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Herbal Remedies Definition of Herbal Remedies for What are Herbal Remedies? Herbal Remedies are natural plant substances used to treat and prevent illness and aid the healing process. In medicinal use any of the parts of natural plants might be considered "herbs", including the leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, seed pots, resin, berries, root bark, inner bark and cambium (the green growth layer just next to the bark) or other parts of the plant.
Herbal Remedies and Native American Spritual Healing The Native Americans believed that natural herbs affect the spirit or soul of the person. Spiritual Healing, which includes the use of natural Herbal Remedies, is undertaken by the Shaman or Medicine Man and is based on the beliefs and healing practices of Native Americans. This type of healing combines elements of spirituality, ceremonies and rituals using natural Herbal Remedies for healing and cleansing. For additional information refer to the Preparation and Application of Herbal Medicinal Plants. Natural herbs and herbal remedies and treatments have long been used as the basis of traditional Native American herbal medicine.
Chart of Medicinal Herbal Remedies and Treatments The Medicine Man needed to know the properties of Herbal Remedies, how they should be prepared and the quantities that were safe to administer. Herbal Remedies can be used in many ways, using different parts of the plant for healing. Some of the Herbal Remedies used were toxic or poisonous but were not dangerous if the correct quantities were taken. Different remedies and medicines are created from the leaves, flowers, juice, berries, nuts, bark, rootstock and roots to make powders, poultices, essential oils, ointments, tinctures, salves and teas.
CAUTION: The following Chart of Medicinal Herbal Remedies is provided for information only. The preparation methods of each herb and the correct quantities must be measured before administering any Herbal Remedies.
DISCLAIMER: We make no medical claims, nor intend to diagnose, treat, or heal medical conditions. Women who are pregnant or nursing, or persons with known medical conditions should consult their physician before taking any herbal products.
Medicinal Herbal Remedies & Treatments Chart
Names of Illness and Sickness
Medicinal Herbal Remedies Names of Herbs used to treat the symptoms of illnesses and sickness
The Medicine Man and the Herbal Remedies The of Herbal Remedies and how they should be used during spiritual experiences and the healing process. Over 2000 medicinal plants were used in the preparation of Herbal Remedies that the Medicine Man, or Shaman, needed to identify in order for him to become an expert in the knowledge of medicinal herbs. The Shaman spent his whole life identifying and collecting such plants and Herbal Remedies. Natural Herbal Remedies were created using the medicinal properties of trees, ferns, grasses, shrubs, flowers, nuts, berries, vines and forbs (a broad-leaved herb other than a grass, found growing in prairies, fields and meadows.
Preparing Herbal Remedies Medicinal Herbal Remedies are prepared in several different ways as each of the herbs release its healing powers in specific forms. Methods in the preparation of Herbal Remedies included making infusions (hot teas), decoctions (boiled teas), tinctures (using alcohol and water extracts), macerations (cold soaking) in order to make powders, ointments, poultices, and salves. The Medicine Man required his knowledge and skills to create Herbal Remedies for the vast variety of ailments treated by modern doctors. The following Chart of Herbal Remedies provide details of the names of common herbs and plants used by the Shaman as medicinal Herbal Remedies and healing aids to treat the illnesses, sickness and disease experienced by tribe members.
Medicinal Herbal Remedies and Treatments - Caution Before administering any herbal remedies it is essential to understand the properties of each of the herbs used in Medicinal Herbal Remedies, how they should be prepared and the quantities of herbs that are safe to administer. Herbal Remedies can be used in many ways, using different parts of the plant for healing. Some Herbal Remedies use toxic or poisonous herbs, but they are not dangerous if the correct quantities are taken. CAUTION: The above Chart of Medicinal Herbs and Remedies is provided for information only. The preparation methods of each herb and the correct quantities must be measured before administering any Herbal Remedies.
Mysteries and the beliefs of Native Americans & Herbal Remedies
Treatment and cures using Herbal Remedies
Rituals associated with the Herb Remedies
Remedies using Herb Remedies
Native American Indian Herbal Remedies, culture and religious beliefs
Pictures and Videos of Native Americans Discover the vast selection of pictures which relate to the History of Native Americans and illustrate many decorations and tattoos used by American Indians. The pictures show the clothing, tattoos, war paint, weapons and decorations of various Native Indian tribes that can be used as a really useful educational history resource for kids and children of all ages and a means to study their interpretation. We have included pictures to accompany the main topic of this section - Native American Culture. The videos enable fast access to the images, paintings and pictures together with information and many historical facts.
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Utah's wild animals
Updated: February 8, 2016, 12:15 pm
Providing opportunities to see, photograph and enjoy Utah's wildlife
Because of public interest in photography, viewing and other wildlife-oriented activities, federal and state land and wildlife management agencies in Utah have formed a partnership with conservation organizations. This effort, known as the Watchable Wildlife Program, provides Utah's citizens and visitors a new opportunity to enjoy and appreciate one of its greatest heritages — its wildlife.
The Watchable Wildlife Program expands our understanding of the world around us. Viewing wildlife in its natural habitat can help us value diversity and see the benefits of all components of our natural environment. Species that aren't hunted, viewed or photographed may play a critical role in the health of another species, or even an entire ecosystem.
See the wildlife calendar, peregrine falcon and festivals and accessibility for disabled persons pages for wildlife viewing opportunities in the state.
Honor the rights of private landowners. Gain permission of private landowners before entering their property.
Honor wildlife's requirement of free movement. Feeding, touching or otherwise harassing wildlife is inappropriate. Young wild animals that appear to be alone have not been abandoned; allow them to find their own way.
Honor the rights of others to enjoy their viewing experience. Loud noises, quick movements or extraordinary behavior that might scare wildlife is inappropriate. Wait your turn or seek another viewing opportunity.
Honor your own right to enjoy the outdoors in the future. Leave wildlife habitat in better condition than you found it. Pick up litter that you might encounter at a viewing site and dispose of it properly.
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Date arithmetic is easy, once you understand the underlying concept. You anchor a spot on a linear timeline. (I added linear for all you time continuum geeks.) For instance, today can be an anchor between yesterday and today, the first day of the year and the last day of the year, and so on. You just have to anchor the right spot on that timeline.
Today, I'm going to show you two ways to determine the remaining number of days in the same year, given a specific date (the anchor). There's an easy way that uses helper columns and a more complex formula that does everything on its own. Both work fine but the helper column, within the context of this discussion is a visual way to help you breakdown the complex formula.
First, let's look at the helper column formula. Column A in the sheet below displays a series of dates, in no particular order. Notice that they're not all from 2013 either. Columns B and C use the YEAR() and DATE() functions to return the date's year and the last day of the same year. Specifically, enter the following formulas in cells B2 and C2, respectively, and then copy those formulas to the remaining cells in each column:
Next, enter into cell D2 the following formula that builds on the helper columns:
The function in column B determines the date's year. The function in column C calculates a date - the last day of the year - using the year value in column B. Finally, the simple expression in column D subtracts the original date in column A from the newly generated last day of the year date in column C. The result is the number of days remaining in the same year.
You can do all of that with one formula - and while I called it complex earlier, it really isn't all that complicated. In cell E2, enter the following formula:
And copy it to the remaining cells in the column. As you can see, one formula can easily handle this calculation. All I've done is combined the tasks from columns B, C, and D. The DATE() function generates the last-day-of-the-year date by using the YEAR() function as its first argument. The final component, -A2 subtracts the original date from the last-day-of-the-year date, the same way the helper functions did.
It's worth mentioning that in both cases, the final result reflects the number of remaining days in the same year as the original date. It isn't the remaining number of days until the end of the current year. If you need a value based on the current year, you'd use the formulas:
These will return negative values for dates in future years.
When faced with a difficult date (or any) calculation, breaking things down into helper columns can help. You can keep the helper columns or combine them once you've worked out the calculations. There's no right or wrong - it's all about getting the correct information as efficiently as possible.
Susan Sales Harkins is an IT consultant, specializing in desktop solutions. Previously, she was editor in chief for The Cobb Group, the world's largest publisher of technical journals.
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The beautiful blooms and pleasing fragrance of your home garden jasmine plants may be under attack by little green worms. What appear to be worms are aphids, a common garden pest, that feed on plants like jasmine. From cosmetic damage to extreme injury and secondary infections, aphids may cause minimal injury or wreak havoc on your landscape if not controlled.
Jasmine plants kept vigorous through proper care have a much greater capacity for avoiding and fighting off aphids than neglected or stressed plants. Maintain consistent care by growing jasmine in locations that offer full sun exposure. With a tolerance to partial shade, this plant thrives in warm weather, as well as moist, well-drained soil with good fertility, according to the Clemson University Extension.
Aphids display soft bodies that often look like green globules, resembling little green worms, on your jasmine plants. Measuring 1/16 to 1/8 inch in length, aphids are also seen exhibiting bodies with or without wings in hues of blue-green, white, orange, red, gray, black or brown. Commonly referred to as plant lice, you may find aphids on a single jasmine plant or as a severe infestation on several plants, according to the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
The little green worms on your jasmine plants are "sucking bugs" that feed on the sap, or tissue fluid, of plant parts. As aphids feed and cause physical damage, two secondary problems arise. First, some aphids carry toxins within their saliva that they transfer to the plant as they feed. Second, aphids excrete a sticky, sugary substance, called honeydew, while they feed. Honeydew attracts and promotes the development of sooty mold fungi. Sooty mold disease develops into a black-hued mold that covers plant surfaces, inhibiting light absorption, according to the Texas Agricultural Extension Service. Ultimate damage includes malformed or stunted plants, blossom discoloration, diminished health and the development of swellings called galls.
Attempting to control aphids without chemicals that may damage your jasmine plant is the first line of defense and often sufficient, according to the University of California IPM Online. Consider the release of natural enemies, such as parasitic wasps. These enemies lay their eggs within aphids' bodies, resulting in their deaths. Additionally, enemies such as lady beetles hunt and kill aphids. Natural enemies do not cause further damage to your plants while they control aphid populations.
Remove and destroy affected plant parts to help minimize the spread of aphids or fungal infection. Employ chemical control as a solution to an extreme green worm infestation. As a botanical and less toxic control, using neem oil or insecticidal soap, thoroughly spray and saturate the entire plant, particularly the undersides of leaves where aphids gather. These insecticides kill aphids on contact. For stronger but more toxic insecticides, consider foliar sprays with the active ingredient permethrin, or malathion, according to the University of California IPM Online.
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| 0.919946 | 637 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Last week we reported Army Engineer Lt. McCauley’s description of the opening of Cumbres Pass in 1877. On the west side of the Southern San Juan Mountains, known then as the Conejos Range, the road followed the Chama River downstream to Park View (Los Ojos), then crossed the river, climbed a gentle valley to Horse Lake, then swung north to Pagosa Springs by way of a crossing of the Navajo River we now know as Edith, and northward to Pagosa Springs.
Another route suggested by McCauley was known as the “Chama-Navajo Cutoff.” This cutoff followed the West Fork of the Chama to a fairly low divide which it crossed providing access to the Navajo River at about where Price Bridge is today. This cutoff was the accepted route from Chama to Pagosa Springs until the 1930s when the present route which enters Colorado by way of Spring Creek, reaching the Navajo at Chromo, known in earlier days as Price because it was named for a settler named Barzillai Price. Here is McCauley’s description of the cutoff, a proposal in 1877.
“Leaving the Chama route on the upper part of that river near the mouth of the main tributary that comes from the east, crossing the main stream and sweeping in a curve to the south and west to avoid high basaltic mesas and vertical walls of rock that shut out the river from passage and approach as securely in some places as a box canyon, we reach the valley of the West Fork (of the Chama River). On easy grades it can be ascended to the divide (Continental Divide); which is lower than the one on the Chama line; this passed brings us to the Navajo, down which it follows for about 5 miles in a westerly direction.
“This section is an especially fine grazing region, and abundantly supplied with timber. Herds of Mexican sheep are driven into the valley of the West Fork, and the Ute Indians, for fully two months last summer, had established their camp upon the Navajo in this vicinity. This river is the preference of all eastern streams in the lower country, and its valley will make an excellent farming or cattle region. Leaving the Navajo, at a few miles northwestwardly, tributaries of the river are crossed, whence after passage of the main divide between water-sheds of that and the Blanco, we reach in a short distance the present ‘upper road’ to Pagosa…This would bring Pagosa to within 123.4 miles of Fort Garland, and 129.9 from the railroad.”
At that time, 1877, the railroad had not crossed the San Luis Valley or the Southern San Juan Mountains, but terminated near Fort Garland.
We read a mention in early Pagosa history sources, I’ve misplaced the source, of a toll keeper on the Colorado end of the cutoff. His name (Nuttall I think) also shows up in the 1880 Conejos County census. I have seen a charter for an Archuleta (family name) toll road connected with the Cumbres to Pagosa route, but I don’t know exactly which portions of that route were owned by the Archuletas.
We’ll have more information next week on routes across the Southern San Juan Mountains connecting Pagosa Springs with the San Luis Valley.
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Even the critters are traveling overseas to take a walk down New York’s High Line, a run-down elevated train track in New York that was converted into a posh West Side park and tourist attraction.
Scientists said in an article published in the Journal of Economic Entomology that a cockroach spotted in the park in 2012 is in fact an Asian species that has never been identified in the United States, the Associated Press reports. The Periplaneta japonica is believed to be particularly hardy and can survive New York’s cold winters.
The newcomers, believed to have stowed away in the soil of one of the park’s ornamental plants, are expected to fight it out with the city’s local population. They may be able to survive the winter cold, but will they be able to take on the summer crowds?
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| 0.94022 | 178 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Conventional wisdom in the United States hails Christopher Columbus as a great explorer who sought a shorter route to the eastern world by traveling west at a time when most people believed the world to be flat. He is credited with 'discovering' the Americas, though it is difficult to imagine how a land can be discovered when it is already inhabited.
Today, in honor of Columbus Day, we should take a moment to reflect upon the realities of the historical events surrounding Columbus' journey. October 12, 1492 marked the beginning of a long and violent oppression of the native population of America that led to their near complete eradication, and we should not let this day pass without acknowledging this tragic reality.
Historian Howard Zinn has written at length about the largely untold story of American history in his acclaimed "A People's History of the United States" and its supplement, "Voices of a People's History of the United States", which includes many of the primary historical documents that Zinn references in the former.
It is important-- not only with regards to Columbus, but for other critical topics as well-- to question the 'official' story fed to children by their teachers, to citizens by their media, and to people by their governments. 'History is written by the victor', as they say, but we would do well to remember another history as well-- that of the loser. By learning the stories of the oppressed and the subjugated we can be better equipped to oppose similar atrocities in the future.
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In Laos, working days are from Monday to Saturday, from 8:00 AM to 12:00 AM. and form 2:00 PM till 5:00 PM.
Official holidays include the following days:
- International New Year (January 1)
- Lao New Year (mid April)
- International Labour Day (May 1)
- National Day (December 2)
Festival and Major Events
A variety of festivals and religious ceremonies are observed throughout the whole year. The most important ones are listed below.
Boun Khoun Khao: Harvest festival in villages. A ceremony is performed giving thanks to the spirit of the land.
Boun Khao Chi: a ceremony held at the wat (temple) in the morning, when a special “bread made of sticky rice” is offered.
Sikhottabong Festival in Khammouan: This religious festival is held at Sikhottabong stupa, located about 6 km south of Thakhek. Historically, it was built in the 8th and 10th centuries by King Nanthasene. Then the stupa was restored as its original design in the 1950’s.
Wat Phu Festival in Champasak: Wat phu festival is annually held in the full moon of the 3rd month of lunar calendar, on the grounds of the enchanting pre-Angkorian Wat Phu remains in Champasak. Festivities are elephants racing, buffaloes fighting, cocks fighting and performances of Lao traditional music and dance. The trade fair showcasing the products from the southern province of Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam is also held.
Boun Pha Vet: a ceremony of offering donations to have one’s future read from a piece of paper drawn, during the three day-three night festival.
Lao New Year Parade in Luang PrabangBoun Pimai: the Lao New Year, is celebrated in mid April. On the first day of the festival, Buddha images are taken out of the temples to be cleaned with scented water. The water which drops from the images is collected and taken home in order to pour it on friends and relatives as an act of cleaning and purification. On the evening of the final day, the Buddha images are returned to their proper shrines. In Luang Prabang the festival also features a beauty contest with the crowning of Miss Pimai.
Lao New Year in Vientiane: Lao New Year,Pi Mai Lao, usually performed on April 14-16, or lunar new year, is the time when the entire country celebrates; citizens remove Buddha images from the temples to clean with scented water, then take to the streets to dowse one another with this water, an act of clean and purification in anticipation of the end of the dry season.
Lao New Year in Luang Prabang: In Luang Prabang, the new year celebration is especially beautified amd the most colorful parade describing the traditional Lao costumes, music and dance, the procession of the sacred Prabang Buddha image, and the Miss New Year beauty contest will be shown.
Boun Bangfai: the rocket festival, is held at the beginning of the rainy season. The festival is a call for rain and a celebration of fertility. In the morning a religious ceremony is performed. In the afternoon, people gather in the fields on the outskirts of villages and towns to launch self-made firework rockets. Different communities compete for the best decorated and the highest travelling rocket. Men disguised as women perform vaudeville acts using wooden phalli in order to anger the gods. As revenge, the gods are expected to send thunderstorms. Beginning around the middle of May, the rocket festivals are staggered from place to place to enable greater participation and attendance.
This is time when an offering to the spirits can be made in a corner of one’s garden, very early in the morning
Boun Khao Phansa: the beginning of the Buddhist lent. During the next three-month period. Monks spend most of their time in prayer and meditation and are restricted from spending nights in other vats other than their own.
Boun Kao Padabdinh: the observation of a practice of making offerings to the dead.
Boat Racing Festival in Luangprabang: This festival includes boat racing on the NamKhane River and a trade fair in Luangprabang city.
Boun Khao Salak: At the Khao Salak ceremony day, people visit local temples to make offering to the dead as well to share merits making.
Boun Ok Phansa: that marks the end of the monks’ three-month-fast and retreat during the rainy season. At dawn, donations and offerings are made at the temples. Prayers are chanted by the monks, and at dusk candlelight processions wind round the temples. Concurrently, hundreds of decorated candlelit-floats, made of paper, are set adrift in the rivers. These carry offerings and incense, transforming the river into a fragrant snake of sparkling. This ceremonial part is called Boun Lay Heua fai. The biggest event of the Phansa festival, Boun Souang Heua, is a boat race on the Mekong river between competing communities the next day.
Boat Racing Festival in Khammouan: Boat Racing is held in Sebangfai river. At the same occasion a trade fair of agricultural products, local handicrafts, traditional Lao music and dance performance; at the same time, citizens donate the offering to the dead in to share merits.
Boat Racing Festival in Vientiane: In Vientiane, the water festival held during k Pansa is spectacular; on the first day at dawn, donations and offerings are made at temples around the city; in the evening, candlelight processions are held around the temples and hundred of colorful flosta decoated with flower; incense and candle are set adrift down the Mekong river in thanksgiving to the river spirit; the next day, a popular and exciting boat racing competition is held on the Mekong.
Boun That Luang Festival and Trade Fair: This religious festival is held in and around That Luang stupa, the national sysmbol of Laos. It is a three-day religious festival celebrated at full moon in November. It begins with pre-dawn gathering of ten thousands of pilgrims from Laos and Thailand at That Luang who listen to prayers and sermons chanted by hundreds of monks representing all Lao wats. During the following days a fair is held nearby, showcasing tourism in Laos and other countries in ASEAN and the Great Mekong Sub region,will take place during the day. The festival ends with a huge fireworks display.
That Inhang Festival in Savannakhet: This festival will be held on the grounds of the splendid That Inhang stupa, located just outside the city of Savannkakhet; an international trade fair will include exhibitions of tourism products from Laos, Thailand and Vietnam and performance of traditional Lao, Thai and Vietnamese music and dance; the fair will also include a sports competition, complete with foorball, boxing and tennis matchs and local traditions like a drumming competition.
Hmong New Year: Between mid December until January, the Hmong New Year celebration features colorful displays of traditional costumes made from green, red and white silk and ornate silver jewelry. Music from traditional Hmong instruments such as the teun-flute, Hmong-style khene pipe and leave blowing is enjoyed. Other festivities include the Makkhon (cotton-ball) throwing ceremony, ox fighting, spinning-top races and crossbow demonstrations. The festival takes place in Oudomxay, Xieng Khouang, Luang Prabang and Vientiane Province.
Calendar of events and festivals in Laos for 2008
Calendar of events and festivals in Laos for 2009
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Identify ways humans depend on natural resources for survival.
Renewable resource: a naturally occurring material, substance or form of energy that can replenish/replace itself through ecological cycles and good management. For example, wind, sun, trees, wildlife.
Non-renewable resource: a substance or material found naturally in the environment that cannot replenish/rplace itself within this geological age, for example gas, oil, copper, gold, oil.
sustainable: using natural resources in a way that will ensure their availability for now and future generations.
natural resource: raw materials supplied by the Earth, for example, minerals, soil, water, sun, animals, plants, etc.
Students will be able to
One 45-60 minute class period
Examples of natural resources (pictures or items)
Example of renewable resources (pictures or items)
Examples of nonrenewable resoruces (pictures or items)
Large paper, enough for each group
Clue cards-enough for each group
Student copy sheet- enough for 1 per student
W Teachers introduces concepts by writing the words natural resources on the board and letting students know we are discussing term rsources. Teachers helps students explore the many items people use that come from natural resources.
H Teacher has actual examples of natural resources and provides students with then opportunity to work in groups and brainstorm items that come from natural resources that they use.
E. Students will divide into groups and be given "clue sheets" in order to develop their own definitions of renewalbe and nonrenewable.
R. Working in groups, students classify items as renewable and nonrenewable resources. Students have opportunity to develop a "not sure" list. Individuals or class can investigate the item then classify.
E Students will complete the student sheets- where they answer questions regarding renewable and nonrenewable resources, followed by class discussion and review.
T: Instruction is differentiated by the use of concrete examples, working in groups, and class discussion.
O: Learning experiences are organized by moving from teacher led activities to group activity and individual activity.
Background: Natural resources are materials that are naturally found in the environment that are useful or valued by people. We use natural resources for housing, clothing, transportation, heating, cooking, etc. Natural resources include air, water, land, minerals, plants, animals-- basically everything found in the environment that we use to meet our needs or our wants. Natural resources are divided into 2 major categories: renewable and non-renewable.
Renewable resources can be replenished through natural processes and/or management by people. Trees are a natural resource. Even though trees die or are cut-down, trees are considered a renewable resource. Why? Trees can reseed themselves or can be replanted by people. The same with animals. We use animals for food and clothing however, new animals are contually being born and raised. Wind and solar energy are renewable resources. They are continually renewed or restored
It is important to realize that we can over use a renewable resource. Animals and plants can become extinct if we use them too quickly- without giving them time to replenish. That is why we have state and federal agencies to manage wild plants and animals and laws describing if, when, where and how many can be harvested. The passenger pigeon became extinct due to irresponsible hunting and loss of habitat-- there were no laws regulating hunting when this bird became extinct. Grasslands can be overgrazed so that grasses/ crops cannot regrow and the soil loses its ability to support plant life.
Non-renwable resources exist in limited amounts. These resources cannot be replace or restored in a timely fashion. Examples of nonrenewable resources include oil, coal, gas, copper, gold and other metals. Fossil fuels were formed through processes that took millions of years. Copper, gold and other metals were formed when Earth was formed. Once these sources are used up, no additional sources are available on Earth.
1. Write the terms natural resource on the board. Ask students what these terms mean. Give examples or have pictures of examples, such as trees, coal, copper, animals. Ask students if people use any of these resources. Write their ideas on the board. They may need some hints, so if possible, have pictures of a diamond ring, a fireplace, a wooden desk, etc. Explain that natural resources are those raw materials that are found in the environment that people use to help meet their needs or wants.
2. Divide students into small groups. Ask them to list items that people use that come from a natural resource. They should list as many as they can. Post lists around the room and review.
3. Select a few of the resources common to all the lists and write them down on the board. Ask students what would happen if we ran out of the material to make some of these items? What would we do? Explain that some natural resources are renewable and others are non-renewable
4. Divide students into groups of 4. Tell students that each group is to define the terms "renewable" and non-renewable" resources and give examples of each. To help them out, each group will receive clue cards. Pass out the student page and the clue cards. Each student in the group should get 1 clue card.
5. Students should read their clue card and share the information with the others in their group. Then, each team should use the information on the cards to come up with a definition for renewable and non- renewable. (Teachers should monitor progress of groups to ensure they have accurate definitions). Ask students to list examples for each.
6. Next pass out the student page 2. Students should be given time to discuss the answers in their group. Then, students should record their answers on their own paper.
7. Wrap up: Class discussion. Go over definitions and student pages with class. Go back to the lists hanging around the classroom. Ask students if the item comes from a renewable resource or a non-renewable resource. Make a list of items students are not sure about, if any. Then, assign students to find out what natural resource is used to make the item. Then ask students if items come from a renewable or non-renewable resource.
Extension: Ask students to choose a clothing or food item they like to eat or wear. Using a concept or flow map, ask students to construct a concept map including all of the materials needed to make their item. Then, ask them to label any materials that are renewaable resources and/or non-renewable resrouces.
Clue Card 1 On Earth, there are only limited amounts of fossil furesls such as oil, coal and natural gas. There are also limited amounts of minerals such as iron, copper and gold. These resources either cannot be replaced by natural proceses or require million of years to replenish.
Clue Card 2 Some non-renewble and renewable natural resources can be recycled or reused. Recycling reduces the amount of minerals that has to be taken from the earth. For example, recycling aluminum cans reduces the amount of bauxite that has to be mined from the earth. Bauxite is used to make aluminum. So, recycling cans helps conserve bauxite. Recycling plastic bottles or reusing plastic items helps reduce the amount of oil that has to be used to make plastic. Therefore, recycling plastic helps conserve oil, which is a fossil fuel.
Clue Card 3 Renewable natural resources include plants, animals, and falling water when they are properly managed. Minerals and fossil fuels, sucha s coal and oil, are examples of non-renewable natural reources.
Clue Card 4 Trees, wildife, water and many other natural resources are replaced by natural processes. Plant and animals can also be replaced by human activities if managed properly. Water is continually recycled and reused. Sunlight, wind, geothermal and hot springs, flowing water are resources that are constantly being renewed or restored. Sand and other soils are also renewable but take much, much longer to renew.
Summary Questions--This can be done as a class or given to students to complete on their own.
1. Categorize the following as renewable (R) or non-renewable (N):
2. Look around the classroom and list as many items as you can that are made from natural resources. Then, label them as renewalble or non renewable.
Item Natural Resource Renewable or Non-renewable
3. What renewable resources could be used to replace non-renewable resources. For example, pencils instead of pens made of plastic.
4. It is possible for some renewable resources to be used up or ruined so that it is no longer a renewable resource. What do you think could happen to a plant or an animal that would make it no longer renewable?
"A Few of My Favorite Things" from Project Learning Tree
"Renewable or Not" from Project Learning Tree
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ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia
Dinosaur-like creatures are mentioned in the Bible. The Bible uses ancient names like “behemoth” and “tannin.” See:
In the Old Testament translations, the word “dragon” is used for the following ancient words:
Hebrew: TANNIM, plural of tan—the name of some unknown creature inhabiting desert places and ruins (Job 30:29; Psalm 44:19; Isa. 13:22; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 10:22; Micah 1:8; Mal. 1:3).
Hebrew: TANNIN—some great sea monster (Jer. 51:34).
What is the LEVIATHAN mentioned in the Bible? (sea monsters)
Hebrew: plural TANNINIM (Genesis 1:21)
In the New Testament, the word “dragon” is found only in Rev. 12:3-4, 7, 9, 16-17, etc., and is there used metaphorically of “Satan.”
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Alexander M. McCook
April 22, 1831 – June 12, 1903
Alexander McDowell McCook was the highest ranking officer of the “Fighting McCooks”, fourteen members of one family who all participated in the Civil War. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1852 after taking five years to finish a four year program. He was posted to the 3rd Infantry and spent several years fighting Indians in New Mexico before returning to West Point to teach.
After the outbreak of the Civil War, McCook was commissioned as a colonel of the 1st Ohio Volunteers, and first saw combat during the First Battle of Manassas. On September 3, 1861 McCook was promoted to brigadier general, and was sent to Tennessee to command the 2nd Division of the Army of Ohio under General D. C. Buell. McCook commanded his men during the capture of Nashville, at the Battle of Shiloh, and during the Siege of Corinth. On July 17, 1863 McCook was promoted to major general for his actions in Tennessee. He was given command of the I Corps of the Army of the Ohio, and commanded them at the Battle of Perryville, where his corps suffered heavy losses. His command was reorganized into the XIV Corps of the Army of the Cumberland, and he suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Stones River. The army was again reorganized into the XX Corps, and McCook commanded the corps during the Union disaster at the Battle of Chickamauga. McCook and Union general T.L. Crittenden were blamed for the defeat at Chickamauga. He received a court-martial hearing for his actions at the battle, but was not found guilty of any wrong-doing. McCook was, however, relieved of command. He did not receive orders again until Confederate General Jubal Early threatened Washington, DC. McCook was placed in charge of defense forces around the capital, and commanded his men during the Battle of Fort Stevens.
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Obese Kids Often Bullied
Study Shows Bullied Obese Kids Suffer More Depression, Anxiety, Loneliness
May 3, 2010 -- Obese children in the early grades of school are more likely to be bullied than thinner kids, contributing to depression, anxiety, and loneliness, a new study shows.
Researchers analyzed data on 821 children participating in the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. The participating children attended school at one of 10 study sites located in the U.S.
Reports of a child being bullied were provided by the child, teacher, or mother during study visits in third, fifth, and sixth grades. BMI was calculated from height and weight measurements at the same grade levels. In third grade, 50% of pupils studied were male, 81% white, 17% obese, and 15% overweight.
The conclusions were straightforward:
Obese children were more likely to be bullied regardless of a number of potential sociodemographic, social, or academic differences.
- No protective factors were found.
- It’s important to find ways to reduce bullying, which has risen to epidemic proportions.
Researchers say that:
- 17% of 6- to 11-year-olds in the U.S. were estimated to be obese between 2003 and 2006.
- Parents rate bullying as their top health concern.
- Obese kids who are bullied suffer more depression, loneliness, and anxiety.
The researchers say it’s important to make sure that obesity is the main reason kids are being bullied. The child’s race and being members of poorer families were also analyzed as potential contributing factors, along with weak social skills and low academic achievement. The study found that obese 8- to-11-year-old kids were more likely to be bullied than children who weren’t overweight, regardless of sex, race, or other factors.
Researchers say they found kids were bullied whether they were rich or poor, made better or worse grades, and that race didn't seem to be a factor.
“Being obese by itself seems to increase the likelihood of being a victim of bullying,” the researchers conclude.
- Interventions in schools are badly needed, as are steps to address obesity at home and elsewhere.
- Messages need to be created that are aimed at reducing the premium placed on thinness in society and the negative stereotypes of those who are overweight or obese.
The study is published in the May 3 issue of Pediatrics.
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The Values That Sustain Entrepreneurs
Ray Smilor, President, Beyster Institute for Entrepreneurial Employee Ownership
One stereotypical image that sometimes hovers around the concept of the "entrepreneur" is the conniving, step-on-anyone-to-get-ahead, wheeler-dealer -- a kind of J.R. Ewing personality who cares for no one but himself and nothing but his own advancement. No doubt there are some individuals like that in the business world. And we do hear the term "entrepreneur" occasionally applied to scam artists who rip off unsuspecting people, to dealers in illegal trades who prey on the weaknesses of others, and to white-collar criminals who try to cheat the system. Applying the term "entrepreneur" to people doing these transactions implies that the term has no basis in values and morals.
But entrepreneurship is not a values-free, amoral process. The very act of starting and building something of significance should require a consideration of values -- of combining what is done with how it is done. There's also a very practical reason for a values-based, morally rigorous view of entrepreneurship. That is usually the only viable way for an entrepreneur to do business in the long run.
What values may be particularly important in guiding the entrepreneur? One especially provocative and enlightening set of values has emerged from the Native American community. Michele Lansdowne, from the Salish and Kootenai tribes in Montana, and Lisa Little Chief Bryan, from the Lakota tribes in South Dakota, have developed an entrepreneurship curriculum that focuses on the questions, choices and obstacles that entrepreneurs may face when growing their businesses in Indian country. Their list of values and the way they tie these values to business development can serve as a guide for each of us.
Bravery. In recognizing and pursuing and opportunity, an entrepreneur requires bravery. Bravery, which springs from natural creativity and a determined spirit, helps the entrepreneur deal with discouragement and even defeat in the early stages of company formation.
Vision. Vision guides the entrepreneur through the business planning process, clarifying the opportunity and setting goals for the organization. Vision allows the entrepreneur to see past his or her current position and beyond limited resources to more fully appreciate the potential of the venture.
Respect for self and others. Respect for one’s self and others is essential. It enables the individual to appreciate his or her efforts, relate effectively to family and community, and motivate others. This respect, which stems from pride, hope, and enthusiasm, frees entrepreneurs from the obstacles of low self-esteem, hopelessness, and anger.
Trust. Trust is an indispensable part of the marketing effort as the company grows. Trust, which results from reliability, compassion, and gentleness, permits the entrepreneur to overcome mistrust, selfishness, and ruthlessness as the company deals with employees, customers, and vendors.
Honesty. An entrepreneur must be honest in financing the company and managing the assets of the firm. Honesty, which emanates from decisiveness in taking risks and making choices, lets the entrepreneur avoid false security and stay calm amid confusing situations.
Generosity. In directing the management and operations of a growing business, an entrepreneur should be generous. Generosity, which develops from supporting and leading others, permits an entrepreneur to eliminate racial bias, reduce resistance to change, and heal dysfunctions within the organization.
Fortitude. An entrepreneur requires fortitude to keep a business strong and eventually bring it to harvest. Fortitude, which stems from persistence, realism, and consistency, strengthens the entrepreneur against scattered thinking and giving up
Most Valuable Possession
An entrepreneur's most valuable possession in the business world is not money or products or facilities. It's his or her reputation. If you lie, cheat, or steal, the marketplace usually learns about it, and you lose any credibility that you may have had. On the other hand, those who are guided by a set of values, like the ones developed for the Native American entrepreneurship program, enhance their credibility in the marketplace and draw others who want to do business with them. Sometimes entrepreneurs can get so caught up in the new, new thing -- the latest, greatest product, service, or technology -- that they fail to see and appreciate what actually sustains them, their employees, and their enterprises over the long term. By thinking of themselves as brave, visionary, respectful, trustworthy, honest, generous, and fortitudinous, entrepreneurs can maintain the "True North" direction in their lives and companies that Stephen Covey talks about in his book, Principle-Centered Leadership.
I like the set of values that emerged from the Native American community. They inspire while they inform. They emphasize that character is critical in the company-building process. They provide a standard and a challenge for an entrepreneur who seeks to build a viable and lasting enterprise. And they remind us that true success -- and, I'd contend, a happier life -- stems from enlightened values that direct behavior.
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Arabian (Dromedary) Camel Range
- Not assessed
- Over 7 ft (2.1 m) tall at the hump
- Up to 1,600 lbs (726 kg)
- Group name:
- Flock or Caravan
- Did you know?
- Unlike many other animals, camels move both legs on one side of the body at the same time.
- Size relative to a 6-ft (2-m) man:
The ancient camel question is: One hump or two? Arabian camels, also known as dromedaries, have only one hump, but they employ it to great effect. The hump stores up to 80 pounds (36 kilograms) of fat, which a camel can break down into water and energy when sustenance is not available. These humps give camels their legendary ability to travel up to 100 desert miles (161 kilometers) without water. Camels rarely sweat, even in desert temperatures that reach 120°F (49°C), so when they do take in fluids they can conserve them for long periods of time. In winter, even desert plants may hold enough moisture to allow a camel to live without water for several weeks.
When camels do refill, however, they soak up water like a sponge. A very thirsty animal can drink 30 gallons (135 liters) of water in only 13 minutes.
Other adaptations help dromedaries thrive in desert conditions. Their nostrils close to keep sand at bay, and they have bushy eyebrows and two rows of long eyelashes to protect their eyes. Large, tough lips enable them to pick at dry and thorny desert vegetation. Big, thick footpads help them navigate the rough rocky terrain and shifting desert sands.
Arabian camels have been domesticated for approximately 3,500 years and have been long valued as pack animals. They can carry large loads for up to 25 miles (40 kilometers) a day. Some cultures judge a person's wealth based on the number of camels they own. Today, nearly all of the world's camels are domestic animals. They are found in northern Africa and southwestern Asia, and have been introduced to Australia.
The loss of animal species is irreversible and potentially catastrophic, not to mention heartrendingly sad. Where do we stand? Face the facts with this quiz.
The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the oldest species of seal on the planet. But their tenure in paradise is perilously close to its end; only about 1,100 seals remain in the wild.
They’re rarely seen. Even less often photographed. Bryde’s whales rocket through Pacific shallows to gorge on fish. Dive in for more.
Find out what National Geographic Society is doing to save animals all over the world, and learn what you can do to help.
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Section I. Freedom of Religion
The Constitution states that Islam is the official religion; however, while the Constitution also provides for freedom of religion, the Government does not tolerate political dissent from religious groups or leaders, and subjects both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims to governmental control and monitoring. Most world religions are represented in the country, and their followers generally practice their faith privately without interference from the Government.
The population is overwhelmingly Muslim. Citizens belong to the Shi'a and Sunni branches of Islam, with Shi'a constituting over two-thirds of the indigenous population. However, Sunnis predominate because the ruling family is Sunni and is supported by the armed forces, the security service, and powerful Sunni and Shi'a merchant families. Foreigners constitute 35 to 40 percent of the total population. Roughly half of resident foreigners are non-Muslim. Christians and other non-Muslims including Jews, Hindus, and Baha'is are free to practice their religion, maintain their own places of worship, and display the symbols of their religion.
Bibles and other Christian publications are displayed and sold openly in local bookstores that also sell Islamic and other religious literature. Some small groups worship in their homes. Notable dignitaries from virtually every religion and denomination visit the country and frequently meet with the Government and civic leaders. Religious tracts of all branches of Islam, cassettes of sermons delivered by Muslim preachers from other countries, and publications of other religions are readily available.
However, proselytizing by non-Muslims is discouraged, anti-Islamic writings are prohibited, and conversions from Islam to other religions, while not illegal, are not tolerated well by society.
Both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims are subject to governmental control and monitoring. During 1998 the Government closed a few mosques and Ma'tams (Shi'a community centers) to prevent religious leaders from delivering political speeches during their Friday prayers and sermons.
The High Council for Islamic Affairs is charged with the review and approval of all clerical appointments within both the Sunni and Shi'a communities, and maintains program oversight for all citizens studying religion abroad. Public religious events, most notably the large annual commemorative marches by Shi'a, are permitted but are watched closely by the police. There are no restrictions on the number of citizens permitted to make pilgrimages to Shi'a shrines and holy sites in Iran, Iraq, and Syria. However, stateless residents who do not possess Bahraini passports often have difficulties arranging travel to religious sites abroad. The Government monitors travel to Iran and scrutinizes carefully those who choose to pursue religious study there.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
The political dynamic of Sunni predominance has led to incidents of unrest between the Shi'a community and the Government, including during the period covered by this report. For example, in October 1998 police detained up to 20 young men following demonstrations against the Government over the death of a Shi'a man who died from injuries he allegedly received when police detained and tortured him in 1994. Also during the period covered by this report, the Government held in detention hundreds of Shi'a for security-related crimes such as treason. In June 1999, the Government gradually began freeing incarcerated individuals as part of an Amiri decree calling for the release or pardon of over 350 Shi'a political prisoners, detainees, and exiles, including politically active Shi'a cleric Abdul Amir Al-Jamri. By the end of the period covered by this report, as many as 700 persons still remained in detention. There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners during the period covered by this report whose imprisonment could be attributed to the practice of their religion.
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Although there are notable exceptions, the Sunni Muslim minority enjoys a favored status. Sunnis receive preference for employment in sensitive government positions and in the managerial ranks of the civil service. Shi'a citizens are not allowed to hold significant posts in the defense and internal security forces. However, the Amir recently opened up employment to Shi'a in the Bahrain Defense Force and the Ministry of the Interior, two bodies in which Shi'a had been denied employment during the past four years. In the private sector, Shi'a tend to be employed in lower paid, less skilled jobs.
Educational, social, and municipal services in most Shi'a neighborhoods, particularly in rural villages, are inferior to those found in Sunni urban communities. In an effort to remedy social discrimination, the Government has built numerous subsidized housing complexes, which are open to all citizens on the basis of financial need. In order to ease both the housing shortage and strains on the national budget, in 1997 the Government revised its policy in order to permit lending institutions to finance mortgages on apartment units.
The Government has declared the Shi'a religious celebration of Ashura to be a national holiday. In a gesture of conciliation toward the Shi'a community, the Amir donated rice and lamb to some 500 Shi'a community centers for the 1999 Ashura.
Converts from Islam to other religions are not well tolerated by society (see Section I).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
An official written dialog takes place between U.S. Embassy officials and government contacts on matters of religion. One such example is the memorandum received by the Embassy each year from the Government in response to the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Bahrain.
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Fruitarian diet consists of only eating fruits and nuts. Humans need to use more solar energy for survival and generating power. It is a natural source of energy with no side effects. Humans can continue their existence on this planet only if they can adapt themselves in going back to mother nature.
I believe fruits and nuts provide more than just energy and nutrition to our bodies. According to my personal experience if you eat only good quality fresh fruits and nuts these can make you fly! I had times in my life when I ate only fruits and nuts and never felt any stronger and alive. I think it is some kind of solar energy possibly ”bio photons” mentioned by scientists. Unlike birds who have transparent feather stems similar to solar panels, humans have little ability to get direct energy from the sun. Fruits and nuts contain solar energy obtained from the sun by means of the leaves. This energy seem to have unbelievable effects for the healing of the body. Furthermore the juices of the fruits and fresh nuts do not burden our system, but pass easily through it, giving the body a more efficient energy system.
Besides imagine a world where people ate only fruits and nuts. This would result in a healthy abundance of fruit and nut trees, giving nutritious food to be enjoyed by those who wish to live an energetic and healthy life. The world would be transformed in beauty to the way it used to look earlier with an increase in tree populations cleaning the air and offering suitable environment for endangered wildlife.
When we start eating only fruits and nuts the difference is felt very quickly. A sensation of integrity and a wave of energy is spread in the body. Another benefit to our health could be a psychological one, if we think we are not causing the death of animals to survive. There is no need to make secret of the fact that when we consume meat, we are triggering a chain reaction together with all the other consumers, which would finally cause the death of a poor animal living somewhere out there, of whom we have never seen the face.
The increase of human population in the world and our wrong eating habits are the main reasons for the destruction of the forests and the right environmental conditions in which we live. Excessive grazing of domestic animals and endless fields where crops are raised do not permit the creation of a suitable flora which is necessary for the growth of the trees. This also means erosion, which takes away the fertile soil and poor peasants moving to the towns, which grow continually, creating more environmental and social problems. As for our bodies they are not designed to live sedentary lives in those towns. Degenerative diseases such as cancer, heart disease or osteoporosis can strike us and then we’ll suffer.
Fruitarian lifestyle could be a plan to stop the global warming and save the world as it will result the increase of the fruit trees everywhere in the world. It simply consists of collecting fruits from the trees, eating them and scattering their seeds around. By doing this, we will spread these fruit trees everywhere and will need no instruments to do that. Our bare hands are designed to collect and eat fruits. So there will be no need to harm the nature by processing, cooking and even by washing dishes with heavy dirt.
“The human body doesn’t need food to live! But as long as it moves, it will not die” said, Mr. Zeki Tamer who died at his age of 92. This old fruitarian, athlete and swimming instructor, was still able to run 100 meters in 14 seconds, at the age of 90. His motto was “what is the use of controlling the entire world if you can not control your own body”.
Please head over to our BLOG for freshest articles.
Other pages in this site which might be useful are:
Last Anatolian Panther – It seems like it is now too late to forbid the hunting of the Anatolian Panther. To protect other endangered species in Turkey Turkish government must ban all sorts of hunting in order to have better control over illegal hunting. (available in English, Turkish and Russian)
Organic Waste Composting – A translation I made for Greenpeace from a booklet of the municipality of Brussels about organic waste composting (in Turkish)
Ottoman Governor Abidin Pasha – An Ottoman vizier who is the father of my Grandfather’s mother. (in Turkish)
Links to sites that might be of interest:
privatetourturkey.com customised tours I offer in Turkey.
cappadocialodge.com a charming guest house offering fantastic views and vegetarian food in Cappadocia.
privatetournewzealand.com tailored eco tours I offer in New Zealand.
privatetourrussia.com private tours in Russian federation and neighbouring countries.
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4th Session, 61st General Assembly
61 Elizabeth II, 2012
Cape Breton North
First Reading: April 17, 2012
WHEREAS students should feel safe at school;
AND WHEREAS schools need to assist students in developing healthy relationships and making good choices to enhance their learning success;
AND WHEREAS government needs to support schools in their efforts to provide a safe, inclusive and peaceful learning environment;
THEREFORE be it enacted by the Governor and Assembly as follows:
1 This Act may be cited as the Safer Schools Act.
2 (1) In this Act,
(a) "bullying" means any direct or indirect behaviour, comment, act or gesture, including those made through the use of social media, intended to injure, hurt, oppress, intimidate or ostracize, and includes cyberbullying,
(b) "inappropriate student behaviour" includes bullying, gender-based violence and incidents based on homophobia.
(2) Unless the context indicates otherwise, words and expressions in this Act have the same meaning as in the Education Act.
3 The Minister shall establish policies and guidelines with respect to bullying prevention and intervention in schools, including
(a) training to be provided for all teachers and support staff;
(b) procedures that allow students to report incidents of bullying safely and in a way that minimizes the possibility of reprisal;
(c) procedures for responding appropriately and in a timely manner to bullying;
(d) the use of disciplinary measures in response to bullying;
(e) resources to be provided to support students who are impacted by bullying; and
(f) resources to be provided to students who have been suspended for bullying.
4 The Minister may establish policies and guidelines respecting
(a) the use of a disciplinary framework that
(ii) provides for appropriate consequences for a student who engages in inappropriate behaviour, a mechanism to inform the student's parents of the reason for disciplinary action and the action that will be taken in the event of any further inappropriate behaviour,
(iv) provides support for students and their parents who are impacted by inappropriate behaviour and for students who engage in inappropriate behaviour to assist them in developing healthy relationships, making good choices and continuing their learning and achieving success,
(b) opportunities for all students and their parents, teachers and support staff to increase their understanding and awareness of inappropriate student behaviour;
(c) training for all teachers and support staff to increase their ability to respond to inappropriate student behaviour; and
(d) procedures for responding appropriately and in a timely manner to inappropriate student behaviour.
5 (1) Every school board shall establish policies and guidelines with respect to
(a) disciplining students who bully or engage in inappropriate student behaviour consistent with those established pursuant to Sections 3 and 4; and
(b) address any other matter and include any other requirement that the Minister may specify.
(2) Every school board shall prepare an annual report that states
(a) the incidence and nature of bullying and inappropriate student behaviour for each school within its jurisdiction; and
(b) the measures taken to improve each school's results with respect to preventing and intervening in bullying and inappropriate student behaviour and enhancing the quality of its learning environment,
and file it with the Minister and publish it on the school board's website no later than July 1st of each year.
6 (1) Principals shall support any group of students within their individual schools who wishes to conduct activities the principal of that school considers conducive to reducing and preventing bullying and inappropriate student behaviour.
(2) The school board shall support a group of students who wishes to conduct activities conducive to reducing and preventing bullying and inappropriate student behaviour and that have been endorsed by a principal in its district pursuant to subsection (1).
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Dr. Manu's goal as a teacher is to have a positive effect on students' future profession in sustainable management of natural resources by laying a foundation for them to build on and he expects them to derive long-term mutual benefits from their interaction for a semester or two in his classes.
To cater to the different learning needs of students, he has adopted the "Hybrid" form of teaching. He uses the traditional "chalk and blackboard" approach for the benefit of students who prefer and feel comfortable with the one-on-one or face-to-face interaction with instructors. He also takes advantage of ongoing advancement in course development, and information delivery that involve the use of computer-assisted instruction to stimulate students' interest in soil and related sciences. (Watch: "2 minutes with Dr.Manu")
The applied component of the course is a hands-on activity in which students work in small groups to make land use plans according to their areas of interest. Students in Agron 154 apply soil principles to make sustainable land use decisions by delineating suitable areas for the production of row crops (corn and soybean) using reduced tillage, terraces and appropriate rotations to keep soil erosion at tolerable levels.
Students in Agron 155 develop a management plan for horticultural uses and they use their soils knowledge to identify areas for vegetable and flowers production, small fruits and nursery stocks, fruits and nut trees, sod, golf course (fairway, tees and greens) and housing developments.
Agron 154DL - off campus version of Agron 154: This is offered annually during the spring semester as a distance learning course. For this course, material is sent to students on two CD ROMs for speed and flexibility. Telephone, e-mail and letters are used to communicate with students and answer any questions they may have.
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Standard conventional and circular fluorescent lamps with filaments can be ignited easily and much more quickly by using Thyristors instead of the mechanical starter switch, and solid state Thyristors are more reliable.
Thyristors produce a pure solid state igniting circuit with no mechanical parts in the fluorescent lamp fixture. Also, because the lamp ignites much faster, the life of the fluorescent lamp can be increased since the filaments are activated for less time during the ignition. The Thyristor ignition eliminates any audible noise or flashing off and on which most mechanical starters possess.
Figure shows a circuit for igniting a fluorescent lamp with 240 V line voltage input using Triac and DIAC networks.
Figure illustrates a schematic using a SIDAC phase control network to ignite a 240 V ac fluorescent lamp. The one major change is that two K2400E devices in series are used to accomplish high firing voltage for a fluorescent lamp.
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
|eMedicine||med/1682 orthoped/427 pmr/93 radio/492|
Osteoarthritis (OA, also known as degenerative arthritis, degenerative joint disease), is a clinical syndrome in which low-grade inflammation results in pain in the joints, caused by abnormal wearing of the cartilage that covers and acts as a cushion inside joints and destruction or decrease of synovial fluid that lubricates those joints. As the bone surfaces become less well protected by cartilage, the patient experiences pain upon weight bearing, including walking and standing. Due to decreased movement because of the pain, regional muscles may atrophy, and ligaments may become more lax. OA is the most common form of arthritis, and the leading cause of chronic disability in the United States.
"Osteoarthritis" is derived from the Greek word "osteo", meaning "of the bone", "arthro", meaning "joint", and "itis", meaning inflammation, although many sufferers have little or no inflammation. A common misconception is that OA is due solely to wear and tear, since OA typically is not present in younger people. However, while age is correlated with OA incidence, this correlation merely illustrates that OA is a process that takes time to develop. There is usually an underlying cause for OA, in which case it is described as secondary OA. If no underlying cause can be identified it is described as primary OA. "Degenerative arthritis" is often used as a synonym for OA, but the latter involves both degenerative and regenerative changes.
OA affects nearly 21 million people in the United States, accounting for 25% of visits to primary care physicians, and half of all NSAID (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs) prescriptions. It is estimated that 80% of the population will have radiographic evidence of OA by age 65, although only 60% of those will show symptoms. In the United States, hospitalizations for osteoarthritis soared from about 322,000 in 1993 to 735,000 in 2006.
Signs and symptomsEdit
The main symptom is acute pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. "Pain" is generally described as a sharp ache, or a burning sensation in the associated muscles and tendons. OA can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved or touched, and patients may experience muscle spasm and contractions in the tendons. Occasionally, the joints may also be filled with fluid. Humid weather increases the pain in many patients.
OA commonly affects the hips, feet, spine, and the large weight bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although in theory, any joint in the body can be affected. As OA progresses, the affected joints appear larger, are stiff and painful, and usually feel worse, the more they are used throughout the day, thus distinguishing it from rheumatoid arthritis.
In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) and/or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. OA at the toes leads to the formation of bunions, rendering them red or swollen.
Although it commonly arises from trauma, osteoarthritis often affects multiple members of the same family, suggesting that there is hereditary susceptibility to this condition. A number of studies have shown that there is a greater prevalence of the disease between siblings and especially identical twins, indicating a hereditary basis . Up to 60% of OA cases are thought to result from genetic factors. Researchers are also investigating the possibility of allergies, infections, or fungi as a cause.
Two types Edit
OA affects nearly 21 million people in the United States, accounting for 25% of visits to primary care physicians, and half of all NSAID (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs) prescriptions. It is estimated that 80% of the population will have radiographic evidence of OA by age 65, although only 60% of those will be symptomatic. Treatment is with NSAIDs, local injections of glucocorticoid or hyaluronan, and in severe cases, with joint replacement surgery. There has been no cure for OA, as cartilage has not been induced to regenerate. However, if OA is caused by cartilage damage (for example as a result of an injury) Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation may be a possible treatment. Clinical trials employing tissue-engineering methods have demonstrated regeneration of cartilage in damaged knees, including those that had progressed to osteoarthritis. Further, in January 2007, Johns Hopkins University was offering to license a technology of this kind, listing several clinical competitors in its market analysis.
This type of OA is a chronic degenerative disorder related to but not caused by aging, as there are people well into their nineties who have no clinical or functional signs of the disease. As a person ages, the water content of the cartilage decreases due to a reduced proteoglycan content, thus causing the cartilage to be less resilient. Without the protective effects of the proteoglycans, the collagen fibers of the cartilage can become susceptible to degradation and thus exacerbate the degeneration. Inflammation of the surrounding joint capsule can also occur, though often mild (compared to that which occurs in rheumatoid arthritis). This can happen as breakdown products from the cartilage are released into the synovial space, and the cells lining the joint attempt to remove them. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces. These bone changes, together with the inflammation, can be both painful and debilitating.
This type of OA is caused by other factors but the resulting pathology is the same as for primary OA:
- Congenital disorders, such as:
- Congenital hip luxation
- People with abnormally-formed joints (e.g. hip dysplasia (human)) are more vulnerable to OA, as added stress is specifically placed on the joints whenever they move. [However, recent studies have shown that double-jointedness may actually protect the fingers and hand from osteoarthritis.]
- Cracking joints—the evidence is weak at best that this has any connection to arthritis.
- Inflammatory diseases (such as Perthes' disease), (Lyme disease), and all chronic forms of arthritis (e.g. costochondritis, gout, and rheumatoid arthritis). In gout, uric acid crystals cause the cartilage to degenerate at a faster pace.
- Injury to joints, as a result of an accident.
- A joint infection, e.g. from an injury.
- Hormonal disorders.
- Ligamentous deterioration or instability may be a factor.
- Obesity. Obesity puts added weight on the joints, especially the knees.
- Sports injuries, or similar injuries from exercise or work. Certain sports, such as running or football, put undue pressure on the knee joints. Injuries resulting in broken ligaments can lead to instability of the joint and over time to wear on the cartilage and eventually osteoarthritis.
- Hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease
Diagnosis is normally done through x-rays. This is possible because loss of cartilage, subchondral ("below cartilage") sclerosis, subchondral cysts from synovial fluid entering small microfractures under pressure, narrowing of the joint space between the articulating bones, and bone spur formation (osteophytes) - from increased bone turnover in this inflammatory condition, show up clearly on x-rays. Plain films, however, often do not correlate well with the findings of physical examination of the affected joints.
With or without other techniques, such as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), arthrocentesis and arthroscopy, diagnosis can be made by a careful study of the duration, location, the character of the joint symptoms, and the appearance of the joints themselves. As yet, there are no methods available to detect OA in its early and potentially treatable stages.
In 1990, the College of Rheumatology, using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the diagnosis of hand osteoarthritis based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropities .
Related pathologies whose names may be confused with osteoarthritis include pseudo-arthrosis. This is derived from the Greek words pseudo, meaning "false", and arthrosis, meaning "joint." Radiographic diagnosis results in diagnosis of a fracture within a joint, which is not to be confused with osteoarthritis which is a degenerative pathology affecting a high incidence of distal phalangeal joints of female patients.
