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= = = <unk> advantages = = =

rowson argues that both white and black have certain advantages

= = = = white 's advantages = = = =

according to rowson white 's first advantage is that the advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that white can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty ) he has more control over the pace and direction of the game and he has a ' second serve ' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing second white begins the game with some initiative although rowson regards this as a psychological rather than a positional advantage and whether it leads to a positional advantage depends on the relative skill of the players third some players are able to use the initiative to play a kind of powerful ' serve and volley ' chess in which black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess fourth if white wants to draw it is often not so easy for black to prevent this this advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible threefold repetition because white can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and black has to decide whether to deviate before he knows whether white is bluffing
rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @@ regarded zaitsev variation of the ruy lopez after 1e4 e5 2nf3 nc6 3bb5 a6 <unk> nf6 5 @@ 0 @@ 0 be7 <unk> b5 7bb3 0 @@ 0 8c3 d6 9h3 bb7 <unk> re8 ( initiating the zaitsev variation ) white can repeat moves once with <unk> rf8 <unk> this puts black in an awkward situation since he must either ( a ) insist on the zaitsev with 12 re8 which allows white to choose whether to draw by threefold repetition with <unk> rf8 <unk> or play on with a different move or ( b ) play a different ( and possibly inferior ) variation by playing something other than 12 re8

= = = = black 's advantages = = = =

rowson argues that black also has several advantages first white 's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win and black can often use this to his advantage second white 's ' extra move ' can be a burden and sometimes white finds himself in a mild form of zugzwang ( ' zugzwang lite ' ) third although white begins the game with the initiative if black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to black fourth the fact that white moves before black often gives black useful information suba likewise argues that white 's advantage is actually less than a move since white must tip his hand first allowing black to react to white 's plans suba writes in terms of the mathematical games theory chess is a game of complete information and black 's information is always greater by one move
rowson also notes that black 's chances increase markedly by playing good openings which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential rather than those that give white fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely he also emphasizes that white has ' the initiative ' not ' the advantage ' success with black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of ' potential ' these ideas are exemplified by the hedgehog a dynamic modern system against the english opening that can arise from various move orders a typical position arises after 1c4 c5 2nf3 nf6 3g3 b6 4bg2 bb7 5 @@ 0 @@ 0 e6 6nc3 be7 7d4 cxd4 <unk> d6 <unk> a6 white has a spatial advantage while black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board but white has to keep a constant eye on the possible liberating pawn thrusts b5 and d5 watson remarks black 's goal is to remain elastic and flexible with many options for his pieces whereas white can become paralyzed at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks he also observes that white tends to be as much tied up by black 's latent activity as black himself is tied up by white 's space advantage moreover attempts by white to overrun black 's position often rebound disastrously an example of this is the following grandmaster game
lev polugaevsky <unk> ftáčnik lucerne olympiad 1982 1 nf3 nf6 2 @@ c4 c5 3 nc3 e6 4 @@ g3 b6 5 bg2 bb7 6 0 @@ 0 be7 7 @@ d4 cxd4 8 qxd4 d6 9 rd1 a6 10 @@ b3 nbd7 11 @@ e4 qb8 12 bb2 0 @@ 0 suba wrote of a similar hedgehog position white 's position looks ideal that 's the naked truth about it but the ' ideal ' has by definition one drawback it cannot be improved 13 nd2 rd8 14 @@ a4 qc7 15 <unk> <unk> 16 qe2 ne5 17 @@ h3 according to ftáčnik <unk> <unk> <unk> is <unk> h5 18 @@ f4 ng6 19 nf3 now black breaks open the position in typical hedgehog <unk> d5 20 @@ cxd5 ftáčnik considers <unk> or <unk> <unk> h4 21 nxh4 nxh4 22 @@ <unk> <unk> 23 @@ dxe6 fxe6 24 @@ e5 ftáčnik recommends instead <unk> rxd8 <unk> bc5 + 25 <unk> nh5 26 <unk> <unk> 27 nd5 other moves get mated immediately <unk> <unk> # <unk> qxh3 # <unk> <unk> # rxd5 28 rf1 <unk> + 29 <unk> rd2 + if <unk> ( the only legal response to the double check ) <unk> + 31kf4 rf8 + forces mate 0 1
an examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates white 's and black 's respective advantages

