were more reliable. I learnt morse code, but now I only recall SOS. It is not like riding a bike but more like piano playing. Use it or lose it. Morse code became terribly important as a method of direct communication that did not rely on a slow ship or land transport. In 1871 a submarine cable appeared in Darwin. In 1872 the cable from Adelaide joined to the cable from London at Darwin and there was now a direct electronic connection. Through repeater stations and the competence of morse code operators, a message could go to or from London in seven hours. This year, 2012 is the 140th anniversary of the cable connection. It was truly a remarkable achievement. Our indigenous were suspicious of this cable running through their lands, and insulators could be shaped to make very good spear heads. Once they realised the cable meant them no harm, the thieving stopped. I wish I could turn back the clock and remember the economy of morse code as against the lengthiness of emails. Perhaps the simple brevity of phone text messages is like the morse code of old. Beechworth and send a morse code message. I could even send a telegram from what is surely one of the last remaining telegraph stations, built in 1858. Would the message convert to a phone text, an email or a Face Book post?	<urn:uuid:bfd3cdd9-3ae5-40ca-8d8b-b1af35cf5bd4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://highriser.blogspot.com/2012/05/dot-dot-dot.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.971595	359	2.53125	3
In The Best Possible Taste – Tomato Taste That Is! This is a rather subjective area – what tastes good to one person, may taste average to another. Perhaps we each have an expectation of what a tomato should taste like. Sungold, for example, is a very sweet tomato but doesn’t have the traditional balance of sugar and acid that many consider “ideal”. Some of the larger tomatoes such as Brandywine and Costoluto have a very fine taste – sweet with a little acid, but require a lot of sun to grow and reach their potential. Most varieties will have an improved and sweeter taste if grown under a lot of sun and fed and watered correctly. At the other end of the scale is the tomato with more acid than sugar content – a bit like the traditional supermarket tomato…as hard as nails and as tasty as a box of spanners! Having said that, there is a much wider choice of tomato varieties in the supermarket these days, with a price to match. However, they’ll never taste as good as our home-grown ones because as soon as they are picked, the taste and freshness begin to fade. Often, tomatoes with high acid content are either grown for a long shelf life or grown under difficult conditions in the garden and have deficiencies of one kind or another. Causes of Poor Tomato Taste Over-watering is one of the causes of watery taste. Basically, soil nutrients are over-diluted and plants are unable to absorb enough food. This also applies to giving too much water between feedings. Tomato plants don’t need direct sunlight every hour of the day (or even direct sunlight six hours each day!) but they do need enough sunlight to ripen and a bit more to reach their full taste. How much is that? it depends on the variety. Under-feeding is sometimes the cause of tasteless, bland tomatoes – grown in soil that has seen better days. Sometimes over-watering is the result of under-nourished plants (see point one). Other causes include, - High soil pH which blocks the uptake of nutrients. - Diseases that weaken a plant’s growth. There is one thing that affects tomato taste that has nothing to do with they way they are grown – and that is keeping them in the fridge. Tomatoes are best kept at room temperature if you want to keep them at their best. If they would keep longer in the fridge, supermarkets would sell them from the fridge!	<urn:uuid:8b0bded3-32a8-4afe-801b-2da3137093fd>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.tomatogrowing.co.uk/in-the-best-possible-taste	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.965895	527	2.6875	3
Primary industry: Biological agriculture is a blend of science and conservation that has farmers counting worms, smelling the soil and getting excited about the complex ecosystem that lives under the grass. The buzz around biological farming seems to be catching. At the recent Field Days in the Waikato, Steven Haswell, managing director at BioAg New Zealand, described his 'walk-up traffic' as "significantly different" from other years. "There's an unease with the current way of doing things - yields, productivity, animal health. The problems are getting more complex. Farmers are looking at options. Biological agriculture is a system for every farm, and it simply incorporates looking after the living part of the soil's biology. It has, in the past, largely been ignored by the mainstream in terms of its fertility. The aim of biological farming is to improve the microbiology of the soil and restore the balance of minerals. The techniques are numerous, from reducing the application of synthetically derived pesticides and fertiliser, to decreasing stock numbers and focusing on quality, to rotating pasture and making manure from effluent. It is not a return to the plough and ox, it is about getting the "beasties in the ground to do the work for you," as Waiuku biological kiwifruit grower Murray Reid puts it. The rotation of stock on different pastures increases soil depth and quality and at the same time sequesters a considerable amount of carbon. Without the use of synthetic chemical fertilisers, soil biology - the growth of soil bacteria, fungi, worms - plus the use of a wider range of pasture species, results in the build-up of soil carbon in the form of plant roots and a layer of humus (rich black or brown decayed plant matter that gives soil nutrients). The initial reaction to biological methods from many farmers is that productivity will drop, and a drop in yield threatens the financial viability of the farm. "A non-existent farm is not sustainable," says Dave Gobles, a biological sheep and beef farmer from West Otago. But the results coming from farmers like Max Purnell near Taupo, Jeff Williams in the Manawatu, Greg Hart in Hawke's Bay, and Rick Braddock on Motatapu Island, combined with the reduced cost of biological farming, means that it is gaining traction. With support and partnership from the Department of Conservation (DoC), cattle farmer Rick Braddock has helped transform crown-owned Motutapu Island in the Hauraki Gulf from a weed-infested island overrun by wallabies to a pest-free biological farm. Braddock is optimistic about the trend in sustainable farming; the small but growing turn away from urea fertiliser indicates that farming practices are not set in stone. "Urea is the cocaine of agriculture; it provides a quick fix and then it's over." Another conventional farming problem that can become cyclical is antibiotic use. High input dairy farmers can find themselves spending $1,200 - $1,500 per month on antibiotics. While biological agriculture doesn't rule out the use of antibiotics if an animal is sick, the need is dramatically reduced. "With smart farming, as I like to call it, the cost is lower, the animals are happier and the soil is in a far better condition," says Braddock. With the help of DoC Braddock has fenced off all natural waterways and created wetlands on the island. In Braddock's mind, increasing the foothold of biological farming in New Zealand requires three things; the use of local and regional council regulation to implement nutrient caps; a premium associated with biological produce and increasing the connectivity between farmers. The past summer saw the worst drought in forty years, but the pastures and animals on Motutapu coped well. Braddock attributes this to good residual cover and the healthy state of the soil. In the Hawkes Bay a similar scenario has occurred with farmers practicing biological farming. Biological agriculture in New Zealand An estimated 200,000 hectares of land is farmed under biological principles in New Zealand out of a total of 14 million hectares of pastorally farmed land. The majority of this is in sheep and beef farming, while dairy lags behind, largely due to the pressure put on dairy farmers to produce ever-increasing milk yields. However, some dairy farmers are catching onto biological methods as a way to reduce nitrogen and are getting better dry matter rates for healthier cows. This includes Federated Farmers Dairy Chairman Willy Leferink, who is himself a practitioner of the system. He says the system is catching on in Canterbury, where some farmers are applying significantly less nitrogen fertiliser. The recently announced dairy industry Water Accord will provide further incentive for dairy farmers to think about what they are putting on the soil. Weeds tell the story Agro-ecologist Nicole Masters explains that the appearance of certain weeds indicate microbial disturbances in soil. For instance, ragwort can indicate that there is a phosphorus and copper deficiency - biological farming is a way to redress those imbalances and manage the problem rather than trying to eradicate it. But Masters adds that there isn't an overnight fix. "With chemical spraying, weeds are removed quickly, but spraying selects for soil organisms which promote more weed growth in the long term. So you have to continue to spray and it becomes a vicious cycle." Kate Beecroft has an MPhil in the governance of sustainable agriculture in New Zealand from Massey University. She has worked as an editor and writer for several years and now works as a policy advisor in the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.	<urn:uuid:a5365754-4638-4d92-a720-c855654c4ab5>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nzherald.co.nz/environment/news/article.cfm?c_id=39&objectid=11137522	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946566	1,153	2.59375	3
Skip to comments.Little-known Facts about a Papal Conclave Posted on 03/07/2013 5:59:43 AM PST by NYer The particular law that governs a papal election was thoroughly updated by Pope John Paul II on February 22, 1996, with the Apostolic Constitution Universi Dominici Gregis; it was further modified by a few amendments introduced by Pope Benedict XVI in the Apostolic Letter Normas Nonnullas on February 22, 2013, just before his retirement. In each case the reigning pope, as the supreme legislator in the Church, promulgated laws concerning the election of his successors, on the Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter. Rome is called “The Eternal City” but its episcopal throne is occupied by a series of “earthen vessels”. By Church law, two physicians are to be on hand throughout the conclave to respond to possible medical emergencies (UDG 46). One of the first acts of the conclave is to select by lot three “Infirmarians”; their responsibility is to collect ballots in a secure lockbox from those cardinal electors who have arrived in Vatican City but are prevented by illness from being present to vote in the Sistine Chapel (UDG 64). The Chapel and adjacent areas are to be swept by professionals to ensure that they have not been bugged with recording or transmitting devices (UDG 51). All cardinal electors and the staff that assist them (e.g. masters of ceremonies) must promise to refrain from using cellphone cameras, etc. and must swear “absolute and perpetual secrecy” about the voting (UDG 48) unless specifically authorized by the newly-elected pope or his successors. A conclave is not a miniature Ecumenical Council or a Particular Synod of Bishops. It is a subset of the College of Cardinals, limited to those who had not yet reached their eightieth birthday on the day when the Holy See became vacant (UDG 33). As such, the College of Cardinals in no way “represents” the local Churches; rather, it is a body of prelates appointed to help the pope as he governs the Universal Church. There is no chance that through some power play “collegiality”, the authority of the College of Bishops in union with the Supreme Pontiff, could encroach upon papal authority during a conclave. “During the vacancy of the Apostolic See, the College of Cardinals has no power or jurisdiction in matters which pertain to the Supreme Pontiff during his lifetime or in the exercise of his office; such matters are to be reserved completely and exclusively to the future Pope” (UDG 1). Any actions taken in the interim by the College of Cardinals beyond their canonical competence are declared “null and void”. After the funeral of the deceased Bishop of Rome (if applicable), the only item on their agenda is to elect a new pope. The cardinal electors are expected to listen to “two well-prepared meditations on the problems facing the Church at the time and on the need for careful discernment in choosing the new Pope” that are presented to them by “two ecclesiastics [not necessarily electors] known for their sound doctrine, wisdom and moral authority” (UDG 13.d). These meditations, together with the liturgical formalities and the strict isolation from the outside world, make a conclave rather like an enclosed retreat. In fact, it resembles nothing so much as a General Chapter of a religious community that is convened to elect a new Superior General. A conclave gathers prelates from all over the world who are accustomed to heading an archdiocese or a Vatican bureaucracy, houses them in identical narrow rooms in the Domus Sanctae Marthae, calls them to pray and celebrate the liturgy together, and requires them to deliberate by secret ballot until the day when they have elected the next Bishop of Rome, to whom they will pledge their obedient service. There has not been a papal conclave during Lent since 1829. Then their choice would usually be confirmed by the Pope (ideally, flouting this process is what created the Investiture Controversy). He relied upon the canons to do his vetting, since it was difficult centuries ago for the Pope to have detailed knowledge of the potential candidates in faraway dioceses. Today the Pope can do the vetting more directly, with better information. So the role of the cardinals in choosing a Pope is much like the role of the canons in choosing a bishop (or monks in choosing an abbot). They are the "canons" of the diocese of Rome. This is true even today, since many of the cardinals are titular bishops who live in Rome and do the administrative and pastoral work of the Roman diocese. Hence they are not there as representatives of the particular churches, as the article points out, they are there as colleagues who are choosing one of their number as the new bishop of Rome. Pope Prediction: 10 Reasons Cardinal Burke Will Be the Next Pope Popeless but not Hopeless Election of Pope Trivia Quiz Black Socialist Pope to Follow Black Socialist President? Pope watchers keeping tabs on Vatican 'backroom boys' Catholicism, True Reform and the Next Pope Cardinals announce adoration, Vespers ceremony for conclave When Will the Conclave Start? Pope Benedict's Final Legislative Act Vatican Diary / The "who's who" of the new pope's electors (broken down by continent) Letter #31: The Program, and the Sheriff (Mahony, Sandri, Anti-Pope) Famous last tweets before cardinals enter media blackout of conclave Cardinal O'Malley lists sex abuse, Curia reform as priorities Old establishment cardinals hope for quick conclave Cardinals Begin Pre-Conclave Meetings Amid Scandal Lombardi: 12 Cardinal electors yet to arrive as 1st Congregation concludes A ticket to vote for the first Latin-American Pope Three candidates for Pope who are on few people's lists Omens and portents and signs! OH MY! (minor earthquake near Castel Gandolfo) Church changing big time, says Cardinal Dolan Letter #30: The Next and the Last (media, papabili, Ganswein in tears) Editorial: "Religious correspondents", "Vaticanists": don't know more about Conclave than us During Sede Vacante what must priests say in the Eucharistic Prayer now that there is no Pope? What is a [Catholic] Cardinal? A Basic Review of the College of Cardinals in History and Today Benedict XVI's first night as Pope emeritus Toward the Conclave. The Pressure on the Cardinals [Catholic Caucus] Papal Apartments, Basilica Sealed for Sede Vacante Update on Conclave Start Date Cardinal Dolan: Pope Benedict 'fragile' on last day of papacy (good handling of msm) Prayer for the Election of a New Pope Interregnum Terms and Expressions, Q and A Format (Nuts & Bolts-current situation) [Catholic Caucus]	<urn:uuid:5bb2b2fd-711b-4438-993e-9a502ba1c985>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-religion/2994377/posts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952531	1,512	2.953125	3
Â HIV Transmission A new study led by an international team of scientists reveals that several bioactive components that are found in human milk are closely related to the reduction of HIV transmission from a HIV-positive mother to her child. The study is published in the online journalÂ American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. The senior author of the study, Lars Bode, an assistant professor at the UCSD (University of California, San Diego) School of Medicine, says that in most less-developed countries around the world, HIV-positive mothers are unsure whether to breastfeed their newborns or not. “Breastfeeding exposes the baby to the virus and increases the risk of the baby dying from HIV infection; but not breastfeeding increases the risk for the baby to die from other intestinal or respiratory infections”, added Dr Bode. Dr Bode and his research team wanted to find out why most children that were born from a HIV-positive mother do not contract the HIV virus. Previous studies have shown that only a small number, around 15 percent, of infants receive the HIV infection, even though most of them receive their mother’s milk for more than a few months. The team discovered that human milk contains an immunologically active component called oligosaccharide (or HMO – human milk oligosaccharide). This is a saccharide polymer that consists of a small number of simple sugars that are linked together. The team also discovered that oligosaccharides are found abundantly in the human milk and are not digestible. This translates into high concentrations of oligosaccharides found on the surface of the child’s gastrointestinal tract. Â Dr Bode says that these human milk oligosaccharides have the role of prebiotics, adding that one of their most important role is to aid Â the growth of bacteria. Furthermore, the aspect of these oligosaccharides resembles that of glycans (polysaccharides that are found on the surface of epithelial cells). Finally, the human milk oligosaccharides have also been linked to the inflammatory response and were discovered to regulate the immune response in both animal and cellular models. The research team analyzed the amount of human milk oligosaccharides from the breast milk of more than 200 women. The women participated in an extensive study in Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, a country in the south of the African continent. The women and their children were followed from birth until the child reached the age of 2. Most of the women that participated in the study did not have access to antiretroviral therapy, thus allowing scientists to study the effect human milk oligosaccharides has on HIV-transmission. The study concludes that a higher concentration of human milk oligosaccharides in breast milk is associated with a better protection against HIV transmission. Future studies will reveal a better understanding on the exact mechanism that allows human oligosaccharides to facilitate or obstruct the transmission of HIV. Researchers suggest that understanding this process will open up new therapy possibilities and new prevention methods for postnatal HIV transmission.	<urn:uuid:14c2fed5-85f6-4d8c-945d-5e1d784cc43c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.doctortipster.com/10697-human-milk-components-protect-from-hiv-transmission.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949339	636	3.140625	3
A carnivorous dinosaur of a group whose members were typically bipedal and ranged from small and delicately built to very large. - Suborder Theropoda, order Saurischia; includes the carnosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, coelurosaurs, and dromaeosaurids. Oraciones de ejemplo - Much fossil evidence has been uncovered supporting the idea that birds evolved from a group of bipedal carnivorous dinosaurs called theropods. - We know that it is a dromaeosaur, a theropod and relative of Velociraptor. - Case said the shape of the teeth and features of the feet were characteristic of a group of dinosaurs known as theropods, which includes the tyrannosaurs, as well as all other meat-eating dinosaurs. 1930s: from Greek thēr 'beast' + pous, pod- 'foot'. For editors and proofreaders Saltos de línea: thero\|pod Definición de theropod en: ¿Qué te llama la atención de esta palabra o frase? Los comentarios que no respeten nuestras Normas comunitarias podrían ser moderados o eliminados. Muy popular en Reino Unido Muy popular en Australia = de moda	<urn:uuid:9beb6fae-cf7e-4593-a957-ad38c61fb5ac>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/es/definicion/ingles/theropod	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.761381	299	3.203125	3
Alixa Naff, Becoming American: The Early Arab Immigrant Experience, (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985). Alixa Naff gives us a rare and detailed look into the virtually unknown and now largely forgotten world of the early Arabic-speaking immigrants who made their way to America in the last decades of the 19th century. They hailed from the Ottoman provinces of Syria and Palestine, but mostly from Mount Lebanon and environs. The majority were Christians (Maronite, Melkite and Orthodox); a significant minority were Muslims and Druze. They called themselves “Syrians.”	<urn:uuid:b7087c0e-8d6c-47fc-a46a-bb86484310ad>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.merip.org/category/mer-subjects/immigration	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.94916	132	2.546875	3
Learn something new every day More Info... by email A stickleback is a type of spiny fish found in the northern hemisphere. Sticklebacks are part of the genus gasterosteus and encompass eight different species, all distinguished by a varying number of back spines. Sticklebacks are often studied by evolutionary biologists because of the speed with which they evolve. Growing to about 7 inches (18 cm) at their largest, sticklebacks can have between two and 16 spines in front of their dorsal fin. Most species have large eyes, square tails, and, instead of scales, bony plates covering their bodies. Colors vary between species. During mating season, however, males change color, becoming shades of bright yellow to black. Sticklebacks usually live one to three years. Breeding among sticklebacks is extremely ritualized. In the spring, males build nests using plants and excretions from their kidneys. They then swim in patterns near the nest to attract a mate. Once attracted, the female will lay her eggs in the nest, then the male will fertilize the eggs. After fertilization, the male will remain at the nest guarding and aerating the eggs until they hatch and for a period after hatching. This behavior is seen in all species of stickleback except the white. Nocturnal feeders, sticklebacks usually eat invertebrates, fish eggs, and sometimes other fish. Large fish, birds, and some mammals, such as otters, prey on sticklebacks. Although humans do not eat these fish, they may use them for oil, fertilizer, and animal food. Sticklebacks live in both salt water and fresh water. Their ancestors originally all lived in the open ocean, but many species have since moved into lakes and rivers, adapting to fresh water environments. The three-spined stickleback is one of the most common freshwater fish found in Britain. It is also common in other areas of Europe, the United States, and Asia. Evolutionary biologists study the stickleback because of its ability to evolve quickly in a new environment, sometimes making noticeable changes within ten years. Study of these fish is compared to Charles Darwin's study of finches on the Galapagos islands. Many freshwater sticklebacks have lost some or all of the bony plates and belly spines present on their marine ancestors. These plates and spines were necessary for protection in marine waters, but made feeding and maneuvering difficult in freshwater environments. The sticklebacks' basic coloring also lightened to help provide camouflage in the new freshwater environment. There is evidence that sticklebacks share a few genes, such as skin color, with other animals including humans. Scientists believe that studying sticklebacks evolution may lead to information about the human evolutionary process. As a result, extensive research is still being performed on the evolution of the stickleback. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!	<urn:uuid:af9bf3ed-9995-4d41-a57f-c12d63b78c27>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-stickleback.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963429	643	4.03125	4
The Whole Picture Good and bad foods exist in each food group: fat, protein and carbohydrate. Just as there are "good" and "bad" fats, not all carbs are created equal. Fast acting carbohydrates are the simplest in nature and though they quickly enter the bloodstream after we eat, they do not provide long-lasting energy. These include fruit juice, sweetened beverages, and other refined carbohydrates like white bread and white rice. These foods should be limited, and when consumed occasionally, they should be paired with higher fiber foods such as veggies or beans, to slow the uptake of sugar into the bloodstream. Sugars are a diverse group and can be found naturally in all carbohydrate foods, from dairy to fruit. Sugar can also be added to foods in the form of sucrose, or common table sugar. No matter what the sugar source, it is converted into glucose, which is the first energy source our body utilizes. Although our bodies prefer burning glucose to other nutrients, it's our job to ensure we are fueling ourselves with the right carbohydrates. A Complex Issue Complex carbohydrates, or polysaccharides, take longer to break down than simple sugars. When eaten within a balanced diet, they leave us more satiated, keep blood sugars even, and provide excellent nutrition, including fiber. They also are better sources than their refined counterparts of B-vitamins, zinc, magnesium, and chromiumall needed for normal body function. Complex carbohydrates include whole grains, pasta and cereals, whole wheat bread, legumes, fruits and vegetables. Whole fruits take longer to break down than juice, therefore providing energy for a longer period of time. Cutting calories by reducing all nutrients, especially saturated and trans fats, is the key to long-term weight loss and maintenance. The FDA summarizes its obesity report by putting the findings in perspective, "To manage your weight, balance the calories you eat with your physical activity. Have a carrot, not the carrot cake; or have cherry yogurt, not cherry pie." Let's hope more Americans follow this advice. Eileen Peterson, RD 1 \| 2	<urn:uuid:3a26c45a-7a77-49e1-9400-4b3df154eee3>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.foodfit.com/centers/hwc/nutrition/nutrition_carbfacts_2.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.931994	429	3.234375	3