Generally speaking, the process of clinically detectable osteoarthritis is irreversible, and typical treatment consists of medication or other interventions that can reduce the pain of OA and thereby improve the function of the joint.
No matter the severity or location of OA, conservative measures such as weight control, appropriate rest and exercise, and the use of mechanical support devices are usually beneficial. In OA of the knees, knee braces, a cane, or a walker can be helpful for walking and support. Regular exercise, if possible, in the form of walking or swimming,and not giving strong impacts is encouraged. Applying local heat before, and cold packs after exercise, can help relieve pain and inflammation, as can relaxation techniques. Heat — often moist heat — eases inflammation and swelling, and may improve circulation, which has a healing effect on the local area. Weight loss can relieve joint stress and may delay progression [How to reference and link to summary or text]. Proper advice and guidance by a health care provider is important in OA management, enabling people with this condition to improve their quality of life.
In 2002, a randomized, blinded assessor trial was published showing a positive effect on hand function with patients who practiced home joint protection exercises (JPE). Grip strength, the primary outcome parameter, increased by 25% in the exercise group versus no improvement in the control group. Global hand function improved by 65% for those undertaking JPE.
Medical treatment includes NSAIDs, local injections of glucocorticoid or hyaluronan, and in severe cases, with joint replacement surgery. There has been no cure for OA, as cartilage has not been induced to regenerate. However, if OA is caused by cartilage damage (for example as a result of an injury) Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation may be a possible treatment. Clinical trials employing tissue-engineering methods have demonstrated regeneration of cartilage in damaged knees, including those that had progressed to osteoarthritis. Further, in January 2007, Johns Hopkins University was offering to license a technology of this kind, listing several clinical competitors in its market analysis.
Supplements which may be useful for treating OA include:
There is still controversy about glucosamine's effectiveness for OA of the knee. A 2005 review concluded that glucosamine may improve symptoms of OA and delay its progression. However, a subsequent large study suggests that glucosamine is not effective in treating OA of the knee, and a 2007 meta-analysis that included this trial states that glucosamine hydrochloride is not effective.
Along with glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate has become a widely used dietary supplement for treatment of osteoarthritis. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found no benefit from chondroitin. However, the Osteoarthritis Research Society International is in support of the use of chondroitin sulfate for OA. [How to reference and link to summary or text]
- Omega-3 fatty acid,a vitamin supplement comprised of important oils derived from fish. [How to reference and link to summary or text]
- Boswellia, an herbal supplement known in Ayurvedic medicine. It is widely available in health food stores and online. [How to reference and link to summary or text]
- Bromelain, a protease enzymes extracted from the plant family Bromeliaceae, blocks some proinflammatory metabolites.
- Antioxidants, including vitamins C and E in both foods and supplements, provide pain relief from OA.
- Hydrolyzed collagen (hydrolysate) (a gelatin product) may also prove beneficial in the relief of OA symptoms, as substantiated in a German study by Beuker F. et al. and Seeligmuller et al. In their 6-month placebo-controlled study of 100 elderly patients, the verum group showed significant improvement in joint mobility. [How to reference and link to summary or text]
- vitamins B9 (folate) and B12 (cobalamin) taken in large doses has been thought to reduce OA hand pain in one very small, non-quantitative study of 25 people. The results of which are extremely vague at best. The risk from large doses would suggest that this is not a safe treatment.
- Vitamin D deficiency has been reported in patients with OA, and supplementation with Vitamin D3 is recommended for pain relief.
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein 6 (BMP-6) has recently been shown to have a functional role in the maintenance of joint integrity and is now being produced in an orally ingested form.
Other nutritional changes shown to aid in the treatment of OA include decreasing saturated fat intake and using a low energy diet to decrease body fat. Lifestyle change may be needed for effective symptomatic relief, especially for knee OA.
Dealing with chronic pain can be difficult and result in depression. Communicating with other patients and caregivers can be helpful, as can maintaining a positive attitude. People who take control of their treatment, communicate with their health care provider, and actively manage their arthritis experience can reduce pain and improve function. [How to reference and link to summary or text]
A mild pain reliever may be sufficiently efficacious. Paracetamol (tylenol/acetaminophen), is commonly used to treat the pain from OA, although unlike NSAIDs, acetaminophen does not treat the inflammation.[How to reference and link to summary or text] A randomized controlled trial comparing paracetamol with ibuprofen in x-ray-proven mild to moderate osteoarthritis of the hip or knee found equal benefit. However, acetaminophen at a dose of 4 grams per day can increase liver function tests.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugsEdit
In more severe cases, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) may reduce both the pain and inflammation; they all act by inhibiting the formation of prostaglandins, which play a central role in inflammation and pain. Most prominent drugs in the class include diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen and ketoprofen. High oral drug doses are often required. However, diclofenac has been found to cause damage to the articular cartilage. Even more importantly all systemic NSAIDs are rather taxing on the gastrointestinal tract, and may cause stomach upset, cramping, diarrhea, and peptic ulcer. Such systemic adverse side effects are normally not observed when using NSAIDs topically, that is, on the skin around the target area. The typically weak and/or short-lived therapeutic effect of such topical treatments may be improved by using the drug in more modern formulations, including or ketoprofen associated with the Transfersome carriers or diclofenac in DMSO solution.
COX-2 selective inhibitorsEdit
Another type of NSAID, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib, and the withdrawn rofecoxib and valdecoxib) reduce this risk substantially. These latter NSAIDs carry an elevated risk for cardiovascular disease, and some have now been withdrawn from the market.
Most doctors nowadays avoid the use of steroids in the treatment of OA as their effect is modest and the adverse effects may outweigh the benefits.
"Topical treatments" are treatments designed for local application and action. There are several NSAIDs available for topical use (e.g. diclofenac, ibuprofen, and ketoprofen) with little, if any, systemic side-effects and at least some therapeutic effect. The more modern NSAID formulations for direct use, containing the drugs in an organic solution or the Transfersome carrier based gel, reportedly, are as effective as oral NSAIDs.
Severe pain in specific joints can be treated with local lidocaine injections or similar local anaesthetics, and glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone). Corticosteroids (cortisone and similar agents) may temporarily reduce the pain. Certain anti-inflammatory medications, such as dexamethasone, can also be used in a procedure called iontophoresis, which uses mild electrical current to transfer the medication through the skin.
If the above management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery may be required. Individuals with very painful OA joints may require surgery such as fragment removal, repositioning bones, or fusing bone to increase stability and reduce pain. Surgical intervention for osteoarthritis of the knee may be no better than placebo at relieving symptoms.
The most common course of OA is an intermittent, progressive worsening of symptoms over time, although in some patients the disease stabilizes. Prognosis also varies depending on which joint is involved.
Factors associated with progression of OA:
- Knees: High body mass index, varus or valgus knee deformity.
- Hips: Night pain, presence of femoral osteophytes, and subchondral sclerosis in females.
- Hands: Older age.
- Articular cartilage repair
- Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation
- Back pain
- Chronic pain
- Partial knee replacement
- Arthritis Care
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Conaghan, Phillip Osteoarthritis - National clinical guideline for care and management in adults. (PDF) URL accessed on 2008-04-29.
- ↑ (February 2001) Prevalence of disabilities and associated health conditions among adults—United States, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 50 (7): 120–5.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Green GA (2001). Understanding NSAIDs: from aspirin to COX-2. Clin Cornerstone 3 (5): 50–60.
- ↑ Hospitalizations for Osteoarthritis Rising Sharply Newswise, Retrieved on September 4, 2008.
- ↑ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia 000423
- ↑ Water on the knee, MayoClinic.com
- ↑ Valdes AM, Spector TD (August 2008). The contribution of genes to osteoarthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 34 (3): 581–603.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Hollander AP, Dickinson SC, Sims TJ, et al (2006). Maturation of tissue engineered cartilage implanted in injured and osteoarthritic human knees. Tissue Eng. 12 (7): 1787–98.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Repairing knee joints by growing new cartilage using an injectable hydrogel
- ↑ Altman R, Alarcón G, Appelrouth D, et al (1990). The American College of Rheumatology criteria for the classification and reporting of osteoarthritis of the hand. Arthritis Rheum. 33 (11): 1601–10.
- ↑ Stamm TA, Machold KP, Smolen JS, et al (2002). Joint protection and home hand exercises improve hand function in patients with hand osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 47 (1): 44–9.
- ↑ The effects of Glucosamine Sulphate on OA of the knee joint.
- ↑ Poolsup N, Suthisisang C, Channark P, Kittikulsuth W (2005). Glucosamine long-term treatment and the progression of knee osteoarthritis: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 39 (6): 1080–7.
- ↑ McAlindon T, Formica M, LaValley M, Lehmer M, Kabbara K (November 2004). Effectiveness of glucosamine for symptoms of knee osteoarthritis: results from an internet-based randomized double-blind controlled trial. Am J Med 117 (9): 643–9.
- ↑ Vlad SC, Lavalley MP, McAlindon TE, Felson DT (2007). Glucosamine for pain in osteoarthritis: Why do trial results differ?. Arthritis & Rheumatism 56 (7): 2267–77.
- ↑ Reichenbach S, Sterchi R, Scherer M, et al (2007). Meta-analysis: chondroitin for osteoarthritis of the knee or hip. Ann. Intern. Med. 146 (8): 580–90.
- ↑ Brien S, Lewith G, Walker A (2004). Bromelain as a Treatment for Osteoarthritis: a Review of Clinical Studies. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine: eCAM. 1 (3): 251–257.
- ↑ McAlindon TE, Jacques P, Zhang Y, et al (1996). Do antioxidant micronutrients protect against the development and progression of knee osteoarthritis?. Arthritis Rheum. 39 (4): 648–56.
- ↑ Altman RD, Marcussen KC (2001). Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 44 (11): 2531–8.
- ↑ UNC News release -- Study links low selenium levels with higher risk of osteoarthritis. URL accessed on 2007-06-22.
- ↑ Flynn MA, Irvin W, Krause G (1994). The effect of folate and cobalamin on osteoarthritic hands. J Am Coll Nutr 13 (4): 351–6.
- ↑ Arabelovic S, McAlindon TE (2005). Considerations in the treatment of early osteoarthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rep 7 (1): 29–35.
- ↑ Bobacz K, Gruber R, Soleiman A, Erlacher L, Smolen JS, Graninger WB (2003). Expression of bone morphogenetic protein 6 in healthy and osteoarthritic human articular chondrocytes and stimulation of matrix synthesis in vitro. Arthritis Rheum. 48 (9): 2501–8.
- ↑ Wilhelmi G. Z Rheumatol. 1993 May-Jun; 52(3):174-9. Vasishta VG et al, Rotational Field Magnetic Resonance (RFQMR) in treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee joint, Indian Journal of Aerospace Medicine, 48 (2), 2004; 1-7.
- ↑ Christensen R, Astrup A, Bliddal H (2005). Weight loss: the treatment of choice for knee osteoarthritis? A randomized trial. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 13 (1): 20–7.
- ↑ De Filippis L, Gulli S, Caliri A, et al (2004). [Epidemiology and risk factors in osteoarthritis: literature review data from "OASIS" study]. Reumatismo 56 (3): 169–84.
- ↑ Bradley JD, Brandt KD, Katz BP, Kalasinski LA, Ryan SI (1991). Comparison of an antiinflammatory dose of ibuprofen, an analgesic dose of ibuprofen, and paracetamol in the treatment of patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. N. Engl. J. Med. 325 (2): 87–91.
- ↑ Watkins PB, Kaplowitz N, Slattery JT, et al (2006). Aminotransferase elevations in healthy adults receiving 4 grams of acetaminophen daily: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 296 (1): 87–93.
- ↑ Moseley JB, O'Malley K, Petersen NJ, et al (July 2002). A controlled trial of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee. N. Engl. J. Med. 347 (2): 81–8.
- ↑ Manheimer E, Linde K, Lao L, Bouter LM, Berman BM (2007). Meta-analysis: acupuncture for osteoarthritis of the knee. Ann. Intern. Med. 146 (12): 868–77.
- American College of Rheumatology Factsheet on OA
- Osteoarthritis The Arthritis Foundation
- Arthritis Care major UK charity
- WebMDHealth: Osteoarthritis Basics at WebMD
- MedlinePlus: Osteoarthritis at National Institutes of Health
- Osteoarthritis Clinical Trials Resource at oatrial.com
- Overview at University of Maryland
- Focuses on living with arthritis with links to support groups in 16 different countries at paremanifesto.org
- BBC Coverage of Autologous Chondrocyte graft in UK
- UK Health Charity covers Autologous Chondrocyte grafts
- Treatment Information for Arthritis Sufferers
Musculoskeletal disorders: Arthropathies (M00–M19, 711–719)
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Researchers from the Poznan University of Technology in Poland and the Linkoping University in Sweden have been whittling away at the possibilities of creating energy from wood waste. The key ingredient in this new technology is lignin, a chemical compound of waste produced in the paper-making process. Scientist are using the lignin as an insulator and polypyrrole as a conductor to create and hold an electric charge. Wood is of course a renewable resource, and it’s much more readily available than the chemicals used in traditional batteries. While the technology is still in research phases, we could see the use of wooden batteries in our lifetime as we continue to utilize our natural resources for renewable fuel and energy!
Image © duchamp
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Sleep enhances cognitive functioning and influences moods. Having enough sleep contributes to a more positive mood. When the brain lacks the sleep it needs, brain systems become out of balance. Young (and adult) brains become more easily agitated when sleep deprived.
Research shows the quality and amount of sleep not only affects our moods, it also influences our mental sharpness, productivity, creativity, physical activity level, and also weight. Sleep provides all of these benefits... and it feels so good! The printable for this week shares information on the benefit of sleep.
Learning and family interactions can be easily affected by lack of sleep. Here are a few tips to help ensure your family is getting enough of the quality sleep your brains need to keep everyone happier:
- Plan activities to take place before or after children's nap times or before bedtimes.
- Do all you can to keep bedtimes and bedtime routines as consistent as possible.
- Provide calm activities like reading a book, giving a massage, taking a warm bath, or listening to soothing music as part of the bedtime routine.
- Eliminate watching television or using other electronics with bright lights prior to bedtime routines.
- Provide "brain calming" foods as a bedtime snack such as warm milk, a banana, toast with almond butter, or oatmeal with a bit of peanut butter added.
A research study reported in Child Development found, "Higher proportions of total sleep occurring at night time, at both 12 and 18 months, were related to better performance on executive tasks, especially those involving a strong impulse control component."
This post provides valuable information on sleep pattern issues in babies. This is very helpful for parents wanting to understand sleep regression.
If you are looking for resources to help promote sleep, Lori Lite of Stress Free Kids provides Music CDs for Relaxation.
The following guide might be very useful for you as well.
The Average Amount of Sleep Needed By Age
|Newborns (0-2 months)||12 - 18|
|Infants (3 months to 1 year)||14 - 15|
|Toddlers (1 to 3 years)||12 - 14|
|Preschoolers (3 to 5 years)||11 - 13|
|School-aged children (5 to 12 years)||10 - 11|
|Teens and preteens (12 to 18 years)||8.5 - 10|
|Adults (18+)||7.5 - 9|
You have read this article with the title November 2012. You can bookmark this page URL http://slantedshanty.blogspot.com/2012/11/brain-insights-to-share-brains-need.html. Thanks!
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After an Earthquake
- Expect aftershocks. These secondary shockwaves are usually less violent than the main quake but can be strong enough to do additional damage to weakened structures and can occur in the first hours, days, weeks, or even months after the quake.
- Listen for instructions from the Department of Public Safety or other first-responders. Pay close attention to information provided via the Emergency Notification System. If you have a battery-operated radio or television, listen for the latest emergency information.
- Use the telephone only for emergency calls.
- Open cabinets cautiously. Beware of objects that can fall off book shelves or other types of stands or furniture.
- Stay away from damaged areas, broken windows and downed power lines. Remain at a safe distance away unless your assistance has been specifically requested by 1st responders. Do not return to any building unless the building has been deemed safe by professional personnel.
- Help injured or trapped persons. Remember to help your neighbors, particularly those with special needs.
- Give first aid where appropriate. Do not move seriously injured persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
- Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, gasoline or other flammable liquids immediately if you can do so without injuring yourself. Leave the area if you smell gas or fumes from other chemicals.
- Remain alert and prepared to act.
Modified from FEMA information
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Daniel Straus NYU Institute Chooses Theme of Racial, Economic and Ethnic Segregation
Today marks 50 years since the Great March on Washington which called on the nation to grant civil rights equality to all members of American society, especially the black population. On August 28, 1963 approximately a quarter million people from all walks of life converged on the mall in Washington DC to demand “Jobs and Freedom” and to listen to speeches of some of the nation’s most ardent advocates of civil and economic rights for blacks.
Most noteworthy of the speakers was black civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr who delivered his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech, which is still listened to and taught in schools today.
Today, one half of a century later, it is quite appropriate that The Joseph and Gwendolyn Straus Institute for the Advanced Study of Law & Justice of New York University, has chosen for its annual theme “Racial, Ethnic and Economic Segregation.” The institute, which was established by Daniel Straus in honor of his parents, actualizes their belief in the power of education and ideas to change society. This year’s theme, coming exactly 50 years after King’s great speech, exemplifies the institute’s relevance to the changing world of justice and law.
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Endangered antelopes have been fitted with GPS collars so they can be monitored by conservationists.
Nine hirola from seven herds in north-east Kenya have been tagged, said the Zoological Society of London (ZSL).
Hirola numbers in the wild are thought to have fallen by 90 per cent in the last 30 years, leaving just 400 to 500 alive today. Drought, poaching and habitat loss are the principal reasons for their decline, conservationists said.
Cath Lawson, coordinator of ZSL’s EDGE conservation programme which focuses on protecting unusual species, said: ‘Hirola is an EDGE – evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered – species, one of the most unique and threatened animals on the planet.’
ZSL EDGE fellow and University of Wyoming doctoral student, Abdullahi Hussein Ali, added: ‘Because of the elusive nature of the hirola, identifying herds for collaring was not an easy task.
‘This particular habitat had also recently been hit by drought, so it made our job harder as it caused the hirola to disperse further in search of greener pastures.’
The collars will track their population and movement before dropping off remotely in June 2014.
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| 0.945315 | 258 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Seniors with diabetes were at more than a 50% increased risk for physical disability and disability in daily living activities, researchers found.
A systematic review showed that diabetes was associated with a 71% increased odds of mobility disability (95% CI 1.53-1.91), with an increased relative risk of 51% (95% CI 1.38-1.64) in patients with a mean age of 55, according to Evelyn Wong, MPH, of the Alfred Center in Melbourne, Australia, and colleagues.
Diabetes status was also significantly associated with an 82% increased odds of disability in performing activities of daily living (95% CI 1.63-2.04), such as bathing, and a 65% increased odds of disability in performing instrumental activities of daily living, such as being able to use a phone (95% CI 1.55-1.74), they wrote online in The Lancet Diabetes Endocrinology.
The authors noted that the worldwide prevalence of diabetes has more than doubled over the past 30 years and that the condition comes with increased risks of disabling disorders, such as cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, and renal failure.
Prior research has shown a doubled risk of diabetes-associated disability, though no meta-analysis has pooled risk estimates.
They studied the magnitude of the relationship between diabetes and prediabetes with risks of disability and factors that may affect this association through a systematic review and meta-analysis of 26 studies of adult patients with and without diabetes.
Risk estimates were pooled for disabled mobility, activities of daily living, and instrumental activities of daily living and were adjusted for age, sex, smoking status, and education. Follow-up length varied from 18 months to 9 years.
Study sample sizes were as large as 66,813 and as small as 369 and included participants with a mean baseline age of 55, but most were older than 55.
None of the studies defined the type or cause of diabetes.
Activities of daily living included bathing, dressing, eating, walking across a room, transferring from a bed or chair, and using a toilet. Instrumental activities of daily life included using the phone, shopping, and using transportation. Impaired mobility was defined as self-reported limitation in walking a quarter to half a mile or in walking up and down stairs, as well as through objective measures in physical performance tests of walking speed, chair stands, and balance tests.
The pooled odds of cross-sectional studies showed disabled mobility was increased by 68%. Additionally, a case-control study showed a two-and-one-tenth-fold increased odds of disabled mobility with diabetes. The pooled data between the types of studies showed a 71% increased odds of disabled mobility (95% CI 1.53-1.91) among patients with diabetes, with a relative increased risk of 51% versus those without diabetes.
Pooled odds of disability of instrumental activities of daily living versus those without diabetes were 65%, which did not differ significantly in cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies.
Increased odds of disability in activities of daily living were 87% versus those without diabetes.
The authors found significant "but low" heterogeneity between cross-sectional studies showing associations with diabetes and activities of daily life or with mobility disability.
An accompanying editorial by Edward Gregg, PhD, of the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion in Atlanta, noted that there were a number of "deficits of the evidence base related to diabetes and disability that could affect prevention strategies." These included a lack information on which mechanisms lead to functional decline and in what ways they are explained by vascular complications, and whether therapeutic approaches make a difference; also, if associations in the opposite direction affect the relationship and how diabetes may affect younger patients.
The study authors also found the study was limited by potential misclassification of diabetes, the absent information on type and cause of diabetes, and unclear mechanisms by which hyperglycemia leads to disability.
The study was supported by Monash University, the Baker IDI Bright Sparks Foundation, the Australian Postgraduate Award, ViCHealth, the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council, and the Victorian Government.
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
- Reviewed by Robert Jasmer, MD Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and Dorothy Caputo, MA, BSN, RN, Nurse Planner
The Lancet Diabetes EndocrinologySource Reference: Wong E, et al "Diabetes and risk of physical disability in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis" Lancet Diab Endocrinol 2013; DOI: 10.1016/52213-8587/(13)70046-9.
The Lancet Diabetes EndocrinologySource Reference: Gregg EW "Diabetes-related disability as a target for prevention" Lancet Diab Endocrinol 2013; DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587/(13)70054-8.
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| 0.952253 | 1,008 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Cancer and horrific experiences of modern life. If you are focusing on preventing it, or if you already have cancer, having some knowledge will help you to make it through successfully. This article can help make your relationship with cancer considerably less strenuous.
Not only will you feel your best each day by keeping a healthy diet along with lots of regular exercise, it also reduces your risk of cancer. Eating plenty of vegetables and fruit, drinking plenty of water, and exercising for 30 minutes every day can help to keep cancer at bay and help you to live a healthy and happy life.
Immediately quit smoking if you that you have cancer. A lot of people who are afflicted with cancer victims think that it’s okay to keep smoking since they are already sick. The carcinogens contained in cigarettes could decrease your body’s chance of fully recovering.
Be aware that any fruits and vegetables that you buy at the market can sometimes be contaminated. Pesticides are used to prevent insects and pests.
There are various people still believe. Some people might think of cancer as being contagious and that you may be unable to do your job. Make an effort to establish a point to be completely transparent and open dialogue on the subject.
Always have a stand when you need to. There might be people who think they cancer is contagious and that they can actually catch something from you. It will benefit you control of the conversation and how other people respond during your treatment.
If a loved one receives a diagnosis of cancer, make the effort to hear them out. It can be hard sometimes, but remember that the person diagnosed with cancer has the need to release their emotions.
If you do have cancer, make sure that you increase you understanding of the disease by reading any medical literature that you have access to.
Depression has significant effects on your overall health and increase the likelihood that your ability to fight disease. They might even give up completely.
Value all of the support you get during this difficult time.
If you’re feeling neglected by friends and family, politely bring up this topic with them. Kindly explain to them what they can do to help you to feel better. This can be a tough period of great difficulty.The basis should be based on love. Do not ever have any regrets!
Help your loved ones who suffer from cancer to find a network of support people they can speak with. The Internet should contain loads of information about cancer support groups in your neighborhood, so they can find someone to talk to.This will allow the individual with cancer a good way to let their emotions out.
If you have a family member with cancer, make certain to speak up and ask any questions you have yourself. You have questions that you want answered as well, too, which you may not understand without asking your own questions.
Whether you just got a cancer diagnosis or you’ve been dealing with it for years, a support group can be a huge help.Most of these groups also welcome family members.
If a loved friend or close family member has become a patient of cancer, you should try to treat them the same way as you always have. Cancer victims need any love and positive energy from others they can get, and when people feel sorry for them, they might feel badly and whittle down self-esteem.
When going out in the sun, wear covering clothes and sunscreen to defend yourself against the sun’s UV rays. The sun’s UV radiation is extremely detrimental to the skin, and melanoma, such as certain melanomas, can quickly become fatal without timely treatment.
Prior to undergoing treatment, ask any questions you may have so the upcoming changes to your body are well understood. This prepared mindset will help you to deal with the side effects of your treatment. If you are receiving chemotherapy or radiation treatment, talk with other patients to get recommendations about makeup and wigs so that you will be prepared when the time comes.
Not all regular fabrics used in clothing is going to keep the damaging sun rays from making their way to your skin and causing damage. If you are unable to find any at stores, look online and you are sure to find some that you will love.
The fear of cancer is literally like a tumor in your mind. Remember the things you’ve learned from this article, and use them as tools to aid you as you fight against cancer. Whether you’re suffering from the disease yourself or supporting a loved one, these tips can help.
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PERSONAL HEALTH; Diabetes Candidates Can Reduce the Risk
By JANE E. BRODY
Published: January 15, 2002
Most serious childhood diseases can now be prevented by vaccines, and most bacterial infections can be cured with antibiotics. But one condition now running rampant has no medical preventive or cure.
That condition is Type 2 diabetes, and preventing and curing it requires a kind of intervention that only the potential and actual victims can provide: making better food choices, getting more exercise and -- most important of all -- avoiding excess weight or taking it off if it's already there.
The incidence of Type 2 diabetes has risen by a third since 1990, and treatment of the disease costs $100 billion a year.
There are now 15 million Americans, including at least 300,000 children, with Type 2 diabetes, an inability to prevent dangerous rises in blood sugar because the body's cells have become resistant to the hormone insulin and the pancreas is unable to supply enough extra to compensate.
One-third of people with this disease do not know they have it. However, like Type 1 diabetes, in which the pancreas fails to produce insulin, Type 2 diabetes can lead to serious, even life-threatening complications, including blindness, kidney disease, nerve damage and heart disease.
Who May Be Affected
Certain ethnic groups face a higher than usual risk of developing diabetes, including African-Americans, Latinos, Asian-Americans, Pacific Islanders and American Indians.
Regardless of ethnic heritage, three main groups face an elevated risk of becoming diabetic: those with close blood relatives with diabetes; women who developed gestational diabetes or whose babies weighed more than nine pounds at birth, and people of all ages who are significantly overweight, particularly those with a spare tire around the middle.
Dr. Reza Yavari, an endocrinologist affiliated with the Yale University School of Medicine, said abdominal fat was particularly dangerous ''because it secretes hormones and other factors that counter the action of insulin.''
To determine whether a midlife bulge places you in a high-risk category, take a tape measure and divide your waist size by your hips. If the result exceeds 0.85 for a woman or 1.0 for a man, it is time to think about trimming down that belly.
It does not take much to become a candidate for diabetes. Just eat 100 calories a day more than you expend -- that is about half a Snickers bar -- and in 10 years you will gain 100 extra pounds, Dr. Yavari pointed out.
As the founder of Beyond Care, a lifestyle management program in Branford, Conn., that helps people at risk keep diabetes at bay, Dr. Yavari is painfully aware of how easy it has become for people to overeat and underexercise, starting with the nation's youth. About 85 percent of children with Type 2 diabetes are overweight.
Children today are surrounded by junk food and calorie-laden fast foods even at school, they spend too much time watching television and playing video games and, both in school and at home, they devote too little time to physical activities, Dr. Yavari said.
From 1977 to 1995, for example, walking and cycling among children ages 5 to 15 dropped 40 percent. Fewer than a third now walk to school and participation in sports activities continues to decline, especially as children enter adolescence, when they naturally begin to put on body fat.
Exercise is crucial not only in helping people of all ages maintain a healthy weight, but it also curbs the risk of diabetes by increasing the body's sensitivity to insulin and decreasing the tendency to eat for reasons other than hunger.
The percentage of children who are overweight has risen 50 percent since 1970 -- to about one child in five today -- and, since 1991, adult obesity has risen by about 60 percent.
Excessive television watching is a hazard for adults as well as for children. In a study of 37,918 health professionals released last June, Dr. Frank B. Hu and colleagues at the Harvard School of Public Health found that, compared with men who rarely watched television, those who spent 21 to 40 hours a week watching television faced twice the risk of diabetes and those who watched more than 40 hours a week were nearly three times as likely to develop diabetes.
Those who watched a lot of television also tended to eat more snacks and sweets and fewer fruits and vegetables, adding further to their risk of becoming overweight and developing diabetes.
Of course, women are as susceptible as men to poor health habits that lead to diabetes. In the Nurses Health Study, which has followed nearly 85,000 women for more than 16 years, Dr. Hu reported last June that being overweight was the single most important predictors of diabetes.
Those least likely to develop diabetes were lean, performed moderate to vigorous physical activity at least half an hour a day and ate a healthful diet high in fiber, low in sugars, refined starches and harmful fats. These characteristics were lacking in 90 percent of the 3,300 women who developed Type 2 diabetes in the follow-up period.
Last summer, the federal Department of Health and Human Services decided to release the striking results of a national study of diabetes prevention a year ahead of time. The study was conducted at 27 medical centers among 3,234 high-risk participants who had already begun to show an impaired ability to regulate blood sugar.
The study clearly demonstrated that even modest changes in living habits -- eating less fat, exercising two and a half hours a week and losing on average just 7 percent of body weight -- cut the incidence of diabetes by more than half over a three-year period.
The study participants who were most likely to remain healthy were those who attended diet and exercise classes and received monthly professional follow-up coaching to help keep them on track of a healthier lifestyle.
One of the most telling findings of the study was that diet, exercise and weight loss were nearly twice as effective in preventing the onset of diabetes as the drug metformin (Glucophage), which is commonly prescribed for people who are having trouble regulating their blood sugar.
The changes in habits were most effective in people 60 and over, who are little helped by the drug.
The research team, headed by Dr. David M. Nathan of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, noted that while most risk factors for diabetes -- age, race, a family history of the disease -- could not be changed, people could control two other factors: obesity and lack of physical activity.
In the classes, participants learned how to read labels and choose and prepare low-fat meals. Most important of all, they learned what makes up a portion of different foods. Many had no idea what a three-ounce serving of meat looks like (a deck of cards).
Rather than insisting that people eliminate high-calorie foods that they enjoyed, the nutrition counselors encouraged consuming these foods less often and in smaller amounts.
For exercise, the counselors emphasized moderate activities like brisk walking for an average of 30 minutes a day. At Beyond Care, Dr. Yavari likes to start out with yoga for overweight, sedentary people, many of whom are in poor physical condition and afraid of exercise.
Through yoga, he said, participants learn to enjoy working out and their fear of exercise diminishes. Then they are ready to take on more vigorous activities.
Chart: ''When Extra Pounds Get Risky'' Being overweight can increase risk of diabetes. To assess your weight, draw lines from your height on the left and weight below and see where they meet. For example, someone 5-foot-8 and 145 pounds (blue lines) is at a healthy weight. Chart shows grid for determining healthy weight by height. (Source: Center for Science in the Public Interest)
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Sofas didn't exist before the 17th century. Seat furniture for more than one person was generally confined to benches, which would be pushed against the wall for back support and protection from cold. In the early 1600s, though, an upholstered settee was ordered for Knole, one of the great historic English houses, and became an important prototype for the sofa.
This was around the same time as the development of the Porter's chair or guérite, which was also intended to shield the sitter from cold. Another chair type that was popular for the British elite during the 17th century was the sleeping chair, like the famous 1670 example from Ham House (above), which also featured an adjustable high back with wings, and may have been the antecedent of the wingback chair. The Knole sofa was a close cousin of this kind of chair, and may have developed first.
The original settee was probably ordered for Knole between 1610 and 1620, soon after the estate (which was first built in the 12th century and had once been owned by Henry VIII) had been purchased and renovated by the Sackville family, who still own it.
The built-in back meant that the 'bench' no longer had to be pushed up against the wall, and could be moved out to a more central spot in the room. The characteristic depth of the seat and the high enclosing sides and back may have also lent themselves to a certain kind of behavior — descriptions of Knole-style sofas often suggest that they offered the ladies of the house and their illicit gentleman callers privacy from the servants. Those racy Tudors!
Knole-style sofas have remained popular in traditional interiors. Most antiques that you find on the secondary market are from the late 19th or early 20th century, during the Renaissance Revival. My favorite historic owners of a Knole-style sofa were Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh, who were once photographed (above) lounging on theirs with their cat.
Many traditional furniture companies still make Knole-style sofas, including some who mistakenly spell it "Knoll" — Florence Knoll was a 20th-century designer whose own sofas looked nothing like the Knole settee! It's definitely a traditional look, but most new ones are pretty comfortable — do you think you'd ever get one?
Images: 1, 2 & 4 Lost Past Remembered (and #2 annotated by me); 3 the DwellStudio blog; 5 Manolo Home; 6 Emily Evans Eerdmans; 7 Little Augury; 8 Chicago Home & Garden.
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Classification: Somatostatic Agent
Octreotide is a hormone that occurs naturally in the body. It is used to treat carcinoid syndrome, which is seen in patients with carcinoid or neuroendocrine tumors. These tumors cause the body to overproduce certain hormones, and these hormones in turn can lead to symptoms collectively known as "carcinoid syndrome". Common symptoms include: flushing (90% of patients), diarrhea (75%), abdominal cramping (51%), and abnormalities of the heart valves (53%), possibly leading to right heart failure. Octreotide works to reduce the production of these hormones and thereby decrease the symptoms.
How to Take Octreotide
The short acting form of octreotide is given as a subcutaneous injection (injection under the skin) or in an intravenous (IV) form. The dosage is dependent on how your body responds and is given several times a day. For chronic treatment, patients typically receive the short acting form initially, and if this results in a decrease in their symptoms, switch to the long-acting form for convenience.
The long-acting formulation, Sandostatin LAR, is octreotide contained in "microspheres", which allow the drug to be slowly released into the body over a 4-week period. This allows the patient to receive only one injection a month at their doctor's office. This injection is given into the muscle (intramuscularly or IM). You may receive the short-acting form for several weeks after starting the LAR form while the LAR reaches therapeutic levels. Some patients may still use the short-acting form to control "breakthrough symptoms" (symptoms that may occur occasionally while on the LAR form).
This medication can interact with other medications, including cyclosporine, insulin, oral diabetic medications, and many cardiac mediations. Be sure to tell your healthcare provider about all medications and supplements you take.
Possible Side Effects of Octreotide
There are a number of things you can do to manage the side effects of Octreotide. Talk to your doctor or nurse about these recommendations. They can help you decide what will work best for you. These are some of the most common side effects:
In studies, gallstones or billiary abnormalities (including jaundice) developed in more than half of patients after long- term usage. However, only 1% of patients required surgery to correct them.
Pain at the Injection Site
Pain, redness or swelling may occur at the injection site. This typically lasts less than 10-15 minutes after the short-acting form and an hour after the LAR form. To reduce this side effect, take the medication out of the refrigerator ahead of time and allow it to reach room temperature. Do not heat it or warm it rapidly. Also, rotating the site of the injections is helpful.
Abdominal Side Effects
Side effects such as diarrhea, bloating, gas, and abdominal pain were reported in studies. It is difficult to tell if these are related to the medication or the disease, so discuss them with your doctor or nurse. These side effects may be decreased by giving the injections between meals or at bedtime. The LAR form is less likely to cause these side effects, and they typically stop within 1-4 days of the injection and decrease with long-term treatment.
Nausea and/or Vomiting
Talk to your doctor or nurse so they can prescribe medications to help you manage nausea and vomiting. In addition, dietary changes may help. Avoid things that may worsen the symptoms, such as heavy or greasy/fatty, spicy or acidic foods (lemons, tomatoes, oranges). Try antacids, (e.g. milk of magnesia, calcium tablets such as Tums), saltines, or ginger ale to lessen symptoms.
Call your doctor or nurse if you are unable to keep fluids down for more than 12 hours or if you feel lightheaded or dizzy at any time.
Your oncology team can recommend medications to relieve diarrhea. Also, try eating low-fiber, bland foods, such as white rice and boiled or baked chicken. Avoid raw fruits, vegetables, whole grain breads, cereals and seeds. Soluble fiber is found in some foods and absorbs fluid, which can help relieve diarrhea. Foods high in soluble fiber include: applesauce, bananas (ripe), canned fruit, orange sections, boiled potatoes, white rice, products made with white flour, oatmeal, cream of rice, cream of wheat, and farina. Drink 8-10 glasses on non-alcoholic, un-caffeinated fluid a day to prevent dehydration.
This medication can cause hypothyroidism (under active thyroid). Your doctor will perform blood tests to check the function of your thyroid and treat this side effect if it develops. Report any symptoms of thyroid problems including: tiredness, feeling hot or cold, change in your voice, weight gain or loss, hair loss and muscle cramps.
This medication may cause slow or abnormal heartbeats or sinus bradycardia. Notify your healthcare provider right away if you feel abnormal heartbeats or if you feel dizzy or faint.
Blood Sugar Changes (Hypo/Hyperglycemia)
This medication can cause lowered or elevated blood sugar levels in patients with and without diabetes. Your healthcare team will monitor your blood sugar. If you develop shakiness, nervousness, anxiety, sweating, chills, clamminess, rapid/fast heartbeat or headaches (symptoms of low blood sugar) or develop increased thirst, urination or hunger, blurry vision, headaches, or your breath smells like fruit (symptoms of high blood sugar) notify your healthcare team. Diabetics should monitor their blood sugar closely and report elevations to the healthcare team.
OncoLink is designed for educational purposes only and is not engaged in rendering medical advice or professional services. The information provided through OncoLink should not be used for diagnosing or treating a health problem or a disease. It is not a substitute for professional care. If you have or suspect you may have a health problem or have questions or concerns about the medication that you have been prescribed, you should consult your health care provider.
Information Provided By: www.oncolink.org | © 2016 Trustees of The University of Pennsylvania
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Mars One, a Dutch based organization that proposes to establish the first colony on Mars, has requested that the General Authority of Islamic Affairs and Endowment located in the United Arab Emirites rescind its fatwa prohibiting Muslims from traveling to and settling Mars in a February 21, 2014 statement.
The statement quotes the Koran from a sura that it claims encourages Muslims to explore and to appreciate the heavens, while invoking the life of a 14th Century Moroccan explorer named Ibn Battuta.
"And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in your languages and your colors: verily in that are Signs for those who know." (Quran 30: 22)
“The Muslim world has a rich tradition of exploration. The verse from the Quran above encourages Muslims to go out and see the signs of God’s creation in the ‘heavens and the earth’. The most influential example of this was the Moroccan Muslim traveller, Ibn Battuta, who from 1325 to 1355 travelled 73,000 miles, visiting the equivalent of 44 modern countries. Among the countries Ibn Battuta visited were Russia, Afghanistan, India, the Maldives, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines and China.
“His travels, documented in his famous journal, Rihla, have taught us more about the medieval societies in those countries than dozens of other historical texts put together. In that book, he wrote about seeing the signs of God’s creation wherever he travelled. He told us ‘Never, so far as possible, to cover a second time any road’.
“The mission to Mars is a road that has never been walked before, even though the first settlers will be walking in the footsteps of Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, Neil Armstrong, or any of the other great explorers in history.”
The statement went on to describe how the Mars One project is striving to mitigate the risk of traveling to and settling on Mars.
It is unknown at this time how effective a secular, European group will be disputing a point of the Muslim religion with a council of Islamic clerics. It is possible that the Mars One group, should it wish to pursue the matter, would want to find other Muslims clerics to give their approval of the venture to colonize Mars.
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Engineering Sciences 154
Why do we need filters?One one thing, they are indispensible in communication:As example, consider a DSB-AM communication protocol:
Suppose we have a single component information signal
Corresponding and manipulated DSB-AM signal
Op Amps are invaluable in the design of filters
FDMA Channel Allocations
Multiplex Paradigm-1: This figure shows a schematic of multiple voice channels aggregated into a channel or message group by using frequency multiplexing.
Multiplex Paradigm-1: This figure shows multiple channel groups aggregated into a higher-order supergroup, again, by using frequency multiplexing.
Op Amp Unity Gain Configuration Eliminates "Loading" ProblemsOur analysis of simple RLC filters can only valid work if the load draws negligible current! However, an op amp buffer solves the problem.
And, thus, buffered filter sections can be cascaded to obtain sharper characteristics - e.g.
Negative Impedance Converter (NIC)Combined Notch/Bandpass Filter Responses (reference)
Negative Resiatance Oscillator
Gyrator (source)"Fake L" C Circuit (source) Nodal equations: Since the nodal equations become
After much algebra, we find
When it is a bandpass filter
When it is a notch filter
Nomenclature of Filter:
All of these response characteristics roll off 3 dB at the corner frequency (in this case 10 kHz). After that, they all differ:2-pole Chebyshev low pass filter Butterworth is the most popular response. It has no ripple in the pass or stop. There is a single set of component ratios that produces a Butterworth response.
Chebyshev response has more roll off than Butterworth, and it has ripple in the pass band.
Inverse Chebyshev response has ripple in the stop band, and therefore has a lot of rejection near the corner frequency, but the rejection bounces back, and there is some passage in the stop band.
Elliptical response combines the characteristics of Chebyshev and inverse Chebyshev, having ripple in the pass band and in the stop band. Like the inverse Chebyshev, the stop band rejection has some bounce back.
Bessel response has less rolloff in the stop band than the other types, and is not as flat in the pass band. Therefore, it has not been a very popular filter response. (source)1-pole/2-pole RC Filter (source)Sallen-Key Filter
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This week’s World Wide Wednesday* features 3 stories about invasive species, which are non-native plants, animals, or other organisms that have been introduced to a particular ecosystem usually through human activity. Invasive species generally cause ecological and economic damage to their new habitat by competing for resources or preying on native species. This week we’ll explore examples of harmful invasive species as well as an invasive species that’s playing nice with its new neighbors.
Beware soft fruits, the Drosophila suzukii are coming!
Most Drosophila species, including the popular lab strain D. melanogaster, are attracted to rotting fruit in which to lay their eggs, but not Drosophila suzukii. Otherwise known as the spotted-wing drosophila, D. suzukii prefer to inject their eggs directly into the flesh of fresh fruit. Once hatched, D. suzukii larvae will eat the fruit from the inside and is therefore an economic threat to fruit crops such as cherries, blueberries, raspberries, blackberries, peaches, nectarines, apricots and grapes:
Unlike other Drosophila species, female D. suzukii have a rather diabolical (to fruit at least), saw-like adaptation of their ovipositor, the external organ that deposits eggs, which allows it to pierce the skin of soft fruits:
Originally identified in Japan and Asia in the early 20th century, D. suzukiifirst appeared in California in 2008 and quickly spread across the Pacific Northwest. It has since found its way to Southeastern US states, Michigan, Wisconsin, and even Maine. More recently, the spotted-wing drosophila has been spotted in European countries as well. The spread of D. suzukii is most likely due to the export and import of affected fruits.
A smug nutria asks, “When is an invasive species no longer invasive?”
Last week, the New York Times posted this Op-Doc animated short by filmmaker Drew Christie that explores the existential question facing all invasive species, “How long does it take to become a native?” The short video provides a brief history of how nutria were originally brought to America to start fur farms and rightfully lays the blame on human activity for the introduction of the over-sized rodents to the Pacific Northwest. As nutria fur demand declined, many farmers simply released nutria into the wild. Drawing comparisons to other invasive species to the Pacific Northwest such as the American bullfrog, grey squirrels, house sparrows, and oh yeah humans, the nutria asks, “why do I get all the grief?”
Photo credit: Petar Milošević
The answer of course lies outside of the video. Nutria are capable of destroying vast areas of wetland through their destructive feeding and burrowing habits. In sensitive ecosystems, such as the Louisiana wetlands, the havoc that nutria wreak can exacerbate existing degradation thereby increasing the threat and potential damage of flooding due to hurricanes and sea level rise. Various population control methods have been implemented with varying success. The Louisiana Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries runs a nutria hunting and trapping incentive program. Nutria has also been marketed for human consumption (although that has not gained much traction) as well as“guilt-free” fur.
Not all invasive species from Asia are bad…
Asian Shore Crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus)
You might remember from the end of last year the story of Samantha Garvey, the recently (at the time of the story) homeless 18-year-old Brentwood High School senior whose research project made her an Intel Science Talent Search semifinalist. The subject of her research? How the presence of the Asian shore crab, an invasive predator, affected the thickness of the shells of its prey, the ribbed mussels native to Long Island Sound. Although at first glance this might make the Asian shore crab seem like another bad invasive species story, research from Brown University scientists suggest otherwise. Appearing on US shores over 20 years ago, most likely by piggybacking on commercial ships originating from Asia, the Asian shore crab has populated almost the entire eastern seaboard without disrupting native ecosystems. In fact, the Brown University researchers found that the success of the Asian shore crab did not come at the expense of indigenous inhabitants since the study found a positive correlation between the number of invasive crab and a greater number of native species.
Asian shore crabs also make great bait fortautog, one of my favorite fish to catch in RI:
This is my first installment of Around the Web Wednesdays. Every week I will gather interesting stories from around the worldwideweb to share with you all (drum roll please)…This week we will explore what Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, FASEB, and climate change scientists have in common.
Athlete as Academic Advocate
Uncontent with being just a 6x NBA champion, 6x NBA MVP, and the NBA’s all-time leading scorer, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, he of Game of Death and Airplane! fame, has taken on a new mantle: advocate for STEM education. Earlier this month, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar visitedDr. Martin Luther King Preparatory High School on Chicago’s South Side stressing that there “are only about 450 jobs in the NBA and some of them are taken, but there are thousands of jobs in science and engineering.” The relative invisibility of black/African-American academic role models when compared to black entertainment and sports celebrities was not lost on Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, who has authored a children’s book titled, What Color is My World: The Lost History of African American Inventors.
Abdul-Jabbar remarked, “If you go to Harlem and talk to the young people there, I would say that over 90 percent of them would either want to be LeBron James or Jay-Z. And they don’t have any idea of what their potential is beyond those two areas (of sports and entertainment). And they see that as the only things available to them.” Being a green-bleeding Celtics fan, I don’t normally heap this much praise on a Laker, but in Kareem’s case he deserves it for both accomplishments on and off the court. Here’s a heartfelt thank you to Kareem Abdul-Jabbar.
How to be a science advocate
Earlier this month, as many of you know, I attended the annual Drosophila Research Conference in Chicago. In addition to learning about current research in the field, the conference offers a host of workshops that focus on career development and advocacy. Unfortunately, due to timing I missed the Advocacy Lunch hosted by FASEB‘s Director of Legislative Relations, Jennifer Zeitzer. Luckily for me, Eva Amsen covered the lunch on her blog at the Node. The take home message? Any one, regardless of where they are in the science careers, can become an advocate. Points to keep in mind: Be vocal,Have a clear message, Contact politicians and build relationships, & Generate public awareness.
Science advocacy: How far are you willing to go?
Last month, documents surfaced discrediting the Heartland Institute and its anti-global warming stance. Turns out that Peter Gleick, hydrologist and president of the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security in Oakland, Calif., had assumed a fake identity to get his hands on said documents. In light of this recent revelation, Juliet Eilperin explores the inherent risks associated with the lengths to which scientists will go in the name of advocacy. This quote from Peter Frumhoff, director of science and policy at the Union of Concerned Scientists just about sums it up, “Integrity is the source of every power and influence we have as scientists. We don’t have the power to make laws, or run the economy.”
Would you eat it? Chances are, you already have. Pink slime, or lean finely textured beef (LFTB) trimmings, is made from the leftover meat after all of the marketable cuts of beef have been harvested. These are undesirable because they are fattier, contain connective tissues, and are more highly susceptible to E. coli and salmonella contamination. This is where Beef Products Inc. (BPI) steps in and processes these trimmings by centrifuging at high speed to separate the meat from the fat and then sterilizes the separated product with gaseous ammonium hydroxide (ammonia plus water). This step increases the pH of the meat creating an intolerable environment for the bacteria. The USDA allows up to 15% of ground beef content to be LFTB and does not require any labeling to indicate that ammonium hydroxide-treated LFTB has been used as filler.
The recent uproar over LFTB was triggered last week when The Daily broke the news that the federal government was set to purchase ~7 million pounds of LFTB for the national school lunch program. This sparked concerned “mother of two Bettina Siegel to start an online petition on Change.org asking Secretary of Agriculure Tom Vilsack to please put an immediate end to the use of ‘pink slime’ in our children’s school food.” (1) Another petition is pushing for stricter labeling requirements for products that contain pink slime. This, however, is not the first time that LFTB has garnered negative attention. In December 2009, The New York Times examined how effective the ammonium hydroxide treatment eliminated E. coli and salmonella, while last season’s premiere of Jamie Oliver’s Food Revolutionfeatured a segment in which he recreated how he imagined LFTB was made. While I stand with the public’s concern over the safety of LFTB as well as the demand for stricter labeling requirements so that consumers can make informed decisions, I do have a bone to pick with Jamie Oliver and food blogs covering this issue. If their agenda is to educate the public about LFTB then I think it is their duty to do it fairly and accurately.
Let’s start with Jamie Oliver
Here is the segment from last’s seasons premiere where he essentially admits he doesn’t know what he’s talking about (also, look for the woman in the shades who looks like she’s about to vomit and cry at the same time. I bet you she’d have that reaction if she saw how animals are butchered. period.):
So, let’s see at 2:12 he says, “This is how I imagine the process to be.” Imagine is not good enough. Then at 3:15, after dousing the meat with household cleaning ammonia (complete with skull and crossbones on the bottle) and some water, he admits, “I don’t know how much and the water. There’s a specific ratio but basically they wash this meat and that kills the E. coli and the salmonella and kind of pathogens.” Sure, dramatically bathing any food in ammonia that came from a bottle marked with a skull and crossbones is going to get your point across. Unfortunately for Jamie Oliver, ammonium hydroxide as a food additive is generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by the FDA and is found in a variety of food products. Furthermore, while his theatrical demonstration suggests that too much ammonia is used, the real issue, as the December 2009 New York Times articles reports, might be that not enough ammonia is used, since E. coli and salmonella was still found in some of BPI’s LFTB (2). According to BPI’s website, “By adding a tiny amount of ammonia (gas) to the beef, we raise the pH in the beef to help kill any harmful bacteria that could possibly be present.” He then later goes quasi-conspiracy theorist on us and criticizes the USDA. You can almost taste the contempt he has for his audience.
And now a word about food blogs…
I’ve seen a number of inaccuracies and misinformation being spread through blogs, in particular food blogs. The following excerpt from Eat Like No One Else struck me since it was biological in nature:
Let’s go back to why they use ammonia in the first place – to kill any E. coli bacteria. This is one of those fixing the problem we caused situations. E. coli is as natural as ammonia. We have it in our bodies right now. It became a problem when people started feeding corn to cows. This caused a mutation to occur with the E. coli bacteria in the cow, which lead to a strain that is harmful to us. Biologists from the USDA and Cornell University have known about this since 1998.
The harmful strain to which the blogger is referring is E. coli O157:H7. There is no evidence that the switch to feeding corn to cows caused a mutation that led to this harmful strain of E. coli. The O157:H7 strain is harmful because along its evolutionary path it picked up the ability to produce Shiga-like toxins, thus named because of its similarity to the Shiga toxin produced by another bacteria, Shigella dysenteriae. Shiga-like toxins bind to components on the outside of blood vessels, in particular those of the GI tract, kidneys, and lungs. The toxin is then pulled into the cells of the blood vessels where it shuts down the cellular factories (insert Bain Capital joke) that make proteins and results in cell death. Ultimately, this breaks down the lining and leads to bloody diarrhea typical of O157:H7 infection.
How did O157:H7 come to produce Shiga-like toxins? Through horizontal gene transfer. While we typically think of passing on genetic material as happening vertically from parent to child, or mother cell to daughter cell, there are exceptions. In bacteria, genetic material can be transferred “horizontally,” independent of reproduction. This can happen in several ways, a) transformation, where the bacteria takes up DNA from its environment, b) transduction, the integration of genetic material mediated by bacteriophages or phages (viruses that infect bacteria) or c) conjugation, direct transfer of genetic material from one bacteria to another through cellular contact. It’s through the second process that O157:H7 obtained the ability to produce Shiga-like toxins.
Some viruses, when they infect cells, can undergo either a lytic cycle or a a lysogenic cycle. Lytic cycles are characterized by the production of more viruses by hijacking the infected cell’s machinery. The infected cell will eventually burst and release more viruses into the environment. When viruses adopt a lysogenic program, they insert their genetic material into the genome of the infected cell thereby piggybacking on the cell’s DNA replication cycle in order to perpetuate. Under certain stressful conditions, these dormant viruses (prophages) can be coaxed into entering the lytic cycle to produce more viruses and abandon the infected cell that is under stress. With their penchant for popping in and out of genomes, you can think of viruses as nature’s recombinant DNA engineers.
Biologists have known that the E. coli O157:H7 E. strain became toxic through infection by Shiga-like toxin- converting phages for several reasons. First, the production of these viruses could be induced by subjecting the O157:H7 to irradiation (3). Furthermore, these viruses could in turn be harvested and infect a different E. coli strain and consequently confer the ability to produce Shiga-like toxins. Then in 2001, biologists sequenced the genome of O157:H7 and confirmed the presence of DNA sequences from Shiga-like toxin-converting phages (4).
Back to the biologists from Cornell. What they were studying was how cattle diet affected the acid resistance of E. coli. Normally, the acidity of our stomachs is inhospitable to many microorganisms. However, E. coli can survive extreme acidity if it is first habituated under mildy acidic conditions. When exposed to an acidic environment, E. coli responds by initiating an innate acid resistance program (5). This is no more a mutation than how our own body responds with a fever to infections. The researchers at Cornell observed that the pH in the colons of cattle fed corn was lower (more acidic) than that of cattle fed hay (6). This is because, in contrast to hay, the difficult-to-digest starch in corn passes through the cattle’s GI tract and ends up in the colon where it ferments and acidifies the environment. Therefore, the researchers hypothesized that any E. coli that ends up in the colon could become acid-resistant thereby increasing the likelihood of contaminating meat during slaughter as well as increasing the ability of the bacteria to survive the acid shock of our stomachs. What they found was that colonic E. coli from cattle fed corn were in fact acid-resistant. However, since the cattle they used in the study tested negative or the O157:H7 strain, they confirmed the ability of O157:H7 to become acid resistant in the lab. In contrast, E. coli from cattle fed grass or hay were less acid resistant and could not survive an “acid shock” comparable to the environment of the human stomach. This prompted the scientists to suggest that switching from corn to hay feed days before slaughter might reduce the load of acid- resistant E. coli. Unfortunately, many follow-up studies have yielded results that directly contrast the oft-cited study from Cornell and call into question the importance of acid-resistance in O157:H7 virulence (7,8).
Now, this is by no means a tacit defense of the meat industry, whose practices leave much to be desired. While much focus has been on the O157:H7 strain, there are other pathogenic strains of bacteria that are associated with the beef industry. To BPI’s credit, they have voluntarily started testing for 6 other strains of virulent E. coli following the 2011 outbreak in Germany. However, I do echo the demands made by the public (as well as Mr. Oliver and aforementioned food blogs) that the labeling requirements for products containing LFTB be of a higher standard so that consumers can make informed choices. That being said, how we inform the public must also be held to a high standard or we run the risk of undercutting and discrediting the importance of the message.
