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2024-06-03T21:29:47.544Z
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2013-05-18T08:11:06.000Z
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25829",
"uncompressed_offset": 136903629,
"url": "josm.openstreetmap.de/ticket/6742",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:55:54.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:31002e05-41fd-4c3f-8495-ac3b5283a682>",
"warc_url": "http://josm.openstreetmap.de/ticket/6742"
}
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Modify
#6742 closed enhancement (fixed)
[PATCH] to allow script generated files to set default changeset info
Reported by: bryce2@… Owned by: team
Priority: minor Component: Core
Version: Keywords: changeset
Cc:
Description
This patch extends the file format to allow changeset tags:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<osm version="0.6" generator="osmfetch">
<changeset_tag k="source:website" v="http://www.citycarshare.org/"/>
<changeset_tag k="source" v="osmfetch:ccs"/>
<changeset_tag k="note" v="Prepared for human review by osmfetch: reads the car share reservation system and suggests matching updates for osm."/>
<changeset_tag k="conflation_key" v="source:pkey"/>
<node action='modify' lat='37.9024917' lon='-122.2992889' id='1409407225' version='2' >
<tag k='amenity' v='car_sharing'/>
<tag k='source:pkey' v='81'/>
<tag k='source' v='osmfetch:ccs'/>
<tag k='operator' v='City CarShare'/>
<tag k='name' v='El Cerrito/Fairmont: El Cerrito Plaza BART'/>
</node>
</osm>
It works fine, but needs a tiny bit of help from a more experienced developer: "comment" does not work, but all other tags (including "created_by") work fine.
Attachments (4)
import_changeset_tags.diff (7.8 KB) - added by bryce2@… 21 months ago.
svn diff against trunk for this feature.
import_changeset_tags.2.diff (7.9 KB) - added by bryce2@… 21 months ago.
Try 2 at patch
josm_try_3.diff (8.8 KB) - added by brycenesbitt 21 months ago.
Ok, fine. Try 3 with <changeset> syntax
changeset_try4.diff (9.0 KB) - added by brycenesbitt 21 months ago.
Patch to prevent node/way/relation damage in case of extra tags.
Download all attachments as: .zip
Change History (22)
Changed 21 months ago by bryce2@…
comment:1 Changed 21 months ago by anonymous
• Summary changed from Patch to allow script generated files to set default changeset info to [PATCH] to allow script generated files to set default changeset info
comment:2 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:3 Changed 21 months ago by stoecker
comment:4 follow-up: Changed 21 months ago by anonymous
Changed 21 months ago by bryce2@…
comment:5 in reply to: ↑ 4 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:6 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:7 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:8 Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:9 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:10 Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:11 Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:12 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:13 follow-up: Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:14 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:15 in reply to: ↑ 13 Changed 21 months ago by bastiK
comment:16 Changed 21 months ago by stoecker
comment:17 Changed 21 months ago by brycenesbitt
comment:18 Changed 20 months ago by bastiK
• Resolution set to fixed
• Status changed from new to closed
Modify Ticket
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gp42krdj7qo5mfyo5sobftguvta5fptx
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25860",
"uncompressed_offset": 190647400,
"url": "openwetware.org/index.php?diff=275133&oldid=275131&title=Griffin%3A_Ultimate_Immunoprecipitation_Guide",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:55:54.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:31002e05-41fd-4c3f-8495-ac3b5283a682>",
"warc_url": "http://openwetware.org/index.php?title=Griffin:_Ultimate_Immunoprecipitation_Guide&diff=275133&oldid=275131"
}
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Griffin: Ultimate Immunoprecipitation Guide
From OpenWetWare
(Difference between revisions)
Jump to: navigation, search
(Protein A/G/L Agarose)
Line 38: Line 38:
*Bead diameter: 40-170 um
*Bead diameter: 40-170 um
*Temperature stability: 4-40 C
*Temperature stability: 4-40 C
+
*[http://www.piercenet.com/files/TR0034dh4-Ab-binding-proteins.pdf Binding profiles]
===Protein A===
===Protein A===
Revision as of 14:48, 6 January 2009
If you are planning on performing an IP experiment, then consider to run a preliminary western blot first in order to get a feel for what the antibody is capable of binding.
RIPA (Radio ImmunoPreciptation Assay) buffer is a traditional name for an array of recipes that have found success over the years. Below are details that can contribute to optimizing your immunoprecipitation experiment. Lysis buffer components can and will influence the efficiency of the IP reaction. Detergent composition is a major factor for IP reactions. Adjusting salt concentration and detergent composition will influence the efficiency of the IP reaction. Membrane bound proteins (proteins based in lipid rafts), protein complexes, and protein charge can all influence the efficient yield of your gene product in the lysate prep.
Contents
Common RIPA components
PBS : Salt prevents non-specific protein aggregation
Tris-HCl : Buffering agent prevents protein denaturation
NaCl : Buffering agent prevents protein denaturation
1% Nonidet P-40 or Igepal CA-630 : Non-ionic detergent to extract proteins, form lipid micelles
1% Triton X-100 : Non-ionic detergent to extract proteins, form lipid micelles - to use in place of Nonidet/Igepal
0.5% sodium deoxycholate : Ionic detergent to extract membrane protein and isolate lipids
0.1% SDS : Ionic detergent to extract membrane protein and isolate lipids
EGTA : Protease Inhibitor, Prevents protein degradation. You can make your own, or several vendors have convenient crushable pills that form a protease inhibitor cocktail solution.
Na3VO4 (Sodium Orthovanadate) : Tyrosine phosphatase Inhibitor; hydrostatic interference of active sights of phosphatases
NaF (Sodium Fluoride) : Serine/Threonine phosphatase Inhibitor; hydrostatic interference of active sights of phosphatases
Misc. Phosphatase Inhibitors: Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of proteins influences the charge-charge relationships that proteins have with eachother in solution. Proteins undergo covalent attachment of a phosphoryl group (phosphorylation) typically at serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues. Phosphate groups are removeable via protein phosphatases. During the extraction of phosphorylated proteins from cell and tissue, preserving the phosphorylation states of total protein is a good technique.
Protein A/G/L Agarose
Protein A & Protein G bind to most mammalian immunoglobulins primarily through their Fc regions. Protein L is a kappa light chain specific Ig-binding protein.
Protein A/G/L are common to covalently couple by cyanogen bromide to highly cross-linked 4% agarose beads. This type of matrix is stable in most aqueous buffers.
• Typical Ligand density: ~3 ug Protein/ul of bead
• Binding capacity: ~15-20 ug Ig/ul bead
• Bead structure: 4-6% cross-linked agarose
• Bead diameter: 40-170 um
• Temperature stability: 4-40 C
• Binding profiles
Protein A
Native protein A is a single chain (predicted 42 kDa, SDS-PAGE 46 kDa), glycoslyation-free, cell wall component produced in strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Protein A binds specifically to the Fc region of immunoglobulin molecules, including IgG. Protein A has four high-affinity (Ka = 108/mole) binding sites toward Fc region of IgG of several species (two sites can bind at a time). Protein A is heat-stable and retains conformation even after exposure to denaturing reagents such as 4 M urea, 4 M thiocyanate and 6 M guanidine hydrochloride.
Protein G
Native protein G is a bacterial cell wall protein from group G Streptococci that contains two immunoglobulin binding sites, an albumin binding site, and cell surface binding sites. Native Protein G. The recombinant form of Protein G (predicted 17-21 kDa; SDS-PAGE 31-34 kDa) contains only the two immunoglobulin binding sites to reduce nonspecific binding when purifying immunoglobulins.
Protein L
Native protein L is an kappa light chain specific Ig-binding protein that originates from the bacteria Peptostreptococcus magnus. Protein L binds Igs through interactions with the light chains. Because no part of the heavy chain is involved in the binding interaction, Protein L binds a wider range of Ig classes than Protein A or G. Protein L binds to representatives of all classes of Ig, including IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE and IgD. Single chain variable fragments (ScFv) and Fab fragments also bind to Protein L.
In humans and mice, kappa (k) light chains predominate. The remaining immunoglobulins have lambda (l) light chains. Furthermore, Protein L is effective in binding only certain subtypes of kappa light chains. For example, it binds human VkI, VkIII and VkIV subtypes but does not bind the VkII subtype. Binding of mouse immunoglobulins is restricted to those having VkI light chains.
Protein L matrix is suitable for purification of kappa light chain-containing monoclonal antibodies from ascites or culture. Protein L is useful for purification of VLk-containing monoclonal antibodies from culture supernatant because it does not bind bovine immunoglobilins, which can be present in media. Protein L does not interfere with the antigen-binding site of the antibody.
RIPA Buffer Recipes
There are 3 different RIPA style lysis buffers outlined below including a brief summary of their purpose.
These may be made in large volumes. Add inhibitors fresh at time of use from stock solutions
Lysis Buffer 1:
A tried and true lysis buffer for most signaling intermediates and soluble/cytosolic factors.
• 1x PBS
• 1% Nonidet P-40
• 0.5% sodium deoxycholate
• 0.1% SDS, PMSF, Aprotinin
• 100 mM Na3VO4 Sodium orthovanadate activation
• 10 mg/ml PMSF (200 mM) in isopropanol (add at 10 µl/ml RIPA)
• Aprotinin
Aprotinin activity is measured by KIU (KIU = Kallikrein Inhibitory Unit) Since the vial contains other components which makes the total dry. I recommend the following procedure to be used with this product: The normal working concentration range for aprotinin is either 0.5ug-2ug/ml (protein weight/volume) or 10 KIU-100 KIU/ml (units/volume). 1ug aprotinin/ml of RIPA buffer works well.
Lysis Buffer 2:
An SDS free lysis buffer to consider with Co-IP approaches. Used this one in graduate school to IP EGFR effectively.
• 150 mM NaCl
• 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4
• 1% Nonidet P-40
• 0.25% Sodium Deoxycholate
• 1 mM EGTA
• 1mM PMSF
• 1 ug/ml of Aprotinin, Leupeptin, Pepstatin,
• 1 mM Na3VO4
• 1mM NaF
Lysis Buffer 3:
This recipe calls for Brij 35 which is a non-ionic detergent, great for dissociating membrane complexes and essentially much gentler than SDS. This is also a great lysis buffer for phospho-proteins.
• 10 mM KPO4 (phosphate buffer)
• 1 mM EDTA (chelate)
• 5 mM EGTA (chelate)
• 10 mM MgCl2 (chelate)
• 50 mM †-glycerophosphate (inhibits serine-threonine phosphotase activity)
• 0.5% NP-40 (stabilizer of proteins/enzymes)
• 0.1% Brij 35 (non-ionic detergent)
• 0.1% deoxycholic acid (non-ionic, non-denaturing detergent)
• 1 mM sodium orthovanadate (inhibits tyrosine phosphotase activity)
• 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (protease inhibitor again)
• 5 µg of leupeptin/mL (serine proteinase inhibitor)
• 10 µg of pepstatin/mL (another proteinase inhibitor)
1. Roux PP, Richards SA, and Blenis J. . pmid:12832467. PubMed HubMed [Paper1]
Adherent cell sample preparation
Below is a procedure for adherent cells (ie A431, A549, Hela, NIH3T3)
• Remove culture medium and rinse a subconfluent, 100 mm cell culture plate (80% confluent plate yields ~600-1000 microg protein total) with PBS at room temperature. The following steps should be performed on ice or at 4° C using fresh, ice cold buffers.
Optional: For monolayer cells, do a trypsin treatment to lift cells off the flasks prior to adding the RIPA buffer, instead of scraping the cells for a more gentle approach. If you are running a time course experiment, this is not feasible since the cells must be arrested and lysed immediately.
• Add 0.8 ml of ice cold fresh RIPA buffer to the 100 mm cell culture plates OR 0.5 ml per 5 x 10e6 cells/60 mm dish.
• Gently rock plates for 15 minutes at 4° C or let the plates set on ice. This step will allow the lysis buffer to act on the cells and will increase the total yield of soluble protein. Scrape the adherent cells with a cell scraper and then transfer the scraped lysate into a sterile microcentrifuge tube. Place the tube on ice.
Optional: wash the plate once with 0.2 ml of RIPA buffer and combine with first lysate. When running multiple plates this can be tedious and not necessary if enough attention is given to the initial harvest.
Optional: Add 10 µl of 10 mg/ml PMSF stock to the lysate. If a protease inhibtior cocktail is used fresh with the RIPA buffer, this is not necessary.
• Sonicate each sample on a 70% duty cycle or less by placing only the very tip of the pin into the vial, then slowly lowering it into the lysate until it foams completely and then stop. Alternatively, pass the lysate through a 21 gauge needle to shear the DNA & incubate 30–60 minutes on ice.
• Microcentrifuge cell lysates at 12,000xg for 15 minutes at 4°C.
• The supernatant fluid is the total cell lysate. Transfer the supernatant to a new microfuge tube and discard the pellet. Quantitate the protein amount by Bradford or BCA.
Suspension cell sample preparation
• Collect approximately 2.0 x 107 cells by low-speed centrifugation (e.g. 200xg) at room temperature for 5 minutes. Carefully remove culture medium.
• Wash the pellet with PBS at room temperature, and again collect by low-speed centrifugation. Carefully remove supernatant.