Taryn was excited when she first learned that she would be playing with Legos in her after-school program at the Dunlevy Milbank Center. Her grandmother introduced her to the building blocks when she was a few years younger. So when given the choice of a role in the program, the 11-year-old knew right away she wanted to build. Shelby, 12, was more intrigued in working behind a laptop. She was a newcomer to programming, but her talents were clearly demonstrated in writing code that would bring Taryn’s construction to life. Over the last seven months, Shelby, Taryn, and four other girls combined their researching, programming, and constructing talents to create a robot that could push, grab, and pull. While girls and women are largely underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) classes and professions, at Milbank they form the majority. Under the guidance of the center’s technology director, Deja Flynn, the all-girl junior engineering team became Milbotics. At its intersection was the community center in Harlem and an immeasurable result of its after-school enrichment program: kids aged 9-13 creating long-term connections to STEM. “Once a week we all switched off,” Shelby said of the program’s structure. Deja had the girls rotate between the research and technical roles. It was a strategy that not only gave them a well-rounded experience, but also strengthened their problem-solving skills. “There is really no training you could get more than just diving in and trying for yourself,” said Deja. And it is a strategy that holds true regardless of experience and expertise. The league’s robot model had changed since Deja last worked on the project, but the instructor used every new obstacle she faced as a teaching moment for her girls. “They had no idea I was figuring it out along with them,” she said. There were long hours and some disagreements over the course of the program, but the girls honed their engineering skills. Milbotics built three robots over the course of the program and tackled an up-cycling milk carton project at the community center. In the end, they successfully designed, built, and programmed a robot that performed all the necessary movements that would get them through the Trash Trek challenge during the FIRST Lego League Competitions. Milbotics placed third in a qualifying round of the competition—a win that propelled them forward to the regional championships. “There were so many people,” Taryn said of the championships. Teams and supporters from across New York City packed the Jacob Javits Center. The crowd alone would have been overwhelming, but because coaches were not allowed on the competition floor, Milbotics found that they had to tackle the robotics challenge on their own. Their robot malfunctioned during the championships, but Shelby said she kept one of the league core values in mind. She found a reason to smile and enjoy the moment with her team. “I just wanted to have fun,” she said. It didn’t go unnoticed. Milbotics not only placed 27th out of more than 80 other teams, but they also took home an award for great demonstration of the FIRST Lego league Core Values. Their coach was more than proud of them. “It was exciting to watch them grow over the past few months,” said Deja. “I’m so happy I have a few more years to work with them and build on what we did this year.” The girls have also begun planning to top their accomplishments. In returning to the strategizing board, Taryn had one critical requirement for a future Milbotics project. The next robot they build must be a girl.	<urn:uuid:23b35057-0085-4cb9-a1ea-627075e2a786>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.childrensaidsociety.org/blog?page=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.9839	791	2.703125	3
How Long Does Aids Live Outside The Body HIV disease is a very dangerous disease since it cannot be cured. This disease is more like a fearful disease and now people all over the globe are very well aware of it. People, who are afraid of HIV often asked how long does aids live outside the body. They ask this question from doctors as well as on medial web sites. These are the ones who want to be very careful while visiting barber shops and having relationships with more than one women. Since the awareness about aids has increased in the past many years, doctors do not elaborate much while answering how long does aids live outside the body? Both men and women are vulnerable to HIV. We think that if we get a cut on our skin at a barber’s shop and the blood comes out then we are susceptible to have HIV virus. This is not the case. HIV (Aids) virus stays on the skin, even on the blood as long as the blood clot is fresh and in liquid form. As the clot becomes dry the virus dies. HIV virus has a very short life outside the skin. You might have started getting answer to your question, how long does aids live outside the body. The virus survives hardly for a few minutes outside the body but it gets in the body then there are chances of growth. Let us look to small but important aspects of aids virus growth. Researches show that there are many chances of getting aids infection from any barber shop. One has to ensure that the barber uses a new razor each time. The infection occurs if the virus enters the body via blood stream. In this case one has to take HIV precautions. This disease never gets transmitted through any causal contact. If someone who is HIV infected does an unprotected intercourse with non-infected woman, then there are only one percent chances of infection. Obviously this does not mean that one can go for unprotected intercourse every time. You can sit, play and eat with HIV infected person without any fear. There are only two possibilities of having this virus in your body; either you do unprotected sex multiple times with an HIV infected person or you get an infected blood in an hospital or via any blood contact for example at a barber’s shop. HIV is definitely a fatal disease and one should take care of it especially when maintain sexual intercourse and other relationships. It is always safe to have intercourse with a person you are sure about that he or she is not HIV infected. The simple answer to how long does aids live outside the body is, consider all the aspects and not just preventing oneself on the surface. You can even look for more answers online. It is not about how long does aids live outside the body, it is about how long you prevent yourself from having it.	<urn:uuid:839b647d-7146-44c5-8409-d687006dcbc8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.howlongdoes.com/health/how-long-does-aids-live-outside-the-body/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96794	568	2.703125	3
iven that slavery was a much discussed subject in Jane Austen's time, Fanny's interest in slavery is nothing unusual, and in fact Austen'sfiction refers to slavery isvereal times: In Sense and Sensibility, Fanny and Elinor Dashwood are eager to hear about the tropics while Persuasion refers to Sir Walter's stint in the East Indies, Mrs. Crofts visit to the West Indies and Mrs. Smith's estate in the West Indies. However, in Mansfield Parkthe silence which greets Fanny's question about slavery in Antigua, brings into play a web of connections between British power overseas and the sustenance of landed gentry in England. The novel concentrates on the minutiae of social behaviour to unveil the operations of imperial power at the domestic level. The domestic space, endowed with a complex array of mentalities and practices based on the divide between the public/private, inside/outside, and countryside/colony, unravels colonial ideology in all its value-laden configurations. The Mansfield Estate is characterised by extravagance: 'the grandeur of the house' (11) and the size of the rooms ('too large') intimidates Fanny when she enters the household. Fanny's liminal position in the Bertram household is similar to that of a slave 'remember wherever you are, you must be the lowest and the last' (158). Austens tangential critique of slavery at this point is reiterated by her choice of the title. The titular Mansfield could refer to Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of England (1756-88), who passed a rule against the forceful transportation of slaves back from England, to the colonies, in 1772. A glance the issue of slavery appears in the location of the room allotted to her: 'you will put the child in the little white attic, near the old nurseries. It will be much the best place for her, so near Miss Lee, and not far from the girls, and close by the housemaids' (8). However it is the East room, the proverbial room of one's own, that empowers Fanny by arming her with reading and writing. Ironically it is this empowerment, together with the quelling of slave rebellions in Antigua that crystallises Fanny's gradual induction into the dominant order. Sir Thomas's absence lays the groundwork for moral decay by introducing the Crawfords and Rushworth and paving way for Maria's elopement. This subversion is articulated spatially: Sir Thomas's bedroom is transformed and a stage replaces the table in his billiard room as the residents of the house prepare to perform Lover's Vow's. Both rooms, representative of masculinity, are transformed from within, successfully undermining patriarchal order. While Maria and Julia feel a sense a freedom in their father's absence, Fanny, who articulates her acute discomfit with the private theatrical, refuses to be an actress: 'I could not act anything if you were to give me the world' (106). Fanny's vicious counter-attack anticipates Sir Thomas's Burkean drive to cleanse the house of theatricality by destroying all copies of the play. The violent suppression of female lawlessnessj and reinstatement of propriety offers a stark parallel to Sir Thomas's role in the colonies — the domestic and colonial are inextricably linked, for the harmony of the former mirrors the regulated order of the latter. The cumulative effect of these actions is the restoration of a space that has been profaned. The space of the parlour, the sanctum-sanctorum of the bourgeoisie, is thus naturalised in Mansfield Park. This reaffirmation is intrinsically ideological for 'geographies of domestic disorder were also maps of moral disorder' (Armstrong 654). A disorderly house becomes symptomatic of a disorderly society. Thus the insistence on sexual repression, central to the bourgeois novel, only becomes more pertinent with Britain's colonial project. The possession of colonial plantations is directly linked to social and moral order within the geographical confines of England. The spatial dynamic of the parlour at Mansfield Park, thus, becomes an ideological lynchpin for buttressing Orientalist values revolving around the subordination of slaves in Antigua. The narrative sanctions a spatial and moral order which flourishes because of the economically supportive estate on the periphery. This moral commensuration in the interplay between narrative and domestic space is central to the text. In this way, the novel form becomes central to circulating and consolidating British rule because depictions such as these provide a spring board for formal imperial investiture. Strong authorial mediation controls the meaning generated by the text, thereby allowing the reader to gain access to a single, coherent meaning. The gradually diminishing power of the plantation owners can be gauged from the mention of disturbances in Antigua. However, moral and colonial order is reinstated within the final schema and the cycle represented in the novel is eternalised with Susan, taking Fanny's place, by Lady Bertram's side at Mansfield Park. The interaction of geographical and domestic spaces thus provides a focal point by which to unravel the fabric of as thick a discourse as Orientalism. The final insistence on 'the elegance, propriety, regularity and harmony — and perhaps above all the peace and tranquillity of Mansfield' (280) shows how the practice of the empire was consolidated by fixing and naturalizing space and social relations that empower the imperial center and subordinate the Orient. Colonial expansion is critically implicated within, and structured by, the plot of domestic retrenchment and consolidation in Mansfield Park, the site and the novel. The definition of the nation is inextricably intertwined with sites abroad: nations, colonies and protectorates. Racial and cultural difference provides what Bourdieu terms a nomos for novelists like Jane Austen to represent a 'knowable community' (Williams 163) and in the process, justify the existing social order .The domestic space systems exemplifies the capillary action of Foucault's 'micro-technologies of power,' by showing the ways in which power unravels at the domestic level Imagined Geographies: Representations of the Orient in Three Nineteenth-Century Novels - 'She bit me . . . like a tigress': Charlotte Brontë's construction of the 'Other' in Jane Eyre - Collins's representation of the 'cursed Indian jewel': Orientalism in the sensation novel - Bibliography of Works Consulted - The Anti-Slavery Campaign in Britain - The British Empire: An Introduction - The British Empire: An Overview Austen, Jane. Emma. Ed. James Kinsley. New York: Oxford UP, 1998. — - Mansfield Park. Ed. Dr. Jan Littlewood. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics, 2002. — - Sense and Sensibility. Ed. Margaret Anne Doody. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.k Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Trans. Richard Nice Cambrige: Harvard University Press, 1984. Foucault, Michel. 'The Eye of Power'. Power/ Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77. Ed. Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon, 1980: 146-165. — -. 'Of Other Spaces'. Diacritics. Spring 1986: 22-7. — -. Power/ Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77. Ed. Colin Gordon. Sussex: The Harvester Press, 1986. Last modified 19 July 2007	<urn:uuid:881bceeb-b406-48d3-9894-657547059dfa>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/austen/munjal2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.908492	1,576	3.25	3
James W. Harrington Introduces the theories and practice of international trade and foreign direct investment. Topics include: trade theory and policy; economic integration; currency markets and foreign exchange; trade operations and logistics; the international regulatory environment; and marketing, location and entry, and finance, accounting, and taxation. This course develops straightforward frameworks for understanding the theory, practice, and policy of international trade and foreign investment (focusing on direct, rather than portfolio, investment), and their impacts on national and regional economies. The empirical content focuses on Canada, China, and Mexico and their trade relationships with the US. There are no firm prerequisites, though an introduction to economics and economic geography will be useful. Student learning goals Learn the basic outline of world trade patterns, and explain those outlines using international trade theory. Use an understanding of international trade theory and its assumptions to understand and assess the critiques of liberalized trade policy. Gain empirical grounding in the trade relationships of Canada, China, or Mexico, emphasizing the trade patterns and trends with the US. Distinguish the varied forms of international business, and the choice criteria among them. Ask and begin to answer questions about the logistics of international trade. Present a nuanced perspective on the trade-policy recommendations for the US and one other country, to benefit each side. General method of instruction Lectures, discussion, exercises, short papers, longer research papers. Class assignments and grading 6 brief "response papers" 2 in-class tests (essay and short answers) 2 research papers	<urn:uuid:246bc2b0-0cd0-4548-a74e-d779994c826b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.washington.edu/students/icd/S/geog/349jwh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.889485	318	2.59375	3
Many remember the story of Isaac’s twin boys. They struggled in their mother’s womb, and Jacob came out holding the heel of his brother. I had heard many years ago in sermons how this was how Jacob got his name, which means ‘supplanter’. This term (supplanter) is not used so much anymore. Strong’s and other lexicons list it as ‘heel catcher’ or ‘one who catches the heel’. Unable to find more in the Ancient Hebrew lexicon than that, I went to an older version of Webster’s dictionary to see how to word this. Back when I was a kid, the preachers (many now probably have learned this, but still the term isn’t used that much) knew that someone who supplants another is one takes another’s place, usually by deceitful or nefarious practices. I’m no expert on Hebraic custom, but from what I remember, a ‘catching of the heel’ (which is what Jacob did to Esau at birth) was an expression for one who sought to overcome another as a supplanter. Later on, Jacob (the supplanter) was making a soup, and Esau came in hungry. Yahweh’s law of love says to feed the hungry. Jacob (the ‘heel-catcher’) used this opportunity to vex Esau into releasing his birthright. Then when Isaac was to pass on the family blessing to Esau (being firstborn of the twins), Jacob (at his mother’s prompting) deceived his father into passing it on to Jacob himself. Esau issued an angry threat towards Jacob, and Jacob fled to his uncle. On the way to his uncle’s, God promised Jacob the blessing to be handed down from his grandfather Abraham. Jacob was cheated repeatedly by his uncle. There is an important lesson in this. Though God knows the end from the beginning, and knew when Jacob was still in the womb that Jacob was to be His servant, Jacob began his life being a deceiver. While with his uncle, Jacob learned the vexation of spirit one causes on another when one deceives another. God chastens and scourges His children. Reminds me of the popular expression, “What goes around, comes around.” Better that it comes around in this life than the next, because the next life is forever. Next God tells Jacob to return to the land that was promised him. I pick up the story in the Scriptures, and include both the Revised Standard Version and the Awful Scroll for comparison. Genesis 32:6 And the messengers returned to Jacob, saying, "We came to your brother Esau, and he is coming to meet you, and four hundred men with him." 7 Then Jacob was greatly afraid and distressed; and he divided the people that were with him, and the flocks and herds and camels, into two companies, 8 thinking, "If Esau comes to the one company and destroys it, then the company which is left will escape." 9 And Jacob said, "O God of my father Abraham and God of my father Isaac, O LORD who didst say to me, 'Return to your country and to your kindred, and I will do you good,' 10 I am not worthy of the least of all the steadfast love and all the faithfulness which thou hast shown to thy servant, for with only my staff I crossed this Jordan; and now I have become two companies. 11 Deliver me, I pray thee, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau, for I fear him, lest he come and slay us all, the mothers with the children. 12 But thou didst say, 'I will do you good, and make your descendants as the sand of the sea, which cannot be numbered for multitude.'" (RSV) (AS) Gen 32:6 The messengers were to turn back to Jacob, to the intent: We are to have come to your brother Esau, and he is to be coming to encounter you with hundreds of men. 7 Jacob was to greatly fear, and he was to be inhibitive. He was to divide his people, the small cattle, the large cattle, and the camels, into two camps. 8 He was to say: Was Esau to come into one company, and is to have struck it, the company remaining is to escape. 9 Jacob was to say: He of mighty ones of my father Abraham, and he of mighty ones of my father Isaac, Jehovah, he saying: Be turning back to your solid grounds, and to your kindred, and it was to be well with you! 10 I have been insignificant, for the honor and credit, that you is to have prepared for your servant, even with my staff, I have crossed over the Jordan with two camps. 11 Be rescuing me, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau; I fearing that he was to come, and is to have struck, the mothers even over to the sons. 12 You is to have said: I was to make you gladdened a gladdening, and am to have set your seed as the sands of the sea - were they to be counted in their many? (AS) Jacob knew that when he had fled from his brother it was in fear of his life. Now, as he follows Yahweh’s instruction to return, his brother is on his way to meet him with an apparent army. Jacob becomes terrified. Why should Jacob be afraid, as he had the promises of His Creator? Doesn’t this show a serious weakness in the faith of one who was to be the ancestor of God’s chosen people? Give this some serious meditation- Was our Creator not aware from the beginning of the frailties of human nature? So when we recognize any weakness in our faith, do we not recognize the weakness in our character. In a way this can work for good if it reminds us to be humble. God loves us, in spite of our imperfections, but one thing He expects is for us to live lives in humility, recognizing our own unworthiness. He didn’t save us because we deserved to be saved. Even after being saved, we are still so far from being perfect as He. But He saved us because He loves us, and we came to Him for cleansing. Sometimes cleansing involves that chastening and scourging. As we consider His love for us, and our unworthiness of that love, if He could be so gracious to us, shouldn’t we learn to be gracious to others? But don’t take my word for anything. Each must search and find his/her belief and faith within his/her own self. Me- sometimes I become angry and sometimes fearful over things that are inconsequential. So don’t hold me up as anyone’s example.	<urn:uuid:6730e41c-47ba-4abd-a44c-fee567a0dda1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://community.beliefnet.com/stephenway/blog/2012/04/20/jacob-_the_heel-catcher	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.983593	1,457	2.59375	3
Photo: Pepijn Schmitz (Flickr) Your body uses three senses to keep you balanced–to tell you what’s up and down. One of the senses is your eyes. They tell you how you’re oriented with the world around you. Then there’s your body sense. It’s the seat-of-the-pants pressure you feel in your muscles and joints from gravity and movement. Finally, there are the semi-circular canals of your inner ears. These canals are lined with tiny hairs and filled with liquid. When you move, the fluid bends the hairs, and they tell your brain what’s happening. But if you lose your visual clues, the other senses can trick you. It’s called spatial disorientation, or vertigo. Consider a pilot who’s flying in clouds, so she has no visual clues. She enters a left turn, and her inner ears say “you’re turning.” But soon the fluid settles down, and the hairs stop moving. The pilot is still in the turn, but her ears say she’s flying straight. And her body sense won’t help. Without visual clues, it might think the g-forces of the turn are caused by a climb. So now the pilot’s ears and body sense are telling her different things, and both are probably wrong. Scuba divers can have this same dangerous confusion in murky water, and avalanche victims–buried in snow–may not know which way to start digging. So when the body lies, other signals must be used. Pilots rely on instruments, divers follow their air bubbles to the surface, and a little spit will tell the avalanche victims which way is up.	<urn:uuid:26a2ac22-1cca-489e-92a0-02de5286d755>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/body-up/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.919034	371	3.46875	3
From Patrick Lynch, NASA's Earth Science News Team How does a group of NASA scientists end up on a barren mountaintop, a hemisphere away from home, 17,500 feet above sea level, and in need of supplemental oxygen to stay focused in the thin air? Like most things in science, this trek began with a question or two. “The first question is: what is the science that’s important to do? The second is: how do you do it?” Rich Cageao said it was these questions that led a group of scientists and engineers from NASA’s Langley Research Center to embark on a four-month field campaign to the Atacama Desert of Chile in 2009, from late July to early November. To study how water vapor absorbs infrared radiation in the high atmosphere and influences the climate, the group needed a site well above sea level. Otherwise, the higher levels of water vapor near the surface would block any attempt at detailed infrared measurements, like putting a thick layer of gauze in front of a camera lens. A modified shipping container — like the ones shipped on rail cars and tractor trailers — became a remote office for the scientists and home for their instrument called FIRST — Far Infrared Spectroscopy of the Troposphere). Trucks took it from Virginia to California; a ship took it from California to Chile; a truck again took it from sea level to an elevation equal to the base camp on Mt. Everest. And the container – outfitted with windows, a door, an opening for measurements, and oxygen — made it to and from the site in pretty good shape, despite a few snowstorms and gale-force winds. Once the container was in place at a graded site on a Chilean mountain called Cerro Toco, the team set to working out the kinks with the instrument and power supply. They also worked on adapting to the daily climb from base camp at 8,000 feet to the work site at 17,500 feet. The conditions kept everyone on their toes, and nothing ever seemed routine, Cageao said. “Warm days, out of the wind, were zero degrees Centigrade. Winds were typically 25 mph, and up to 60 mph," Cageao described the days as extremely taxing. Nothing could be called drudgery. The possibility that something could go wrong required a state of hyper-awareness. “You’re not waiting for something to happen. You never sit around.” But even with the cold, the wind, and the barren, almost lifeless site, Cageao couldn’t pass on the opportunity. “We have, by nature, that feeling of, ‘we’ve got to get out there,’” he said of many scientists in the office. “We’re much happier in the field. It’s an adventure. It’s good science and it’s challenging.” So why go to all this effort? The Earth’s surface emits infrared radiation it has absorbed from the sun. Greenhouse gases partly trap that energy as heat, keeping the planet habitable. But with humans burning fossil fuels and altering the balance of greenhouse gases — and therefore the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere — scientists need to understand exactly how this process works in order to improve predictions of climate change. “The primary greenhouse gas on Earth is not CO2. It’s not methane. It’s water vapor,” Cageao said. “And when you drive up the temperature of the atmosphere, you drive up the water vapor, so you better have this right. Having it pretty close isn’t enough.” Cross posted from NASA’s What on Earth blog. Patrick is based at NASA’s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. Please keep your comments civil, in proper English, and up to around 70 words. Thank you.	<urn:uuid:13c00d14-6d09-4335-bc1a-3e152e12b84d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://climate.nasa.gov/blog/300	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950303	818	3.515625	4