3. O’Brien, A., Newland, J., Miller, S., Holmes, R., Smith, H., & Formal, S. (1984). Shiga-like toxin-converting phages from Escherichia coli strains that cause hemorrhagic colitis or infantile diarrhea Science, 226 (4675), 694-696 DOI: 10.1126/science.6387911
4. Perna, N., Plunkett, G., Burland, V., Mau, B., Glasner, J., Rose, D., Mayhew, G., Evans, P., Gregor, J., Kirkpatrick, H., Pósfai, G., Hackett, J., Klink, S., Boutin, A., Shao, Y., Miller, L., Grotbeck, E., Davis, N., Lim, A., Dimalanta, E., Potamousis, K., Apodaca, J., Anantharaman, T., Lin, J., Yen, G., Schwartz, D., Welch, R., & Blattner, F. (2001). Genome sequence of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 Nature, 409 (6819), 529-533 DOI: 10.1038/35054089
5. Foster, J. W. Escherichia coli acid resistance: tales of an amateur acidophile. Nature Reviews Microbiology2, 898–907 (2004).
6. Diez-Gonzalez F, Callaway TR, Kizoulis MG, & Russell JB (1998). Grain feeding and the dissemination of acid-resistant Escherichia coli from cattle. Science (New York, N.Y.), 281 (5383), 1666-8 PMID: 9733511
7. Hancock, D. & Besser, T. E. coli O157: H7 in hay-or grain-fed cattle. College of Veterinary Medicine (2006).
Last night’s “Future Advances in Drosophila Research” session of the Drosophila Research Conference concluded with Ross Cagan‘s eloquent defense of using Drosophila for better drug design and better disease models. He argues that Drosophila has significant advantages, including genetics, generation time, and tools, over other organisms (sorry mice) to model complexity (and complex diseases) He started with the premise that single genes that drive diseases such as cancer are not always the best therapeutic targets. Why? Because often times targeting their activity is highly toxic to the cell. He then went on to describe a Drosophila model for medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC). About 95% of all MTC cases are due to genetic mutations that activate the RET kinase. Despite the fact that Drosophila do not have thyroids, Dr. Cagan was able to model MTC in the fly by directing expression of RET kinase mutants responsible for MTC in the eye which led to tumor growth:
Furthermore, when he directed the expression more globally, the flies died before reaching adulthood. He then went on to describe a drug that was highly effective at rescuing these phenotypes known as AD1. Surprisingly, AD1 was not a very effective inhibitor of RET kinase activity or in his words the “world’s worst kinase inhibitor.” It wasn’t very specific and it wasn’t very effective. But this broad spectrum behaviour of AD1 was precisely why it was effective at rescuing the defects in the fly. RET kinase is a protein that regulates the activity of other kinases such as RAS, Src, PI3K (all of which are involved in cancer). Guess what? AD1 was targeting all of them. When the activity of other structurally similar compounds, AD2 and AD3, were compared to AD1 they were less efficacious because they were unable to target all of those other kinases. More importantly, since AD1 was “the world’s worst kinase inhibitor” it displayed little toxicity to the animal as a whole indicating that tumors might have lower tolerance thresholds for drugs than the entire animal. All of which to say is that a focused approach on a single target over a multitarget approach is not always the best course given that cancer is a complex disease.
This multitarget approach segued nicely into the second part of his talk where he focused on building better models for disease in Drosophila. He highlighted the work done by a post doc in his lab, Erdem Bangi (a former graduate student the Wharton lab where I work in now), who is designing a better model for colorectal cancer. Treatment for colorectal cancer is an unmet need in the healthcare. Building on the idea of multiple targets and the fact that tumors often exhibit mutations in multiple closely associated genes rather than just one gene, Dr. Bangi is creating mutant flies with different combinations of mutations in different genes. We’re talking double, triple and quadruple mutants. In these multiple mutant flies, Dr. Bangi found that drugs that were previously effective in models where only one particular gene was mutated were effectively useless. This harkens back to the original premise that targeting the single gene driving disease is not always the best approach. Dr. Bangi is now using these multiple mutant flies to design and discover more effective drugs.
The work highlighted by Dr. Cagan last night is important in that it represents a shift in how we discover drugs and how we should think about treating diseases. Rather than just taking a chemical and testing to see if it can rescue a particular phenotype, this research underscores the importance of knowing the role of multiple gene targets in disease progression. His talk highlighted not only the value of basic research in drug discovery and design but also the intrinsic advantages of Drosophila as a model organism. Can we do it better in Drosophila? Come on everybody altogether: Yes we can! (and my pandering to Chicago continues…)
Every year, hundreds maybe even thousands of biologists converge on a lucky US city like fruit flies swarming on yeast. The reason? The Drosophila Research Conference, or as people in the know call it…The Fly Meeting. This year, the annual meeting rolls into Chicago. The Windy City. Chi-Town*. The City of Big Shoulders. Home of such notables as Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, Vladimir Drinfeld, mathematician, winner of the Fields Medal, President Barack Obama, and of course Kanye West:
In terms of conferences I’ve been to, the Fly Meeting is like the Pitchfork Festival of scientific conferences. (I was going to go with Bonnaroo or Coachella at first, but I went with pandering instead.) Over the next 5 days, Drosophila researchers are going to get down and dirty, immersing themselves in the latest research and scientific techniques, catching up with old colleagues, establishing new collabo’s, attending concurrent research talks and poster sessions. Oh the poster sessions! Imagine an auditorium filled with rows upon rows of posters and hundreds of scientists buzzing from one poster to the next and the atmosphere is thick and dank. The uninitiated might mistake the odor for lack of hygiene, but us pros know…it’s the sweet smell of science.
A couple of weeks ago I was reproached on Facebook for overenthuiastic tweeting and my apparent affinity for hashtagging. Here’s a sampling of their criticisms:
“what’s with all these GD pound signs?”
In their defense, I hadn’t quite figured out how to selective tweet and so was probably spamming their feed, which coincidentally looks a lot like a Twitter feed. Regardless, I felt rebuked by my peers and I have to admit, it stung a little bit.
Full disclosure: I hated the very thought of “tweeting” at first. I was under the impression that tweets were basically glorified “Away Messages”–remember those?– or a medium for people to spit out attention-grabbing, sometimes clever, sometimes funny one-liners. And in reality, a lot of Twitter IS just that. However, coinciding with the launch of my blog, I decided to join Twitter under the strong advice of a very capable, scientific blogger (@Katie_PhD) as a means to advertise and network. I don’t regret following her input and here are the reasons why I think Twitter can help science:
Twitter has been my stock ticker of science news, constantly updating with stories and commentary. I haven’t felt this up-to-date on popular science, policy and outreach in years…maybe ever. I’d go as far to say that in many ways Twitter (and also blogging) has rekindled this disenchanted, graduate student’s interest in all things science, which had long gone dormant. And yes, the news cycle is fast, but I don’t fear missing anything since most of the days science stories is retweeted.
My Wishlist: what’s trending amongst my followers/followees rather than globally.
Information is disseminated and can be accessed quickly, which can be used to promote your research or exploited as a tool to mobilize people into action–think the Arab Spring, in which both Twitter and Facebook were instrumental. Of more relevance to this blog, it was used to rally opposition against the Research Works Act (#RWA). Furthermore, rapid movement of knowledge is inline with a trend toward more “open science.”
Unlike other social media, Twitter is decidedly public in nature. You have access to people outside of your normal circles or networks since strangers can follow your tweets. Think about it, when was the last time you friended a stranger on Facebook. Never. It doesn’t happen because it’s weird. Twitter allows you to interact with strangers without it feeling, for the most part, creepy. I am, therefore, able to get my blog out to a larger audience faster. And for those concerned about privacy, the simple interface means that profiles are very limited. The only thing that’s public, really, is what you tweet.
For many comedians, the Twitter format is a godsend. It allows their personalities to shine through in 140 characters or less (read: one-liners). And it’s an art, which I think @michaelianblack absolutely kills. Now, I know this is hard to believe, but lo and behold, there are funny scientists. And witty ones. And interesting ones. And some of them are on Twitter. What’s great about Twitter is that it lends itself to the re-branding and re-headlining of science news (and all news really) through wit, sarcasm, insight and commentary. This is all value-added, and can make the difference between whether someone reads an article or not. Random example from my feed:
Ultimately, Twitter can help make science more accessible to the public. One of my goals in starting this blog was to increase science accessibility to the public and bridge the divide between the public and science. I think an effective way of doing this is through humor and personality. And in a larger context, the issue of personality is important because where before scientists have been pigeonholed into the role of the dull and charmless nerd, there is now pushback. For evidence, check out these projects:This is What a Scientist Looks Like andI am Science.
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Alien invader presents potential danger to Jamestown
This shiny black beetle – with white spots and exceptionally long antennae – came to this country from China hidden in wooden packing material. It bores holes into trees where it deposits its eggs. Heavy infestations can kill otherwise healthy adult trees.
What makes the Asian Longhorned Beetle such a serious threat is they kill a wide range of popular trees. They mainly attack maples, but they have also been found on horsechestnut, birch, poplar, willow, elm, ash, London plane tree, locust, mimosa and hackberry.
There are no known chemical or biological defenses, and the Asian Longhorned Beetle has few natural predators.
Outbreaks were discovered in the 1990s in urban areas in New York and Illinois. Authorities reacted quickly to stop the beetle from spreading. In August of 2008, Asian Longhorned Beetles were discovered in the city of Worcester, Mass.
The latest discovery is the most serious to date, since Worcester has thousands of hardwood trees and sits at the edge of the great Northern forest that stretches for millions of acres to Canada and the Great Lakes.
If the Asian Longhorn Beetle spreads northward, scientists predict it could be the most serious infestation ever known and would create more devastation in the way of damage than Dutch elm disease, gypsy moths and chestnut blight combined.
Currently, the only way to combat the Asian Longhorned Beetle is to destroy infested trees. In central Massachusetts, the state and federal governments are removing and burning all infested trees on public and private land. They then selectively remove adjacent trees that have a high risk of being infested.
More than 26,000 trees have been cut and the area of quarantine around the city now includes more than 70 square miles. The federal government has already spent close to $24 million on eradication efforts, just in Worcester.
Since the beetle larvae can live in dead wood, authorities have prohibited removing firewood and other dead wood from the infected area.
This massive program is ongoing. It will take years of intensive surveys and removal of infested trees before the regulated area can be declared Asian Longhorned Beetle-free.
“So far, the beetle has not been found in Rhode Island,” according to Steve Saracino, the Jamestown Tree Warden. “But since over 40 percent of Jamestown trees are maple, it would be devastating if the beetle were to reach the island.”
Early detection and rapid treatment are critical to successful eradication of the beetle. In every outbreak, it wasn’t a professional in the tree business who discovered this pest, but an observant homeowner.
From late May through October, adult beetles burrow out of the tree and move to another location. Now is the time to look for Asian Longhorned Beetles.
To help people learn more about this and other alien pests, the Jamestown Tree Preservation and Protection Committee will sponsor a free educational program at the Jamestown Philomenian Library at 7 p.m. on Tuesday, June 22. Offi- cials from the state will be on hand to answer questions.
According to Saracino, “The beetle went undetected for a decade in Worcester. If it had been found in the first year or two, eradication would have been fairly quick and easy. The faster we recognize the signs and realize we have the beetle, the better.”
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Perspective: one's "point of view", the choice of a context for opinions, beliefs and experiences
Perspective may tell you that a young man walking down the street with his pants sagging and wearing a hoodie means that he is going to rob a house. Perspective may tell you that a man sworn to protect a neighborhood has the right to protect by any means necessary. Perspective may tell you that the media’s coverage is slanted to favor the young man or the watchmen. Perspective may tell you that this is a racially motivated crime or it may tell you that this is just about protection.
What does perspective say about being unarmed? If you were walking down the street and a man was starring at you and then chased you holding a gun what would be your point of view? If you were trying to protect your neighborhood and thought you saw a young man who looked suspicious what then would be your point of view? Would it make a difference if as the young man you were black or white? What about if you were the watch person would race play a factor if you were opposite the suspect? What is the victim was a young black girl? What if the victim was a young white girl and what if the watch person was the opposite?
The nation is up in arms right now and it is not going to change until our collective perspectives change. The type of clothes you wear does not create or change the person you are inside. The color of your skin or hair does not determine who you are or what you do. No one has the right to profile anyone despite the fact that almost all of us do it. However we as a nation do need to hold people accountable for the things that they do.
Even though it is not the opinion of this paper and it is mine and mine alone I will say this. Black, white or other the thought that a young unarmed person can be chased at gun point and killed and the person responsible can still be free makes me very angry. It sends a very clear message that no one is safe. According to what we know, there were no other weapons. According to what we know, the only things recovered were a drink, some candy and a gun. The watchman says the gun was his. With this being the case there is no reason there should be a dead young person. There is no reason they should have engaged at all and there is no reason an arrest shouldn’t have been made.
It’s not about the hoodie and it’s not about the houses being robbed. It’s about profiling which makes it racial and it’s about excessive use of force which is criminal. It also calls into question what the police were doing. But we need to keep in mind that the actions of one watch person or one police company are not the actions of all.
This can be a way to tear our nation apart or help to put it back together. What is going to be our next move? Are we going to start condemning those around us that we feel are guilty by skin association? Are we going to start profiling those in similar power positions and deem them at fault? Are we going to stay angry and stop pushing the issue of justice?
What is your perspective? How would you handle this if it were your child? How will you instruct your children to stay safe should they encounter this? What if they have to deal with this and race is an issue, what should they do? Last what is your perspective on the questions asked? Would you know if they are being asked if your child were the young man or the watchmen...
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Significance and Use
Absorbed doses of or below 1 kGy can inactivate some parasites, such as the broad fish tapeworm (Dibothrocephalus latus) (2).
Absorbed doses below 10 kGy can reduce or eliminate vegetative cells of pathogenic sporeforming and non-sporeforming microorganisms, such as Clostridia spp., Vibrio spp., Salmonellae, Listeria monocytogenes, or Staphylococcus aureus, that may be present in fresh or frozen product.
Absorbed doses below 10 kGy can reduce the numbers of some spores, but are not adequate to reduce the potential health risk from microbial spores or toxins (3).
Absorbed doses below 10 kGy can reduce or eliminate the vegetative cells of sporeforming and non-sporeforming microorganisms, such as Bacillus or Pseudomonas species, that cause spoilage of fresh product, thus extending refrigerated shelf life in many cases (4).
1.1 This guide outlines procedures and operations for the irradiation of raw, untreated, fresh (chilled), or frozen finfish and aquatic invertebrates, while ensuring that the irradiated product is safe and wholesome.
1.1.1 Aquatic invertebrates include molluscs, crustacea, echinoderms, etc.
188.8.131.52 Molluscs include bivalve shellfish, such as clams, mussels, and oysters; snails; and cephalopods, such as squid and octopus.
184.108.40.206 Crustacea include shellfish such as shrimp, lobster, crabs, prawns and crayfish.
220.127.116.11 Echinoderms include sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
1.2 This guide covers absorbed doses used to reduce the microbial and parasite populations in aquatic invertebrates and finfish. Such doses typically are below 10 kGy (1).
1.3 The use of reduced-oxygen packaging (vacuum or modified atmosphere, and including products packed in oil) with irradiated, raw product is not covered by this guide. The anaerobic environment created by reduced-oxygen packaging provides the potential for outgrowth of, and toxin production from, Clostridium botulinum spores.
1.4 This guide does not cover the irradiation of smoked or dried fish to reduce microbial load or to control insect infestation.
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory requirements prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
E170 Terminology Relating to Radiation Measurements and Dosimetry
F1416 Guide for Selection of Time-Temperature Indicators
F1640 Guide for Selection and Use of Packaging Materials for Foods to Be Irradiated
Codex Alimentarius Commission Recommended International Codes and StandardsCAC/RCP 42 Sampling Plans for Prepackaged Foods (AQL 6.5)
ICS Number Code 67.020 (Processes in the food industry)
UNSPSC Code 26142000(Irradiation equipment); 41106200(Microorganism propagation and transformation media and kits and equipment)
|Link to Active (This link will always route to the current Active version of the standard.)|
ASTM F1736-09, Standard Guide for Irradiation of Finfish and Aquatic Invertebrates Used as Food to Control Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2009, www.astm.orgBack to Top
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Real gross state product is the market value of all goods and services produced in a state over the course of a year, corrected to account for inflation. Real GSP is the most basic measurement of economic growth. Over the five-year period between 2001 and 2006, the average right-to-work state saw its gross state product grow by 18.1 percent, versus 13.6 percent for non-right-to-work states. During that same period Michigan’s gross state product grew by only 3.4 percent, easily the slowest growth of any state in the union. Next-to-last West Virginia, another non-right-to-work state, managed GSP growth of 7.3 percent. The lowest performing right-to-work states were Louisiana and Mississippi, both of which were struck by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, yet both outperformed Michigan, with real GSP growth of 9.2 and 9.5 percent respectively.
In the 2002 report, Wilson found that between 1977 and 1999 right-to-work states had an average annual (year-to-year, as opposed to cumulative) GSP growth rate of 3.4 percent, versus 2.9 percent for non-right-to-work and 1.8 percent for Michigan. This GSP growth gap of half a percent per year, while modest in appearance, had a significant impact when repeated over 30 years. That growth gap has gotten larger: between 2001 and 2006 annual GSP growth averaged 3.4 percent in right-to-work states, compared with 2.6 percent in non-right-to-work states, a difference of 0.8 percent. Michigan’s annual GSP growth during that same period was only 0.7 percent.
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Feasibility Study – Why needed before programming
In this tutorial you will learn about Feasibility Study – Why needed before programming, analysis made in feasibility study and advantages of making Feasibility study.
The feasibility study is the important step in any software development process. This is because it makes analysis of different aspects like cost required for developing and executing the system, the time required for each phase of the system and so on. If these important factors are not analyzed then definitely it would have impact on the organization and the development and the system would be a total failure. So for running the project and the organization successfully this step is a very important step in a software development life cycle process.
In the software development life cycle after making an analysis in the system requirement the next step is to make analysis of the software requirement. In other words feasibility study is also called as software requirement analysis. In this phase development team has to make communication with customers and make analysis of their requirement and analyze the system.
By making analysis this way it would be possible to make a report of identified area of problem. By making a detailed analysis in this area a detailed document or report is prepared in this phase which has details like project plan or schedule of the project, the cost estimated for developing and executing the system, target dates for each phase of delivery of system developed and so on. This phase is the base of software development process since further steps taken in software development life cycle would be based on the analysis made on this phase and so careful analysis has to be made in this phase.
Though the feasibility study cannot be focused on a single area some of the areas or analysis made in feasibility study is given below. But all the steps given below would not be followed by all system developed. The feasibility study varies based on the system that would be developed.
- Feasibility study is made on the system being developed to analyze whether the system development process require training of personnel. This help in designing training sessions as required in later stage.
- Is the system developed has scope for expanding or scope for switching to new technology later if needed in ease. In other study is made to find the portability of the system in future.
- Is the cost of developing the system high or does it meet the budgeted costs. That is a cost benefit analysis is made. In other words an analysis is made on cost feasibility of the project. This helps in identifying whether the organization would meet the budgeted costs and also helps the organization in making earlier and effective plans for meeting extra costs because of the system development.
- Analysis is made on what software to use for developing the system. This study and analysis would help to choose the best implementation for system and the organization. This feasibility study includes factors like scalability, how to install, how to develop and so on. This feasibility study in short includes the analysis of technical areas. This analysis helps the efficiency of the system developed to get improved. This is because by choosing the correct technology by making analysis on the needs of system helps in improving the efficiency of the system.
- The above feasibilities are analysis which helps in development of the system. But the scope of feasibility study does not end with this. Analysis or feasibility study also includes the analysis of maintenance stage. In other words feasibility study is made to analyze how one would maintain the system during maintenance stage. This helps sin planning for this stage and also helps in risk analysis. Also the analysis helps in making analysis about what training must be given and how and what all documents must be prepared to help users and developers to face maintenance phase.
Advantages of making Feasibility study:
There are many advantages of making feasibility study some of which are summarized below:
- This study being made as the initial step of software development life cycle has all the analysis part in it which helps in analyzing the system requirements completely.
- Helps in identifying the risk factors involved in developing and deploying the system
- The feasibility study helps in planning for risk analysis
- Feasibility study helps in making cost/benefit analysis which helps the organization and system to run efficiently.
- Feasibility study helps in making plans for training developers for implementing the system.
- So a feasibility study is a report which could be used by the senior or top persons in the organization. This is because based on the report the organization decides about cost estimation, funding and other important decisions which is very essential for an organization to run profitably and for the system to run stable.
Thus before developing a product or software it is an essential step that one does feasibility study in some or all the areas mentioned which would help in developing and maintaining the software efficiently and effectively within budgeted costs.
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Hereditary paraganglioma-pheochromocytomas (PGL/PCC) are rare neuroendocrine tumors represented by paragangliomas (occurring in any paraganglia from the skull base to the pelvic floor) and pheochromocytomas (adrenal medullary paragangliomas; see this term).
Hereditary PGL/PCCs represent 30% of all PGL/PCC, for which prevalence is around 1/500,000 for PCC and 1/1,000,000 for PGL.
PGL can be either hypersecreting (catecholamines) or non-secreting and PCCs usually secrete catecholamines. Secreting (sympathetic) PGLs are predominantly found in the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic areas. Hypersecretion manifests as sustained or paroxysmal elevations in blood pressure, headache, episodic profuse sweating, palpitations, pallor and apprehension or anxiety. Urinary bladder PGL may be revealed by painless hematuria and blood pressure increase after micturition. Non-secreting (parasympathetic) PGLs are predominantly located in the head and neck and present as enlarging masses that may be asymptomatic or may be associated with unilateral hearing loss, pulsatile tinnitus, cough, hoarseness of voice, pharyngeal fullness, swallowing difficulty, pain and/or problems with tongue motion. There are no validated markers of malignancy (rate around 15%); the only criterion is the presence of metastases. Gastric stromal tumors and renal cancers are rarely associated.
Up to 10% of genetically determined PCC/PGLs are due to a SDHx germline mutation. Hereditary PCC/PGLs are caused by mutations in the SDHD, SDHC, SDHB, SDHA and SDHAF2 (or SDH5) genes (11q23, 1q21, 1p36.1-p35, 5p15 and 11q31.1 respectively). Transmission is autosomal dominant but associated with maternal genomic imprinting for SDHD and SDHAF2 and expressed when the mutation is inherited from the father. Penetrance depends on the gene, age and tumor sites. Tumors in patients with SDHB mutations are more likely to become malignant than those in patients with other SDHx mutations.
Diagnosis is based on clinical examination and family history. Young age at onset, presence of bilateral, extra-adrenal or multiple tumors, or malignancy suggest an inherited disorder. Imaging studies (MRI, CT) are used to detect tumors and may include functional imaging (scintigraphy, PET). Biochemical testing includes plasma free metanephrines and/or 24 hour-urinary fractionated metanephrines. Molecular genetic testing confirms the diagnosis.
Differential diagnoses include non-hereditary PCC/PGL (although hereditary PCC/PGL tends to present at younger ages, to be multi-focal, bilateral, and recurrent, or to have multiple synchronous neoplasms), PCC/PGL associated with other hereditary conditions (neurofibromatosis type 1, von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, Carney triad and Carney-Stratakis syndrome; see these terms) and familial PCC due to TMEM127 mutation.
Prenatal testing is not recommended. Presymptomatic testing is proposed in at-risk children from 6 years of age.
Treatment for secreting tumors involves blood pressure control with alpha-blockers followed by surgery by specialized teams. If the tumors have not metastasized, surgical resection can be curative. Follow-up is required due to the risk of recurrence and malignancy in particular for SDHB mutation-carriers. For head and neck PGL, external radiotherapy can be proposed. When metastases have occurred, other treatment options including chemotherapy and targeted radiotherapy should be proposed.
The disease may be fatal, but some have lived with malignant PCC/PGL for 20 years or more.
Last update: September 2010
- Pr Anne-Paule GIMENEZ-ROQUEPLO
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Fuel Economy Standards
The U.S. recently announced new, aggressive fuel economy standards for 2017 to 2025. Among them, a new regulation aimed at doubling average vehicle fuel economy to approximately 55 miles per gallon by 2025.
Experts at Carnegie Mellon University shed light on what these standards really mean to both consumers and auto makers — and how CMU's technology will play a role.
"The increased Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards will incentivize the use of fuel-saving technologies and improve vehicle efficiency. That's a good thing. But the policy is far from perfect," said Jeremy Michalek, associate professor of mechanical engineering and engineering and public policy.
For instance, Michalek explains, consumers should know that the CAFE policy relies on an old test to measure fuel efficiency — not the same test they use for vehicle window stickers.
"While politicians can claim that we've set high-sounding standards of 55 mpg using the outdated tests, consumers will see real numbers closer to 35 miles per gallon. And these averaged numbers ignore that while highway drivers may see little or no benefit from hybrid and plug-in vehicles, city drivers could benefit greatly," said Michalek.
Second, he noted, the policy is designed to rely entirely on technology improvements to provide reductions rather than any changes in driving patterns or fleet mix — for example, cars vs. SUVs.
"The policy could incentivize drivers to drive more and auto makers to produce larger vehicles, both of which would be counterproductive," said Michalek. "Ideally, a more efficient approach would be to apply an economy-wide tax on gasoline consumption and emissions that reflect the social costs they cause. Consumers would then have a choice in how to respond — by buying a high-efficiency vehicle, buying a smaller vehicle, driving less, or paying for the social costs caused by driving."
Michalek added, "And revenue generated from such a policy could be used to reduce taxes on things we want to encourage, like employment."
Chris T. Hendrickson, the Duquesne Light University Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, says that vehicle energy efficiency is important not only for environmental reasons but also to reduce dependence on imported petroleum.
"CAFE can play a significant role, but the standards are only one avenue to influence vehicle design and performance to improve vehicle energy efficiency."
Others, Hendrickson says, include shifting to renewable power generation, improved federal procurement practices, and research support for new technologies. Michalek agrees.
"New technologies can only make an impact to the extent that people adopt them," he said. "We need innovative advancements to reduce the costs of alternative vehicles, improve their attributes, and make them more competitive in the marketplace."
According to Michalek, the largest barrier to hybrid and electric vehicle adoption is the high cost of batteries. Development of lower cost, longer lasting, compact, high-power batteries can make hybrid and electric vehicles more viable and increase adoption, he said.
And this kind of new technology development is already in the works at CMU.
For instance, Shawn Litster, a CMU assistant professor of mechanical engineering, is studying and improving electrodes for batteries and fuel cells. Jay Whitacre, CMU associate professor and founder of startup company Aquion Energy, is focused on electricity storage systems. Illah Nourbakhsh, a professor in CMU's Robotics Institute, is building electric vehicles with CMU's ChargeCar group. And Michalek's group is developing methods to improve vehicle fuel economy.
"Getting there requires a mix of fundamental research, to understand what is happening inside battery electrodes and across interfaces; applied research, to make a better battery system; and analysis to understand broader implications and set goals," said Michalek.
He added, "Getting there also requires a systems perspective and interdisciplinary collaboration, which are among Carnegie Mellon's core strengths."
CMU President Jared L. Cohon is chairing a National Research Council Committee on Fuel Economy of Light-Duty Vehicles, which is examining the CAFE standards.
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Clothing & Textiles
Helping Nebraskans enhance their lives through research-based education.
Storing Your Summer Wardrobe
Submitted by Lorene Bartos, UNL Extension Educator
Seasons have changed and the challenges of what to wear is a daily task. As cooler weather is more common each day it is time to put away the summer clothes and bring out the sweaters, wool items and coats.
As we prepare to store summer clothes and bring out the fall and winter items it is important to store items correctly. Tips for storing clothes include:
- Launder or clean anything that will be stored. Small amounts of food or soil on a garment can attract insects. Items appearing to be clean may have hidden soils or stains. It is recommended not to use fabric softener, starch or sizing on items that will be stored.
- Make any repairs - sew on buttons, mend ripped seams, repair hems that are loose or out.
- Clean the area where the clothes will be stored – closet or tubs. Vacuum the closet. Use attachments to get in the corners and crevices to pick up dust, hair, lint, etc. If items are stored in drawers, clean them well also.
- Wash plastic tubs with a disinfectant cleaner. Always read the directions of any product before purchasing and using. Tubs can be lined with a cotton sheet or muslin.
- Sort through clothing before storing. If there are items that weren't used the past season or ones that are to small or are worn out, give them to a charity or discard them. No need to store items that won't be used next year.
Woolen sweaters and garments stored in mothballs during the summer may have an odor when they are taken out of storage. It will take time for the odor to come out the fabric. To eliminate the odor, take the garments out of storage as early as possible and give them time to air out. Hang or lay them in open spaces so fresh air will circulate around them. Let the garments air for several days. Avoid placing them in the sun. The odor will come out as mothballs are a pesticide and need fresh air and time to break down.
Clothing should be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area, away from artificial or natural light. Store items in an even temperature area. Avoid attics, damp basements and garages.
Now is the time to clean the closets, drawers and other areas where clothes are stored. Change out clothes for the season and make sure everything is clean before putting it away for the season.
Contact InformationUniversity of Nebraska-Lincoln in Lancaster County
Web site: lancaster.unl.edu
444 Cherrycreek Road, Suite A, Lincoln, NE 68528 | 402-441-7180
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Permanent URL to this publication: http://dx.doi.org/10.5167/uzh-39737
Scherber, C; Eisenhauer, N; Weisser, W W; Schmid, B; Voigt, W; Fischer, M; Schulze, E D; Roscher, C; Weigelt, A; et al (2010). Bottom-up effects of plant diversity on multitrophic interactions in a biodiversity experiment. Nature, (468):553-556.
View at publisher
Biodiversity is rapidly declining1, and this may negatively affect ecosystem processes, including economically important ecosystem services. Previous studies have shown that biodiversity has positive effects on organisms and processes4 across trophic levels. However, only a few studies have so far incorporated an explicit food-web perspective. In an eight-year biodiversity experiment, we studied an unprecedented range of above- and below-ground organisms and multitrophic interactions. A multitrophic data set originating from a single long-term experiment allows mechanistic insights that would not be gained from meta-analysis of different experiments. Here we show that plant diversity effects dampen with increasing trophic level and degree of omnivory. This was true both for abundance and species richness of organisms. Furthermore, we present comprehensive above-ground/below-ground biodiversity food webs. Both above ground and below ground, herbivores responded more strongly to changes in plant diversity than did carnivores or omnivores. Density and richness of carnivorous taxa was independent of vegetation structure. Below-ground responses to plant diversity were consistently weaker than above-ground responses. Responses to increasing plant diversity were generally positive, but were negative for biological invasion, pathogen infestation and hyperparasitism. Our results suggest that plant diversity has strong bottom-up effects on multitrophic interaction networks, with particularly strong effects on lower trophic levels. Effects on higher trophic levels are indirectly mediated through bottom-up trophic cascades.
100 downloads since deposited on 24 Jan 2011
30 downloads since 12 months
|Item Type:||Journal Article, refereed, further contribution|
|Communities & Collections:||07 Faculty of Science > Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies|
|Dewey Decimal Classification:||570 Life sciences; biology
590 Animals (Zoology)
|Date:||25 November 2010|
|Deposited On:||24 Jan 2011 13:34|
|Last Modified:||05 Apr 2016 14:27|
|Publisher:||Nature Publishing Group|
Users (please log in): suggest update or correction for this item
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FAIRBANKS — First graders in Chris Villano’s classroom at Denali Elementary School excitedly lined up to try on a handsewn Alaska Native parka featuring a thick fur ruff.
“See how the wolverine fur is put on top of the wolf fur so it can be turned in and the cold won’t frost your face,” pointed out retired teacher Jeannie Nelson.
Nelson, who is of Eskimo heritage, spent a recent afternoon working with the children on a special art and cultural project involving Native parka trim.
She passed around old photos framed in beaded moosehide, showing Native women garbed in elaborate, long, fur parkas featuring Native-style trim to give the children an idea of how the designs embellished their parkas, mittens and mukluks.
Rather than using calfskin as Native sewers do, the children’s project involved replicating the trim by cutting strips of colored paper into small squares and triangles and pasting them onto a background paper.
“My grandmother does this,” one student said as she pasted her original design pattern to paper.
Once the first-graders finished putting together their own paper parka trim designs, they were rewarded with picking out a paper doll and parka to color and cut out and trying on a fur-trimmed parka. It was a toss-up as to which was the most popular reward.
Similar cultural projects have been going on in classrooms across the school district during November in recognition of Native American Heritage Month.
Villano said the special programs shows students that Native Americans live here and are part of a living culture, and projects are helpful for Native students.
“It makes them real proud. It makes history come alive for them in their own families and their own schools,” she said.
Information from: Fairbanks (Alaska) Daily News-Miner, http://www.newsminer.com
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Get a glimpse inside Roberta Bragg's book "Hardening Windows Systems" with this series of book excerpts. Below is the introductory excerpt from Chapter 11, "Harden Communications." Click for the complete book excerpt series or purchase the book.
Use L2TP/IPSec VPNs
Where dial-up access is required, require the use of VPNs and do not allow plain dial-up connections. VPNs are a better choice for security. Two VPN types can be configured. Where possible, use L2TP/IPSec. PPTP is considered to be a less secure VPN protocol than L2TP/IPSec; however, it can provide secure communications if correctly configured. In general, though, L2TP/IPSec is simply a better choice. Important differences in these technologies are listed in Table 11-3.
Figure 11-4. Remote access can be controlled via Remote Access Policies.
Table 11-3. Differences in PPTP and L2TP/IPSec VPNs
When VPN access is configured during setup, both PPTP and L2TP/IPSec ports are configured on the RRAS server. No configuration is possible directly on the ports. Settings on clients determine which protocol is used; however, if you can restrict VPN access to one or the other, you may delete the other type of communication port.
NOTE The L2TP/IPSec standard as originally written is incompatible with NAT because IPSecencrypted packets including a checksum calculated over the IPSec source address. Since NAT modifies the source address, packets are considered to be corrupt or modified and dropped when received. NAT-Traversal, or NAT-T, uses UDP to encapsulate the IPSec packet, and therefore the packet can pass through the NAT server without a modification that will cause problems for IPSec. The NAT server must implement NAT-T. The Windows Server 2003 implementation of Internet Key Exchange (IKE), a component of IPSec, can detect NAT-T and use UDP-ESP encapsulation.
Click for the next excerpt in this series: Use Remote Access Policies.
Click for book details or purchase the book.
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You don’t have to be a victim to be raped. It is not true that only bad people are raped. Being a good person does not keep anyone safe from predators.
You don't have to be a victim or even look like a victim to be raped. You just have to be in the wrong place at the wrong time, or come to the attention of the wrong person. Rapists are called predators for a reason. You don’t have to be a woman or girl to be raped or a man to be a rapist. Anyone can be raped if the rapist puts the time and effort into it. It is about power and control after all, not sex. So telling your daughter that people out there want sex with her and some are willing to take away her choice is not making her a victim. It is letting her know it is possible. How can we expect our children to protect themselves to the best of their ability if they are unaware that this can happen, or think it only happens to bad people so it will not happen to them?
Rape is a reality and a real possibility. We cannot put our heads in the sand and pretend it does not happen, or will not happen. Telling little boys and teens that is wrong to rape is no different than telling them not to steal. They need to know this, but that does not mean they will not choose to steal, or rape. People make bad choices all the time, and some people feel they are entitled to whatever they want, including sex with someone even if that person is not interested.
We need to make sure our children, male and female, know that rape is real. There is nothing wrong with doing everything we can to prepare our children to live in the real world. We need to make sure they know what they can do to try and protect themselves. We don’t want them to be hurt or die in a car accident, so we tell them to not drink and drive. So what is wrong with telling them not to take drinks from people they don’t know, don’t get so drunk you pass out or are unable to say no, or too drunk to care who they have sex with. What is wrong with telling them not to hang out or walk down a dark alley if they don’t have to, walk in well light areas and travel in groups whenever possible. It is important to avoid problems and learn to protect themselves if a problem does occur. There are things people can do to deter a rapist, so it makes sense to tell our kids. Also we need to accept that some rapists are not deterred no matter what someone does; they will find a way to do what they want. As parents we have the opportunity to give our children the knowledge and tools to have the best out of life, or we can leave them unprepared and vulnerable to people who don’t care that your child deserves the best out of life, not the worst.
We also need to state that the rapist is responsible not the victim. Being raped does not make someone a bad person, or valueless no matter what some people say. Also no one deserves to be raped.
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Click on an individual image for full resolution figures image
|Left-eye view||Right-eye view|
This 360-degree, stereo mosaic of images from the navigation camera on NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity shows the view from the western rim of "Santa Maria" crater on the the 2,454th Martian day, or sol, of Opportunity's work on Mars (Dec. 19, 2010). The view appears three-dimensional when seen through red-blue glasses with the red lens on the left.
The crater is about 90 meters (295 feet) in diameter. East-southeast (110 degrees) is at the center, west-northwest at both ends.
This panorama combines right-eye and left-eye views presented as cylindrical-perspective projections.
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover Project for the NASA Science Mission Directorate, Washington.
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White Roofs May Partially Offset Summer Warming by 2100
Painting building roofs white could cool some major cities baking in the intensifying heat of a changing climate. How much benefits white roofs could bring depend on the region of the country they’re installed in and the season, new research shows.
Keeping cities cool in the summer is becoming increasingly important as more people move to urban areas, which currently house over 80 percent of the country’s population. In the U.S., cities currently cover a total of 106,386 square miles. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency expects the country’s urbanized area to double by 2100.
Painting white roofs in New York would cool the city but could reduce summer precipitation according to new research
Credit: Community Environment Center/Flickr
Greenhouse gas emissions are expected to force average temperatures to increase between 3°F and 9°F by the end of the century, depending on how much those emissions are cut back over that period.
These increases in temperature take on added importance in cities. There, the urban heat island effect, warming caused by paved and dark surfaces, can make temperatures as much as 10°F hotter compared to greener surrounding areas. Higher summer temperatures lead to increased energy costs and a greater occurrence of heat waves, harming human health.
One method of adapting to rising urban temperatures is painting roofs white to reflect incoming sunlight. New York has mandated white roofs since 2007 and other municipalities are considering following suit.
New research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science on Monday show that white roofs could bring benefits and drawbacks to expanding cities, though.
“We find that geography and season matters. Adaptations that work at location A might not be feasible for location B,” said Matei Georgescu, an assistant professor at Arizona State and lead author of the new study.
Georgescu and his colleagues examined six “megapolitan” areas in Arizona, California, Florida, Texas, the Mid-Atlantic, and the Midwest.
They found that urban expansion alone could increase summer temperatures by up to 3.6°F in some areas in addition to greenhouse gas-induced warming by 2100. The Mid-Atlantic and Midwest seeing the biggest overall summer temperature increases.
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Under a high emissions and urban expansion area, white roofs could offset heat island-induced temperature increases, and if deployed across the entire megapolitan area, could actually reduce some, though not all, greenhouse gas-related warming.
The benefits of cool roofs were particularly prominent for the urban areas stretching from Washington, D.C. to New York, Chicago and Detroit, and California’s Central Valley.
Cooler summertime temperatures could reduce demand for air conditioning, which could both save money and reduce the chances of electricity grid blackouts.
Keeping cities cool could also help reduce the number of heat waves and the strain they put on the public health system. According to the National Weather Service, heat is the most deadly natural hazard in the country and it can have outsized impacts on elderly city residents.
Some of the energy benefits gained in the summer could be lost in the winter, particularly in the Mid-Atlantic and Midwest.
“Once you deploy these cool roofs, they’re going to remain white into the winter season. You’re going to make your indoor environment cooler so you’ll need to use more energy to maintain your comfort,” Georgescu said.
The research indicates that winter temperatures could be 2.7°F cooler in the Mid-Atlantic if white roofs are installed across the region. However, the region would still see an overall energy savings of 9-36 percent by installing cool roofs. In comparison, energy demand would rise 39-155 percent if nothing is done to adapt.
Cecil Scheib, the chief program officer of the Urban Green Council, said that the savings would likely be greater than that. Based on research at the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab putting white roofs on current commercial buildings would provide 89 percent in net energy savings, he said.
“No one would turn down an 89% net savings, so cool roofs give a clear and compelling net benefit,” he said in an email.
However, white roofs could also have other, unintended effect on precipitation as well.
“The hotspot we found was over Florida in particular,” Georgescu said. “Over those areas . . . it needs to be warm to promote thunderstorms in late afternoon. if you reduce that heating by painting your roofs white, the effect is going to be considerable on how much rainfall you’re going to get.”
Georgescu’s research estimates that rainfall could decrease in parts of Florida by as much as 0.15 inches per day. That may not sound like much, but summer is Florida’s rainy season and thunderstorms can account for 20-40 percent of rainfall over that period.
White roofs would cause a decrease in rain from the Southwest summer monsoon, though it would be smaller. In a region that receives less overall rain, those small changes reflect a similar magnitude to projected changes in the Southeast, though it would affect water availability less since Phoenix and Tucson import most of their water from further afield.
In other locations, the impacts would less pronounced, though. Chicago and Detroit could see a slight increase in rain while in California’s Central Valley, little change would occur in part because summer is so dry.
Though it wasn’t part of the study, Georgescu said that large scale installation of cool roofs could have impacts on communities downwind.
“What you’re doing in one part location affects some things in another location. It’s difficult to say if urbanizing Florida will have an effect up the East Coast since the East Coast is also urbanizing,” he said.
Georgescu said that these tradeoffs and the interconnected nature of urban areas across the country show that, “It’s difficult to say what the ideal city (of the future) is.”
Mixing in green roofs, which have a lesser effect on summer precipitation and temperature and promote a slight winter warming, or developing seasonably adjustable cool roofs could help urban areas find a Goldilocks approach to adaptation that works just right for a specific region or city. Ultimately, climate is only one portion of making a city liveable.
“In order to really comprehensively plan the cities of tomorrow, climate folks need to start talking to planning folks and engineering folks,” Georgescu said. “What our work shows is that local solutions make a difference.”
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If you draw the right-triangle, with an arbitrary inscribed rectangle,
that has sides against the base and vertical side, settling in the
label the base of the triangle 6, height 8, hypotenuse 10.
The rectangle base is x and the rectangle height y.
Now, observe the smaller identical triangle at the bottom corner.
It has base (6-x) and height y.
Hence we can write an equation
Rectangle area is
in terms of x only, allowing us to differentiate the area and equate the derivative to zero to find the rectangle of maximum area
which equals zero when x=3
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If you have a yard, there may be uses for that Douglas fir after it’s done its job for the season. Here are a few.
Feed the birds in your garden. Turn the tree into an bird feeder by leaving strands of popcorn or cranberries right where they are and moving the tree, stand and all, to your garden. Hang slices of oranges and pieces of suet (suet can also be smeared into the branches). The birds can also perch in the branches for shelter from the elements and predators. Pinecones filled with peanut butter and bird seed can be hung from the branches.
Just make sure you remove all decorations, hooks, garland and tinsel strands. By summer you can use the mulching option below.
Shelter wildlife in your garden. Just dump the tree on its side in a protected part of the yard to provide shelter for wildlife, including rabbits. Allowed to decompose, the tree will become home to insects, fungi and possibly even amphibians and reptiles.
Use the trunk as support. With the branches removed, tree trunks can be turned into sturdy trellises or vegetable stakes.
Or as feeding areas for fish. Some people place their used trees in their fish ponds, where they serve as refuge and feeding areas for the fish. Some experts recommend removing all the needles first, as they’re mildly toxic to the fish.
Use it as mulch. With a chipper/shredder, trees are quickly turned into mulch that’s perfect for paths. Chipper/shredders are one of those seldom-used machines (like power washers) that are often shared by neighbors. Even without a chipper, you can trim the branches and place them on perennial beds to reduce the heaving caused by cycles of freezing and thawing.
Chop it into firewood and kindling. A typical fir can be turned into 13+ pounds of firewood. Dry branches make great kindling for starting fires.
And if you don’t have a spot for the tree in your garden, there are still good uses that can be made of it. As long as it doesn’t end up in the landfill, right?
Donate it for stream protection. Christmas trees are increasingly used to shore up streamsides as erosion control, so check with the nearest water protection group to see if they can put your tree to good use. They may even pick up the tree for you.
Here are the details from some local jurisdictions. You can also visit Earth911.org to find a local tree recycler.
- The Montgomery County collects Christmas trees on your recycling day from Monday, December 27, 2010 through Friday, February 4, 2011. They ask that trees be put by the curb by 7 a.m. on your collection day.
- Baltimore County – has both pick-up and drop-off options.
- Here’s info from Baltimore City.
- And from Anne Arundel County.
- For Washington, the DC.gov website says that trees and wreaths will be picked up curbside from January 3 to January 15. Remove all decorations and place the greenery in the treebox space in front of your home between Sunday, January 2, and Sunday, January 9. Please do not put the trees in plastic or cloth bags. Any trees not collected by January 15 should be set out with your trash to be picked up as space in the trash trucks allows over the following weeks.
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What Are Green Superfoods?
Most people classify green superfoods as healthy and nutritious greens such as barley grass and wheat grass. Also green algae, like chlorella and spirulina are considered green superfoods.
There are others of course, but these are the most well-known.
You may be asking yourself, why you would want consume these green superfoods. Actually, there are many reasons why you may want to. First of all, they are very healthy and nutritious forms of whole food. Because they are a whole food and not an isolated substance such as a vitamin extracted from a plant, they are easily assimilated by your body.
All of the vitamins, minerals, trace minerals and nutrition contained in these plants are in a form that your body can easily break down and utilize.
The easily assimilated nutrition in these plants makes them worth consuming for just this reason alone. But besides their nutritional value, they also offer other health benefits as well.
In order for barley grass to be assimilated well by the body, it has to be picked when young and then juiced. It’s great to drink the fresh juice but you can also take capsules that contain the dried and powdered juice.
Green barley grass contains four times as much calcium as milk and 22 times as much iron as spinach. It provides as much protein as steak. This healthy green grass also contains every essential amino acid, important enzymes, 12 minerals and 13 vitamins. About 23% of barley grass is protein. It is also a great source of chlorophyll.
Many people consider barley grass easier on the stomach then wheat grass. Barley grass has a much more bitter taste then wheat grass though.
Wheat grass must also be picked when young and juiced to unlock its healthy benefits. You may consume the fresh juice or take the dried juice in tablet or capsule form.
Wheat grass juice is a nutritional powerhouse. It contains over 90 minerals such as potassium, magnesium and calcium which are great for balancing the pH levels of the body.
The juice from young wheat grass contains many essential enzymes that help a digestion. It also contains 19 amino acids and many vitamins in their natural form.
Chlorella is a fresh water, single-cell green algae that is loaded with healthy vitamins, minerals, trace minerals and protein.
It is one of the healthiest whole foods you could consume. It helps rid the body of toxins and heavy metals and can remove many types of impurities from the body.
This type of green algae can dramatically boost the immune system and is taken by millions of people daily. Not only is it great or overall good health, but it may also be effective in fighting dangerous diseases such as cancer.
Many scientific studies have concluded that chlorella does indeed possess anti-tumor properties. It is great for lowering cholesterol and treating radiation sickness as well.
This algae has a high content of chlorophyll and is good for deodorizing the entire body as well as the breath. What’s great about chlorella is that it’s vitamin and mineral content is in a form that is easily assimilated by the body.
In order to be used properly by the body, chlorella has to have it’s tough outer shell pulverized before consuming.
Spirulina is a single-cell blue-green fresh water algae and is one of the most nutritious whole foods on the planet. It is over 70% protein and contains many vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients.
The nutritional content of spirulina is easily absorbed by the body and is much better than a synthetic multi-vitamin/mineral supplement.
Due to its high nutrition to weight ratio, spirulina supplements in tablet and powdered form are being considered as a food to take into space by NASA.
Try Them For Yourself
The best way to experience these green superfoods is to just try them yourself. You may want to try them one at a time to see how your body responds to each one. If you have good results with all of them, you may then consider a supplement that contains two or more of the green super foods mentioned.
I highly recommend you try Perfect Aquatic Greens. A high quality blend of Organic Spirulina and Organic Chlorella.
Click Picture For Price and Description
If You Are Over 30If you are over 30, you'll want to take some GF20 with this. Then you'll be able to run circles around people your own age. What is GF20?
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Republic of Latvia
Located in the Baltic region of Eastern Europe, Latvia is bordered by Estonia (339 kilometers; 211 miles), Russia (217 kilometers; 135 miles), Belarus (141 kilometers; 88 miles), Lithuania (453 kilometers; 281 miles), and the Baltic Sea (531 kilometers; 330 miles). Slightly larger than the state of West Virginia, Latvia has a total area of 64,589 square kilometers (40,136 square miles). Its capital, Riga, is centrally located and lies next to its namesake, the Gulf of Riga.
In July of 2000 the population of Latvia was estimated at 2,404,926, a decrease of 10 percent from the 1989 population of 2,666,567. This decrease is the result of 2 factors. The first is the economic hardships that set in following the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991—of which Latvia had been a reluctant member— and the decision of families to postpone procreation. For the first time since the 1945 flight from the advancing Red Army and the 1949 Soviet deportation of dissident Latvians to Siberia, the total number of deaths outnumbered the total number of births. The second, and more important, factor has to do with the out-migration of Slavs, primarily Russians and Ukrainians. The regained independence of Latvia in 1991 brought a shift in political power from Russian control into Latvian control. New Latvian language requirements for certain employment sectors and the sudden reality of monolingual Russian speakers living in a new "foreign" country spurred a large emigration movement.
In 2000 the birth rate stood at 7.8 births per 1,000 while the death rate stood at 14.88 per 1,000. With a current out migration of 1.32 per 1,000, Latvia's annual population growth rate is-0.84 percent, and the projected population for 2015 is 2.1 million and for 2030 is 2.0 million. With an official unemployment rate of 8.6 percent (unofficial estimates are close to 14 percent), there is no great demand for an immediate increase in the labor force . The below replacement level birth rate may factor into labor shortages should Latvia's productive economy increase significantly. Female life expectancy (74.6 years) is much greater than male life expectancy (62.4 years) and thus among older people women greatly outnumber men. The largest percentage of the population are within their working years, 20 to 64, and a great amount of economic responsibility falls upon them. The dependency ratio (the percentage of the population that are either above or below their productive working years) in 1997 was 49.9 percent. In this same year, the percentage of the population aged 65 and above was at 13.6 percent and is estimated to reach 16.8 percent by 2015. Despite this increase in the percentage of the aged, the dependency ratio is predicted to drop to 45.8 percent by 2015. This is due to the drop in fertility rate, from 2.0 children per mother in 1975 to 1.3 in 1997.
Language and citizenship policies that served as a reprisal against former Russian dominance fostered the out migration of that group, but criticisms from the
Proximity to European markets and the ease and cheapness of transport across the Baltic Sea makes Latvia well situated for delivering goods to market according to EU standards. Cheap labor, a stable currency, membership in the World Trade Organization, and future membership in the EU has made industry an important part of Latvia's development plans.
Manufacturing in Latvia is currently organized around machinery, textiles (especially woolens), food processing, and wood processing. Due to cheap labor and abundant resources, wood processing is the most dynamic sector and possesses the potential for dramatic increase. Latvia produces automobiles, electric rail cars, and consumer goods such as radios and appliances. Steel, cement, wood products, chemicals, and electronics are also manufactured in Latvia's major urban centers. Dependence on imported energy delivered at increased prices injured the industrial sector of Latvia, once the most industrialized of the Soviet Republics, and the service sector has increased in importance. Information technologies (IT) have recently become a rapidly developing area due to changes in the political, business, and technical infrastructure of the country. About 20 percent of total foreign investments is directed at manufacturing.
As of 1999, food products and beverages comprised the largest share of Latvia's manufacturing at 36.4 percent. Wood and wood products, at 17.8 percent in 1999, comprised the second largest share of Latvian manufacturing and increased 14.5 percent from the previous year. Textiles remained important at nearly 6 percent in 1999, and other significant industries in 1999 included the following: publishing and printing (4.7 percent), wear apparel (3.7 percent), chemicals (3.5 percent), metal wares (2.9 percent), and transport vehicles (2.9 percent).
Latvia is the least known of the Baltic states and does not receive much tourism. However, Riga, the largest and most vibrant city in the Baltic States, is the primary tourist destination, offering opportunities for day trips. Tourism by Russians is still present in Latvia, but Western visitors have become more numerous. Latvia's coast supports several beach resorts, but poor water quality in the Baltic Sea has discouraged bathers. In fact, the number of visitors to Latvia has decreased from 2.4 million in 1993 to just 1.7 million in 1999.
Latvia's 2-tiered banking system began in 1988 when its first commercial banks were established. Prior to the break up of the Soviet Union, there were no private banks in any of the Baltic States. Since that time, the banking system, although suffering 2 crises, has developed well and offers a variety of services to its customers. The Central Bank of Latvia was founded in August of 1990. It is an independent bank that has the right to issue the national currency, supervise other banks and credit unions, and control the economy via monetary policy instruments, such as national interest rates. It is independent of the Latvian government and handles foreign currency.
The commercial banking sector is controlled by the Central Bank. The bank crises have struck Latvia since independence. Connected to a large reduction in the number of banks, the first crisis occurred in 1995. The second crisis accompanied the Russian economic collapse of 1998. Since that time, the Latvian banking system has been recovering, and a majority of the banks have ended the year with a profit.
The banking system in Latvia has been almost entirely transferred into private hands, although 70 percent of the ownership and control is with foreign institutions. There are currently 21 banks and 1 foreign bank branch in Latvia. In 12 of these banks, more than 50 percent of assets are owned by foreign shareholders. In 2000 there was a 38 percent increase in the total assets of banks as investment has increased and proved profitable. Cash and capital flow into and out of Latvia faces virtually no restrictions.
The Riga Stock Exchange (RSE), re-established in 1993, is Latvia's only licensed stock exchange. It is owned by 27 shareholders, and the Latvian Ministry of Finance regulates its activities. The shareholders include major Latvian commercial banks, brokerage companies, and the State Real Estate Fund. In June of 1997, the RSE became the first exchange in Eastern Europe to have a Dow Jones Index, meaning that the daily activities are collectively reported in a quantitative fashion to display the rise and falls in the market.
Latvia has no territories or colonies.
Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. <http://www.csb.lv/ajaunumi.html> . Accessed July 2001.
De Bernardis, Petra Lantz. "Wealth and Poverty in Transition." UNDP: Estonia. <http://www.undp.ee/equity> . Accessed July 2001.
Embassy of Latvia. <http://www.latvia-usa.org/economy.html> . Accessed July 2001.
International Monetary Fund. Latvia: Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix . <http://www.imf.org> . Accessed July 2001.
Iwaskiw, W.R. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania: Country Studies . Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996.
Latvian Development Agency. Latvia: The Meeting Point of Two Worlds. <http://www.lda.gov.lv> . Accessed July 2001.
Latvijas Banka. <http://www.bank.lv/englishindex.html> . Accessed July 2001.
"News from Latvia." Central Europe Review. <http://www.cereview.org/00/41/latvianews41.html> . Accessed July 2001.
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html> . Accessed July 2001.
U.S. Department of State. FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Latvia . <http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/index.html> . Accessed July 2001.
Latvian Lat (Ls). One lat equals 100 santimis. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 santimi and 1 and 2 lats, and bank notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 lats.
Wood and wood products, machinery and equipment, metals, textiles, foodstuffs.
Machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels.
US$9.8 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).
Exports: US$1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999). Imports: US$2.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998).
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Today, July 16/29, is the anniversary of the notorious declaration of Metropolitan Sergius of Nizhni-Novogord in 1927, which created the largest schism in Church history since the Roman Catholic schism of 1054 and under whose shadow the whole life of the Russian Orthodox Church continues to live. The first bishop to break with Sergius was Hieromartyr Victor of Vyatka, whose life is posted below. The diocese of Vyatka continued to contain very many catacombniks who rejected the Sovietized Moscow Patriarchate right to the present day, when they have almost all joined the Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church. So the life of another, more recent confessor of the Vyatka diocese is posted after this.
Bishop Victor, in the world Victor Alexandrovich Ostrovidov, was born on May 20, 1875 in the village of Zolotoye, Zolotoyevksy volost, Kamyshinsky uyezd, Saratov province, in a peasant family. His father was a church reader. He finished his studies at the Kamyshinskoye theological school. In 1899 he finished his studies at the Saratov theological seminary and entered the Kazan Theological Academy. In 1903 graduated from the Academy with the degree of candidate of theology. Then he was tonsured, ordained to the priesthood and appointed superior of the Holy Trinity podvorye in Khvalynsk. In 1904 he became a member of the Jerusalem Spiritual Mission, becoming the senior hieromonk there by 1909. On January 13, 1909 he was appointed supervisor of the Archangelsk theological school, and on October 15, 1909 he was enrolled into the brotherhood of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. On November 22, 1910 he was appointed superior of the Zelenets Holy Trinity monastery (Saint Petersburg diocese) with promotion to the rank of archimandrite, and also deputy of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.