• Add 1.0 ml of ice cold RIPA buffer with freshly added (Protease Inhibitors) and/or (Phosphatase Inhibitors). Gently resuspend cells in RIPA buffer with a pipet and incubate on ice for 30 minutes.
• Further disrupt and homogenize cells by hydrodynamic shearing (21-gauge needle), dounce homogenization or sonication, taking care not to raise the temperature of the lysate. (Optional: Add 10 µl of 10 mg/ml PMSF stock; sc-3597) Incubate 30 minutes on ice.
• Transfer to microcentrifuge tube(s) and centrifuge at 12,000xg for 15 minutes at 4° C. The supernatant fluid is the total cell lysate. Transfer the supernatant to a new microfuge tube. This is your whole cell lysate. For increased protein recovery, resuspend the pellet in a small volume of RIPA, centrifuge and combine supernantants.
• The supernatant fluid is the total cell lysate. Transfer the supernatant to a new microfuge tube and discard the pellet. Quantitate the protein amount by Bradford or BCA.
Tissue extract sample preparation
There are a few approaches to optimizing protein yield from whole tissue extract. For whole animal studies, arresting the covalent modification state of the entire proteome is essential to obtaining accurate data about the treatment or phenotype effect on the tissue being extracted.
1) Immediately liquid nitrogen flash freeze tissue/organ then stored at -80 C
2) Immediately heat denature the organ from the sacrificed animal by microwave in a sealed container
• Weigh tissue and dice into very small pieces using a clean razor blade. Frozen tissue should be sliced very thinly and thawed in RIPA buffer containing (Protease Inhibitors) and/or (Phosphatase Inhibitors). Use 3 ml of ice cold RIPA buffer per gram of tissue.
• Further disrupt and homogenize tissue with a dounce homogenizer or a sonicator, maintaining temperature at 4° C throughout all procedures. (Optional: Add 30 µl of 10 mg/ml PMSF (sc-3597) stock per gram of tissue.) Incubate on ice for 30 minutes.
• Transfer to microcentrifuge tubes, centrifuge at 10,000xg for 10 minutes at 4° C. Remove supernatant and centrifuge again. The supernatant fluid is the total cell lysate. A longer centrifugation may be necessary to obtain a clear lysate.
• The supernatant fluid is the total cell lysate. Transfer the supernatant to a new microfuge tube and discard the pellet. Quantitate the protein amount by Bradford or BCA.
Immunoprecipitation Procedure
I) Incubate cell lysate (500-1000 ug) with (2-5 µg) primary antibody (optimal antibody concentration should be determined by titration) for 2 hours at 4°C.
II) Add 20 µl of appropriate agarose conjugate suspension (Protein A-Agarose, Protein G-Agarose, Protein A/G-Agarose or Protein L-Agarose).
Protein A-Agarose : specific binding to mouse IgG2a, IgG2b and IgA, rabbit polyclonal Abs, human IgG1, IgG2 and IgG4
Protein G-Agarose : specific binding to mouse IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3, rat IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG2c, rabbit and goat polyclonal Abs, human IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4
Protein L-Agarose : specific binding to mouse, rat and human IgG, mouse and human IgM, IgE and IgA proteins and scFv and Fab fragments
What is Protein G PLUS? Protein G PLUS is a genetically engineered form of streptococcal Protein G that has an increased capacity and has had the albumin binding site removed to reduce background.
III) Cap tubes and incubate at 4 C on a rocker platform or rotating device for 2 hour to overnight.
IV) Collect pellet by centrifugation at 2,500 rpm (approximately 1,000xg) for 5-10 seconds. A touch spin will work. With enough samples, gravity will pellet the beads as well.
V) Carefully aspirate and discard supernatant. The trick here is to slowly aspirate with the needle touching just the top of the liquid and slowly draw down so that the needle is pulling at the surface tension of the supernatant. This will ensure no loss of beads.
VI) Wash pellet 3 times with either RIPA buffer (more stringent) or PBS (less stringent), each time repeating centrifugation step above.
VII) After final wash, aspirate and resuspend pellet in 40 µl of 2x electrophoresis sample buffer. Or elute proteins with an appropriate antibody elution buffer.
VIII) Boil samples for 2 minutes. Load sample.
Related Recipes
Electrophoresis sample buffer (2x): Mix 1.0 ml glycerol, 0.5 ml 2-mercaptoethanol, 3.0 ml 10% SDS, 1.25 ml 1.0 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.7, and 1–2 mg bromophenol blue. Store frozen in small aliquots. Alternatively, make buffer without 2 -mercaptoethanol and store at room temperature. Add 2-mercatoethanol just before using.
Sample buffer formulation:
• 7 ml Tris·Cl/SDS, pH 6.8
• 3.0 ml glycerol (30% final)
• 1 g SDS (10% final)
• 0.93 g DTT (0.6 M final)
• 1.2 mg bromphenol blue (0.012% final)
• Add H2O to 10 ml
• Store in 0.5-ml aliquots at -70°C
References
Santa Cruz Biotechnology protocols
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57yo5nzspgfdibhwh46ldlakesbu276e
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{
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"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25880",
"uncompressed_offset": 209820933,
"url": "quotationsbook.com/quote/12133/",
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"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:31002e05-41fd-4c3f-8495-ac3b5283a682>",
"warc_url": "http://quotationsbook.com/quote/12133/"
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Quotation added by staff
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Success is almost totally dependent upon drive and persistence. The extra energy required to make another effort or try another approach is the secret of winning. Waitley, Denis
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js5phje6kln24ju75iprxuw24seno4fl
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25881",
"uncompressed_offset": 209834241,
"url": "quotationsbook.com/quote/22547/",
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A good laugh is sunshine in the house. Thackeray, William M.
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2013-05-18T07:03:55.000Z
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zzd3buvwgr6td7b3u2b6zgtrlhqa7afy
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25882",
"uncompressed_offset": 209850561,
"url": "quotationsbook.com/quote/gift/41987/",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:55:54.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:31002e05-41fd-4c3f-8495-ac3b5283a682>",
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
Make and then buy your OWN fantastic personalized gift from this quote
Words are not as satisfactory as we should like them to be, but, like our neighbors, we have got to live with them and must make the best and not the worst of them. Butler, Samuel
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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2024-06-03T21:29:47.544Z
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2013-05-18T07:06:15.000Z
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qvpbsxusbhoq76oqo3ugyeb5ndg4t54c
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25883",
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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66dcx5fuuidnc2lyfqeey7mgyakv37ie
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:25895",
"uncompressed_offset": 233019903,
"url": "sg.pagenation.com/sin/RSN%20171%20Squadron_104.0307_1.3175.map",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:55:54.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:31002e05-41fd-4c3f-8495-ac3b5283a682>",
"warc_url": "http://sg.pagenation.com/sin/RSN%20171%20Squadron_104.0307_1.3175.map"
}
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Show Photo
Changi Naval Base (CNB) is a naval facility of the Republic of Singapore (RSN) and was built to replace Brani Naval Base. CNB is located on 1.28 square km of reclaimed land at the eastern tip of Singapore. Its 6.2 km berthing space can accommodate an aircraft carrier and is often used by visiting ships of the USN. It was officially opened on 21 May 2004 by Goh Chok Tong. RSN 171 Squadron is near Tanah Merah Coast Road; is near Changi East Drive; is near Tanah Merah Ferry Road; is near R; is near Changi Coast Walk; is near Budget Terminal Road; is near Pie (w); is near Pie (e); RSN 171 Squadron is geographically located at latitude(1.3175 degrees) 1° 19' 2" North of the Equator and longitude (104.0307 degrees) 104° 1' 50" East of the Prime Meridian on the Map of Singapore or JB.
The locations related to RSN 171 Squadron are represented by the the shortest path as the crow would fly between any two points and may not be nearest by road. For example, RSN 171 Squadron is located 0 metres from Changi Naval Base (CNB). RSN 171 Squadron is located 1.2 kilometres from SAF Yacht Club. RSN 171 Squadron is located 3.3 kilometres from Changi Water Reclamation Plant. RSN 171 Squadron is located 3.4 kilometres from Changi Air Base East. RSN 171 Squadron is located 3.4 kilometres from RSAF 145 Squadron.
Featured Places Of Interest Located Nearby
Changi Water Reclamation Plant is located 3.3 Kilometres away from RSN 171 Squadron. Changi Water Reclamation Plant - 1 Photo(s) Featured.
Changi Air Base East is located 3.4 Kilometres away from RSN 171 Squadron. Changi Air Base East - 1 Photo(s) Featured.
RSAF 145 Squadron is located 3.4 Kilometres away from RSN 171 Squadron. RSAF 145 Squadron - 1 Photo(s) Featured.
Crowne Plaza Hotel 6.7km, Meridien Changi 9.5km, Changi Village Hotel 9.5km, are places to stay (hotel, service apartment, inn) located near RSN 171 Squadron.
NSRCC Seasports Centre 6km, Eastwood Centre 8.4km, Tampines Mart 8.8km, are places to shop (shopping mall, shop houses) located near RSN 171 Squadron.
Johor Battery WW2 Gun 7.8km, NEWater Visitor Centre 8km, Changi Chapel And Museum 8km, are places of interest (attraction) located near RSN 171 Squadron.
SIA Training Centre 7.9km, UNSW Asia Changi Campus 8km, Singapore University of Technology and Design 8km, are places of learning (school, college, university) located near RSN 171 Squadron.
Changi Business Park 7.3km, Eastwood Park Playground 8.1km, Clint Eastwood Park 8.1km, are parks, playgrounds, open fields or commons located near RSN 171 Squadron.
RSN 171 Squadron
Changi Naval Base (CNB)
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RSN 171 Squadron
JetQuay at Changi Airport is about 6.2 km away.
PO Changi Airport is about 6.2 km away.
Changi Terminal 2 is about 6.2 km away.
Changi Airport Car Park B is about 6.4 km away.
Cg2 Changi Airport is about 6.4 km away.
Changi Terminal 3 is about 6.5 km away.
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The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask/Cucco!
From StrategyWiki, the video game walkthrough and strategy guide wiki
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[edit] Requirements
• Bremen's Mask
• Access to the Romani Ranch
[edit] Rewards
• Bunny Hood
[edit] What To Do
On Days 1 and 2, transform into Goron Link and blow up the rock on Milk Road using a Powder Keg (Alternatively, you can enter the ranch on Day 3 when the rock is destroyed by the miner). Go all the way to the Cucco Shack in the back. The Bird-Keeper, Grog, is sad because his freshly-hatched chicks won't turn into adults by the time the Moon crashes. Why not help make Grog's dream come true? Put the Bremen Mask on and march through the field. Make sure you go near every chick so that they follow you. When all the chicks are with you, they begin to transform into Cuccos! Continue to march until they all crow. Grog will be filled with joy (although he doesn't show it). As a reward, you get the Bunny Hood.
The Bunny Hood allows Link to run twice as fast and jump farther.
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Tuesday, June 26, 2012
Copyright-related links
Piracy and the Greek crisis. Fascinating article, especially on fan subbing.
Cribbed from gk: When the DC Circuit, in today's opinion rejecting challenges to the EPA's greenhouse gas rules, linked to this Schoolhouse rock video, did it know whether the video had been posted with the permission of the copyright holder?
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Help Wikitravel grow by contributing to an article! Learn how.
Assam
From Wikitravel
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Assam (Assamese: অসম Ôxôm [ɔxɔm]) is a region straddling in a transitional zone between South Asia and South East Asia and politically a state in India since 1947. Prior to that Assam was a part of British India since the British annexed the Kingdom of Assam and its tributary states in 1826 following the Treaty of Yandaboo. Assam is a land of blue hills, green valleys and a red river. Situated in the north eastern region of India and located just below the eastern Himalayan foothills, it is surrounded by the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya, which together with Assam are known collectively as the seven sisters. Leaving Manipur and Tripura, rest of these states are carved out from Assam during 1960s and 70s and Sylhet, a district of Assam was annexed with Bangladesh during partition of British India (1947). With an area of 78,438 sq km Assam currently is almost equivalent to the size of Ireland or Austria. Assam shares international borders with Bhutan and Bangladesh and the international borders of China and Myanmar are within the range of 80 to 100 km.
Assam was known as the Kingdom of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa during the first millenium A.D. and was broken into smaller states during the beginning of the second millenium; however, later, after 13th century for next six hundred years the region again transformed into a united sovereign country as the Kingdom of Assam under the later dynasties such as the Ahoms and Koches. Despite being an archaeologically and historically rich region, Assam is still a terra-incognito to the world.
Assam is a world leader in production of tea for more than past one hundred years and currently produces around 25 percent of the world's tea. Traditionally it is a producer of high quality silk, locally called paat bred on mulberry leaves, and the only place in the world where all four major silk types are cultivated, the others being the golden silk Muga unique to Assam , the Ahimsa silk Eri bred on castor leaves, and tassar. It has the highest reserves of oil and natural gas after Bombay High and Gujarat. Along with neighbouring Arunachal, it has the richest biodiversity in India.