Viewpoint: River affected by streams that feed Three of my friends and I couldn't turn down the opportunity to eat cheese and enjoy the gorgeous winter weather on a recent weekend. We four girls began our Tour d' Western Wisconsin with a hearty bowl of chili in River Falls, before continuing onward to the Cady Cheese Factory for cheese curds, maple fudge and Diet Cherry Cokes. Next, we headed north to Willow River State Park, located five miles northeast of Hudson on County Road A. The Willow River is one of several major tributaries to the St. Croix River. Studies have shown that the Willow River is a major contributor of sediments and nutrients to the St. Croix River. That detracts little from its natural beauty, however, especially as it cascades in a dramatic waterfall within the park's boundaries. A small wooden bridge carried us safely to the other bank, where we took a long, steep staircase upwards to an observation platform. From above, we could see hundreds of the nearly 3,000 acres of tree- and snow-covered hills that comprise the park, along with a dramatic view of the river gorge. Laughing, we climbed up treacherous, ice-covered stairs to a trail above. Going down was a different story, though, as slipping, sliding and falling we threatened to create four large, new sources of water pollution for the poor Willow River. On the Minnesota side of the river, there are several smaller tributaries to the St. Croix. Valley Creek in Afton, Brown's Creek in Stillwater, Mill Stream in Marine on St. Croix and Falls Creek, along the edge of Chisago County, are all designated trout streams. Valley Creek, with its cool, clean, spring-fed waters, is the only place in the Twin Cities metro area where native brook trout naturally reproduce. The Department of Natural Resources stocks brown trout and rainbow trout in the other creeks, but you would have to go all the way to the North Shore to find another stream with brook trout. Valley Creek and Brown's Creek cross mostly through privately owned land, making them harder to visit than their Wisconsin counterparts, although no less important in shaping the character of the lower St. Croix watershed. Unlike the Willow River, which has been heavily impacted by agriculture, Valley Creek runs mostly through wooded glens that offer protection from runoff and other sources of pollution. Streambank erosion, though, is a problem along Valley Creek where landowners have cleared vegetation along the water's edge. Brown's Creek is also showing signs of stress due to development and was listed as biologically impaired by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency in 2002. Sensitive species like brown trout are no longer surviving in the creek, even when stocked regularly, and many of the aquatic insects and invertebrates normally found in a healthy trout stream are missing. When we think of the St. Croix River, we often think only of the river itself, the bottomlands and the bluffs. With 11 major tributaries flowing into the river, however, and countless smaller streams, the health of the St. Croix depends not just on protection of the river corridor, but also on the protection and restoration of Valley Creek, Brown's Creek, the Sunrise River, Kinnickinnic River, Willow River and more. If you have a chance to explore one of these tributaries this spring, you're sure to find amazing natural beauty, just be sure to take your ice cleats. Angie Hong is an educator with the East Metro Water Resource Education Program.	<urn:uuid:651ecb9a-d4b0-4ea1-aedb-9344e3d6ec54>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.swcbulletin.com/content/viewpoint-river-affected-streams-feed	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955251	734	2.578125	3
Exercise and Activity (cont.) In this Article - The importance of physical activity and fitness - Why should I be active? - Can everyone benefit from physical activity? - What are the recommendations for increasing fitness for youth, adults, and seniors? - How do I get started with a fitness plan? - When is a medical evaluation necessary? - How can I make physical activity a part of my life? - What are the components of physical fitness? - Fitness terms - Exercise and Fitness FAQs When is a medical evaluation necessary? Experts advise that people with chronic diseases, such as a heart condition, arthritis, diabetes, or high blood pressure, should talk to their doctor about what types and amounts of physical activity are appropriate. If you have a chronic disease and have not already done so, talk to your doctor before beginning a new physical activity program. If you have symptoms that could be due to a chronic disease, you should have these symptoms evaluated, whether you are active or inactive. If you plan to start a new activity program, take the opportunity to get these symptoms evaluated. Symptoms of particular importance to evaluate include chest pain (especially chest pain that is brought on by exertion), loss of balance (especially loss of balance leading to a fall), dizziness, and passing out (loss of consciousness). Making physical activity a part of your life "You can't change where you came from. You can change where you are going." Just knowing that physical activity is good for us doesn't mean that we'll easily be able to make it part of our daily routines-it's sometimes difficult to adopt new habits. But it's important to remember that you can start out slowly and work your way up to a higher level of activity. This section provides ideas for how to make physical activity part of your life and how to do it safely. Components of physical activity What does it mean to be physically "fit?" Physical fitness is defined as "a set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity" (USDHHS, 1996). In other words, it is more than being able to run a long distance or lift a lot of weight at the gym. Being fit is not defined only by what kind of activity you do, how long you do it, or at what level of intensity. While these are important measures of fitness, they only address single areas. Overall fitness is made up of five main components: - Cardiorespiratory endurance - Muscular strength - Muscular endurance - Body composition In order to assess your level of fitness, look at all five components together. What is "cardiorespiratory endurance (cardiorespiratory fitness)?" Cardiorespiratory endurance is the ability of the body's circulatory and respiratory systems to supply fuel during sustained physical activity (USDHHS, 1996 as adapted from Corbin & Lindsey, 1994). To improve your cardiorespiratory endurance, try activities that keep your heart rate elevated at a safe level for a sustained length of time such as walking, swimming, or bicycling. The activity you choose does not have to be strenuous to improve your cardiorespiratory endurance. Start slowly with an activity you enjoy, and gradually work up to a more intense pace. What is "muscular strength?" Muscular strength is the ability of the muscle to exert force during an activity (USDHHS, 1996 as adapted from Wilmore & Costill, 1994). The key to making your muscles stronger is working them against resistance, whether that be from weights or gravity. If you want to gain muscle strength, try exercises such as lifting weights or rapidly taking the stairs. What is "muscular endurance?" Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscle to continue to perform without fatigue (USDHHS, 1996 as adapted from Wilmore & Costill, 1994). To improve your muscle endurance, try cardiorespiratory activities such as walking, jogging, bicycling, or dancing. What is "body composition?" Body composition refers to the relative amount of muscle, fat, bone, and other vital parts of the body (USDHHS, 1996 as adapted from Corbin and Lindsey, 1994). A person's total body weight (what you see on the bathroom scale) may not change over time. But the bathroom scale does not assess how much of that body weight is fat and how much is lean mass (muscle, bone, tendons, and ligaments). Body composition is important to consider for health and managing your weight! What is "flexibility?" Flexibility is the range of motion around a joint (USDHHS, 1996 as adapted from Wilmore & Costill, 1994). Good flexibility in the joints can help prevent injuries through all stages of life. If you want to improve your flexibility, try activities that lengthen the muscles such as swimming or a basic stretching program. Next: Fitness terms Find the secrets to longer life.	<urn:uuid:49840ce8-cfe3-4beb-9d1b-5f656e733e0a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.rxlist.com/exercise_and_activity/page5.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941927	1,038	3.109375	3
37 Weeks Pregnant Pregnancy Body Changes By 37 weeks of pregnancy, most pregnancies are considered "full term." In most cases, nothing will be done to stop your labor once it starts. If you are having your first baby your baby may have "dropped" lower into your pelvis. Usually, in a woman who has already given birth, this happens at the start of labor. True engagement is the fixing of the fetal presenting part -- usually the head -- at the level of the mid pelvis, or at the level of the ischial spines. Your cervix may start to dilate in preparation for labor. This means that the mucus plug that seals off your uterus from infection and bacteria will discharge from your body. The plug can discharge from your body weeks, days, or hours before you go into labor. The mucus plug is thick, yellowish, and may be tinged with blood. Always alert your care provider about any discharge. Make sure you are wearing supportive bras, as your breasts are preparing for breastfeeding by growing larger and fuller. You may want to start using breast cream to prepare your nipples and avoid cracking or dryness. If you are going to breastfeed, get the supplies you need ready now. The breastfeeding checklist is invaluable for preparation. It's a good idea to start preparing for delivery and the birth of your new baby. If you haven't already done so, pack your hospital bag. Use the what to take to the hospital checklist to make sure you have everything you and your baby will need. More Information About: Your Baby's Growth Your baby weighs close to 6.5 pounds and may be about 20 inches long from head to toe. Your baby's head is now cradled in your pelvic cavity -- surrounded and protected by your pelvic bones. This position clears some much-needed space for her growing legs and buttocks. Many babies now have a full head of hair, with locks maybe around one inch / 2.5 centimeters long. But don't be surprised if her hair isn't the same color as yours. Dark-haired couples are sometimes taken aback when their children are born with bright red or blond hair, and fair-haired couples likewise can produce babies with dark hair. And then, of course, some babies don't have any hair at all. Your baby will continue to develop about a half an ounce of fat a day, and is getting rounder and pinker. She is still practicing breathing, in preparation for life outside the womb.	<urn:uuid:1e0d5631-3d08-46e5-8806-65088bb8cf63>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.momswhothink.com/pregnancy-weeks/37-weeks-pregnant.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943343	519	2.828125	3
The atmosphere inside the laboratory on the outskirts of Vienna is literally buzzing with armies of male mosquitoes locked up inside net-covered boxes. Their sole mission in life: stop females from breeding. Better known for keeping a close watch on countries' nuclear activities, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has joined the fight against Aedes aegypti—the notorious mosquito responsible for spreading dengue, chikungunya and now the Zika virus. Experts from around the globe have been working strenuously in the IAEA's tightly-secured research facility in Seibersdorf, 30 kilometres (18 miles) south of the Austrian capital, to perfect something called the sterile insect technique, or SIT. The clue's in the name: male mosquitoes have their private parts zapped with a radioactive source before being released into nature to mate with wild females, which, as a result, will lay infertile eggs. The aim is to gradually reduce, if not suppress, their population. "Basically it's family planning for insects," said Jorge Hendrichs, director of the IAEA's insect pest control unit. The method has already proven successful in eradicating several pests, including the tsetse fly in Zanzibar and the fruit fly in most of northern Mexico. The recent Zika outbreak in Latin America and the Caribbean is now spurring governments to find ways of containing the epidemic. Several, such as worst-hit Brazil, are considering using SIT, which is most effective coupled with other methods including insecticide spraying and removing breeding sites. Moment of panic The stench in the hot lab is overpowering, prompting several of the visiting journalists to cover their noses. "That's the smell of insects," grins Marc Vreysen who leads the Seibersdorf research team. In a large foyer, several trays on a table contain either wriggling larvae or hard-shelled pupae—"the stage when the mosquitoes get irradiated," Vreysen explains. Another room has a row of shelves stacked with whirring cages. Small signs reveal their occupants' country of origin: Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand. There is a brief moment of panic when one manages to break free and circles wildly around the narrow space. The escape is short-lived, however, as the lone daredevil meets a scientist's expertly-swung electric fly swatter. "Sometimes this happens. There are so many of them here," shrugs entomologist Rosemary Lees who works on the SIT team. In any case, a bite from a Zika-carrying mosquito would be primarily dangerous for pregnant women. While it causes only mild flu-like symptoms in most people, the virus is strongly suspected of sparking a recent surge in the number of children born with microcephaly—abnormally small heads and brains—to infected mothers. Importantly, only female mosquitoes bite and transmit diseases. "The male feeds on flowers and nectar," says Lees. Right on cue, a lab assistant behind her starts to fill a sausage-shaped membrane with a thick, dark red liquid. "We use blood from pigs or cows," he is quick to point out, before gingerly placing the bag on top of a cage. Almost instantly, swarms of the parasitical insects shoot up and, piercing the membrane with their tube-shaped mouths, start to frantically suckle away. Costly birth control Countries may be itching to wipe out the bloodthirsty creatures, but several obstacles remain. One key challenge is how to separate the sexes before irradiation. There's also the size issue: the ratio of lab-reared to wild mosquitoes needs to be at least 20 or even 10 to 1 for SIT make inroads into the host population. Plus a sterilised male's mating strength can quickly wane, says Vreysen: "Because we are rearing these insects at high density... this has in many cases a quality-reducing impact." Last but not least, SIT entails building industrial-scale rearing facilities—an expensive undertaking. Pilot studies in Mauritius and Sudan have proven SIT's effectiveness in small villages. "By upscaling (the programme), you could maybe do trials in big cities in a couple of years from now," says Vreysen. IAEA member states affected by Zika will discuss using SIT at a meeting in Brazil next week. But Vreysen warns there is no quick fix: "This is not like the World Food Programme: there is an outbreak of hunger in a country, they come in and dump food. We develop long-term, sustainable technologies." Explore further: Brazil army will go door-to-door in fight against Zika	<urn:uuid:60828b01-46c7-4602-9f57-3c8a6c0ba0a0>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://medicalxpress.com/news/2016-02-irradiated-mosquitoes-zap-zika-power.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.946669	998	2.71875	3
School: FREEDOM HIGH Area of Science: hydro pollution Abstract: In our project we will be testing the Rio Grande water for pollutants. We will be using scientific methods to do this and make it as accurate as possible. We will be sampling the water, taking simple steps to the end of our project, at which time we will present it. Our two main questions are; What's in the river? And, how much of those things are in there. We will take an analysis two times each week, labeling down the date, time, water flow, depth and the things in or out of the water. We will also analyze how much water the city uses a day. How much does the city use of wastewater? How will hydrology help us come up with our conclusion? We will also try and use other people's data in our project, giving them For graphing it we will first use Star Logo, then we may move on to other programming languages as it gets more complex. Sponsoring Teacher: Joseph Vertrees	<urn:uuid:fffc8628-98c7-44d5-84d1-bb35900228e8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.challenge.nm.org/abstracts/038.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935534	225	3.640625	4
The Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI) warns consumers to be aware of electrical dangers associated with severe storms and the resulting floods and power outages. Deaths and injuries during the summer months are frequently caused by post-storm electrical hazards. The high winds, extreme rains and flooding caused by hurricanes and tornadoes present many unique dangers. ESFI offers consumers important advice about how help prevent electrically-related deaths, injuries and property loss by taking a few precautions during and after severe storms and other natural disasters. There were 366 weather-related deaths and 1,828 injuries/illnesses report in the U.S. in 2009. Floods are the #1 most common natural disaster in the United States. Floods resulted in 53 fatalities and 26 injuries in the U.S. in 2009. According to the National Weather Service, more than 40 people are killed in the U.S. each year by lightning. Another approximately 200 people are injured. The majority of people killed by lightning (87%) were outside, with 44% of these lightning fatalities occurring in an outside open area. In the U.S., 9-10% of people struck by lightning die. Up to 80% of lightning strike survivors sustain long-term injuries. During 2002-2005, U.S. fire departments responded to an estimated annual average of 31,400 fires started by lightning. These fires resulted in an annual average of 12 deaths, 57 injuries and $213 million in direct property damage. An analysis of homeowner’s insurance data by the Insurance Information Institute (I.I.I.) found there were 185,789 lightning claims in 2009 costing $798 million, with the average claim totaling $4,296. These losses ranged from damage to expensive electronic equipment to structural fires that destroyed entire homes. Stay Safe When Severe Weather Strikes There are up to 20 million lightning strikes each year in the United States Hurricane Sandy and its resulting post-tropical cyclones killed at least 117 people in the U.S. and 69 more in Canada and the Caribbean Unplug appliances and electronics in advance of stores to protect them from power surges Use battery-powered lanterns and flashlights instead of candles, which can start a fire DO NOT OPERATE GENERATORS INSIDE OR NEAR YOUR HOME Alert utility companies about downed power lines Use caution around flooded areas. Submerged outlets or electrical cords can pose a lethal trap Have an electrician inspect your home and appliances before using electricity after any flooding or water damage Never go close to downed power lines or any standing water near them Do not try to outrun a storm. Instead, seek shelter in a house or other permanent enclosed space	<urn:uuid:31c24f13-e34d-4d74-85f5-14b988cdab92>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.esfi.org/disaster-safety	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939855	560	2.859375	3
The overall number of cancer cases has risen by almost 20 per cent, figures from the Office for National Statistics show. In 2011, 274,382 people were told that they had cancer, up from 232,999 in 2002. Cancers driven by bad habits have risen particularly sharply over the past decade. Foreign holidays, sunbeds and revealing clothing were blamed for a rise in skin cancer, while drinking, smoking and overeating have also taken their toll. Rates of mouth cancer have risen by more than a third, reaching 13.7 cases per 100,000 men and 6.2 per 100,000 women. Cancers of the uterus are	<urn:uuid:83e12abe-39e4-4186-b2f2-2d0c4e67c070>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/health/news/article3801364.ece	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981743	133	2.71875	3
Details about The New Testament and Psalms: An Inclusive Version: The New Testament and Psalms is a new version of the Bible that speaks more directly than ever before to today's social concerns, especially the move towards universal inclusivity. This revolutionary new version pushes the English language to new levels of inclusive expression. The noted scholars who produced this work address issues of gender, race and ethnicity more directly than ever before. The resulting version is one that can truly be said to speak to all people. The language of everyday life is already changing to reflect a more inclusive, less pejorative view: "spokespersons" and "the disabled" have replaced "spokesmen" and "the handicapped." Even Star Trek now "boldly goes where no one has gone before." In recent years Bible translators have recognized the limits of the language used in many older versions and have produced new versions that begin to use language that emphasizes a universal community rather than a particular gender or other favored group. But none have gone as far as The New Testament and Psalms to make this vision a reality. In this version biblical language concerning people with physical afflictions has been revised to avoid personifying individuals by their disabilities; language referring to men and women has been corrected to reflect this inclusiveness precisely; dark and light imagery has been revised to avoid equating "dark" as a term for persons of color with "dark" as a metaphor for evil; references to Judaism have been corrected to avoid imprecise allusions in relation to Christ's crucifixion; God language has been improved to reflect more precisely a universal concept of God and Jesus Christ. The New Testament and Psalms reflects the newest scholarly work on the most reliable biblical manuscripts available. The principles applied by the editors are consistent with the accepted requirements applied to all respected English language versions of the Bible: close reference to the original language texts and current scholarly material, and a consistent scholarly orientation throughout the work. The editors involved with this project have applied these principles to produce a new rendering of the New Testament and Psalms that brings out the underlying meaning of the text more explicitly than ever before: its truths do not exclude anyone, the comfort and strength gained from it should be accessible to everyone--a truly universal world view. * A revolutionary new version of the Bible to serve today's world. * "A project of...utmost significance"--Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza * "This Bible breaks new ground...Inclusive...finally means everyone."--James H. Cone * "Should be read as an important step in the search for a new inclusive idiom."--Bishop Krister Stendahl * Prepared by a group of noted biblical scholars and theologians. * Reflects current social trends and their effect on one of the most important documents of Western culture. Back to top Rent The New Testament and Psalms: An Inclusive Version 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Victor Gold. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Oxford University Press. Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.	<urn:uuid:c572010e-6a0b-4a0b-a78b-250ea8087357>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/the-new-testament-and-psalms-an-inclusive-version-1st-edition-9780195284188-0195284186?ii=12&trackid=c3e4cb3d&omre_ir=1&omre_sp=	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934862	659	3.015625	3
Definitions of suggestion n. - The control of the mind of an hypnotic subject by ideas in the mind of the hypnotizer. 2 n. - The act of suggesting; presentation of an idea. 2 n. - That which is suggested; an intimation; an insinuation; a hint; a different proposal or mention; also, formerly, a secret incitement; temptation. 2 n. - Charge; complaint; accusation. 2 n. - Information without oath; an entry of a material fact or circumstance on the record for the information of the court, at the death or insolvency of a party. 2 n. - The act or power of originating or recalling ideas or relations, distinguished as original and relative; -- a term much used by Scottish metaphysicians from Hutcherson to Thomas Brown. 2 The word "suggestion" uses 10 letters: E G G I N O S S T U. No direct anagrams for suggestion found in this word list. All words formed from suggestion by changing one letter Browse words starting with suggestion by next letter	<urn:uuid:866a0543-8077-4357-b1e4-1d5092457212>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.morewords.com/word/suggestion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.891526	228	2.65625	3
2012 Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project One hundred more homes were built in the community of Santo. In January 2010, a 7.0-magnitude earthquake forever changed the landscape of Haiti. Though recovery has been slow and arduous, progress is visible in the new community of Santo. In February 2012, 155 families moved from tents and makeshift shelters into concrete-and-wood houses built by Habitat for Humanity Haiti and Haven, an Irish NGO, during the 2011 Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project. Much work remains. About 400,000 Haitians are still living in temporary shelters, and many people are struggling to find ways to make a living in this fractured economy. But Santo stands as a beacon of hope — a sign of what’s possible when people of goodwill keep investing generously and wisely in humankind.	<urn:uuid:65e99638-1b99-45d5-ae7d-fd355200259a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.habitat.org/cwp/2012	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.944757	178	2.921875	3