= = = = = reversed openings = = = = =

in a reversed opening white plays an opening typically played by black but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo evans writes of such openings if a defense is considered good for black it must be even better for white with a move in hand former world champion mikhail botvinnik reportedly expressed the same view watson questions this idea citing suba 's thesis that black by moving second has more complete information than white he writes everyone has such difficulties playing as white against a sicilian defence ( 1e4 c5 ) but leading masters have no qualms about answering 1c4 with 1 e5 to explain this paradox watson discusses several different reversed sicilian lines showing how black can exploit the disadvantages of various extra moves for white he concludes the point is black 's set @@ up in the sicilian is fine as a reactive system but not worth much when trying to claim the initiative as white this is true because black is able to react to the specific plan white chooses in suba 's terms his information is indeed a move greater furthermore he is able to take advantage of dead equal positions which white ( hoping to retain the advantage of the first move ) would normally avoid
watson also observes similarly the dutch defence looks particularly sterile when white achieves the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ) and indeed many standard black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as white tempo in hand gm alex <unk> likewise notes that gm vladimir <unk> a successful exponent of the leningrad dutch ( 1d4 f5 <unk> g6 ) at the highest levels once made a deep impression on me by casually dismissing someone 's suggestion that he should try <unk> as white he smiled and said ' that extra move 's gonna hurt me '
<unk> also agrees with alekhine 's criticism of <unk> e5 2nf3 a reversed alekhine 's defense in réti alekhine baden @@ baden 1925 writing that alekhine understood the difference in opening philosophies for white and black and realized they just can 't be the same white is supposed to try for more than just obtaining a comfortable game in reversed colour opening set @@ ups and as the statistics show surprisingly for a lot of people but not for me white doesn 't even score as well as black does in the same positions with his extra tempo and all howard staunton generally considered to have been the strongest player in the world from 1843 to 1851 made a similar point over 160 years ago writing that owen 's defense ( 1e4 b6 ) is playable for black but that <unk> is inferior to the more customary [ first ] moves from its being essentially defensive the current view is that owen 's defense is slightly better for white while <unk> is playable but less likely to yield an opening advantage than 1e4 or 1d4
watson concludes that ( a ) most moves have disadvantages as well as advantages so an extra move is not always an unqualified blessing ( b ) with his extra information about what white is doing black can better react to the new situation and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to black than to white white is apt to avoid lines that allow drawish simplifications while black may not object to such lines