[edit] Regions
Present Assam can be divided into four distinct regions. The regions and the specific tourist interests in these are:
Assam can be divided into four distinct regions
Assam and its Environs: Assam possesses a unique geomorphic environment, with plains, dissected hills of the plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east
• The Upper Assam (Ujoni Oxom) Region - Kaziranga National Park, historical old capital city of Rongpur (Xiwoxagor/Sibsagar - Gaurixagor/Gaurisagar), ancient capital city and royal burial mounds at Charaideo the first capital of the Ahom rulers, Majuli - claimed to be the largest river island in the world, centre of Vaishnav monasteries and typical villages and cultural life of the Mishing ethno-cultural group, several other wildlife sanctuaries and habitats including the Joydihing rainforest and DibruSaikhowa with its population of feral horses (Brahmaputra's) close to Dibrugarh, cultural life of ethno-cultural groups such as Taiphakes, Taikhamtis, Singphos, Morans and of general Assamese population, Digboi - first Asian petroleum refinary with oil museum and the heritage wells, the WW-II famous Stillwell Road and the natural and cultural environment along it, archaeological site of Deopahar near Numaligarh refinery.
• The Central Assam Hills Region (Karbi Anglong and North Cachar) - the historic Maibong, scenic Haflong, fabled Jatinga (known for the bird suicide myth), hotwater spring at Umrangshu, cultural life at the villages of Karbi, Dimasa and Tiwa ethno-cultural groups, etc.
• The Southern Assam or Barak Valley Region -
• The Lower Assam (Namoni Oxom) Region - the historic and the largest city Guwahati, wildlife habitats such as Manas National Park, Pobitora, Chakrasila, etc; traditional silk industry at Soalkuchi (Xuwalkuchi), bronze and bell metal industry at Sarthebari (Xorthebary), archaeological sites such as Ambari (Guwahati), Madan Kamdev, Suryapahar, Hajo, etc; cultural life at the villages of general Assamese and of Bodo, Rabha, Hajong, Garo, etc ethno-cultural groups, rafting at several rivers, the religious places such as Hajo, etc.
[edit] Cities
History of urban development goes back to almost two thousand years in the region. Existence of ancient urban areas such as Pragjyotishapura (Guwahati), Hatapesvara (Tezpur), Durjaya, etc and medieval towns such as Charaideu, Garhgaon, Rongpur, Jorhat, Khaspur, Guwahati, etc are well recorded.
Guwahati with its more than two thousand years of history is the largest urban centre and a million plus city in Assam. The city has experienced multifold growth during past three decades to grow as the primate city in the region; the city's population was approximately 0.9 million (considering Guwahati Metropolitan Development Authority (GMDA) area) during the census of 2001.
A View of Guwahati; the city known as Pragjyotishapura (city of eastern light) in the ancient times has a past extended to more than two thousand years. It is the only million plus city in Assam region and a hub of economic, political, educational and cultural activities. Moreover, Guwahati on the bank of the Brahmaputra and surrounded by hills, forests and large wetlands is a picturesque city
Another view of Guwahati
Major urban areas are:
Golaghat, Nalbari, Mangaldoi, Barpeta, Kokrajhar, Goalpara, Dhubri (Dhubury), etc are other towns and district head quarters. On the other hand Duliajan, Digboi, Namrup, Moran, Bongaigaon, Numaligarh, Jogighopa, etc are major industrial towns. Currently, there are around 125 total urban centres in the state, with Rangia amongst them.
[edit] Other destinations
Assam has several attractive destinations; majority of these are National Parks, Wildlife and Bird Sanctuaries, areas with archaeological interests and areas with unique cultural heritage. Moreover, as a whole, the region is covered by beautiful natural landscapes.
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries:
• Kaziranga National Park - a World Heritage Site of UNESCO is roughly a 400sq.km. wild life park is the largest habitat for one horned rhinoceros and several other unique flora and fauna. Kaziranga is a grassland situated in the central Assam region on the bank of the Brahmaputra; roughly 200km. east of Guwahati.
• Manas National Park - the wildlife park is situated on the foothills of Eastern Himalayas, where the river Manah flows with picturesque turns and clean water and sandy beaches. Although Manas is primarily a tiger reserve, it possesses numerous other valuable flora and fauna; the park is situated roughly 150km west of Guwahati.
• Dibru-Saikhowa National Park- is a wonderful habitat of numerous birds; there are feral horses on the islands of the Brahmaputra close to the park.
• Nameri National Park - One of the most scenic national park of Assam, Nameri comes as a delight for the nature loving and bird watching traveler. The bird-life is particularly superb. Also, chances of spotting a Tiger is very high.
There are several other wildlife sanctuaries across the length and breadth of Assam.
Archaeological:
• Guwahati archaeological region - Guwahati is an ancient city; there are several archaeological sites with temples, tanks, ramparts, etc. The Assam State Museum located close to historic Dighali Pukhuri (a large tank) is worth visiting.
• Hajo archaeological region - the ancient city of Apunarbhaba; there are remains of several ancient temples and other structures.
• Madan Kamdev - a 10th century ancient city close to Guwahati; A large site of architectural, sculptural remains with numerous objects. Excavations are still going on.
• Sibsagar archaeological region - the nerve centre and the capital of the Kingdom of Assam under the Ahom Dynasty - earlier known as the city of Rongpur; the region has several palaces, temples, large tanks, ramparts, etc.
• Charaideo - the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Assam with hundreds of burial mounds called Moidams for kings and nobles.
• Surya Pahar Goalpara archaeological region
• Tezpur archaeological region include Da Parbatia ruins and the Bamuni hills
• Kapili Valley archaeological region
• Dhansiri/Dhonxiri Valley archaeological region
• Maibong
Heritage, Cultural and Others:
[edit] Understand
A Crimson Sunbird at Kaziranga
A White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh, endangered. Mostly found in the Upper Assam Tropical Forests
A Golden Langur; endangered and are found in Chakrasila Sanctuary in Goalpara district
Orchids are abundantly found in Assam; a variety - Bhatou Phul or Vanda coerulea, the 'Blue Vanda
[edit] A paradise for nature lovers
Assam and surrounding regions have to be a paradise for the nature lovers and researchers. The region's uniqe natural settings, hydro-geomorphic environment and biodiversity have no parallel in Asia. Within a eighty to hundred kilometres of journey by land, one can travel from a flat flood plain with tropical rainforests and wet paddy fields to mountainous regions of Alpine-Himalayan climatic conditions at very high altitude. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is a paleo-river; older than the Himalayas. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100 km wide, 1000 km long). The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system. In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border), flows through the Cachar district with a 40-50km wide valley and confluences with the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, riverine grasslands, bamboo orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. The Kaziranga, home of the rare Rhinoceros, and Manas are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Assam. Pabitora has the highest density of rhinos. The reserve forests of Joypur, Upper Dihing and Dirak are a stretch of pristine rainforests. The region is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as Golden Langur or Honali Bandor (Trachypithecus geei), White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh (Cairina scutulata), Bengal Florican or Ulumora, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Pygmy Hog or Nolgahori, Greater Adjutant or Hargila, Hispid Hare or Khagorikota, Slow Loris or Lajuki Bandor, Swamp Francolin or Koira and so on. Some other endangered species with significant population in Assam are Tiger, Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Jerdon's Babbler and so on. Assam is also known for orchids the more well known being the foxtail or kopou and blue vanda or bhatou.
[edit] Climate and disasters
With the “Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate”, Assam is temperate (Summer max. at 35-38 and winter min. at 6-8 degrees Celsius) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity. However, temperature is much lesser in the hilly areas in the Central Assam. The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperature and foggy nights and mornings in winter . Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature.
The region is prone to natural disasters with annual floods (in specific areas) and frequent mild earthquakes. Floods usually occur during monsoon (mid June till late August) and many a times can create trouble by destroying roads and railway linkages at places. Strong earthquakes are rare; three of these were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8.1 on the Richter scale); and in 1950 (8.6).
[edit] Cultural heritage
Assam is also a region, which can be termed as a crucible of cultures. It is a true meeting place of South Asian and South East Asian cultures, where the principal language Assamese (Oxomeeya) exhibits hybridity between Indo-Iranian, Tibeto-Burman and Tai-Kadai group of languages. Apart from the hybrid Assamese population, there are several distinct ethno-cultural groups such as Bodo, Karbi, Mishing, Dimasa, Tiwa, Rabha, Hasong, Taiphake, Taikhamti, Taiaiton, Singphow, Bru, Garo, etc with distinct languages, dialects, food habits, architecture and settlement pattern, textile design, dance, music, musical instruments, beilef, etc.
A ferocious lion excavated in Madan Kamdev close to Baihata Cariali in Assam representing the powerful Kamarupa-Palas (c. 9th-10th century A.D.)
Rong Ghor, a pavilion built by the king Pramatta Singha (also Sunenpha; 1744–1751) in Ahom capital Rongpur, now Sibsagar; the Rang Ghar is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in Asia
[edit] History and archaeology
Assam is also rich in history and archaeology. In the ancient times, the Kingdom of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa under at least three successive dunasties for more than 700 years and in the medieval periods the Kingdom of Assam under the Ahoms for 600 years were strong and sovereign kingdoms; no western powers including the great Mughals could invade and occupy the region till the British had come. Apart from several failed attempts by the north Indian kingdoms in the ancient times, the Mughals attempted invading Assam for 17 times, where only once they could get little success in occupying and controlling a major portion only for a small period of two years. Mughals were defeated and completely thrown out from the Brahmaputra Valley in the 17th century. However, Mughals had maintained control on the western territories (now North Bengal) of the Koch Kingdom and in some parts of the Jayantiya Kingdom (a tributary ruler under the Ahoms) - now in Bangladesh. Due to richness and self-sustained nature of the kingdoms in Assam, the rulers hardly attempted any outward aggression leaving only few instances. During the rule of Barman Dynasty of Kamarupa the king Bhaskarvarman occupied the then Gauda (later Bengal) along with its capital city Karnasuvarna in the 7th century; then a major portion of present eastern Bangladesh was a natural part of Kamarupa. In the 17th century, a plan for reoccupying the lost land of the ancient Kamarupa kingdom and destroying the Nawab of Gauda by the Ahom king Rudra Simha was thwarted after the king's sudden death during his organisation of a large amry of 4 hundred thousand in Guwahati. With such a historic background, Assam possesses hundreds of historic and archaeological sites, where extensive research opportunities and tourism potentials are still left.
[edit] State of tourism
It is important to understand that in the past 60 years, the Government of India's restrictions on the foreigners in the region such as the Restricted Area Permit System (RAP - finally abolished in Assam and neighbouring Meghalaya in the 1990s), acted as major hindrances for the foreign tourists and foreign interest groups to legally enter in to Assam and gradually pushed Assam in to isolation from the world. Assam today is a terra-incognito to the new generations in the developed world; while the old generation British, other Europeans, Americans and Japanese still remember 'Assam' whatever may be the cause varying from colonial administration, to tea and oil industry or to WWII. For past 60 years, tourism promotion and development was a neglected subject. At the same time during the same time period, negligible numbers of Assamese have come out from Assam to other places; Assamese have been happy inside Assam, inside their native places and inside their houses, which offcourse recently has seen a sea-change with thousands of students and skilled labourers coming out to different cities in India. Therefore, as a not well-known place, Assam has long way to go to establish herself as a foremost tourist destination. However, Assam possesses everything that is required for developing herself as a leader of travel and tourism in the world and most importantly Assamese are one of the most hospitable people.
[edit] Talk
Assamese is the principal language and the lingua-franca in the region. Assamese and Bodo are the local official languages in Assam and Bengali is also used as the same in Barak Valley. There are several other local languages such as Mishing, Karbi, Dimasa, Garo, Hmar, Bru, Taiphake, Taikhamti, etc used by the specific ethno-cultural groups in different pockets. However, most educated people speak English and Hindi with local tunes. Bengali is also spoken in many parts of Assam especially Guwahati and Silchar where Bengali community resides in large numbers. Moreover, there are also large numbers of other Indian language and dialect speakers such as Punjabi, Marwari, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, etc particularly in the urban centres.
Usually, all official signs and documents are written in both Assamese and in English, using British spelling. The Government of India establishments Indian Railways, ONGC, etc will have sign-boards in all three languages - Assamese, English and Hindi. Commercial and street signs are usually written in Assamese and English and in Bengali in Barak Valley. As English has a wider base, foreigners need not to worry about not knowing Assamese or any other local language; however, it is an additional advantage for a tourist to know few sentences of a local language.
[edit] Get in
[edit] By plane
There are good air-connectivity to Assam from the major cities in India. Guwahati's Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport is the businest in Assam and other major airports are in Dibrugarh, and Silchar. Air India and Indian Airlines along with several other private airlines operate daily services from all the major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Bangalore, etc. Moreover, there are other airports in Tezpur, Jorhat, etc with less frequent flights connecting cities such as Kolkata and other cities of North East Region. Arriving by plane, however, gives a wonderful welcome aerial view of the green valley surrounded by blue hills in Assam. The major airlines operating in the region are:
• Jet Airways [1]
• Kingfisher Airlines [2]
• Indian Airlines [3]
• Jetlite [4]
• Spicejet [5]
• Air Deccan[6] now known as Kingfisher Red
• Indigo Airlines [7]
For the international travellers from East Asia or South East Asia, the most easiest route to travel to Assam is via Kolkata. There are several direct flights from Kolkata to Guwahati, Dibrugarh, Silchar and Jorhat. Journey time in a direct flight from Kolkata to Guwahati is of less than 45 minutes, while to Dibrugarh (the eastern most civil airport in Assam) is of around 90 minutes. Similarly for travellers from Europe, Middle East, Central Asia and African countries either via Delhi and Mumbai or even Kolkata route is preferable. However, Delhi and Kolkata have higher frequency of flights to Guwahati. A Delhi-Guwahati direct flight takes 2:30 hrs of journey time. There is currently no direct flight from Guwahati to any international destination after cancellation of the Air India's Guwahati-Bangkok flight few years back.