MARIAN WRIGHT EDELMAN: The Seed Experiment Marian Wright Edelman \| 5/7/2014, 3 p.m. A perennial favorite science project from preschool on up is the “seed experiment.” That’s when a child plants identical seeds in two pots. She places the first pot inside a dark cupboard and leaves it there, and she puts the second one in a sunny spot and waters it every day. She waits to see what will happen. It’s very easy for even the youngest children to figure out that their seedlings need the basics – sunlight and water – if they are going to survive and thrive. The same is true for children, and “the basics” during children’s earliest years can have long lasting effects. Arloc Sherman, senior researcher at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities and one of the contributors to the new Harvard Education Press book Improving the Odds for America’s Children, put it this way: “I think sometimes we forget to say how important for children’s futures the day-to-day basic assistance of food, clothing, shelter is ... We’ve had help from the research community recently, striking studies that help make the case that when you just provide the basics, that’s one key cornerstone for children’s future success. So it’s not just that we’re meeting an important need – which would be enough in itself – but we’re also providing for opening future doors of opportunity.” They tracked their progress from the 1960s and 1970s into adulthood, comparing them to similar children who didn’t have access to food stamps. The results showed the power of nutrition: the children who had access to food stamps were less likely to have stunted growth, be obese, or have heart disease as adults – and the positive effects weren’t just health-related. One of the largest differences was that children in families with food stamps were 18 percent more likely to graduate from high school. This echoes other studies on the positive effects of federal nutrition programs that found needy children who received food assistance before age five were in better health as adults and girls who received food assistance were more likely to complete more schooling, earn more money, and not rely on safety net programs as adults. The case for providing the basics for all children in America is hard to refute. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 2.2 million children were lifted out of poverty by the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as food stamps, in 2012. Yet right now, we are fast approaching a critical time for hungry children: summer vacation. School-based federal nutrition programs have proved to be a lifeline for needy children. In fiscal year 2012, more than 21 million children received free or reduced-price lunch through the National School Lunch Program and nearly 11 million children received free and reduced price breakfast. Hunger doesn’t end on the last day of school – yet only 11 percent of the number of children who relied on those lunches during the school year received meals through the Summer Food Service Program. Even though the program is 100 percent federally-funded and can create desperately needed jobs for cafeteria workers and others during the summer months, many states and communities have created needless bureaucratic hurdles to establishing summer feeding sites resulting in not nearly enough sites to serve all eligible children. But it’s not too late to find out how you can help – or how children you know can participate.	<urn:uuid:be05b7c0-3e6f-4b07-a80d-5cfbd6a2d33c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://washingtoninformer.com/news/2014/may/07/marian-wright-edelman-seed-experiment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.970119	729	3.34375	3
If you visit Cissbury Ring, near Worthing, you are walking on millennia of history. The Ring is the second biggest Iron Age hill fort in England1, one of a line of such forts along the South Downs between Kent and Dorset. But its history goes back much further than that. The Hill Fort The fort was constructed in the third century BC, by Celtic people who came to Britain from the south east. With them they brought the use of iron to make tools, gradually replacing bronze and stone. Instead of being semi-nomadic herdsmen, like earlier people, they were farmers who grew crops. They were warlike and probably had a tribal social structure. The hill forts they built on the downs weren't simply military. The biggest ones, like Cissbury, were tribal centres and might have resembled walled towns. At Cissbury, the hill fort covers 65 acres (26 hectares), and the enclosing wall is over a mile (1.6 kilometres) long. The fort was constructed by digging a ditch, over 3 metres deep, and excavating an estimated 60,000 tons of chalk. This was piled inside the ditch to form a bank, topped by a wooden palisade. The structure is still impressive but when it was new, with walls of shining chalk, it must have looked formidable. The Flint Mines Towards the western end of the ring, there are many humps and hollows, which are the remains of flint mines dating back to about 3000 BC. There are as many as 250 pits, some as deep as 40 feet (12 metres). These were dug by Neolithic people, who used flint to make knives, axes, scrapers and arrowheads. Flint could be split to produce a hard cutting edge, which was then knapped2 into shape. The people obviously knew where the best flints were to be found, because they dug bell-shaped pits, with narrow openings and flat bottoms in the best flint-bearing strata. Horizontal chambers radiated from the shafts, inter-linking some of the pits. Cissbury was one of the main centres for flint mining in Southern England. Visiting Cissbury Ring These days the importance of Cissbury Ring is fully recognised - it lies in the South Downs National Park, is managed by the National Trust and is a scheduled Ancient Monument. The hill rises 650 feet (184 metres) above the village of Findon and, although there is a car park at the base, there is a steep climb to the top. It is worth the effort though, for on a fine day, there are views of Chichester Cathedral, Selsey Bill and even the Isle of Wight. For the more energetic, it is possible to complete a circular walk to Cissbury Ring, starting from Steyning Bowl in the east, and returning via Chanctonbury Ring to the north, via the South Downs Way. The chalk grassland has been continuously cropped by grazing animals, allowing a range of wild flowers to flourish. If you go in the summer, you may see butterflies, such as Marbled White, Common Blue and Chalkhill Blue. Look out for kestrels hovering over the ridge, and buzzards soaring. You may walk your dog, or stop to have a picnic, but remember to treat this ancient site with respect.	<urn:uuid:13878258-464a-4c33-a73c-16c31097aade>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.h2g2.com/approved_entry/A87790161	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974029	699	3.671875	4
The 1972 Mississippi/Minneapolis plan is considered the "cornerstone" plan that inspired riverfront revitalization in Minneapolis in the decades since the plan was produced. The plan summarized the challenges and opportunities that existed along the River within Minneapolis at that time and outlined a vision for a future that was radically different. Subsequent plans (and there are many) have focused on particular portions of the riverfront, have dealt with specific topics such as parks and historical interpretation and/or have responded to new challenges and opportunities. While this plan is no longer informing revitalization activities, it is interesting to review it to see how far the riverfront has come since 1972, how close what has actually happened matches the plan’s vision and which objectives and planning concepts still seem timeless and valid. Plan sections are: - Cover, summary and table of contents - Survey – Past - Survey – Present - Plan – Objectives, design areas and illustrated objectives - Plan – Central Area, East Bank and West Bank* - Plan – Upper River, University Area and Lower River - Land-Use Map - Action and Appendix * Note that a few paragraphs of this section flow onto the first page of the next section) Thanks to RSP Architects for graciously taking on the challenge of scanning Mississippi/Minneapolis to make it available in digital form for the first time! Updated March 27, 2009 Last updated Oct 27, 2011	<urn:uuid:55ff634c-8aa7-4361-944e-eaedd71da738>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.minneapolismn.gov/cped/projects/cped_mississippi_minneapolis_plan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933885	293	2.59375	3
David Bourget (Western Ontario) David Chalmers (ANU, NYU) Rafael De Clercq Ezio Di Nucci Jack Alan Reynolds Learn more about PhilPapers Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 20 (3):251-276 (2010) Most theorists writing about animal ethics acknowledge that many types of animals are conscious and have interests, meaning that these animals have "an experiential welfare" (Regan 2001, p. 202), and that because of this some things have, or might have, an "effect on [their] good, welfare, or well-being" (DeGrazia 1996, p. 39).1,2 Most also acknowledge that, as a result of many animals' possession of interests, they have moral status; that "animals' interests have moral importance independently of human interests" (DeGrazia 1996, p. 37).3 However, there is significant disagreement about how much animals' interests matter morally. Roughly, positions on this issue fall into one of two camps: equal moral .. \|Keywords\|\|No keywords specified (fix it)\| \|Categories\|\|categorize this paper)\| Setup an account with your affiliations in order to access resources via your University's proxy server Configure custom proxy (use this if your affiliation does not provide a proxy) \|Through your library\| References found in this work BETA No references found. Citations of this work BETA No citations found. Similar books and articles David DeGrazia (1996). Taking Animals Seriously: Mental Life and Moral Status. Cambridge University Press. Meredith Williams (1980). Rights, Interests, and Moral Equality. Environmental Ethics 2 (2):149-161. David DeGrazia (2002). Animal Rights: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Peter Atterton (2011). Levinas and Our Moral Responsibility Toward Other Animals. Inquiry 54 (6):633 - 649. David DeGrazia (1993). Equal Consideration and Unequal Moral Status. Southern Journal of Philosophy 31 (1):17-31. Julia Tanner (2007). Can Animals have preference-interests? Ethic@ 6 (1):35-40. Corinne Painter (2006). Aristotle and the Moral Status of Animals. Philosophy in the Contemporary World 13 (2):45-57. David DeGrazia (2008). Moral Status as a Matter of Degree? Southern Journal of Philosophy 46 (2):181-198. Aaron Simmons (2007). A Critique of Mary Anne Warren's Weak Animal Rights View. Environmental Ethics 29 (3):267-278. Thaddeus Metz (2012). An African Theory of Moral Status: A Relational Alternative to Individualism and Holism. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 15 (3):387-402. Paul Shapiro (2006). Moral Agency in Other Animals. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27 (4):357-373. Lisa Bortolotti (2007). Disputes Over Moral Status: Philosophy and Science in the Future of Bioethics. [REVIEW] Health Care Analysis 15 (2):153-8. Peter Miller (1983). Do Animal Have Interests Worthy of Our Moral Interest? Environmental Ethics 5 (4):319-333. Andrew Brennan (1984). The Moral Standing of Natural Objects. Environmental Ethics 6 (1):35-56. Added to index2010-10-28 Total downloads65 ( #65,057 of 1,796,239 ) Recent downloads (6 months)4 ( #208,698 of 1,796,239 ) How can I increase my downloads?	<urn:uuid:acbd247c-e7cb-4b77-a3f7-4f8199d63224>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://philpapers.org/rec/ROSIEM	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.685515	776	2.578125	3
BLACK HISTORY: BIOGRAPHIES Denmark Vesey of Charleston!" was the battle cry of the first black regiment formed to fight in the Civil War. The war achieved what Vesey had so desperately striven for — the abolition of slavery. He had planned his own war of liberation in 1822, but his plans were revealed before the uprising could take place. For a number of reasons, Denmark Vesey has not been one of the well-remembered heroes in the fight to end U.S. slavery, up until recently. In the year 1999, three different books about Vesey were released by major publishers, showing the renewed interest in this nearly Vesey's actions were particularly courageous because by the time he planned his rebellion, he had already gained his freedom and was making a good living. But he had seen too much suffering — he hated slavery and slaveholders — and he was determined to free his people from the terrible oppression and cruelty. Like others who rose against the system, Vesey was condemned to death and hanged. Yet his opponents could not kill his spirit. Vesey became a symbol in the struggle for freedom and an inspiration for later abolitionists, including John Brown. Boyhood in the West Indies The date of Denmark Vesey's birth remains uncertain (it was probably around 1767), as does his past before 1781. He was either born in Africa or as a slave on St. Thomas, an island in the West Indies. The island became a center for the slave trade and for the growing of sugar and cotton. Over 4,000 black people and under 400 whites lived there in the late 1700s. In 1781, when he was about fourteen, Denmark was bought by a slaver called Captain Joseph Vesey, who was struck by his good looks and intelligence. Denmark, as he was called, was one of 390 slaves whom Captain Vesey brought from St. Thomas to Haiti, then a French colony called Saint-Domingue. There the boy was sold and put to work in a sugar plantation. Cutting and pulping sugar cane is hard and exhausting work even for a grown man, but Denmark did not remain at it for long. One day, he surprised his fellow slaves and annoyed his new master by falling to the ground in an epileptic fit. A slave who suffered from epilepsy was of little use on a plantation, so Denmark's master returned him to Captain Vesey when the captain next called at Saint-Domingue. The boy was unsound goods, he said. Since Denmark was not suited to heavy labor, the captain made him his personal servant, and during the next two years Denmark saw many of the horrors of the slave trade as he sailed with the captain on his voyages between Africa and the West Indies. When in 1783 the captain decided to give up his slaving voyages and settle in Charleston, South Carolina, Denmark went with him. He remained the captain's slave for the next seventeen years. As a personal slave, Denmark Vesey lived a comparatively comfortable life — far better than slaves working on plantations — and he had a certain amount of freedom to come and go as he pleased. Nevertheless, he was still a slave, subject to the whims of his master, and his first thought when he won $1,500 in a lottery in 1800 was to buy his freedom. He paid his master $600, and with the rest of his winnings he set up a carpentry Planning the War of Liberation Vesey proved to be a highly skilled carpenter, and his business did so well that he grew quite wealthy. In 1816, he and other free blacks established a separate black Methodist church in Charleston. By 1820, the church had about 3,000 members. Vesey was a minister of the church and, with his growing family of children and his comfortable house on Bull Street, he was viewed as a respectable member of the community. And so he was. But he had other things on his mind, too. Since living in Saint-Domingue in his youth, Vesey had followed the events there with interest, and he was thrilled when he heard about the great uprising of slaves in 1791. He was even more thrilled when the slaveowners fled and the black people of the former colony took control. In 1804, Saint-Domingue became the independent nation of Haiti. Here was a success story to fire the imagination. If the slaves of Saint-Domingue could triumph over their masters, why not the slaves of South Carolina? Why not those throughout the South? Vesey was aware that previous attempts at rebellion had been put down mercilessly, but the events in Haiti gave him new hope. As he thundered from the pulpit each Sunday, he began to sow the seeds of rebellion. He urged his congregation to break free from slavery, and he quoted verses from the Bible to give them encouragement. He spoke to workers in the plantations and on street corners, reading aloud from antislavery pamphlets written by whites. He even argued with whites who supported slavery — an activity that always drew an admiring and awestruck Seen as a Savior Four years after it was opened, the black Methodist Church in Charleston was closed down by the whites. Vesey and many others responded with anger and an intensified desire to fight slavery. As Vesey traveled from place to place spreading his message, the black people of the Charleston area began to look upon him as a savior, and he had no difficulty gathering recruits when he started to organize his war of liberation. By 1822, he had a carefully arranged plan of battle and had chosen four dependable lieutenants: Ned and Rolla Bennett, who were slaves of the governor: Peter Poyas, a ship's carpenter; and Gullah Jack, who was widely believed to be bulletproof. Vesey had also gathered a supply of weapons, which he obtained from supporters Vesey chose Sunday, July 14, as the day of the uprising, because the plantation hands could come to town on a Sunday without arousing suspicion. By the end of May, he and his four lieutenants had recruited a secret army of slaves and free blacks that was said to have numbered about nine thousand. They planned to strike at midnight, when they would seize the guardhouse and other key points, and block all the bridges. Meanwhile, a group of horsemen would gallop through the town killing whites to prevent them giving the alarm. Every detail was carefully worked out, and Vesey felt they stood a good chance of taking over Charleston. The End of a Dream Knowing how loyal household slaves could be to their masters, Vesey had ordered that none should be included in the plot. But the planned attack involved so many people that some house slaves did hear about it. One of them told his master. The authorities immediately were on the alert. Vesey responded by pushing the date of the rising forward to mid-June, but no sooner had he informed his followers than this date was betrayed too. Suddenly, Charleston was bristling with soldiers, with patrols roaming the streets and guards at every bridge. When Vesey realized that nothing could be done, he burned all lists of names and sent his followers home, but too many people knew who the leaders were. During the next few weeks, hundreds were rounded up, including Vesey, who was captured after a two-day search. During lengthy trials after the insurrection had been thwarted, the intricate plans of a massive uprising emerged in the testimony. Vesey and the other leaders, according to the testimony, had instructed their forces to kill all white people instantly, as had been done in Saint-Domingue. One fact stunned the white citizens of South Carolina and did not surprise the blacks at all: every black person, slave or not, who was approached about the uprising gave it their blessing and cooperation, even though it generally meant killing the families they had been working for. The number of people included in the plan was said to number anywhere from 6,000 to 9,000 by witnesses. The court, however, proclaimed that all who had been involved had been brought to trial, limiting the conspiracy to a couple hundred people and significantly changing the nature of what actually happened for public record. When questioned about why he, as a free man, would take such risks for a slave uprising, Vesey answered both that it was because of the general outrage to blacks imposed by slavery, and also that he hoped to free his own children from the bonds of slavery. Denmark Vesey was condemned to death. Although some of his followers were released, forty-three were deported and thirty-five were hanged. Five slaves were hanged along with Vesey in Charleston early in the morning on July 2. Federal troops were called out that day because of a large demonstration by black supporters. Despite beatings and arrests, the black crowds openly mourned for the leaders of the conspiracy. The immediate effect of Vesey's insurrection was that life became far worse for the black population of South Carolina. In a panic, the state assembly passed strict new laws limiting the movements of slaves and preventing free blacks from entering the ports. Remembering Vesey and the Uprisings Vesey was well enough remembered at the time of the Civil War to be invoked in the battle cry, but his story has, for the most part, been weakly told or has gone unspoken. This silence was not accidental. It began with southern slaveowners who argued in public that blacks were very happy to be slaves, living and working under their masters' kindhearted supervision. Slave insurrections simply flew in the face of their argument. Moreover, the information that came out at Vesey's trial threatened the southerners' manner of existence. In the threat of a slave insurrection, they privately lived in terror. They therefore reacted to Vesey's uprising with harsh laws restricting the movement and communications of slaves and free blacks. The story of the planned revolt was there to be told, but there was no one willing or able to tell it. The slave uprisings that occurred in the South before the Civil War were led by a different kind of hero than has been typically honored in U.S. textbooks. Not one of the uprisings was successful — if ending slavery was their goal. Almost all of the heroes of the uprisings were killed. All of them faced such harsh consequences that their acts evidenced extraordinary desperation and defiance. In 1999 three authors came out with full-length books about Denmark Vesey and his planned uprising: He Shall Go Out Free, by Douglas R. Egerton; Designs Against Charleston: The Trial Record of the Denmark Vesey Slave Conspiracy of 1822, edited by Edward A. Pearson, and Denmark Vesey by David Robertson. Africans in America: America's Journey through Slavery, a four-part documentary series that debuted in October 1998 on PBS, also drew attention to the actions of Vesey. More television and film projects are planned on this subject in 2000. Atlantic Monthly magazine recently revived a long article about Denmark Vesey written in 1861 by an abolitionist named Thomas Wentworth Higginson. Higginson notes that in antibellum South Carolina it was nearly impossible to find written record of Denmark Vesey's trial. A friend of his who was visiting South Carolina asked her hostess if she could see the reports of the trials. "She was cautiously told that the only copy in the house, after being carefully kept for years under lock and key, had been burnt at last, lest it should reach the dangerous eyes of the slaves. The same thing had happened, it was added, in many other families." A large part of the history behind the conspiracy will never be known, as the conspirators managed skillfully not to tell, even after the trials were over. But, as Higginson points out, the fact that it happened as it happened tells us a great deal in itself: That a conspiracy on so large a scale should have existed in embryo during four years, and in an active form for several months, and yet have been so well managed, that, after actual betrayal, the authorities were again thrown off their guard and the plot nearly brought to a head again, — this certainly shows extraordinary ability in the leaders, and a talent for concerted action on the part of slaves generally with which they have hardly been credited. - Egerton, Douglas R., He Shall Go Out Free, Madison House, - Lofton, John, Denmark Vesey's Revolt, Kent State University - Pearson, Edward A., editor, Designs Against Charleston: The Trial Record of the Denmark Vesey Slave Conspiracy of 1822, University of North Carolina Press, 1999. - Robertson, David, Denmark Vesey, Knopf, 1999. - Starobin, Robert S., ed., Denmark Vesey: The Slave Conspiracy of 1822, Prentice-Hall, 1970. Source: "Denmark Vesey." U·X·L Biographies, U·X·L, 1999. Reproduced in Junior Reference Collection. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Reprinted by permission of The More from the Black History Section on CBN.com CBN IS HERE FOR YOU! Are you seeking answers in life? Are you hurting? Are you facing a difficult situation? A caring friend will be there to pray with you in your time of need.	<urn:uuid:0ef35cff-58d4-4589-9c1a-16334e3c0c64>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.cbn.com/special/blackhistory/bio_denmark_vesey.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977952	2,989	3.6875	4
Studies in Latin Latin is the most venerable language in the Western world. Many of the most influential works were written in Latin which was still the language of culture less than 200 years ago. Roman thought permeates the conception of life and what it means to be human. Some knowledge of the past is essential to the understanding of the present. A knowledge of Latin is very useful for a more thorough understanding of the English language. Latin is excellent preparation for students in pre-law, pre-dental and pre-medical programs. It is also excellent for students who wish to do graduate work in ancient art, history or philosophy. Completion of a major (or minor) in Latin through the College of Education and Human Development certifies a person to teach the language at the high school level. The Latin major emphasizes the language. A separate major in classical civilization is available for a broader background in these areas. Students begin a major in Latin after completing two elementary and two intermediate Latin courses. These courses represent an equivalent to four years of high school Latin. Students who have completed four years of high school Latin can usually move directly into courses which count toward the major.For those who have not completed four years of high school Latin, the number of electives is reduced but the time necessary for completion of the degree is not increased. Students majoring in Latin select 21 hours of courses in Latin composition,advanced grammar and literary analysis. All programs at the University include a general education component which contains courses in fine arts, natural sciences, social sciences and the humanities. Students who wish to teach Latin follow a program offered by the College of Education and Human Development. This program includes professional education courses. Another component of the program is a Latin teaching apprenticeship to gain experience. http://www.bgsu.edu/catalog/EDHD/EDHD37a.html High School Preparation Students with an interest in Latin should take advantage of the opportunity to study as much Latin as possible in high school. In addition, a solid background in English composition and mathematics is important. Students should follow a college preparatory curriculum that includes four units (credits) of English, three units of college preparatory mathematics, three units of science, three units of social studies, two units of the same foreign language and one unit of the visual or performing arts. Students who have not taken all these recommended courses may be required to take University courses to make up deficiencies. Following is a typical program for a student with two years of high school Latin. An advisor helps students choose additional courses for 15 or 16 hours each semester. Individual course selection will depend on the minor chosen, personal interests, career objectives, elective possibilities and high school preparation.The numbers in parentheses indicate credit hours. Intermediate Latin (6) Elementary Greek (8) Latin Literature (6) Intermediate Greek (6) Latin Composition (6) Readings in Latin Literature (6) Classical Mythology (3) Philip S. Peek, Director Classical Studies Program Department of Romance and Classical Studies College of Arts and Sciences Bowling Green State University	<urn:uuid:a4b57bd4-b41b-4fd4-8fb7-bff5a882c544>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bgsu.edu/arts-and-sciences/romance-and-classical-studies/studies-in-latin.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930422	652	3.046875	3