= = = = = symmetrical openings = = = = =

rowson writes that in general one would assume that whatever advantage white has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions accordingly watson suba evans and the eminent player and theorist aron nimzowitsch ( 1886 1935 ) have all argued that it is in black 's interest to avoid symmetry nonetheless even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the tenuous nature of white 's advantage in several respects
it is often difficult for white to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines as gm bent larsen wrote annotating a game that began 1c4 c5 <unk> b6 in symmetrical openings white has a theoretical advantage but in many of them it is only theoretical gm andrew soltis wrote in 2008 that he hates playing against the symmetrical petroff 's defense ( 1e4 e5 2nf3 nf6 ) and accordingly varies with 2nc3 the vienna game however there too he has been unable to find a way to an advantage after the symmetrical 2 nc6 3g3 g6 4bg2 bg7 or after 3nf3 nf6 ( transposing to the four knights game ) <unk> bb4 5 @@ 0 @@ 0 0 @@ 0 6d3 d6 7bg5 bg4 <unk> nd4 <unk> <unk> or <unk> ne7 8c3 ba5 <unk> c6 <unk> ng6 <unk> d5 when <unk> e4 may even favor black
moreover symmetrical positions may be disadvantageous to white in that he has to commit himself first watson notes that it is even difficult for white to play <unk> in a symmetrical position since almost every move has certain drawbacks fischer once went so far as to claim that after 1nf3 nf6 <unk> g6 <unk> bg7 4 @@ 0 @@ 0 0 @@ 0 <unk> d6 ( reinhard fischer western open 1963 ) ' believe it or not ' black stands better now whatever white does black will vary it and get an asymmetrical position and have the superior position due to his better pawn structure however gm paul keres responded in <unk> magazine we just don 't believe it in symmetrical positions as the hodgson arkell and portisch tal games discussed below illustrate black can continue to imitate white as long as he finds it feasible and desirable to do so and deviate when that ceases to be the case
further a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset for example soltis notes that the exchange french position arising after 1e4 e6 2d4 d5 <unk> exd5 4nf3 nf6 is pretty equal the same position but with black 's knight moved to e4 arises in petroff 's defense after 1e4 e5 2nf3 nf6 3nxe5 d6 4nf3 nxe4 <unk> d5 that position offers white better chances precisely because black 's extra move ( ne4 ) allows the advanced knight to become a target for attack
finally symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons watson writes that anyone who tries the exchange french even if he thinks he is playing for a win assume [ s ] a psychological burden white has already ceded the advantage of the first move and knows it whereas black is challenged to find ways to seize the initiative two famous examples of white losses in the exchange french are m gurevich short and <unk> korchnoi in m gurevich short a game between two of the world 's leading players white needed only a draw to qualify for the candidates matches while black needed to win gurevich played passively and was outplayed by short who achieved the necessary win qualified for the candidates and ultimately went on to challenge kasparov for the world championship in <unk> korchnoi the italian im fell victim to korchnoi 's whirlwind mating attack losing in just 14 moves
rowson gives the following example of black outplaying white from the symmetrical variation of the english opening he remarks there is something compelling about black 's strategy he seems to be saying ' i will copy all your good moves and as soon as you make a bad move i won 't copy you any more '
hodgson arkell newcastle 2001 1 @@ c4 c5 2 @@ g3 g6 3 bg2 bg7 4 nc3 nc6 5 @@ a3 a6 6 rb1 rb8 7 @@ b4 cxb4 8 @@ axb4 b5 9 @@ <unk> axb5 here rowson remarks both sides want to push their d @@ pawn and play bf4 / bf5 but white has to go first so black gets to play d5 before white can play d4 this doesn 't matter much but it already points to the challenge that white faces here his most natural continuations allow black to play the moves he wants to i would therefore say that white is in ' zugzwang lite ' and that he remains in this state for several moves 10 nf3 d5 10 nf6 11 @@ 0 @@ 0 0 @@ 0 <unk> d6 <unk> bd7 would transpose to the portisch tal game below 11 @@ d4 nf6 12 bf4 <unk> 13 0 @@ 0 bf5 14 <unk> 0 @@ 0 15 ne5 ne4 16 @@ h3 h5 finally breaking the symmetry 17 <unk> the position is still almost symmetrical and white can find nothing useful to do with his extra move rowson whimsically suggests <unk> forcing black to be the one to break the symmetry 17 re8 rowson notes that this is a useful waiting move covering e7 which needs protection in some lines and possibly supporting an eventual e5 ( see black 's twenty @@ second move ) white cannot copy it since after 18re1 nxf2 black would win a pawn 18 be3 nxe5 19 @@ dxe5 <unk> rowson notes that with his more active pieces it looks like black has some initiative if now <unk> bxe5 is at least equal for black 20 <unk> bxe5 20 nxf2 <unk> wins 21 nd4 bxd4 22 bxd4 e5 rowson writes now both sides have their trumps but i think black has some advantage due to his extra central control imposing knight and prospects for a kingside attack 23 @@ b5 rc8 24 bb2 d4 now white has a difficult game rowson analyzes <unk> <unk> <unk> bc2 <unk> <unk> <unk> bc4 winning <unk> hxg4 <unk> nxf2 <unk> bc2 winning <unk> rc2 with advantage and <unk> ( risky @@ looking but perhaps best ) nc3 <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> and black is better 25 @@ b6 overlooking black 's threat 25 nxf2 26 <unk> if <unk> bc2 forks white 's queen and rook 26 ne4 27 @@ b7 rb8 28 @@ g4 hxg4 29 @@ hxg4 be6 30 rb5 nf6 31 <unk> qxf6 32 <unk> bc4 33 @@ g5 <unk> + 0 1
the opening of the following game between two world @@ class players another symmetrical english took a similar course
lajos portisch mikhail tal candidates match 1965 1 nf3 c5 2 @@ c4 nc6 3 nc3 nf6 4 @@ g3 g6 5 bg2 bg7 6 0 @@ 0 0 @@ 0 7 @@ d3 a6 8 @@ a3 rb8 9 rb1 b5 10 @@ <unk> axb5 11 @@ b4 cxb4 12 @@ axb4 d6 13 <unk> bd7 once again white is on move in a symmetrical position but it is not obvious what he can do with his first @@ move initiative soltis writes it 's ridiculous to think black 's position is better but mikhail tal said it is easier to play by moving second he gets to see white 's move and then decide whether to match it <unk> here soltis writes that black could maintain equality by keeping the symmetry 14 <unk> <unk> bh3 instead he plays to prove that white 's queen is misplaced 14 rc8 <unk> nd4 threatening 16 <unk> + <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> 18qd2 qc7 <unk> rc8 although the pawn structure is still symmetrical black 's control of the c @@ file gives him the advantage black ultimately reached an endgame two pawns up but white managed to hold a draw in 83 moves
tal himself lost a famous game as white from a symmetrical position in tal <unk> ussr championship 1974