MYANMAR citizens can come in thru the border post of TAMU-MOREH and take a connecting flight from IMPHAL to GUWAHATI. Also there is regular BUS service from IMPHAL to GUWAHATI. Specially , for taking MEDICAL TREAMENTs as Guwahati have a lot of high class HOSPITALs.
[edit] By rail
Assam is also well connected through Rail Services to Indian cities. Three major routes of North East Frontier Railways (NF Railways) covers entire Assam and provides linkages to principal zones and cities in north, east and south India. Guwahati railway station is the largest in Assam and is served by direct trains from most of the major cities in India. The Rajdhani Express (fully airconditioned) from New Delhi (takes 27 hours) and Saraighat Express from Howrah in Kolkata (takes 17 hours) are the fastest ones. There are many direct trains from Delhi (including the Rajdhani Express) and Kolkata for Dibrugarh in Upper Assam. Usually, Dibrugarh is an additional nights journey (12hrs) from Guwahati. The trains offer beautiful vista of the countryside, although, one must take note that because of agitations in the state, it is advisable to avoid train travels as incidents of stone pelting on trains is well known and it happens in the area after Dimapur. If you must travel by rail, make sure that your reservation is in the air conditioned compartment as the windows are sealed.
[edit] By car
There are highways from Indian states in the west and buses run between Siliguri (to Siliguri buses are available from Kolkata, Darjeeling and Gangtok) and Guwahati; However, travelling by bus may not be comfortable in this patch and travel time is usually longer than that of trains. Road connectivity to surrounding Seven Sister States is good, however may take different durations depending on the location of the state.
Tamu in western Myanmar is connected to a reasonably good highway to Assam via Manipur; Tamu in Myanmar border is closer to Mandalay. The historic Stilwell Road between Assam-Myanmar-China from Ledo in Upper Assam to Myitkina in Myanmar and further to Kunming in China is right now not fully operationalised.
There are also roads connecting Bhutan.
[edit] Get around
Assam and Seven Sisters region have densely built airports, which is attributed to the regions role as an important war front in Asia in WWII
[edit] By bus and car
Buses are the most common medium of travel in Assam. Buses in Assam are generally well maintained and comfortable. There are regular bus services connecting important places within Assam and to neighbouring states. Long distance buses generally are called Night Super Bus (because they usually travel only at after sunset) are more comfortable with reclining seats. Assam State Transport Corporation (ASTC) is state run bus company with a very exhaustive network. Some private players have large networks as well.
Taxi cabs can be a good option for travelling inside Assam and to the surrounding region. In majority cities and even small towns private taxi-cabs are available for rent for local travel as well for inter-city travel. The taxi-cabs can be also rented on daily basis. For a traveller, it is easier to hire a taxi from the hotel he or she is staying; usually the hotels can arrange or provide with information on the local car rental agencies. Self driving may not be advisable for many reasons - dangerous traffic, frequent agitations and 'bandh's and insurgency in certain areas to name some.
Some tourism service providers are :-
• Greener Pastures [8]- An ecotourism organization which provides responsible tours and adventures to exotic destinations around Northeast India.
• Kickstart Adventures [9]- an adventure tourism firm, has pioneered motorcycle tours in North East India. This adventure motorbike tour covers the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh, giving a traveller to visit to not only popular places but also rural parts of the region to experience first-hand of tribal cultures and traditions. The firm conducts tours all round the year.
• Vagabond Expeditions [10]- an adventure tour company based in Guwahati offering various adventure activities like trekking,mountain biking,caving,paragliding,rafting etc all across the northeastern states.
[edit] By train
Although having a fairly extensive railway network, trains are less convenient than buses or taxis for travelling short distances within Assam - inter-city or inter-regional trains are not very frequent within Assam. Moreover, the Assam's rail network is fragmented due to different gauge size. The services on narrow gauge and meter gauge lines are irregular and uncomfortable. Broad gauge service links Guwahati with major cities in upper Assam (Dibrugarh, Jorhat and Tinsukia), which is comfortable but little more time consuming than the buses; However, from Guwahati, one may try using the Rajdhani Express (fully Airconditioned) for an over-night journey to reach Dibrugarh or Tinsukia. The railway tickets are bookable online or available at the electronic ticketing counters in the stations. It is important to have a reservation for an overnight train journey, to obtain a berth in a comfortable A/C or non A/C sleeper coach. For reservation, booking should be made 2 months before the journey; however, in majority trains 'Tatkal' sevice is available.
For MYANMAR CITIZENs the nearest railhead is LEDO 60 Kms from PANGSU PASS . From here they can take a train directly to GUWAHATI or can take a FLIGHT from DIBRUGARH , 160 KMs from PANGSU PASS. In fact there is a INTERCITY express between GUWAHATI and LEDO.
[edit] By plane
Air travel from Guwahati to Upper Assam or Southern Assam districts can be quicker and easier. Guwahati is linked with Dibrugarh, Tezpur and Silchar with several flights. However, it is important to book a ticket earlier. A flight between Guwahati and Dibrugarh takes roughly 45 minutes.
[edit][add listing] See
The famous Rhinoceros of Assam in Kaziranga
A tea garden in Assam
• Kaziranga National Park [11] is situated on the south bank of the Brahmaputra river. It is home and one of the last refuges to rhinoceros of Assam and covers an area of 430 km².
[edit][add listing] Do
• Brahmaputra Cruise - Recently a private firm, Assam-Bengal Navigation has started river cruise on Brahmaputra. This tour covers almost whole of the stretch of river lying in Assam. It also includes visits to nearby popular places and visiting rural Assam.
• Take a tour with Greener Pastures ; an Eco tourism venture started to protect the incredible biodiversity and cultures of Northeast India. They offer adventure tours, wildlife safaris, tribal stays, tea stays, river cruises and special interest tours.
[edit][add listing] Eat
It is also worth while to taste ethnic Assamese cuisine which comprises of Rice with regional curries, including choices of fish, lambs, chickens and ducks. Assamese meals are usually accompanied by various side dishes like mash potatoes (Alu Pitika) or pickles of small fried fishes.
[edit] Rice
Rice is the most important ingredient in this cuisine. The large varieties of rice found in the region has led to speculation that the grain was first domesticated in the Assam- Yunnan region. Both the indica as well as the japonica varieties are grown in Assam. The most popular class of rice is the joha or scented rice. As a staple diet rice is eaten either steam boiled (ukhua) or sundried (aaroi). Some very fine quality of rice namely, Karaballam or kauribadam etc. are available in Assam only. Rice is eaten as snack in many different forms: roasted and ground (xandoh), boiled in its husk and flattened (chira), puffed (akhoi). There also grows a variety of rice that can be just soaked and eaten (kumol saul).
[edit] Fish
The next most important ingredient is the fish, harvested from the many rivers, ponds and lakes in the region. There is no traditional ethnic community in Assam that does not eat fish.Some of the most popular big fishes are the Rohu, the Hilsa and the chital (big), khoria (medium) (Chitala chitala), Maagur, Xingi, Borali, Bhokua, Xaal, Xol, etc. The small varieties of fish available and eaten in Assam like Puthi, Borolia, Mua, cheniputhi, tengera, lachin, bhagun, pabho, etc. is very large.
• The most popular dish from Assam, the tenga (fish sour), is an indispensable part of a proper meal in Assam. The most popular tenga is made with tomatoes, though ones made with kajinemu (thick skinned elongated lemon) and thekera (dried Mangosteen,) are also popular
• Another favorite is small fish roasted in banana leaves (paatotdia).
• Hukuti is a special fish dish prepared from dried small fish (puthi maas) pounded with arum stem and dried and stored in bamboo tubes. Variations of this exist among the ethnic communities of Northeast India in general and Assam in particular, are dried and fermented small fish puthy mas (Ticto barb), three to four in numbers are roasted along with lavish amounts of green chillies, tomatoes, ginger and garlic (all roasted). The ingredients are then pounded in a mortar to make a coarse paste and served with rice.
The Assamese meat and fish dish is characterized by low amount of spices and oil, higher quantity of ginger, norosingho paat (curry leaves) and lemon juice. This is quite different from Bengali dishes in taste. Pork and to some extent, beef dishes are particularly favorites in the tribal areas in Assam. Beef is not taken by the majority of Assamese as they practice Hinduism; however, beef is popular among Assamese Muslims, although general people also have pork, but that is not taken by the Assamese Muslims. The basic cooking method is boiling. Onla, of the Bodos, is made with ground rice and special herbs, and constitutes a complete meal in itself. Other meats include squab, duck, chicken, mutton, venison, and turtle although venison and turtle meat are legally prohibited. The combination of duck – white gourd and squab – papaya or banana flower is very popular. Meat is curried in spicy gravy.
[edit] Typical Assamese dishes
• The khar is a signature class of preparations made with a key ingredient, also called khar. The traditional ingredient is made by filtering water through the ashes of a banana tree, which is then called kola khar . A traditional meal invariably begins with a khar dish, made of raw papaya, pulses or any other main ingredient. Xôkôta: It is a severely bitter type of preparation. It is prepared with dry jute leaf, urad bean and khar.
• The tenga is a light and sour fish dish, another signature class of preparations. The souring ingredient could be mangosteen, lemon, etc., but the most popular is that made with tomatoes. Fish dishes made with fermented bamboo shoot are generally sour, but they are not called tengas. Fish is fried in mustard oil or curried with bottle gourd or spinach. Another tenga dish is prepared with matimah (urad bean) and outenga (elephant apple). Bottle gourd also can be added to it. Tengamora or noltenga and lentil is also a distinct tenga curry.
• Poitabhat is a favourite dish in Assam during the summer season. Cooked rice is soaked overnight in order to prepare poitabhat and served the next day garnished with mustard oil, onion, chilli, pickles, pitika (smashes), etc.
• Side dishes called pitika - is a signature characteristic of this cuisine. The most popular is aloo pitika - mashed potatoes) garnished with raw onions, mustard oil, green chillies and sometimes boiled eggs. khorisa tenga is mashed fermented bamboo shoot, sometimes pickled in mustard oil and spices. Kharoli is fermented mashed mustard (Brassica campestris var. toria) seed to which a khar has been added, and kahudi to which an acidic agent (lemon juice, dried mangosteen) has been added. Pitikas are also made from roasted or steamed vegetables (tomatoes and eggplants being very popular). Small fishes, asiatic pennywort, matikaduri, tengamora leaves, heartleaf, dôrôn (Leucus longifolia), etc. roasted separately wrapped in banana leaves and mashed into pitika along with mustard oil, salt, chilli etc. are called patotdia (literally, 'in a leaf').
• Pickles are there made of mango, indian gooseberry, hog plum, olive, Tamarind, star fruit, mangosteen, radish, carrot, elephant apple, Indian jujube, chilli, lime, garlic, etc
• Chutney is made of coriander, spinach, tomato, heartleaf, curry leaf, chilli, lentil, chickpea etc. Xukan masor chutney (chutney made of dried fish) is popular among the tribal communities. Salad is made of carrot, radish, tomato, cucumber, beetroot, etc.
• Pokori is a fritter is made of flower and tender leaves of pumpkin, tender leaves of bottle gourd, eggplant, tender leaves of Night-flowering Jasmine, etc.
[edit] Assamese Snacks
• Bora saul is a variety of glutinous rice found in Assam. It has an important role in Assamese traditional occasions like Bihu. It is used in Jolpan (snacks) and Pitha (ricecake or pancake). Soaked and ground bora saul is used in preparing Pitha. Boiled bora saul is served as Jolpan with curd or milk, jaggery or sugar.
• Kumol saul is a unique type of rice from Assam that can be eaten without cooking. It is rendered fluffy and edible by being soaked in water for a short time. The rice may be eaten with milk or curd, jaggery, yogurt after being immersed in warm water for just fifteen minutes or so.
• Chira (Flattened rice, also called beaten rice) is a dehusked rice which is flattened into flat light dry flakes. These flakes of rice swell when added to liquid, whether hot or cold, as they absorb water, milk or any other liquids. It can be eaten raw by immersing it in plain water or milk or curd, with salt or sugar or jaggery to taste, or lightly fried in oil.
• Muri (puffed rice) is made by heating sand in a pot, and then throwing in grains of rice. The rice may be washed in brine to provide seasoning. The rice puffs up and is separated from the sand by a strainer. It is served with hot milk or curd and jaggery or sugar.
• Suji (Semolina) is also one type of common jolpan, a type of dessert. Like pithaguri it is heated on a frying pan and water is added to make it a paste and then served with hot milk.
Pitha' is a ricecake or pancake, a thin-flat cake prepared from a batter and cooked on a hot griddle or frying pan. It is an inseparable part of Jolpan in Assam. It is a special class of rice preparation generally made only on special occasions like Bihu in Assam. Made usually with soaked and ground rice, they could be fried in oil, roasted over a slow fire or baked and rolled over a hot plate.