THERE was a man named Narvi who dwelt at Hrisey. He had as his wife Ulfeida, the daughter of Ingiald, son of Helgi the thin. Their sons were Eyiolf, Klængr, Thorbrand, and Thorvald, all distinguished men and kinsmen of Glums. Two of these, Klæengr and Eyiolf, lived at Hrisey, after their fathers death. A man named Thorvald, who had married Helga, the daughter of Thord, the son of Hraf, of Stöckahlad, and who was nicknamed "Menni," dwelt at Hagi at that time. One spring Thorvald came from Hagi, and lay off Hrisey in his vessel, intending to fish, and when Klængr was aware of this he stared with him. They got out into the firth, and fell in with a whale which was just dead, which they made fast and towed into the firth in the course of the day. Klængr wanted to bring the carcass into Hrisey, because the distance was shorter, but Thorvald desired to tow it to Hagi, and said he had and equal right to do so. Klængr maintained that it was not the law to take it anywhere except to the nearest point where any of the men engaged in the capture owned land. Thorvald asserted his rights, and said that Glums kinsmen had no business to interfere with the fair partition of the fish. Whatever the laws were, the strongest should now have their way. At that moment Thorvald had the largest number of men with him, and so they took the drift fish from Klængr by force, though both of them were land-owners. Klængr went home very much dissatisfied, and Thorvald and his people laughed at him and his party, telling them they did not dare to hold on to their booty. One morning Klængr got up early, and went with three other men in to Hagi, so as to be there in good time whilst people were still asleep. Then Klængr said--"Well try a scheme; here are cattle about in the homestead; we will drive them on to the buildings, under which Thorvald is asleep, and so we shall get him to come out." 1 They did this, and Thorvald woke up and rushed out of doors. Klængr made at him, and gave him a mortal wound; but went away again without daring to declare himself the slayer, because there were so many people about on the spot. So he went out to one of the islands, and there declared that he had killed Thorvald. The right of claiming atonement belonged to Thorarin and Thord, and they treated the case as one of murder. 2 When the suit was being brought before the Thing, Glum was quiet at home, but whilst the Thing was going on he went about in the districts of Fliot and Svarvadardal, begging for help to meet the execution of the anticipated sentence of forfeiture; however, he asked men to say nothing of this intention of his. Klaufi, of Bárd, exclaimed, "To be sure we will help Glum; he married Halldora, the daughter of Arnor Red-cheek;" and many men besides promised to support him. Then Glum returned home, but the suit ran its course at the Thing, and when that was over they got ready to carry out the sentence of forfeiture with four ships, and thirty men in each ship. Einar, Thorarn, and Thord commanded the ships, and when they came in-shore at the island, in the twilight of morning, they saw a smoke rising over the buildings. Einar asked his people whether it appeared to them, as it did to him, that the smoke was not a clear blue. They answered that so it seemed to them. "Then," said Einar, "it appears likely to me from that smoke that there are a good many people in the house, and that steam hanging in the air must be the steam from men. If this be so we shall find out about it by rowing away from the island openly and then we shall be sure if there by any number of men there." They did this, and when the men who were in the island saw them they rushed out to their vessels, and put out after them, for Glum had come thither with two hundred and forty men, and they chased them right up to Oddaeyr, so that the sentence of forfeiture was not carried out, and the men of Eyjafirth got dishonour by the failure. Glum remained in his own dwelling through the summer. He had to open an Autumn court; but the place of holding it is on the east of the firth, not far from Kaupáng, and the men of Eyjafirth got a large force together, whilst Glum had only thirty men. Many people spoke to Glum and told him that he ought not to go with a small number of followers. His answer was, "The finest portion of my life is gone by, and I am pleased that they have not driven me so hard that I cannot ride the straight path." He went up the firth in a ship, and then disembarked and went to he booths. Now between the firth and the booths there are certain steep ascents covered with loose gravel, and when Glum came opposite to the booth which belonged to Einar, men rushed out upon him and his people and dashed their shields against them so as to push them down the slope. Glum fell and rolled shield and all down the bank on to the spit of sand below. He was not wounded, but three spears had stuck in his shield. Thorvald Tafalld had then come to shore and saw that Glum was in a strait: he jumped on land with his oar in his hand and, running up the slope, hurled it at Gudmund the powerful: it came against his shield, which broke, and the handle of the oar struck him on the breast so that he fell down senseless and was carried off by four men to his booth. Then they challenged one another to come on, and cast weapons and stones on both sides, and the contest was a hard one; many were wounded; but all said the same thing--that it was impossible for a small number to fight better than Glum and his men had done. Einar and his men made a vigorous onslaught; but people interfered, and it ended in Glum losing two men, Klængr, the son of Narvi, and Grim Eyrarlegg, the brother of his wife Halldora. Then Brusi, the son of Halli, made these verses: "Thou warrior-goddess of the shield! We held our own in battle fray-- I know tis so--we did not yield The honour of the day. "Those chiefs forsooth, the while we fought, (Bright nymph! it may not be denied) Strode somewhat faster than I though Adown the steep hill side." Then Einar composed a stanza: "he had to run away perforce From out the fight--that swordsman bold-- I trow twas hard to stop his course As down the bank he rolld. "Well usd the pirates spear to wield, In vain that chieftain fought, And the loose shingle faild to yield The foothold which he sought." Then Glum composed some verses in answer to him: "Though standing on the band so high Their helmets made a gallant show, They did not dare their luck to try Upon the beach below. "They did not dare to risk the path, Whilst on the sandy shore we stood, And facd the dread Valkyries wrath With shields that drippd with blood." The matter was settled upon the ground that the death of Klængr and Thorvald of Hagi were set off one against the other, and the slaying of Grim Eyrarlegg was considered equal to the injury caused to Gudmund; but Glum was much dissatisfied with this close of the suit, as he expressed himself in the following stanza, which he made afterwards: "The world is worthless; and my life With all the keen delights of strife Hath well-nigh passed away. "Too weak, when gallant Grim lay low, To strike mid men th avenging blow, And blood with blood repay!" 1 The caves must have been level with the ground and probably covered with turf or sod. 2 Because the slayer had not on the spot avowed the deed.	<urn:uuid:63003fcb-3085-4795-8186-de1f698e58b4>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sacred-texts.com/neu/vig/vig30.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.988295	1,854	2.71875	3
"A map is not the territory it represents, but if correct, it has a similar structure to the territory, which accounts for its usefulness." - Alfred Korzybski The model is not the reality! A model is only useful insofar as it is isomorphic to reality. See also: epistemology The doctrine from General Semantics and subjective theory, later picked up by Neurolinguistic Programming, and in part supported by Neuroscientific Research and Quantum Theory, that humans in particular operate through a map of the world, rather than as the world really is. Physics makes generalizations about the world and models of the world, but physics is not the world. Psychology notes this difference between the map and the territory as the difference between perception (map) and sensation (territory). One of the goals of Zen Buddhism is to recognize this difference. The use of E-Prime by many writers attempts to more closely approximate the territory by avoiding the "is" of identity and adopting operational language. This doctrine was also hinted at by Freud with his concept of projection. Confusion between map and territory often results in paradox.	<urn:uuid:de21acf1-190a-4945-adc7-a10a38760e07>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://everything2.com/title/The+map+is+not+the+territory?showwidget=showCs75656	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962205	230	3.015625	3
Research Technical Report A PDF version of this report is available here: Innovative Historical Ecology Trend Analysis and Interpretation for the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Choy, S.J. (March 2011) A Report to the Marine Conservation Biology Institute; A Product of the Mia J. Tegner Memorial Research Grant in Marine Environmental History and Historical Marine Ecology, 18pp. Historical information is vital for resource managers and scientists trying to understand how the past has affected the present, and how our actions today may affect the future. However, historical data is not always readily available or organized in such a way that is useful for those trying to benefit from it; therefore, we initiated the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Historical Ecology Project (Project). There is a wealth of useful historical ecological data pertaining to the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (Sanctuary or MBNMS), with topics ranging from coastal water quality to demersal fisheries. Given that the theme of the 2009 Sanctuary Currents Symposium (http://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/currsymp2009/welcome.html) was the natural history of the Sanctuary, and recent efforts by Sea Grant Fellows working at the MBNMS resulted in a large database of historical documents, this is an opportune time to more closely examine these data and create a product that can be useful for resource managers, scientists and other interested persons alike. The Project consisted of two phases. In Phase 1, Selbie (2008) searched Internet and library archives for documents pertaining to the natural history of the Sanctuary. The search resulted in over 300 records that were then entered into the Marine Historical Database (Database), which can be queried with a variety of search tools. Phase 2 of the Project, detailed in this report, provides an example of how historical documents from the Database can be used to analyze ecological trends following methods outlined in Palomares et al. (2005) and Pandolfi et al. (2003). More specifically, anecdotes from which biodiversity and the relative abundance of certain species found in the Sanctuary could be inferred were collected an analyzed. Additionally, the information collected for the analysis portion of Phase 2 was entered into an internet-based interactive timeline (www.sanctuarysimon.org/timeline). The analysis portion of Phase 2 of the Project revealed a general decrease in the perceived abundance of selected marine fauna when compared to the historical record. While data points were limited once the information was filtered, the timing of these declines in perceived abundance appear to match well-documented trends in the Sanctuary's ecological past. The timeline is populated with over 100 clickable buttons which display anecdotes, historical facts, background information that links the people of Monterey Bay with their environment, and in most cases, a photograph. While the types of analyses performed were not novel, the interpretation of the data using those methods is unique for the Sanctuary. Furthermore, the data analysis portion provided a more tangible link between anthropogenic history, attitudes, perceptions, and the marine environment. The marine historical timeline displays this complex relationship in a way that can be easily accessed and viewed. Everyone, from those interested in learning more about the Sanctuary to scientists and resource managers planning for the future of the MBNMS, can use these data and the timeline to better understand the complexities of human impacts on marine ecosystems and the impacts that marine ecosystems have on humans.	<urn:uuid:37913d30-51d4-496d-bdad-31c64b7c42fa>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/techreports/trchoy2011.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.919078	693	2.59375	3
Smoke Detectors - Questions and Answers How effective are smoke detectors? Residential fire deaths have decreased steadily as the number of homes with smoke detectors has increased. Reports from the National Fire Protection Association on residential fire deaths show that people have nearly a 50 percent better chance of surviving a fire if their home has the recommended number of smoke detectors. Should I replace my smoke detector? Smoke detectors that are 10 years old are near the end of their service life and should be replaced. A smoke detector monitors the air 24 hours a day. At the end of 10 years, it has gone through over 3.5 million monitoring cycles. After this much use, components may become less reliable. This means that as the detector gets older, the potential of failing to detect a fire increases. Replacing them after 10 years reduces this possibility. My detectors are wired into my electrical system. Do I need to replace them as often as battery-operated detectors? Yes. Both types of detectors are equally affected by age. How many detectors should I have? The average-sized home or apartment needs more than one smoke detector. The exact number depends on the number of levels in the home and the number of bedrooms. National fire safety standards recommend a minimum of one detector on each level of the home, one detector outside the bedroom area, and one in each bedroom. The detector that is placed outside of the bedroom area should be installed in a place where it can be heard at night through a closed bedroom door. Is there more than one type of smoke detector, and what is the difference? There are two type of smoke detectors for homes. One type is called an ionization detector because it monitors "ions," or electrically charged particles. Smoke particles entering the sensing chamber change the electrical balance of the air. The detector's horn will sound when the change in electrical balance reaches a preset level. The other type of detector is called photoelectric because its sensing chamber uses a beam of light and a light sensor. Smoke particles entering the chamber change the amount of light that reaches the light sensor. The detector sounds when the smoke density reaches a preset level. Is one type better than the other? The ionization detector responds faster to small smoke particles, while the photoelectric responds faster to large smoke particles. As a rule of thumb, fast-flaming fires produce more small smoke particles and smoldering fires produce more large particles. Thus, the response time of the two type of detectors will vary, depending on the mix of small and large smoke particles in the fire. But test results show that the differences in response time are small enough that both types provide enough time to escape. What is more important, the type of detector or the number? The number of detectors is more important than the type. Installing several smoke detectors of each type will provide better coverage in the extreme cases of long-term smoldering or fast-flaming fires. But since both types respond in time for you to escape, the most important thing is to install enough detectors in the proper locations. Detectors are available with both types of sensors in the same unit, but they are more expensive than models with a single sensor. If the choice is between having only one of each type or having more of the same type, more detectors is the better choice. My detector goes off when I cook. How can I stop this? Smoke detectors are designed to be very sensitive so they will alert occupants to a fire in time for them to escape. If a detector regularly responds to smoke from cooking, there are several options for handling this problem. One way is to replace the detector with one that has a button that silences it for a few minutes. Another way is to move the detector farther away, giving the smoke a chance to dissipate. Moving a ceiling-mounted detector to a wall can also reduce nuisance alarms. However, this will also make it a little slower to respond to a real fire. If the detector is the ionization type, another option is to replace it with a photoelectric. This detector is less sensitive to smaller smoke particles and thus is less affected by cooking smoke. How can I test my detector? Every smoke detector comes with a test button. We recommend that people test their detectors regularly, at least once a month. Should I use real smoke to test my detectors? This is not recommended because the burning objects used to create the smoke might cause a fire. Some stores sell pressurized cans of simulated smoke for this purpose. When using this product, follow the operating instructions and do not get the can too close to the detector. This prevents the smoke from coating the detector's sensing chamber, which can make the detector inoperable. How important is it to clean my detector? Cleaning is easy. Just vacuum the detector at least once a year. This will keep the openings to the sensing chamber free of dust, residue from cooking vapors and insects. What about changing batteries? Smoke detector batteries should last at least one year under normal conditions. The biggest reason that smoke detectors don't work is because people remove the batteries, (e.g., to stop the low battery signal or a nuisance alarm) and forget to replace them. When a battery reaches the end of its service life, the detector will give a short beep every minute or so. It is easy to remove the battery and then forget to replace it. The best way to prevent this is to replace batteries at the same time each year before the low battery signal begins. From International Association of Fire Chiefs	<urn:uuid:ad55b06c-9947-4418-9bcb-94433e9d58fe>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.cityoffargo.com/CityInfo/Departments/Fire/PublicSafetyInformation/SmokeDetectors/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930191	1,143	2.734375	3
Pope Benedict XVI was the seventh German pontiff in the history of the Catholic Church. He was elected in 2005 by the conclave following the death of John Paul II and served as pope until his resignation at the begining of 2013. He was born in a Catholic family of farmers in Lower Bavaria , Germany, but grew up in a little town at the border with Austria. After passing the harsh times of Second World War , during which is was forcefully enrolled in an auxiliary anti-aircraft corps until September 1944, in 1946 he studied philosophy and theology at Higher School of Philosophy and Theology of Freising and at the University of Munich. In 1951, at the age of 24, he was ordered priest By the end of the ‘50s he was already a renowned theologian in the academic world and in 1958 he was nominated full professor. It followed an esteemed career as a professor of theology at the most eminent German universities. Due to his notable scientific activity he was called to attend the Vatican Council II with the role of “expert” from 1962 to 1965: at this watershed event he was indeed the theological advisor of Cardinal Joseph Frings, Archbishop of Cologne. His career culminated with meaningful promotions far beyond the academic context: in 1977 Pope Paul VI named him firstly Archbishop of Munich and Freising , and subsequently cardinal .Under Pope John Paul II he covered increasingly important roles in the Catholic Church: in 1981 he was elected Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (for centuries a top dicastery in the Roman Curia) and President of the Pontifical Biblical Commission and of the International Theological Commission. He resigned from his pastoral assignment in Germany and moved to Rome . In 1993 the John Paul II appointed him a bishop He covered several primary roles during the following decade until he was elected as pope, such as from 2002 that of Dean of the College of Cardinals, the most honorable position among the cardinals. Before becoming Benedict XVI, Joseph Ratzinger was one of the most influential personalities in the Catholic Church , a reference point for anything related to Church priorities and directions; notably, he was also one of the closest confidants of Pope John Paul II .On 11 February 2013, Benedict announced his resignation in a speech in Latin before the cardinals, due to a "lack of strength of mind and body" to be connected to his old age. His resignation became effective on 28 February 2013. From then he is entitled Pope Emeritus, retaining the honorific “His Holiness” and the white color papal attire. On March 13th 2013 Jorge Mario Bergoglio rose to the papacy with the name of Francis I, while Joseph Ratzinger moved to the Mater Ecclesiae monastery for his retirement on 2 May 2013.He is the eighth pope to give up the pontifical ministry , if we consider only the cases ascertained by reliable historical sources, the last case being recorded in 1415.	<urn:uuid:b67a6a8b-996b-420e-b217-3c309566f602>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://hoteldesartistes.com/pope-benedict-xvi.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.98292	628	2.75	3
Traditional Afghan Toilet System Under Pressure Traditional ecological sanitation system under pressure Traditional dry vault toilet systems have been around for centuries in Central Asia and parts of China where nutrients for agriculture are scarce. However, some analysts say they are inappropriate for urban areas, as they pose a threat to public health. Most urban households in Afghanistan use specially-shaped dry vault toilets which collect solid and liquid waste separately. Dry vault toilets can be safe and they provide a ready-made fertiliser for urban agriculture, supporters say. When Kabul was a small town, sanitation experts say, it was feasible and safe for donkey carts to carry excrement out of town for use as fertiliser. However, rapid urbanisation is putting this traditional practice into question. Dry vault systems catch and store solid waste in a separate chamber from urine and are sometimes referred to as "ecological sanitation" systems - and have significant advantages in some situations, a sanitation analyst working on the issue told IRIN. The "night soil" in the dry vault can be removed and carried away and used as fertiliser. Sanitation consultant Barbara Evans said that the alternatives, flush toilets connected to a piped sewage system, or pit or soakaway latrines had their own problems. "Sewered sanitation is very costly to build and prohibitive to run because of lack of water and power... This provides flush toilets for development agency staff, government offices, etc, but I am not sure that it's an option for the whole city - it's just too costly," Evans told IRIN. Pit latrines and septic tanks also fill up and their contents have to be disposed of, while pit latrines can seep into groundwater, contaminating wells, especially where the water table is close to the surface and where soils are sandy. "I believe that you have to make appropriate use of technology and so far no one has shown me a more appropriate option than dry vaults for many parts of Kabul," Evans said. Adapting traditional ecological sanitation is among the approaches that donors and aid agencies support. According to Abdul Karim Mirzazada, country representative for the German aid organisation, German Agro Action, different kinds of projects have been implemented in Kabul, Kunduz and Takhar provinces. One project uses water to flush faeces either to a septic covered vault (on sandy ground) or to an absorbing latrine. In another project, people defecate into a dry vault which can be emptied. Evans said: "These days some donors are actively promoting variations on these types of latrines - commonly clustered together under the term 'ecological sanitation' to capture the idea that waste products are not wasted and do not pollute the downstream ecosystem but are kept 'in the loop' at the local level. They aren't common [internationally] and they're not always appropriate but for many people living in Kabul they are totally familiar and normal." Urban sanitation needs There are only 36 public toilets in Kabul, which has a population of over four million, according to Kabul Municipality. Many resort to defecating and urinating in public places, including the River Kabul in the heart of the city, now dry due to a prolonged drought. "We believe there is an urgent need for a thorough modernisation of private and public toilet systems in Kabul," said Mohammad Yaseen Hilal, deputy director for policy and coordination in Kabul municipality. Given the widespread use of underground water for all purposes in Kabul - where only a small fraction of houses have tap water - the municipality has warned that if all houses used septic and/or absorbing latrines that would "undoubtedly contaminate sources of water". "An ideal solution for our toilet crisis is the establishment of a public sewage recycling system or several fragmented systems," said Hilal, but doubted his impoverished country could afford the systems in the foreseeable future. Some blame dry toilets for foul smells in Kabul's dusty streets and for contributing to the spread of disease. "Up to 70 percent of patients who visit hospitals for diseases such as diarrhoea are affected by unhygienic toilet facilities," said Abdullah Fahim, spokesman for Afghanistan's Ministry of Public Health. Attaullah Ehsan, a doctor at a public hospital for infectious diseases in Kabul, said 100-150 children visit the hospital each day complaining of diarrhoea. "Children are particularly vulnerable to parasites found in human excrement," Ehsan said, adding that sources of risk were excrement around outside toilets, and particles of dried excreta blown around by the wind. Another risk was flooding which often caused contamination of water sources. System under strain For dry vault systems to work, the waste needs to be handled carefully but most importantly, there needs to be a market for the waste and resultant fertilizer. That market may now be shrinking. A 2005 study by authors from the University of Loughborough in the UK and Action Contre la Faim stated that farmers with land on the outskirts of the city were selling up (at high prices) as the city expanded and so no longer needed to buy fertiliser. The report also said the main challenge for aid agencies and government was what to do about the estimated 60 percent of the population living in unplanned shanty towns, adding that donor focus on rural areas contributed to growing inequalities in the city in terms of sanitation. Evans said: "I would tend to ask those people who say the city is too big [for dry vault systems] to consider what the alternatives are. Few major cities with the growth and poverty profile of Kabul do a good job of designing sanitation which works for the poor - they tend to spend money on expensive infrastructure that at best provides a high level of service for a tiny minority of the city - usually the elite. "Kabul has a system which used to work - we should not abandon it unless we really have a better option to suggest that is cheap and simple enough to put in place rapidly."	<urn:uuid:6ca5bc71-0661-4f91-ba46-4b0a40ae1cef>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0708/S00414.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954532	1,238	2.828125	3