= = tournament and match play = =

in chess tournaments and matches the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration in matches the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots and alternated thereafter in round robin tournaments with an odd number of players each player receives an equal number of whites and blacks with an even number of players each receives one extra white or black where one or more players withdraws from the tournament the tournament director may change the assigned colors in some games so that no player receives two more blacks than whites or vice versa the double @@ round robin tournament is considered to give the most reliable final standings since each player receives the same number of whites and blacks and plays both white and black against each opponent
in swiss system tournaments the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives as nearly as possible the same number of games as white and black and that the player 's color alternates from round to round after the first round the director may deviate from the otherwise prescribed pairings in order to give as many players as possible their equalizing or due colors more substantial deviations are permissible to avoid giving a player two more blacks than whites ( for example three blacks in four games ) than vice versa since extra whites cause far less player distress than extra blacks which impose a significant handicap on the affected player tournaments with an even number of rounds cause the most problems since if there is a disparity it is greater ( eg a player receiving two whites and four blacks )

= = solving chess = =

endgame tablebases have solved a very limited area of chess determining perfect play in a number of endgames including all non @@ trivial endgames with no more than six pieces or pawns ( including the two kings ) seven @@ piece endgames were solved in 2012 and released as lomonosov tablebases
jonathan rowson has speculated that in principle it should be possible for a machine to develop 32 @@ piece tablebases this may take decades or even centuries but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way i think it will eventually happen however information theorist claude shannon argued that it is not feasible for any computer to actually do this in his 1950 paper programming a computer for playing chess he writes
with chess it is possible in principle to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows one considers in a given position all possible moves then all moves for the opponent etc to the end of the game ( in each variation ) the end must occur by the rules of the games after a finite number of moves ( remembering the 50 move drawing rule ) each of these variations ends in win loss or draw by working backward from the end one can determine whether there is a forced win the position is a draw or is lost it is easy to show however even with the high computing speed available in electronic calculators this computation is impractical in typical chess positions there will be of the order of 30 legal moves the number holds fairly constant until the game is nearly finished as shown by de groot who averaged the number of legal moves in a large number of master games thus a move for white and then one for black gives about 103 possibilities a typical game lasts about 40 moves to resignation of one party this is conservative for our calculation since the machine would calculate out to checkmate not resignation however even at this figure there will be <unk> variations to be calculated from the initial position a machine operating at the rate of one variation per microsecond would require over 1090 years to calculate the first move
it is thus theoretically possible to solve chess determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for white a draw or even a win for black however according to shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology
hans @@ joachim <unk> a professor of mathematics and biophysics at the university of california at berkeley further argued in a 1965 paper that the speed memory and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers the light barrier the quantum barrier and the thermodynamical barrier these limitations imply for example that no computer however constructed will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess nonetheless <unk> did not foreclose the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess he wrote in order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game [ of chess ] it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely or to analyze the game in an approximate way and combine this with a limited amount of tree searching a theoretical understanding of such heuristic programming however is still very much wanting
recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment the game of checkers was solved in 2007 but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess jonathan schaeffer the scientist who led the effort said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before solving chess could even be attempted but he does not rule out the possibility saying that the one thing he learned from his 16 @@ year effort of solving checkers is to never underestimate the advances in technology