• Til Pitha is a type of pancake. It is a special class of rice preparation and generally made only on special occasions like Bihu in Assam. Bora saul, a glutinous type of rice is soaked and ground. Then a certain quantity of this rice flour is baked, filled up with sesame seeds, ground coconut and dried rind of orange, jaggery etc. and pressed and rolled with many folders. This rice cake is also called Hesa pitha since it is pressed after rolling it as folder by folder.
• Ghila pitha is a type of pancake so called because of its knee cap sized shape. Knee cap is called Ghila in Assamese. Rice flour of Bora saul, one kind of glutinous rice or any common rice is used in it. A paste made of rice flour and jaggery is prepared first and then fried in cooking oil at a certain quantity. Salt is also used instead of jaggery to make salty Ghila pitha. It is generally prepared and served in Bihu in Assam.
Major cities like Guwahati, Tezpur, Jorhat and Dibrugarh offer a wide variety of restaurants and eat outs. Restaurants are normally very cheap and a good meal will cost about $0.50 to $1 per person. There are also ambient restaurants which serve all varieties of Indian and Assamese dishes for about less than $5 - $8 per person.
[edit][add listing] Drink
Alcohol:
Tea: Assam is famous for tea internationally.It has a large tea growing industry. Most plantations are located in the upper Assam.70% tea is exported outside India.People drink tea with/without milk and also sometimes containing ginger and spices such as cardamom.
Water: Problematic due to lack of sanitary facilities and sewage treatment. It is safest to assume water is unsafe for drinking without being chemically treated or boiled, which is one reason to stick to tea or bottled water.
[edit] Stay safe
Visitors should be aware that the United Liberation Front of Assam (Ulfa) has been engaged in a campaign for independence in the state since 1979. Previously, their tactics were to destroy facilities, such as oil and gas pipelines, that were of economic benefit to India as well as targeting security patrols. However, in recent times they have become more assertive in their demands and the Hindi speaking civilian population have also become targets of intimidation and kidnappings, and indiscriminate exploding of bombs in areas frequented by Hindi speakers have become increasingly common. Foreigners have not been targeted in the campaign, though, of course, it is possible to be caught in the violence due to being in the wrong place at the wrong time, so vigilance is required while visiting the state.
[edit] Cope
[edit] Radio Stations
• AIR Guwahati / Akashvani Guwahati) - 729 kHz, 1035 kHz, 4940 kHz, 7280 kHz, 100.8 MHz
• Gupshup FM - 94.3
• Radio Oolala (Positive Radio Pvt. Ltd.) - 91.9 MHz
• Big 92.7 FM, Guwahati (Adlabs Films Ltd.) - 92.7 MHz
• Gyan Vani, Guwahati - 107.8 MHz
• AIR Dibrugarh / Akashvani Dibrugarh - 567 kHz
• AIR Jorhat / Akashvani Jorhat - 103.4 MHz
• AIR Tezpur / Akashvani Tezpur - 1125 kHz
• AIR Diphu / Akashvani Diphu) - 1485 kHz
• AIR Haflong / Akashvani Haflong - 100.2 MHz
• AIR Nagaon / Akashvani Nagaon - 102.7 MHz
• AIR Kokrajhar / Akashvani Kokrajhar - 1512 kHz
• AIR Dhubri / Akashvani Dhubri - 103.3 MHz
• AIR Silchar / Akashvani Silchar - 828 kHz
[edit] Newspapers
• The Assam Tribune [12]
• The Sentinel[13]
• The Asomiya Pratidin[14]
• Janasadharan[15]
• Seven Sisters Post[16]
[edit] Get out
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
3307.0 - Social Statistics, Australia: Divorce, Dec 1964
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 24/08/1965
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• About this Release
These related publications have been grouped together under the later title Divorces, Australia (Cat no 3307.0) although the title has changed over the period of publication.
Publication details
Title: Social Statistics, Australia: Divorce
Period covered: 1960-1969
Frequency: Annual/Quarterly
Related Links: Continued by: Divorce
This publication has been scanned from the paper version using character recognition software. This provides a full-text searching capability once downloaded.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
4652.5 - Domestic Use of Water and Energy, WA, Oct 2006
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 19/04/2007 First Issue
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ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
This publication contains results from the State Supplementary Survey conducted in Western Australia (WA) in October 2006. It presents information on energy using devices, water using appliances and the water use behaviour of households in WA. Topics covered include cooling and heating devices, water sources, water heating, water using appliances and facilities, garden water use, swimming pools and electrical safety.
Data items were collected from Any Responsible Adult (ARA) on behalf of the household. A full data item list is available in the Appendix.
ABOUT THIS SURVEY
The survey was conducted as a supplement to the ABS Monthly Population Survey. Please refer to the Explanatory Notes at the back of this publication for further details about this survey.
Inquiries
For further information about these and related statistics, contact the National Information and Referral Service on 1300 135 070 or Carolann Hoad on Perth (08) 9360 5947.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
SOURCES OF ENERGY
In October 2006, there were an estimated 800,800 households in WA. Almost all WA households used mains electricity, 68% used mains gas and 17% used solar energy. It was more likely for multiple energy sources to be used in separate houses, rather than in semi-detached, row or terrace houses or flats, units and apartments. One in five separate houses used solar energy, compared with 4% in other dwelling types.
COOLING AND HEATING
Cooling units
At the time of the survey almost three-quarters of WA households used an air conditioner or evaporative cooling (567,600 or 71%). Of the different cooler types and positions the most common units used in WA homes were ducted evaporative coolers (32%) followed by reverse cycle split system air conditioners (25%).
By the type of unit, around half of WA households reported that their main cooling unit was a reverse-cycle air conditioner (49%) and another 35% used evaporative cooling. Almost half of WA households reported that the position of their cooling unit was ducted (45%), a further 28% used a split system. Similar proportions of households with five or more persons had reverse cycle air conditioners (46%) and evaporative cooling (42%). Whereas in smaller households, reverse cycle air conditioners were more common. Most evaporative cooling was ducted through the home (92%). Reverse cycle air conditioners
were more likely to be split systems (52%). Of those WA homes with cooling, almost three-quarters had some type of ceiling insulation. The proportion with ceiling insulation was highest for those homes with ducted cooling (84%).
Heaters
An estimated 709,800 WA households reported having some form of heating (89%). Almost half of these households reported that their main heater was a gas heater (46%). One in five households used a reverse-cycle air conditioner as their main heater (21%), 17% used wood and a further 14% used an electric heater. Gas was the most popular form of heating across all household sizes. However one person households were more likely than other households to use electric heaters as their main form of heating (20% compared with around 10% for other household sizes) and less likely to use wood (10% compared with around 20% for other household sizes).
In double brick and brick veneer houses, gas heaters were more commonly used as the main type of heating (50% and 42% respectively), whereas in fibro cement houses, wood heaters were more commonly used (46%). Of the estimated 324,000 WA households who reported using gas for their main heater, 79% used a portable unflued gas heater. This accounted for approximately one-third of all WA households with heating (36%). Most of these households used only one portable unflued gas heater (75%) in their homes with a further 22,200 WA households using a portable unflued gas heater as their secondary heater.
SOURCES OF WATER
Mains water supply
An estimated 758,500 households in WA (95%) received their domestic water supply from mains or town water. In Perth, 2% of households were not connected to mains water, compared with 15% of households in the Balance of WA.
Rain water tanks
For those households connected to mains water supply in WA, 9% had a rain water tank. The proportion was higher for those living in separate houses (11%) compared with other types of dwellings (3%), and for households in the Balance of WA (24%) compared with Perth households (5%). Of those households that used water from a rain water tank, the most common uses were drinking water (68%), watering the garden (43%) and food preparation (32%).
Bore water
For those WA households connected to mains water supply around one-fifth reported using bore water (22%). A higher proportion of Perth households used bore water (26%) compared with households in the Balance of WA (11%). Less than one-fifth of households that used a bore shared it with other households or properties (16%).
WATER HEATING
More than half of WA households had a mains gas hot water system (56%). Electricity was used for water heating by 21% of households and solar heating was used by 15% of households. Electric water heating was more popular in single person households (30%) than in other household types, conversely solar heating was a little less popular (11%). The majority (60%) of WA households used a storage rather than instantaneous hot water system (38%). The proportions for single person households were more evenly distributed with 51% using storage and 46% using instantaneous hot water systems.
WATER USING APPLIANCES AND FACILITIES
Only the results for Perth households connected to the mains water supply are discussed in this section on water using appliances and facilities.
Washing machines
The majority of all Perth households used a top loading washing machine (71%). Front loading washing machines become more popular as households get larger (ranging from 17% of one person households, to 30% of five or more person households). Almost one-third of households living in flats, units or apartments did not have a washing machine (32%).
Dishwashers
More than one third (38%) of Perth households had a dishwasher. The proportion was higher for households living in a separate house (44%) compared with other dwelling types. The proportion of households with dishwashers also increased with household size, ranging from 19% in one person households to 52% of three or more person households.
Toilets
More than half (55%) of all Perth households had two or more toilets. In households with three or more persons, the proportion was higher (73%). More than three-quarters (81%) of Perth households used only dual flush toilets. One person households were less likely to use dual flush toilets (74%) than other household sizes.
Showers
Almost half (44%) of all Perth households had two or more showers. A higher proportion of water efficient shower heads were used in separate house dwellings (47%) compared with the proportion used in flats, units or apartments (29%). The highest proportion of households that did not use water efficient shower heads were one person households (58%).
Baths and indoor spas
More than half (59%) of Perth households had a bath. The proportion of households with a bath increased with the size of the household, from 43% for one person households to 76% for five or more person households. Less than one in ten (6%) households had an indoor spa.
GARDEN WATER USE
Watering methods
An estimated 556,100 Perth households had gardens or lawns (92%). Over three-quarters of these households had reticulation systems (77%). More than two-thirds of reticulation systems were automatic electronic systems (68%), while 11% were not automated. For those households with multiple areas to water, the majority of reticulation systems could be set to water different zones, for example garden, lawn or hanging baskets, for different amounts of time or on different days (87%). Sprinklers, drippers or pop-ups were the most common methods used by reticulation systems to water the garden (99%). Other popular watering methods used by all households included using a hand held hose (71%), a watering can or container (42%) and sprinklers (15%).
Water conservation measures
More than two-thirds (68%) of Perth households used mulch in their garden in the twelve months prior to October 2006. Over one-third (36%) of Perth households
reported re-using or recycling water for use in their gardens. This could include using sophisticated recycled water systems, collecting water from running a shower, and pouring leftover water from water bottles and vases onto gardens or lawns.
A small proportion of households in Perth with a garden reported not watering (15%).
SWIMMING POOLS
An estimated 97,700 Perth households had a swimming pool (16%). Almost one-third (31%) of these swimming pools were in the North metropolitan region, almost one-third (31%) had a pool cover and almost one-quarter (23%) were heated.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY SWITCHES
In 1992 it became compulsory for all newly constructed residential dwellings in WA to install electrical safety switches (DOCEP 2002). An estimated 500,400 or 62% of WA dwellings were built before 1992.
The majority of these older dwellings had electrical safety switches (70%). For those dwellings that did not have electrical safety switches installed, the most commonly reported reasons were:
• they had not got around to installing them (27%),
• the resident was not the home owner or not responsible (24%), and
• they had never thought about it before (24%).
Government of Western Australia, 2002 Energy Safety: Safety Switches. Department of Consumer and Employment Protection.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
1384.6 - Statistics - Tasmania, 2008
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 13/09/2002 Ceased
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Contents >> Fishing >> Legislative framework >> Marine farming management plans
The Marine Farming Planning Act 1995 (Tas.) provides for the planned development, management, and control of marine farming activities in Tasmania. Sustainable development of the aquaculture industry is to be fostered through the preparation of marine farming development plans, which establish the zones where marine farming is allowed in Tasmania's coastal waters.
The Act requires that an environmental impact assessment be made on each proposed marine farming development plan, and it provides opportunity for community input.
The marine farming development plan outlines the extent and type of marine farming allowed and the management controls that apply within each zone. The zone is then available for lease applications. All marine farm lessees must comply with an environmental monitoring program that is specific to the species farmed.
Leases cover the water column, water surface and sea bed and are for 30 years, with an option to renew for a further 30 years.
At April 2002, marine farming development plans:
• had been implemented for Huon River and Port Esperance, D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Tasman Peninsula and Norfolk Bay, Macquarie Harbour, Far North West, Pipeclay Lagoon, Georges Bay, Great Oyster Bay and Mercury Passage, Blackmans Bay, Furneaux Group, and Tamar Estuary;
• were underway for Port Sorell and Pittwater; and
• were under review for D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Huon River and Port Esperance, and Tasman Peninsula and Norfolk Bay.
Previous PageNext Page
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
1105.0 - Release Advice, 04 May 1999
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 04/05/1999
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• About this Release
ABOUT THIS RELEASE
Previously: Publications Advice (ISSN: 0156-4722)
Lists products released by all ABS offices on the day of issue of the Release Advice and those expected to be released on the following four working days.
Copies are available free of charge on Tuesdays and Fridays over the counter from ABS bookshops, or by subscription. A daily Release Advice is also available from the ABS Statsite on the Internet (www.abs.gov.au).