Hypercapnia is the condition in which there is too much carbon dioxide in the blood. Hypercapnia is often accompanied by hypoxia, the condition in which there is too little oxygen in the blood. There is a scene from the movie Das Boot during which the submarine must stay submerged too long, causing the submariners to suffer from carbon dioxide poisoning, or hypercapnia. There is a similar scene in Arthur C. Clarke’s book, A Fall of Moondust, which I recently read, during which the passengers of a tourist suffer from hypercapnia when their vessel is submerged for many hours in a sea of moon dust and the carbon dioxide conditioning unit begins to fail. I learned the word hypercapnia from a long and fascinating post, “Human (amphibious model): living in and on the water,” by Greg Downey on the PLoS Blog Network website. There is so much information packed into Downey’s post (which he states in a comment is the draft of a chapter for a book he is writing) that I recommend you read the post in its entirety. When you hold your breath too long, your body forces you to breathe. I’ve always wondered if this reflex is triggered by a lack of oxygen. Scientists have learned instead that the breathing reflex is triggered by hypercapnia, and the reflex occurs long before there is real danger of hypoxia. That is, it is impossible for most ordinary persons to hold their breath until passing out from lack of oxygen.	<urn:uuid:2af15132-d386-4eb0-a372-8496f96e22a7>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sphaerula.com/wordpress/biology/hypercapnia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953411	313	3.4375	3
Books & Music Food & Wine Health & Fitness Hobbies & Crafts Home & Garden News & Politics Religion & Spirituality Travel & Culture TV & Movies Osteoporosis is a disorder of the skeletal system that results in decreased bone strength and subsequent susceptibility to fractures. It is a major epidemiologic problem and the prevalence is rapidly increasing due to an aging population. Osteoporotic bones are easily fractured and minimal trauma could cause breakage. The hip and spine are the areas commonly affected. Hip fractures can lead to death and disability and is a common reason that older individuals lose their independence. It is important to understand normal bone structure and the abnormalities that lead to this disorder. This will help to provide a basis for appropriate prevention measures and treatment. Bone strength is determined by bone density and bone quality. Components of this are structural and material in nature. Structural properties include bone shape, size, and microarchitecture. Material properties include mineralization, collagen composition and damage accumulation. Bone maintains its strength and quality by having a balance between bone resorption and formation. This is called remodeling. Old, damaged bone is resorbed and new bone is formed. Bone cells called osteoclasts remove the old structures and osteoblasts lay down the material for new bone formation. Osteoporosis develops when this balance is disrupted and there is more bone resorption than formation. Bone mineral density testing is the standard way to measure bone integrity. This testing is performed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). It is the gold standard for diagnosing osteoporosis. The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined criteria for normal and abnormal results. The T score is utilized and describes the number of standard deviations (SD) in which a personís results exceeds (positive score) or falls below (negative score) the mean of a young adult group of the same sex. A diagnosis of Osteoporosis is given when the value falls 2.5 standard deviations (T score of -2.5) or more below the mean. Osteopenia or low bone density occurs when the T score is -1.0 to -2.5. If the score is greater than -1.0, the bones are considered to be of normal density. This T score is based on the mean value of a young adult reference population. Sometimes it is desirable to compare the individual to an aged matched control. The Z score is utilized in this situation allowing for a more age appropriate comparison since anyone can develop these problems. These ranges were developed to identify individuals who are at increased risk of fractures. The goal of early diagnosis and prevention is to minimize the incidence of fracture and other morbidity as they can have life threatening and life altering consequences. I hope this article has provided you with information that will help you make wise choices, so you may: Live healthy, live well and live long! \| Related Articles \| Editor's Picks Articles \| Top Ten Articles \| Previous Features \| Site Map Content copyright © 2015 by Dr. Denise Howard. All rights reserved. This content was written by Dr. Denise Howard. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Dr. Denise Howard for details. Website copyright © 2015 Minerva WebWorks LLC. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:35a9b4a4-eaca-4075-b89d-883d8dad019a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art20230.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.907847	695	3.71875	4
THIS Saturday, March 19, thousands of high school students across the nation will sharpen their No. 2 pencils and sit down to take the new Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), a revised version of the most common college-admission exam in the United States. Still known as the SAT, the former Scholastic Aptitude Test has undergone more than a name change. And Saturday's test-takers will be the first to face the redesigned exam. ``The new test maintains the high, academically demanding standards of the old test'' yet recognizes the increasing diversity of students and the changes in how and what students are being taught in high school, says Donald Stewart, president of the College Board, which sponsors the test. It has been 20 years since the SAT was significantly altered and the changes have increased the anxiety level among college-bound high school juniors and seniors who take the test. Record numbers of students have signed up for test-preparation courses or professional coaching sessions that can cost up to $700. Stanley Kaplan and Princeton Review, the two largest coaching companies, say enrollment in their courses has increased by as much as 50 percent in the last six months. The SAT will still be three hours long and divided into math and verbal sections. In the verbal portion, there is an increased emphasis on analysis and comparison. The reading comprehension section, now called critical reading, contains fewer but longer passages. Antonym questions have been dropped in favor of vocabulary within the context of a sentence. And the Test of Standard Written English, 30 minutes of grammar and punctuation questions, has been replaced by an additional 15 minutes on both the verbal and math sections. Changes on the math sections are more dramatic. Ten new math questions will require students to write in their answers rather than simply shade a bubble for a multiple-choice answer. For the first time, test-takers will now be allowed - but not required - to use calculators. The changes have not quieted criticism of the SAT. The National Center for Fair and Open Testing (FairTest) in Cambridge, Mass., says that three-quarters of the ``new'' SAT is exactly the same. The changes in the exam are ``only cosmetic'' and do not address the test's fundamental bias against women and minorities, says Cinthia Schuman, executive director of FairTest.	<urn:uuid:e2946763-ff13-4c23-b746-cf65bd114bdc>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://m.csmonitor.com/1994/0314/14152.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955722	484	2.5625	3
It happens every day in neighborhoods and at businesses across the country: A delivery truck pulls up, a package is unloaded and the anxious recipients open it with great expectation. They carefully unwrap it, inspect the contents for shipping damage and then try it to see how it works. At NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida, trucks deliver packages, too -- exceptionally big packages. They may leave Earth on rockets, but many spacecraft begin their journeys on wheels. One "package" that arrived recently contained a spacecraft destined to meet up with a comet some 83 million miles from Earth. Image at Right: The Deep Impact spacecraft arrived in Florida by truck on the first leg of its journey to a comet Image credit: NASA When the Deep Impact spacecraft was delivered to KSC in October, the truck was certainly larger than your average delivery truck. It arrived in darkness after traveling from Ball Aerospace & Technologies in Boulder, Colo., where the spacecraft was made. This "special delivery" was destined for the Astrotech Space Operations facility near Kennedy, where it is undergoing pre-launch preparation. Workers carefully removed the top of the shipping container to reveal the future space explorer inside. The spacecraft was mechanically lifted very carefully from the container and placed on a transport stand. Image at Left: The newly-arrived Deep Impact spacecraft is shown being carefully lifted from its shipping container. Image credit: NASA Once the bags covering it were removed, Deep Impact was placed on a work stand so the check-out could begin. The first order of business was to place large protective covers over the solar arrays, then extend them into their open position. In the days following delivery, tests were performed to verify the spacecraft's state of health and it received updated flight software. A series of mission readiness tests soon will be conducted involving the entire spacecraft flight system and instruments. Once all testing is complete, the 2,152-pound spacecraft will be joined to a Delta rocket's third stage booster. That completed, the rocket will be loaded into a transportation canister and moved to the pad for its scheduled launch at the end of December. The trip to the pad may end its Earth-bound trek, but the longer journey lies ahead. Image at Right: The solar arrays are covered and locked into their open position. Image credit: NASA So just what will Deep Impact do after it travels 83 million miles through space to meet up with the comet Temple1 in July 2005? The spacecraft will fire an 820-pound copper "bullet" into the comet's surface at a speed of 23,000 miles per hour. Telescopes on Earth will be able to observe the impact and its aftermath and results will be broadcast on the Internet. By studying the photos and data of the impact, scientists and astronomers hope they will learn more about the make-up of comets and their implications, should one collide with Earth. That promises to be quite an exciting ending to a journey that began by truck. Cheryl L. Mansfield NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center	<urn:uuid:6de7f672-6444-428a-8603-f835aef8dc96>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/D-I_Arrive.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962276	621	2.9375	3
The news media took note of Monday's anniversary of the nuclear accident at Pennsylvania's Three Mile Island power plant, but a partial meltdown at another U.S. reactor seems to have slipped from the public memory. Fermi 1, a small nuclear reactor south of Detroit, experienced a loss-of-coolant accident in October 1966. Fermi 1, owned by a consortium of utilities and industrial giants, went into service on leased Detroit Edison land in 1963. It was a prototype fast breeder reactor, meaning it was designed to create more fuel than it consumed. In breeder reactors, a fertile radioactive material such as uranium-238 is bombarded with neutrons to create more potent materials such as plutonium-239, which can be used in typical fission reactors, according to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The small, experimental plant was not intended to produce commercial power, generating just 61 megawatts of electricity, said Guy Cerullo, a spokesman for DTE Energy, the successor to Detroit Edison. "That could run a neighborhood," but not much more, Cerullo said. The commercial Fermi 2 light water reactor next door, by comparison, produces 1,100 megawatts. In October 1966, a piece of zirconium cladding inside the reactor chamber came loose. The metal blocked liquid sodium coolant from reaching two of the reactor's 103 subassemblies, each holding multiple fuel rods. That fuel heated to the point of melting. Because Fermi 1 was sodium-cooled, operators couldn't dump water on the fuel to cool it down, as engineers in Japan have been doing at the tsunami-damaged Fukushima Daiichi plant. "You can't shut down easily because sodium will burn if you hit it with water," said Bill Martin, a professor of nuclear engineering at the University of Michigan. "... Sodium and water don't like each other." Fortunately, the melted fuel rods stayed inside their subassemblies, allowing plant operators to carry out an orderly shutdown using spring-loaded boron control rods, Cerullo said. "About 1% of the fuel was damaged," he said. "Everything was contained." Using creative methods and purpose-made tools, engineers fished the loose zirconium plate out of the reactor vessel in December 1968, more than two years after the accident, Cerullo said, citing a 1975 official report. The accident was described in John G. Fuller's fact-filled but somewhat sensational 1975 book, "We Almost Lost Detroit." Fuller is deceased and the book is out of print. Detroit was in little or no danger during the Fermi 1 accident, Martin said. "I think that requires a lot of assumptions that aren't very realistic," the professor said. The damaged subassemblies were replaced, and the unit returned to service in July 1970, according to a Georgia State University online physics forum. Its operating license was not renewed in 1972, and the decommissioning process began. The fuel was returned to the federal government in the mid-1970s, Cerullo said. The unused Fermi 1 building still stands, and the containment vessel is being cut up now, Cerullo said. The utility hopes, in the end, to leave no trace of the building. "The eventual goal is to put it back to a green field," Cerullo said.	<urn:uuid:3f83770c-1058-4253-8090-c382a880cd7a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/29/u-s-nuclear-plant-had-partial-meltdown-years-before-three-mile-island/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963269	700	3.296875	3
USS New York (LPD 21) is the fifth U.S. ship to be named for the state of New York. Constructed by Northrop Grumman Ships Systems in Avondale, La., her keel was laid on Oct. 10, 2004, and she was launched on December 19, 2007. Four previous ships have been named New York. The first, a gondola (1776), was scuttled after suffering heavy damage during the defeat at the Battle of Valcour Island on Oct. 11, 1776. Though a tactical defeat, the fierce resistance of the outnumbered Americans postponed a British invasion from Canada. The second, a frigate (1800-1814), served to protect American commerce and project American Naval power, particularly along the Barbary Coast of North Africa. The third USS New York, an armored cruiser (1893-1938), served as flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron during the Spanish-American War and, later, flagship of the Asiatic Fleet before being renamed Saratoga in 1911. The fourth, the battleship USS New York (BB 34) (1914-1946), served in the North Sea blockade of Germany during World War I and provided shore bombardment during the invasions of North Africa, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa during World War II. The newest ship to bear the name has acquired a distinguished history of her own before she even set sail. The ship and her motto, "Strength Forged Through Sacrifice - Never Forget," pay homage to the victims and first responders of the Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The ship contains 7.5 tons of steel recovered from the remains of the World Trade Center towers within her bow. According to Dotty England, the ship’s sponsor and the wife of former Secretary of the Navy Gordon England, "I went to the pouring of the steel down at Amite, Louisiana, and not just myself, but everybody connected in that steel mill, treated that steel with utmost dignity. It was rather quiet, everybody handled it with dignity. The steel workers in Amite felt like they were contributing to the defense of the nation." In a poetically apropos gesture, USS New York was delivered to the fleet on August 21, 2009, at 9:11 am. As another link to her illustrious name, she also holds the bugle from the battleship USS New York.	<urn:uuid:3f7576c6-8eac-499a-81c8-c449ded539eb>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.navy.mil/ussny/ny_history.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.967965	491	2.734375	3
A study of Medicare data suggests there was wide variation in antibiotic prescribing for older patients based on geography and the season in which the prescriptions for the medication were written, according to a report published by Archives of Internal Medicine. The overuse of antibiotics is common and can lead to unnecessary spending on prescription medicine, as well as increase the risk for adverse effects and antimicrobial resistance, according to the study background. “Findings on variation in antibiotic prescribing can guide policy efforts to improve more targeted areas or specific therapeutic subclasses of antibiotics,” the authors comment. Yuting Zhang, PhD, of the University of Pittsburgh, and colleagues used Medicare Part D data from 2007 through 2009 (comprising about 1 million patients per year) to examine geographic variation in antibiotic use among older adults in 306 hospital referral regions, 50 states and the District of Columbia, and four national regions (South, West, Midwest and Northeast). They also studied quarterly change in antibiotic use across the four regions. The highest antibiotic use was in the South and the lowest was in the West. In the South, 21.4 percent of patients per quarter used an antibiotic whereas 17.4 percent of patients per quarter used an antibiotic in the West. The rate in the Midwest was 19.2 percent, according to the study results. Researchers also report that, regardless of region, the rate of antibiotic use was highest in the first quarter of the year (20.9 percent, January through March) and lowest during the third quarter (16.9 percent, July through September). “Overall, areas with high rates of antibiotic use may benefit from more targeted programs to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use. Although antibiotic use in the regions with lower use does not necessarily represent the clinically appropriate use given that overuse of antibiotics is common, quality improvement programs set attainable targets using the low-prescribing areas (i.e. the states in the West) as a reference,” the authors note. Researchers conclude: “Although older adults may have higher risk for adverse outcomes from infection, they may also be at particularly high risk for adverse outcomes from antibiotic use. Therefore, it might be necessary to target some quality improvement initiatives toward this age group.” This study was supported in part by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, the Institute of Medicine, the National Institute of Mental Health, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, the National Institute on Aging and the American Federation for Aging Research. Reference: Arch Intern Med. Published online Sept. 24, 2012. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2012.3717.	<urn:uuid:e9c6923f-14f8-42a4-87ef-48523827af32>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.infectioncontroltoday.com/news/2012/09/study-analyzes-variations-in-antibiotic-prescribing-among-older-patients.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.942374	530	2.671875	3
February 15, 1921. New York City. The operating room of the Kane Summit Hospital. A doctor is performing an appendectomy. In many ways the events leading to the surgery are uneventful. The patient has complained of severe abdominal pain. The diagnosis is clear: an inflamed appendix. Dr. Evan ONeill Kane is performing the surgery. In his distinguished thirty-seven-year medical career, he has performed nearly four thousand appendectomies, so this surgery will be uneventful in all ways except two. The first novelty of this operation? The use of local anesthesia in major surgery. Dr. Kane is a crusader against the hazards of general anesthesia. He contends that a local application is far safer. Many of his colleagues agree with him in principle, but in order for them to agree in practice, they will have to see the theory applied. Dr. Kane searches for a volunteer, a patient who is willing to undergo surgery wile under local anesthesia. A volunteer is not easily found. Many are squeamish at the thought of being awake during their own surgery. Others are fearful that the anesthesia might wear off too soon. Eventually, however, Dr. Kane finds a candidate. On Tuesday morning, February 15, the historic operation occurs. The patient is prepped and wheeled into the operating room. A local anesthetic is applied. As he has done thousands of times, Dr. Kane dissects the superficial tissues and locates the appendix. He skillfully excises it and concludes the surgery. During the procedure, the patient complains of only minor discomfort. The volunteer is taken into post-op, then placed in a hospital ward. He recovers quickly and is dismissed two days later. Dr. Kane had proven his theory. Thanks to the willingness of a brave volunteer, Kane demonstrated that local anesthesia was a viable, and even preferable, alternative. But I said there were two facts that made the surgery unique. Ive told you the first: the use of local anesthesia. The second is the patient. The courageous candidate for surgery by Dr. Kane was Dr. Kane. To prove his point, Dr. Kane operated on himself! A wise move. The doctor became a patient in order to convince the patients to trust the doctor.	<urn:uuid:00b837e8-c6cc-4b4e-9d8c-49ff6fe3ce52>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://bible.org/illustration/local-anesthetic	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.971478	466	2.765625	3
About one in three children in the U.S. are now overweight, and since the 1980s the number of children who are obese has more than tripled. But a new study of 26.7 million young children from low-income families shows that in this group of kids, the tidal wave of obesity might finally be receding. Being obese as a child not only increases the risk of early-life health problems, such as joint problems, pre-diabetes and social stigmatization, but it also dramatically increases the likelihood of being obese later in life, which can lead to chronic diseases, including cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease. Children as young as 2 years of age can be obese - and even extremely obese. Early childhood obesity rates, which bring higher health care costs throughout a kid's life, have been especially high among lower-income families. "This is the first national study to show that the prevalence of obesity and extreme obesity among young U.S. children may have begun to decline," the researchers noted in a brief report published online December 25 in JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association. (Reports earlier this year suggested that childhood obesity rates were dropping in several U.S. cities.) The study examined rates of obesity (body mass index calculated by age and gender to be in the 95th percentile or higher - for example, a BMI above 20 for a 2-year-old male - compared with reference growth charts) and extreme obesity (BMI of more than 120 percent above that of the 95th percentile of the reference populations) in children ages 2 to 4 in 30 states and the District of Columbia. The researchers, led by Liping Pan, of the Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, combed through 12 years of data (1998 to 2010) from the Pediatric Nutritional Surveillance System, which includes information on roughly half of all children on the U.S. who are eligible for federal health care and nutrition assistance. A subtle but important shift in early childhood obesity rates in this low-income population seems to have begun in 2003. Obesity rates increased from 13.05 percent in 1998 to 15.21 percent in 2003. Soon, however, obesity rates began decreasing, reaching 14.94 percent by 2010. Extreme obesity followed a similar pattern, increasing from 1.75 percent to 2.22 percent from 1998 to 2003, but declining to 2.07 percent by 2010. Although these changes might seem small, the number of children involved makes for huge health implications. For example, each drop of just one tenth of a percentage point represents some 26,700 children in the study population alone who are no longer obese or extremely obese. And if these trends are occurring in the rest of the population, the long-term health and cost implications are massive. Public health agencies and the Obama Administration have made battling childhood obesity a priority, although these findings suggest that early childhood obesity rates, at least, were already beginning to decline nearly a decade ago. Some popular prevention strategies include encouraging healthier eating (by reducing intake of highly processed and high-sugar foods and increasing fruit and vegetable consumption) and increased physical activity (both at school and at home). The newly revealed trends "indicate modest recent progress of obesity prevention among young children," the authors noted. "These finding may have important health implications because of the lifelong health risks of obesity and extreme obesity in early childhood." This story was originally published by Scientific American. Reprinted with permission.	<urn:uuid:4e36814c-4f83-4d87-bf5e-ea3cd0f9eab8>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.businessinsider.com/early-childhood-obesity-rates-slowing-2012-12	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.961317	725	3.125	3