On December 15 or 26, 1919 he was consecrated first bishop of the newly created see of Urzhuma, a vicariate of the Vyatka diocese, in Petrograd. According to one source, in 11920 he became Bishop of Sloboda, a vicariate of the Vyatka diocese. In 1920 he was arrested and imprisoned by the Vyatka revolutionary tribunal for anti-Soviet agitation - or, according to another source, for "agitation against medicine". He was in prison for five months. From April, 1921 he was temporarily administering the Tomsk diocese, and by September 14, 1921 he was Bishop of Glazov, a vicariate of the Vyatka diocese. On August 25, 1922 he was made Bishop of Orel, a vicariate of the Vyatka diocese while temporarily administering the Glazov diocese, but on the same day he was arrested in the Vyatka St. Triphon monastery for "spreading the illegal appeals of Patriarch Tikhon".
This was a difficult time for the believers of Vyatka region, as for believers throughout Russia. 41 clergy and monastics of various ranks were killed in the province in connection with the Bolsheviks' requisitioning of valuables from the churches in 1922. On February 23, 1923 Vladyka Victor was sentenced by the OGPU to three years in exile, which he carried out in the Narymsk region. At the beginning of 1926 he returned to Vyatka. On May 16, 1926 he was arrested for organizing an illegal diocesan chancellery together with Bishop Paul (Borisov) of Vyatka and imprisoned in the Butyrki prison in Moscow. On August 20 he was sentenced by the OGPU to three years in exile while being forbidden to live in the six largest cities of the USSR and Vyatka. He was exiled to the city of Glazov in Izhevsk province. In the autumn of 1926 he was appointed Bishop of Izhevsk and Votkinsk. From the autumn of 1926 to December, 1927 he was temporarily administering the Vyatka diocese. In July, 1927 he was appointed Bishop of Shadrinsk while temporarily administering the Sverdlovsk diocese; but he did not arrive at his see.
Bishop Victor stood firmly for Orthodoxy against the renovationists, and when, in July, 1927, Metropolitan Sergius issued his notorious "declaration", which placed the Russian Church in more or less unconditional submission to the militant atheists, Bishop Victor opposed it. In October he wrote to Metropolitan Sergius: "I am writing to you out of sorrow for the Holy Orthodox Church…
"Our souls are exhausted, we are horrified at the sight of what is now happening around us in the Church, it's oppressing us like a nightmare, and everyone is overwhelmed by a terrible fear for the future of the Church. There distant Tashkent is thinking of separating, here Leningrad is seething with dissatisfaction. There Votlandia is groaning and crying out, and Izhevsk is again rebelling, while here sorrow and perplexity have penetrated the land of Vyatka, Perm and many other cities. And over and above all these Moscow is just now preparing to utter its deciding voice.
"You know, everywhere the Church is just being destroyed, and this is "by administrative means". What is this? Why? Has the Holy Church suffered only a little from "outsiders"? What can be the use of these destructive measures which are ruining our peace?
"Vladyko, spare the Russian Orthodox Church. She is entrusted to you, and much depends on you to see that she is not given over to destruction "by administrative means". May your all-honourable head not be subjected to reproof, and may it not be a cause of schisms and fallings away from the Church. But if this is not done and observed, then God and His Angels are witness that a great schism will take place in the Church…"
Bishop Victor broke communion with Sergius in November - the first bishop to do so officially. On December 10/23, 1927 he was removed from the Shadrinsk see and banned from serving. Then, on December 16/29 he wrote a second letter to Metropolitan Sergius: "In the month of October I with filial love was bold enough to express to your Eminence my sorrow with regard to the ruinous destruction of the Orthodox Church that was beginning 'by administrative means'.
"Such a destruction of the Church of God is a completely natural and inevitable consequence of the path on which your 'appeal of July 16' has placed you and which is completely unacceptable for us humble and God-fearing people and for all those who love Christ.
"From beginning to end it is filled with terrible untruth. It is an insult to the Holy Orthodox Church, and to our confession for the truth of God, that disturbs the soul of the believer. Through betraying the Church of Christ to be mocked by 'outsiders' it is a most sorrowful renunciation of your own salvation or renunciation of the Lord Saviour Himself.
"This sin, as the Word of God witnesses, is not less than any heresy or schism, but is rather incomparably greater, for it plunges a man immediately into the abyss of destruction, according to the unlying word: 'Whosoever shall deny Me before men...' (Matthew 10.33), etc.
"Insofar as we have been able we have protected ourselves and our flock so as not to become partakers of this sin, and for this reason we have sent the appeal itself back. Acceptance of the appeal would be a witness before God that we are indifferent in relation to the Most Holy Church of God, the Bride of Christ.
"In accordance with the fear of God I also cannot accept your order for my transfer: 'I fear,' as one hierarch writes to me, 'that the expression of obedience on our part will be considered by "them" (the Synod) as an approval of what "they" have done. And for that reason, if I were given full freedom of movement, which I do not have as being in administrative exile, I would ask myself: will I not have to answer before God for this obedience, for it in essence unites me with people who have been alienated from God. But I have expressed my thoughts that the appeal is truly worthy of many tears, and that it alienates a man from God in the form of a letter to those close to me, which is here attached.
"What of the future? In the future I would beseech God, and not only I, but the whole of the Orthodox Church, that he not harden your heart as He once hardened the heart of Pharaoh, but that He give you the grace to understand the sin you have committed and repent for the rest of your life. Then all the believers would thank God in joy and tears, and would again come to you as to a father and pastor - as to the first pastor, and the whole of the Russian Church as to her sacred head. The enemy has lured and deceived you for a second time with the idea of an organization of the Church. But if this organization is bought for the price of the Church of Christ Herself no longer remaining the house of Grace-giving salvation for men, and he who received the organization ceases to be what he was - for it is written, 'Let his habitation be made desolate, and his bishopric let another take' (Acts 1.20) - then it were better for us never to have any kind of organization.
"What is the benefit if we, having become by God's Grace temples of the Holy Spirit, become ourselves suddenly worthless, while at the same time receiving an organization for ourselves? No. Let the whole visible material world perish; let there be more important in our eyes the certain perdition of the soul to which he who presents such external pretexts for sin will be subjected.
"But if the hardening of your heart has gone so far, and there remains no hope of repentance, then in this case we have a word to enlighten us: 'Come out from among them and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and do not touch their impurity, and I will receive you, and I will be to you and a Father and you will be to as sons and daughters' (II Corinthians 6.17-18)."
Vladyka Victor had especially noted the phrase in the declaration: "Only ivory-tower dreamers can think that a society as tremendous as our Orthodox Church, with its whole organization, can exist throughout the country hidden from the authorities of the State." He saw in this the same over-valuation of the Church's external organization at the expense of her inner faithfulness to Christ, as he had detected in a book of Sergius' some years earlier. As he wrote to his friend, Bishop Abraham of Urzhuma: "His errors with regard to the Church and the salvation of man in her were clear to me already in 1911, and I wrote about him in an Old Believer journal, that there would come a time when he would shake the Church..."
In December, 1927, Bishop Victor wrote to those close to him: "The Church of Christ of its essence can never be any kind of political organization, otherwise it ceases to be the Church of Christ, the Church of God, the Church of eternal salvation." And on January 15, 1928 he wrote to Bishop Abraham (Dernov): "In truth these people who think evil against the Church are not from men, but from him who was a murderer from the beginning and who thirsts for our eternal destruction, whose servants these new traitors have become, subverting the very essence of the Orthodox Church of Christ. They have made it, not heavenly, but earthly, and have changed it from a grace-filled union into a political organization."
Again, on February 28 / March 12, 1928, he wrote to his flock: "This fall of theirs is not little and not secret, but very great and evident to all those who have sense (I Corinthians 2.16). It was revealed in the well-known 'appeal' of July 16/29 and the bold destruction of the Orthodox Church which followed it. The 'appeal' is a disgusting sale of that which cannot be sold and is priceless - that is, our spiritual freedom in Christ (John 8.36); it is their attempt, contrary to the word of God, to unite that which cannot be united - the portion of the sinner with the work of God, God and Mammon (Matthew 6.24), light and darkness (II Corinthians 6.14-18). The apostates have transformed the Church of God from a Grace-filled union of the salvation of man from sin and eternal destruction into a political organization, which they have united with the organization of civil power in the service of this world which lies in evil (I John 5.19). The loyalty of individual believers to the civil power is another matter. In the first situation the Church preserves her spiritual freedom in Christ, while the believers become confessors under persecution for the faith; in the second situation, she (the Church) is merely an obedient weapon for the realization of the political ideas of the civil power, while the confessors for the faith are here state criminals.
"We see all this in the activity of Metropolitan Sergius, who by dint of his relationship to the civil power has been forced to forget the canons of the Orthodox Church, and in spite of them he has removed all the confessor-bishops from their sees, considering them to be state criminals, and in their place he has of his own will appointed other bishops who were and are not now recognized by the believing people. For Metropolitan Sergius now there can no longer be any exploit of confession of the Church, and for that reason, in his conversation with regard to the 'appeal', he declares that every cleric who dares to say anything in defence of the Truth of God against the civil power is an enemy of the Orthodox Church. Is this not madness, madness that has overtaken a man in spiritual deception? You know, if we think like that, then we shall have to consider as an enemy of God - the hierarch Philip, for example, who once rebuked Ivan the Terrible and was strangled for that. Moreover, we shall have to count among the enemies of God the great Forerunner himself, who rebuked Herod and was beheaded for that.
"... That is why, when they tried to persuade St. Maximus the Confessor by means of terrible tortures to enter into communion of prayer with a wrong-thinking patriarch, he cried out: 'even if the whole universe begins to have communion with the patriarch, I alone will not communicate with him'. Why was that? Because he feared to destroy his soul through communion with a patriarch who had been drawn into impiety, although at that time he had not yet been condemned by a council and was, on the contrary, supported by the majority of the bishops. You know, the ecclesiastical administrative authority, even in the person of councils, did not always defend the truth in former times, to which clear witness is borne by the story of the hierarch Athanasius the Great, John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Theodore the Studite and others. How, then, can I remain unreasonable and indifferent? That cannot be. That is why we have set out on the only possible way out in our present situation - the way of the confession of the truth of salvation. This way is difficult, it is the way of exploit [podvig]; but we do not trust on our own strength, but look to the Author and Finisher of our faith, Jesus Christ (Hebrews 12.2). And our action is not a separation for the Church, but the defence of the truth and justification of the Divine commandments, or - still better - the preservation of the whole economy of our salvation. That is why a whole pleiad of archpastors have rebuked Metropolitan Sergius: Metropolitans (Joseph, Agathangel, Arsenius), Archbishops, Bishops and a multitude of individual pastors, who have told Metropolitan Sergius that they can no longer recognize him to be the leader of the Orthodox Church, and will rule independently for the time being..."
On April 4, 1928, Bishop Victor was arrested, imprisoned in Butyrki and (on May 18) sentenced to Solovki for five (according to another source, three) years, having entrusted his Vyatka flock to Archbishop Demetrius of Gdov.
According to one (doubtful) source, Vladyka Victor signed the decisions of the so-called "Nomadic Council" of the Catacomb Church, which took place in various places between March and August, 1928, through the reader Athanasius Beregovy.
In his last known letter, of unknown date, Bishop Victor wrote: "In his destructive and treacherous actions against the Church, Metropolitan Sergius has also committed a terrible blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, which according to the unlying word of Christ will never be forgiven him, neither in this life, nor in the life to come.
"'He who does not gather with Me,' says the Lord, 'scatters.' 'Either recognize the tree (the Church) as good and its fruit as good, or recognize the tree as bad and its fruit as bad' (Matthew 12.33). 'Therefore I say unto you, every sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto me, but the blasphemy against the Spirit shall not be forgiven unto me' (Matthew 12.31). 'Fulfilling the measure of his sin,' Metropolitan Sergius together with his Synod,, by his ukaz of October 8/21, 1927, is introducing a new formula of commemoration.
"Mixing together into one, despite the word of God, the 'faithul with the unfaithful' (II Corinthians 6.14-18), the Holy Church and those fighting to the death against her, in the great and most holy sacrament of the Eucharist, the metropolitan by this blasphemy of his destroys the prayerful meaning of the great sacrament and its grace-filled significance for the eternal salvation of the souls of Orthodox believers. Hence the service becomes not only graceless because of the gracelessness of the celebrant, but an abomination in the eyes of God, and for that reason both the celebrant and the he who participates in it subject themselves to severe condemnation.
"Being in all his activity an anti-church heretic, as transforming the Holy Orthodox Church from the house of the grace-filled salvation of believers into a graceless, carnal organization deprived of the spirit of life, Metropolitan Sergius has at the same time, through his conscious renunciation of the truth and in his mindless betrayal of Christ, become an open apostate from God the Truth.
"Without a formal external trial by the Church (which cannot be carried out on him), he 'is self-condemned' (Titus 3.10-11); he has ceased to be what he was - a 'server of the truth', according to the word: 'Let his habitation be desolate, and let no one live in it; and his office let another take' (Acts 1.20).
"A series of archpastors, God-wise fathers and Orthodox men of the Church have in the course of many years exhorted him, but to no effect - they did not bring Metropolitan Sergius to a consciousness of the sin he had committed and did not elicit repentance in his heart.
"For that reason, we, by the grace given us by our Lord Jesus Christ, 'by the power of our Lord Jesus Christ' (I Corinthians 5.4), declare the former Metropolitan Sergius deprived of prayerful communion with us and all those faithful to Christ and His Holy Orthodox Church, and give him up to the judgement of God: 'Vengeance is Mine, I will repay, saith the Lord' (Hebrews 19.30).
"This present act, in addition to our earlier declarations made in 1927 and 1928, we carry out in strict consciousness of our archpastoral duty before our flock, all the faithful children of the Orthodox Church, in obedience to the Church of Christ, in dutiful submission to the canons of the Ecumenical Councils and the Council of the Russian Church of 1917-1918, which is headed today by the patriarchal locum tenens, Metropolitan Peter of Krutitsa and his deputy, Archbishop Seraphim of Uglich.
"'Fear not, little flock! For your Father has determined to give you the Kingdom!' (Luke 12.32).
Academician Demetrius Sergeyevich Likhachev, who knew Vladyka Victor on Solovki, said that he was a highly educated man with several theological publications to his credit, but he looked like a village priest. He had a sparse beard, rosy cheeks and dark blue eyes. He met everyone with a broad smile, and radiated kindness and joy. He tried to help everyone, and was truly able to help them, because everyone thought highly of him and trusted him.
Vladyka Victor served as an accountant in the Solovki sovkhoz. He together with Fr. Nicholas Piskanovsky, the spiritual father of I.M. Andreyev and several other zealots for Orthodoxy on Solovki, persuaded Kolosov to take Likhachev to the criminological laboratory; and when, writes Likhachev, "during the winter of 1929 I returned from the typhus 'brigade of convalescents', he sent me some green onion and cream through Fedya Rozenberg. How tasty that onion and cream was! Once I met Vladyka (among ourselves we used to call him 'Vladychka') in a particularly radiant and joyful state. It was on the square in front of the Transfiguration cathedral. An order had been issued that all the prisoners should have their hair cut and were not to wear long clothes. Vladyka Victor refused to carry out this order, so they took him inot the lock-up, forcibly shaved him, in the process seriously wounding his face, and cut his clothes crookedly from below. He walked towards us with a towel wrapped round his face and smiling. He said that they had dragged him into the lock-up in order to shave him, and had bound him, but that he had demanded that they first cut the long 'chekist' greatcoat (in the style of that in which Dzerzhinsky is depicted on the Lubyanka) of the escort who had dragged him into the lock-up. I think that Vladyka had resisted without spite and that he considered his suffering to be the mercy of God."
Professor I.M. Andreyev remembers that "Vladyka Victor was short, stocky, kind and welcoming to everyone, with an unchangingly radiant and joyful subtle smile and radiant eyes. 'One must comfort everybody in some way,' he used to say, and he had the ability to comfort each and every one. He had a welcoming word for every person he met, and often even a little gift... Within a few days Vladyka would distribute all his parcels, leaving almost nothing for himself. He 'comforted' very many, often prisoners whom he did not know at all, taking special pity on the 'urkas'.., that is, the petty thieves who had been sent as 'socially harmful' elements into isolation, according to article 48.
"... Both Vladykas (Victor and Maximus) loved each other; unhurriedly, without ever quarrelling or getting irritated, but attentively they studied a single complicated phenomenon from different points of view. Vladyka Maximus was a pessimist and was getting ready for the heavy trials of the last times, not believing in the possibility of a regeneration of Russia. But Vladyka Victor was an optimist and believed in the possibility of a short, but radiant period, as a final gift from heaven for the tormented Russian people. At the end of 1930 Vladyka Victor completed his three-year term, but instead of being released was sent to Mai-Guba."
In 1931 (according to another source, the spring of 1930) Bishop Victor was imprisoned in Novaya Birzha (Belbaltlag). He was released and lived in the Vyatka part of the Nizhegorod region.
There he was arrested (in March, 1931) and on April 10, 1931 was sentenced to three years in exile. From the summer of 1931 to 1934 he was in exile in the city of Onega, Archangel district. According to one source, in 1933 he was arrested in exile and on May 10 was given an extra three years' exile.
According to another source, at the end of his term on Solovki, Bishop Victor was exiled to the village of Ust-Tsilma, Komi (Zyryan) Autonomous region. In December, 1932 he was arrested and conveyed under convoy to Syktyvkar. Here he was accused of participation in a mythical counter-revolutionary organization. The authorities tried to break the will of the confessor, but after gaining nothing they sent him to the village of Neritsa, Ust-Tsilma district. Here he was accomodated in the house of the president of the village soviet.
In those years exiled Old Believers were living in the village. Vlayka helped them to cut wood and spoke to them about the true faith. He in turn was helped in his housework by the Nun Maria.
Vladyka often went into the taiga to pray. At the end of April, 1934 he caught a cold. He could not be sent to the regional centre because the river had overflowed its banks. On May 2, 1934 (new style) he reposed in the Lord, and was buried in the village cemetery by Nun Maria. On returning to her home in Vyatka region, she simply said: "He died on Solovki". And it was many years before his grave discovered.
On July 1, 1997, the incorrupt relics of Archbishop Victor were revealed in Neritsa. The witnesses were so amazed by what they saw that they immediately asked to be baptised. They were baptised the next day. The fragrant relics of the saint were taken to Moscow, and then, on December 2, 1998, to the St. Alexander Nevsky church of the Holy Trinity-Macarius monastery in Vyatka. All his life St. Victor had served in churches dedicated either to the Holy Trinity or to St. Alexander Nevsky…
Many miracles of healing have already been recorded at the shrine of St. Victor.
(Sources: Protopresbyter Michael Polsky, Noviye Mucheniki Rossijskiye, Jordanville, 1949-57, part 1, pp. 211, 213, 214, 216, part 2, p. 230; Vladimir Rusak, Pir Satany, London, Canada: "Zarya", 1991, p. 104; M.E. Gubonin, Akty Svyatejshego Tikhona, Patriarkha Moskovskogo i Vseya Rossii, Moscow: St. Tikhon's Theological Institute, 1994, pp. 583-584, 634-35, 851-52; Andreyev, Russia's Catacomb Saints, op. cit., pp. 141-43; Anonymous, V Obyatiyakh Semiglavago Zmiya, Montreal, 1984, pp. 47, 104; Bishop Ambrose (von Sievers), "Istoki i svyazi Katakombnoj Tserkvi v Leningrade i obl. (1922-1992)", report read at the conference "The Historical Path of Orthodoxy in Russia after 1917", Saint Petersburg, 1-3 June, 1993; "Katakombnaya Tserkov': Kochuyushchij Sobor 1928 g.", Russkoye Pravoslaviye, N 3 (7), 1997, pp. 19, 29; Bishop Ambrose (von Sievers), "Episkopat Istinno-Pravoslavnoj Katakombnoj Tserkvi 1922-1997 gg.", Russkoye Pravoslaviye, N 4(8), 1997, p. 4; Za Khrista Postradavshiye, Moscow: St. Tikhon's Theological Institute, 1997, pp. 249-250; "Noviye svyedeniya o svyashchennomuchenike Viktore Vyatskom", Pravoslavnaya Rus',N 14 (1539), July 15/28, 1995, pp. 7-8; Lev Regelson, Tragediya Russkoj Tserkvi, 1917-1945, Moscow: Krutitskoye patriarsheye podvorye, 1996, pp. 536, 545, 600-602; Ikh Stradaniyami Ochistitsa Rus', Moscow, 1996, p. 64; "Izbraniye Puti", Suzdal'skiye Eparkhial'niye Vedomosti, N 3, January-February, 1998; I.I. Osipova, "Skvoz' Ogn' Muchenij i Vody Slyoz", Moscow: Serebryanniye Niti, 1998, p. 270; Anna Ilyinskaya, "Obreteniye chestniykh moshchej svyashchenno-ispovednika Viktora Vyatskago", Pravoslavnaya Rus', N 17 (1638), September 1/14, 1999, pp. 5-7; K.V. Glazkov, "Tserkovnoye pochitaniye novago svyashchenno-ispovednika Viktora i novomuchenikov v Rossii", Pravoslavnaya Rus', N 17 (1638), September 1/14, 1999, pp. 5-8)
We confidently recommend our web service provider, Orthodox Internet Services: excellent personal customer service, a fast and reliable server, excellent spam filtering, and an easy to use comprehensive control panel.
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Scientists have discovered how living organisms including humans avoid poisoning from carbon monoxide generated by natural cell processes.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that can prove fatal at high concentrations; the gas is most commonly associated with faulty domestic heating systems and car fumes, and is often referred to as 'the silent killer'.
But carbon monoxide chemical symbol CO is also produced within our bodies through the normal activity of cells. Scientists have long wondered how organisms manage to control this internal carbon monoxide production so that it does no harm.
University of Manchester researchers, working with colleagues at the University of Liverpool and Eastern Oregon University, have now identified the mechanism whereby cells protect themselves from the toxic effects of the gas at these lower concentrations.
Carbon monoxide molecules should be able to readily bind with protein molecules found in blood cells, known as haemproteins. When they do, for instance during high concentration exposure from inhaling, they impair normal cellular functions, such as oxygen transportation, cell signaling and energy conversion. It is this that causes the fatal effects of carbon monoxide poisoning.
The haemproteins provide an ideal 'fit' for the CO molecules, like a hand fitting a glove, so the natural production of the gas, even at low concentrations, should in theory bind to the haemproteins and poison the organism, except it doesn't.
"Toxic carbon monoxide is generated naturally by chemical metabolic reactions in cells but we have shown how organisms avoid poisoning by these low concentrations of 'natural' carbon monoxide," said Professor Nigel Scrutton, who is based in the Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre within the Faculty of Life Sciences.
"Our work identifies a mechanism by which haemproteins are protected from carbon monoxide poisoning at low, physiological concentrations of the gas. Working with a simple, bacterial haemprotein, we were able to show that when the haemprotein 'senses' the toxic gas is being produced within the cell, it changes its structure through a burst of energy and the carbon monoxide molecule struggles to bind with it at these low concentrations.
"This mechanism of linking the CO binding process to a highly unfavourable energetic change in the haemprotein's structure provides an elegant means by which organisms avoid being poisoned by carbon monoxide derived from natural metabolic processes. Similar mechanisms of coupling the energetic structural change with gas release may have broad implications for the functioning of a wide variety of haemprotein systems. For example, haemproteins bind other gas molecules, including oxygen and nitric oxide. Binding of these gases to haemproteins is important in the natural functions of the cell."
Co-author Dr Derren Heyes, also based in the Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, added: "We were surprised to discover that haemproteins could have a simple mechanism involving unfavourable energetic changes in structure to prevent carbon monoxide binding. Without this structural change carbon monoxide would bind to the haemoprotein almost a million times more tightly, which would prevent the natural cellular function of the haemprotein."
The scientists say the work has potential for the use of haem-based sensors for gas sensing in a wide range of biotechnological applications. For example, such sensors could be used to monitor gas concentrations in industrial manufacturing processes or biomedical gas sensors, where accurate control of gas concentration is critical.
The study, headed by Professor Samar Hasnain, from the University of Liverpool's Institute of Integrative Biology, is published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.
|Contact: Aeron Haworth|
University of Manchester
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Some present day launch sites and facilities are often called spaceports. The European Space Agency, for example, refers to its launch site at Kourou in French Guiana – Guiana Space Centre – as "Europe's Spaceport." However, the term is also used to refer specifically to a site from which commercial reusable launch vehicles can take off and land on conventional runways. The first such spaceports are still in the developmental stage. Among them will be the Southwest Regional Spaceport in New Mexico, and others at Ras-Al-Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates, and Singapore. Commercial flights are expected to begin from these facilities as early as 2008.
Related entry space tourism
Related category• MANNED SPACEFLIGHT
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact
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BIRMINGHAM, Ala. (WIAT)– Here are today’s top medical stories from our partners at Ivanhoe Communications.
Need to Remember Something? Clench Your Fist! Clenching the right fist during an event or when learning something new creates a stronger memory and clenching the left fist later improves the recollection of that memory, according to a recent study.
Skin Cancer Increases Risk Of Other Cancers Researchers from the Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School have discovered that white people who have had skin cancer, other than melanoma, may be at increased risk of having other forms of cancer in the future.
The Health Impact of Growing Up in the “Stroke Belt” More people have strokes and die of strokes in the southeastern area known as the stroke belt than in the rest of the United States. Researchers have discovered that adults who spent their teenage years living in the stroke belt have a higher risk of having a stroke in the future.
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Media Writing: A Practical Introduction is a lively and critically-enriched book that adopts current pedagogical and real-world practices to introduce readers successfully to the understanding and application of writing for the media. With case studies to illustrate its concepts, this introductory text merges theory and practice to provide students with a critical vocabulary that will enhance discussions of key media practices and texts and enable them to communicate effectively throughout a variety of media.
Craig Batty and Sandra Cain employ a range of scholarly principles, practical tools and applied case studies to offer a grounded and contemporary understanding of writing to cover a broad selection of creative industries: print and broadcast journalism; public relations and media relations; advertising and copywriting: fictional and factual screenwriting. An essential resource for journalism, media and creative writing students, Media Writing offers a rich insight into how the creative industries interact with digital technology.Student-focused and hands-on, this introduction is full of handy hints, tips and guidelines for students looking to communicate effectively throughout a variety of media.
Back to top
Rent Media Writing 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Craig Batty. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Palgrave Macmillan.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.
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Screen recording: http://dennett.cs-i.brandeis.edu/talks/cs65a/L08/Resources
Today we continue our discussion of using Logic Bricks to implement the rules of a game
and we also show how to create sound effects and game soundtracks as well as heads-up displays
and scoreboards. We introduce this through a series of simple demos.
We start answering the question, "What tools to logic bricks give us to model an interactive system of agents?"
We've already seen that we can create the world inside a physically simulated world and can apply forces and torques to objects,
as well as directly change the velocity, position, and orientation of objects.
We go a bit deeper, now and look at some more advanced tools provided by blender and in the process we discuss
- game state stored in properties of the objects (and what we can do to/with the game state)
- sending messages between objects
- writing property values onto objects during the game play
- defining and invoking animations of particular objects
- triggering sound effects and playing sound tracks
Demo 1: modifying the racingkit
First we show how to modify the racing game so that the car shoots donuts at the cones making them disappear.
(Look over the racingkit-L07 folder attached to the previous lecture).
Demo 2: sound effects and a sound track
Here we demonstrate how to associate a sound effect to an event and a soundtrack to a scene.
Demo 3: real-time text display in a game
Here we show the Blender method from copying text from a property to a plane and demonstrate how to use it to attach a heads up display to a camera.
Demo 4: heads-up displays and messaging
Here we show how to use a background scene to provide a heads up display independent of the camera being used.
Demo 5: Sample games
Here we spend some time looking at several gamekits and brainstorming about ways to improve them. We look at the broom-ball game and the city-quest game and the target-practice game.
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|Elevation:||1,715 m (5,627 ft)||Prominence:||1,715 m|
|Ribu category:||Kurang Tinggi||Province:||Maluku Utara (North Moluccas)|
|Google Earth:||kml||Other names:|
|Eruptions:||1510, 1538, 1561, 1605, 1635, 1643, 1648, 1653, 1659, 1676, 1686-87, 1737, 1739, 1763, 1770-75, 1811-12, 1814, 1831, 1833, 1835, 1838-47, 1849-50, 1862, 1864, 1868-69, 1871, 1895-98, 1907, 1911, 1918, 1923, 1932-33, 1938, 1962-63, 1980, 1983, 1988, 1990, 1993-94, 1996, 2003, 2007-08, 2011-12, 2015|
View a slideshow in our Picasaweb gallery
Gunung Gamalama is the volcano of Ternate, which lies in the volcanic chain off the west coast of Halmahera – Ternate, Tidore, Moti, Makian and Bacan. Like Kei Matubu (Tidore) and Kei Besi (Makian), Gn Gamalama dominates the entire island leaving only a narrow coastal strip and the lower slopes of the mountain for plantations. Coconut, nutmeg and cloves are the dominant tree crops. The Sultanate of Ternate grew powerful through control of the clove and nutmeg trade throughout the eastern region and, often in conflict with the Sultanate of neighbouring Tidore, entered into intrigues and conflicts with European powers – Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch and English – over the spice trade from the 16th century onwards.
Gamalama is highly active, erupting most recently in 2015. The 1770s eruption created what is now Danau Tolire Besar, a large crater lake on the north-eastern side of the volcano. The 2015 eruption has changed the face of Gamalama’s volcanic cone with a large vent appearing on the face that climbers normally ascend to the crater rim. Not surprisingly, the mountain is sometimes closed due to volcanic activity and it would be very unwise to ignore local warnings.
There two routes up Gamalama from the town: from Marikurubu (about 400 m) and Moya (about 370 m). The Marikurubu track is steep initially and easy to become lost on the descent – although you will invariably end up somewhere near the start point. The Moya route may be a bit longer but has a much more clearly defined track used by villagers to work their plantations, is a much steadier climb, and passes through lovely, old cinnamon, durian, nutmeg and clove plantations. Finding a guide at Moya should be no problem. Hikes do not get much more fragrant than this.
The climb from Moya to an open camping area, known as ‘Terminal’ (1,350 m), takes about 3 hrs. The trails from Marikurubu and Moya meet at this point. Thereafter, the trail ascends to the point at which the mountain becomes ‘holy’ (about 1,580 m, 1 hr). Several steep ravines are crossed in the process.
Most mountains in Halmahera have a point where they become ‘holy’ – perhaps from earlier animistic beliefs! While your guides may not be able explain the origins of these beliefs, they do take them seriously so be respectful. Urinating beyond the ‘holy’ point is forbidden. Gamalama’s ‘holy’ point is at a high point in heavy cane grass from where one gains a first view of the mountain’s volcanic cone.
From this point, the trail descends and passes through heavy cane grass until emerging onto a ridge that looks directly onto the volcanic cone of Gamalama. Several graves, whom locals believe are of earlier sultans, are on this ridge.
Subject to Gamalama’s level of activity, you can walk down into the small valley below and begin the climb of the cone to the crater rim. Since the 2015 eruption and formation of a vent on the southern face, the ascent would have to be up the western face. This ascent takes about 45 minutes climbing up very sharp, often loose rocks. The edge of the crater is very hot underfoot and the crater very active. Sulphur gas blows across the peak continuously.
In good conditions the views are fantastic. The perfect cones of Kie Matubu (Tidore) and Jailolo (Halmahera mainland) and other small islands nearby are visible.
The descent to Moya takes about 3-4 hours. At ‘Terminal’, take the left-hand track to Moya – the right-hand track leads to Marikurubu, which is not preferred.
Bagging information by Daniel Quinn, updated Nicholas Hughes, October 2015
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The Navy of the Argentine Republic or Armada of the Argentine Republic (Spanish: Armada de la República Argentina — ARA) is the navy of Argentina. It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force.
The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence.
Each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix ARA before its name.
1.1 19th Century
2 20th Century
2.1 Falklands War
2.3 Present day
3 Current fleet
3.1 Troop Transport and Command (2)
3.2 Major combat vessels Destroyers (Frigates)(4)
3.3 Submarine SSK (3)
3.4 Minor combat vessels Corvettes (9)
3.5 Patrol Vessels (8)
3.6 Supply ships (11)
3.7 Others (5)
4 Submarine Force
5 Naval Aviation
6 Naval Infantry
7 Other branches
8.2 Enlisted men and Non-Commissioned Officers
9 See also
10.1 Further reading
11 External links
Rivadavia class battleship under construction in the US for the Argentine Navy. Photo taken in 1912. Two ships of this class entered service in 1914–1915 and served until 1956.
19th Century
The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25, 1810. Not until 1814, under the leadership of the Irishman Lt. Colonel (Navy) William Brown did the Argentine Navy become a decisive player in the war for independence from Spain.
In the late 1800s, the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself. At the close of the century, the force included:
5 armored cruisers
4 coastal defense ironclads
3 second-class, high-speed, British-built cruisers
7 modern small cruisers and gunboats
4 destroyers and
22 torpedo boats.
The most powerful ships (counted in the list above) included the Italian-built Garibaldi and her sister ships, the General Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and the San Martín, each at over 6,000 tons. Three older ships, the Almirante Brown, Independencia, and the Libertad dated from the 1880s and early 1890s.
The navy's ships were built primarily in Italy, Britain, France, and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen. These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery.
20th Century
See also: South American dreadnought race
Although Argentina remained neutral in both world wars, the country's navy was a force to be reckoned with. In 1940, Argentina's navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world (after the European powers, Japan, and the United States) and the largest in Latin America. A ten-year building program costing $60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers. The fleet in 1940 included two First World War-era (but modernized) American-built Rivadavia class battleships, three modern cruisers, a dozen British-built destroyers, and three submarines in addition to minelayers, minesweepers, coastal defense ships, and gunboats. A naval air force was also in operation.
In the postwar period, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy's command. With Brazil, Argentina is one of but two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers effectively: the ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo.
The Argentine Navy have been traditionally greatly involved in fishery inspection helping the Coast Guard : most notably in 1966 a destroyer fired and holed a Russian trawler which had refused to be escorted to Mar del Plata, in the 1970s there were four more incidents with Soviet and Bulgarian ships and continued in recent years.
The Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century. During the last dictatorship, Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War in the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta. The Naval Mechanics School, known as ESMA, was a notorious centre used for torture. Amongst their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenage Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns, Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet (In October 2007 the Argentine navy formally handed possession of the School to human rights groups which will now be turned into a memorial museum). During this regimen, the Navy was also the main supporter of a military solution for the country's two long standing disputes: The Beagle Conflict with Chile and the Falklands Islands ( Spanish: Islas Malvinas ) with the United Kingdom.
Falklands War
Main article: Falklands War
See also: Argentine naval forces in the Falklands War, 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands, and Invasion of South Georgia
During the 1982 Falklands conflict termed by the Argentines Guerra de las Malvinas / Guerra del Atlántico Sur the Main Argentine Naval Fleet consisted of modernised World War II era ships (one GUPPY-type submarine, one British-built Colossus-class carrier, a cruiser, and four destroyers ) supported with new ones (2 Type 42 class destroyers, 3 French built corvettes and one German built Type 209 submarines). This fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships.
Super Étendard, the Exocet platform.
The new German design MEKO class destroyers, corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke (Type TR-1700) submarines were still under construction.
Despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands, in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy. After HMS Conqueror sank the ARA General Belgrano, the Argentine surface fleet did not venture from a 12-mile (22.2-km) coastal limit imposed by the British due to the threat posed by the Royal Navy fleet of nuclear powered submarines (SSNs).
The Argentine Navy's contributions to the war were, among the initial amphibious assaults, with naval aviation its Exocet armed Super Étendards sinking HMS Sheffield and the Atlantic Conveyor, its A-4Q Skyhawks sinking HMS Ardent (F184); and the Marines, with the 5th Marine Corps Battalion role at Mount Tumbledown. In addition, a landbased Exocet battery outside Port Stanley scored a direct hit on HMS Glamorgan. Naval aviation also carried out intensive maritime patrols searching to locate the British Fleet for the strike aircraft whilst their transports provided logistical support.
The ARA San Luis submarine also played a strategic role, and was a real concern to the British, although she scored no hits. The submarine ARA Santa Fe, after a successful resupply mission, was attacked and disabled off South Georgia, where her crew then surrendered along with the Argentine detachment at Grytviken. She was later scuttled by the British.
Almirante Brown Meko 360 class destroyer.
The core of the fleet was reformed with the retirement of all the World War II era Fletcher and Gearing class destroyers and their replacement with the MEKO 360 and 140 classes designed by the German shipyard Blohm + Voss.
Also, the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen Nordseewerke (TR-1700) class. Although the original program called for six units with the last four to be built in Argentina, only the two built in Germany were delivered.
The amphibious force was drastically affected with the retirement of their only LST landing ship ARA Cabo San Antonio and replacement by a modified cargo vessel, the San Blas. This situation was to be improved during 2006 with the delivery made by France of the first of the LPD Ouragans but the whole operation was placed in stand by the Argentine Government due to asbestos concerns. On 2010 France offered the Foudre (L 9011) instead.
ARA San Juan TR1700 submarine class.
France also transferred the Durance, now B-1 ARA Patagonia, multi-product replenishment ship (AOR) enhancing the capabilities of the fleet.
In 1988 the A-4Q Skyhawks were withdrawn leaving the Super Étendard as the only fighter jets in the navy inventory. The already paid for A-4Hs bought in Israel as their replacement could not be delivered due the embargo imposed by the United States after the war. Instead IAI used the money to refurbish the S-2E Trackers to the S-2T Turbo Tracker current variant.
In the 1990s, the embargo was lifted and the Lockheed L-188 Electras (civilian aircraft converted for maritime patrol) were finally retired and replaced with similar P-3B Orions and civilian Beechcraft King Air Model 200 were locally converted to the MP variant.
In 2000 the aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo was decommissioned without replacement, although the navy maintains the air group of Super Étendards jets and S-2 Tracker that routinely operates from Brazilian Navy aircraft carrier São Paulo ARAEX video or United States Navy carriers when they are in transit in the south Atlantic during Gringo-Gaucho manoeuvers.
Present day
Joint operations at Panama
Argentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer and a corvette in first term and a supply ship and another corvette later to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the gulf. The success of Operación Alfil ("English: Operation Bishop") as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed on the operations theatre helped to overcome the so-called "Malvinas syndrome".
From 1990 to 1992, the Baradero class patrol boats were deployed under UN mandate ONUCA to the Gulf of Fonseca in Central America. In 1994, the three Drummond class corvettes participated on Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti.
Also, in 2003, as the first time, the Argentine Navy (classified as major non-NATO ally) interoperated with an United States Navy battlegroup when destroyer ARA Sarandi (D-13) joined the USS Enterprise Carrier Strike Group and Destroyer Squadron 18 as a part of Exercise Solid Step during their tour in the Mediterranean Sea.
Today, the Argentine Navy participates in joint exercises with other friendly navies like Brazil, United States, Spain, France, Canada, South Africa, Italy, Uruguay, and since the 1990s, Chile. Examples of such annual maneuvers are UNITAS, ARAEX, TEMPEREX, FRATERNO, ATLASUR, PAMPAREX and when possible Gringo-Gaucho. Joint NCAGS exercises, such as TRANSOCEANIC, TRANSAMERICA and COAMAS are also routinely held, in order to develop a common operational doctrine. The NCAGS Organisation is headed by the Naval Shipping Command (Comando Naval de Transito Marítimo), acting as Local Operational Control Command ("COLCO in Spanish) with two subordinate Operational Control Authorities (OCA's) and several Naval Control of Shipping Officers (NCSO's) bureaus along the Coastline, both Navy and Coast Guard manned.
Every year in conjunction with the Chilean Navy they join in the Patrulla Antártica Naval Combinada (English: Joint Antarctic Naval Patrol) to guarantee safety to all touristic and scientific ships that are in transit within the Antarctic Peninsula where the Navy is also directly responsible of maintaining the Argentine bases there.
In 2010 the construction start of four 1.800 ton offshore patrol ships was announced.
In May 2010, Defense Minister Nilda Garre announced that the Navy would continue working on a system that would enable the launch of Exocet missiles from the Navy’s P3 Orion aircraft. In addition, the financing of the local development and construction of a coastal Naval defense system that may also be based on the use of Exocet missiles similar to the Excalibur system.
Current fleet
The Argentine Navy operates 42 ships. The four Destroyers and three SSKs represent the Argentine Navy's central combat force while its 9 Corvettes operate in the defence of coasts, naval bases and territorial waters.
Troop Transport and Command (2)
Command Ship (LCC)
Type 42 (1)
ARA Hércules (B-52) - formerly a Type 42 destroyer, reconverted to fast Marine transport and command vessel.
Amphibious cargo ship (LKA)
Costa Sur modified (1)
ARA Bahía San Blas (B-4)
Major combat vessels Destroyers (Frigates)(4)
ARA La Argentina
Almirante Brown class (4)
ARA Almirante Brown (D-10)
ARA La Argentina (D-11)
ARA Heroína (D-12)
ARA Sarandí (D-13)
Submarine SSK (3)
ARA San Juan
TR-1700 Class (2)
ARA Santa Cruz (S-41)
ARA San Juan (S-42)
Type 209 (1)
ARA Salta (S-31)
Minor combat vessels Corvettes (9)
ARA Gomez Roca
Espora class (6)
ARA Espora (P-41)
ARA Rosales (P-42)
ARA Spiro (P-43)
ARA Parker (P-44)
ARA Robinson (P-45)
ARA Gómez Roca (P-46)
Drummond class (3)
ARA Drummond (P-31)
ARA Guerrico (P-32)
ARA Granville (P-33)
Patrol Vessels (8)
Murature class (2)
ARA Murature (P-20)
ARA King (P-21)
Baradero class (4)
ARA Baradero (P-61)
ARA Barranqueras (P-62)
ARA Clorinda (P-63)
ARA Concepción del Uruguay (P-64)
Fast Attack Craft
Intrépida class (2)
ARA Intrépida (P-85)
ARA Indómita (P-86)
Supply ships (11)
ARA Ciudad de Rosario
Supply ship (AOR)
Durance class (1)
ARA Patagonia (B-1)
ARA Ingeniero Julio Krause
(2) Costa Sur class
ARA Canal de Beagle (B-3)
ARA Cabo de Hornos (B-5)
ARA Teniente Olivieri (A-2)
ARA Francisco de Gurruchaga (A-3)
ARA Suboficial Castillo (A-6)
ARA Alférez Sobral (A-9)
ARA Ciudad de Zárate (Q-61)
ARA Ciudad de Rosario (Q-62)
ARA Punta Alta (Q-63)
Others (5)
ARA Puerto Deseado
ARA Libertad (Q-2)
ARA Almirante Irizar (Q-5)
ARA Puerto Deseado (Q-20)
ARA Comodoro Rivadavia (Q-11)
ARA Cormoran (Q-15)
Submarine Force
Main article: Argentine Submarine Force
Headquartered at Mar del Plata the Navy started using submarines in 1927. The elite group Buzos Tácticos in under the submarine force command and as of 2010 three ships are in service.
Naval Aviation
Main article: Argentine Naval Aviation
See also: List of aircraft of Argentine Naval Aviation
The Naval Aviation Command is abbreviated COAN ( Spanish: COmando de Aviación Naval ) and is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers. The service became famous worldwide during the 1982 Falklands War.
Naval Infantry
Main article: Argentine Marines
The Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina (IMARA) ( English: Naval Infantry of the Armada of the Argentine Republic ) is the land warfare amphibious branch of the Argentine Navy. Argentine Marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the Navy and they are currently deployed abroad on UN mandates.
Other branches
The Servicio de Hidrografia Naval provides the national hydrographics services.
See also: Military ranks of Argentina
Rank insignia consists of a variable number of gold-braid stripes worn on the sleeve cuffs or on shoulderboards. Officers may be distinguished by the characteristic loop of the top stripe (in the manner of British Royal Navy officers). Combat uniforms may include metal pin-on or embroidered collar rank insignia. Rank insignia is worn on the chest when in shipboard or flying coveralls.
Officers are commissioned in either the Command (line) Corps (those who attend the Escuela Naval Militar- Naval College) or the Staff Corps (Professional Officers who only attend a short course in the Naval Academy after getting a civilian degree, except for the Paymasters who indeed attend the Naval College).
The Line Corps is divided into three branches: the Naval branch (including Surface Warfare, Submarine Warfare and Naval Aviation sub-branches), the Marine Corps branch, and Executive -Engineering- branch. Line Corps' reserve officers are considered Restricted Line ( Escalafon Complementario ) officers in any of the Warfare Communities (Surface, Submarine, Marines, Aviation and Propulsion), and can only raise to OF-4 rank ( Capitan de Fragata ).
All Line Corps officers were distinctive branch/sub-branch insignia on the right breast. Some Staff Corps officers also wear specialization badges (Aviation, Surface, Submarine and Marines). Other common insignia is the Naval War College insignia, parachute wings, etc., also worn on the right breast. Medals and Ribbons, if awarded, are worn on the left breast, just above the chest pocket. The rank insignia of Staff Corps' officers is placed over a background color denoting the wearer's field, such as purple (Chaplains), blue (Engineers), red (Health Corps), white (Paymasters), green (Judge Advocate Officers), brown (Technical Officers, promoted from the ranks) and gray (special branch). The background color for Command Corps officers is navy blue/black.
Following a global trend, Argentine armed forces have outlawed beards since the 1920s. This was reinforced in the Cold War era when they were deemed synonymous with leftist leanings. The only exception were Antarctic service within the three armed forces as a protection from cold weather, and submarine service within the Navy as a way of saving water. However, shaving was mandatory upon return to headquarters.
Before the end of 20th century the Navy became a singularity[clarification needed] within the Argentine armed forces as Adm. Joaquín Stella, then Navy Chief of Staff allowed beards in 2000 for officers with ranks above Teniente de Corbeta (Ensign), according to Section 184.108.40.206 of the Navy Uniform regulations (R.A-1-001). Adm. Stella gave the example himself by becoming the first bearded Argentine admiral since Adm. Sáenz Valiente in the 1920s. Non commissioned officers can wear beards from Suboficial Segundo rank, and upwards.
Protocol still requires officers to appear clean-shaved on duty, thus forcing those who choose to sport beards to grow them while on leave. Both full beards and goatees are allowed, as long as they profer a professional, non-eccentric image. Nowadays, bearded Argentine naval officers and senior NCO's are a relatively common sight.
Insignia Argentine Rank (in Spanish) Argentine Rank (in English) Equivalent Royal Navy Rank Equivalent US Navy Rank NATO Rank Code
Almirante Admiral Admiral/Vice-Admiral Admiral/Vice-Admiral OF-9/OF-8
Vicealmirante Vice Admiral Rear Admiral Rear Admiral (Upper Half) OF-7
Contraalmirante Rear Admiral Commodore Rear Admiral (Lower Half) OF-6
Comodoro de Marina Commodore of the Navy No equivalent - honorary rank No equivalent - honorary rank OF-6
Capitán de Navío Ship-of-the-Line Captain Captain Captain OF-5
Capitán de Fragata Frigate Captain Commander Commander OF-4
Capitán de Corbeta Corvette Captain Lieutenant-Commander Lieutenant Commander OF-3
Teniente de Navío Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant Lieutenant Lieutenant OF-2
Teniente de Fragata Frigate Lieutenant Sub-Lieutenant Lieutenant (Junior Grade) OF-1
Teniente de Corbeta Corvette Lieutenant Acting Sub-Lieutenant Ensign OF-1
Guardiamarina Midshipman Midshipman no equivalent OF-D
Enlisted men and Non-Commissioned Officers
Other ranks' insignia (not including Seamen) is worn on either shoulderboards or breast or sleeve patches. Seamen and Seamen Recruits wear their insignia on their sleeves. The shoulderboards denote the wearer's specialty.
Insignia Argentine Rank (in Spanish) Argentine Rank (in English) Equivalent RN Rank (approximate) Equivalent USN Rank (approximate)
Suboficial Mayor Sub-Officer Major Warrant Officer 1
Suboficial Principal Principal Sub-Officer Warrant Officer 2
Suboficial Primero Sub-Officer First Class Chief Petty Officer
Suboficial Segundo Sub-Officer Second Class Petty Officer
Cabo Principal Principal Corporal Leading Seaman
Cabo Primero Corporal First Class (No equivalent)
Cabo Segundo Corporal Second Class Able Seaman
Marinero Primero Seaman Ordinary Seaman
Marinero Segundo Seaman Recruit (No equivalent)
See also
Argentine naval forces in the Falklands War
List of ships of the Argentine Navy
List of auxiliary ships of the Argentine Navy
^ Historia de la Armada Argentina (in spanish)
^ Keltie, J.S., ed. The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1900. New York: Macmillan, 1900. p 349.
^ Keltie 1900, p. 349.
^ Keltie 1900, p. 349-50.
^ Associated Press. "Plan Big Navy for Argentina". Youngstown Vindicator March 10, 1940. (Retrieved via Google News 10/25/10).
^ [Conway's All the World Fighting Ships 1947-1995]
^ Persecución y captura de un pesquero
^ Incendian y hunden un pesquero para evitar su captura
^ Para evitar su captura, el capitán de un pesquero hundió el barco
^ "PDF book: Historia de la Aviacion Naval Argentina". www.trackerenmalvinas.com.ar (Spanish). Retrieved 2009-04-07.
^ França oferece “Foudre” à Argentina
^ official site
^ con el propósito de asegurar el cumplimiento del embargo comercial, dispuesto por el Consejo de Seguridad, por medio de las corbetas ARA Grandville, ARA Guerrico y ARA Drummond.
^ Atlasur VIII
^ mindef: El comienzo en agosto próximo en los Astilleros Tandanor (en Buenos Aires) de la construcción primera de las cuatro Patrulleras Oceánicas Multipropósito, cuya ingeniería básica fue adquirida a la industria chilena.
^ Buque Tanque at ara.mil.ar
Please work out any matters you have with warnings or bans with the Moderator responsible...only after this has not worked may you e-mail an Administrator for questions about bans or warnings...
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What only a few short years ago appeared to be an upswing in the population now seems like fleeting good fortune in the up-again, down-again saga of the southern resident killer whales.
With four members missing and presumed dead, the population has fallen to 80 animals, according to the Center for Whale Research. The population totaled 88 in 2010.
Center Director Ken Balcomb, citing this year's dismal return of Chinook salmon to the Fraser River, maintains a combination of dwindling food supply and toxic materials accumulated in the blubber of the whales is largely to blame for the latest disappearances and drop in numbers. Without enough prey to satisfy nutritional needs, Balcomb said whales draw on blubber for fuel and that toxins are then released into their circulatory system in highly concentrated levels.
"All whales use blubber as sort of a freezer storage area," he said. "The PCBs [polychlorinated biphenyls] go from parts per billion to parts per million when they start drawing on the bank account of blubber and just like in humans it affects the immune system, the nervous system, the reproductive system. It's what happens when you have bad years for fish."
The center, which maintains a census of the southern resident killer whales for the National Marine Fisheries Service, will list three whales missing in its 2013 survey, all from L-pod. The three are: L-2, a female, estimated age of 53, L-26 a female, estimated age of 57, and L-79 a male born in 1989.
The census does not include J-8, a female whose age the center estimates at 80, and which appears to be the latest casualty.
Also known as "Spieden," J-8 was not among others members of J-pod when the group showed up en masse about a week ago off the west side of San Juan Island. Center senior research assistant Erin Heydenreich said the 80-year-old female had shown telltale signs of declining health, shrinkage of tissues around head – commonly referred to as "peanut head" – over the past two years, according to the center's Erin Heydenreich, senior research assistant.
The southern residents consist of three pods, J, K and L. Called "residents" because they spend a majority of the year in the waters of the Salish Sea, they are considered endangered by the U.S. and Canada. Their population, believed to have been historically in the high 100s, was decimated by captures for marine parks, which ended in the 1970s, followed by pollution and declining salmon populations.
The whales' population plummeted to 71 by 1973, climbed to 99 in 1995, then plummeted to 79 six years later. The population rebounded to 80 in 2002, 83 in 2003, 89 in 2005, and has seesawed around 88 since then. The whales were declared endangered by the U.S. and Canada by 2005.
Some orca advocates insist there's greater concern for the long-term health of the population than just the decline in overall headcount.
Based on a study of the center's survey, Orca Relief Citizens' Alliance cites a sharp decline in the number of breeding-age females and males, down 24 percent since 2004, and 26 percent since 2009, respectively. However, the next generation of breeding females, 3-15 years of age, has fallen even faster, down 39 percent since 2000, according to Orca Relief.
"Our new analysis suggests that the greatest danger to the population is much more serious than indicated by total headcount, as the breeding female population, today and tomorrow, plunges at an alarming rate," Orca Relief Executive Director Bruce Stedman said in a press release. "We are concerned that if additional protective steps are not taken very soon it could be too late for Puget Sound's resident Orca."
Orcas Relief notes that the number of juvenile males has increased 66 percent since 2009.
Faced with dwindling salmon runs, Orca Relief maintains the quickest remedy for the southern residents would be the creation of a protection zone off the west side of San Juan Island, in which boats would be prohibited. Such a zone would provide the whales with a buffer from whale-watch boats and safe haven where they might rest and hunt more efficiently.
Meanwhile, Balcomb believes the answer to whales' survival is simple, even if the equation is complicated: more fish.
"If we could keep lots of fish out there, even if their toxic, we wouldn't have this problem with the southern residents heading down this road to extinction," he said. "It would take some adjustments in lifestyles, but we're humans, we can fix it, it can be done."
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In addition to lifecycle analysis, the new standard will focus on greenhouse gases, globally the most important environmental factor, and ensure that carbon footprint data will become comparable worldwide for the first time. ISO 14067 will also be consistent with other standards such as ISO 14025 (environmental labels and declarations), ISO 14044 (lifecycle assessment) and BSI PAS 2050 (specification for the assessment of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services).
Significant anthropogenic influences
In its synthesis report on climate change published in 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that the climate system is unequivocally warming. This is evidenced by observations of an increase in globally averaged air and sea temperatures, extensive melting of snow and ice as well as a rise in the mean global sea level. As a result, millions of people are threatened with losing their homes and livelihoods because of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
In 1972 – already 40 years ago – the Club of Rome alarmed the public with its forecasts on “ The Limits to Growth ”. By 2005, it had become evident that humans have a significant impact on climate change through greenhouse gas emissions – a fact recognized by the eight leading industrialized nations (G8) at their summit in Gleneagles, Scotland, that year. The G8 summit was also attended by representatives from developing and newly industrialized countries, such as China, India, Brazil and Mexico, and from numerous international organizations.
In addition, the G8 leaders agreed on an action plan for climate protection measures, and recognized the Kyoto Protocol as a potential regulating mechanism for market-based incentive systems.
Carbon footprint reveals polluters
To effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions, one must first identify their sources. The carbon footprint concept highlights the contribution of individual products to the greenhouse effect. Attempts were made to draw up a kind of balance sheet by adding up all the carbon dioxide emissions caused by a product throughout its lifecycle.
Thus, numerous assessment models have been developed in recent years. However, there were no suitable tools for comparing these classifications, no agreement on a common terminology, nor were the assessments generated sufficiently documented to allow for objective analyses.
Comparing data, communicating quickly
Now, for the first time, ISO 14067 will enable the quantification of CO2 emissions over the entire lifecycle of products and services, and ensure that the relevant values become comparable worldwide.
The standard also covers communication of carbon footprint data to consumers. Communication tools of claim, label and declaration used by ISO to date are complemented by an external communication report (ECR) and a carbon footprint performance report (CFPR).