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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DC, 2009 Series
Published in English (United States)
Publication Date:
[April] 2009
Number of Issues Published:
1
Format:
Color; 8.5" x 13"; Hardcover with Slipcase; Glossy Paper; Collected Edition
Series Details:
Publisher's Brands:
• without publisher's brand information (1 issue)
Indicia Publishers:
• without indicia publisher information (1 issue)
Editing
Index Status
Indexed Partially Indexed Pending Approval Reserved Skeleton Data Only
[nn]
Cover Status
Scan available Needs Replacement No Scan available
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how to game ftp access?
Skilled contributor
27Jul2008,11:02 #1
i just wanted to know, say "jim" has a file on his computer and i wanted it. i am friends with jim and i know he would not mind but i cant get a hold of him. how would i go about getting it. [i do know basics.] thanks.
Skilled contributor
27Jul2008,16:24 #2
make a remote access to there system,
find out his ip, then tell him to allow his system on remotly access. through mycomputer property ===>> remote
then goto
start ===>programme file===>accessories===>communication===>remote desktop connection
after that dial his ip.
Invasive contributor
27Jul2008,20:04 #3
if your looking for a hacking type why i posted a tutorial on how to do it with hydra one sec ill post you think link
okay mate here you go
The link
hope it helps you
Last edited by XXxxImmortalxxXX; 27Jul2008 at 20:07.. Reason: adding the link
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U.P Pollution Control Board is a statutory organization entrusted to implement Environmental Laws and rules within the jurisdiction of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. U.P. Water Pollution Prevention and Control Board, constituted on February 3, 1975, initially under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act., 1974, was consequently rechristened as U.P. Pollution Control Board on 13th July,1982, subsequent to the enactment of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
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Bibliography: What Next?
You are not logged in. If you create a free account and sign in, you will be able to customize what is displayed.
Title: What Next?
Author: Damon Knight
Year: 1967
Type: ESSAY
Series: In Search of Wonder
ISFDB Record Number: 849223
User Rating: This title has fewer than 5 votes. VOTE
Current Tags: None Add Tags
Publications:
Copyright (c) 1995-2011 Al von Ruff.
ISFDB Engine - Version 4.00 (04/24/06)
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Water Spout
From the Super Mario Wiki
(Redirected from Water Geyser)
Jump to: navigation, search
Mario and Yoshi riding a water spout.
Water Spouts are pillars of water that rise out of bottomless pits or out of other bodies of water, appearing in New Super Mario Bros. U. They help players across gaps and reach high places. If Mario jumps into one, he'll be able to swim until the geyser pushes him to the top by its force. They appear in Above the Cheep Cheep Seas, Urchin Shoals and Waterspout Beach, and are an integral part in navigating Sparkling Waters. They behave similarly to Sand Geysers in previous New Super Mario Bros. games.
[edit] Trivia
• If Yoshi runs into the middle of a rising Water Spout, he'll stop when he reaches the top.
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Mar. Drugs 2009, 7(4), 689-704; doi:10.3390/md7040689
Article
The Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Caulerpin, a Bisindole Alkaloid Isolated from Seaweeds of the Genus Caulerpa
1 LaFI-Laboratório de Farmacologia e Imunidade, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, AL, Brazil 2 Laboratório de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil 3 Laboratório de Algas Marinhas-LAM, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil 4 Laboratório de Pesquisa em Recursos Naturais, Instituto de Química e Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, AL, Brazil
* Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received: 16 October 2009; in revised form: 4 November 2009 / Accepted: 19 November 2009 / Published: 26 November 2009
Download PDF Full-Text [184 KB, uploaded 26 November 2009 09:49 CET]
Abstract: The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of caulerpin was investigated. This bisindole alkaloid was isolated from the lipoid extract of Caulerpa racemosa and its structure was identified by spectroscopic methods, including IR and NMR techniques. The pharmacological assays used were the writhing and the hot plate tests, the formalin-induced pain, the capsaicin-induced ear edema and the carrageenaninduced peritonitis. Caulerpin was given orally at a concentration of 100 μmol/kg. In the abdominal constriction test caulerpin showed reduction in the acetic acid-induced nociception at 0.0945 μmol (0.0103–1.0984) and for dypirone it was 0.0426 μmol (0.0092–0.1972). In the hot plate test in vivo the inhibition of nociception by caulerpin (100 μmol/kg, p.o.) was also favorable. This result suggests that this compound exhibits a central activity, without changing the motor activity (seen in the rotarod test). Caulerpin (100 μmol/kg, p.o.) reduced the formalin effects in both phases by 35.4% and 45.6%, respectively. The possible anti-inflammatory activity observed in the second phase in the formalin test of caulerpin (100 μmol/kg, p.o.) was confirmed on the capsaicin-induced ear edema model, where an inhibition of 55.8% was presented. Indeed, it was also observed in the carrageenan-induced peritonitis that caulerpin (100 μmol/kg, p.o.) exhibited anti-inflammatory activity, reducing significantly the number of recruit cells by 48.3%. Pharmacological studies are continuing in order to characterize the mechanism(s) responsible for the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory actions and also to identify other active principles present in Caulerpa racemosa.
Keywords: Caulerpa racemosa; antinociceptive; anti-inflammatory; caulerpin
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Cite This Article
MDPI and ACS Style
De Souza, É.T.; Pereira de Lira, D.; Cavalcanti de Queiroz, A.; Costa da Silva, D.J.; Bezerra de Aquino, A.; Campessato Mella, E.A.; Prates Lorenzo, V.; De Miranda, G.E.C.; De Araújo-Júnior, J.X.; De Oliveira Chaves, M.C.; Barbosa-Filho, J.M.; Filgueiras de Athayde-Filho, P.; De Oliveira Santos, B.V.; Alexandre-Moreira, M.S. The Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Caulerpin, a Bisindole Alkaloid Isolated from Seaweeds of the Genus Caulerpa. Mar. Drugs 2009, 7, 689-704.
AMA Style
De Souza ÉT, Pereira de Lira D, Cavalcanti de Queiroz A, Costa da Silva DJ, Bezerra de Aquino A, Campessato Mella EA, Prates Lorenzo V, De Miranda GEC, De Araújo-Júnior JX, De Oliveira Chaves MC, Barbosa-Filho JM, Filgueiras de Athayde-Filho P, De Oliveira Santos BV, Alexandre-Moreira MS. The Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Caulerpin, a Bisindole Alkaloid Isolated from Seaweeds of the Genus Caulerpa. Marine Drugs. 2009; 7(4):689-704.
Chicago/Turabian Style
De Souza, Éverton Tenório; Pereira de Lira, Daysianne; Cavalcanti de Queiroz, Aline; Costa da Silva, Diogo José; Bezerra de Aquino, Anansa; Campessato Mella, Eliane A.; Prates Lorenzo, Vitor; De Miranda, George Emmanuel C.; De Araújo-Júnior, João Xavier; De Oliveira Chaves, Maria Célia; Barbosa-Filho, José Maria; Filgueiras de Athayde-Filho, Petrônio; De Oliveira Santos, Bárbara Viviana; Alexandre-Moreira, Magna Suzana. 2009. "The Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Caulerpin, a Bisindole Alkaloid Isolated from Seaweeds of the Genus Caulerpa." Mar. Drugs 7, no. 4: 689-704.
Mar. Drugs EISSN 1660-3397 Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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High Activity
Contributors : glx
Analyzed 5 days ago based on code collected 5 days ago.
Activity on OpenTTD by glx
All-time Commits: 575
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First Commit: 27-Apr-2006
Last Commit: 19-Dec-2012
Names in SCM: glx
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Project Commits
Approximately one year of commit activity shown
Project Languages
Language Aggregate Coding Time Total Commits Total Lines Changed Comment Ratio
C++ 4y 4m 379 12,480 15.2%
C 2y 7m 107 2,517 17.9%
XML 1y 10m 44 16,990 0.0%
Visual Basic 1y 4m 26 751 10.4%
shell script 10m 12 228 15.5%
Make 4m 5 24 -
Autoconf 2m 2 3 -
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AWK 1m 1 4 -
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Copyright © 2013 Black Duck Software, Inc. and its contributors, Some Rights Reserved. Unless otherwise marked, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License . Ohloh ® and the Ohloh logo are trademarks of Black Duck Software, Inc. in the United States and/or other jurisdictions. All other trademarks are the property of their respective holders.
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Thousand of athletes arriving in London for Olympic
PanARMENIAN.Net - Thousands of athletes and officials have begun arriving in London for the Olympic Games, as questions remain about recruitment of security staff, BBC News reported.
Preparations are intensifying 11 days before London 2012's opening ceremony.
The first priority "Games Lane" has begun operation on the M4 - the main route from Heathrow Airport - and the Olympic drug testing lab starts work.
Meanwhile, security firm G4S's chairman has refused to express support for his chief executive over the guards fiasco.
Speaking to BBC News channel on Monday morning, London mayor Boris Johnson said: "London is as ready, in fact readier than any Olympic city has ever been at this stage in proceedings."
Heathrow Airport is standing by to process as many as 120,000 passengers on Monday, about 10,000 more than would be normal for this time of year.
Immigration Minister Damian Green has said that the UK Border Force would be in full "Olympic mode" as of Sunday and he promised all immigration desks at Heathrow would be manned at peak times.
Volunteers will be directing athletes to the coaches and trains that will take many of them to the Olympic Village in Stratford, east London.
The village will house 16,000 athletes and officials at its peak.
The biggest anti-doping operation in the history of the Olympics also begins on Monday. Drug testers are expecting to take the first of about 6,000 samples for testing at the London 2012 laboratory.
Half of the competitors will be tested including every medallist at the Olympics and Paralympics.
Partner news
Top stories
European Individual Chess Championship ended in Polish town of Legnica, with 24 chess players winning World Cup qualifications.
Gor Minasyan won silver medal, Andranik Karapetyan and Izabella Yalyan both won bronze at Junior World Championships in Lima.
The chief coach noted that the Greco-Roman wrestlers will participate in Mariupol-hosted tournament in June.
Hrant Melkumyan tied the game with Czech Republic’s Viktor Láznička to take the 18th spot with 6,5 points.
Partner news
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[11] who once was useless to you, but now is useful to you and to me.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License.
An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system.
load focus Latin (Saint Jerome, Bible Foundation and On-Line Book Initiative)
load focus Greek (Brooke Foss Westcott, Fenton John Anthony Hort, 1885)
hide Places (automatically extracted)
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Citation URN: urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0031.tlg018.perseus-eng1:1.11
Document URN: urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0031.tlg018.perseus-eng1
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Gray Bars for DMOZ, Yahoo! & Google Directory Categories
May 25, 2005 • 12:05 pm | (1) by | Filed Under Google PageRank & Algorithm Updates
During the last pagerank update it seems as if Google has gave the PageRank of death to many (not all) directory categories at the ODP, Google Directory and Yahoo! Directory.
Example specific categories that have been assigned a PageRank of 0, reported over at DigitalPoint Forums, include;
- http://dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Searching/Directories/ [Check SEO Chat PR Tool] - http://directory.google.com/Top/Computers/Internet/Searching/Directories/ [Check SEO Chat PR Tool] - http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/Internet/World_Wide_Web/Searching_the_Web/Search_Engines_and_Directories/Directories/ [Check SEO Chat PR Tool]
Forum discussion at DigitalPoint Forums.
Previous story: Google RSS Ads Removed Mostly
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Place:East Dulwich, Surrey, England
Watchers
NameEast Dulwich
TypeDistrict
Located inSurrey, England
Also located inGreater London, England
source: Family History Library Catalog
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
East Dulwich is a district of South London, England in the London Borough of Southwark. It forms the eastern one third of Dulwich, with the Dulwich Wood area, Dulwich Village and West Dulwich to its South and West making up the remaining two thirds. The South London suburb dates back to the nineteenth century when the land was sold by Alleyn's College and redeveloped with the help of Sir Charles Barry.
It is a residential area which has undergone gentrification in recent years. It has a shopping area along Lordship Lane which, as well as many independent shops, has a selection of restaurants and a greengrocer specialising in organic produce. On Fridays and Saturdays there is a small market on North Cross Road with antiques, crafts and specialist food stalls. Some of the pubs in the area have been converted to Gastropubs, providing residents with many more places to eat and drink. East Dulwich station is located on Grove Vale. It is not only further east than North Dulwich Station (on the same line) but also further north.
Research Tips
This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original content was at East Dulwich. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with WeRelate, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
4190.1 - National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey: New South Wales, 1994
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 17/09/1996
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
Contains details from the 1994 National Aboriginal and Torres Srait Islander Survey based on Detailed Findings for each State/Territory consistent with the NATSIS series of output publications. Major topics will include- Family and culture; Health; housing, Employment & Income; Education and Training and Law and Justice. There will be no publication produced for the ACT.
This publication has been converted from older electronic formats and does not necessarily have the same appearance and functionality as later releases.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I'm a solo developer working from home who has developed an iPhone app which is currently available in the App Store. Sales & marketing is not something I know much about yet so sales have been lacklustre to say the least. The product is based upon a very well known game, and has been much duplicated in the App Store as well as in the "real world."
An entrepreneurial acquaintance of mine, who likes my version of the game, has suggested I rebrand the app (via a new name, logo, press release etc) and sell it through his company brand instead. For his sales & marketing assistance, he has suggested a 50% slice of the revenues from my already finished product.