Robotic jellyfish could one day patrol oceans, clean oil spills, and detect pollutants April 2, 2013 Virginia Tech College of Engineering researchers are working on a multi-university, nationwide project for the U.S. Navy that one day will put life-like autonomous robot jellyfish in waters around the world. Uses of the robot jellyfish could include conducting military surveillance, cleaning oil spills, and monitoring the environment. The main focus of the program is to understand the fundamentals of propulsion mechanisms utilized by nature, said Shashank Priya, associate professor of mechanical engineering and materials science and engineering at Virginia Tech, and lead researcher on the project. Small robotic jellyfish are tested for movement and energy self-creation and usage in a 600-gallon tank. A synthetic rubbery skin mimics the sleek jellyfish skin and is placed over a bowl-shaped device covered in electronics. When moving, they look weirdly alive. “Jellyfish are attractive candidates to mimic because of their ability to consume little energy owing to a lower metabolic rate than other marine species, survivability in varying water conditions, and possession of adequate shape for carrying a payload,” Priya said. Jellyfish display a wide variety of shapes and colors, and are able to move on their own vertically, but depend upon ocean currents for horizontal movement. With no central nervous system, jellyfish instead use a diffused nerve net to control movement and can complete complex functions. The U.S. Naval Undersea Warfare Center and the Office of Naval Research. Virginia Tech, is teaming with four U.S. universities on the multi-year, $5 million project:	<urn:uuid:9af9afa8-13e4-4fc2-8fc9-3faf4037d015>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.kurzweilai.net/robotic-jellyfish-could-one-day-patrol-oceans-clean-oil-spills-and-detect-pollutants/comment-page-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.929766	344	3.453125	3
A sure-fire way to increase the value of any piece of electronic equipment is to add some superfluous flashing red, yellow and green LEDs to it. (Light Emitting Diode.) They serve no use, but their presence is somehow comforting (especially in sci-fi films) and gives the impression that the equipment is busy doing something useful. There was a time however when this task wasn’t so easy. In the early days of LEDs, you could have any colour you wanted, so long as it was red. We’ve been looking at LEDs (more specifically, diodes in general) in one of my classes recently. The colour is determined by the band gap of the material from which the diode is made. What’s a band gap? Well, in a semiconductor, just like any other substance, electrons can’t have any-old-energy. They have to sit in very specific energy levels. In a solid, these levels form bands of permitted energies. A semiconductor has two bands that are close in energy, but are distinct; the lower band, called the valence band, is mostly occupied by electrons, and the upper, called the conduction band, is mostly unoccupied. The material can conduct electricity because electrons can move in the conduction band, and also ‘holes’ (where there are states not occupied by electrons) can also move in the valence band. In an LED, light is emitted when an electron drops from the conduction band into a hole in the valence band. The wavelength of light is very specific – depending on the size of the bandgap. Large bandgap materials give higher frequencies (frequency is proportional to the energy drop through E=hf where h is Planck’s constant) and so have shorter wavelengths. (9 June 2010 – Whoops, I said longer wavelength in my original post – now it’s correct) That was the problem with developing blue LEDs. Blue is short-wavelength visible light, and so a blue LED would need a material with a large bandgap. Developing such a material that was also cheap, robust, easily workable etc wasn’t an easy undertaking. By contrast, the long wavelength red LED was much easier. I had a suggestion from a student that you could just turn a red LED to a blue one by putting it in a blue piece of plastic. I’m afraid this won’t work. Blue plastic looks blue because it absorbs the red and green light from a white light source. Since a red LED produces red light, if you put it in blue plastic we would just find that the red would be absorbed, and nothing would escape. You wouldn’t get any light out at all. However, there is a way that you can shift the colour of an LED, namely changing the temperature, as this movie demonstrates.	<urn:uuid:f81d7564-f233-4706-a434-500e8f9ff9c1>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/06/08/lots-of-flashing-leds/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964292	598	3.609375	4
Innovative laser technique aims to detect atherosclerotic plaques early Research by Thomas Huser and John Rutledge is paving the road toward early detection of heart disease. Susie Durant is at risk. The 67-year-old great-grandmother has high blood pressure, high cholesterol and a family history of heart disease. Plus, she is African-American, an ethnic group prone to cardiovascular problems. It's not fazing her much. When she learned about her blood pressure, she started exercising. And when she learned about her cholesterol, she changed her diet. Throughout it all, she continued to plan for the future. Currently, she is a full-time accounting student at American River College in Sacramento. Born in Louisiana and a resident of California since she was a teenager, Durant said she has never experienced any indication of heart trouble, such as chest pain, and didn't even know about her high cholesterol until she had a blood test a couple of years ago. "I've never had any symptoms," Durant said. The silent killerDurant is hardly alone. Cardiovascular disease typically does its damage silently, and despite the best efforts of medical science, heart attacks and strokes remain the number-one and number-three leading killers of Americans today. While American Heart Association estimates show that deaths from cardiovascular disease fell 22.1 percent between 1993 and 2003, the bad news is that cardiovascular disease still claims twice as many lives as all cancers combined. To reduce the number of deaths from heart disease, UC Davis physicians have teamed up with physicists at the NSF Center for Biophotonics Science and Technology at UC Davis, and at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, to discover better ways of monitoring the activity of cholesterol, triglycerides and other lipoprotein components in the blood, which play a key role in atherosclerosis, the hardening of blood vessels due to plaque formation. "We know some of the first metabolic changes that lead to plaque formation occur in adolescence, yet there are no biological markers that allow physicians to accurately diagnose and prevent the eventual progression of disease at this early stage," said John Rutledge, professor and chief of endocrinology, clinical nutrition and vascular medicine at UC Davis Health System. Defining laser technology"Our goal is to use lasers to develop a more sensitive clinical test to identify specific lipoproteins in the blood that lead to first deposits of plaque. Armed with this information, physicians could diagnose patients decades before clinical symptoms develop and begin aggressive intervention to prevent, or even reverse, disease." One of the major technical challenges has been the inability to visualize and dissect an inherently complex and dynamic process, which involves cells of the blood vessel wall, soluble lipoprotein particles, and cells of the immune system. But a new light-based technology called Laser Tweezer Raman Spectroscopy (LTRS) is allowing UC Davis scientists to characterize and distinguish individual cells and their components more closely and more thoroughly than has been possible using traditional biological methods.Through funding and equipment provided by the Center for Biophotonics, this method was specifically adapted to nondestructively investigate the structure of individual lipoproteins. A color-enhanced angiogram of the heart shows a plaque-induced obstruction (top center) in a major artery, which can lead to a heart attack. Thomas Huser, an associate professor in the Department of Internal Medicine at UC Davis Health System and chief scientist at the Center for Biophotonics, is a specialist in LTRS. He and his team, which includes researchers from Lawrence Livermore and UC Davis, are collaborating with Rutledge to study the many lipoproteins that circulate in the blood to better understand their individual role in the development of atherosclerosis. "We're using laser light to optically suspend lipoproteins so they can be sorted by their chemical make up," said Huser. "Our ultimate goal is to identify specific lipoproteins in the blood that accurately predict the early onset of heart disease." For the novel spectroscopy studies, the researchers work with plasma from patient blood samples and analyze a suspension containing lipoproteins in a special laser microscope developed by Huser and colleagues. They specifically measure the amount of light scattered by molecular bonds in a lipoprotein particle — its Raman signal. As each lipoprotein emits a unique signal that reflects its biochemical makeup, the researchers are able to identify, sort and biophysically characterize them. By evaluating blood samples from patients before and after they eat a meal with known quantities of saturated and unsaturated fats, they also are able to see how fat in the diet altered Raman signals. "Until now, lipoproteins have only been studied in massive quantities," said Huser. "Standard tests ordered to measure cholesterol levels, for example, are purely bio-chemical. They only measure the proportion of lipoproteins. The ability to distinguish individual lipoprotein chemical signatures and determine which ones have the greatest effects on the blood vessel wall has important research and clinical implications." More detailed studies will likely give scientists a better idea about how some kinds of lipoproteins, such as low-density lipoproteins, form artery-clogging plaques while other types, such as high-density lipoproteins, seem to prevent them. The eventual goal, Rutledge said, is to be able to stratify people into groups with varying risks of disease. While the current technology will aid in more detailed studies of lipoproteins, it currently is too slow to perform clinical tests. "We are working with industry to automate this technique," said Rutledge, who is also co-vice chair for research in internal medicine and holds the Richard A. and Nora Eccles Harrison Endowed Chair for Diabetes Research. Huser added that the team of researchers intends to study blood samples from patients with cardio-vascular disease using LTRS and compare them to healthy patients to look for other potential biomarkers. This work has already begun, and Huser said he already has seen some promising candidates for new biomarkers. "We have good evidence," Huser said, "but we need to perform more clinical studies that include a more diverse patient population before we know for sure whether we have found a better predictor of heart disease."	<urn:uuid:0d8106f6-e756-4fce-9055-ba7811e9c983>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/welcome/features/20070321_annualrpt06_rutledge/index.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.956253	1,295	3	3
When a large company or famous philanthropist donates computers to children to advance their learning and give them online access to the world, it makes an impact. But when the donors are young teenagers who revamped and renovated the computers themselves, it makes an even bigger impact. Students and teachers at Forest Park High School, a public magnet school in Woodbridge, Va., say their school’s computer donation program has become an essential part of the learning experience. It has also become an essential asset for the community. The program combines academic learning and hands-on lab work with community service. First students learn about computer systems and networks. Then they rebuild used computers and give them away to children and other schools needing computers. It is the act of giving that solidifies the learning experience, says Brian Hackett, an instructional technologist at the school and co-coordinator for the program. “It becomes personal. You don’t get personal in learning until the kids see results of what they have learned.” Hackett thinks education in general should head in the direction of combining schooling with community service. Applying academic material gives it relevance. The students seemed to agree. “When we go to events to give the computers away, the parents and students are overwhelmed with joy. The smiles on their faces are amazing,” said Karl Stallknecht, a student at Forest Park. “You can see the big picture.” As the students worked on restoring computers to mint condition during class, they spoke about their coursework with enthusiasm. They seemed to grasp the complexities of information technology as they discussed network systems, web hosting, cloud-based solutions, Linux operating systems, and various software programs. Listening to their high level of discourse, it was clear they understood as least as much about technology as the average adult working in the field.	<urn:uuid:3f1fbc57-aa70-4f65-b6ef-d00948c9858a>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.eschoolnews.com/2012/03/29/school-program-makes-use-of-new-skills-old-computers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.971039	382	2.859375	3
by STANLEY ZINN, Induction Heating Consultants As presented at the Induction Heating Technology & Applications Conference, April 12-13, 2000; Arlington Heights (Chicago), Illinois The need for radio frequency (RF) induction operations are increasing as thinner metals and shallower case requirements occur. While the theoretic basis of induction heating is the same for all frequencies, the power supplies and their operations are considerably different for RF. This paper explores those differences, and provides information on how to properly select RF equipment for various applications. The accepted definition of Radio Frequency heating encompasses those frequencies above 50 kHz. The frequency most people associate with the Radio Frequency (RF) range is 450 kHz. This was the center of the high frequency band initially allotted for industrial use by the FCC. Almost all tube type RF power supplies used the common designation of 450 kHz as their operating frequency. In fact, power supplies operated in a range between 200 and 750 kHz. In tube-type power supplies the design of the coil and the shape and mass of the part changed the tuned inductance and the power supply frequency changed accordingly. In contrast, the solid state power supply searches for the optimal frequency. Today, solid state power supplies operate in the range of 50 - 750 kHz. There are supplies operating above this frequency in nominal ranges of 2-3 Megahertz (MHz) and up to and including 60-70 MHz, frequencies which have been usually associated with dielectric heating. High frequencies are selected to provide a specific shallow depth of case or for heating thin materials. At low and medium frequencies, the deep penetration of the magnetic field provides are utilized for through heating of materials. Typical applications are forging and melting. Frequencies to 10 kHz are also used for these applications. However, frequencies above 8 kHz find major application in heat treating. At the lower frequencies, most loads are uniform in cross section. This permits the user or manufacturer to utilize computer programs for coil design with a measure of certainty. Usually, they do not require further modification when installed on the equipment. Where the part configurations are not symmetrical, computerized coil information can generally only be used for an approximation of the shape of the magnetic field. Modification of coil designs is a necessary part of this process. With RF power supplies, the modifications that must be made are generally more complicated and must be verified by actual laboratory tests. In order to fully utilize the available power of Radio Frequency equipment, tuning of the coil and load to the power supply is extremely important. What are the factors that affect this tuning of the coil and load to the frequency range of the power supply? One major factor is the Hysteresis loss in magnetic materials. Hysteresis losses are caused by reversal of the magnetic field due to frequency. As the field reverses it causes the molecular structure of the metal to realign to match the polarity of the field. The molecules however, being of a greater mass cannot respond as quickly to the changes in the field and thus friction generates a loss we call Hysteresis. As the frequency increases, these magnetic reversals increase in speed and due to the friction generated Hysteresis losses are greater. Accordingly, Hysteresis affects RF applications to a much greater degree than lower frequencies. At approximately 1340°F magnetic materials lose their magnetic properties and react as non-magnetic materials. This effect is known as the "Curie Point" of the material. The change from magnetic to non-magnetic state produces a significant shift in frequency. The reason for this is the change in the coil/ part inductance as Hysteresis occurs. The combination of the coil, the part and the capacitance set the Resonant Frequency for the application. This combination of components is referred to as the "Tank Circuit". To achieve maximum energy transfer to the part, the tank circuit resonant frequency must be within the frequency capabilities of the equipment. When the Curie Point is reached, then tank circuit frequency will shift radically. Modern inverters, at all frequencies, try to tune to the tank circuit resonant frequency. This is most important as we pass through Curie. The tank circuit inductance is composed jointly of the coil and the part. The coil itself does not change during the heating process and its inductance remains constant. However, changes in the part, as it heats, affect the tuned frequency also causing it to shift. At the lower frequencies, these shifts can greatly affect the actual depth of penetration of the magnetic field and must be accounted for. \|Temperature\|\|Resistivity\|\|449 kHz\|\|450 kHz\|\|451 kHz\| \|1400°F\|\|8.85\|\|0.014 in\|\|0.014 in\|\|0.014 in\| \|1800°F\|\|9.74\|\|0.0147 in\|\|0.0147 in\|\|0.0147 in\| Penetration Depth in Steel at 450 kHz \|Temperature\|\|Resistivity\|\|9 kHz\|\|10 kHz\|\|11 kHz\| \|1400°F\|\|8.85\|\|0.099 in.\|\|0.094 in.\|\|.089 in.\| \|1800°F\|\|9.74\|\|0.103 in.\|\|0.098 in.\|\|.094 in.\| This variation in part resistivity amounts to a change in depth of penetration of 9.5% over a 2 kHZ span. Penetration Depth in Steel at 10 kHz At RF frequencies, a 1 kHz change in operating frequencies produces nominal, if any change in penetration depth. A change of approximately 30 kHz would be required before it produces a change in depth similar to that for the lower frequency. There is also a shift due to changes in the resistivity of the part as it heats. These shifts are substantially greater at the lower frequencies and can be seen in the variation of depth of magentic penetration at these frequencies. The high frequency RF fields appear to be more stable in this respect. The overall inductance of the coil and part play a large part in determining the operating frequency in the RF range. With low and medium frequency systems, small changes in coil or lead dimension do not cause large frequency shifts. However, at RF frequencies coil inductances are critical to achieving a good match. Lead inductance in particular can radically change the tuning frequency of the system and leads must be kept short and have minimal inductance. Low inductance leads will further enable the coil/part combination to provide maximum energy transfer. At the lower frequencies, large inductances are necessary to tune to the power supply frequency. Small parts that are heatable at the lower frequencies require smaller coils and therefore a transformer must be used to match this frequency. At the RF frequencies, with small parts, tuning can normally be attained connecting the coil directly to the power supply. Accordingly overall efficiency of the system is greater. Lead structures between the tank circuit and coil in RF equipment become critical between the tank capacitors and the coil and represent an unneeded inductance that prevents full voltage from appearing across the operating area of the work coil. This inductance should be less than 10% of the operating coil inductance. This is normally accommodated through the use of "fishtail" construction which is a low inductance lead. As frequencies go higher, the overall inductance of the tank circuit must be minimized. In many instances the total coil is a hole drilled in a water cooled copper block. If the part tries to draw the system within the operating frequencies of the power supply. In particular, lead lengths and their resultant inductance must be minimized for maximum energy transfer. Electrically the leads more power from the supply than can be delivered, the hole in the coil (the inductance) can be opened to decouple the part. In some instances, the total inductance of this type of coil can be so low that the resonant frequency is above that of the power supply. Introducing additional inductance via a hole in series with the coil can be used to lower the frequency. Opening the hole gradually will bring the system in to the proper frequency range. Coils for the higher frequencies are generally machined and provide a stable heat pattern that is not subject to mechanical damage or deformation. They are also, therefore, easily replicated as necessary. The components of RF heat stations are considerably smaller than those required for lower frequencies. Typically, the remote heat station incorporates solid state capacitors, that form the complete tank circuit with the coil and part. The tank circuit carries the greatest current in the system and the short paths between the capacitance and the coil act to reduce the losses that would normally occur in a high frequency system. A production heat station is wide x high x ong, and weighs approximately 20 pounds with water flowing in the cooling circuits. Dependent on whether the circuitry is series or parallel connected, the entire tank can operate as much as 200 foot from the power supply with negligible loss. In the parallel circuitry approach, a special cable uses field canceling construction to reduce transmission losses. The cable construction is highly flexible (you canliterally tie it in a knot). Further because the field around the cable is effectively canceled, the transmission line can be simply run through steel conduit. Due to the light weight and flexibility of the system , tooling concepts are now broadened. Where normally work is raised in to the coil for heating, the coil/tank assembly can be easily lowered into position of the workpiece. This eliminates the requirement for individual lift fixtures on a conveyor. Instead, a light duty mechanism, configured to the tank circuit, permits the coil to come into position on the part during the dwell cycle. The resultant system is faster in operation and much less expensive to fabricate. As one instance, the heat station is mounted on a multi-position automatic screw machine. If the dwell time of the machine is less than the heating cycle for hardening the part, heat treating may be done in situ. A water based cutting fluid is used as a quench medium to simplify fluid processing. The work piece can then be locally hardened before it is cut from the bar stock. This could easily be applied to the fabrication of inner and outer races for bearings or similar parts. Where space is at a cost premium, as in a clean room for processing semiconductors, the heat station can be in a Class 100 or class 10 environment while the power supply is remotely located. Since no electrical contact is made or broken, it would be possible to utilize this system within a hazardous area, as well. In order to determine the proper power supply for RF operations, it is necessary to understand that the power supply is similar to a commercial power generating station. As appliances are added to the system, they draw power from the supply. With the RF power supply, the power is available but the system must be tuned to draw the maximum power. Rarely, however is full power achieved. " Induction loads draw power from the supply just as an electric appliance draws power from the power line.	<urn:uuid:b2a16695-0142-4f00-b566-cc6ec2470205>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.stanleyzinn.com/induction-heating/different-tool.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.938306	2,267	2.703125	3
Final Cut Pro: Understanding Audio Meters The purpose of audio meters in Final Cut Pro is to display the level of your audio signal. While there are different types of audio meters, the main type utilized by Final Cut Pro is peak audio meters. Peak audio meters will quickly let you know if the level of your audio exceeds 0 dBFS. Other audio meters used by Final Cut Pro include input audio meters, track meters, master audio meters and floating audio meters. Average and Peak Audio Levels Being that Final Cut Pro uses peak audio meters, before you can dive into the purpose of the audio meter, you need to understand what the peaks and average loudness mean. When you are looking at an audio waveform, the tips of the waveform will be the peaks, while the main strip of audio will be the average loudness of the track. Peaks are short, loud bursts of sound. It is unlikely that the average loudness of your track will exceed 0 dBFS, but you will have instances where the peak levels do. Analog and Digital Audio Meters If you have used analog audio meters in the past, you will need to learn the basics of digital audio meters, as well. This is because you set your audio levels differently when using a digital audio meter. A digital audio meter uses a digital scale, and the signal on the digital scale is measured in dBFS. If your audio level exceeds 0 dBFS, Final Cut Pro will clip that signal, which distorts the original shape of the audio waveform. In most cases, depending upon your specific audio equipment, when you are recording audio, it is being recorded in analog context. Being that Final Cut Pro only uses digital context, you need to understand the different between 0 dB in analog and 0 dBFS in digital. When using an analog audio meter, 0 dB is the perfect recording level for a device. If you go below 0 dB, you may lose your audio signal, and if you go above 0 dB, your audio may become distorted. When using a digital analog meter, 0 dBFS is the highest allowed audio level. When you are putting your project together using Final Cut Pro, you need to be thinking about how the audio level you set will correspond to an analog audio meter. As a general guideline, if you are working with 16-bit audio, you should set your audio level around -12 dBFS. If you are working with 20- or 24-bit audio, you should set your audio level around -18 or -20 dBFS. Floating Audio Meters If you are in the Viewer or Timeline, you will notice a floating audio meter. The floating audio meter uses a stereo display to show the output levels of your audio. The very top of the floating audio meter will be 0 dBFS. The lowest value on the floating audio meter will be -96 dBFS. If you need to display audio levels that exceed 0 dBFS, you will need to use the track or master audio meters.Popular Cameras for High Quality Photos:	<urn:uuid:df1d1271-d1af-426e-b038-fc5b92ba20ca>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.steves-digicams.com/knowledge-center/how-tos/photo-software/final-cut-pro-understanding-audio-meters.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.884669	621	2.8125	3