= = quotation = =

you will win with either color if you are the better player but it takes longer with black isaac <unk>


= frederick reines =

frederick reines ( <unk> @@ ness ) ( march 16 1918 august 26 1998 ) was an american physicist he was awarded the 1995 nobel prize in physics for his co @@ detection of the neutrino with clyde cowan in the neutrino experiment he may be the only scientist in history so intimately associated with the discovery of an elementary particle and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties
a graduate of the stevens institute of technology and new york university reines joined the manhattan project 's los alamos laboratory in 1944 working in the theoretical division in richard feynman 's group he became a group leader there in 1946 he participated in a number of nuclear tests culminating in his becoming the director of the operation greenhouse test series in the pacific in 1951
in the early 1950s working in hanford and savannah river sites reines and cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in june 1956 reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino 's properties and interactions which work would influence study of the neutrino for many researchers to come this included the detection of neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays and the 1987 detection of neutrinos emitted from supernova sn1987a which inaugurated the field of neutrino astronomy

= = early life = =

frederick reines was born in paterson new jersey one of four children of gussie ( cohen ) and israel reines his parents were jewish emigrants from the same town in russia but only met in new york city where they were later married he had an older sister paula who became a doctor and two older brothers david and william who became lawyers he said that his early education was strongly influenced by his studious siblings he was the great @@ nephew of the rabbi yitzchak yaacov reines the founder of mizrachi a religious zionist movement
the family moved to hillburn new york where his father ran the general store and he spent much of his childhood he was an eagle scout looking back reines said my early childhood memories center around this typical american country store and life in a small american town including independence day july celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion bandstand
reines sang in a chorus and as a soloist for a time he considered the possibility of a singing career and was instructed by a vocal coach from the metropolitan opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them the family later moved to north bergen new jersey residing on kennedy boulevard and 57th street because north bergen did not have a high school he attended union hill high school in union hill new jersey from which he graduated in 1935
from an early age reines exhibited an interest in science and liked creating and building things he later recalled that
the first stirrings of interest in science that i remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school when looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope i noticed something peculiar about the light it was the phenomenon of diffraction that began for me a fascination with light
ironically reines excelled in literary and history courses but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory this cultivated a love of science by his senior year in response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a yearbook quote he responded to be a physicist extraordinaire
reines was accepted into the massachusetts institute of technology but chose instead to attend stevens institute of technology in hoboken new jersey where he earned his bachelor of science ( bs ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 and his master of science ( ms ) degree in mathematical physics in 1941 writing a thesis on a critical review of optical diffraction theory he married sylvia samuels on august 30 1940 they had two children robert and alisa he then entered new york university where he earned his doctor of philosophy ( phd ) in 1944 he studied cosmic rays there under serge a korff but wrote his thesis under the supervision of richard d present on nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of world war ii it appeared in physical review in 1946

= = los alamos laboratory = =

in 1944 richard feynman recruited reines to work in the theoretical division at the manhattan project 's los alamos laboratory where he would remain for the next fifteen years he joined feynman 's t @@ 4 ( diffusion problems ) group which was part of hans bethe 's t ( theoretical ) division diffusion was an important aspect of critical mass calculations in june 1946 he became a group leader heading the t @@ 1 ( theory of dragon ) group an outgrowth of the tickling the dragon 's tail experiment the dragon was a machine that could attain a critical state for short bursts of time which could be used as a research tool or power source
reines participated in a number of nuclear tests and writing reports on their results these included operation crossroads at bikini atoll in 1946 operation sandstone at eniwetok atoll in 1948 and operation ranger and operation buster jangle at the nevada test site in 1951 he was the director of operation greenhouse series of nuclear tests in the pacific this saw the first american tests of boosted fission weapons an important step towards thermonuclear weapons he studied the effects of nuclear blasts and co @@ authored a paper with john von neumann on mach stem formation an important aspect of an air blast wave
in spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing in the wake of the sputnik crisis he participated in john archibald wheeler 's project 137 which evolved into jason he was also a delegate at the atoms for peace conference in geneva in 1958

= = discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars = =

the neutrino was a subatomic particle first proposed theoretically by wolfgang pauli on december 4 1930 to explain undetected energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decayed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated enrico fermi renamed it the neutrino italian for little neutral one and in 1934 proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton an electron and a neutrino
<unk> → p + + e − + ν
e
the neutrino accounted for the missing energy but fermi 's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly in a 1934 paper rudolf peierls and hans bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the earth and concluded there is no practically possible way of observing the neutrino in 1951 at the conclusion of the greenhouse test series reines received permission from the head of t division j carson mark for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics reines and his colleague clyde cowan decided to see if they could detect neutrinos so why did we want to detect the free neutrino he later explained because everybody said you couldn t do it
according to fermi 's theory there was also a corresponding reverse reaction in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a positron
ν
e + p + → <unk> + e +
the positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0 @@ 51 mev gamma rays while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @@ 2 mev gamma ray this would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected they then realised that by adding cadmium salt to their liquid scintillator to enhance the neutron capture reaction resulting in a 9 mev burst of gamma rays for a neutrino source they proposed using an atomic bomb permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director norris bradbury work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when j m b kellogg convinced them to use a nuclear reactor instead of a bomb although a less intense source of neutrinos it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time
in 1953 they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the hanford nuclear site in what is now known as the cowan reines neutrino experiment their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal 79 us gal ) of scintillating fluid and 90 photomultiplier tubes but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays with encouragement from john a wheeler they tried again in 1955 this time using one of the newer larger 700 mw reactors at the savannah river site that emitted a high neutrino flux of 1 @@ 2 x 1012 / cm2 sec they also had a convenient well @@ shielded location 11 metres ( 36 ft ) from the reactor and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground on june 14 1956 they were able to send pauli a telegram announcing that the neutrino had been found when bethe was informed that he had been proven wrong he said well you shouldn t believe everything you read in the papers
from then on reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino s properties and interactions which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come cowan left los alamos in 1957 to teach at george washington university ending their collaboration on the basis of his work in first detecting the neutrino reines became the head of the physics department of case western reserve university from 1959 to 1966 at case he led a group that was the first to detect neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays reines had a booming voice and had been a singer since childhood during this time besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department reines sang in the cleveland orchestra chorus under the direction of robert shaw in performances with george szell and the cleveland orchestra
in 1966 reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new university of california irvine ( uci ) becoming its first dean of physical sciences at uci reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in radiation therapy
reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion supernova explosions are rare but reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially @@ designed detectors during his wait for a supernova to explode he put signs on some of his large neutrino detectors calling them supernova early warning systems in 1987 neutrinos emitted from supernova sn1987a were detected by the irvine michigan brookhaven ( <unk> ) collaboration which used an 8 @@ 000 ton cherenkov detector located in a salt mine near cleveland normally the detectors recorded only a few background events each day the supernova registered 19 events in just ten seconds this discovery is regarded as inaugurating the field of neutrino astronomy
in 1995 reines was honored along with martin l perl with the nobel prize in physics for his work with cowan in first detecting the neutrino unfortunately cowan had died in 1974 and the nobel prize is not awarded posthumously reines also received many other awards including the j robert oppenheimer memorial prize in 1981 the national medal of science in 1985 the bruno rossi prize in 1989 the michelson morley award in 1990 the panofsky prize in 1992 and the franklin medal in 1992 he was elected a member of the national academy of sciences in 1980 and a foreign member of the russian academy of sciences in 1994 he remained dean of physical sciences at uci until 1974 and became a professor emeritus in 1988 but he continued teaching until 1991 and remained on uci 's faculty until his death

= = death = =

reines died after a long illness at the university of california irvine medical center in orange california on august 26 1998 he was survived by his wife and children his papers are in the uci libraries reines hall at uci was named in his honor

= = publications = =

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