My first question is simple: is granting him 50% too much?
I honestly feel it is too much in this instance, but wanted feedback from others who may have been here already. Considering the time/effort I spent developing the app originally, and his lack of proven sales track record (to me at least), I was wondering if a 75/25 split with a sliding scale wouldn't be more appropriate. e.g. for every 1,000 unit sales he gets an additional 1%, up to 50%.
Additionally, he also wants to "hire" me - on a revenue sharing basis initially (i.e. no salary) - and have me develop other small iPhone apps as well. My "pay" would be 1/3 of the revenue for any stuff I work on. His business would receive the other 2/3. Does this split seem fair?
I'd be working from home, managing myself, and undertaking all of the usual development duties for these apps (i.e. feasibility studies, software/UI designs, coding, testing etc.) The product descriptions would come from him, although these are little more than verbal discussions with me about making an app which does this and that, or demo'ing an existing app and saying he wants something similar to this.
I'm wondering if this is a crazy situation and if I should run away very fast or not.
The reason I ask at all is that I've seen many "job" postings (on Craigslist and elsewhere) looking for "revenue split" arrangements with people with "ideas" and wondered if anyone has actually taken part in such deals in lieu of a real job or working 100% for oneself.
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11 Answers
First, hiring you solely on the basis of a percentage of revenue is not hiring you - it's becoming a partner. If you're questioning whether a 50/50 split is fair, than 66/33 couldn't possibly be fair.
Now, in terms of your current product, find out what the rate is for marketing something similar, and work out what you want to earn per hour. So if you want to earn $50 per hour, and the cost for marketing would typically be in the area of $10,000, then that works out to 200 hours.
How much time have you already put in? If you've put in 800 hours, than 20% would be a fair amount to give him. If you've put in 100 hours, than he should be getting about 66%.
Granted, these numbers aren't exact, and they don't take into consideration the fact that it was your idea, and that you took the risk initially in developing the product (with potentially 0 sales) and he is taking an existing products with some (albeit small) sales. However, this exercise can help you determine what a fair number might be, and give you a starting point for negotiation.
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I find it comical that he is asking for 50% of revenue for an app you already wrote, bu is only willing to give you 1/3 for apps that are only concepts that you will have to write.
My advice would be to learn/try to do your own marketing and promotions. If/once you get tired of that then go ahead and team up with someone. 50% (or whatever split) of some non zero amount is more than 100% of 0...
You need to call him on the inconsistency of the revenue split though. That is just offensive.
Good luck.
Let us know how it works out.
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Keep in mind you are not making any money right now so 50% of more money is almost always better than 100% of nothing (or hardly nothing).
My recommendation is to put all your expectations in writing before hand. You expect him to work XX amount of hours each week marketing. You expect him to spend YY amount of dollars marketing. His plan is this...etc. Make sure they are measurable expectations. Then have it in the contract what happens if he doesnt meet one or more of these expectations.
I wouldnt even begin to discuss future projects until you see how this one goes.
Best of luck!
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My short answer would be that you need to set up the revenue share model so that the sales side has an incentive to do more. If you stay at a constant percentage through the life of the partnership you are not setting up an incentive for the sales effort to put in the work as much as if you were to tie the percentage to a "per unit" value.
If this month X units are sold the percentage is 25%. If it is Y it is 75%. What is the X and Y?
Another approach might be to start out with a schedule where in the first 6 months the percentage is triggered based on the previous months performance. If sales have gone up then the higher percentage is active for the next month and so on. After 6 months I would go back to the number of units because you cannot expect continued growth forever. Once you know what is reasonable to sell in a month you can set the X and Y appropriately. Perhaps at 6 months you set the X and Y values at 80% of the averages sales of the previous 3 months. At that point the sales efforts would have kicked in a bit so that you can get an impression of what sort of sales you can expect going forward. If the sales and marketing effort slips the get a lower percentage in the following month. They will want to keep their efforts going.
Meanwhile you will need to be fixing bugs and tweaking the app as you go to address user issues. That should also be a part of the agreement with major new features outlined for the next major release which would fall under another agreement. You should also lock in ownership of these apps so that this sales person cannot take it and start selling it or future versions without you.
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50% of the app you have already built sounds too much.
Does the acquaintance have a demonstrable track record of his marketing and the sales performance of apps under his brand?
He offer you any kind of contract? If he has dealt with other developers he may have a standard contract you could use.
Depending on how you feel about your current progress as a solo developer you might want to look into working with him for one project for the experience. This could give you some insight into the marketing side of things, perhaps even increase your exposure.
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I think your idea and dev experience is worth a LOT. More than 50%. Definitely have an operating agreement and have YOUR lawyer look it over. Your lawyer should be familiar with software law and startups, if not find one that has experience. Make sure to cover how it all ends. For instance, if the marketer doesn't show workable hours within 6 months etc, his rev gets dropped. How will you measure bug fix/update time and mktg time?
Be creative. You could do a 50/50 split for the first year and then it switches to 70/30. This will be an incentive for mktg to produce results. If sales/downloads are over a certain amount, it stays at 50/50, otherwise it changes.
Your ideas are everything, and ONLY if they are acted upon. Ideas are just multipliers of EXECUTION. You can't market anything without those two things first. Your idea is the Gold, marketing is the sign outside the mine. Read this fantastic article by Derek Sivers. http://sivers.org/multiply
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50% is very fair because the money you will be receiving is 100% money that you are not currently getting. As long as it is not exclusive. What if you had 10 guys like this guy marketing your product for free? You would be making a lot of money. As far as the other new apps, 50/50 should be good after he pays you to develop it.
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I am in a similar situation where I want to build a set of apps for a publisher so they have mobile apps that leverage their existing services which are limited to a conventional web site. I want to work with them and suggested we could do a revenue share with the ads that are coming from the mobile apps that I build. I am not sure what rate I should suggest so I am looking for what others have done.
One approach I may suggest is taking 75% of the ad revenue up to the point the app reaches 50% of my billable time. So if I spend 40 hours on it at my rate of $100/hr I would charge them outright $4000 to build the app. With revenue sharing I would set the 75% rate to 25% after it reaches $2000. And then I would set the time period for this revenue share to 2 years since it may take a year to really get a lot of people using the app and to add more features to make the app more compelling to use. I may make most of my ROI in the 2nd year. At that point we can negotiate a continued relationship where I continue to make updates to the app. If they want a completely rebuilt app and I need to drop many hours of work into it again I would go back to 75% until I reach my 50% point.
Is this fair? I cannot determine that until I see what others have done with revenue sharing. I do know that I am taking a risk by suggesting the revenue sharing model. I may not make it to the 50% point in 2 years and they may not do a good job of promoting the app through their publication. There may not be enough of a population locally to reach a significant number of users to even justify revenue sharing. I think I will still try it for this one app. I just have to determine which numbers are fair.
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I think I've had a totally different experience. As I've created several apps and my dev outsourcing has been less than 10% of my budget. I've found with most my apps I can get them done very satisfactory online at taskcity and often come in under budget. With the number of apps out there, there's no doubt tons of great ideas that go unnoticed because there isn't someone talented behind the marketing and sales of them. I think going unnoticed is worse than creating a bad app. All this beijing said, I think you still need to look at the total time/cost of dev vs marketing.
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this discussion is very useful. I'm almost in a same condition to on revenue split basis for development team as a marketer, manage blog posts, help decide on designs and sales strategies. 25/75 Seems more appropriate specially when you own application.
In my case I'm going to work on 15/85 at start-up (not involved in development).
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Sounds like there are three on this thread (idea guy, designer & marketer). Why dint you three team up?
I reckon I've got a great idea & just trying to look for best way to get it built & marketed.
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Puerto Rico Catholic Church Records (FamilySearch Historical Records)Edit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
This article describes a collection of historical records available at FamilySearch.org.
Contents
Title in the Language of the Record
Puerto Rico Registros da Iglesia Católica
Record Description
This collection of Catholic Church records covers the years 1645-1969.
This collection of baptisms, confirmations, marriages, deaths, and indexes were created in several church parishes of Puerto Rico. These were handwritten in Spanish by the priest in charge of the jurisdiction where the event took place. Most of the records are written in narrative style. Depending on the priest, some records have more information than others.
The records in this collection were created in different Catholic Church jurisdictions throughout Puerto Rico. At the time of the creation of the records in this collection, the Catholic Church in Puerto Rico was divided into several dioceses, including the Dioceses of Puerto Rico, which was erected in 1511. The diocese's name was changed in 1924 to the Diocese of San Juan de Puerto Rico. In 1960, the diocese was elevated to archdiocese with the name of Archdiocese of San Juan of Puerto Rico. Other dioceses listed in this record’s collection are the Diocese of Ponce (erected in 1924), the Diocese of Arecibo (erected in 1960), and the Diocese of Caguas (erected in 1964). Since the time period of this collection, two more dioceses have been erected: the Diocese of Mayaguez (erected in 1976) and the Diocese of Fajardo-Humacao (erected in 2008).
Most of the citizens in the earlier time of Puerto Rico professed the Roman Catholic religion. In later years, other religions have been organized in the island. At present, statistics indicate about 75 percent of the population may be Catholic; the rest of the population belong to other religions.
Priests in their jurisdiction created registers to keep a record of the events in their members’ lives, such as baptisms and confirmations, marriages, and death or burials. Priests also kept registers for other ecclesiastical records related to their administration.
The Catholic Church records of Puerto Rico are a reliable source for genealogical research. For research after the civil registration implementation in 1885, it is suggested to research both civil and church records and to compare the information.
For a list of records by localities and dates currently published in this collection, select the Browse.
Citation for This Collection
The following citation refers to the original source of the information published in FamilySearch.org Historical Record collections. Sources include the author, custodian, publisher and archive for the original records.
"Puerto Rico Roman Catholic Church Records, 1645-1969." Images. FamilySearch. http://FamilySearch.org : accessed 2013.
Suggested citation format for a record in this collection.
Record Content
These baptismal records usually contain the following information:
• Date and place of baptism
• Child's name and gender
• Child's legitimacy
• Child's date and place of birth
• Parents' names, their origin and residence
• Names of paternal grandparents
• Names of maternal grandparents
• Names of godparents
• Future marriage information may be found in the margin(s)
These marriage records usually contain the following information:
• Date and place of marriage
• Groom's name, age, marital status and origin
• Names of groom's parents
• Bride's name, age, marital status and origin
• Names of bride's parents
• Names of witnesses
These death/burial records usually contain the following information:
• Name, age and gender of deceased
• Date and place of death
• Parents' names and their origin and residence
• Sometimes, name of spouse, if married
• Sometimes, burial information
How to Use the Record
To search the collection you will need to follow this series of links:
⇒ Select the "Browse" link in the initial search page
⇒ Select the "Nombre de Municipio" category
⇒ Select the "Nombre de Parroquia" category
⇒ Select the "Tipo de Registro y Años" category which takes you to the images.
Look at the images one by one comparing the information with what you already know about your ancestors to determine which one is your ancestor. You may need to compare the information about more than one person to make this determination.
The Catholic Church records are of great importance in the research of ancestors in Puerto Rico. Records include the vital information of the principal person and may include vital information of parents and grandparents, or even other relatives, which may help to identify other branches of the family.
Known Issues with This Collection
Problems with this collection?
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For a full list of all known issues associated with this collection see the attached Wiki article. If you encounter additional problems, please email them to support@familysearch.org. Please include the full path to the link and a description of the problem in your e-mail. Your assistance will help ensure that future reworks will be considered.
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Citing FamilySearch Historical Collections
When you copy information from a record, you should also list where you found the information. This will help you or others to find the record again. It is also good to keep track of records where you did not find information, including the names of the people you looked for in the records.
A suggested format for keeping track of records that you have searched is found in the wiki article Help:How to Cite FamilySearch Collections.
Citation Example for a Record Found in This Collection
“Puerto Rico Roman Catholic Church Records, 1645-1969,” index and images, 'FamilySearch' (https://www.familysearch.org: accessed 13 March 2012), San Francisco de Asis> baptisimos 1858-1861>Nicholas Davila, 1858, image 25 of 222. Archivo Histórico de la Arquidiócesis de San Juan, San Juan, Puerto Rico. FHL microfilm. Family History Library, Salt Lake City, Utah.
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This article is part of the series Ontologies.
Method
The Sequence Ontology: a tool for the unification of genome annotations
Karen Eilbeck1, Suzanna E Lewis1, Christopher J Mungall2, Mark Yandell2, Lincoln Stein3, Richard Durbin4 and Michael Ashburner5*
Author Affiliations
1 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Life Sciences Addition, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94729-3200, USA
2 Howard Hughes Memorial Institute, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Life Sciences Addition, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94729-3200, USA
3 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
4 Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, CB10 1SA, UK
5 Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EH, UK
For all author emails, please log on.
Genome Biology 2005, 6:R44 doi:10.1186/gb-2005-6-5-r44
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://genomebiology.com/2005/6/5/R44
Received:4 October 2004
Revisions received:1 February 2005
Accepted:30 March 2005
Published:29 April 2005
© 2005 Eilbeck et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
The Sequence Ontology (SO) is a structured controlled vocabulary for the parts of a genomic annotation. SO provides a common set of terms and definitions that will facilitate the exchange, analysis and management of genomic data. Because SO treats part-whole relationships rigorously, data described with it can become substrates for automated reasoning, and instances of sequence features described by the SO can be subjected to a group of logical operations termed extensional mereology operators.