While the existing tools require time-consuming studies or programmes, the ECR and CFPR serve to provide consumers with rapid, traceable and, hence, reliable information that depends less on quantification.
Nobel Peace Prize laureate Dr. Klaus Radunsky, department head at Umweltbundesamt (Environment Agency Austria) Austria’s representative in the World Climate Council, and Convenor of the ISO working group that is developing ISO 14067, explains : “ This new standard is certainly a milestone. ISO 14067 is a very important tool for obtaining a good indication of areas in which greenhouse gases can be reduced. On the other hand, the standard can help raise awareness of this issue. After all, the decarbonization of our economy eventually depends very strongly on individual consumption decisions.”
Benefits of ISO 14067
How can manufacturers and service providers benefit from ISO 14067 ? Put simply, they can identify the lifecycle processes that significantly contribute to the carbon footprint of a product or service in an initial screening. Then, they can take targeted measures to reduce emissions and raise the efficiency of the value creation chain.
Thanks to the new standard, this optimized carbon footprint can be communicated to consumers through traceable information. As a result, consumers will have all the quality information required for assessing a product.
ISO 14067, developed by 107 experts from more than 30 countries, makes reliable and comparable parameters available to enterprises and consumers. This is a significant preparatory step towards the reduction of CO2 emissions worldwide. ISO experts, however, are already considering further actions.
“The next goal would be a ‘ personal carbon footprint ’. Just imagine the dynamism that can be created if companies pursue the objective of manufacturing the product with the smallest carbon footprint,” says Dr. Radunsky.
Nobel Peace Laureate, Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environment Agency)
Head of a department
Nobel Peace Laureate,
Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environment Agency)
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Pictured here is Roscommon castle, a huge and very dramatic castle just outside Roscommon Town which is situated to the west of the River Shannon.
It traces its history back to 1269 when it was built by Robert de Ufford, Justiciciar of Ireland. The lands it was built on were originally owned by an Augustinian priory which de Ufford seized.
When in its complete state, the castle was vast and quadrangular in shape. At each corner stood a huge D shaped tower, each three stories high as well as twin towers at its entrance. The entire site was enclosed by a really strong curtain wall.
Its history was a violent one and one of changing hands numerous times. Three years after its construction, it was taken by the Connacht King Aodh O'Connor and a mere eight years after that it was back once again in the hands of the English who fully restored it.
68 years later, in 1340 the O Connors once again took control of the vast building and this time they managed to retain ownership and control for more than 200 years.
In 1569 it became the property of the English Sir Henry Sidney and there it stayed until 1641 when parliamentarians took it. They held it until 1645 when Confederate Catholics seized it back.
In 1652 Cromwell's troops took control of the castle who removed the buildings vast fortifications so it could not be used in war against them. It finally burned to the ground in 1690 and fell into total decay.
Today, it can be explored from the beautiful Loughnaneane Park and playground. It is open to explore with access gained from the park itself. It is a beautiful addition to Roscommon town.
The name Roscommon derives its name from Coman mac Faelchon who had founded a monastery here in the 5th century. The wooded area near this monastery became known as St Comans Wood (Ros Comáin in Irish) and this was eventually Anglicized to Roscommon.
Thanks for looking!
Critiques | Translate
Fis2 (96665) 2014-01-05 9:17
Beautiful ruins, beautiful view.
I love old architecture.
Good frame and super colors.
carlo62 (47311) 2014-01-05 9:55
c'è molta differenza tra il castello della precedente foto e questo, storie molto diverse e architetture differenti, ognuno con il suo fascino, ma sempre eccellentemente fotografati.
Ottima condivisione anche oggi.
cornejo (41645) 2014-01-05 11:03
Hi Noel, very good picture of this interesting castle with an interesting history, very well captured in this beautiful image with good sharpness, light and color. Very good and interesting job well done, congratulations my friend. Thanks for sharing this beautiful work.
Good night and happy day of kings, the Catholic calendar.
Warm greetings from southern Spain.
photographer_sg (4414) 2014-01-05 11:06
Lovely composition with the ruins depicted beautifully against the cloudy sky. Great colours and clarity. The stone wall cutting deep into the composition gives very good depth and is itself shown very well. Thanks for sharing. Have a nice day.
siudzi (34141) 2014-01-05 12:50
Great presentation of this beautiful old castle. Like the way you built your composition to make the scene classical and elegant. Good POV, sharpness and level of details. Well done!
Miguel82 (27674) 2014-01-05 16:44
Noel, this is a new and brillant contribution, an interesting site to visit outside of the crowded cities with noise and traffic jam, good focus on that low wall built with stones, what a beautiful castle in ruins, all the best Noel, warm regards
jjcordier (79297) 2014-01-05 23:46
Ce château a eu une histoire bien compliquée! Tu as fait une excellente photo de ses ruines.
emka (96304) 2014-01-05 23:59
you are once in USA, once in Ireland :). Fantastic ruins of this castle. I love exploring such places. Fantastic view , I would like to be there.
have a splendid week
Kamilutka (8105) 2014-01-06 1:23
interesting note and well captured ruins of the castle. Nice POV and very good perspective. The road included in the picture makes the composition more interesting and gives us sense of scale. Nice colors and contrast.
snunney (98241) 2014-01-06 2:44
They are still impressive these ruins and the original building must have been a sight to see. I like the point of view with the wall coming in from the right making an excellent lead-line. The image is attractively lit and has harmonious natural tones. Clarity is superb.
timecapturer (49288) 2014-01-06 4:22
this looks like one super place to visit and photograph. I love places like this, especially if I can be there on my own and take my time to breath in the history and atmosphere that permeates these old walls. Super POV and wonderful detailing make this so enticing and magical. Hope you have some more images of this impressive ruin to share with us.
Subhogen (4067) 2014-01-06 5:18
Great view of this very old castle. I like your POV and framing. The ruins vouch for the magnitude of this castle in its heydays. The stonewall provides good depth to the composition. The cloudy sky has provided a nice backdrop and also this nice diffused light. The castle walls contrast the lawns nicely and great detailing on the walls. Thanks for sharing with an informative note as always.
aleXundar (1256) 2014-01-06 6:26
Nice view of the huge castle in ruins. The pov is perfect to show the vastness of the stronghold. Great details and colors.
Thanks for sharing.
Romano46 (18472) 2014-01-06 10:19
i castello sono una delle attrattive della tua terra e tu ne sei uno dei più bravi interpreti dal punto di vista fotografico.
Anche in questa ottima la composizione, belli i colori e superba la definizione.
Ciao e buona settimana
SnapRJW (31629) 2014-01-06 10:35
The detail and colours in the stone walls are just so well captured and managed here Noel. Excellent light management, exposure and PP work shows off the beauty of this old ruin. For a building which saw its demise almost 400 hundred years ago it is still an imposing structure. Nicely done. Warm regards Rosemary
jemaflor (96689) 2014-01-06 10:41
Good photo to show us these ruines, well balanced with the wall in the Fg, Good effect to the depth, beautiful light on these stones, tfs.
pajaran (60011) 2014-01-07 4:37
Interesantan i dobar tekst o starom zamku, sa istorijom i opisom ...
Dobar snimak, lepo poakzani zidovi starog zamka, lepe boje.
Lepa stara arhitektura.
Stoji stari zamak i secanje.
Lepo popodne i sve najbolje.
Interesting and good article about the old castle, with a history and description of the ...
Good shot, nice to displayed walls of the old castle, beautiful colors.
Beautiful old architecture.
There is an old castle and memories.
Nice afternoon and all the best.
danos (97377) 2014-01-07 8:09
beautiful presentation of the castle's ruins with the light and the colour management to brings out the details of them.I like the informative note about it,as the clarity and the beauty of the scene.
chawax (20756) 2014-01-07 13:26
The many ruins you can see in Ireland are one of my favourite subjects in Ireland ! I enjoyed a lot to visit ruins of abbeys, churches or castles. I passed by this castle but there was a restoration in progress when I've been there, so no interesting picture to take !
Thanks for sharing,
omid266 (6746) 2014-01-08 7:09
**** Salam dear Noel ,
Good evening ,
Very nice , well done friend !
Such This historic castles are really nice and intersting ,
They have an old heritage and old history and many news within themselves ,
They take us to many years ago with their special moments ,
All the Best ,
Thank you for sharing this beauty with us ,
God save You !
Omid - I.R.IR
fabbs99 (17135) 2014-01-08 19:20
Excellent shot of the Roscommon Castle.Nice colors and sharpness.Very well done.TFS.
mkamionka (36250) 2014-01-09 13:39
lovely presentation of this castle. The light makes it feel very warm. Good use of the road in the foreground. Sky was lovely too adding to the mood.
Very well done!
This county is quite rare on TE I think. I have one photo taken there but I am not very proud of it :(
Hellas (6945) 2014-02-27 23:25
Very well captured photo with vivid colours and fine respective, too!
I think that the PoV is the best one!
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Loud talking may distract you from completing your work efficiently. When dealing with loud coworkers, it’s important to confront the issue in a tactful manner, so as to not exacerbate the issue. It is possible that the individuals with loud voices do not recognize the strength of their voices, or how they may be disruptive. In addition, talking with your supervisor about the issue can help address the situation.
Build a relationship with the individual causing you distress. Establish rapid rapport if you do not already have a good relationship with this person. Engage in positive conversation with the individual by listening and showing genuine concern while confronting the issue at hand.
Address the issue with the individual by using “I” statements. Discuss the event objectively and avoid laying blame. Some individuals naturally have loud voices; do not jump to the conclusion that he's projecting his voice on purpose.
Listen to what the individual has to say. The individual may have noticed the same problem and be unsure of how to handle it. Noise can carry easily in some workplaces. When you listen, nod your head and physically show you are listening to what the other person has to say. This validates feelings and shows that you understand how the other person feels in the situation.
Explore alternatives, negotiate or come to a compromise about how to handle the situation. Try listening to music with headphones that block out noise. Suggest the individual use a phone in an adjacent office. Talk with the supervisor if it continues. Explain the facts and use “I” statements, much as you did when you discussed it with your coworker.
Follow up with the individual to let him know how the plan is working. This allows for compromise along the way. If the solution is working, than you can tell the employee the issue has been resolved. If the solution is not working, you can explore new ideas.
- The Crisis Intervention Handbook: Assessment, Treatment, and Research; Albert R. Roberts; 2005
- Nova Southeastern University: Conflict Resolution Strategies
- Wright State University: Tactfully Confronting Conflict
- U.S. Department of Social and Health Services Administration for Children and Families: Crisis Intervention in Child Abuse and Neglect
- Mind Tools: Conflict Resolution
- Center for Creative Leadership: Empathy in the Workplace: A Tool for Effective Leadership
- Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images
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In a cultural climate such as the United States— where the sense of polarization along social, economic, political and religious lines seems to be the default posture — maintaining unity amidst great diversity has become a profound challenge. As this division grows it can become increasingly difficult to hold onto one’s identity while being open to the values, beliefs, and cultures of others.
How can I be a free person while living in community? This question is a practical application of the age-old philosophical problem of maintaining unity amidst diversity. How can I retain my uniqueness while belonging to others is a question faced by every family, every neighborhood, every village, and every nation, but it is by no means a new challenge.
As we celebrate our nation’s independence it is important to remember how this same issue was faced by our forefathers who, during the Continental Congress of 1776, appointed Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams to create a seal and motto for the newly declared United States of America. The thirteen colonies, with a highly diverse population, were to be one nation, one free people. The motto Franklin, Jefferson and Adams arrived at was e pluribus unum, the Latin phrase meaning "out of many, one" which can still be found today on the reverse side of the one dollar bill, within the Great Seal of the United States, on the ribbon carried by the bald eagle.
The opening of the “Pauline Year” on June 29, 2008 by Pope Benedict— celebrating the 2000 years since St. Paul’s birth—also reminds us that this same concept of unity out of diversity was taken up by Saint Paul 1700 years earlier. His model of the Church as the Body of Christ is ingenious: "For by one Spirit we were all baptized into one Body, whether Jews or Greeks, slaves or free, and have all been made to drink of the one Spirit." (1 Corinthians 12: 13)
More recently, those seemingly diverse strains of thought—America’s and the Catholic Church’s—found their convergence in the thinking of the "Yankee Paul," Father Isaac Thomas Hecker (1819-1888) the founder of the Paulist Fathers (who established Busted Halo®). Hecker’s insight— radical for his day—was that Catholicism and the American experience weren’t mutually exclusive, in fact they complemented each other quite well. “The discerning mind will not fail to see” he wrote in his book The Church and the Age “that the American republic and the Catholic Church are working together under the same divine guidance, forming the various races of men and nationalities into a homogenous people, and by their united action giving a bright promise of a broader and higher development of man than has been heretofore accomplished." Written on his tombstone in Saint Paul the Apostle Church on Manhattan’s West Side is his more succinct phrase: "In the union of Catholic Faith and American civilization…a future for the Church brighter than any past."
Isaac Hecker, whose cause for sainthood was recently opened, had grappled with this e pluribus unum issue as a twenty-something New Yorker fresh out of the utopian Transcendentalist communes of Brook Farm and Fruitlands. America had long possessed the utopian image of a more human life for all, ever since Saint Thomas More placed his Utopia (1516) in then recently explored Continent of Amerigo Vespucci. Hecker, in his idealism, would see in his newly embraced Catholicism a spirituality of e pluribus unum when, on July 14, 1844, he wrote in his diary: "The Catholic Church has preserved unity without encroachment on individual liberty, and has preserved individual liberty without the loss of perfect unity."
On the eve of the American Civil War, in the same year that Abraham Lincoln would declare that "this government can no longer exist half-slave and half-free," Isaac Hecker would go even further by stating that "the Catholic religion alone is able to give unity to a people occupying so vast an extent of territory, embracing such a diversified population, and of such a variety and even conflicting interests." The year was 1858, the year of the founding of the Paulist Fathers.
Father Hecker had the awesome vision of the United States of America as a natural, providential seedbed for the e pluribus unum spirituality of Catholicism. As I wrote in my article on Hecker for America magazine (April 24-May 1, 2006): "Perhaps in our ecumenical and interreligious age our church could serve as a bridge of reconciliation among all the great churches, religions, and spiritualities that continue to bless America. Might it even, on a broader scale, in the manner of Saint Francis of Assisi and pursuing the hopes of Thomas Merton, serve as a bridge of reconciliation, as "mystical body," between the mysticism of the East and the humanitarianism of the West?"
In my participation in the recovery of bodies at Ground Zero in the aftermath of the tragic events of September 11, 2001, I was aware of two very powerful symbols: the steel beams in the form of a cross retrieved from the rubble and planted at the site, and perhaps the earliest painting of the Great Seal, with e pluribus unum on the ribbon in Saint Paul’s Chapel—at the base of Ground Zero—above George Washington’s pew.
If Father Hecker were around he would most likely have connected the two symbols—the cross and the seal. It is from the cross of Christ that the living water of the Holy Spirit flows, turning a desert of hatred and despair into an oasis of love and hope. And if we Catholic Americans drink of this living water and channel it all over this land as vibrant members of the Body of Christ, can we not help create a future for the rest of the world "brighter than any past," truly e pluribus unum. In this year of Saint Paul, inspired by the vision of a great American, Isaac Thomas Hecker, let us begin.
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The attributes of the universe discovered by science point to the existence of God. Science leads us to the conclusion that the universe has a Creator and this Creator is perfect in might, wisdom and knowledge. It is religion that shows us the way in knowing God. It is therefore possible to say that science is a method we use to better see and investigate the realities addressed by religion. Nevertheless, today, some of the scientists who step forth in the name of science take an entirely different stand. In their view, scientific discoveries do not imply the creation of God. They have, on the contrary, projected an atheistic understanding of science by saying that it is not possible to reach God through scientific data: they claim that science and religion are two clashing notions.
As a matter of fact, this atheistic understanding of science is quite recent. Until a few centuries ago, science and religion were never thought to clash with each other, and science was accepted as a method of proving the existence of God. The so-called atheistic understanding of science flourished only after the materialist and positivist philosophies swept through the world of science in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Particularly after Charles Darwin postulated the theory of evolution in 1859, circles holding a materialistic world view started to ideologically defend this theory, which they looked upon as an alternative to religion. The theory of evolution argued that the universe was not created by a creator but came into being by chance. As a result, it was asserted that religion was in conflict with science. The British researchers Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln said on this issue:
For Isaac Newton, a century and a half before Darwin, science was not separate from religion but, on the contrary, an aspect of religion, and ultimately subservient to it. ...But the science of Darwin's time became precisely that, divorcing itself from the context in which it had previously existed and establishing itself as a rival absolute, an alternative repository of meaning. As a result, religion and science were no longer working in concert, but rather stood opposed to each other, and humanity was increasingly forced to choose between them. (Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, Henry Lincoln, The Messianic Legacy, Gorgi Books, London: 1991, p. 177-178.)
As we stated before, the so-called split between science and religion was totally ideological. Some scientists, who earnestly believed in materialism, conditioned themselves to prove that the universe had no creator and they devised various theories in this context. The theory of evolution was the most famous and the most important of them. In the field of astronomy as well certain theories were developed such as the "steady-state theory" or the "chaos theory". However, all of these theories that denied creation were demolished by science itself, as we have clearly shown in the previous chapters.
Today, scientists who still keep to these theories and insist on denying all things religious, are dogmatic and bigoted people, who have conditioned themselves not to believe in God. The famous English zoologist and evolutionist D.M.S. Watson confesses to this dogmatism as he explains why he and his colleagues accept the theory of evolution:
If so, it will present a parallel to the theory of evolution itself, a theory universally accepted, not because it can be proved by logically coherent evidence to be true, but because the only alternative, special creation, is clearly incredible. (D.M.S. Watson, "Adaptation", Nature, no. 124, p. 233)
What Watson means by "special creation" is God's creation. As acknowledged, this scientist finds this "unacceptable". But why? Is it because science says so? Actually it does not. On the contrary, science proves the truth of creation. The only reason why Watson looks upon this fact as unacceptable is because he has conditioned himself to deny the existence of God. All other evolutionists take the same stand.
Evolutionists rely not on science but on materialist philosophy and they distort science to make it agree with this philosophy. A geneticist and an outspoken evolutionist from Harvard University, Richard Lewontin, confesses to this truth:
It is not that the methods and institutions of science somehow compel us to accept a material explanation of the phenomenal world, but, on the contrary, that we are forced by our a priori adherence to material causes to create an apparatus of investigation and a set of concepts that produce material explanations, no matter how counter-intuitive, no matter how mystifying to the uninitiated. Moreover, that materialism is absolute, so we cannot allow a Divine Foot in the door. (Richard Levontin, The Demon-Haunted World, The New York Review of Books, January, 9, 1997, p. 28)
On the other hand, today, just as in history, there are, as opposed to this dogmatic materialist group, scientists who confirm God's existence, and regard science as a way of knowing Him. Some trends developing in the USA such as "Creationism" or "Intelligent Design" prove by scientific evidence that all living things were created by God.
This shows us that science and religion are not conflicting sources of information, but that, on the contrary, science is a method that verifies the absolute truths provided by religion. The clash between religion and science can only hold true for certain religions that incorporate some superstitious elements as well as divine sources. However, this is certainly out of the question for Islam, which relies only on the pure revelation of God. Moreover, Islam particularly advocates scientific enquiry, and announces that probing the universe is a method to explore the creation of God. The following verse of the Qur'an addresses this issue;
Do they not look at the sky above them? How We have built it and adorned it, and there are no rifts therein? And the earth - We have spread it out, and set thereon mountains standing firm, and caused it to bring forth plants of beauteous kinds (in pairs). And We send down from the sky blessed water whereby We give growth unto gardens and the grain of crops. And tall palm-trees, with shoots of fruit-stalks, piled one over another. (Surah Qaf, 6-7, 9-10)
As the above verses imply, the Qur'an always urges people to think, to reason and to explore everything in the world in which they live. This is because science supports religion, saves the individual from ignorance, and causes him to think more consciously; it opens wide one's world of thought and helps one grasp the signs of God self-evident in the universe. Prominent German physicist Max Planck said:
"Anybody who has been seriously engaged in scientific work of any kind realizes that over the entrance to the gates of the temple of science are written the words: Ye must have faith. It is a quality which the scientist cannot dispense with." (J. De Vries, Essential of Physical Science, Wm.B.Eerdmans Pub.Co., Grand Rapids, SD 1958, p. 15.)
All the issues we have treated so far simply put it that the existence of the universe and all living things cannot be explained by coincidences.
Many scientists who have left their mark on the world of science have confirmed, and still confirm this great reality. The more people learn about the universe, the higher does their admirations for its flawless order become. Every newly-discovered detail supports creation in an unquestionable way.
The great majority of modern physicists accept the fact of creation as we set foot in the 21st century. David Darling also maintains that neither time, nor space, nor matter, nor energy, nor even a tiny spot or a cavity existed at the beginning. A slight quick movement and a modest quiver and fluctuation occurred. Darling ends by saying that when the cover of this cosmic box was opened, the tendrils of the miracle of creation appeared from beneath it.
Besides, it is already known that almost all the founders of diverse scientific branches believed in God and His divine books. The greatest physicists in history, Newton, Faraday, Kelvin and Maxwell are a few examples of such scientists.
In the time of Isaac Newton, the great physicist, scientists believed that the movements of the heavenly bodies and planets could be explained by different laws. Nevertheless, Newton believed that the creator of earth and space was the same, and therefore they had to be explained by the same laws. He said:
This most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being. This Being governs all things, not as the soul of the world, but as Lord over all, and on account of His dominion. He is wont to be called Lord God, Universal Ruler.
As is evident, thousands of scientists who have been doing research in the fields of physics, mathematics, and astronomy since the Middle Ages all agree on the idea that the universe is created by a single Creator and always focus on the same point. The founder of physical astronomy, Johannes Kepler, stated his strong belief in God in one of his books where he wrote:
Since we astronomers are priests of the highest God in regard to the book of nature, it befits us to be thoughtful, not of the glory of our minds, but rather, above all else, of the glory of God. (Dan Graves, Scientists of Faith, . 51)
The great physicist, William Thompson (Lord Kelvin), who established thermodynamics on a formal scientific basis, was also a Christian who believed in God. He had strongly opposed Darwin's theory of evolution and totally rejected it. In 1903, short before his death, he made the unequivocal statement that, "With regard to the origin of life, science... positively affirms creative power." (David Darling, Deep Time, Delacorte Press, 1989, New York.)
One of the professors of physics at Oxford University, Robert Mattheus states the same fact in his book published in 1992 where he explains that DNA molecules were created by God. Mattheus says that all these stages proceed in a perfect harmony from a single cell to a living baby, then to a little child, and finally to an adolescent. All these events can be explained only by a miracle, just as in all the other stages of biology.
Mattheus asks how such a perfect and complex organism can emerge from such a simple and tiny cell and how a glorious HUMAN is created from a cell even smaller than the dot on the letter i. He finally concludes that this is nothing short of a miracle. (Robert Matthews, Unravelling the Mind of God, London Bridge, July, 1995, p.8)
Some other scientists who admit that the universe is created by a Creator and who are known by their cited attributes are:
Robert Boyle (the father of modern chemistry)
Iona William Petty (known for his studies on statistics and modern economy)
Michael Faraday (one of the greatest physicists of all times)
Gregory Mendel (the father of genetics; he invalidated Darwinism with his discoveries in the science of genetics)
Louis Pasteur (the greatest name in bacteriology; he declared war on Darwinism)
John Dalton (the father of atomic theory)
Blaise Pascal (one of the most important mathematicians)
John Ray (the most important name in British natural history)
Nicolaus Steno (a famous stratiographer who investigated earth layers)
Carolus Linnaeus (the father of biological classification)
Georges Cuvier (the founder of comparative anatomy)
Matthew Maury (the founder of oceanography)
Thomas Anderson (one the pioneers in the field of organic chemistry)
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The Channel Bones : The Ka’iwi (kah-EE-vee) Channel.
Ka’iwi Translated: Hawaiian word for “bone.”
More commonly known today as the Molokai Channel, the Ka’iwi Channel separates the islands of Molokai and Oahu. Stretching 26 miles (42 kilometers) and plunging to a depth of 2,300 feet (701 meters), the Ka’iwi Channel has the reputation as one of the world’s most treacherous bodies of water. The culmination of fowl weather and open ocean swells pushing through the narrow canyon that is created by the two land masses of Molokai and Oahu has resulted in the destruction of entire ancient canoe fleets and claimed the lives of modern-day fisherman and watermen.
The tragic loss of Hawaiian big-wave rider and waterman Eddie Aikau in the Ka’iwi Channel during the 1978 Polynesian voyage of the Hokule’a sailing canoe added to the mystique and revered power of the channel. After gale force winds and 30-foot swells disabled the Hokule’a, Aikau left the ship on his rescue paddleboard to seek help for his stranded crewmates. His body and board were never found.
Paddling has been a part of Hawaiian heritage since early Polynesians navigated thousands of miles of open ocean guided by nothing more than currents, wind and stars. Double-hulled sailing canoes were used to cover longer distances and single-hull outrigger canoes covered shorter, inter-island distances.
With the introduction of surfing in the late 18th century, paddleboarding soon became a mode of local ocean transportation.
Today, the Ka’iwi Channel is host to official races for outrigger canoe, surf skis and the Molokai-2-Oahu Paddleboard World Championship. Each human powered race across the Channel of Bones is regarded worldwide as the crowning achievement of the sport.
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A paper mill
is a factory
devoted to making paper
from wood pulp
and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine
In 105 AD
the first papermaking process was
created in China by the
Han Dynasty Chinese court eunuch
Tsai Lun. The technology spread
from East Asia to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas.
earliest known paper mill is known to have operated in Baghdad, modern-day
Iraq, as early as 794.
After Baghdad, the
paper-making process spread to Damascus, Egypt, and Morocco, and by
the 10th century paper had replaced papyrus
as the cheapest and most widespread
writing substrate in the Islamic world.
the first mention of rag-paper is in the tract of Peter, Abbot
of Cluny (1112 - 1150 AD), while the oldest recorded document
on paper in Christian Europe is the eleventh century Missal of Silos, the paper for which was
probably made in Islamic
Spain. One of the first known paper mills in Europe
was in Xativa near
around 1151 AD by the Muslim Moors.
Paper mills can be fully integrated mills or nonintegrated mills.
Integrated mills consist of a pulp mill and a paper mill on the
same site. Such mills receive logs or wood chips and produce paper.
It is a common misconception that paper mills are sources of odors.
Pulp mills and the pulping section of integrated mills
(particularly if using the kraft
) commonly have associated odors; nonintegrated mills
purchase wood pulp, usually in dry bales known as market pulp
, and produce little, if any,
The modern paper mill uses large amounts of energy
, and wood pulp
in a highly efficient and extremely
complex series of processes, using modern and sophisticated
to produce a sheet of
paper that can be used in incredibly diverse ways. Modern paper
machines are very large and can be 500 feet (~150 m) in
length, produce a sheet 400 inches (~10 m) wide, and
operate at speeds of more than 60 mph (100 km/h). The two
main suppliers of paper machines are Metso
T.H.E. Journal
- List of paper mills on paper and print monthly
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Scientists are reporting development of a fast, simple, inexpensive method for determining whether chemicals in consumer products and workplaces may cause skin allergies in people -- a method that does not involve use of animals. Their study appears in ACS' Chemical Research in Toxicology, a monthly journal.
Itai Chipinda and his colleagues note the existence of public sentiment against the use of animals to determine whether ingredients in consumer soaps, shampoos and other consumer products, and workplace chemicals, may cause skin sensitization and contact dermatitis. Chemicals cause dermatitis by bonding to proteins in the skin, and then aggravating the immune system so that redness, irritation, itching, and other symptoms occur. Existing chemical tests use substances like glutathione that mimic skin proteins and bond to allergy-causing ingredients. None, however, are suitable for use in detecting the critical early stages of skin sensitization, the scientists say.
Instead of glutathione, Chipinda and his team developed a test with nitrobenzenethiol as the skin protein surrogate. When used on 20 different chemicals known to cause skin irritation, the test produced positive results. It produced negative results when used to test substances that usually do not produce skin sensitization. "This simple, rapid and inexpensive absorbance-based method has great potential for use as a preliminary screening tool for skin allergens," the report states.
ARTICLE FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
"Rapid and Simple Kinetics Screening Assay for Electrophilic Dermal Sensitizers Using Nitrobenzenethiol"
DOWNLOAD FULL TEXT ARTICLE
Itai Chipinda, Ph.D.
Health Effects Laboratory Division
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1095 Willowdale Road
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888
Phone: (304) 285-5721
Fax: (304) 285-6126
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| 0.882655 | 386 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Interested in supereruptions? This May 2016 talk by USGS scientist Larry Mastin summarizes how we model ash transport after volcanic eruptions, which was applied to some of the big eruptions in Yellowstone's past. The work follows on to Larry's 2014 publication that was summarized as a series of FAQs on our website. The lecture discusses Yellowstone and it's history, but it also discusses the broader study of ash plumes in the atmosphere and how researchers are keen to develop methods to estimate how and where ash will fall after big eruptions.Our website multimedia section hosts a variety of earlier lectures on Yellowstone (about 15 hours worth!).
YVO staff contributed to a new USGS video entitled: "An Illustrated Guide to Reading a Seismogram." This off-beat video provides a short, introductory lesson on how the seismic plots are generated and the potential sources for "signals" on a seismogram.
If you're looking for additional insight on Yellowstone geology, three video interviews were added in September. USGS Video Producer Steve Wessells conducted interviews with some of the key USGS scientists who unlocked the secrets to Yellowstone's volcanic and geothermal history. Bob Christiansen, Patrick Muffler and Bob Fournier reminisce about their early careers working at Yellowstone in the 1960s and 1970s.
The likelihood of a volcanic supereruption from Yellowstone, or any other location on Earth, remains very low in any given year, yet the U.S. Geological Survey is frequently asked about the likely thickness and distribution of ash deposits if Yellowstone were to erupt. This prompted USGS scientists to use a new computer model called Ash3D to simulate the distribution of volcanic ash from a hypothetical large explosive eruption at Yellowstone. A research paper explaining the results was published in Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems on August 27, 2014, and we have developed some FAQ to help explain the background to this study.
The researchers discovered that during very large volcanic eruptions, ash transport is dominated by a rapidly expanding umbrella cloud that results in significant distribution of ash upwind from the volcanic vent. "In essence, the eruption makes its own winds that can overcome the prevailing westerlies that normally dominate weather patterns in the United States," explained USGS geologist Larry Mastin, first author on the manuscript and co-developer of the computer model. "This helps explain the distribution from large Yellowstone eruptions of the past, where considerable amounts of ash reached the west coast." The authors also note that a fraction of an inch or less of ash is likely to be deposited at distances further than 1500 miles, such as on the east and west coasts of the United States. To learn more, please read our Frequently Asked Questions about the model and its application to Yellowstone.
Though we love doing research at YVO, we prefer it when the research is on topics geological rather than the origin of false rumors. Nevertheless, we have received enough concerned emails and phone calls that we've spent some time tracking down a few of the statements made on various "alternative Internet news sources."
1) First, everyone should know that geological activity, including earthquakes and ground uplift/subsidence is well within historical norms and seismicity is actually a bit low at present.
2) Concern over road closures is much overblown. There's been one road closure of a small side road – just over three miles long – that was closed for two days. As one can imagine, it is not easy to maintain roads that pass over thermal areas where ground temperatures can approach those of boiling water. Roads at Yellowstone often need repair because of damage by thermal features as well as extreme cold winter conditions.
3) The park has not been evacuated. This one is pretty easy to verify by everyone. If the Old Faithful webcam shows people, or if news articles are coming out about a hobbyist's remote control helicopter crashing into a hot spring, Yellowstone is certainly open for business.
4) No volcanologists have stated that Yellowstone is likely to erupt this week, this month or this year. In one recent article, a name was attributed to a "senior volcanologist", but that person does not appear to exist, and a geologist with that name assures us that he did not supply any quotes regarding Yellowstone.
5) Finally, we note that those who've kept track of Yellowstone over the past decade or so, have seen a constant stream of "predictions" regarding imminent eruptions at Yellowstone. Many have had specific dates in mind, none had a scientific basis, and none have come true.
We will continue to provide updates on geological activity at Yellowstone, and educational materials to help understand the science around Yellowstone monitoring.
Virtually everything known about Yellowstone's spectacular volcanic past comes from the scientists who work at this observatory, at all our eight member agencies. We're the ones who mapped the deposits, figured out the ages of the eruptions, measured the gases, located the earthquakes, and tracked the ground movement. A few of us have been doing it for over forty years. We will continue to help you understand what's happening at Yellowstone now, and what's likely to happen in the future.
How do we know what's beneath Yellowstone, and how can we image the shallow magma? Seismologists at the University of Utah (a YVO member agency) and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology undertook a study to image the Yellowstone magma reservoir through a technique called seismic tomography. Using improved methods and data from thousands of earthquakes; they discovered that the magma reservoir is much larger than inferred in previous studies. Read our website article to find out how the study was conducted and what they discovered. The complete results from this new approach are published in the Journal Geophysical Research Letters.
Scientists from the University of Utah – a YVO partner agency – recently presented new research at the Fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco that suggests that the size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought. Previous similar studies had underestimated the size of the magma body because of insufficient instrumentation. Over the past decade, improvements to the Yellowstone monitoring network has increased the number and quality of the instruments deployed. This new research takes advantage of these upgrades, which will continue to pay dividends for years to come.
The UU researchers, in collaboration with a scientist from the Swiss Seismological Service in Zurich, used a method called seismic tomography to create an improved image of the magmatic system beneath Yellowstone. One should not think of Yellowstone's magma reservoir as a big cavern full of churning lava. Rather, the reservoir is distributed throughout a porous, sponge-like body of otherwise solid rock, with the amount of liquid rock (melt) varying from place to place. Because seismic waves slow down when traveling through liquids, seismic tomography can be used to map out these variations. The new research shows that while the magma reservoir is bigger than we thought, the proportion of melt to solid rock (estimated at <10-15%) is similar to previous reports and appears to remain way too low for a giant eruption.
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a "supereruption" in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not "overdue" for a supereruption. Indeed, it is quite possible that such an eruption will never again occur from the Yellowstone region. Scientist agree that smaller eruptions are likely in the future, but the probability of ANY sort of eruption at Yellowstone still remains very low over the next 10 to 100 years.
YVO scientists from organizations around the country continually monitor geologic conditions at Yellowstone. At present those conditions are normal and there is no heightened concern for public safety. Should conditions change, an established alert system will quickly notify public officials, the general public, and the media. YVO posts regular updates about activity at Yellowstone, which can be found on the activity update webpage. We encourage you to explore our website for additional information on geologic hazards and current activity at Yellowstone.
The YVO webcam is offline temporarily. We hope to get it up and running soon. Please be aware that the camera runs via a solar panel and cellular modem. Unlike most similar cameras, it does not have connection to either AC power or the internet. In the interim, here's a nice image from the camera taken the last week that the camera was operational.
USGS scientist Phil Dawson and colleagues have applied a novel research approach to voice recognition software. In their January 2012 paper, published in Geophysical Research Letters, they utilize this software to discover that background seismic activity in geyser basins can be intimately linked to daily cycles of heating and cooling. For more information read the web article in the Yellowstone volcano earthquake monitoring section.
Recent telemetry problems, from ice and snow buildup on data transmission antennas, have caused intermittent malfunctions of the University of Utah's automated earthquake location system. The malfunctions result in false earthquake reports, which upon review, are then manually deleted from the earthquake catalog. The snow and ice buildup interferes with the continuous streaming of seismic data causing occasional signal dropouts. The dropouts cause spikes to appear in the data streams, which the automated system misinterprets as the abrupt appearance of a high amplitude seismic wave from an earthquake. Windy conditions, common this time of year, exacerbate the problem by contributing additional noise and thereby reducing the overall signal quality of the seismic data streams. In most cases, seismologists at the University of Utah can overcome these problems and still identify and locate earthquakes correctly. Seismic activity at Yellowstone remains at background levels.
More information about errors in the real-time earthquake system that lead to erroneous reports can be found here: Earthquake Hazards Program Errata for Real-time Earthquakes page.
Beginning October 1, 2010, the University of Utah Seismograph Stations has reduced the threshold from M 2.5 to M 1.5 for automated plotting of earthquakes for the Yellowstone region. For more information please see the UUSS announcement. See today's earthquake map.
A report, "Protocols for Geologic Hazards Response by the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory," has just been published. The document summarizes the protocols and tools that the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) will now use during earthquakes, hydrothermal explosions, or other geological activity that could lead to a volcanic eruption. This USGS circular was written by an inter-organizational group of scientists, land managers, and emergency responders that met in November 2008 in Bozeman, Montana.
YVO has finished installing a series of radio-equipped temperature sensors to document changes in water flow and heat discharge in the Norris Geyser Basin. Daily, weekly, and monthly temperature plots are now available from our new monitoring page, "Taking the Temperature of the Norris Geyser Basin."
Geysers are rare hot springs that periodically erupt bursts of steam and hot water. Yellowstone National Park has more than half of the world's geysers. Old Faithful has remained faithful for at least the past 135 years, showering appreciative tourists every 50 to 95 minutes (most recently an annual average of 91 minutes). To view Old Faithful in real-time, see the National Park Service Old Faithful Webcam.
There were were notable changes in thermal activity at Norris Geyser Basin in 2003. These changes resulted in the closure of the Back Basin Trail and temporarydeployment of a monitoring network by YVO. Learn more.
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| 0.950453 | 2,365 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Feedback: Please send feedback to "firstname.lastname@example.org".
Each word is marked with a number that describe how "technical" the
word is. The following scale is used:
used by people inside and outside the community
common terms used within the community
rarer terms used in technical discussions
rare terms used by experts; these terms will require extensive study in order to really grok them.
rare terms used by virtually nobody (i.e. if you are using this guide to learn the lingo, skip these terms).
Copyright 1998-2000 by Robert Graham (email@example.com. All rights reserved. This document may be reproduced only for non-commercial purposes. All reproductions must contain this exact copyright notice. Reproductions must not contain alterations except by permision..
Key point: The debate over strong encryption is never ending. Within the United States, law enforcement is constantly lobbying to restrict the use of strong encryption. Many resist, pointing out how often law enforcement already abuses wiretap powers (such as against Martin Luther King). At the same time, companies making products constantly lobby for the easing of export restrictions, so that they can sell strong encryption products abroad. Another funny thing is that the U.S. government's intransigence on this issue has actually led to stronger encryption abroad. U.S. export restrictions (and desire to spy on foreigners) was one of the reasons France relaxed its own law-enforcement bans on encryption use by citizens.
Key point: Specialized hardware can decrypt 40-bit keys in real time. The average new desktop has enough horsepower to decrypt 40-bit messages. Thus, many people now consider 40-bit encryption to be simply obfuscated plaintext.
Key point: 40-bit often refers to the RC4 system within browsers.
Key point: In January of 1999, the EFF built a custom machine (the "Deep Crack") for $250,000 that could decrypt 56-bit DES encrypted messages in hours.
Key point: 56-bit cryptography almost always refers to DES.
Key point: Security conscious users of such systems need to make sure they use a more random mix of characters because they cannot create long passwords.
Key point: Password cracking such systems is a little easier.
Key point: Web-servers often allow access to user's directories this way. An example would be http://www.robertgraham.com/~rob.
Key point: A big hole on the Internet is that people unexpectedly open up information. For example, the file .bash_history is a hidden file in a person's directory that contains the complete text of all commands they've entered into the shell (assuming their shell is "bash", which is the most popular one on Linux).
Key point: When rooting a machine,
hackers will often redirect logging to /dev/null
For example, the command
Culture: In the vernacular, means much the same thing as "black hole". Typical usage, "if you don't like what I have to say, please direct your comments to /dev/null".
Key point: If a hacker can read files from this directory, then they can likely use the information to attack the machine.
Key point: The passwords are encrypted, so even though everyone can read the file, it doesn't automatically guarantee access to the system. However, programs like crack are very effective at decrypting the passwords. On any system with many accounts, there is a good chance the hacker will be able to crack some of the accounts if they get hold of this file.
Key point: Modern UNIX systems allow for "shadowed" password files, stored in locations like /etc/shadow that only root root has access to. The normal password file still exists, minus the password information. This provides backwards compatibility for programs that still must access the password file for account information, but which have no interest in the passwords themselves.
Key point: The chief goal of most hacks against UNIX systems is to retrieve the password file. Many attacks do not compromise the machine directly, but are able to read files from the machine, such as this file. Typical examples include:
Key point: An Access Control List (ACL) is used to list those accounts that have access to the resource that the list applies to. When talking about firewalls, the ACL implies the list of IP addresses that have access to which ports and systems through the firewall. When talking about WinNT, the ACL implies the list of users that can access a specific file or directory on NTFS.
Contrast: Discretionary Access Control is the ability to have fine grained control over who has access to what resources.
Analogy: An cookbook recipe is an algorithm.
Key point: Different algorithms have different levels of complexity. For example, consider the ancient parable (Babylonian?) about a king and a wise subject who did a favor for him. The subject asked for one piece of grain to be placed on the first square of a chess board, two grains on the second, four grains on the third, and so on, doubling the amount of grain for each successive square.
This problem demonstrates an algorithm of exponential complexity. For the first 10 squares of the chess board, the series is: 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512. Thus, for the first 10 squares, roughly a thousand grains must be paid out. However, the series continues (using K=1024): 1k 2k 4k 8k 32k 64k 128k 256k 512k. Thus, for the first 20 squares, roughly a million grains must be paid out. After 30 squares, roughly a billion grains must be paid out. For 40 squares, roughly a trillion grains must be paid out.
This is directly related to such things as key size. A 41-bit key is twice as hard to crack as a 40-bit key. A 50-bit key is a thousand times harder. A 60-bit key is a million times harder. This is why the 128-bit vs. 40-bit encryption debate is so important: 128-bit keys are a trillion trillion times harder to crack (via brute force) than 40-bit keys.
Key point: Most algorithms are public, meaning that somebody trying to decrypt your message knows all the details of the algorithm. Consequently, the message is protected solely by the key. Many people try to add additional protection by making the details of the algorithm secret as well. Experience so far has led to the belief that this actually leads to weaker security for two reasons. First, such secrets always get discovered eventually, so if security depends upon this secret, it will eventually be broken. Secondly, human intelligence is such that someone cannot create a secure algorithm on his/her own. Therefore, only by working with a community of experts over many years can humans create a secure algorithm. To date, only two such communities exist: the entire world of cryptography experts publishing the details of their work and trying to break other people's work, and the tightly knit community of cryptography experts working in secret for the NSA.
Key point: Anonymous e-mail services like Hotmail put the IP address of the person sending the e-mail in the headers (which are normally hidden from view by e-mail clients). Many would-be hackers get caught this way.
Key point: A recurring bug in ASP has allowed hackers to read the script rather than the output of the script. These techniques rely upon changing the name of the script such that the server not longer recognizes it as a script, but as a file instead. Some techniques that have worked in the past have been:
Key point: By sniffing ARP packets off the wire, you can discover a lot of stuff going on. This is especially true of cable-modem and DSL segments. Since ARP packets are broadcasts, you aren't technically breaking your user's agreement by sniffing.
Key point: You can spoof ARP requests and/or responses in order to redirect traffic through your machine.
Example: Some classifications of attacks are:
Example: When you log in with your username and give the password, you are authenticating yourself to the system. You are proving that you are you because, in theory, only you know your password.
Key point: Abstractly, anything that combats forgery is called authentication. For example, IPsec includes an Authentication Header (AH) that proves that a packet hasn't been modified in transit.
Contrast: Remote access trojans (RATs) are NOT examples of back channels, but are instead forward channels. A RAT allows the hacker to contact the system from anywhere in the world, and allows the hacker to hide where he/she is coming from. A back channel, on the other hand, will contact the hacker, who must have a fixed IP address. This clearly fingers who the hacker is.
Key point: Typical back channel protocols are X Windows (xterm) and shells like Telnet. These programs are often built into the victim's system, so many attacks that can't otherwise compromise the system can still trigger a back channel that allows a remote shell.
See also: covert channel
Key point: Back doors are frequently programmed into systems either benignly or maliciously. Most computers shipped today allow BIOS passwords to be set that will prevent the booting of the computer without the administrator first typing the password. However, since many people lose their password, such BIOSes often have a back door passwords that allows the real password to be set. Similarly, a lot of remotely manageable network equipement (routers, switches, dialup banks, etc.) have backdoors for remote Telnet or SNMP. The frequency of such back doors is due to the fact that people are stupid, set passwords, forget them, then whine to customer support.
Example: Most backdoors consists of special username/passwords that can be entered in the normal locations where prompted.
Key point: A backdoor can be added to any system. For example, when generating random session keys, a programmer may actually subvert the random number generator. Such subversion would then allow decrypting of the message by those who knew the specifics. This has already been done accidentally; some paranoids believe that some encryption products do this intentionally in order to get export approval of 128-bit products.
Key point: Many banners reveal the exact version of the product. Over time, exploits are found for specific versions of products. Therefore, the intruder can simply lookup the version numbers in a list to find which exploit will work on the system. In the examples below, the version numbers that reveal the service has known exploitable weaknesses are highlighted.
Example: The example below is a RedHat Linux box with most the default service enabled. The examples below show only the text-based services that show banners upon connection (in some cases, a little bit of input was provided in order to trigger the banners). Note that this is an older version of Linux; exploits exist for most these services that would allow a hacker to break into this box (most are buffer-overflow exploits).
|FTP||21||220 rh5.robertgraham.com FTP server (Version wu-2.4.2-academ[BETA-15](1) Sat Nov 1 03:08:32 EST 1997) ready.|
Red Hat Linux release 5.0 (Hurricane)|
Kernel 2.0.31 on an i486
|SMTP||25||220 rh5.robertgraham.com ESMTP Sendmail 8.8.7/8.8.7; Mon, 29 Nov 1999 23:28:31 -0800|
Login Name Tty Idle Login Time Office Office Phone rob Robert David Graham p0 Nov 29 22:51 (gandalf) root root p1 Nov 29 23:34 (10.17.128.201:0.0)
HTTP/1.0 200 OK|
Date: Tue, 30 Nov 1999 07:34:59 GMT
Last-Modified: Thu, 06 Nov 1997 18:20:06 GMT
|POP3||110||+OK POP3 rh5.robertgraham.com v4.39 server ready|
|identd||113||0 , 0 : ERROR : UNKNOWN-ERROR|
|IMAP4||143||* OK rh5.robertgraham.com IMAP4rev1 v10.190 server ready|
|lp||515||lpd: lp: Malformed from address|
Key point: BGP can be subverted in numerous ways. BGP is generally unauthenticated, and rogue ISPs can play havoc.
Key pont: The BIOS stores configuration settings in NVRAM (Non-Volatile RAM). Remember that the contents of your normal RAM/memory are lost when you power-off your computer. The contents of NVRAM, in contrast, are retained when power goes off. Most NVRAM consists of CMOS (low-power) chips with a small battery that constantly feeds power to the chips (such batteries last about 5-years). A common trick of hackers and viruses is to corrupt the CMOS settings causing the computer to fail to boot. Removing the battery connection (usually a jumper on the motherboard) will cause the CMOS settings to be lost and be reset back to default (good) state.
Key pont: All of today's BIOSes are stored in programmable ROMs, which allows them to be reprogrammed (usually with bug fixes from the manufacturer). This allows the hacker to reprogram them as well. While in theory the hacker could reprogram his/her own code into the BIOS, in practice this has not been done yet. Instead, hackers can sometimes use this programming feature to corrupt the BIOS code (in much the same way they corrupt the BIOS settings mentioned above). This will usually prevent the system from booting even to a point where a fresh BIOS can be re-programmed into the system. This requires that the system be brought back to the vendor in order to have the BIOS reprogrammed. Note that you can often set a jumper on the motherboard that denies the ability to reprogram the BIOS.
Key pont: In many contexts, each additional bit means "twice as much". 8 extra bits means 256 times as much. 16 extra bits means 65536 times as much. Therefore, it takes 65536 times longer to brute force crack a 56-bit key than a 40-bit key.
Key point: DHCP is simply an extension on top of bootp. This is important because without an IP address, clients cannot reach bootp servers that reside across routers. Virtually all routers have an extension for bootp forwarding that fixes this issue. Since DHCP had the same requires, the designers just stuck it inside bootp packets rather than requiring yet another change to the routing infrastructure.
Example: A cancel-bot is a program that attempts to cancel lots of messages within USENET newsgroups. These are sometimes used by the USENET Death Penalty or rogue cancelers. *
Key point: Netscape and Microsoft have not yet produced a browser that is hardened against predation from hostile websites.
Analogy: If you somehow steal somebody's ATM card, you could try to use it in a bank machine. PIN numbers are only 4 digits, meaning 10,000 possible combinations. If you were patient, you could stand at the cash machine trying all possible 10,000 combinations. (Of course, ATM machines will always eat the cards after a few unsuccessful tries in order to stop this).
Key point: The term brute force often means "the most difficult way". In the above example of the PIN number, you can always find the PIN number after guessing 10,000 combinations. But sometimes there are easier ways. For example, a bank may choose to assign PIN numbers based upon a combination of the issuing date and the user's name. Therefore, the problem is reduced to guessing when a card was issued, which may consist of only a few hundred guesses.
Therefore, any technique that is more difficult than brute force is pointless. Likewise, brute force is very difficult, so hackers continually search for techniques that are less difficult.
Key point: The possibility of doing brute-force key-space searches is often compared to the age of the universe, number of atoms in the planet earth, and the yearly output of the sun. For example, Bruce Schneier has calculated that according to what we know of quantum mechanics today, that the entire energy output of the sun is insufficient to break a 197-bit key.
Analogy: Consider two popular bathroom sink designs. One design is a simple sink with a single drain. The other design includes a backup drain near the top of the sink. The first design is easy and often looks better, but suffers from the problem that if the drain is plugged and the water is left running, the sink will overflow all over the bathroom. The second design prevents the sink from overflowing, as the water level can never get past the top drain.
Example: In much the same way, programmers often forget to validate input. They (rightly) believe that a legal username is less than 32 characters long, and (wrongly) reserve "more than enough" memory for it, typically 200 characters. However, they frequently forget to check if some malicious hacker enters an illegal username 1000 characters long.
Key point: This is a classic programming bug that afflicts almost all systems. The average system on the Internet is vulnerable to a well known buffer overflow attack. Many Windows NT servers have IIS services vulnerable to a buffer overflow in ".htr" handler, many Solaris servers have vulnerable RPC services like cmsd, ToolTalk, and statd; many Linux boxes have vulnerable IMAP4, POP3, or FTP services.
Key point: Programs written in C are most vulnerable, C++ is somewhat less vulnerable. Programs written in scripting level languages like VisualBasic and Java are generally not vulnerable. The reason is that C requires the programmer to check buffer lengths, but scripting languages generally make these checks whether the programmer wants them or not.
Key point: Buffer overflows are usually a Denial-of-Service in that they will crash/hang a service/system. The most interesting ones, however, can cause the system to execute code provided by the hacker as part of the exploit.
Key point: The language is quirky, difficult for beginners to learn, and really just an accident of history. Despite this, one must grok the language in order to become a true hacker.
Key point: The large number of buffer overflow exploits is directly related to poor way that C protects programmers from doing the wrong thing. On the other hand, these lack of protections leads directly to its high speed.
Key point: Sometimes systems can be exploited through the cache. Examples are:
Key point: Certificates can be revoked. This means that a company who believes that their site has been compromised can put up a server on the Internet that tells everyone else that the certificate is no longer valid.
Key point: The Verisign embedded certificates in older browsers (IE 3.0, Netscape 4.0) have expiration dates of January 1, 2000. This means that anybody using older browsers will get nasty warnings when they visit ecommerce sites or attempt to verify files with authenticode.
Key point: The way it is supposed to work is that you have a certificate that claims to be "Microsoft" signed by "Verisign" (a popular CA), then you trust that Verisign has done a reasonable job both ensuring that Microsoft is who they say they are, and that Microsoft has done a reasonably good job protecting their private keys from theft.
Contrast: Microsoft could create a "self-signed" certificate, but then anybody else could create a self-signed certificate claiming to be Microsoft. Therefore, you trust a CA-signed certificate more than a self-signed certificate, as long as you trust the CA.
Key point: How do you trust a CA? The answer is marketing. First, a company like Verisign has spent millions of dollars creating a reputable company that would be destroyed if a flaw was found in their process (i.e. thieves were able to steal their private keys). Second, Versign (and a few other CAs) have managed to embed their public keys within Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. This means that any website using SSL must obtain a certificate signed by one of these built-in CAs, or else users get confusing warning messages.
Humor: Microsoft uses certificates signed by Verisign, because it is trusted by many people. The reason so many people trust Verisign these days is because its root keys are included with Microsoft's browsers.
Key point: One of the chief RISKS is the theft of the private key used to sign things. If a hacker/thief is able to steal it, then they can masquarade as someone
Key point: Several important CA certificates (i.e. Verisign) expired on Dec. 31, 1999. Since it is feasable to eventually compromise a certificates, they usually expire at some date. The certificates for trusting root CAs that are built-in many browsers (Internet Explorer 4.0 and earlier, Netscape Navigator 4.06 and earlier) were created in 1995, and were made for a 5-year lifespan. One of the creators of these certificates now says he wished he'd put the expiration date a little off, such as on Dec. 15, in order to avoid the Y2K madness.
Key point: The word "CGI" stands for "Common Gateway Interface", which generally confuses people more than help them.
Key point: In most cases the user is prompted for the password, which the client then stores in memory. In the use of smart cards, however, the system may give the user the challenge string, which the user then types into the smart card. The smart card then produces a response, which the user must type back into the system. In this way, the user validates that they have the smart card.
Key point: Challenge-response systems are thought to be more secure because the challenge/response is different every time. This guards against replay attacks as well as making cracking more difficult.
Key point: Favorite because it provides real-time anonymous communication.
Key point: Checksums are not secure against intentional changes by hackers. For that, you need a cryptographic hash.
Key point: A block cipher is one that encrypts a block of data at a time. For example, DES uses a block size of 64-bits. Each input block must correspond to exactly one output block (like a code-book). A block-cipher suffers from the fact the same data repeated in a message would be encoded in the same way. Consider a block size of 8-bit encrypting English text; you could therefore figure out all the letter 'e's in the cipher text because they are the most common letter used. Therefore, block-ciphers are often used in a chaining mode such that the same pattern will indeed be decrypted differently.
Contrast: clear-text, plaintext.
Misconception: The word "text" comes from traditional cryptography that meant the text of messages, though these days "text" can refer to binary computer data as well.
Key point: In block-ciphers, the key represents a code-book. In other words, you could use the key to generate a huge book of matching pairs whereby each plaintext block would match to exactly one ciphertext block. Then, you could encrypt messages by looking them up in this table.
Key point: The term ECB or Electronic Code-Book refers to the use this mode of using a block-cipher. However, since it leaks information, many people prefer to chain blocks of ciphertext and plaintext together in order to make sure that the same pattern will be encrypted differently when it appears multiple times in a message.
Key point: Since encrypted data is essentially random data, you cannot compress it. This defeats networking standards designed to automatically encrypt traffic (such as modems). Therefore, data must be compressed before it is encrypted. For this reason, compression is becoming an automatic feature to most encryption products. The most often used compression standard is gzip and its compression library zlib.
Key point: Cookies are not a security hole in themselves. However, they can be combined in interested ways with other browser features in order to create big security and privacy holes.
Key point: Turning off cookies is not practical. The best you can hope for is "cookie management" -- choose which sites you want to allow cookies for but deny them to all the rest.
Key point: One rootkit uses ICMP as a covert channel. It creates a virtual TCP-like circuit inside of ping packets.
Key point: Covert channels can become extremely covert. In theory, one can create a covert channel where only the IP identification field (16-bits) carries the data.
Key point: URLs and DNS queries pass through virtually everything (including proxies). Therefore, it is easy to export information from inside a company to the outside using this technique.