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline) \|ICD-9\|\|427.81, 659.7, 785.9, 779.81\| Bradycardia, as applied to adult medicine, is defined as a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min. Trained athletes tend to have slow resting heart rates, and resting bradycardia in athletes should not be considered abnormal if the individual has no symptoms associated with it. The term relative bradycardia is used to explain a heart rate that, while not technically below 60 beats per minute, is considered too slow for the individual's current medical condition. This cardiac arrhythmia can be underlied by several causes, which are best divided into cardiac and non-cardiac causes. Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary, and can involve drug use or abuse; metabolic or endocrine issues, especially in the thyroid; an electrolyte imbalance; neurologic factors; autonomic reflexes; situational factors such as prolonged bed rest; and autoimmunity. Cardiac causes include acute or chronic ischemic heart disease, vascular heart disease, valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease. Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms. With sinus node dysfunction (sometimes called sick sinus syndrome), there may be disordered automaticity or impaired conduction of the impulse from the sinus node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an "exit block"). It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent pacemaker. Atrioventricular conduction disturbances (aka an AV block) may result from impaired conduction in the AV node, or anywhere below it, such as in the His bundle. Patients with bradycardia have likely acquired it, as opposed to having it congenitally. Also, bradycardia is more common in older patients, since both cardiac and non-cardiac causes are more likely in the elderly. There are two main reasons for treating any cardiac arrhythmias. With bradycardia, the first is to address the associated symptoms, such as fatigue, limitations on how much an individual can physically exert, fainting (syncope), dizziness or lightheadedness, or other vague and non-specific symptoms. The other reason to treat bradycardia is if the person's ultimate outcome (prognosis) will be changed or impacted by the bradycardia. Treatment in this vein depends on whether any symptoms are present, and what the underlying cause is. Primary or idiopathic bradycardia is treated symptomatically if it is significant, and the underlying cause is treated if the bradycardia is secondary. Drug treatment for bradycardia is typically not indicated for patients who are asymptomatic. In symptomatic patients, underlying electrolyte or acid-base disorders or hypoxia should be corrected first. IV atropine may provide temporary improvement in symptomatic patients, although its use should be balanced by an appreciation of the increase in myocardial oxygen demand this agent causes. Atropine 0.5-1 mg IV or ET q3-5min up to 3 mg total (0.04 mg/kg) \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|	<urn:uuid:83212931-5c83-4662-927b-b74fa7693b38>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Bradycardia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.855013	812	2.890625	3
Thank you for signing up! The Ocean at Your Doorstep If you stand on the rocky Maine coastline, you will see immediately how the sharp edge of the Atlantic separates ocean admirers from masters of the sea. The salt air you taste is faint compared to the mouthfuls of sea spray that ship captains swallow whole. Boats rise and fall on the large swells that spread across the horizon as you watch from dry, steady land. Bobbing between the boats are buoys, falling over and under waves and flashing their unique color markings — some solid and some striped. Lobstermen claim territory with these unique floats and harvest the waters beneath them every day. They brave harsh, cold winters, skin-leathering sun and dangerous conditions to haul their traps to the surface. As you look out and watch the whitewashed and weathered boats breaking through the current and moving between catch, what you cannot see is the rainbow maze of rope that winds beneath them — thousands of miles of line that connect the lobstermen to their livelihood. Ties between land and water Rope is also what David Bird uses to make his means. Since 1998, his business, Custom Cordage in Waldoboro, Maine, has produced braided cord and rope used for boating, fishing and other areas of commercial and recreational utility. David now has nearly 500,000 pounds of lobster fishing rope to work with — but this rope, he didn’t make. In April 2009, hundreds of thousands of pounds of a certain type of rope, known as floating groundline rope, became restricted for lobster fishing use in most areas off the Atlantic Coast, under a regulation from the National Marine Fisheries Service. Lobstermen were required to replace their traditional floating rope with sinking rope in order to prevent marine life, specifically the highly endangered North Atlantic Right Whale, from getting entangled in the floating ropes used for connecting traps. The Right Whale is the world’s rarest large whale, with a North Atlantic population estimated to be only between 300 and 350 whales existing today. They inhabit inshore areas and spend a lot of time near the water’s surface, making them extremely susceptible to the risk of entanglement with fishing gear. As the whales get caught in the floating lobster trap lines, they begin to struggle and spin, which makes the lines wrap around their flippers and tail. Reclaiming lobster lines David was very aware of the regulation from his personal involvement in the rope industry and from his stepson, who is a lobsterman. Last spring, while sitting around the campfire with his family, David had an idea for reusing the to-be-discarded rope. “I worked for a company back in the '80s that made doormats and I learned how to make them myself,” he says. “I heard of all this rope that was going to be collected due to the regulations, and I wondered if we could make doormats out of it.” David already had a jig, a loom-type device, in his garage. He would make mats for friends and family, and he described them as being his signature gift. After acquiring some of the reclaimed rope, David made some mats and took them to local festivals and fairs. He says he sold out in just a couple of hours. “I underestimated the interest in this product,” says David. “We told the whole story and explained how the product is 100 percent reclaimed used lobster fishing rope. I would point to the ocean and tell people: ‘This rope was out in that water and was getting the lobster you ate for dinner last night.’” Showing Maine support David has been working with the Gulf of Maine Lobster Foundation to get his rope. The nonprofit group operates a buyback program to help lobstermen replace their floating rope for sinking rope. “It was our responsibility to find a viable end-use for the rope,” says project director Laura Ludwig. “None of the rope has ever been sent to a landfill, nor has it been allowed for re-use in the ocean.” The program, administered by GOMLF, is called The Bottom Line Project — the Maine Poly Groundline Exchange Program. Laura says the program has collected almost 1.9 million pounds of floating groundline from over a thousand Maine lobstermen, giving them over $2.6 million in federal fund vouchers toward purchasing new sinking rope. The rope has also provided economic opportunities for small businesses and independent artisans. The success of the doormats has helped David keep people employed throughout the year. When they aren’t selling mats, they are busy making them. “It’s got a great story,” says David. “It’s creating jobs, it’s supporting rope funds for lobster fishermen, it’s keeping the rope out of the landfills, and the mats are a colorful and environmentally conscious addition to people’s homes.” David says that every mat is unique, and the rope used is just as it comes out of the ocean — some after years and years beneath the surface. The ropes are mildew-proof, easy to clean and ultra-durable. Even if the closest you come to the edge of the ocean is your front door, at least you know a reclaimed rope doormat is supporting more than your just soles.	<urn:uuid:5108bb3f-0662-4d13-bd12-6fe2d477805d>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://life.gaiam.com/article/ocean-your-doorstep	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966486	1,133	2.796875	3
Incorporating new technologies into the learning environment is a continuing priority at Elmwood Franklin. The integrated use of instructional technology has been shown to improve student achievement in reading, writing, and mathematics; improve classroom efficiency and productivity; and help teachers meet the varied needs of all students. At Elmwood Franklin, we don’t just teach our students to use technology; we empower our students to use technology to learn. From digital literacy to digital citizenship, our technology curriculum covers more than how to use a certain device or program to include how to use it properly, effectively, and safely. Multi-media applications are used regularly for learning and for demonstrating learning. Basic computer science concepts are also incorporated, using age-appropriate tools for coding and robotics. • iPads available to all classrooms • 1:1 iPad program starting in fourth grade • Dedicated technology instruction in all grades • Coding instruction in all grades • Smartboards in most classrooms • Laptops available to all classrooms • Two Mac labs • 3D printers • e-book lending library • Wi-Fi throughout the building	<urn:uuid:b12b8907-833d-400c-9adb-dbe7be8ab3df>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.elmwoodfranklin.org/index.php?submenu=Academics&src=gendocs&ref=iPads&category=Academics_New	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.908386	228	3.15625	3
Smurf in space; Science teacher’s lesson reaches the final frontier February 6, 2013 — EAST STROUDSBURG, PA — In November 2011, East Stroudsburg Area School District teacher and Shohola, PA native Joe Fluhr was met with a chance of a lifetime—to send a personal belonging into space. Fluhr has been teaching space science to children for nearly a decade. His students learn about aerospace science and exploration and they build and fly their own model rockets. Now, they were going to be a part of the “real deal.” Fluhr, a collector of space memorabilia outside of school, was contacted by a German company that serves that hobby. They mentioned in their letter that they had an association with a Russian cosmonaut and there was a possibility of having a personal item flown to space. Because items belonging to private citizens are rarely taken by the NASA shuttles, let alone a Russian rocket, this presented an extremely rare opportunity. After discussing this prospect with the students of Leh-man Intermediate, and considering the weight restrictions, Fluhr decided on a toy astronaut Smurf. The Smurf had served as a “test pilot” for the space-related toys he had as a child growing up in Shohola, and Fluhr would stick the Smurf up in a pine tree and stare at it from the ground. Little did he know he would one day see it fly into space. This same Smurf also flew several times inside a working high power rocket used in his science class demonstrations. The only difficulty was that the cosmonaut agreed to take only flat items such as a photo or letter. An exception would have to be made. After some negotiation—and cleaning off the 30 years of grime from all the years of play—the cosmonaut agreed to take the Smurf, the first toy sent to space, with the Russians. Knowing he was a science teacher, the Russian and German contacts wanted to do something special for Fluhr’s students. They asked him to take photos of all the children in Lehman Intermediate School and arrange them in a collage so their pictures could also go to space. That photo was sent with the Smurf to Germany and passed on to the Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia. Once there, it was placed in the personal belongings pack of the cosmonaut and carried to the Russian Space Center at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.	<urn:uuid:a67c1c9f-31e2-4a8e-bbdd-77ede987993b>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://riverreporter.com/node%252F12017	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974717	526	3.0625	3
Self-Charging Battery Gets Boost From Nanocomposite Film, Georgia Institute of Technology Study 2/25/2014 6:55:56 AM In 2012, a research team at the Georgia Institute of Technology led by Professor Zhong Lin Wang fabricated the first self-charging power pack, or battery, that can be charged without being plugged into a wall socket or other source of electricity. Instead, the battery is charged by applying a mechanical stress, which causes lithium ions to migrate from the cathode to the anode due to the piezoelectric effect. Now the researchers have improved the battery by adding nanoparticles to the battery's piezoelectric material, resulting in a higher charging efficiency and storage capacity. Hey, check out all the engineering jobs. Post your resume today! comments powered by	<urn:uuid:86ed2242-d728-418c-9705-a55e957935af>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.biospace.com/News/self-charging-battery-gets-boost-from/324895	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.922854	167	2.734375	3
Botanical name: Dendrobium chrysotoxum Family: Orchidaceae (orchid family) Synonyms: Dendrobium suavissimum Golden Arch Dendrobium is a stunningly beautiful orchid native to North-East India. It first appeared in England in 1858. The plant is adored for it arching spikes of 4 cm waxy, bright orange fragrant flowers, with fringed lip. The goldish ,spindle-shaped pseudobulbs are grooved lengthwise . They are ended by two (or even three)extended oval tough leaves. The flower stalk grows out of the apex of the pseudobulb and is covered with up to 20 flowers. The flowers are yellow,the lip orange-and-yellow with a frilly edge. A very showy species that will develop into large multiflowered clumps, a pot or basket is needed, with lots of water and fertiliser when in active growth and a dryer rest after flowering. This can be a difficult species for growers in warm climates because it requires bright light for satisfactory growth and flower production but prefers intermediate temperatures. The flower labeled Golden Arch Dendrobium is ...	<urn:uuid:809abe9a-cf2e-45c9-8833-583e091b2061>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Golden%20Arch%20Dendrobium.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.90566	248	3	3
Shelter Island Heights Historical District “A distinguished intact example of a late-19th century and early-2Oth century resort... with outstanding specimens of exuberant folk architecture” “A significant resource in the history of American planning” From 1652, when Nathaniel Sylvester, a sugar merchant from Barbados, acquired sole title to Shelter Island and became its first white residents to 1730, when it became a town, the island developed slowly. By mid-century some 900 islanders farmed and made fertilizer from the mossbunker herring. The northwest corner of the island, eventually the Heights, was bought up in the early 19th century by Frederick Chase, who named his domain Prospect. In 1871 a group of 24 Brooklyn clergymen and laymen, incorporated as the Shelter Island Grove and Camp Meeting Association of the Methodist Episcopal Church, purchased the Chase acres on the condition that the two factories converting mossbunker herring to fertilizer—a most decidedly malodorous process—be removed. After 8 years the camp meetings were moved to Jamesport. Today the Shelter Island Heights Property Owners Association is committed to preserving the distinctive character of the community, its historic buildings and its physical environment. Shelter Island Heights was listed on both the United States Register and the New York State Register of Historic Places in 1993 “in recognition of its significance in American history and culture.” Designed about 1872 and essentially unchanged since then, the Heights is a beautiful example of the picturesque, naturalistic landscape and romantic rural residential areas created by the first generation of American landscape architects. Among these were Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City’s Central Park, and Robert Morris Copeland, who laid out the original plan for the Heights, prepared for a Methodist-affiliated organization from Brooklyn. The Heights is among the few preserved communities that combined facilities for religious camp meetings with summer resort living close to New York and Connecticut. The visual and social center of Copeland’s plan was union Chapel (built 1875 and placed on the national register in 1984), the oldest public building on Shelter Island. It is set in a natural amphitheater, the Grove, which was also the site for an open-air preacher’s stand and tents that accommodated the people who attended the first camp meetings. But from the beginning the Heights was conceived as a community with parks, open spaces, a hotel, and lots for private residences. Between 1872 and 1880 about 70 cottages were constructed; by the late 1880s another 30 were added; by 1890 the current layout was defined. Today the Heights Historic District consists of 141 buildings, designed in several distinct styles. The original cottages built in the first decade are in the exuberant folk architecture found in camp meeting sites such as Oak Bluffs on Martha’s Vineyard and Ocean Grove in New Jersey. The most striking feature of these steeply pitched gable roof structures is the elaborate and delicate wood trimming on verandas, gables, windows, and doors. The second wave of development (after 1880) saw larger houses in a variety of styles: Stick, Queen Anne, and Colonial Revival. They feature elaborate embellishments on porches and a sense of fantasy that is derived from a combination of clapboard siding, bands of scalloped shingles, and elaborate, cut-work balustrades and carved friezes. Equally significant is the manner in which the planners exploited the natural configuration of the site. The 300 or so acres rise gradually from the shore to reach the impressive (for Long Island) height of 150 feet above sea level. The Heights is bounded by water on three sides, making a view of the sound and bays available from many vantage points. All the original roads are laid out in a series of sweeping curves that descend in a broad scallop pattern to the water’s edge. Although some erosion of the integrity of the Heights has taken place over time (the original hotel, Prospect House on Prospect Park, was destroyed by fire in 1942), no great changes or additions have been made since the Heights was originally designed and developed. The Shelter Island Heights Historic District remains a unique embodiment of sensitive community development, based on respect for the natural landscape, a 19th century American ideal and practice from which we have much to learn.	<urn:uuid:fb187d8e-5550-45bb-b538-a169474d3d84>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.shelter-island.org/heights.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.957479	908	2.6875	3
Sean Klepper M.D. Artur Zembowicz M.D.... - Defined as urticaria that persist for longer than 6 weeks - Most common in middle-aged individuals - Caused in some cases by IgG autoantibodies which cross-link IgE receptors on basophils and mast cells, causing their degranulation - Some cases are associated with allergies, especially to foods or aspirin. - Other cases are secondary to cholinergic urticaria, caused by an increase in body temperature following exercise, overheating or stress. Histologic Features (similar to what is seen in acute urticaria): - Dermal edema - Vascular dilatation and endothelial swelling - Scant perivascular infiltrate of lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils - Interstitial neutrophils and mast cells	<urn:uuid:9e076dbe-c9eb-4160-b7ec-f35bdc7f0473>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.dermpedia.org/dermpedia-textbook/chronic-urticaria	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.895609	184	2.53125	3
Teaching Oral Hygiene to Rural Guatemalan Families December 19, 2013 Determined to fight one of the most preventable diseases among children–dental caries (cavities)–California State University, Northridge professor Terri Lisagor led a team of students in November to rural Guatemala to teach families there about nutrition and oral hygiene and to be a part of a team that provides basic dental services. Lisagor, acting chair of CSUN’s Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, and three of her students, spent two weeks traveling along Guatemala’s Rio Dulce river, as part of an international effort to improve the health of the region’s residents. See the video and read more in CSUN Today.	<urn:uuid:2504857b-86f5-4e4c-bfd3-1fe20ed8f09c>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://www.csun.edu/health-human-development/news/teaching-oral-hygiene-rural-guatemalan-families	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.941892	153	2.78125	3
About J.R.R. Tolkien Ronald Reuel Tolkien, a very talented writer, is famous for having created such a literary genre as fantasy. All his books are real masterpieces, and many having read them once, want to read them again and again. Warm-hearted and exciting adventure stories, involving people, elves, dwarves, orcs, goblins, wizards, and, of course, hobbits are in Tolkiens accounts. But not only fantastic beings were concocted by him. Both philologist and professor at Oxford University, he knew many ancient and modern languages. Thus, a new world Middle-earth, along with its geography, its history, and several languages appeared. The history of this world goes into the depth of millenniums and stretches four epochs starting from the act of creation. J.R.R. Tolkien was born on 3rd January 1892 at Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State. When he was four years old his mother, Marry Suffield, and his younger brother Hilary, went to England. At that time his father was ill and soon died of rheumatic fever. After his fathers death the family lived at Sarehole, on the south-eastern edge of Birmingham. Ronald spent his childhood there and later scenes from this area would be depicted in his pictures and writings. Another tragic event occurred when J.R.R. Tolkien was 12 the death of his mother who died of diabetes. He and his brother Hilary became wards of a priest at the Birmingham Oratory. The boys attended King Edwards School in Birmingham. At school Ronald was interested in Classic as well as Anglo-Saxon and Middle English. At that time he began to develop his linguistic talent by creating his own languages with grammar and history. Not surprisingly that Tolkien was First in English Language and Literature at Exeter College. Tolkien was married to Edith Bratt. He had known her since they had both lived in the same house in Birmingham. Ronald loved Edith and continued to do so despite being forbidden by Father Morgan to contact her when he studied at college. Considering that it would ruin Ronalds career, Father Morgan would not give his consent to an early marriage. Tolkien was commissioned in the Lancashire Fusiliers and participated in the battle of the Somme. After the war he obtained a post on the New English Dictionary, and began to write the mythological and legendary cycle which he originally called The Book of Lost Tales but which eventually became known as The Silmarillion. Tolkien was appointed as Reader in the English Language at the University of Leeds. Among the students he was famous for his strong and popular teaching. Then Professor Tolkien was elected to continue work at Oxford, as a Professor of Anglo-Saxon. He taught Anglo-Saxon and English right up until his retirement in 1959. Honestly, many of the world scientists supposed that Tolkien had been one of the most gifted and clever philologists. By that time the Tolkiens family consisted of four children (three sons and a daughter) and more than anything father liked to tell his children about mythical beings elves, hobbits, etc. At first such stories were simply fairy tales. And the first book, which made him famous worldwide, the Hobbit (published in 1937) was written in the genre of a fairy tale. The book was a huge success and the public demanded a sequel. Thus, a popular trilogy the Lord of the Rings came into being. retired, Tolkien and his wife lived first in the Headington area of Oxford, then moved to Bournemouth. His wife died in 1971 and after that Tolkien decided to return to Oxford. He was diagnosed as having a bleeding gastric ulcer, and despite some reassuring reports died on September 2nd 1973, aged 81. Tolkien and his wife are buried together in a single grave in the Catholic section of Wolvercote cemetery in the northern suburbs of Oxford. Although the greatest master of fantasy passed away, he left the door open for anyone to an enchanting world of his stories, the key to which is love, kindness and loyalty. These are the qualities that help Tolkiens characters to win over Evil.	<urn:uuid:a1e4581d-b294-43db-830a-42b7d99b4103>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	http://lord-of-the-rings.org/author.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.986461	907	2.890625	3
This eloquent introduction to some very large concepts is science written like poetry. Environmental consultant and educator Kelsey brings her strengths to the table in this app, which is based on the 2012 book of the same name. Though packing plenty of interesting facts (who knew we sneeze with the force of a tornado? or that many animals get their friends to babysit?), the concise writing gives even young readers the tools to think about our integral connection with nature. Readers old enough to question on their own will be eager to learn more—perhaps wanting to learn what an atom is or how it is that the water we drink is the same water the dinosaurs drank. The author carefully draws parallels between the greater cycles of nature and our own bodies; for instance, "you shed the most hair in early autumn," just like trees losing leaves, and "will replace your skin 100 times before you are ten" just as the Earth cycles through the seasons, renewing and replacing its surface. Kim’s stunning and sophisticated 3-D dioramas adapt well to the tablet medium; tilting the tablet shifts perspective subtly, and “page turns” are pleasantly dizzying. Though touch-activated interaction is minimal, low-key animations complement the text’s lyricism. Read by the author, the app includes a section by the artist explaining how she created the dioramas, a note from the author with even more scientific facts and a build-your-own-diorama activity. The perfect combination of art and science to get kids engaged with nature. (iPad informational app. 5-12)	<urn:uuid:32a5b251-cdca-49fd-9bb9-06f9f0617a64>	CC-MAIN-2016-26	https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/elin-kelsey/you-are-stardust-app/print/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.954433	328	3.0625	3

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