History: When the UNIX operating system was first developed, passwords were stored in the file /etc/passwd. This file was made readable by everyone, but the passwords were encrypted so that a user could not figure out who a person's password was. The passwords were encrypted in such a manner that you could test a password to see if it was valid, but you really couldn't decrypt the entry. (Note: not even administrators are able to figure out user's passwords; they can change them, but not decrypt them). However, a program called "crack" was developed that would simply test all the words in the dictionary against the passwords in /etc/passwd. This would find all user accounts whose passwords where chosen from the dictionary. Typical dictionaries also included people's names since a common practice is to choose a spouse's or child's name.
Contrast: A "crack" program is one that takes existing encrypted passwords and attempts to find some that are "weak" and easily discovered. However, it is not a "password guessing" program that tries to login with many passwords, that is known as a grind
Key point: The sources of encrypted passwords typically include the following:
Key point: The "crack" program is a useful tool for system administrators. By running the program on their own systems, they can quickly find users who have chosen weak passwords. In other words, it is a policy enforcement tool.
Tools: on UNIX, the most commonly used program is called simply "crack". On Windows, a popular program is called "l0phtCrack" from http://www.l0pht.com.
Controversy: See the word hacker for a disagreement about the way that "cracker" is used in the computer enthusiast community vs. the security community.
Culture: Cracking programs is its own little underground 'scene' independent of other hacking activities. Groups and individuals often compete to be the first to break a new copy protection scheme in popular programs. There are many sites that catalogue cracked programs.
Key point: The different kinds of cryptanalysis are:
History: So far, there are four major eras in cryptography.
The best example is the "checksum" vs. "hash".
A checksum verifies that data hasn't been corrupted unintentionally. For example, all IP packets are checksumed in case they corrupted accidentally between sender and receiver.
A cryptographic hash verifies that data hasn't been corrupted intentionally. Hackers can (and do) alter IP packets between the sender and receiver in order to carry out an attack. Since IP's checksum is not cryptographically secure against hackers.
There are two features that are required in order to be cryptographic. The first is that the algorithm be secure against attack. A checksum uses simple addtion, while hashes use a complex set of mathematical operations. The second is that the key must be of a sufficient size in order to prevent brute force attacks. The IP checksum is only two-bytes long, so that even if the algorithm were secure, it would require only 65536 tries for the hacker to get it right, which can be done in real-time.
Key point: There are sites, like http://www.attrition.org that catalogue defaced sites and mirror the defaced web-pages.
Key point: Defaced web-pages is an important part of hacker attitude.
Key point: Elite hackers rarely deface web-pages, they instead break in and control the server for other nefarious purposes that yield more profit.
Key point: Web servers are easy to deface because the average OS and web server contains vulnerabilities (defaults and samples) upon installation. It takes extensive effort to harden a server.
Key point: Security irritates customers who prefer products that are easy to use. Therefore, most vendors make the same trade off. They ship their systems with the best "out-of-box" experience, and as a result most boxes are easily hacked in their default state. The more a vendor touts its ease-of-use, the more likely hackers will find that vendor's products easy to hack.
See also: samples
Example: The Ping of Death exploit crashed most machines vintage 1995 by sending illegally fragmented packets at a vicitm.
Culture: A common word for DoS is "nuke", which was first popularized by the WinNuke program (a simple ping-of-death expoit script. These days, "nukes" are thos DoS exploits that script kiddies in chat rooms use against each other.
Key point: It takes only a couple minutes to run through hundreds of thousands of words in a dictionary in order to crack a password. Therefore, never choose a word that might be in a dictionary.
Example: Many programs contain built-in HTTP servers. This allows the program to be remotely managed from any web browser. These servers expect that only the files in their own directory and below will be read. However, hackers can still provide URLs that go up directories, and down into other directories in order to read any file from the system. For example, a hacker might be able to read the UNIX password file by typing in the URL: http://www.robertgraham.com/../../../etc/passwd.
Key point: This bug occurs because programmers frequently forget to doublecheck input.
Example: This bug is common. The original version of Win95 had this bug, so that if you had access to File and Print Sharing to any subdirectory, you also had access to the entire system. A huge number of HTTP servers and CGI scripts have this bug. Many FTP servers have had this bug.
Key point: Win9x has the quirk that three dots "..." means "two directories up", four dots "...." means "three directories up", and so on. Additionally, whereas on many UNIX systems going up past the top directory automatically generates an error, going above the top directory on Windows leaves you in the top directory. Therefore, filenames like "............/Windows/greg.pwl" are frequently seen: the hacker puts more than enough dots in the path in order to guarantee they reach the root directory.
Key point: Many popular Windows "personal web servers", including several versions shipped from Microsoft, have had either the "../.." or "....." vulnerability. In particular, since the "....." issue is not widely know, it is very common among those products that fix the first variant. FrontPage98 from Microsoft shipped with this bug.
History: DNS is relatively new. When the Internet was small, every machine simply had a list of all other machines on the Internet (stored in /etc/hosts). Generally, people just had the IP addresses of machines memorized in much the same way that people memorize phone numbers today.
Key point: DNS is not needed for communication. If a DNS server goes down, newbies will think that the entire network is down. Hackers frequently deal with raw IP addresses, and indeed often bypass DNS entirely as it may give off signs of an attack.
Key point: DNS is a "directory service".
Key point: The DNS hierarchy starts from the "top level domains" of .com, .net, .org, .edu, .giv, .mil, and the two-letter country codes (e.g. .us for United States, .jp for Japan).
Misconception: Both IP addresses and domain names use dots: "www.robertgraham.com" vs. "192.0.2.133". This has no significance; the usage of these dots is basically unrelated. Trying to match things up one-to-one is wrong (i.e. ".com" == "192.").
Misconception: Names and addresses are completely independent. Many people think that *.robertgraham.com might map to all the addresses under 192.0.2.*.
Analogy: What is your phone number? If I asked you this, you might give me both your home number and your cell phone number. I can reach you at either one. In much the same way, the a domain name like www.yahoo.com can have multiple IP addresses. Every time you visit that site, you might go to a separate IP address. You can test this out yourself. Go to the command-line and type "ping www.yahoo.com". Notice how it comes back with an IP address that it pings. After that runs, try it again. Notice how the second time it is pinging a different IP address.
Key point: Dumpster diving is generally legal, as long as you are not trespassing.
Culture: Wasn't really part of the hacker vernacular until the 1995 movie Hackers.
Culture: This word finds itself mangled in many variations: leet, 1337, 31337, etc.
Statistics: Ira Winkler, former analyst at the NSA and now write, estimates that as of 1999, that there are roughly 500 to 1000 "elite" hackers capable of finding new security holes, and roughly 5000 hackers capable of creating exploit scripts. (He further estimates about 100,000 script kiddies).
Key point: Encryption has massive philosophical implications. Widespread use of encryption means that people can hide their data from governments (especially repressive ones) and law enforcement (especially when you are committing a crime).
Contrast: Asymmetric encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption. Since the most useful form of this is one you keep one key private and make the other public, this is better known as public key encryption. In contrast, symmetric encryption uses the same key for both encryption and decryption.
Example: Some algorithms popular in cryptography are: DES, rc4
Example: Some popular applications that use encryption are: PGP
Example: Some protocols that use encryption are: SSL, IPsec
Analogy: For example, one company provide software that another company sells imbedded in their hardware. The second company (the OEM) is scared that the first company might go out of business, so requests that the first company put the source code for the software in escrow. Should the first company go out of business, the second company would still be able to sell their product.
Key point: Law enforcement is constantly pushing for key escrow where a third party holds back-door keys to all encryption products. Law enforcement would then be able to obtain these keys with a court order into order to decrypt messages or eavesdrop on communications. They first propose a variant of the two-person rule in order to prevent abuse of the system. Note that the general problem is called key recovery (in which law enforcement can recover the key using some means); key escrow is just one way of doing key recovery.
Key point: The need to exchange keys is the reason encryption protocols are not secure. There is an absolutely secure encryptiong method called a one-time-pad. However, in practice, you cannot exchange vast quantities of one-time-pads.
Key point: PKI essentially solves the key exchange problem.
Culture: Exploits, or "exploitz", are the root of the hacker culture. Hackers gain fame by discovering an exploit. Others gain fame by writing scripts for it. Legions of script-kiddies apply the exploit to millions of systems, whether it makes sense or not.
Controversy: There is no good definition for this word. It is debated a lot trying to define exactly what is, and is not, an exploit.
Key point: Since people make the same mistakes over-and-over, exploits for very different systems start to look very much like each other. Most exploits can be classified under major categories: buffer overflow, directory traversal, defaults, samples, Denial of Service
Key point: The problem is that TCP/IP knows no boundaries. When a user tells the system to share files with the rest of the familly, the user is not quite aware that this means the files are shared with the rest of the Internet. This means that anybody, anywhere on the Internet can at any time connect to the machine and read/write files. To see if somebody has accidentally shared their hard-disk, right-hand-mouse-click on "Network Neighborhood" in Windows, select "Find Computer...", then type in that user's IP address.
Key point: File and Print Sharing used the SMB protocol over NetBIOS on TCP port 139.
Example: The following shows the output of the command "finger firstname.lastname@example.org":
Login: rob Name: Robert David Graham Directory: /home/rob Shell: /bin/bash On since Fri Dec 3 18:13 (PST) on ttyp0 from gemini No mail. No Plan
Key point: The finger command reveals extensive information. For example, if I were attacking the above machine, I would notice that the user is running bash Therefore, I might try something like http://rh5.robertgraham.com/~rob/.bash_history against the user, which in about 1% of the cases will give me a history file of recent commands they've entered, which might contain passwords and such.
A firewall acts as a "choke point". Corporations setup firewalls between their internal networks and the Internet. All traffic between the corporation and the Internet flows through the firewall. It acts as a "gate" with virtual guards that examines the traffic, and decided whether to allow it or block it.
Misconception: Many people believe that a firewall makes your network immune to hacker penetration. Firewalls have no ability to decide for themselves whether traffic is hostile or benign. Instead, the administrator must program the firewall with rules as to what type of traffic to allow or deny. This is similar to a guard checking badges at a gate: the guard can only detect if the badge is allowed/denied, but cannot detect impersonations or somebody climbing the fence in the back.
Key point: Firewalls are based on the principle of blocking everything by default and only allowing those things that are absolutely necessary.
Key point: Firewall administrators are frequently at odds with their management. Executives are frequently frustrated by things that don't work in the network. They don't understand how difficult it is to secure each new application, or the increased risks involved.
Controversy: A lot of time is wasted on trying to come up with the exact definition of the word "firewall", usually by marketing flaks or nerds with attitude. The term isn't well defined. In my definition above, I chose the language explicitly to hilite the fact that firewalls do not have the ability to determine "right from wrong" (like an intrusion detection system), but instead simply closes off most Internet access in the hopes that it closes unknown holes in the network.
Misunderstanding: A common question posed is "what is the best firewall?". This question comes from the belief that a firewall is a magical device that you plug into your network in order to stop hackers. Instead, a firewall is a device that isolates your network from the rest of the Internet.
Example: Ethernet supports a maximum packet size of 1500 bytes. Therefore, in order to send an IP packet of 2000 bytes, the system must first fragment the packet into two pieces before transmission. The other end will then reassemble them back into a single packet on the other end.
Contrast: The general concept of fragmentation applies to all layers of the protocol stack. For example, ATM has a maximum frame size of 48-bytes, which is too small and inefficient for any purpose if higher layers had to deal with it. Therefore, the ATM adapter itself handles the fragmentation and presents a "virtual" interface that allows a full 64-kilobyte packet to be sent without IP level fragmentation. Conversely, when reading files from a file server, even a 64-kilobyte packet size is too small, so the file server layer automatically requests smaller parts of the file. In some cases, applications will attempt to calculate the MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) of the connection in order to optimize operations to avoid any IP fragmentation.
Key point: IP fragmentation is slow, and is better handled either below the IP layer (like ATM) or above it (like in the application layer).
Key point: Fragmentation and reassembly is difficult to program right. Therefore, there are numerous ways to hack this feature. Some attacks are:
Key point: Most network-based intrusion detection systems do not reassemble packets. Therefore, a hacker can use something like fragrouter in order to evade the IDS.
Key point: Fragmentation is almost never needed. Most communication runs over TCP, which does its own "segmentation" which is more efficient. Therefore, if you see any fragmentation on your network, you should examine it closely to see if it indicates an attack.
Key point: FTP uses an outgoing control connection that only sends commands to the server and receives returned status information. All data is transfered on separate connections (one connection for each file or directory transfered).
Key point: The control connection is text based, so you can use Telnet or netcat as your client (if you understand the protocol).
Key point: Before the web (and graphical browsers) people used command-line versions of FTP. These are still prefered by hackers, becauase GUIs are often too "noisy" (generating unnecessary commands). Such command-line clients that are still included in virtually all UNIX or Windows systems.
Key point: These separate connections are created by sending a PORT command across the control connection. This command accepts both and IP address as well as port number that tells the other side where to connect. Example: PORT 192,2,0,201,10,1 is the string sent across the control connection to tell the server that the client has opened a port on the machine with the IP address 184.108.40.206 with port 2561. The server will then open up a TCP connection as intructed. This command is sent invisibly when the client requests a directory listing or file; all the client sees of this happening is a status message to the effect 200 PORT command successful. which is sent back across the control connection. A neat hack is to specify somebody else's IP address in this command. This hack is called a bounce attack, and can be used to port scan computers or subvert trust relationships.
Key point: An outgoing connection is used for control, but the data is sent on an incoming connection. Firewalls block incoming connections. Therefore, a user will see that they can connect to the FTP server, but directory listings and file transfers don't work.
Key point: In order to solve the incoming connection problem, FTP supports a mode called PASV that forces all connections to be outgoing. Web-browsers like IE and Netscape use PASV mode by default. Command-line FTP clients typically don't support PASV; but people try "quote PASV" commands anyway.
Key point: Lots of FTP servers have buffer overflow exploits in them.
Analogy: If someone steals your bank card, they cannot sit in front of the cash machine and guess all possible PIN numbers. After a certain number of unsuccessful tries, the bank machine will "eat" the card.
Key point: Secure systems (UNIX, Windows NT) lock out accounts after a certain number of unsuccessful tries. These lock-outs can either be temporary (and restore themselves automatically), or permanent until an administrator intervene and unlocks the account.
Key point: Non-secure systems (Win9x and many software applications) do not lock out accounts. For example, if you have Win9x "File and Print Sharing" turned on and protected with a password, a hacker can try continuously and invisibly to gain access to your machine. Nothing is logged, nothing is locked out.
History: The word comes from the book Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert Heinlein. This was a popular counter-culture book in the 1960s, and is a popular Science Fiction book today.
Key point: One of the precepts of Zen philosophy is that the important concepts of life cannot be described by words, and therefore there exists no written description to the path of enlightenment. Grokking means to understand something at a level beyond what mere words can express.
Key point: There are three levels of understanding, which can be illustrated by looking at a cars engine. At the first level, people look at all the parts and say to themselves "This is unnecessarily complicated, I'm sure there is a way we can remove many of these parts and make it simpler". Probably 99% of the population approaches life in this manner. The second level is an engineer who understands how the engine works, and how the various parts work together in the ingeneous fashion that they do. This engineer understands that this the simplest way to produce an engine, and that it has reached this stage after years of being perfected by countless engineers. At the third level is the godlike engineer that understands how to remove one part in order to make the engine even simpler. In this analogy, the engine is the computer. Likewise, the Internet is populated by script-kiddies who are constantly searching for ways to learn about hacking without being bothered by all the unnecessary complexity.
Key point: The failure to grok is often due to failure to understand the correct abstractions. Understanding a thing requires understanding the context in which that thing lives. If one cannot step out of a traditional context in order to regard a thing within the proper context, one cannot grok it. For example, many people have trouble grok the layering of network protocol because the only can only see what the protocols due for them, not what the protocols due in general. Therefore, when they look at protocols, all they see is large amounts of inscrutable unnecessary complexity.
Consider Arthur C. Clark's Third Law: "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic". Since normal people have no clue as to how computers work, they often view hackers with suspicion and awe (as magicians, sorcerers, witches, and warlocks). This suspicion leads to the word "hacker" having the connotation of someone up to no good.
History: The word "hacker" started out in the 14th century to mean somebody who was inexperienced or unskilled at a particular activity (such as a golf hacker).
In the 1970s, the word "hacker" was used by computer enthusiasts to refer to themselves. This reflected the way enthusiasts approach computers: they eschew formal education and play around with the computer until they can get it to work. (In much the same way, a golf hacker keeps hacking at the golf ball until they get it in the hole).
Furthermore, as "experts" learn about the technology, the more they realize how much they don't know (especially about the implications of technology). When experts refer to themselves as "hackers", they are making a Socratic statement that they truely know nothing. For more information on this connotation, see There is still a large community of enthusiasts who use this word with only that connotation, such as in ESR's "Hacker Dictionary".
Key point: Today if you do a quick search of "hacker" in a search engine, you will still occasional uses of the word in senses used in the 1400s and 1970s, but the overwhelming usage in the 1990s describes people who break into computers using their sorcerous ways. Likewise, the vast majority of websites with the word "hack" in their title refer to illegitimate entry into computer systems, with notable exceptions like http://www.hacker.com (which refers to golf).
Controversy: The computer-enthusiast community often refers to any malicious hacker as a "cracker". The security-community restricts the use of the word "cracker" to some who breaks encryption and copy-protection schemes.
Consequently, a journalist who writes about cybercriminals cannot use either word without hate mail from the opposing community claiming they are using the word incorrectly. If a journalists writes about hackers breaking into computers, they will receive hate-mail claiming that not all hackers are malicious, and the that the correct word is "cracker". Likewise, if they write about crackers breaking into computers, they will receive hate-mail claiming that crackes only break codes, but its hackers who break into systems. The best choice probably depends upon the audience; for example one should definately talk about malicious crackers in a computer-enthusiast magazine like "Linux Today".
Example: The program "tripwire" detects intrusions by calculating a hash of all programs. On a regular basis, it recalculates the hash. If a file has changed, then tripwire will detect a change in the hash. Therefore, one of the first things hackers will do when breaking into a system is to search for such processes running. (Simply looking for the md5 program is a dead giveaway).
Key point: A hash is "one-way" or "nonreversable". This means that a hash cannot be used to recover the original data.
Key point: A typical hash creates a 128-bit value. This means that there must exist multiple messages that generate the same hash. However, while this can happen in theory, we pretend it can't happen in practice. This is less likely to happen than an asteroid colliding with the Earth destroying all life within the next 100 years.
Key point: Another word for "hash" is message digest.
Key point: The MD5 (Message Digest 5) is the most popular hashing algorithm at this point.
Example: The following quote describes a social engineering attack:
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy has a few things to say on the subject of towels.
A towel, it says, is about the most massively useful thing an interstellar hitchhiker can have. Partly it has great practical value. You can wrap it around you for warmth as you bound across the cold moons of Jaglan Beta; you can lie on it on the brilliant marble-sanded beaches of Santraginus V, inhaling the heady sea vapors; you can sleep under it beneath the stars which shine so redly on the desert world of Kakrafoon; use it to sail a miniraft down the slow heavy River Moth; wet it for use in hand-to-hand combat; wrap it round your head to ward off noxious fumes or avoid the gaze of the Ravenous Bugblatter Beast of Traal (a mind-bogglingly stupid animal, it assumes that if you can't see it, it can't see you-daft as a brush, but very very ravenous); you can wave your towel in emergencies as a distress signal, and of course dry yourself off with it if it still seems to be clean enough.
More importantly, a towel has immense psychological value. For some reason, if a strag (strag: nonhitchhiker) discovers that a hitchhiker has his towel with him, he will automatically assume that he is also in possession of a toothbrush, washcloth, soap, tin of biscuits, flask, compass, map, ball of string, gnat spray, wet-weather gear, space suit, etc., etc. Furthermore, the strag will then happily lend the hitchhiker any of these or a dozen other items that the hitchhiker might accidentally have "lost." What the strag will think is that any man who can hitch the length and breadth of the Galaxy, rough it, slum it, struggle against terrible odds, win through and still know where his towel is, is clearly a man to be reckoned with.
Hence a phrase that has passed into hitchhiking slang, as in "Hey, you sass that hoopy Ford Prefect? There's a frood who really knows where his towel is." (Sass: know, be aware of, meet, have sex with; hoopy: really together guy; frood: really amazingly together guy.)
Key point: The answer to life, the universe, and everything is 42.
Example: ISPs generally reassign IP addresses of dialing users very quickly after a previous user hung up. Take for example where Alice dials up the Internet, telnets to a host, then for some reason hangs up without gracefully closing the connection. Now consider Mark, who dials-up later and is assigned the same IP address. Let's say that Mark has created his own TCP/IP stack that automatically hijacks any existing connection. The server then sends some response packet back across the connection to Alice (really Mark). At that point, Mark's stack automatically picks up the connection and continues the protocol. At this point, Mark can do anything he wants on Alice's account.
Example: Similar to above, hackers often hijack connections by first nuking one end of the connection, then spoofing that side's IP address.
Example: Spammers scour the Internet looking for open USENET NNTP servers. If they find a server they can post floods of spam through, this is known as "hijacking" the server.
Misconception: A common misconception is that by advertising the system or inviting hackers in causes you to lose all rights to prosecute the hacker. Honeypots do not advertise themselves nor invite hackers. They simply sit on the network waiting to be discovered and hacked. If a hacker doesn't search them out, they won't find them. Similarly, honeypots can contain legal notices in their banners telling hackers to go away.
Culture: The term is an outgrowth of the older abbreviation "h/p" (hack/phreak).
Key point: HTTP is text based, so you can use Telnet or netcat as your client (if you understand the protocol). For example, you can telnet www.example.com 80 to connect to a web-service and enter the command GET / HTTP/1.0<cr><cr> in order to download the home page.
Misconception: Packet filtering firewalls work by filtering source/destination ports in the TCP and UDP transport protocols. However, as a secondary function, they also filter ICMP type and code numbers. They frequently map these to where UDP and TCP have port fields in both the configuration step and the output logs. These concepts are unrelated, however.
Contrast: A host-based IDS monitor system events, logfiles, and so forth. A network-based IDS monitors network traffic, usually promiscuously.
Key point: At the end of 1999, all freshly installed IIS v4.0 servers were vulnerable to the .htr buffer overflow bug and the RDO exploit. Roughly 90% of IIS servers are not sufficiently hardened against these exploits, and are thus vulnerable to being owned or defaced.
Key point: IMAP is important to hackers because many implementations are vulnerable to buffer overflow exploits. In particular, a popular distribution of Linux shipped with a vulnerable IMAP service that was enabled by default. Therefore, even today, security professionals frequently detect scans directed at port 143 looking for vulnerable IMAP servers.
Key point: The following are useful resources to such a team:
The file /etc/inetd.conf configures this service.
See also: buffer overflow, directory traversal
Key point: All data on the Internet is carried by IP packets.
Key point: IP is an unreliable datagram protocol, meaning that routers may sometimes drop packets during congestion. A protocol like TCP must be added to IP in order to track packets and resend them if necessary.
Key point: The ability to manipulate IP headers by programs is limited, so there are few defenses against such techniques. Many hacks rely upon low-level manipulation of headers.
Key point: The IP header is shown below. Since IP is carried across a link between router-router or host-router, link headers like Ethernet, PPP, etc. may come before this header. Likewise, the payload of the IP packet comes after this header.
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ |Version| IHL |Type of Service| Total Length | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ | Identification |Flags| Fragment Offset | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ | Time to Live | Protocol | Header Checksum | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ | Source Address | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ | Destination Address | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ | Options | Padding | +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|This 4-bit field always has a value of "0100" (binary) or "4" decimal. Many plan to replace IPv4 with the much more complex IPv6 in order to solve addressing and security issues.|
(Initial Header Length)
|Indicates the length of the IP header. The length of the header is always "20-bytes" unless options are present.|
|Type of Service |
|Not really used, the ToS field gives hints to the router how the packet should be routed. The typical example is a connection between Las Angeles and New York where a router can choose to send the packet across a low-speed land-line (dial-up) vs. a high-speed satellite connection. The latency for a land-line is a few milliseconds, whereas a satellite can be about a second. Therefore, you want the low-latency for interactive connections like Telnet, but you want the high badwidth for connections like FTP. Since this field isn't really used that much, hackers can use it as a covert channel.|
The total length of the IP datagram once the packet has been reassembled.
A unique ID number for the entire packet. All fragments of a packet
carry the same ID.
Key point: Tracking the ID field over time can help fingerpint the OS.
Key point: Some systems use monotonically increasing IDs, so you monitor activity on a remote machine by pinging it on a regular basis.
Key point: A covert channel can be created by encapsulating information in this field.
There are two flags that control fragmentation.
The DF (Don't Fragment) bit
tells routers not to fragment this packet. The MF (More Fragments) bit
indicates that this is not the last fragment in the packet.
Key point: You can evade network-based IDS sometimes by careful use of the DF bit and oversized packets that must be fragmented.
The offset from the start of the original packet that this fragment starts.
Key point: The Ping-of-Death exploit resulted by combining a fragment offset plus fragment length in order to exceed the maximum IP packet size.
|Time to Live |
This field indicates how many hops (routers) the packet can pass through
before being discarded. Each router who forwards the packet decrements
this field by one. When a router decrements the field to zero, it
assumes a routing loop has occurred and sends back an ICMP
message back to the sender.
Key point: Abuse of the TTL field, after fragmentation is the most useful technique for manipulating IP headers. In addition, it is easy to manipulate this field at the sockets layer.
Key point: The traceroute program finds all the routers in the path to a target by sending out many packets with varying TTL fields. This causes every router to receive a TTL in one of the packets that it zeroes out, causing it to report its existance back to traceroute.
Key point: Tracerouting through firewalls is sometimes possible by adjusting the TTL of TCP replies.
This field indicates the next protocol header after the IP header. Examples
are a value of 1 for ICMP, 6 for TCP,
and 17 for UDP.
Key point: Some rootkits use this as a way of invisibly transporting data since most systems cannot detect or log unknown protocols at this layer.
The IP address of who sent the packet. This is included
in every packet so that the destination knows who to respond to, and any
errors can likewise be sent back to the sender.
Key point: The IP address can be forged (spoofed). This can sometimes be useful despite the fact that it causes any responses to be sent back to the spoofed IP address rather than the real sender.
|The IP address of where the packet is going to. Each router along the way compares this IP address to internal routing tables in order to figure out which direction to forward the packet.|
Additional options that can affect how the packet is routed. Multiple options
can be specified.
Key point: 99.999% of all IP packets have no options. Some IDSs trigger simply whenever they see an option field.
Key point: The most common option used for attacks is source routing.
|An IP headers must be aligned on even 32-bit boundaries, which may sometimes require nul bytes to be added.|
Key point: The IP address shows up inadvertently in many communications. By examing the details of e-mail headers, you can usually find the IP address that somebody sent e-mail from -- even if the user is behind a firewall. This a common way that sui dissant hackers are caught: they attempt to use anonymous e-mail services to send mail, only to be caught by the inclusion of their IP address in the headers.
Key point: IPsec's main use today is when tunneling traffic for VPNs. It can also work for generic encryption of data between two hosts.
History: This was the name for the U.S. military campaign during WW-II in order to take over islands closer and closer to the enemy, using each new island as a base from which to launch further attacks.
Key point: University systems, which are based upon the idea of openess and free sharing, are a hot-bed of compromised systems from which hackers launch attacks. Increasingly, home user machines attached to DSL lines and cable-modems are being compromised and used to launch attacks from.
Contrast: People are confused as to the difference between a key and a password. The obvious difference is that a password is a variable number of characters typed in by the user, whereas a key is a fixed-length binary value that that the user never sees. This begs the question: how do I decrypt the file with my key if it is a binary value I never see? The first answer is that a password is often converted into a key by taking a hash of the password. In more complex (and more common) cases, please read the section on "public keys"
Contrast: There are two types of keys: symmetric and asymmetric (aka public/private key).
Contrast: A common question deals with the difference between 40-bit
and 128-bit encryption in web browsers like Netscape. The answer is that
the most obvious way to break the encryption and read the plain text
is to simply try all possible keys. A 40-bit key has
roughly one trillion (
Key point: Moore's Law breaks all cryptosystems, eventually. This, and only this, is why DES has become obsolete. Note: 40-bit and 128-bit keys refers to the RC4 algorithm used within web-browsers to talk to web servers via SSL. The U.S. restricts export of all software whose keys are greater than 40-bits in order to be able to spy on foreigners (ostensibly only in a military engagement).
Key point: Keys are generally just "session keys". This means they are dynamically generated at the beginning of a session, and exchanged with the partner using PKI
Key point: Once keystrokes are logged, they are shipped raw to the hacker. The hacker then peruses them carefully in the hopes of either finding passwords, or possibly other useful information that could be used to compromise the system or be used in a social engineering attack. For example, a key logger will reveal the contents of all e-mail composed by the user.
Key point: Keylog programs are commonly included in rootkits and remote access trojans.
Key point: You can also purchase hardware devices that plugin between the keyboard and the main system (for PCs). These are OS independent, they simply start recording, then the hacker can retrieve the device and instruct it to simply spit out all the characters back again on the hackers system.
Contrast: Without known plaintext, key cracking is only a little bit more difficult. Running heuristics on the output of the decryption engine makes the decryption several times harder, but when you think about this, it only means that making it four times harder is only equivelent to adding 2 bits to the key length.
Key point: Most messages contain "headers" that represent known-plaintext. IP packets all have similar headers. E-mail message all contain the same fields. Therefore, there is a fair amount of implicit plaintext that is known even when a decrypted sample of the message doesn't exist.
Example: System administrators typically have multiple accounts with different rights. For example, when I'm logged in as a normal user, I do not have rights to administor my own machine. I must login as a separeate account in order to do such things, then log out as soon as I'm done.
Key point: This often means that both sides of a connection really need to authenticate themselves. For example, when you log into a server, you really want to be assured it is the real server you are talking to, rather than Mark who is forwarding your requests to the real server using your identity.
The idea is that the power of the Internet is not simply all the websites that you can access (linear), but the power represented by everyone else also on the Internet (exponential). For example, organizations like http://www.distributed.net cannot only harnass lots of machines in order to tackle large problems (linear), but they also can exploit the word-of-mouth on the Internet to sign up (exponential). Similarly, consider the growth in sites like http://www.slashdot.org that start out as hobbiest sites, but eventually blossom into large money making ventures, tossing pre-Internet-age business philosophies on their ear.
Key point: Hacker attacks grow exponentially because more and more hackers are getting online (especially from 3rd world countries) and more and more resources (businesses) are getting online.
Key point: The amount of computing resources a hacker can tap into from his/her computer desktop is more than the combined might of all governments and militaries.
Key point: A big problem with corporations is that they do not spend enough time hardening mission critical applications, or spend too much effort on non-mission critical elements.
Key point: Every bit of key length doubles the security, making it twice as difficult to crack. However, because of Moore's Law, every year that passes makes all keys twice as easy to crack. Therefore, if it takes 1-week to break a message encrypted with a 40-bit key, it will likewise take 1-week to break a message encrypted with a 128-bit key roughly 100 years from now.
Contrast: A NAT provides some firewalling capabilities because isolates the end-nodes while still providing access to the Internet. The isolation is better than packet-filter firewalls, but not as good as proxies.
Misconception: Like sockets, many different protocols can be used to transport applications written to the NetBIOS API. When you say "NetBIOS", some people will understand you to mean the TCP/IP transport. Other people will think of "NetBEUI", which is the transport over raw Ethernet without any intervening routable network protocol. Use the term "NBT" (NetBIOS-over-TCP) or "NetBEUI" to avoid confusion.
Contrast: Microsoft's "File and Print Sharing" uses the SMB protocol over NetBIOS. Microsoft supports the NetBIOS interface over TCP/IP, NetBEUI, and Novell's IPX/SPX. Home users who share files among their own machines mistakenly enable File and Print Sharing using the TCP/IP transport, allowing hackers anywhere on the Internet access to their machine. Instead, they should configure it over the NetBEUI transport so that nobody outside their network can access their files (note: this still might open up their networks to people on the same cable-modem VLAN).
Key point: Hardened WinNT computers should use NTFS exclusively. After installation, some file and directory permissions need to be adjusted.
Key point: NTFS supports a feature called "alternate datastreams" (similar to Macintosh data and resource forks) that can be used to attach data to files in a hidden way. The additional information does not appear to change the size of the file in directory listings.
Example: Many people put their POP3 service at a different port than port 110 as a way to foil attacks against that port. However, a simple port scan reveals this port, and the banner reveals what service is running at that port.
Key point: The security landscape is littered with foolish people who try short-cuts around the tried-and-true techniques.
Key point: Obscuring information always helps security. The only question is whether it is your prime security defense, or an adjunct to it.
Key point: Do the math: if you obscure things such that a successful attack is 99% less likely, this means 10 out of a thousand attacks will succeed. In general, hackers have the resources to through billions of attacks against an obstacle: it's just automated computer time and network traffic.
Key point: If one-time pads are unbreakable, then why aren't they used? The major problem is how one distributes the one-time pads to all the receivers. This can be done in some cases, such as sending out CD-ROMs full of random bits with soldiers on the battle-fields, but it becomes unwieldy for normal uses of cryptography.
Key point: OSPF can easily be subverted by "local" hackers. This means that hacker generally has to be within network area he/she wishes to subvert. The hacker will either pretend to be a router, or spoof packets from nearby routers. The most common technique is to "advertise" false information (spoof Link State Advertisements (LSA)).
Culture: To control completely. A machine broken into and under completely under control of the hacker is "owned".
See also: attitude
Analogy: Imagine looking at an automobile freeway during rush hour from an airplane. The freeway looks like a flowing river, but each individual car (packet) is really independent from all the others. While it looks like the cars on the freeway are going in the same direction, each car really has its own source and destination separate from the others around it. This is how Internet core routes look.
Analogy: Now consider that a bunch of coworkers leave the office and go to a party. Each gets in his/her own car and drives to the party. Each person may take a slightly route, but they all end up together at the party. This demonstrates how data is broken up into individual packets, sent across the Internet (potentially following different routes), then reassembled back again at the destination.
Key point: Conceptually, networking occurs at abstract layers well above the concept of packets. Users type in a URL, and the file is downloaded. By dealing with the raw packets themselves, hackers are frequently able to subvert communications in ways not detectable at these higher layers.
Contrast: The term "packet switched network (PSN)" is used to describe the Internet, whereas the term "circuit switched network (CSN)" is used to contrast it with the traditional phone system. The key difference is that in the phone system, the route between two people is setup at the start, and each bit in the stream follows that route. On the Internet, each packet finds its own route through the system, so during a conversation, the packets can follow different paths, and indeed arrive out-of-order. Another key difference is latency. The phone system forwards each bit one at a time, so as soon as one arrives, it doesn't have to wait before forwarding it on. On the Internet, bits are bunched together before transmission. Each hop must wait and receive all the bits before forwarding any of them on. Each hop therefore adds a significant amount of delay. Gamers know this as the "ping" time.
Key point: There are other technologies that use packets, not just the Internet. Before the Internet came along, X.25 networks were a popular form of packet-based communication (and indeed, X.25 formed the basis for many links on the nascent Internet).
Key point: The most important defensive mechanism that a corporation can take is to create and enforce policies about proper password usage.
Key point: A leading cause of compromise are programs that leave behind default passwords. A leading cause of compromise are users who choose weak passwords that can easily be guessed or cracked.
Tools: The crack programs can be used to maintain a strong policy>
Tools: On Windows NT, the "passflt.dll" and "passprop.exe" tools can be used to enforce strong passwords.
Misconception: People used to believe that a good password was a random mix of UPPER and lower case, numbers, and punctuation. However, this generates passwords that are impossible for users to remember, so they find ways around the restriction, such as writing passwords down on Post-It notes. Therefore, somebody can compromise the network by simply looking for Post-It notes (such as pasted to the bottom of a keyboard).
Controversy: Many policies declare that a password must be changed frequently, and most OSes come with tools for enforcing this. However, this leads to the same problem as above: it causes pain for users, so they behave in ways that reduce security. Also, it isn't clear that it dramatically increases security.
Contrast: Passwords aren't the only authentication scheme possible. Crypto-cards are often used to generate "one-time passwords" or challenge-response authentication.
Tip: Use a PalmPilot and a crypt program to store your many passwords.
See also: grind, crack, password cache, 8-character password.
Key point: All systems cache passwords in memory during a login session. Therefore, if a hacker can gain access to all memory on the system, he/she can likely sift the memory for passwords. Likewise, hackers can frequently sift pagefiles for passwords.
Key point: Many programs whose goal is ease-of-use will ask the user if they want to save the password on disk (in a file or registry. For example, the MS Outlook e-mail client has this feature to cache the POP3 passwords. Therefore, hackers have programs that will sift the file system or registry or these passwords. Some systems will store these cached passwords in clear-text, others attempt to encrypt the passwords, but usually this encryptiong mechanism ca be defeated.
Key point: v5 of PERL has the concept of "tainted" input that cannot be passed raw to the operating system without preprocessing. This is an amazingly useful feature that solves the majority of input validation problems in CGI scripts.
Key point: All true hackers use open-source versions of PGP to encrypt their data.
Key point: This attack has become "classic". Virtually all CGI scanners search for it, and the typical intrusion detection system will trigger on it.
Key point: It falls victim to the input validation problem in order to allow for directory traversal.
Key point: Most of the literature available on the net applies to phone systems that are 20 years old. These techniques rarely work on modern phone systems.
Key point: 2600 Hz is the frequency of the whistle that was provided in Captain Crunch cereal boxes that was also a signaling frequency for phone systems in the 1960s.
Example: The ping-of-death attack used IP fragmentation to crash systems. It was so named because the ping program built-in to Windows could be easily told to fragment packets this way.
Key point: Even though the ping program is simple, it can be abused. Some versions can be commanded to send packets as fast as possible, which is often done to flood networks. Most versions allow the packet size to be set to a large size, forcing fragmentation. When used with the flood above, it can overload machines since fragmentation reassembly is so slow.
Key point: Depending upon context, plaintext can refer to the contents of a message before encryption, after it has been decrypted, or even a message that is in the "clear" and not encrypted at all.
Key point: Many networking protocol protocols use plaintext passwords that can simply be sniffed off the wire.
Example: A specification stating that employees will not run scanning tools against the corporate network.
Key point: Nerds hate bureaucracy, and frequently resist clarifying the security stance. Policy statements are frequently useful, and small ones given to new employees help prevent a lot of problems before they start. They are also useful CYA: when an executive starts complaining about something not working through the firewall, it helps to pull out the Policy and explain that it isn't allowed.
Key point: Policy documents bring out the "process" bureaucrats who will spend hours debating the policy in order to avoid real work that they might be judged upon. As a result, many companies spend a lot of effort creating useless policy documents.
Key point: A good rule of thumb: only put things in the policy document that include a plan on how you enforce it. For example, if you say "users should choose strong passwords", include a plan on how to enforce them.
Key point: Virtually all local exploits are privilege escalation attacks.
Key point: The most common example of this attack is through setuid programs that have known bugs in them, often through buffer overflows or race conditions.
Key point: By manipulating the protocol raw themselves, hackers can do powerful things that are impossible in an application. For example, client applications typically limit the length of a username that can be typed in. By manipulating the protocol raw, hackers can supply any sized username they want, sometimes causing a buffer overflow exploit.
Key point: Protocols are either text-based or binary. Text-based protocols can be read directly off the wire and manipulated directly. Binary protocols require a protocol analyzer to decode them, and must be manipulated programmatically.
See also: See the section on "banners" for examples of what some protocols look like on the wire.
Key point: Encryption can happen at any layer.
|Payload||The data itself can be encrypted independent of the protocols used to transport it. For example, a typical use of PGP is to encrypt a message before sending via e-mail. All the e-mail programs and protocols are totally unaware that this has occurred.|
|Application Layer||Some applications have the ability to encrypt data automatically. For example, SMB can encrypt data as it goes across the wire|
|Transport Layer||SSL is essentially encryption at the transport layer.|
|Network Layer||IPsec provides encryption at the network layer, encrypting all the contents above IP, including the TCP and UDP headers themselves.|
Analogy: Consider talking to somebody who speaks a foreign language through a translator. You talk to the translator, who receives your statements, then regenerates something else completely to the other end. The translator serves as your proxy.
Key point: The communication terminates at the proxy. In other words, the proxy doesn't forward data so much as it tears it completely apart. For example, an HTTP proxy doesn't forward every request sent through it. Instead, it first examines if it already has the requested web page in its cache. If so, then it returns that page without sending another request to the destination server. Because proxies completely terminate the communication channel, they are considered a more secure firewall technology than packet filters, because they dramatically increase the isolation between the networks.
Key point: Protecting the "private key" from theft/disclosure is the most important thing any company can do. There is exist private keys whose value lie in the range of hundreds of millions if not billions of dollars (such as the key Verisign uses to sign certificates).
The private key is usually protected with strong encryption based upon a strong password. In paranoid cases, parts of the password are given to different people, so that more than one person must be present in order to recover the private key for use (note: redundancy is also used, if the the key is XYZ, then Alice knows XY, Bob knows YZ, and Charlene knows XZ, meaning that any two can unlock the private key).
The paranoid things you see in movies about high-security installations apply:
Private-keys are frequently stored on separate objects. The most common is the floppy disk, which can be inserted into a server when booted, but removed to a safety deposit box. Other examples include crypto-cards. (Note: when you get a certificates from a CA, they usually require that the private-key never be stored on a computer).
Servers that must use private keys must employ heavy countermeasures:
Key point: Most software-based random number generators are not cryptographicly secure. As a result, many cryptosystems have been broken by attacking the generator of session keys. Versions of Netscape and Microsoft browsers have been broken this way.
Key point: Modern computers come with hardware-based random number generators that base their seeds upon electronic noise. This solves the problem of the impossibility of pure-software random number generators of being truely random.
Key point: Software random number generators cannot be perfectly random, so they are called pseudo random number generators (PRNG). Because they cannot generate perfectly random numbers, they usually query the user for some random seed information when they startup. For example, when you install PGP, you type at the keyboard some random text. The program measures the time spacing between keystrokes, then saves that information in a file. That file then serves as the seed information for future cryptographic purposes. For the most part, such seeds are considered strong enough for cryptographic purposes because they represent more bits of information used in most keys. *
Key point: Software random number generators generally start with a single seed from which all other numbers are generated.
Key point: The output of hash or encryption algorithms produce what appears to be random data. In fact, their security depends upon this. The goal of cryptanalysis is to hunt deep within the data for patterns. As a byproduct, this also means that cryptographic algorithms can also be used as a random number generator.
Contrast: A trojan is any program with a hidden intent. A RAT is one whose hidden intent is to remotely control the machine. In particular, once the program is run and installs itself as a hidden background service, it ceases to a trojan in the classic sense and is now better thought of as a rootkit.
Example: Back Orifice, NetBus, SubSeven, Hack'a'tack
Contrast: A remote access trojan is not a virus. The general populace uses the word virus to apply to any hostile program a hacker might use. Normally, being a purist using the correct word is futile, but in this case the distinction is important. You catch viruses accidentally, and the virus rarely does anything hostile to your system. Conversely, when a hacker attempts to infect your system with a remote access trojan, the hacker is attacking you personally.
Key point: Infections by remote access Trojans on Windows machines are becoming as frequent as viruses. One common vector is through File and Print Sharing, when home users inadvertently open up their system to the rest of the world. If a hacker has access to the hard-drive, he/she can place the trojan in a location known as the "startup" folder. This will run the trojan the next time the user logs in. Another common vector is when the hacker simply e-mails the trojan to the user along with a social engineering hack that convinces the user to run it against their better judgement.
Key point: On WinNT machines, the registry can often be remotely accessed. Some portions can even be read without a password.
Key point: Many programs cache passwords in the registry, often in clear-text or only slightly obfuscated.
Key point: Trojan horses often place themselves in a "Run/RunService" registry entry in order to be automatically launched on the next reboot. Double-check these entries in order to improve the security of your system.
Analogy: Create a file on the disk called "rob.txt" containing the word "foo". Open the file in an editor and add the word "bar". However, before saving the file open it again in another editor and add the word "baz". Now save the first file, then save the second file, and exit both editors. The file now contains "foo baz", and the changes for "bar" are completely lost. Note: this may not work for you, because some editors check for this condition so that you can't make a mistake.
Key point: It is the most popular cipher used in secure web connections via SSL.
Key point: RC4 supports variable length keys, but US restrictions limit it to 40-keys when US companies export products using RC4.
Key point: RC4 was a trade secret until somebody reverse engineered it and posted the source code on the net. It isn't patented. Therefore, RSA is trying to move all its customers to RC5, which is both patented and copyrighted.
Key point: In order to promote RC5, RSA conducts contests that pay people if they can crack it. The first contest used a 56-bit key, took 212 days to crack by http://www.distributed.net/ using a total of roughly 1-million computers trying all possible 35,000,000,000,000,000 combinations. The message was "It is time to move to a longer key length.", and it was encrypted using the key 0x532B744CC20999.
Key point: This allows a spammer with a dial-up account to send e-mail as fast as a high-speed Internet connection, since it is the victim who breaks apart the recpient list and sends each person a separate copy. Therefore, one e-mail goes into the server, thousands come out.
Key point: Relaying can be turned off in the e-mail server configuration. Such configuration will force the server to accept either incoming mail, or outgoing mail, but not incoming e-mail destined back out to the Internet. There are several sites on the Internet that will scan your corporate e-mail server to see if will relay spam.
Resource: Paul Vixie's MAPS http://maps.vix.com/ (MAPS is SPAM spelled backwards).
Analogy: In the 1992 movie Sneakers, the victim uses a voice identification system. Therefore, the heros record the voice of one of the victim's employees, edit it with a computer, then play it back into the voice recognition system.
Key point: It seems the first generation of any security architecture is vulnerable to replay attacks. For example, IPsec was original vulnerable to some replay attacks, even though it had provisions against the most obvious ones.
Key poitn: The anti-replay remedy is to include a timestamp with a message. This then implies that everyone needs to have their clocks synchronized in order to communicate correctly.
Key point: The resource kits contain numerous tools to help system administration. Therefor, these tools are extremely useful for hacking. Any hacker interested in compromising Windows has a copy of the Resource Kit.
Key point: These tools aren't "dangerous". They don't provide any capabilities that hackers couldn't program for themselves. These tools are useless against secured systems.
Key point: The term can be used as a verb. To "root" machine is to break in and obtain root privileges, and their own the machine.
Key point: A rootkit contains many trojaned programs. These programs are used to allow the hacker entry back into the system and to hide the presence of the hacker. For example, a trojaned "ps" command might hide the hacker's sniffer daemon from appearing in the process list. Alternatively, the hacker might trojan an existing daemon like inetd to run a background sniffer.
Key point: The most important trojaned programs are those that deal with gaining access back into the system with a special password. Therefore, trojaned versions of login daemon, su, or telnetd are needed.
Key point: Rootkits often contain setuid programs that normal users can run in order to elevate their privileges to root. Look for these in order to see if your system has been hacked.
Culture: Also called "daemon kits".
Key point: RSA forms the basis for X.509 certificates in web servers and browsers.
Key point: RSA Security charges a hefty license to use the RSA algorithm. However, the patent expires in September of the year 2000. At that time, the number of products using the RSA algorithm are likely to explode.
Key point: An alternative to RSA is the "Diffie-Hellman" algorithm. This is used in many cases, but it is hampered by the fact that many products that could use it (like Netscape and Microsoft browsers) do not; for interoperability you often need to use RSA over DH.
See also: defaults
Key point: Elite hackers write scripts, script-kiddies run scripts.
Misconception: A lot of "scripts" are written in scripting languages like PERL, but a lot are distributed in C/C++ source form as well.
Key point: In theory, setuid programs can only be installed by root, and they are considered as part of the operating system, because they inherently bypass security checks and must verify security themselves. A typical example is the passwd command, which a user runs in order to change his/her password. It must be setuid, because it changes files only root has access to, but yet it must be runnable by users.
Key point: In practice, setuid programs often have bugs that can be exploited by logged in users.
Key point: As part of hardening a system, the administrator should scour the system and remove all unnecessary setuid programs. TODO: show the command to do so.
Key point: Some programs are really setguid which only changes the group context rather than the user context.
Key point: Windows doesn't have the concept of setuid. Instead, RPC is used whereby client programs (run by users) contact server programs to carry out the desired task. For example, in order to change the password, the client program asks the SAM to do it on behalf of the user. Thus, whereas UNIX requires a myriad of client programs to verify credentials and be written securely, Windows only requires a few server programs to do the same.
Key point: In such systems, any computer on the wire can eavesdrop on its neighbors.
Contrast: Most corporations are replacing their shared media nets with switched connections.
Example: DVD movies are encrypted with a randomly generated key. This key is then is then encrypted multiple times with hundreds of different keys. Every DVD player vendor owns one of these keys and imbeds it in their device, thus allows that player to decrypt the movie. (Presumably, if one of the keys is compromised, future movies can be generated without the offending key, causing players based upon that key to become obsolete). However, there is no good way to protect these keys, even though they are in hardware. In late 1999, students in Europe where able to break one of these keys (the Xing software DVD player), and from there they were able to break the majority of the other keys. (These keys only used 40-bit encryption, so breaking one key in the software player allowed a known-plaintext attack).
Key point: This is similar to the "Command Prompt" or incorrectly named "DOS Prompt" on Windows systems.
Key point: Many systems pass filenames along with commands directly to the shell. Hackers can exploit this by sending special shell characters (like the pipe | character) as part of filenames in order to execute their own commands. This is an example of an input validation exploit. Examples of this are web-servers, PERL scripts, and CGI scripts.
Key point: The most popular shell among hackers is probably "bash", the shell from GNU that ships with Linux. (Culture: The original shell on UNIX is known as the "Bourne Shell", named for its creator. The acronym "bash" means "Bourne Again SHell", reflecting that fact that it is a rewrite of that shell).
Key point: Retrieving someones .bash_history file is a common attack against UNIX machines. Several embedded systems have shipped such that the file http://raq.robertgraham.com/~root/.bash_history could be retrieved via the web.
Key point: Marketing forces often mean that companies have to fill their products with useless signatures. Don't be impressed because one product has more signatures than another.
Key point: One of the key goals of hacking is to evade signature detection. Virus writers attempt to encypt their viruses, whereas remote hackers attempt to alter the networking protocol so that it has the same effect, but a different pattern on the wire.
Example: Microsoft's Authenticode allows application developers to sign their programs. Any alteration to the software will result in an invalid signature. Therefore, hackers can't add trojans/viruses to commercial software without it being detected.
Key point: Digital signatures only work if people check them. People rarely check signatures in e-mail or software.
History: SMB was originally developed for DOS machines. It was later upgraded so that OS/2 machines could act as servers for DOS machines. The protocol was later upgraded for Windows (Wfw = Windows for Workgroups) and Windows NT. Still later upgrades have been added for Windows 2000. This constant evolution and need for backwards compatibility has led to numerous security holes within the protocol. The most severe is the need for "LAN Manager" authentication.
Key point: SMB is an appliation layer protocol and can run over many different transports, including TCP/IP. A common problem is that home-users enable SMB over TCP/IP, allowing anybody on the Internet to access their hard-disk. They should instead install a local-only transport such as NetBEUI for SMB, which will allow file access among local machines, but not remote machines across the Internet.
Key point: Virtually all e-mail exchanged on the Internet is through SMTP.
Key point: The most common exploits for SMTP involve spammers trying to relay mail through high-speed mail servers.
Key point: You have be between the sender and the receiver in order to sniff traffic. This is easy in corporations using shared media, but practically impossible with an ISP unless you break into their building or be an employee.
Key point: Sniffers are frequently used as part of automated programs to sift information off the wire, such as clear-text passwords, and sometimes password hashes (to be crack).
Further reading: http://www.robertgraham.com/pubs/sniffing-faq.html.
Key point: The classic example is to pretend to be from a company's computer department and call up a user asking for their password. Sophisticated hacks will first try to make the victim uncomfortable (i.e. "We've detected improper use of your account..."), then offer them the opportunity to be very helpful ("I'm sure we can check this out now and not involve your boss."). The technique often works well in reverse: call up the computer support department and tell them you've lost your password. This works especially well in companies that have policies requiring you to change your password -- people forgetting passwords on really old accounts are frequent, so support departments are deluged with such requests, so it's easy to slip one past them.
Key point: Know as much about your victim as possible. If you are emulating something, try to find the answers to typical questions you will be asked.
Key point: If all else fails, try stupidity. If you are a foreigner, pretend not to speak the language well. Likewise, females have certain advantages in male-dominated cultures.
Key point: Newbies are favorite victims of social-engineering attacks in chat rooms. Hackers go after people who appear to be unsure of themselves online.
Key point: Many hackers do not consider social-engineering a "real" attack because it doesn't require extensive technical knowledge in order to pull off.
Contrast: Other interfaces programmers could use are higher-level abstractions like RPC, or lower-level "raw" interfaces like libnet.
Contrast: Sockets originally came from UNIX, but has been ported to other platforms. In particular, the "WinSock" variant for Windows includes both the UNIX-style functions as well as the Windows-style functions. It is possible to write sockets-based programs that compile for both platforms.
Key point: The name "sockets" comes from the TCP/IP term "socket". A socket is minimum information necessary needed to communication on the network: the source/destination IP address, the source/destination port, and the transport protocol (UDP or TCP).
Key point: SOCKS servers are frequently misconfigured allowing both outside and inside people to use them. This means that if a hacker wants to hide where they come from, the hacker scans the Internet for SOCKS proxies, then funnel their data through the proxies they find. When victims trace back to the hacker's IP address, they find the open SOCKS server instead.
Key point: Abuse through SOCKS servers has become so common on IRC networks that many of them (dalnet, undernet) have begun scanning clients to see if they are running an open SOCKS proxy. They deny access to anybody coming into the networks through such a proxy. Note that users can still use closed proxies (i.e. those available only to internal users).
Key point: SOCKS servers listen by default on TCP port 1080.
Real world: Most browsers support SOCKS, which you can see in the "proxy" settings configuration tab. You can download generic SOCKS clients and servers from http://www.socks.nec.com/.
Analogy: When you send a letter via normal post (snail mail), you write the recipient's name and address on the envelope. You typically also write the sender's name and address as well, so that if there is an error forwarding you letter (e.g. a stamp falls off), they know who sent the letter and can return it. However, you can easily spoof it. For example, someone I know absolutely had to send a letter, but had no stamps. So he simply put the actual recipient's name as the return address section of the envelope and dropped it into the mail box. The letter was returned to sender, which of course arrived at the intended recipient.
Misconception: Most people are interested in spoofing because they think it will allow them to hack a machine in a completely anonymous manner. It doesn't work this way. For example, Mitnick used IP spoofing in order to attack Shimomura's computers, but was caught anyway because spoofing does not truely hide the attacker. The problem is that all responses go back to the sender, so if you've spoofed the sender, you'll never see the responses. Therefore, the spoofing is useless for any normal activity. On the other hand, spoofing can still be useful in situations where seeing the response is not necessary. In the Mitnick instance, two machines trusted each other. Therefore, Mitnick was able to emulate and entire connection between the two machines by "predicting" what all the responses would be. He used this connection to open up something on the victim machine that he could then connect to normally. It was precurser scanning the and the post-spoof connection that Shimomura used to catch Mitnick.
Example: A particularly nasty form of a spoofing is TCP sequence number prediction. Theoretically, you cannot spoof any protocol based upon TCP connections. This is because both sides of a TCP connection choose their own Initial Sequence Number (ISN). In theory, this is a completely random number that cannot be guessed. In practice, it can sometimes be easily guessed. Mitnick used this technique when hacking Shimomura. As of the end of 1999, operating systems such as Linux, WinNT, and Win2k have implemented truely randmon ISNs in order to defeat this type of attack.
Example: In terms of volume of traffic, the most common use of spoofing today is smurf and fraggle attacks. These attacks spoofed packets against amplifiers in order to overload the victim's connection. This is done by sending a single packet to a broadcast address with the victim as the source address. All the machines within the broadcast domain then respond back to the victim, overloading the victim's Internet connection. Since smurfing accounts for more than half the traffic on some backbones, ISPs are starting to take spoofing seriously and have started implementing measures within their routers that verify valid source addresses before passing the packets. As a consequence, spoofing will become incresingly more difficult as time goes on.
Key point: Most of the discussion of spoofing centers around clients masquarading as somebody else. On the other hand, the reverse problem is equally worrisome: hackers can often spoof servers. For example, I post on my website that there is a serious security fix needed to protect yourself while on the web, and point you to http://www.micrsoft.com and hope that you never notice that the URL is misspelled. You would then go to that site (which would be really my server) and download the patch, which would really be a Trojan Horse that I designed in order to break into your computer. This is why server-side certificates are important: some indepdent party validates that the server isn't bogus.
Key point: As the analogy with postal mail shows, many things can be forged, not just the sender's IP address. Most spammers forge their sender's e-mail address in order to avoid all the hate mail they will receive in response. Forging your own sender e-mail address is as simple as reconfiguring your e-mail client -- anybody can do it. (However, there are more secrets to this, which mean you can still be caught by any determined person).
Key point: Web servers have a certificate signed by a trusted certificate authority (CA). This certificate allows the client and the server to generate random keys for the session and to exchange them securely (to defend against man-in-the-middle attacks). The generated random key is used to encrypt the rest of the contents of the connection, usually using RC4. U.S. export controls attempts to limit products used abroad to only 40-bits of key length, which can easily be broken.
Key point: In SSL, the server first authenticates itself with the client (a process that makes it more likely that e-commerce vendors are reputable). Therefore, if you want to set up your own SSL-based web server, you need to get a signed certificate from a CA. Furthermore, if you are outside the U.S., you will find it difficult to find one for 128-bits, though the Chaos Computer Club in Germany manages nicely.
Key point: The chief reason SSL isn't used more widely is because it creates a huge performance hit on servers due to the need to encrypt/decrypt everything. This is changing as new devices are becoming available that offloads this process. CrypoSwitch
History: SSL was originally developed by Netscape to promote e-commerce. It is also known under the IETF standard name of TLS (Transport Layer Security).
Contrast: In the 1980s, SunOS was based upon BSD. In the 1990s, Sun replaced SunOS with Solaris, a System V based operating system.
Key point: The word "SunOS" refers to SunOS version 4. The word "Solaris" refers to SunOS version 5.
Key point: The last major version of SunOS was 4.1.3, and continues to be popular (in much the same way that DOS and Win 3.1 continues to be installed on new machines). As a result, there are thousands of SunOS machines still out there that haven't been patched and which are susceptable to old exploits.
This process is generally called "swapping" or "paging". The word "swap" reflects the fact that inactive blocks of memory are being switched with active blocks from the disk. The word "paging" reflects the fact that a common name for a block of memory is "page". The name of the file on the disk that an OS uses for swapping is called the "swapfile" or "pagefile".
Key point: A lot of security depends upon the fact that memory is secure: the OS protects applications from reading other application's memory, and that when the computer is turned off, the memory is erased. Therefore, applications can safely store passwords in clear-text in memory. Swapping defeats this, because the memory pages that store the passwords may have been swapped to the disk. Someone with physical access to the machine can turn it off, steal the disk, and run the pagefile through analysis programs in order possibly retrieve passwords.
Key point: TCP is "connection oriented". This means the three-way handshake must be completed before any data can be sent across the connection. This makes IP address spoofing impossible without sequence number prediction.
Key point: TCP creates a virtual "byte stream" for applications. Therefore, applications that send/receive data must create their own boundaries, such as length encoding the data, or send text data a line at a time. However, in practice, applications do indeed send data aligned on packet boundaries. Most network-based intrusion detection systems depend upon these boundaries in order to work correctly. Therefore, they can easily be evaded by custom written scripts that misalign the data. The applications don't see any difference, but the NIDS see something completely different go across the wire that no longer matches their signatures.
Contrast: There are two transport protocols: TCP and UDP. Whereas TCP is connection-oriented, UDP is connectionless, meaning UDP-based applications are easily spoofed.
Key point: Telnet can open up a raw TCP connection to any port in order to allow a hacker to interact directly with text-based protocols.
Example: Telnet to your local SMTP using a command that looks like telnet smtp.example.com 25. The first parameter should be your own mail server, whereas the second parameter indicates which port to connect to (other than the default port 23). Now type in the text as you see it below:
HELO foo.example.com MAIL FROM: email@example.com RCPT TO: firstname.lastname@example.org DATA this data will appear in the contents of the e-mail message .This will send the indicated e-mail message with the From: and To: addresses with the indicated content.
Key point: When abusing Telnet in this fashion, you cannot see the echoed characters, nor can you edit what you type by using the backspace key. Remember that the service on the other end thinks you are a program, so you shouldn't need to see the characters you type, and you should type these characters correctly the first time.
Key point: Some intrusion detection systems, like Network ICE, character-by-character activity instead of the expected line-by-line activity.
Contrast: The netcat tool provides the same ability to open a raw TCP connection, but sends a line at a time, echoes the characters back so you can see what you type, and allows you to edit the line before sending it. It also allows you to recieve incoming connections, which might be useful when hacking FTP.
Key point: The word "van Eck monitoring" refers to the ability to remotely view a terminal/CRT from its radiation (see Phrack 44-11). Ross Anderson and Markus Kuhn have come up with an innovative technique of producing fonts that remove the high-frequency information, and thus severely reduce the ability to remotely view text on the screen.
Resources: See The Complete, Unofficial TEMPEST Information Page at http://www.eskimo.com/~joelm/tempest.html.
Misconception: Many people desfcribe TFTP as simply a trivial version of FTP. This misses the point. The purpose of TFTP is not to reduce the complexity of file transfer, but to reduce the complexity of the the underlying TCP/IP stack so that it can fit inside boot ROMs.
Key point: TFTP is almost always used with BOOTP. BOOTP first configures the device, then TFTP transfers the boot image.
Key point: Numerous systems come with unnecessary TFTP servers. Many TFTP servers have bugs, like the directory traversal problem or buffer overflows. As a consequence, many systems can be exploited with TFTP even though virtually nobody really uses it.
Key point: The word can be used as a verb. To trojan a program is to add subversive functionality to an existing program. For example, a trojaned login program might be programmed to accept a certain password for any user's account that the hacker can use to log back into the system at any time. Rootkits often contain a suite of such trojaned programs.
Key point: Users can often break into a system by leaving behind trojaned command programs in directories (like their own directory or the /tmp directory). If you copy your own ls program to the /tmp directory, and somebody else does a cd /tmp then an ls, that user will run your program with their own privileges. This is especially dangerous against root, which is why the local directory should not be part of the search path for the root account.
Example: In the movies you often see that nuclear weapons have two seperate keys in order to unlock them. The locks are placed in positions further appart than a single person can reach. The keys must be turned at the same time in order to unlock the system.
Example: Really important passwords (such as those protecting private keys) are often given in pieces -- different pieces to different people. This requires that multiple people to be present in order to log on.
Key point: There really is no "UNIX", but just various implementations designed along the same guidelines. Different versions of UNIX are more or less related, and there is extensive cross-germination of ideas, so that something good that appears in one will eventually migrate to others.
Contrast: There have been two main branches of UNIX: SVR4 (System V Release 4) and BSD (Berkeley Standard Distribution). Many security issues depend upon which base the system was derived.
Example: Sun Solaris, IBM AIX, SCO, SGI Irix, Apple A/UX, BSD, HP/UX.
Key point: UNIX is case-sensitive, whereas Windows and Macintosh are "case-insensitive" but "case-preserving". Windows has a compatibility mode that allows case-sensitivity, which can sometimes be exploited with other techniques in order to compromise the system.
Key point: The BSD branch has spawned many open-source variants, such as FreeBSD and OpenBSD. OpenBSD is considered one of the more secure versions of UNIX. Security experts spend the most time on OpenBSD in order to clean up bugs like buffer-overflows. However, in 1999, the dramatic rise of hacking and publication of bugs has led to a hightened awareness of these problems, which may lead to other systems becoming equally scoured for bugs.
How to: In order to harden UNIX, you generally do the following:
Key point: This encoding mechanism can be used to alter the signature of a hacker attack via web-based protocols. Such encoding can be used to evade detection by lightweight intrusion detection systems that are unable to "normalize" the URL.
Example: The Microsoft webserver in their ASP server-side scripts such that a hacker could append a dot to the end of the URL in order to read the script contents rather than executing the script. Microsoft created a patch, but hackers soon found they could evade the patch by URL-encoding the dot (appending a %2E to the end of the scrip rather than a dot). Examples:
|http://www.robertgraham.com/sample.asp.||Attempt to read script rather than executing it.|
|http://www.robertgraham.com/sample.asp%2E||URL-encoding in order to evade patch.|
|http://www.robertgraham.com/sample.%61sp%2E||Fruther URL-encoding in order to evade intrusion detection systems.|
Key point: The USENET Death Penalty is often applied to NNTP servers in order to stop the flood of spam. It is often applied to ISPs who allow users to send lots of spam or allow their servers to be hijacked.
Key point: Even though it is rarely used today, uucp accounts and services are often enabled on UNIX machine in such a way that they can be exploited in order to break into the machine.
Analogy: A biological virus is not a "living" thing. Instead, it is simply a strand of DNA. When it enters a living cell, it takes control of the cell forcing it to generate duplicate copies of the original DNA strand. In much the same way, a computer virus hijacks the computer forcing it to generate duplicate copies of the original virus. Computer viruses are so common because humans do not practice sufficient cyber-hygene when exchanging files.
Key point: An "anti-virus" programs scans the disks on your system hunting down those files that have signatures indicative of infected files. Since file-scanning technology is generic, most anit-virus programs also scan for other hostile content, such as trojans.
Contrast: A virus is a program that spreads itself, whereas a trojan spread by a hacker. In other words, you catch a virus because you ran some program a friend gave you. You catch a trojan because you ran some program the hacker gave you. A common phrase people make is "The hacker put a virus on my disk". What they really mean is that the hacker put some sort of hostile program (usually a remote access Trojan) which is not any sort of virus at all. While the hacker's program will indeed try to ensconce itself deeply in the system, it will not try to spread to other systems.
Key point: VPNs are used for employee-company and company-company connections.
Key point: One way that an employee can connect to a company is to put a modem in the machine and dial directly to modems inside the corporation. This is expensive due to long distance charges. But think for a moment that the employee can purchase two modems to put in the machine, and while dialed up to the corporation, the employee also dials up the Internet. This would mean that the employee has two active network connections: one to the corporation, one to the Internet. A VPN is the same thing, only the corporate connection and modem are "virtual".
Key point: Vendors claim that when the VPN is active, that the previous Internet access is disabled and all further communication goes through the corpration. Therefore, if the user wants to browse the web while the VPN is active, the user must browse through firewalls/proxies inside the corporation then back out to the web. However, this is just a bit of sleight-of-hand: while it appears to the user that normal Internet communication has been disabled, in reality it has only been "hidden": a hacker can still compromise the machine from the Internet.
Key point: VPN puts the connection on the company's internal network, inside the firewall. Therefore, if a hacker compromises someone's machine who uses VPN, then the hacker has easy access to the inside of a hardened corporate environment.
Tool: The program ToneLoc for DOS is one of the most popular among hackers for this purpose.
Key point: Many corporate desktops run PCAnywhere. This allows employees to access their desktop computers from home without the firewall-nazis blocking access. They also install PCAnywhere without those pesky passwords. Consequence: hackers who wardial often come up with PCAnywhere machines that they can easily connect to and break into companies.
Key point: Other popular applications that pick up dialup lines are Windows RAS servers, Laplink, and telnet-like terminal servers.
Key point: On Windows, trailing dots on filenames are ignored. This means the filenames "foo" and "foo." are the same. However, most applications treat these two filenames as representing different files. Hackers can sometimes exploit this difference. For example, on older versions of ISS, this could often be used to read the contents of scripts rather than running them. Being able to read the script isn't necessarily a security breach, but a hacker could use the script in order find other ways of breaking into the system.
Key point: Microsoft has obtained C2 certification for Windows NT. This doesn't mean that WinNT is more secure than other operating systems, but it does mean that WinNT has features required to harden a system according to this government specification.
Example: In the late 1980s, the Morris Worm essentially shutdown the Internet for a day. TODO
Key point: X Windows goes in the "wrong" direction. When you log into an X Windows host, the host opens a connection back to the display. As a consequence, it is very useful as a back-channel. In particular, the program xterm provides a raw command-prompt from which a hacker can interact with just as if they had telnetted to the machine.
plaintext 11100101 01110101 key 00001111 00001111 ------------------ ciphertext 11101010 01111010Moreover, XOR has the interesting property that XORing by the same pattern twice results in the original pattern:
ciphertext 11101010 01111010 key 00001111 00001111 ------------------ plaintext 11100101 01110101Therefore, you can think of XOR as an extremely weak encryption algorithm. The above example shows using XOR as a way of encrypting the original data with the 8-bit key of "00001111". Many products use this technique to obfuscate data. However, it is extremely easy to recover the original key via a known plaintext attack, as show below:
ciphertext 11101010 01111010 plaintext 11100101 01110101 ------------------ key 00001111 00001111
Key point: XOR is a common mathematical operation used in cryptographic algorithms. In fact, the only 100% secure form of encryption is XORing against a one-time pad. Also, any hash algorithm can be converted into an encryption algorithm though a clever use of XOR.
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Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...
A Friar minor and preacher, appearing in history between 1428 and 1431, whose origin and nationality are unknown. He is sometimes called the disciple of St. Bernardine of Sienna and of St. Vincent Ferrer, but probably only because, like the former, he promoted the veneration of the Holy Name of Jesus and, like the latter, announced the end of the world as near. In 1428 Richard came from the Holy Land to France, preached at Troyes, next year in Paris during ten days (16-26 April) every morning from about five o'clock to ten or eleven. He had such a sway over his numerous auditors that after his sermons the men burned their dice, and the women their vanities. Having been threatened by the Faculty of Theology on account of his doctrine — perhaps, also, because he was believed to favour Charles VII, King of France, whilst Paris was then in the hands of the English — he left Paris suddenly and betook himself to Orléans and Troyes. In the latter town he first met Bl. Joan of Arc. Having contributed much to the submission of Troyes to Charles VII, Richard now followed the French army and became confessor and chaplain to Bl. Joan. Some differences, however, arose between the two on account of Catherine de la Rochelle, who was protected by the friar, but scorned by Joan. Richard's name figures also in the proceedings against Bl. Joan of Arc in 1431; in the same year he preached the Lent in Orléans and shortly after was interdicted from preaching by the inquisitor of Poitiers. No trace of him is found after this.
DE KERVAL, Jeanne d'Arc et les Franciscains (Vanves, 1893); DEBOUT, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1905-07), I, 694-97 and passim; WALLON, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1883), 125, 200, 261.
APA citation. (1912). Richard. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13041a.htm
MLA citation. "Richard." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 13. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13041a.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Thomas M. Barrett. Dedicated to the Poor Souls in Purgatory.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. February 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, D.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.
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by Chris Woodford. Last updated: May 16, 2016.
We're so used to the idea of cars being, well, car-shaped, that we find any other body layout extraordinary. But there's no real reason why a car has to
have an engine at the front, a trunk at the back, and a passenger
compartment stuck in the middle. Nor is there any good reason why the
passenger zone—the most important part of a car for most of us—has
to take up only half the total space. Cars look the way they do
largely for historical reasons: they've always been built that way.
What if we could do away with the bulky, gasoline engine entirely and
devote more room to the passengers and their cargo? That's one of the
exciting possibilities that opens up if you use hub (in-wheel) motors
(compact electric motors built into each wheel) instead of engines. Let's take a closer
Photo: One of the aluminum mesh wheels from NASA's lunar roving vehicle, an electric car used on the Moon in the early 1970s, with tires made from
zinc and steel. Though not exactly hub motors as such, each wheel was nevertheless powered by its own separate 10,000 rpm electric motor. Photo by courtesy of NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA-MSFC).
What are hub motors?
If you've read our main article on electric
motors, you'll know the basic idea of turning
stored electricity into motive power:
feed an electric current
through tightly coiled wire that sits between the poles of a magnet
and the coil spins around making a force that can turn a wheel and
drive a machine.
Most electric-powered vehicles (electric cars, electric bicycles, and
wheelchairs) use onboard batteries and a
single, fairly ordinary
electric motor to power either two or four wheels. But some of the
latest electric cars and electric bicycles work a different way.
Instead of having one motor powering all the wheels using gears
or chains, they build a motor directly into the hub of each wheel—so the motors and
wheels are one and the same thing. That's what we mean by a hub
Photo: The hub motor of an electric bike. Note the
copper coils of wire that convert electric power from the battery into
movement that pushes you along.
Picture by courtesy of Fabian
published on Flickr under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License.
How does a hub motor differ from an ordinary motor?
The basic idea is just the same. In an ordinary motor, you have a
hollow, outer, ring-shaped permanent magnet that stays static (sometimes called the stator) and an
metallic core that rotates inside it (called the rotor). The
spinning rotor has an axle running through the middle that you use to
drive a machine. But what if you hold the axle firmly so it can't rotate and
switch on the motor? Then the rotor and the stator have no choice but
to swap roles: the normally static rotor stays still while the stator
spins around it. Try it with an electric
toothbrush. Instead of
holding the plastic case of your
toothbrush (which, broadly speaking,
connects to the static part of an electric motor), try holding only the
bristles and then turn on the power. It's quite tricky to do, because
the brush moves so fast, but if you do it right you'll find the
handle slowly rocks back and forth. This is essentially what happens in a
hub motor. You connect the central, normally rotating axle to the
static frame of a bicycle or the chassis of a car. When you switch on
the power, the outer part of the motor rotates, becoming a wheel (or
wheels) that powers the vehicle forward.
How does a brushless DC (BLDC) motor work?
Ordinary electric motors use a mechanical device called a commutator
and two contacts
called carbon brushes to reverse the electric current
and ensure the axle keeps turning in the same direction.
Hub motors are typically brushless motors (sometimes called brushless direct
current motors or BLDCs), which replace the commutator and brushes with half-a-dozen or more separate coils
and an electronic circuit. The circuit switches the power on and off
in the coils in turn creating forces in each one that make the motor
spin. Since the brushes press against the axle of a normal motor, they introduce friction, slow it down, make a certain amount of noise, and waste
energy. That's why brushless motors are often more efficient, especially at low speeds. Getting rid of the brushes also saves having to replace them every so often when friction wears them down.
Here are some photos of a typical brushless DC motor. First, look at the fully assembled motor shown in the top picture. In a normal motor, you'd expect the inner coil to rotate (it's called the rotor) and the outer magnet to stay static (that's called the stator). But in this motor, the roles are reversed: the inner part with the coils is static and the gray magnet spins around it. Now look inside and you can see exactly how it works: the electronic circuit sends power round the nine copper coils in turn, making the gray outer case (which is a magnet split into a number of sections, bent round into a circle) spin around the copper coils and circuit board (which remain static).
How does the circuit know which of the nine coils to switch on and off—and when? You can't really see in this photo, but there are several tiny magnetic field sensors
(known as Hall-effect sensors) positioned between some of the coils. As the permanent magnets on the outer rotor sweep past them, the Hall-effect sensors figure out where the north and south magnetic poles of the rotor are and which coils to activate to make it keep spinning. The trouble with this is that it means the motor does need an electronic circuit to operate it, which is something you don't need for an ordinary DC motor.
Photo: A small brushless DC motor taken from a computer's floppy disk drive and seen from outside (top) and inside (bottom).
Bigger versions of these images are available on our
What are the advantages of hub motors?
It depends whether you're talking about an electric bicycle or an electric car.
Adding a hub motor and batteries to a bicycle is a mixture of pro
and con: you increase the bicycle's weight quite considerably but, in
return, you get a pleasant and effortless ride whenever you don't feel
like pedaling. Where electric cars are concerned, the benefits are
more obvious. The weight of the metal in a typical car (including the
engine, gearbox, and chassis) is perhaps 10 times the weight of its
occupants, which is one reason why cars are so very inefficient. Swap
the heavy engine and gearbox for hub motors and batteries and
you have a lighter car that uses energy far more efficiently.
Getting rid of the engine compartment also frees up a huge amount of space for passengers and their luggage—you
can just stow the batteries behind the back seat!
Vehicles powered by hub motors are a whole lot simpler (mechanically less complex) than normal
ones. Suppose you want to reverse. Instead of using elaborate arrangements of gears, all you
have to do is reverse the electric current. The motor spins backward
and back you go! What about four wheel drive? That's quite an
expensive option on a lot of vehicles—you need more gears and
complicated driveshafts—but it's very easy to sort out with hub
motors. If you have a hub motor in each of a car's four wheels, you
get four-wheel drive automatically. In theory, it's easy enough to make the four motors turn at slightly different
speeds (to help with cornering and steering) or torque (to move you through muddy or uneven terrain).
Photo: An artist's impression of the lunar roving vehicle sketched out in 1969. The emphasis was on making a fold-up vehicle light enough to take to the Moon. Electric power was not only a practical choice: with no
air in space to power an internal combustion engine, it was the only real option. Photo by courtesy of NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA-MSFC).
What are the problems with hub motors?
Hub motors are bigger, bulkier, and heavier than ordinary wheels and change the handling
of an electric car or bike: they increase the
unsprung mass (the mass not supported by the suspension), giving more shock and vibration, poorer handling, and a bumpier ride.
Another problem is delivering just the right amount of torque (turning force). A gasoline engine works best turning over quickly (making lots of revolutions per minute), no matter what speed you're actually doing on the road. You use a
gearbox to convert the engine's high revs into high
torque (and low speed) or high speed (and low torque) depending on whether you're starting off from a standstill, racing along the freeway, driving slowly uphill, or whatever. Hub motors have to be able to produce any combination of speed and torque
without a gearbox; they usually work by "direct drive." But here's the snag: they sit inside the hub, at the very center of a relatively large bike wheel. If you turn the center of a wheel, its diameter works as a lever, multiplying the speed at the rim but reducing the torque by the same amount
(see our article on how wheels work for an explanation).
To get enough torque, you need quite a powerful motor—but not so powerful that it accelerates
you too quickly and jerkily or snaps your spokes!
Hub motors typically achieve more torque by increasing the hub size quite significantly (a bigger stator and rotor make more torque than smaller ones); you can see from the electric bike photo up above that
the powered hub in an electric bike is considerably bigger than the unpowered hub in an ordinary bike.
Some hub motors boost their torque with internal gearboxes (typically an arrangement of planetary (epicyclic) gears in between the stator and the rotor), but since that adds weight, cost, mechanical complexity, and potential unreliability, many do not. Bigger torque brings an added problem: you need to be sure the rest of your wheel is strong enough to cope with the twisting forces a hub motor can deliver, particularly if you're converting something like an ordinary bicycle wheel into a powered wheel. The spokes on an electric bike are shorter and leave the hub at a tighter angle, which can stress them further. Suppose you mount an electric motor on the hub of a basic bike and switch on the power. Since you weigh quite a lot and there's plenty of friction between the tire
and the ground, the motor could simply bend the spokes instead of moving you along the ground! So an electric
bicycle typically needs stronger wheels (perhaps with stronger and more elastic spokes, different positioning of spoke holes, a thicker rim, or some other fix) than an ordinary one.
Artwork: Using internal gears to increase torque in an electric bike hub motor. In this design, you can see the brushless motor on the left, with its coils (red) and the magnets (blue) that spin around them. The motor powers the main bike axle (light blue) through one or more gears (yellow) and is controlled by an electronic circuit board (green). All these components are picked inside the hub (the outer limits of which are shown by the largest blue circle) and you can clearly see where the spokes attach to the rim. Artwork from US Patent 6,321,863: Hub motor for a wheeled vehicle by Chandu R. Vanjani, Mac Brushless Motor Company, 27 November 2001, courtesy of US Patent and Trademark Office (with colors added to the original for clarity).
Find out more
On this website
Historic hub motors
If you liked this article...
You might like my new book, Atoms Under the Floorboards: The Surprising Science Hidden in Your Home, published worldwide by Bloomsbury.
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Cloud properties were retrieved by applying the Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) project Edition-2 algorithms to 3.5 years of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Visible and Infrared Scanner data and 5.5 and 8 years of MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data from Aqua and Terra, respectively. The cloud products are consistent quantitatively from all three imagers; the greatest discrepancies occur over ice-covered surfaces. The retrieved cloud cover (~59%) is divided equally between liquid and ice clouds. Global mean cloud effective heights, optical depth, effective particle sizes, and water paths are 2.5 km, 9.9, 12.9 μm , and 80 g·m-2, respectively, for liquid clouds and 8.3 km, 12.7, 52.2 μm, and 230 g·m-2 for ice clouds. Cloud droplet effective radius is greater over ocean than land and has a pronounced seasonal cycle over southern oceans. Comparisons with independent measurements from surface sites, the Ice Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite, and the Aqua Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-Earth Observing System are used to evaluate the results. The mean CERES and MODIS Atmosphere Science Team cloud properties have many similarities but exhibit large discrepancies in certain parameters due to differences in the algorithms and the number of unretrieved cloud pixels. Problem areas in the CERES algorithms are identified and discussed.
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American Association for the Advancement
New fossils may be first human ancestors out of Africa, say Science authors
Press release, 11 MAY 2000; see article abstract below
See also BBC's coverage, with photograph.
Washington, D.C-- A nearly complete fossil cranium and another skullcap, representing the earliest known human ancestors from Eurasia, may also belong to the first hominid species to journey out of Africa. A team of Georgian, German, French and U.S. researchers describe these "First Eurasians" from the site of Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgia in the 12 May issue of Science.
The Science authors say that these 1.7 million year-old fossils are the first fossils discovered outside of Africa to show clear signs of African ancestry. The age and skeletal characteristics of the Dmanisi skulls link them to the early human species Homo ergaster, a species that some researchers believe is the African version of Homo erectus.
Most scientists think that Homo erectus was the first hominid species to leave the African continent, although the exact identity of these ancestral travelers and the timing of their departure has been hotly debated for decades. Under the classic scenario, Homo erectus, armed with an advanced tool kit called the Acheulean or hand-ax tradition, became the first human species capable of braving an array of challenging environments outside the African cradle.
The Dmanisi fossils, however, may undermine this tale of the technologically triumphant hominid. Stone tools found with the two skulls are of the less sophisticated "pebble-chopper" type that preceded the Acheulean in Africa, and the site itself is older than any known Acheulean tools. The tools, along with details of the fossils' anatomy and the age of the site, "argue for early, pre-Acheulean migrations out of Africa," say the authors.
The fossils were retrieved during the course of archaeological investigations of a medieval castle at Dmanisi. Meticulous geological investigation confirms that the human fossils, accompanying animal bones, and tools come from sediment-filled, irregularly-shaped "burrows," scooped out of the ancient strata by the flow of groundwater, according to co-author Reid Ferring of the University of North Texas.
The two skulls were collected from the same layer and excavation pit as a hominid jawbone that was found at the site in 1991 and whose species identity was debated. "It was a very nice surprise to find these skulls," says co-author David Lordkipanidze of the Republic of Georgia State Museum, who notes that the well-preserved crania provided enough diagnostic detail for the researchers to compare them with other fossil human species. Their analysis showed that the Dmanisi fossils shared extensive similarities with the African species Homo ergaster from the well-known site of Koobi Fora in Kenya.
The research team discovered that the Dmanisi and Koobi Fora fossils overlap in age as well. Dmanisi contains a jackpot of chronological clues, from the isotope dates on the layer of basalt rock running beneath the site, to the paleomagnetic signature and contemporaneous animal fossils in overlying deposits.
Isotope analysis of the basalt places the age of the site at around 1.77 million years old, but the paleomagnetic signature of the sediment burrows themselves encompasses a period from 1.77 million to a little over a million years ago. Since the European faunal record is already well dated, the associated animal fossils at Dmanisi became "essential for understanding the timing of the site. Small rodents known to have lived more than 1.7 million years ago occur with the hominids," says co-author Carl C. Swisher III of the Berkeley Geochronology Center. In this case, the faunal evidence tipped the scales in favor of an earlier date.
More than 1000 stone artifacts have been recovered from the Dmanisi fossil layers, providing further support to the 1.7 million year-old date for the site. Despite the ready availability of raw material suitable for making Acheulean tools, the authors say, all of the Dmanisi artifacts are of a pre-Acheulean type that appeared in Africa as early as 2.4 million years ago.
If superior technology didn't lead the way out of Africa, as the Dmanisi evidence suggests, what other factors may have prompted these early humans to leave the continent? The Science authors speculate that the move might have been appetite-driven. "Basically the argument that we're making is that during that time in Africa, the savanna is expanding and there is a greater availability of 'protein on the hoof'," explains co-author Susan Antón of the University of Florida in Gainesville. "With the appearance of Homo, we see bigger bodies that require more energy to run, and therefore need these higher quality sources of protein as fuel." Antón notes that as early humans shifted their diets to include larger amounts of animal protein, there probably was a corresponding expansion in their home range to match the ranges of these animals.
Along with Ferring, Lordkipanidze, Swisher, and Antón, the Dmanisi research group includes Director Leo Gabunia and Abesalom Vekua of the Republic of Georgia National Academy of Sciences, Antje Justus, Gerhard Bosinski, and Olaf Jöris of the Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Merab Tvalchrelidze, Givi Majsuradze, Aleksander Mouskhelishvili, and Media Nioradze of the Republic of Georgia State Museum, and Marie-A. de Lumley of the Laboratoire Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS.
Earliest Pleistocene Hominid Cranial Remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia:
Taxonomy, Geological Setting, and Age
Leo Gabunia, 1 Abesalom Vekua, 1 David Lordkipanidze, 2* Carl C. Swisher III, 3 Reid Ferring, 4 Antje Justus, 5 Medea Nioradze, 2 Merab Tvalchrelidze, 2 Susan C. Antón, 6 Gerhard Bosinski, 5 Olaf Jöris, 5 Marie-A.-de Lumley, 7 Givi Majsuradze, 2 Aleksander Mouskhelishvili 2
Science 288. 5468 (12 May 2000): 1019 - 1025
Archaeological excavations at the site of Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgia have uncovered two partial early Pleistocene hominid crania. The new fossils consist of a relatively complete cranium and a second relatively complete calvaria from the same site and stratigraphic unit that yielded a hominid mandible in 1991. In contrast with the uncertain taxonomic affinity of the mandible, the new fossils are comparable in size and morphology with Homo ergaster from Koobi Fora, Kenya. Paleontological, archaeological, geochronological, and paleomagnetic data from Dmanisi all indicate an earliest Pleistocene age of about 1.7 million years ago, supporting correlation of the new specimens with the Koobi Fora fossils. The Dmanisi fossils, in contrast with Pleistocene hominids from Western Europe and Eastern Asia, show clear African affinity and may represent the species that first migrated out of Africa.
1 Republic of Georgia National Academy of Sciences, Tbilisi, 380007, Republic
2 Department of Geology and Paleontology, Republic of Georgia State Museum,
3 Purtseladze Street, Tbilisi, 380007, Republic of Georgia.
3 Berkeley Geochronology Center, 2455 Ridge Road, Berkeley, CA 94709, USA.
4 Department of Geography, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA.
5 Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, Germany.
6 Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
7 Laboratoire Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Paris, France.
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: email@example.com
To whom reprint requests should be adressed. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
Full text, subscribers only (or buy online)
Maintained by Francis F. Steen, Communication Studies, University of California Los Angeles
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Horses — Conformation: Form to Function
Department of Animal Sciences
When evaluating the conformation of a horse, you should consider the following areas: balance, muscle, structural correctness, and breed and sex characteristics (Figure 1). Fads at times have skewed the importance of one trait or another, but all are important whether you are looking at a prospective halter horse or performance horse.
Good conformation includes proper balance and mass, structural correctness, and desirable breed and sex characteristics.
Points of horse conformation.
- Point of shoulder
- Fore flank
- Fetlock joint
- Seat of sidebone
- Seat of splint
- Point of hip
- Hind flank
- Stifle joint
- Seat of thoroughpin
- Seat of bog spavin
- Seat of bone spavin
- Seat of ringbone
- Seat of curb
- Point of buttock
Balance refers to the even, smooth blending of all parts and muscling (Figure 2). Balance is determined by the length of the neck, the back and the croup. Of utmost importance is that the angle of theshoulder should be adequate. Many breeders believe that the slope of the shoulder will determine a horse's agility, because the slope defines the length of the neck. If the slope of the shoulder is too steep, the neck will appear short and the back long. The angle of the shoulder will also be the angle of the pastern. If the shoulder is steep, the angle of the pastern will be steep, which results in a rough, short stride. A horse with a long, moderately sloping shoulder, will typically have a long neck, a short back and a smooth stride. The length of the neck determines the length of the stride as well as the horse'sflexibility. In a performance horse especially, the neck must be long to allow for proper flexing at the poll, which is required in any performance event.
The back should be short and strong with a long underline (Figure 3). The horse should have a long, moderately sloping croup. The length of the croup is important because it is essentially the "engine" that powers an equine athlete. A long croup more readily accommodates more muscle mass.
Balance also accounts for the evenness of muscling. All the parts of a horse's body should blend smoothly into each other and present a pleasing picture.
Long, sloping shoulders; short, strong back; long underline; and a long croup increase the probability that your horse can become a good "athlete."
Mass and internal body capacity
A horse's muscling should be long patterned and defined. Muscle mass can most easily be determined when viewed from directly in front of or behind the horse. As viewed from the front, the horse should show significant width from shoulder to shoulder, a large circumference to the forearm, and a prominent "v" in the front muscling. As viewed from the back, the horse should be wide from stifle to stifle, and the quarter should tie in deep to strong gaskins.
When viewed from the side, a horse should have strong forearms, a deep quarter, strong gaskins, and a long croup to accommodate a large amount of muscle mass through a prominent stifle. In addition, the horse should have a large-circumference heart girth.
For halter horses, the more muscle mass the better. For performance horses, muscle mass should be no more than adequate to perform the tasks at hand, because increased muscle bulk detracts from the fluidity of the horse's stride.
The internal body capacity of a horse determines the room available for lung and heart functions. The more lung capacity a horse has, the more air it can take in with each stride, making the horse capable of more powerful and efficient performance and greater stamina. Internal body capacity also determines the ability of a potential broodmare to carry a large foal.
Structural correctness affects the action and soundness of horses. When the front legs are viewed from the front, a line should bisect the forearm, knee, cannon, fetlock and the bulb of the heel (Figure 4). If the toes point outward, the horse is splay-footed; if the toes point inward, the horse is considered pigeon-toed. Typically pigeon-toed horses wing out and splay-footed horses wing in when walking. When the front legs are viewed from the side, the knees should be flat.
When a horse is viewed from behind, a line should bisect the gaskin, hock, cannon, fetlock, pastern and foot. If the horse's hocks turn inward, the horse is considered cow-hocked. When the legs are viewed from the side, a straight line drawn downward from the back of the buttock should touch the back of the hock, cannon and fetlock. If the horse has too much angle in the hocks, then it is considered to be sickle-hocked. If the leg is forward of this line and too straight, the horse is considered post-legged.
Pasterns should be of medium length, be strong but flexible, and have a medium slope. The hoof should have the same angle as the pastern and should be of moderate size but deep and wide at the heel, and free of rings. The slope of the shoulders and pasterns, combined with the expansion of the heel, provides shock absorption when the horse is in motion. Bones should be of adequate size and should show definition of joints and appear flat when viewed from the side.
Deviation from these points of structural correctness predisposes a horse to unsoundness and wasted motion. Bone spavins, bogs, thoroughpins and weakness are common among sickle-hocked horses. Jarring from short, straight pasterns and shoulders predisposes a horse to side bones, stiffness, bogs and lameness.
Breed and sex characteristics
Breed and sex characteristics of a horse define its quality. A horse should exhibit the characteristics that progressive breeders look for — in short, the breed's icon. Quality is indicated by refinement of head, bone, joints and hair coat. It is reflected in thin skin, prominent veins, and the absence of coarseness, especially in the legs. A quality horse has more attractiveness and eye appeal, including prominent sex characteristics. A stallion should appear more powerful and stately than a mare. A stallion's head should have a masculine jaw, whereas the mare should be a picture of refined femininity. The gelding falls between the two.
An outstanding horse will exhibit superior conformation whether it is a halter horse, pleasure horse or racehorse. Some horse judges support fads and are more forgiving of certain faults than others. However, a horse's form is related directly to function. In the long run, whenever you sacrifice certain qualities of conformation, a limitation in ability will occur. When evaluating horses, the ideal will always be in demand; there is no substitute for quality.
This publication was revised wih the assistance of Jennifer Nabors.
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By Darren George
First off, let me preface this argument by saying that the answer to this question might leave many people asking another one: "SO WHAT?" Only you can answer that. As to the implications to world history, especially post-slavery propaganda against “blacks,” this argument imposes many. I'm not attempting to deal with those implications, nor is this a thorough scholastic research. Rather, this demonstrates that simple reason and logic can :-
1) support faith in the Holy Bible
2) reveal truth
That so many people have read the Bible, and yet, I have never heard an argument posed strictly from internal Biblical evidence as to Moses’ ethnicity (even after searching the internet) indicates that truth can remain visible and yet, unnoticed, simply because people don't think; and, that people don't think for themselves presents much greater implications to the history and future of this world.
Was MOSES a “BLACK” Man?
I put black in quotations because it is separate from African-American. By black I simply mean, did Moses’ skin contain enough melanin for him to be dark brown in complexion?
To answer we must start at the beginning with Israel’s great grandfather - Abraham. (I will use capital ISRAEL when referring to the Jewish nation, not the person)
ISRAEL began with Isaac, Abraham’s son. This is important because Abraham had several sons, but it is through Isaac that the covenant with his God YAHWEH was established through God’s Word and the obedience of circumcision on the eighth day as was commanded by YAHWEH (cf. Gen. 17:10-14, 17:21, 21:4). The Jewish laws, including the 10 commandments, were not given to Israel until several hundred years after Isaac’s death. Therefore, before the exodus from Egypt, circumcision distinguished a Jew from all other people. This foundation is important to be established for us to continue. The laws given after the exodus further separated Jews from other peoples,...
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Moodle: A Virtual Learning Environment for the Rest of Us
|Product type:||Course management system|
|Platform:||Any platform with Apache, PHP and a database system such as MySQL installed|
Virtually every educational institution has by now adopted a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) or CMS (Course Management System) for use either as an adjunct to its traditional courses (often called a "blended" or "hybrid" course system), or as a tool for its distance education program. The 'big players" are WebCT and Blackboard, both of which are expensive to license and which are rather rigid in the ways that they can be used.
Enter "Moodle"—an open-source system—which is not only free but also highly adaptable. Schools are quickly discovering that they can save thousands of dollars by implementing Moodle, and then spending a small portion of the money saved to program it to work precisely the way they and their instructors want it to. Moodle, however, even used "as is" provides a rich selection of features that often surpasses those of other systems.
Moodle is the brainchild of Martin Dougiamas, who designed the program while working on his Ph.D. at Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia. He developed it as a tool for his dissertation which was on a Socio-constructivist approach to learning. Thus Moodle originally excelled in features which supported this approach to education, in particular through its very user-friendly discussion forum layout that includes mug shots of the participants as an aid towards "community building'. Dougiamas programmed Moodle in PHP, a programming (or more strictly, "scripting') language that can create web pages based on user input and data-based information.
Early on Dougiamas established http://moodle.org as a site for user interaction and support. The site is one of the most active and useful sites that this writer has experienced. It isn't unusual for as many as 100 new users to enroll daily to make use of the various "courses" and "forums'. Discussion areas are available for each major feature of Moodle as well as for those under development and testing. There are also courses for users of Moodle in 40+ languages and dialects, and a "Teachers" Hands-on Playground" where teachers can take full control and experiment with Moodle's features. Click on the blue for login information. [-1-]
While Moodle's interface is much more intuitive than its for-fee counterparts, there are times when users require help. With a user base situated around the world, it is common for posters to receive help within a matter of hours, regardless of the local time of day. While there is a FAQ section for "Frequently Asked Questions" and a search function to locate earlier responses to similar questions from the site's database, there are times when a human response works better. In my own two years of association with Moodle, I have witnessed numerous cases where people have not only given help, but have also created new computer code to help a user modify a current feature or create a new one.
A typical Moodle course looks somewhat like Figure 1, although all elements on the page can be modified, repositioned or deleted. Typically, there are "blocks" on either side containing special functions, with the core set of learning blocks in the middle. These core blocks can be labeled automatically, either numerically or with sequential weeks.
One essential difference between Moodle and WebCT or Blackboard is that all course elements are presented in a "flat view," e.g., there are no "Chinese boxes" with content inside folders at various levels. The teacher can easily, however, hide specific sections when required. Elements can be moved up or down with two clicks of the mouse. Figure 2 is a view of the same course with the editing turned on. [-2-]
Some of Moodle's virtues have been alluded to already. Now let us take a closer look.
ExtensibilityMoodle is built in a very modular fashion. New functions can be created and activated merely by dropping them into the site's directory where all of the plug-in modules are stored. Additional languages can be added in a similar fashion. There is a constant flow of advice on the Moodle.org site on how to tweak the code to turn off a specific display element or add a new one. New functions and tweaks to old ones that are of lasting value often find their way into future versions of Moodle. [-3-]
Interface languagesWhen a user logs on, there is a dropdown menu from which he can select an interface language. Once set, that language choice remains unless another language is selected. Nearly all European languages are now available, as well as the major non-European ones such as Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean and Turkish. These language modules have all been created by volunteers, who take the English-language translation files as the base and then translate the 1000+ terms into their own language. Any text that has not been translated into the selected language is rendered in English by default.
Record-keeping, Logs and TrackingMoodle logs every click that students make for navigational purposes. For activities, such as quizzes, not only the score and elapsed time are available, but also a detailed analysis of each student's responses and item analysis of the items themselves. Teachers can easily get full reports of the activities of individual students, or of all students for a specific activity.
The quiz-making function: Moodle's built in functions allow you to make different types of quizzes. Quiz types relevant to language teaching are: Multiple choice, True/False, Numerical, Matching, Description, and Cloze
A wide range of options allows you to randomize the questions and multiple-choice items, specify a time frame for availability, choose whether the students receive feedback or not, decide if they are allowed to view the correct answers, and determine how many times they may take the quiz and how it is to be scored (first attempt, highest attempt, average of all attempts or last attempt). Quiz items can be imported from text files in a number of specified formats, and from WebCT or Blackboard's proprietary formats. A newly developed timer allows quizzes to be taken under strict time limits — excellent when you want a "quickie quiz" to assess how well your students have reviewed recent material.
Moodle gives thorough feedback on the most popular quiz types. There are two levels: "Simple Statistics" and "Detailed Statistics", as shown in Figures 3 and 4 below. The data displayed for individual students is also downloadable as a .txt or .xls file.
Hot-Potatoes (http://www.halfbakedsoftware.com) is a very popular authoring program that allows teachers to create browser-based activities. While "HotPot" activities can be linked as resources within Moodle, one problem until now has been the tracking of student use — an important feature if one wants to know who has or hasn't done the activities and with what degree of success. Thanks to Moodle's modular structure, this writer has been able to author a "HotPot" module which overcomes this problem. Hotpot activities can now be integrated into Moodle with full reporting; teachers can view their students" scores, time started, and lapsed time. The module is available from Moodle.org at http://moodle.org/download/modules/.
Sound files in .mp3 format can be uploaded and integrated into both standard quizzes and Hot Potatoes files using a Flash-based player or placed on the main page as a standalone clickable file. See the "Moodle for Language Teaching" course at http://moodle.org/course/view.php?id=31 for further information. [-5-]
Discussion Forums: A common component of all CMSs is the discussion forum or "bulletin board" feature which allows the students to interact with their instructor and the other students on specified topics. Moodle differs from many systems in that its messages are not only archived in the course but are also sent as e-mail to the student's registered e-mail address as long as the student has subscribed to that specific forum. (When setting up a forum, the instructor can force-subscribe all students when necessary.) This overcomes one major problem with messaging systems—out of site, out of mind. With Moodle, students will always know when new, relevant messages have been posted (as long as they check their e-mail regularly).
The indented structure of the messages shows clearly which message is a response to which. Figure 5 shows part of a discussion in the "Moodle for Language Teaching" forum at Moodle.org.
A "Hide Until" feature for discussions is slated to appear with the next version (1.5) to overcome a major problem with traditional discussion forums. With many topics, the first one or two messages often "cover the base" leaving the other students with little to say beyond, "I agree". The "Hide Until" feature allows the instructor to hide all contributions from the other students for a specified length of time, after which they become available to all. This allows all students to respond without being predisposed by the comments of others. Once made available to all, the students then have a second task—to synthesize the comments and build upon them.
The Lecture Feedback Module, created at Sapporo Gakuin University, and available as an extra "plug-in module" comes in handy in classes where attendance taking is difficult or where the students are reluctant to provide feedback on what they have not fully understood. Using the module set-up routine, the instructor prints out attendance slips for each lesson, each with a unique code. These slips are passed out to the students at the beginning of the lesson. After the lesson, the students log on to the course, input their code to register their attendance, and then provide feedback to the lecture based on whatever question(s) the instructor has posed. My standard prompt is "Please mention any points in today's lecture that you didn't understand completely or any points that you would like discussed in more detail." This feedback then allows the instructor to review the requested items at the beginning of the next class. If the instructor wants to create a printed handout summarizing student comments, there is a button to automatically categorize the comments. This helps sort points and output data that can be quickly selected and formatted for distribution. The student feedback can also be graded from a pull-down menu in order to encourage useful feedback from the students.
The Lesson Module allows you to provide information to the students in small chunks, ask a comprehension question about what they have just learned and then conditionally branch out depending on their response. It can be used for stepwise lessons or even as a set of "flipcards" where students review items answered incorrectly until all the items have been correctly answered. They can repeat the process if the instructor has permitted multiple passes through the lesson.
The Journal Module is a place for each student to keep a learning diary, or to respond to other stimuli specified by the instructor. The student can then refine the response over time. [-6-]
The Assignment Module allows students to submit a file for assessment and feedback from the instructor. A comment box and a pull-down menu for a grade can be used for feedback.
The Attendance Module permits automatic attendance-taking for students with activity during the stipulated time periods, or by physically clicking on the attendance module each class period. The instructor can even specify a grade value for attendance figures, with appropriate adjustments for tardy attendance.
The Questionnaire Module, currently under development, will provide an excellent tool for eliciting student opinions for further discussion either online or in class.
File Submissions: A full file management system is currently under development. This writer has, however, been able to create a simple file submission and retrieval system ("To teacher" and "From Teacher" folders), which allows both students and teacher to access files over the Internet. For my own writing classes, I find this is preferable to the "Assignment Module" because all submissions can be easily 'zipped' and transferred to a file area on my own computer for checking and feedback. The files can then be returned to the "From teacher" folder in Moodle so that the students can retrieve them. I have simply required students to include their student ID number in their file names. This is also their Moodle account ID, so Moodle will only show files to each student bearing his or her own ID, affording a modicum of privacy.
Moodle can run on virtually any machine, Windows, Macintosh OSX or Unix, as long as the following are installed: 1) an Apache web server, 2) the page generation freeware, PHP, and 3) a database application, usually, but not limited to MySQL. Applications exist for all platforms and are listed under "Installing Apache, MySQL and PHP" at http://moodle.org/doc/.
One caveat: After you have set up Moodle and used it successfully with your own students, resist the temptation to invite the other instructors in your school to use it. You may soon find yourself running into slowdowns or freeze-ups. For production use, you will want to invest in a dedicated server that handles Moodle and nothing else. In my experience, available memory and processor speed are the two factors that must be considered for volume use.
For the faint of heart, there are a number of providers that provide Moodle pre-installed and ready to run. See the commercial arm of Moodle, Moodle.com, for a list of "Moodle Partners" who will handle hosting, upgrades, and even custom coding of new features. Many web hosting services offer "Fantastico" on their user control panels which allows the installation of many popular applications, including Moodle. See this description on Hosting Zoom's site for further details.
After having taught online courses for a number of years using WebCT and Blackboard, I fell in love with Moodle at first sight. I have now been using it for about two years for both distance learning courses and as an adjunct to my courses at my university including classes conducted in a computer lab as well as some courses based in a traditional classroom. I no longer had to wait for my institution to install a workable CMS; I could just go out and do it myself. [-7-]
To cover all of Moodle's features would make this article excessively long and, by the time the article went to press, it would probably no longer be current. As with most software, there are more features available than any one user is likely to use, but the best feature of Moodle is that it can easily have every feature you want as long as there is someone around willing to program it.
Thomas N. Robb, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Kyoto Sangyo University, has been Chair of TESOL's CALL Interest Section (2000-2002) and is a frequent presenter at international CALL conferences. He is the creator and webmaster of a number of websites including Oxford University Press's Passport Online, the Extensive Reading website and the Student List Project. He is Co-Editor of TESL-EJ.
Thomas N. Robb
© Copyright rests with authors. Please cite TESL-EJ appropriately.
Editor's Note:Dashed numbers in square brackets indicate the end of each page for purposes of citation..
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But religion is overthrown if we believe Epicurus speaking thus:—
“For the nature of gods must ever in itself of necessity enjoy immortality together with supreme repose, far removed and withdrawn from our concerns; since, exempt from every pain, exempt from all dangers, strong in its own resources, not wanting aught of us, it is neither gained by favours nor moved by anger.” 1662
Now, when he says these things, does he think that any worship is to be paid to God, or does p. 264 he entirely overthrow religion? For if God confers nothing good on any one, if He repays the obedience of His worshipper with no favour, what is so senseless, what so foolish, as to build temples, to offer sacrifices, to present gifts, to diminish our property, that we may obtain nothing? 1663 But (it will be said) it is right that an excellent nature should be honoured. What honour can be due to a being who pays no regard to us, and is ungrateful? Can we be bound in any manner to him who has nothing in common with us? “Farewell to God,” says Cicero, 1664 “if He is such as to be influenced by no favour, and by no affection of men. For why should I say may He be propitious? for He can be propitious to no one.” What can be spoken more contemptible with respect to God? Farewell to Him, he says, that is, let Him depart and retire, since He is able to profit no one. But if God takes no trouble, nor occasions trouble to another, why then should we not commit crimes as often as it shall be in our power to escape the notice of men 1665 and to cheat the public laws? Wherever we shall obtain a favourable opportunity of escaping notice, let us take advantage of the occasion: let us take away the property of others, either without bloodshed or even with blood, if there is nothing else besides the laws to be reverenced.
While Epicurus entertains these sentiments, he altogether destroys religion; and when this is taken away, confusion and perturbation of life will follow. But if religion cannot be taken away without destroying our hold of wisdom, by which we are separated from the brutes, and of justice, by which the public life may be more secure, how can religion itself be maintained or guarded without fear? For that which is not feared is despised, and that which is despised is plainly not reverenced. Thus it comes to pass that religion, and majesty, and honour exist together with fear; but there is no fear where no one is angry. Whether, therefore, you take away from God kindness, or anger, or both, religion must be taken away, without which the life of men is full of folly, of wickedness, and enormity. For conscience greatly curbs men, if we believe that we are living in the sight of God; if we imagine not only that the actions which we perform are seen from above, but also that our thoughts and our words are heard by God. But it is profitable to believe this, as some imagine, not for the sake of the truth, but of utility, since laws cannot punish conscience unless some terror from above hangs over to restrain offences. Therefore religion is altogether false, and there is no divinity; but all things are made up by skilful men, in order that they may live more uprightly and innocently. This is a great question, and foreign to the subject which we have proposed; but because it necessarily occurs, it ought to be handled, however briefly.
Lucret., ii. 646.264:1663
i.e. without any result.264:1664
De Nat. Deor., i. 44.264:1665
Hominum conscientiam fallere.
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Conservation acres harder to come by
At a basin in central Iowa’s Onion Creek Watershed, Sean McCoy pulls a state truck up near a brand-new wetland. It looks like a construction zone, with lots of bare earth.
McCoy, an environmental specialist with the Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, is pleased. This private land, which won’t be farmed for at least the next 10 years, already is drawing pectoral sandpipers en route to Alaska and luring Canada geese away from more urban areas where many people view them as pests. Crews recently finished installing a concrete and gravel structure to help maintain the pond-like wetland.
McCoy said the water here will be seasonal — flowing in from about 500 acres of cropland in the spring and fall – and native plants will take over the area in summer.
“In the years to come, that vegetation will de-nitrify it, (removing) all the nitrates that are in the water,” McCoy said.
For 27 years, the federal Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has been transforming small parcels of land like this one, contributing to cleaner water, more habitat for migrating birds and less soil erosion. But with Congress tackling a new farm bill this spring, farmers may end up with access to fewer dollars for conservation.
A reduced cap for CRP actually may reflect farmer interest as much as federal budget reductions.
The CRP paid farmers $1.7 billion in 2012 to keep 27.1 million acres out of production, but it was the lowest enrollment since 1989. CRP acreage peaked in 2007 and has fallen every year since. That means fewer acres of cropland are being converted into wetlands, tree stands and creek buffers, all of which help prevent erosion, reduce nutrient run-off and create habitat for migrating birds.
With today’s high grain prices, even some farmers who have participated in CRP are eager to plant the land again. Some are not re-enrolling as contracts expire.
“We’ve got a lot of CRP land that has been brought back out into production,” said Mark Rasmussen, director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University in Ames. “I’ve seen a lot of piles of trees sitting around, too, where little odd corners of fields that used to be in trees or something have been pulled out so that that land could be brought into production, too.”
Contracts on 3.3 million acres of CRP land will expire in September.
McCoy, who manages watershed-scale conservation projects for the state of Iowa, said his efforts rely on the participation of individual farmers in federal programs, including CRP. The Onion Creek project also benefits from the USDA’s Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program, which encourages partnerships like this one between individuals with CRP acres and state, tribal or private programs. USDA also offers farmers the Environmental Quality Incentives Program to help them implement conservation measures, often around air quality or energy use.
At the wetland McCoy was visiting in central Iowa, two landowners had enrolled 27 acres of an 80-acre field in the CRP wetland project. They signed contracts that prohibit them from farming on the land. CRP contracts are for 10 or 15 years. The landowners also must implement a conservation plan, and in exchange they will receive rental payments from the federal government.
For McCoy, who works side-by-side with U.S. Department of Agriculture conservation staff, partnerships between agencies and private landowners allow for leveraging small projects into efforts that serve a broader landscape.
“We want to improve the health of the watershed to improve the health of the water and improve the health of everything downstream,” he said.
About three hours southeast of Onion Creek, in Washington, Iowa, farmer John Berdo is committed to conservation. He’s had acres enrolled in CRP since at least 1995.
“We’ve done field borders, strips along cricks and about anything we can to conserve soil for my sons and my grandsons,” he said.
Preserving the quality of the land he will leave to them drives his conservation efforts. His CRP-funded eight acre tree stand prevents erosion on a patch of land that would have needed lots of work to be farmable, he said. Rather than invest in the labor and construction efforts to create viable farmland, he took CRP money and planted trees.
“And it just turned out beautiful,” he said. Deer wander among the mixed conifer and deciduous trees that abut a parcel he and his sons are actively farming.
The USDA says CRP projects have restored millions of acres of wetlands and kept hundreds of millions of pounds of nitrogen and phosphorus out of waterways nationwide. Berdo sees the benefits for long-term soil health and does some conservation work without help from the government. But he knows that many farmers of his generation want to plant every possible acre until they can’t physically farm any more.
“I’m 62 years old. If it wasn’t for my two sons, I’d run this operation until I’m 70 or something and I’d farm it fencerow to fencerow and then when I got tired, we would have a sale and sell it and let somebody else worry about it,” Berdo said. “And that’s probably not the right attitude, but that’s what happens to people who have nobody to leave the farm to.”
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Another piece of the Deepwater Horizon spill has fallen into place as scientists have determined the chemical makeup of the oil plume.
Using a sample from the very riser pipe that the plume escaped from, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution chemist Christopher Reddy and his team ascertained that the plume was comprised of benzene, toluene, ethybenzene, and total xylenes – together, called BTEX – at concentrations of about 70 micrograms per liter.
By analyzing this particular sample, which was taken in June 2010, the scientists were able to determine what chemicals left the pipe before nature compromised it.
The discovery "helps explain and sheds light on the plume formation, and verifies much of what we thought about the plume's composition," Reddy in a news release about the researchers’ findings.
The BTEX in the plume was "significantly higher than background," Reddy stated.
BTEX represented about 2 percent of the oil that came out of the well, but "nearly 100 percent of what was in the plume," Reddy said.
"A small, selective group of compounds took a right-hand turn" after exiting the well and formed the 3,000-foot-deep plume, he added.
The concentration of BTEX at such depths, and its effect on marine life, will remain for future study.
"In most instances the BTEX compounds are volatilized very quickly, such that exposure duration is very short," Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution scientist Judith McDowell said.
"The persistence of BTEX at depth poses an interesting question as to the potential effects of these compounds on mid-water organisms."
Gathering the sample
Along with an analysis of the plume’s composition, the research expedition utilized a number of special techniques for obtaining the unique sample.
An isobaric gas-tight sampler, developed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution geochemist Jeff Seewald and his colleagues, and intended for use collecting fluids from deep-sea hydrothermal vents, was used to gather a sample of the plume residue from the pipe.
The scientists had 12 hours to get a sample using an oil industry remotely operated vehicle with the gas-tight sampler attached.
The National Science Foundation funded the project through three Rapid Response Research grants. The research was also funded by the U.S. Coast Guard.
This study appears in the online edition of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Physician and discoverer of the cause of puerperal fever, b. Ofen (Buda), 1 July, 1818; d. at Vienna, 13 August, 1865. The son of a German merchant, he became a medical student at Vienna in 1837, and after he had taken a philosophical course at Pesth, continued his medical studies there, obtaining his degree in medicine at Vienna on 21 April, 1844, as obstetrician on 1 August, 1844, and as surgeon on 30 November, 1845. On 27 February, 1846, he was made assistant at the first obstretrical clinic of Vienna, and on 10 October, 1850, lecturer on obstetrics. A few days after this appointment, for reasons unknown, he removed to Pesth where he was made head physician at the hospital of St. Roch on 20 March, 1851, and on 18 July, 1852, was appointed regular professor of theoretical and practical obstetrics. Early in 1865 the first signs of mental trouble appeared, and on 31 July he was taken to the public insane asylum near Vienna where he died from blood-poisoning. At the end of May, 1847, Semmelweis made the assertion that the terrible endemic at the Vienna hospital among lying-in women was caused by infection from the examining physicians, who had previously made pathological dissections, or who had come into contact with dead bodies without thorough cleansing afterwards. After Semmelweis had introduced the practice of washing the hands with a solution of chloride of lime before the examination of lying-in women, the mortality sank from 18 percent to 2.45 percent. He also soon formed the opinion that not only infection from septic virus caused puerperal fever but that it also came from other causes of putridity. His dislike of public speaking or of writing was probably the cause why the recognition he deserved was so long in coming and why his views were misunderstood. Many scholars, among them the doctors of the Academy of Paris and even Rudolph Virchow at Berlin, regarded him unfavourably. The petty persecution and malice of his opponents excited in Semmelweis a sensitiveness that increased from year to year. The first account of his discovery was published by Professor Ferdinand Hebra in December, 1847, in the journal of the Imperial and Royal Society of Physicians of Vienna (December, 1847), followed by a supplementary statement from the same physician in April, 1848. In October, 1849, Professor Josef Skoda delivered an address upon the same subject in the Imperial and Royal Academy of Sciences. Unfortunately, Semmelweis had neglected to correct the papers of these friends of his, and thus failed to make known their mistakes, so that the inference might be drawn that only infection from septic virus caused puerperal fever. It was not until 15 May, 1850, that Semmelweis could bring himself to give a lecture upon his discovery before the Society of Physicians; this address was followed by a second on 18 June, 1850. The medical press noticed these lectures only in a very unsatisfactory manner. In 1861 he published his work: "Die Aetiologie, der Begriff und die Prophylaxis des Kindbettfiebers" (Vienna), in which he bitterly attacked his supposed and real opponents. It was not until after his death that Semmelweis found full recognition as the predecessor of Lister and the pioneer in antiseptic treatment. Besides the above he wrote: "Zwei offene Briefe an Dr. Josef Späth und Hofrat Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm Scanzoni" (Pesth, 1861); "Offener Brief an sämtliche Professoren der Geburtshiefe" (Ofen, 1862).
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online
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There is more to brainpower than IQ, writes Mayer (Psychology/Univ. of New Hampshire; Personality: A Systems Approach, 2006, etc.) in this astute exploration of a different form of intelligence: the ability to understand the personalities of other human beings as well as our own.
The “grand theorists” of the mind (Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Henry Murray and Harry Stack Sullivan) delivered vivid insights from philosophy, literature, biology and their own observations, but it was only when subsequent generations of psychologists examined what people—not just a few patients—actually do that they discovered which insights made sense. Mayer fills his book with ingenious studies of how people judge others. We routinely decode faces, interpret motives and traits, and use these to guide our behavior. Successful judges of personal intelligence enjoy better relationships and more success in life. Poor judges are worried, manipulative, insecure and generally disagreeable. Essential to personal intelligence is the ability to know thyself, a preoccupation of philosophers since the dawn of history. Everyone, the author included, urges us to look inward, but good research reveals that introspection has its limits. It’s accurate for emotions (“I’m angry”) but less so for abilities (“I’m smart”). Perhaps too much self-knowledge depends on what others think of us: our reputations. This is no small matter since misinterpreting one’s own traits leads to mistakes in evaluating others’. “My wish,” writes the author, “is that you will feel enriched by seeing how we all use personal intelligence to reason about ourselves and others, and that you will come to appreciate this set of abilities in a new way.”
Those looking to win friends and influence people should turn to Dale Carnegie and his cheerful disciples. Mayer confines himself to invariably stimulating insights backed by solid scientific research, so readers looking to understand the human condition will certainly enjoy this book.
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| 0.950333 | 415 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Those reporting diabetes diagnosis are less likely to report frequent exercise
WASHINGTON, D.C. -- Britons who report having ever been diagnosed with diabetes are more likely than those who do not have diabetes to report having been diagnosed with other chronic health conditions, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, and heart attack. These differences in disease burden still exist after taking into account income, gender, education, and age. More than half of Britons diagnosed with diabetes also report having been diagnosed with high blood pressure and high cholesterol.
These findings are based on 11,811 surveys conducted as part of the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index, which has been tracking wellbeing daily in the U.K. since January 2011. The Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index finds that 7.4% of British adults report being diagnosed with diabetes. According to the recent National Diabetes Audit in the U.K., almost 3 million Britons, including children and adults, have been diagnosed with diabetes. Additionally, the report found that up to 24,000 preventable deaths a year in the U.K. can be attributed to diabetes-related complications.
Those With Diabetes Diagnosis Less Likely to Exercise Frequently
Britons who report having ever been diagnosed with diabetes are less likely than those who do not have diabetes to say they exercise for at least 30 minutes three or more days per week. Less than half of Britons who report having been diagnosed with diabetes (42%) say they exercise three or more times a week for 30 minutes, compared with 53% of those without diabetes who say the same. These differences in exercise frequency still exist after taking into account income, gender, education, and age.
Diabetes is a major health-related challenge in the U.K. Although diabetes is not a curable condition, Type 2 diabetes is avoidable if managed properly. Major causes of diabetes-related deaths are failure to receive the proper healthcare and self-mismanagement of the condition. The Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index data reveal many Britons who have diabetes report having been diagnosed with other health problems and are not exercising enough.
Nearly one in four Britons are obese, and previous Gallup research in the United States finds a link between obesity and having been diagnosed with chronic conditions, which means that for Britons who have diabetes, their weight may play a role in why they also have other health problems. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommends health checks for diabetes, including blood sugar control, cholesterol, blood pressure, body mass index, and eye and foot examinations. Accordingly, education about self-management and preventative healthcare, such as health checks, eating healthy foods, and exercising, may help prevent Britons from developing diabetes and other chronic conditions.
About the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index
The Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index tracks wellbeing in the U.S., U.K., and Germany and provides best-in-class solutions for a healthier world. To learn more, please visit well-beingindex.com.
Results are based on telephone interviews conducted as part of the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index survey Jan. 2-Nov. 30, 2011, with a random sample of 11,811 adults, aged 18 and older, living in in the United Kingdom, selected using random-digit-dial sampling.
For results based on the total sample of national adults, one can say with 95% confidence that the maximum margin of sampling error is ±1.1 percentage points.
Interviews are conducted with respondents on landline telephones and cellular phones. Each daily sample includes a minimum quota of 5 cell phone respondents and 29 landline respondents, with additional minimum quotas among landline respondents for gender within the regions. Landline respondents are chosen at random within each household on the basis of which member had the most recent birthday.
Samples are weighted by gender, age, education, region, adults in the household, and cell phone status. Demographic weighting targets are based on the most recently published population data from the Census Bureau for Northern Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales. All reported margins of sampling error include the computed design effects for weighting and sample design.
In addition to sampling error, question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can introduce error or bias into the findings of public opinion polls.
For more details on Gallup's polling methodology, visit http://www.gallup.com/.
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| 0.948343 | 899 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Determine the percent change in elastomeric materials resulting from exposure to gaseous environments. Dimensional measurements are made prior to and after conditioning in a standard test gas.
This standard addresses natural gas industry need to have a method to determine elastomer performance characteristics using test gases that simulate operating conditions. Currently elastomers are specified using liquids which only addresses one potential operating condition. Research performed over several years has documented the swell characteristics of selected elastomer materials.
The title and scope are in draft form and are under development within this ASTM Committee.Back to Top
Draft Under Development
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| 0.90127 | 123 | 2.515625 | 3 |
You have the power to end brain cancer.
Many different types of drugs can be used to prevent or ease nausea and vomiting. Each type of drug works in a slightly differently way. Some are used alone, but more often a combination of drugs is used to effectively control nausea and vomiting. These drugs may be called antinausea drugs, antinauseants or anti-emetics.
Drugs that may be used to prevent or control nausea and vomiting include:
Nabilone is a pill that has synthetic cannabinoids. Cannabinoids are chemicals that act on certain receptors on cells in our body, especially cells in the central nervous systemcentral nervous systemThe brain and spinal cord, which work together to control all the functions of the body.. Nabilone is approved in Canada to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy. It’s sometimes given to people with cancer if standard antinausea drugs do not help relieve these symptoms. Find out more about medical marijuana and cannabinoids.
Antinausea medicines often work best if you take them before you feel nauseous. They may be given before treatment to help prevent nausea and vomiting. They are often given before chemotherapy and are sometimes given before radiation therapy. You may also need to take these drugs regularly for several hours or a few days after treatment. This helps control delayed nausea and vomiting.
Antinausea drugs may be given a number of ways. Most often they are taken by mouth (orally), by rectal suppository or by a needle in a vein (intravenous injection) or a muscle (intramuscular injection). A suppository or intramuscular injection may not be recommended when white blood cell or platelet counts are low.
You should use antinausea medicines as directed by the healthcare team. Tell your doctor or healthcare team if medicines don’t relieve nausea and vomiting. They may change the dosage or add other medicines.
Antinausea drugs can cause some side effects, including:
Most people feel that these side effects are worth the benefits of having their nausea and vomiting relieved.
Details on specific drugs change quite regularly. Find out more about sources of drug information and where to get details on specific drugs.
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Bukovina Society of the Americas
This website covers the migration of Germans from Rhine-Palatinate, Württemberg and the Bohemian Forest in the late 1700's and early 1800's when they were recruited/motivated to settle Bukovina (land of beech trees), then a sparsely populated crown land of the Austrian Hungarian Empire. After one or two generations in Bukovina, scarcity of land and the attraction of the new world countries again motivated a migration in the late 1800's to early 1900's. Kansas, Washington, Colorado, Illinois and New York were their main destinations in North America and Brazil was the major destination in South America. This website has rich content on the history, culture and genealogy of the Bukovina Germans.
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When the tide is out, the bivalve Geukensia granosissima (family Mytilidae) shuts is valves tight and waits for the return of the water1. I photographed these individuals at low tide in a small clump of mangroves near Tampa, Florida. The one on the left with gaping valves was dead. I had to pull hard to remove the one on the right; the byssal threads of its byssus (arrow) had attached it quite securely to the sand.
These mussels can survive outside the sea in their tightly closed shells presumably for many hours. I think if bivalves had a mechanism of locomotion that would work on land, some of them would have long ago evolved to become terrestrial.
1I am grateful to Trish Hartmann, author of The Bivalve Seashells of Florida, for helping me with the identification.
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UW Population Health Institute Releases County Health Rankings
Madison, Wis., and Princeton, N.J. - Where we live matters to our health.
A first-of-its-kind report by the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute in collaboration with the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation highlights this fact. The County Health Rankings, a collection of 50 reports - one per state - ranks all counties within each state on their overall health.
The report, new in 49 states, is well-known in Wisconsin. It was here that the Population Health Institute, which is part of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, developed the County Health Rankings in 2003 and has ranked counties each year since. The Rankings serve as a call to action and help community leaders identify factors that make residents unhealthy and mobilize communities to develop solutions.
"The Rankings help policy-makers understand that a local jurisdiction's overall health isn't determined only by access to health care and individual health behaviors, but also, crucially, by the overall socioeconomic and physical environment in which people live," said Bevan K. Baker, commissioner of health, City of Milwaukee Health Department.
The 2010 County Health Rankings rank the overall health of the counties in all 50 states - more than 3,000 total - by using a standard formula. The Rankings show how counties measure up within each state in terms of how healthy people are, how long they live, and how important factors affect their health, such as tobacco use, obesity, access to health care, education, community safety, and air quality. For the first time, every county in every state across the country will be able to compare the many factors that influence health.
"This report shows us that there are big differences in overall health across counties, due to many factors, ranging from individual behavior to quality of health care, to education and jobs, to access to healthy foods, and to quality of the air," said Dr. Patrick Remington, associate dean for public health, in the UW School of Medicine and Public Health.
The online report, available at http://www.countyhealthrankings.org includes a snapshot of each county in each state with a color-coded map comparing each county's overall health ranking. Researchers used five measures to assess the level of overall health or "health outcomes" for each county: the rate of people dying before age 75; the percent of people who report being in fair or poor health; the numbers of days people report being in poor physical and poor mental health; and the rate of low-birthweight infants.
The report then looks at a number of factors that affect people's health within four categories: health behaviors, clinical care, social and economic factors, and physical environment. Among the many factors considered are rates of adult smoking, adult obesity, number of uninsured adults, number of rates of high school graduation, and access to healthy foods.
"We need individuals and communities to become healthier, to not need as much health care," said Tim Size, Rural Wisconsin Health Cooperative executive director. "Grappling with your own county's rankings is a great place to start."
The Rankings also call attention to the fact that there's more to health than health care.
"The County Health Rankings provide a framework for partnerships between medicine and public health - as well as employers, educators, and community organizations - all with a goal to improve the health of the public," said Dr. Robert Golden, dean of the UW School of Medicine and Public Health.
Dr. Susan L. Turney, CEO of the Wisconsin Medical Society, says, "As physicians, caring for people is our top priority. By encouraging our patients to quit smoking, eat healthy, exercise regularly and take medications appropriately, we partner with our patients every day to achieve the best possible health outcomes.
"But many factors outside the exam room - things like education, our environment and access to resources - all contribute to good health," she said. "The County Health Rankings provide a valuable tool for physicians and other key stakeholders to pinpoint areas for improvement and develop strategies for achieving healthier communities."
Employers understand the importance of employee health to every aspect of their business success, said Cheryl DeMars, president and CEO of The Alliance, a not-for-profit, employer-owned cooperative that aims to help employers manage health care dollars while positively impacting their employees' health.
"The County Health Rankings help identify areas where improvement can be made that will favorably impact the health and wellbeing of the current and future workforce," DeMars said.
Date Published: 02/17/2010
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When Obama first took office as the 44th US president, many Americans hoped the symbolism of the first black man in the White House was a turning point in the country's deeply troubled racial history. Obama vowed to moderate the partisan anger engulfing the country, but the nation is only more divided four years later, perhaps as deeply as at any time since the US Civil War 150 years ago.
- Obama advisor McDonough to be named chief of staff
- Obama nominates Hagel as Pentagon chief
- Obama nominates Kerry for secretary of state
Obama was sworn in by Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts during a brief ceremony with his family in the White House Blue Room, meeting the legal requirement that presidents officially take office on Jan. 20. Because that date fell on a Sunday this year, the traditional ceremonies surrounding the start of a president's term were put off to Monday, which coincides this year with the birthday of revered civil rights leader Martin Luther King.
Obama made no special remarks at Sunday's ceremony, surrounded by portraits of former White House residents. He responded to a remark from one of his daughters, saying, "I did it." Out the south-facing windows was a view of the towering memorial to George Washington, the country's first president.
Obama family at swearing in by Justice Roberts (Photo: AP)
On Monday, he will repeat the oath and give his inaugural speech on the steps of the US Capitol before hundreds of thousands of people. He then makes the traditional journey, part of it on foot, down Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House. Fancy dress balls, fewer than in 2009, consume the evening hours.
While Obama convincingly won a second term, the jubilation that surrounded him four years ago is subdued this time around – a reality for second-term presidents. He guided the country through many crushing challenges after taking office in 2009: ending the Iraq war, putting the Afghan war on a course toward US withdrawal and saving the collapsing economy. He won approval for a sweeping health care overhaul. Yet onerous problems remain, and his success in resolving them will define his place in history.
He faces bitter confrontation with opposition Republicans over gun control, avoiding a default on the nation's debts, cutting the spiraling federal deficit and preventing Iran from building a nuclear weapon.
Joe Biden was sworn in for his second term as vice president earlier Sunday, taking the oath from Supreme Court Justice Sonya Sotomayor at his official residence at the US Naval Observatory.
Before taking the oath himself, Obama and his family attended church services at the historic Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church. Earlier, on a crisp and sunny winter day, Obama and Biden laid a wreath at Arlington National Cemetery.
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Gospel of Matthew Introduction
In A Nutshell
Well, hello. Welcome to the New Testament.
Our name is Shmoop and we'll be your NT tour guide. Our first stop is a little book called The Gospel According to Matthew. It's one of the four volumes in the New Testament that tells Jesus's life story. From cradle to grave—and beyond—Matthew's got you covered for all your Jesus-related needs.
Sure, Matthew is the first gospel, but that doesn't mean that it was written first. Actually, scholars are pretty sure that honor goes to Mark, who appears second among the four gospels. Sorry, Mark. But you know what Jesus says: the first shall be, well, not quite first.
So why does Matthew get the top spot? Maybe because his take on Jesus functions as a nice little bridge between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. See, Matthew is easily the most Jewish of the gospels. He and his community come from a Jewish background, so he's big into a Jesus who quotes the Hebrew Bible, debates Torah with other Jews, and fulfills all kinds of Jewish prophecy (like a little one about a messiah descended from King David).
Not only is Matthew looking to his Jewish past; he's also focused on the future. Specifically, the future of the up-and-coming church. And Matthew's got loads of thoughts about how to get this thing started. Need a rock to build your church on? That Peter sure looks like a sturdy guy. Wondering if you should forgive a fellow believer up to seven times? Try aiming a little higher, slacker.
Now join us as we venture into the life of Jesus. We promise it will be fun. And painless, too. Just keep your arms and legs inside the Bible at all times. Thank you for choosing Shmoop for all your literary analysis needs.
Why Should I Care?
Well, imagine all those awesome teachers rolled into one. Got it? Okay. Now imagine a teacher a thousand times better than that. Good. Now, you're starting to get close to Jesus. Seriously, this guy was good. If there were a Teacher of the Millennium award, he'd win it. Both times.
Whatever you believe about Jesus's divinity, it's hard to deny that the man knew how to hold a room (or a mountain for that matter). You'd never catch people dozing off in his class or doodling in the margins of their notebooks. How did he do it? Well, he was a master storyteller. He made parables into an artform and he mesmerized people with his moral teachings. Not to mention he really knew his way around a metaphor.
When Jesus spoke, people listened. And, as it often goes, the students didn't always like what they heard. There were plenty of people in the back of class whispering and throwing spitballs: in this case, the Pharisees. Like a lot of naysayers throughout history, they didn't appreciate some of the things their teacher had to say. Specifically, the things he had to say about how they would not be joining him in the kingdom of heaven.
In the end, the Pharisees got their way. But Jesus's legacy lived on. His students continued with his work. They taught, even when he wasn't there to guide them. And they made it their mission for everyone in the world to hear his words. They pretty much did everything except stand on their desks and announce, "O, Captain! My Captain!"
Professor Lupin might have inspired his students to be brave, and Mr. Keating might have challenged them to dig deep, but Jesus's teachings inspired billions and billions of people around the world to believe he was God.
So yeah. If that doesn't earn him an apple on his desk, we don't know what will.
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Researchers at the Max Planck Society say they have discovered how to use MRI to acquire moving images of organs and joints in real time. According to the release:
Up to now, it was therefore almost impossible to image moving organs using MRI. Max Planck researchers from Goettingen have now succeeded in significantly reducing the time required for recording images – to just one fiftieth of a second. With this breakthrough, the dynamics of organs and joints can be filmed “live” for the first time: movements of the eye and jaw as well as the bending knee and the beating heart.
Above is a video of live movements during speech. The findings have been published in the journal NMR in Biomedicine.
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New hope for Sumatran rhino in Borneo
The female Sumatran rhino, which is estimated to be between four and five years old, was safely captured in a pit trap in Kutai Barat in East Kalimantan on 12 March.
“This is an exciting discovery and a major conservation success,” said Dr Efransjah, CEO of WWF-Indonesia. “We now have proof that a species once thought extinct in Kalimantan still roams the forests, and we will now strengthen our efforts to protect this extraordinary species.”
In 2013, a WWF survey team first found evidence that the species was not extinct in Kalimantan by identifying footprints and capturing an image of a rhino on a camera trap in the same forest. Since then,15 Sumatran rhinos have been identified in three populations in Kutai Barat.
The Sumatran rhino is one of two rhino species that exist in Indonesia. It is estimated that less than 100 Sumatran rhinos remain in the wild, mainly on the island of Sumatra. The rhinos face serious threats from poaching, and habitat loss due to mining, plantations and logging. The wild population of Sumatran rhinos in the Malaysian part of Borneo was declared extinct last year.
The captured female rhino is being held in a temporary enclosure before being translocated by helicopter to a new home – a protected forest about 150 km from the capture site. The rhino's new home is envisioned as the second Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary in Indonesia.
“This is a race against time for rhino conservation. Providing a safe home is the only hope for the the survival of the Sumatran rhino for many generations to come,” said Dr Efransjah. “WWF will work continuously with the Sumatran rhino conservation team for the protection of the Sumatran rhino population in Kalimantan.”
Working as part of the Sumatran Rhino Conservation Team established by the Indonesia Ministry of Environment and Forestry, WWF and other team members are working to translocate at least three rhinos from their current habitat to the sanctuary, where they will be safer and can establish a breeding population.
“This unprecedented discovery and unparalleled operation boosts our hope to save one of the most endangered species and an iconic symbol of the majestic Asian rainforests. This is an exciting moment in our efforts to save the world’s amazing biodiversity,” said Marco Lambertini, Director General of WWF International.
“The entire WWF network commends the Indonesian Government, WWF-Indonesia and all partners involved for their commitment and for this ground-breaking operation,” added Lambertini.
In more good news, Indonesia also recently announced an increase in the population of the critically endangered Javan rhino, which only survives in Ujung Kulon National Park. Three new calves brought the number of Javan rhinos up to 63, from the 60 announced in September 2015.
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If extraterrestrial life exists near dying stars, there may be a way to detect it within the next decade, according to a new theoretical study co-authored by Harvard astronomy professor Abraham “Avi” Loeb.
The study, which was also authored by Tel Aviv University professor Dan Maoz, developed a method for identifying oxygen in the atmospheres of Earth-like planets orbiting the class of cooling stars known as “white dwarfs.”
While many previous studies have proposed methods to investigate the possibility of life on the planets of stars in the middle of their lifetimes, like our sun, Loeb said that none of these proposals were “practical in the immediate future.”
In contrast, Loeb’s proposal uses NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, which is slated to launch in 2018.
Within just five hours, the telescope would be able to detect whether the atmospheres of planets surrounding white dwarfs contain oxygen using infrared analysis.
Harvard astronomy professor Jonathan “Josh” E. Grindlay said that although this study offers “a very reasonable approach,” it is “very unlikely” that this particular method will yield the discovery of extraterrestrial life.
In their study, Loeb and Maoz estimated that the examination of 500 white dwarfs will yield at least one terrestrial planet with the potential for life.
Because white dwarfs and the Earth are comparable in size, a planet of the Earth’s volume would block the white dwarf’s light once in every orbit. Due to this pattern, only a “relatively modest effort” would be required for astronomers to detect white dwarfs with planets, Loeb said.
But due to the relative dimness of white dwarfs, it is unlikely that 500 will be quickly detected, Grindlay said.
No white dwarf planets have been discovered yet. These planets must be detected before Loeb and Maoz’s method can be applied.
Loeb said that he is “100 percent sure” that the telescope will be available for the project after white dwarf planets are identified.
“The question of whether there is life outside the earth is perhaps the most exciting question that astronomers can answer,” Loeb said. “If we find a positive answer to this question, it would have major implications for not just science, but philosophy, religion, everything. It would change our conception of our place in the universe.”
More Stars Found in Universe300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000—that is the latest estimate of the number of stars in the universe.
Harvard Researchers Discover Hypervelocity Planets
Researchers Identify Earth-Like Planets in Solar System
Few Upsides to “Upside Down”While "Upside Down" feels like a hodgepodge of elements from other, more successful movies, it still manages to be entertaining. The acting is unimpressive but inoffensive, and the special effects are able to keep the audience engaged through compelling visuals.
Astronomers Discover Exoplanets Covered by OceansHarvard astronomers have discovered two exoplanets in the recently found Kepler-62 planetary system that are covered in endless oceans of water, making them viable candidates for sustaining life.
Researchers Discover New Earth-Sized PlanetA team of scientists, including Harvard Lecturer in Astronomy David W. Latham, discovered Kepler 78b, a planet outside of our solar system that is a “virtual twin of Earth by astronomical standards."
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Linux Operating System
I. Course Prefix/Number: CIS 118
Course Name: Linux Operating System
Credits: 2 (2 lecture; 0 lab)
III. Course (Catalog) Description
IV. Learning Objectives
- Explain the basic Linux operating system concepts and terminology
- Create a useful file management system
- Demonstrate the use of basic Linux commands
- Demonstrate the use of Linux editors
V. Academic Integrity
• plagiarism (turning in work not written by you, or lacking proper citation),
• falsification and fabrication (lying or distorting the truth),
• helping others to cheat,
• unauthorized changes on official documents,
• pretending to be someone else or having someone else pretend to be you,
• making or accepting bribes, special favors, or threats, and
• any other behavior that violates academic integrity.
There are serious consequences to violations of the academic integrity policy. Oakton's policies and procedures provide students a fair hearing if a complaint is made against you. If you are found to have violated the policy, the minimum penalty is failure on the assignment and, a disciplinary record will be established and kept on file in the office of the Vice President for Student Affairs for a period of 3 years.
Details of the Code of Academic Conduct can be found in the Student Handbook.
VI. Sequence of Topics
1. History and development
2. Current versions and releases
a. Commands and Utilities
b. System Calls and Library Routines
c. System Administration Utilities
d. Documentation Preparation
e. Languages and Support Tools
B. File systems
1. File names
3. File and directory directed commands
4. Protection and privileges
1. Online manual
2. Command processors (Shells)
c. C shells
f. version specific
5. Linux communication
D. Major Add-ons(Third Party Sources)
3. Popular packages
VII. Methods of Instruction
Course may be taught as face-to-face, media-based, hybrid or online course.
VIII. Course Practices Required
B. Writing: All assignments must be documented to explain the procedures being used, how the command is to be entered, expected input and output.
C. Oral presentations: Optional.
D. Mathematics: High school algebra.
E. Computer use: All lab assignments must be done on any available computer accessing Linux from OCCNet.
F. Lab practices: The students will be allowed to develop their assignments on whatever computer is available to them but will be required to demonstrate capability on the current equipment in the assigned lab.
G. Fieldwork: None.
H. Clinical: None.
I. Other: Extra credit can be earned by attending local conferences or meetings and presenting an acceptable report.
IX. Instructional Materials
X. Methods of Evaluating Student Progress
C. Lab assignments
XI. Other Course Information
If you have a documented learning, psychological, or physical disability you may be entitled to reasonable academic accommodations or services. To request accommodations or services, contact the Access and Disability Resource Center at the Des Plaines or Skokie campus. All students are expected to fulfill essential course requirements. The College will not waive any essential skill or requirement of a course or degree program.
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March 5, 1836, Macoupin County, Illinois
Dec. 12, 1929, Tucson, Arizona
Goodnight was a cattle rancher in the American West, perhaps the
best known rancher in Texas. He is sometimes known as the "father
of the Texas Panhandle." Essayist and historian J. Frank Dobie said
that Goodnight "approached greatness more nearly than any other
cowman of history."
What do you know about
Goodnight? Try this
US Old West History Made Easy Quiz. "Check
Your Answers" at the end of the page.
1. Goodnight moved to Texas in 1846 with his mother and stepfather,
Hiram Daugherty. In 1856, he became a cowboy and served with the local
militia, fighting against Comanche raiders. A year later, in 1857,
Goodnight joined the Texas Rangers. Goodnight is also known for guiding
Texas Rangers to the Indian camp where Cynthia Ann Parker was
recaptured, and for later making a treaty with her son, Quanah Parker.
2. What side did he fight for during the Civil War?
3. What vehicle was Goodnight credited inventing?
- Model T
4. In 1866, who did he form a partnership with and drove their first
herd of cattle northward?
- Oliver Loving
- Johnny Ringo
- Rowdy Yates
5. On July 26, 1870, Goodnight married a teacher from Weatherford,
located west of Fort Worth. Who was the teacher?
- Beth McDonald
- Mary Ann "Molly" Dyer
- Amanda Moore
6. In order to take advantage of available grass, timber, water, and
game, he founded in 1876 what was to become the first Texas Panhandle
ranch, the JA Ranch. Where was the ranch?
- Lubbock River Canyon
- Tom Mix River
- Palo Duro Canyon
7. What was he known for preserving?
- American Bison (buffalo)
8. Goodnight's wife Molly died in April 1926. On March 5, 1927,
Goodnight turned ninety-one and married his 26-year old wife. What was
- Lydia Pickle
- Corinne Goodnight
- Kitty Russell
9. He never learned to read or write but had his wives write letters
for him to various individuals, including Quanah Parker.
10. Where is Charles Goodnight buried?
- Goodnight Cemetery , Goodnight (Armstrong County), Texas
- Hillsboro City Cemetery, Hillsboro, Texas
- Longstreet Cemetery, Grimes County, Texas
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2012 finisher medals honor strength and endurance of 1930s
During the 1930s, America experienced some of the most difficult scenarios in its history – natural disasters, world wars and financial turmoil. But when 1936 arrived, many Americans were starting to sense a small glimmer of hope. The country was in the beginning stages of recovery from the Great Depression. President Roosevelt’s famous fireside chat radio broadcasts echoed throughout homes across the nation, offering empathy and inspiration. Margaret Mitchell’s passionate novel Gone With the Wind was published and became wildly famous for inspiring Americans to “never go hungry again.”
More than 80 years later, the Williams Route 66 Marathon is proud to reveal its 2012 medal, with the 1930s in mind. The 2012 Williams Route 66 Marathon finisher medals honor the strength and beauty of the 1936 Dodge pickup truck. Much like a marathon runner, this truck has a rare level of endurance and power. When it comes down to “survival of the fittest,” both the truck and the runner stand strong at the finish line. In the 1930s, automobiles were more than just durable, they became sleek pieces of artwork – another shared trait of the 2012 medal, which features a smooth, art deco style. With the help of Maxwell Medals & Awards, the marathon directors designed the 2012 medals with translucent color fills over chrome patterns to create an enhanced 3D effect.
“When designing our finisher’s medals, we always have our participants in mind. Whether they run or walk their perseverance and dedication to training are the same. We wanted to design a medal that is worthy of their efforts, while honoring the history of Route 66 embodying the art deco style of Tulsa,” said Kim Hann, Assistant Executive Director of the Williams Route 66 Marathon.
The Williams Route 66 Marathon, presented by Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Oklahoma, has a history of offering its participants award-winning medals. Over the past three years, the marathon’s medals have been named first, second and third among U.S. marathon medals, according to Marathon & Beyond magazine.
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To some people, maybe even a lot of people right now, the idea of “taking back our government” really resonates. But take it back from what? From whom? From where?
Generally “taking back our government” denotes wresting it— the government — from vague powers out there somewhere that have somehow absconded with what is rightfully ours. But to Debbie Cook, current board president of the Post Carbon Institute, and the former mayor of Huntington Beach, California, “taking back our government” is a phrase fraught with misunderstanding and loaded with misdirected criticism.
“We are the government,” says Cook, noting the long history in the US of democratic representation from the local level on up. Cook argues that particularly in our own neighborhoods and small cities citizens can make a difference, but only if they get involved. And if they complain and still don’t get involved? She has little tolerance for that.
“I find it kind of frightening this trend toward criticizing the government and blaming someone else when we’re the problem. Government is good at technical problems, fixing roads and dams, but government can’t fix human behavior,” she says. “Folks aren’t willing to get involved, and they need to.”
Cook argues that the more citizens get involved with local government the more they will see that most localities face tough problems without easy solutions. The answers that do come, she says, are often complex compromises that naturally require negotiations between various factions and interests. This may seem obvious to those with experience in electoral politics, but to the average citizen, government still seems to be an issue that leaves them feeling frustrated, helpless, and alienated.
To overcome that sense of the unknown, Cook’s advice is the same, get involved. She says that individuals, “need to recognize that they are the government” and have a rightful place in it. That doesn’t mean there will be instant results and immediate accountability. Instead Cook likens local government to organic farming, explaining that you have to put in the time, nutrients, management, and care to get good results, which may take time to yield a good harvest. But you can’t begin without first turning the soil and planting some seeds.
Most of all, she sees the need for a cultural shift. So many people take the view that because they want what they want, and it makes perfect sense to them, the rest of the world should be ready to bend and comply after you bang your hand on the podium at a city council meeting. Cook says it takes time to grasp how things work in the slow moving world of governance, and time to introduce yourself to the current players. The culture of instant gratification and the machinations of government are anathema.
“Seek first to understand, and then to be understood,” advises Cook. And she says, look into the many different ways to influence local action and policy.
Though once a mayor, now Cook finds satisfaction as an activist pushing on the levers of local government from a different angle. She also serves on an energy committee of a task force for city government looking at planning and issues in transportation. She explains that individuals can bring forth ideas and issues in energy and take it to a city council in the hopes to sway policymakers on the issues you’re passionate about. That includes pushing for pocket parks, community gardening, bike paths, green roofs, and other low-energy or carbon offset plans that resonate with you, fit into your time, and showcase your abilities.All the better, if you’re building community will by lobbying your idea around, or perhaps getting up a petition or making a presentation to local groups or the council.
But the one thing you shouldn’t do? Don’t just gripe or throw your hands up in despair if you’re not willing to put in the elbow grease and face time that could help generate a different outcome or raise new ideas. And gird against disappointment by thinking realistically while also imagining creatively, particularly during a climate of increasing budget cuts.
Cook says to think about what’s doable, and build on gains. “A solution is not a solution if it is not affordable.”
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Human biology is the scientific discipline the studies of the physical or biological component of the human being. It is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on anatomy and physiology, medicine, nutrition, genetics, reproduction, and anthropology.
Homo sapiens is the species name given to modern humans, which means wise man. Modern humans generally differs from other members of the taxonomic genus homo in having a lighter skeletal build and larger brains, although these characteristics still overlap with the normal range found in living humans.
Seminar by Chris Ashcraft at the Seattle Creation Conference, September 26, 2015.
Anatomy and Physiology
- Main article: Human body
Human anatomy and physiology is the study of the human body, its structural components and their function. Although the human body is a single entity, it is made up of billions of smaller structures of four major kinds: cells, tissues, organs, and system. Humans are arguably the most complex organism on Earth. Billions of microscopic parts, each with its own identity, work together in an organized manner for the benefit of the total being. Such is the body that God has created for us. In Psalm 139, David declares his body is wonderful evidence of God's creative love. Its wonderful design serves to provide evidence of God's creative power and the love He has for us.
- Main Article: Sexual reproduction
Human reproduction is a biological process by which descendants are created by combining of the parent's genetic material. Sexually reproduction involves two different adult sexes (male and female) that produce sex cells (sperm, ovum) through a special type of cell division called meiosis. These cells possess only half of the DNA of normal cells, and are genetically unique from all others in the body due to genetic recombination. Offspring are then produced following the fusion of the sex cells to form a zygote. After fertilization, the resulting zygote is in possession of DNA from both parents, and all the information required to build the child.
- Main Article: Genetics
Genetics is the branch of biology that studies heredity and trait variation in organisms. It is concerned with how particular qualities or traits are transmitted from parents to offspring, and the molecular basis of those traits. Geneticists study genetic material (DNA) and mechanisms in attempt to determine how genes are related to variations of inherited characteristics among related or similar organisms. Geneticists also study the basis and possible treatment for genetic disorders such as Cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, Hemophilia, or Sickle cell anemia.
Human genetic material is made up of two distinct components: the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome. The human nuclear genome contains 24 distinct linear DNA chromosomes (22 autosomes + 2 sex determining X and Y). The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule separate from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial genome is very small, it codes for some very important proteins.
- Main article: Medical science
Medical science is the field of research that deals with the maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of disease (also simply known as Medicine). Most medical scientists conduct biomedical research and development to advance knowledge of life processes and living organisms, including viruses, bacteria, and other infectious agents. Past research has resulted in advances in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of many diseases. Basic medical research continues to build the foundation for new vaccines, drugs, and treatment procedures. Medical scientists engage in laboratory research, clinical investigation, technical writing, drug application review, and related activities.
- Main Article: Anthropology
Traditional Biological Anthropology or physical anthropology is an evolution-based study of human biological variation in time and space; including human evolution, genetics, as well as human growth and development. The evolutionary view holds that humanity evolved from ape-like ancestors, and therefore this discipline frequently includes the study of living and extinct primates as part of its study (see paleoanthropology).
By contrast, creation anthropology is an effort to study humans from the perspective that we are the result of divine creation. Like other fields of creation science, anthropology relies upon religious texts for insights into the origin and nature of man. Biblical creation-based anthropology holds that humanity was created by God as described in the book of Genesis, and was formed in the "image of God". It acknowledges that humans were affected by key events described in the Bible, and in principle deals with the nature of man both before and after the fall, the global flood, the Tower of Babel, and the Messiah.
- Homo sapiens Smithsonian Institute
- Introduction to the Human Body SEER Training Modules, National Cancer Institute.
- What is a Cell? by the National Center for Biotechnology Information
- Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Medical Scientists by U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Body by Design by Alan L. Gillen. Masterbooks, ISBN: 0890512965
- Human Body - Accident or Design? By Wayne Jackson, Courier Publications 1993, 2000 (Expanded Edition) ISBN 0967804434
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Paul Frame, Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Radioluminescent paint consists of a radioactive material mixed together with a luminescent crystalline powder. The first radioactive material to be used was radium-226 (Ra-226), but it hasn't been employed since the 1970s, at least in the U.S. Today, tritium (H-3) and promethium-147 (Pm-147) are the radionuclides of choice. Other radionuclides have also been used, e.g., strontium-90 (Sr-90) and carbon-14 (C-14). Zinc sulfide powder has been the most widely used luminescent material.
The light emitted by the paint is due to the radiation energy deposited in the luminescent crystals by alpha and/or beta particles. Next to no light is due to gamma rays.
Some of the radiation energy deposited in the crystals promotes electrons from the valance band to the conduction band (these are different energy levels of electrons in the crystal). Electrons in the valance band are fixed in place, but they become mobile in the conduction band. Once they have been promoted to the conduction band by the radiation, the electrons move to positively charged activator sites (e.g., copper, manganese, or silver impurities). When the electrons reach an activator, it is left in an excited state. When the activator deexcites, a photon of light is emitted. The greater the number of alpha or beta particles striking the crystals, and the greater the energy deposited in them, the brighter the light.
Radium-226 is an alpha emitter with a 1600 year half-life. It emits a gamma ray at 186 keV. Radium decays into a number of short lived decay products that can usually be expected to be present at, or close to, the same activity as the radium. These decay products (Rn-222, Po-218, Pb-214, Bi-214, Po-214, Pb-210, Bi-210, and Po-210) emit alphas, betas and gamma rays.
A Little History
By itself, radium in high enough concentrations will glow blue, a phenomenon first observed by Marie and Pierre Curie. That the radiation emitted by radium would cause various materials , such as zinc sulfide, to fluoresce was first recognized by Henri Becquerel. The invention of radioluminescent paint can be attributed to William J Hammer who mixed radium with zinc sulfide (in 1902), and applied the paint to various items including watches and clock dials. In a case of bad judgment, he failed to patent the idea. Recognizing a good opportunity, a gemologist at Tiffany & Company, by the name of George Kunz, did patent it. Kunz and Charles Baskerville, a chemist, made their paint by mixing radium-barium carbonate with zinc sulfide and linseed oil.
At that time, at least in the US, radioluminescent paint saw little application. It stayed in the bottle. But in Europe, especially Switzerland, things were different. Quoting Ross Mullner "there were so many radium painters in that country that it was common to recognize them on the streets even on the darkest nights because of the glow around them: their hair sparkled almost like a halo."
In the US, the first company to produce radioluminescent paint was the Radium Luminous Material Corporation in Newark New Jersey. It was founded in 1914 by Sabin von Sochocky and George Willis, both physicians. Their operations expanded tremendously when the United States entered World War I, and in 1917 they moved from Newark to Orange, New Jersey. They also got into the business of mining and producing radium. In 1921, they changed their name to the U.S. Radium Corporation.
The brand name for the radioluminescent paint produced by US Radium Corporation was "Undark." Standard Chemical Company used the name "Luna" and the Cold Light Manufacturing Company, a subsidiary of the Radium Company of Colorado, made "Marvelite."
According to NCRP Report No. 95, radium has not been used in radioluminescent watches since 1968, or in clocks since 1978 (these dates are approximate).
Quoting Ed Landa: "zinc sulfide was mixed with a radium salt to yield products containing about 25 to 300 ug [one ug is essentially the same as one uCi] of radium element per gram. The more concentrated preparations (generally containing 215 ug of radium per gram to meet British Admiralty standards) were used on aircraft and ship instrument dials, while lower-grade materials containing about 50 to 100 ug of radium per gram of mixture were used on watches, switch markings, and other devices requiring less critical reading." According to a Department of Commerce Information Circular from 1930, the paint might contain "from 0.7 to 3 and even 4 milligrams of radium element to 100 grams of zinc sulfide. Impurities may be added to the zinc sulfide as follows: Cadmium, 0.05 per cent; copper, 0.001 per cent; manganese, 0.0002 per cent."
While the radium-zinc sulfide mixture could be placed directly in glass vial and used, a paint had to include some sort of adhesive, e.g., lacquer or gum binder. No more adhesive than necessary would be used because the adhesive would absorb some of the alpha particle energy before it could be deposited in the zinc sulfide.
The radium was usually in the form of radium sulfate - the latter is less soluble than the other radium salts that were available (radium bromide and radium chloride).
The Deterioration of the Paint's Luminosity
Over time, the intensity of the glow from the paint will decrease because of the damage caused to the ZnS crystals by the alpha particles. Since radium-226 has a 1600 year half life, its decay is not a significant factor. Robley Evans once told me that he could estimate how old radioluminescent paint was by examining the size of the ZnS crystals under a microscope. As I understand it, the crystals actually begin to fragment because of the damage caused by the alpha particles. The damage presumably prevents electrons in the conduction band from reaching the activator sites (e.g., copper, silver) where the light would be emitted. The higher the activity of the radium-226 (and the brighter the luminescence) the faster the deterioration. One early report by Charles Viol stated that the reduction in the luminescence was due, at least in part, to a radiation-induced discoloration of the zinc sulfide crystals. He also indicated that the damage could be reversed by heating the paint. This explanation is plausible and might provide a partial explanation for the decreased luminosity of old paint, but I have my doubts. One of the best kept trade secrets of the various manufacturers was how they minimized the inevitable decrease in the luminosity of their paint. A couple of the factors that would affect this decrease in luminosity would be the amount of the radium, and the size and concentration of the zinc sulfide crystals. I suspect that the type and concentration of the activator sites would also play a role.
In the 1920s, "mesothorium" was sometimes added to the paint - mesothorium is the historical name given to radium-228 (5.8 year half-life). Ra-228 is a beta emitter, but over time it decays into thorium-228 (1.9 year half-life), an alpha emitter. The result is that the intensity of the light from the paint will increase over the first five years or so due to the in-growth of the Th-228. The practice of adding mesothorium ended by 1930. Any mesothorium that might have been used will no longer be present, it has long since decayed away.
Radium-226 Activity In Timepieces
The activity in timepieces varies tremendously depending on the size of the hands and the dials as well as the concentration of radium in the paint.
The following table comes from "The Use of Radium in Consumer Products," a 1968 publication of the US Public Health Service.
Publication Average Radium Activity per Watch Range of Radium Activity
British Medical Research Council (1956) 0.2 uCi
Glaser, Germany (1957) 0.035 uCi 0.03 - 0.042 uCi
(1958) 0.045 - 0.1 uCi
Joyet, Switzerland (1958) 0.36 uCi 0.06 - 0.81 uCi
(1960) 0.144 uCi 0.106 - 4.460 uCi
Flatby & Koren, Norway (1959) 0.19 uCi
Seelentag & Klotz, Germany (1959) 0.04 uCi 0.008 - 0.095 uCi
Seelentag & Schmier, Germany (1961) 0.014 uCi 0.002 - 0.885 uCi
In one study of 18 pocket watches, the National Center for Radiological Health measured radium contents of 0.6 to 1.39 uCi.
There is almost no information available about the average activity of radium in clocks, nevertheless, it is known that the average activity in the clock dials from one manufacturer during the early 1970s was 0.5 uCi.
Various Uses of Radioluminescent Paint
The April 1920 Issue of Scientific American noted that more than 4,000,000 watches and clocks had been produced using radium-containing radioluminescent paint. The following items were identified in the article as containing radioluminescent paint: house numbers, keyhole locators, ship's compasses, telegraph dials, mine signs, steam gages, pistol sights, poison bottle indicators, bedroom slipper buttons, furniture locator buttons, theater seat numbers, automobile steering-wheel locks, luminous fish bait, and glowing eyes for toy dolls and animals.
NCRP Report 56 indicated that the estimated average dose equivalent to the gonads of an individual wearing a radium-containing watch was approximately 3 mrem per year. The estimated dose from a watch containing 4.5 uCi of radium, a very large amount, would be 310 mrem per year to the gonads. Note that the associated risk here is much lower than if the dose had been the same over the entire body.
In the previously mentioned study of pocket watches by the National Center for Radiological Health, measurements using TLDs and a human phantom indicated that the annual dose to the gonads was 60 mrem (assuming that the watch was worn 16 hours per day).
Based on the results of one survey conducted in Tennessee, the average whole body exposure due to a radium-containing radioluminescent clock might be on the order of 7 to 9 mrem per year. Exposure rates to the head would be somewhat higher, possibly 5-10 times higher, because these are usually alarm clocks that would be positioned on a night stand near the head of the bed.
Radium Dial Painters
During the 1920s, the radium paint was applied to clock and watch components in a variety of ways: painting it on with a brush, painting it with a pen or stylus, applying it with a mechanical press, and dusting. The latter procedure involved dusting a freshly painted dial with radioluminescent powder so that the powder would stick to the paint.
The original practice of using the mouth to put a point on a brush is described as follows by Robley Evans: "In painting the numerals on a fine watch, for example, an effort to duplicate the shaded script numeral of a professional penman was made. The 2, 3, 6, and 8 were hardest to make correctly, for the fine lines which contrast with the heavy strokes in these numerals were usually too broad, even with the use of the finest, clipped brushes. To rectify these broad parts the brush was cleaned and then drawn along the line like an eraser to remove the excess paint. For wiping and tipping the brush the workers found that that either a cloth or their fingers were too harsh, but by wiping the brush clean between their lips the proper erasing point could be obtained. This led to the so-called practice of "tipping" or pointing the brush in the lips. In some plants the brush was also tipped before painting a numeral. The paint so wiped off the brush was swallowed."
It might be worth noting that tipping the brushes was not something the dial painters just decided to do. At least in some plants they were actually trained how to do it. In fact, the instructors sometimes swallowed some of the paint to show it was harmless. It has been estimated that a dial painter would ingest a few hundred to a few thousand microcuries of radium per year. While most of the ingested radium would pass through the body, some fraction of it would be absorbed and accumulate in the skeleton. Later on, Robley Evans would establish a maximum permissible body burden for radium of 0.1 uCi.
As a result of the ingestion of the radium, many of the dial painters developed medical problems of varying degrees of severity. The first deaths occurred in the mid 1920s, and by 1926 the practice of tipping the brushes seems to have ended.
Tritium (H-3) is a low energy beta emitter with a 12.3 year half-life. It does not emit gamma rays.
For a short time during the 1970s, tritium containing gas tube light sources (GTLS) were used to backlight liquid crystal display (LCD) watches. At that time, a typical activity for GTLS was 200 mCi. The sealed tubes, made of borosilicate glass, were 0.5 to 1.0 cm long, and one or two millimeters in diameter. The inside wall of the tube was coated with the luminescent material while the tritium was present as a gas. Since then, similar but smaller tubes attached to the hands and dial faces of analog watches have been used. I don't have much information about the activities in these watches but it seems that they range from about 25 to 100 mCi.
When incorporated into radioluminescent paint, much lower activities (2 mCi) are employed. The tritium, which is really hydrogen, is incorporated into a polymer that also contains the luminescent material (usually ZnS).
The dose to wearers of tritium-containing radioluminescent watches is due to the leakage of tritium from the device and the tritium then being absorbed through the skin. The betas emitted by tritium are of too low an energy to penetrate the watch case and contribute to the dose. Measured leakage rates from watches employing tritium containing paint were up to 83 nCi (0.083 uCi) per day in one study, and 1 to 370 pCi per minute in another (0.0014 to 0.5 uCi per day). The typical release rate from watches using tritium sealed in glass tubes (e.g., GTLS) is less than 0.00025 uCi per hour. As such, the H-3 activities in GTLS might be higher than those in paint, but the resulting doses are somewhat lower.
Estimates of the doses to individuals wearing tritium-containing watches vary:
Fitzsimmons (1972) 0.2 to 1.8 mrem per year with an average of 0.6 mrem per year
Buckley et al (1980) 0.06 mrem
Moghissi and Carter (1975) 0.8 urem/27 uCi. This equates to 0.06 mrem per year for a watch with 2 mCi
NUREG-1717 calculated both the dose to the skin in direct contact with the watch case, and the dose due the absorption through the skin of tritium in the general room air. The latter dose not only applies to the wearer of the watch, it also applies to anyone in the same room as the wearer of the watch. Assuming that the watch employed 2 mCi of tritium in paint, and that the watch was worn 16 hours per day, the average dose to the 10 cm2 of skin in contact with the watch was calculated to be 200 mrem. This can be converted into an effective dose equivalent (essentially a whole body dose) of 0.02 mrem per year. The effective dose equivalent due to the tritium in the general room air was essentially the same, i.e., 0.02 mrem. The total effective dose equivalent to the individual wearing the watch would therefore be 0.04 mrem per year.
Promethium-147 (Pm-147) is a low energy beta emitter with a 2.6 year half-life. It emits a gamma ray at 121 keV in a small fraction of its decays.
The Pm-147, mixed together with ZnS in a polymer paint, is either an insoluble oxide or is incorporated into ceramic microspheres.
For a watch or clock containing Pm-147, the activity is approximately 0.05 mCi (50 uCi).
The dose to an individual from a Pm-147 containing timepiece is due to the emission of Bremmstrahlung and gamma rays. The low energy beta particles cannot penetrate the case.
According to NUREG-1717, a person continuously wearing a watch containing the maximum allowable level of Pm-147 would receive less than 400 mrem to a small area of skin on the wrist and less than 1 mrem to the gonads. NUREG-1717 also calculated the effective dose equivalent to the wearer of a Pm-147 containing watch using two scenarios. In one, the effective dose equivalent was estimated to be 0.2 mrem per year. In the other scenario, the estimated effective dose equivalent was 0.4 mrem per year. The estimated effective dose equivalent to a homeowner due to a clock containing Pm-147 was 0.002 mrem per year. For the purpose of these calculations, the activity was assumed to be 100 uCi per timepiece (watch or clock).
The National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) of Great Britain estimated that the use of a Pm-147 containing pocket watch would result a dose to the gonads of up to 0.2 mrem and a maximum dose of 35 mrem to the skin.
Sr-90 has not, at least to my knowledge, been used in timepieces. Nevertheless, in the early 1950s the U.S. military began to use Sr-90 instead of Ra-226 in its radioluminous personnel and deck markers. Sr-90 is a pure beta emitter (although there can be substantial bremsstrahlung production) with a 30 year half-life. The high energy betas associated with Sr-90 are actually produced by its short-lived decay product, Y-90. Sr-90 and Y-90 are almost always present together in the same activities (i.e., in secular equilibrium).
Strontium had three major advantages over radium: a greater variety of luminescent colors were possible with strontium than radium, the gradual decrease in luminous intensity was minimal because strontium's beta particles did less damage to the zinc sulfide crystals that radium's alpha particles, and the photon (bremsstrahlung) emissions from strontium were less of a safety concern than the gamma rays from radium.
The regulations set forth by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in 10 CFR 30.15 state that an individual does not need a license to possess timepieces if the following specifications are not exceeded:
(i) 25 millicuries of tritium per timepiece,
5 millicuries of tritium per hand,
15 millicuries of tritium per dial (bezels when used shall be considered
as part of the dial),
100 microcuries of promethium 147 per watch or 200 microcuries of
promethium 147 per any other timepiece,
(v) 20 microcuries of promethium 147 per watch hand or 40 microcuries of promethium 147 per other timepiece hand,
60 microcuries of promethium 147 per watch dial or 120 microcuries of
promethium 147 per other timepiece dial (bezels when used shall be
considered as part of the dial),
(vii) The levels of radiation from hands and dials containing promethium 147 will not exceed, when measured through 50 milligrams per square centimeter of absorber: (A) For wrist watches, 0.1 millirad per hour at 10 centimeters from any surface, (B) For pocket watches, 0.1 millirad per hour at 1 centimeter from any surface, (C) For any other timepiece, 0.2 millirad per hour at 10 centimeters from any surface.
Note that it is possible to petition the NRC under the provisions of 10 CFR 30.19 to produce timepieces with activities exceeding those in 10 CFR 30.15.
US Public Health Service. The Use of Radium in Consumer Products. MORP 68-5. 1968.
Arthur Keane. Radio-active Luminous Paints. Scientific American Supplement. 84: 126-127; August 25, 1917.
Ed Landa. Buried Treasure to Buried Waste. Colorado School of Mines Quarterly 82 (2); 1987.
Ross Mullner. Deadly Glow. The Radium Dial Worker Tragedy. American Public Health Association. 1989.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Radiation Exposure from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources. NCRP Report No. 56. 1977.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources. NCRP Report No. 95. 1987.
National Radiological Protection Board. Board Statement on Approval of Consumer Goods Containing Radioactive Substances. Vol 3 (2); 1992.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Systematic Radiological Assessment of Exemptions for Source and Byproduct Materials. NUREG-1717, June 2001.
Louis Schwartz et al. Health Aspects of Radium Dial Painting I, II, III, and IV. Journal of Industrial Hygiene Vol 15 Sept 1913: 362-382; Vol 15 November 1913: 433-455.
Charles Viol. The Commercial Production and Uses of Radium. J. of Chemical Education 3(7): 757-772; 1926.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Radium. Information Circular. I.C. 6312. August 1930.
Copyright 1999, Oak Ridge Associated Universities
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| 0.954803 | 678 | 2.796875 | 3 |
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