Background
Why a sequence ontology is needed
Genomic annotations are the focal point of sequencing, bioinformatics analysis, and molecular biology. They are the means by which we attach what we know about a genome to its sequence. Unfortunately, biological terminology is notoriously ambiguous; the same word is often used to describe more than one thing and there are many dialects. For example, does a coding sequence (CDS) contain the stop codon or is the stop codon part of the 3'-untranslated region (3' UTR)? There really is no right or wrong answer to such questions, but consistency is crucial when attempting to compare annotations from different sources, or even when comparing annotations performed by the same group over an extended period of time.
At present, GenBank [1] houses 220 viral genomes, 152 bacterial genomes, 20 eukaryotic genomes and 18 archeal genomes. Other centers such as The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) [2] and the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) [3] also maintain and distribute annotations, as do many model organism databases such as FlyBase [4], WormBase [5], The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR) [6] and the Saccharomyces Genome Database (SGD) [7]. Each of these groups has their own databases and many use their own data model to describe their annotations. There is no single place at which all sets of genome annotations can be found, and several sets are informally mirrored in multiple locations, leading to location-specific version differences. This can make it hazardous to exchange, combine and compare annotation data. Clearly, if genomic annotations were always described using the same language, then comparative analysis of the wealth of information distributed by these institutions would be enormously simplified: Hence the Sequence Ontology (SO) project. SO began 2 years ago, when a group of scientists and developers from the model organism databases - FlyBase, WormBase, Ensembl, SGD and MGI - came together to collect and unify the terms they used in their sequence annotation.
The Goal of the SO is to provide a standardized set of terms and relationships with which to describe genomic annotations and provide the structure necessary for automated reasoning over their contents, thereby facilitating data exchange and comparative analyses of annotations. SO is a sister project to the Gene Ontology (GO) [8] and is part of the Open Biomedical Ontologies (OBO) project [9]. The scope of the SO project is the description of the features and properties of biological sequence. The features can be located in base coordinates, such as gene and intron, and the properties of these features describe an attribute of the feature; for example, a gene may be maternally_imprinted.
SO terminology and format
Like other ontologies, SO consists of a controlled vocabulary of terms or concepts and a restricted set of relationships between those terms. While the concepts and relationships of the sequence ontology make it possible to describe precisely the features of a genomic annotation, discussions of them can lead to much lexical confusion, as some of the terms used by SO are also common words; thus we begin our description of SO with a discussion of its naming conventions, and adhere to these rules throughout this document.
Wherever possible, the terms used by SO to describe the parts of an annotation are those commonly used in the genomics community. In some cases, however, we have altered these terms in order to render them more computer-friendly so that users can create software classes and variables named after them. Thus, term names do not include spaces; instead, underscores are used to separate the words in phrases. Numbers are spelled out in full, for example five_prime_UTR, except in cases where the number is part of the accepted name. If the commonly used name begins with a number, such as 28S RNA, the stem is moved to the front - for example, RNA_28S. Symbols are spelled out in full where appropriate, for example, prime, plus, minus; as are Greek letters. Periods, points, slashes, hyphens, and brackets are not allowed. If there is a common abbreviation it is used as the term name, and case is always lower except when the term is an acronym, for example, UTR and CDS. Where there are differences in the accepted spelling between English and US usage, the US form is used.
Synonyms are used to record the variant term names that have the same meaning as the term. They are used to facilitate searching of the ontology. There is no limit to the number of synonyms a term can have, nor do they adhere to SO naming conventions. They are, however, still lowercase except when they are acronyms.
Throughout the remainder of this document, the terms from SO are highlighted in italics and the names of relationships between the terms are shown in bold. The terms are always depicted exactly as they appear in the ontology. The names of EM operators are underlined.
SO, SOFA, and the feature table
To facilitate the use of SO for the markup of gene annotation data, a subset of terms from SO consisting of some of those terms that can be located onto sequence has been selected; this condensed version of SO is especially well suited for labeling the outputs of automated or semi-automated sequence annotation pipelines. This subset is known as the Sequence Ontology Feature Annotation, or SOFA.
SO, like GO, is an 'open source' ontology. New terms, definitions, and their location within the ontology are proposed, debated, and approved or rejected by an open group of individuals via a mailing list. SO is maintained in OBO format and the current version can be downloaded from the CVS repository of the SO website [10]. For development purposes, SOFA was stabilized and released (in May 2004) for at least 12 months to allow development of software and formats. SO is a directed acyclic graph (DAG), and can be viewed using the editor for OBO files, OBO-Edit [11].
The terms describing sequence features in SO and SOFA are richer than those of the Feature Table [12] of the three large genome databanks: GenBank [1], EMBL [13] and the DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ) [14]. The Feature Table is a controlled vocabulary of terms describing sequence features and is used to describe the annotations distributed by these data banks. The Feature Table does provide a grouping of its terms for annotation purposes, based on the degree of specificity of the term. The relationships between the terms are not formalized; thus the interpretation of these relationships is left to the user to infer, and, more critically, must be hard-coded into software applications. Most of the terms in the Feature Table map directly to terms in SO, although the term names may have been changed to fit SO naming conventions. In general, SO contains a more extensive set of features for detailed annotation. There are currently 171 locatable sequence features in SOFA compared to 65 of the Feature Table. There are 11 terms in the Feature Table that are not included in SO. These terms fall into two categories: remarks and immunological features, both of which have been handled slightly differently in SO. A mapping between SO and the Feature Table is available from the SO website [10].
Database schemas, file formats and SO
SO is not a database schema, nor is it a file format; it is an ontology. As such, SO transcends any particular database schema or file format. This means it can be used equally well as an external data-exchange format or internally as an integral component of a database.
The simplest way to use SO is to label data destined for redistribution with SO terms and to make sure that the data adhere to the SO definition of the data type. Accordingly, SO provides a human-readable definition for each term that concisely states its biological meaning. Usually the definitions are drawn from standard authoritative sources such as The Molecular Biology of the Cell [15], and each definition contains a reference to its source. Defining each term in such a way is important as it aids communication and minimizes confusion and disputes as to just what data should consist of. For example, the term CDS is defined as a contiguous RNA sequence which begins with, and includes, a start codon and ends with, and includes, a stop codon. According to SO, the sequence of a three_prime_utr does not contain the stop_codon - and files with such sequences are SO-compliant; files of three_prime_utr containing stop_codons are not. This is a trivial example, illustrating one of the simplest use cases, but it does demonstrate the power of SO to put an end to needless negotiations between parties as to the details of a data exchange. This aspect of SO is especially well suited for use with the generic feature format (GFF) [16]. Indeed, the latest version, GFF3, uses SO terms and definitions to standardize the feature type described in each row of a file and SO terms as optional attributes to a feature.
SO can also be employed in a much more sophisticated manner within a database. CHADO [17] is a modular relational database schema for integrating molecular and genetic data and is part of the Generic Model Organism Database project (GMOD) [18], currently used by both FlyBase and TIGR. The CHADO relational schema is extremely flexible, and is centered on genomic features and their relationships, both of which are described using SO terms. This use of SO ensures that software that queries, populates and exports data from different CHADO databases is interoperable, and thus greatly facilitates large-scale comparisons of even very complex genomics data.
Like GFF3, Chaos-XML [19] is a file format that uses SO to label and structure data, but it is more intimately tied to the CHADO project than is GFF3. Chaos-XML is a hierarchical XML mapping of the CHADO relational schema. Annotations are represented as an ontology-typed feature graph. The central concept of Chaos-XML is the sequence-feature, which is any sequence entity typed by SO. The features are interconnected via feature relationship elements, whereby each relationship connects a subject feature and an object feature. Features are located via featureloc elements which use interbase (zero-based) coordinates. Chaos-XML and CHADO are richer models than GFF3 in that feature_relationships are typed, and a more sophisticated location model is used. Chaos-XML is the substrate of a suite of programs called Comparative Genomics Library (CGL), pronounced 'seagull' [20], which we have used for the analyses presented in our Results section.
The basic types in SOFA, from which other types are defined, are region and junction, equivalent to the concepts of interiors and boundaries defined in the field of topological relationships [21]. A region is a length of sequence such as an exon or a transposable_element. A junction is the space between two bases, such as an insertion_site. Building on these basic data types, SOFA can be used to describe a wide range of sequence features. Raw sequence features such as assembly components are captured by terms like contig and read. Analysis features, defined by the results of sequence-analysis programs such as BLAST [22] are captured by terms such as nucleotide_match. Gene models can be defined on the sequence using terms like gene, exon and CDS. Variation in sequence is captured by subtypes of the term sequence_variant. These terms have multiple parentages with either region or junction. SOFA (and SO) can also be used to describe many other sequence features, for example, repeat, reagent, remark. Thus, SOFA together with GFF3 or Chaos-XML provide an easy means by which parties can describe, standardize, and document the data they distribute and exchange.
The SO and SOFA controlled vocabularies can be used for de novo annotation. Several groups including SGD and FlyBase now use either SO or SOFA terms in their annotation efforts. SO is not restricted to new annotations, however, and may be applied to existing annotations. For example, annotations from GenBank may be converted into SO-compliant formats using Bioperl [23] (see Materials and methods).
SO relationships
One essential difference between a controlled vocabulary, such as the Feature Table, and an ontology is that an ontology is not merely a collection of predefined terms that are used to describe data. Ontologies also formally specify the relationships between their terms. Labeling data with terms from an ontology makes the data a substrate for software capable of logical inference. The information necessary for making logical inferences about data resides in the class designations of the relationships that unite terms within SO. We detail this aspect of the ontology below. For purposes of reference, a section of SO illustrating the various relationships between some of its terms is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A section of the Sequence Ontology showing how terms and relationships are used together to describe knowledge about sequence. The kind_of relationships are depicted using arrows labeled with 'i', the part_of relationships use arrows with 'P' and the derives_from relationships with 'd'. By tracing the arrows that connect the terms, different logical inferences can be made regarding what a term 'is' and what are its allowable parts. For example, an exon is a part_of a transcript, a tRNA is a kind_of ncRNA which is a kind_of processed_transcript.
Currently, SO uses three basic kinds of relationship between its terms: kind_of, derives_from, and part_of. These relationships are defined in the OBO relationship types ontology [24]. kind_of relationships specify what something 'is'. For example, an mRNA is a kind_of transcript. Likewise an enhancer is a kind_of regulatory_region. kind_of relationships are valid in only one direction. Hence, a regulatory_region is not a kind_of enhancer. One consequence of the directional nature of kind_of relationships is that their transitivity is hierarchical - inferences as to what something 'is' proceed from the leaves towards the root of the ontology. For example, an mRNA is a kind_of processed_transcript AND a processed_transcript is a kind_of transcript. Thus, an mRNA is a kind_of transcript. kind_of relationships are synonymous with is_a relationships. We adopted the 'kind_of' notation to avoid the lexical confusion often encountered when describing relationships, as the phrase 'is a' is often used in conjunction with another relationships in English - for example 'is a part_of'.
SO uses the term derives_from to denote relationships of process between two terms. For example, an EST derives_from an mRNA. derives_from relationships imply an inverse relationship; derives. Note that although a polypeptide derives_from an mRNA, a polypeptide cannot be derived from an ncRNA (non-coding RNA), because no derives_from relationship unites these two terms in the ontology. This fact illustrates another important aspect of how SO handles relationships: children always inherit from parents but never from siblings. An ncRNA is a kind_of transcript as is an mRNA. Labeling something as a transcript implies that it could possibly produce a polypeptide; labeling that same entity with the more specific term ncRNA rules that possibility out. Thus, a file that contained ncRNAs and their polypeptides would be semantically invalid.
part_of relationships pertain to meronomies; that is to say 'part-whole' relationships. An exon, for example, is a part_of a transcript. part_of relationships are not valid in both directions. In other words, while an exon is a part_of a transcript, a transcript is not a part_of an exon. Instead, we say a transcript has_part exon. SO does not explicitly denote whole-part relationships, as every part_of relationship logically implies the inverse has_part relationship between the two terms.
Transitivity is a more complicated issue with regards to part-whole relationships than it is for the other relationships in SO. In general, part_of relationships are transitive - an exon is a part_of a gene, because an exon is a part_of a transcript, and a transcript is a part_of a gene. Not every chain of part-whole relationships, however, obeys the principle of transitivity. This is because parts can be combined to make wholes according to different organizing principles. Winston et al. [25] have described six different subclasses of the part-whole relationship, based on the following three properties: configuration, whether the parts have a structural or functional role with respect to one another or the whole they form; substance, whether the part is made of the same stuff as the whole (homomerous or heteromerous); and invariance, whether the part can be separated from the whole. These six relations and their associated part_of subclasses are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1. Six subclasses of part-whole relationships
Winston et al. [25] argue that there is transitivity across a series of part_of relationships only if they all belong to the same subclass. In other words, an exon can only be part_of a gene, if an exon is a component_part_of a transcript, and a transcript is component_part_of a gene. If, however, the two statements contain different types of part_of relationship, then transitivity does not hold.
By addressing the vague English term 'part of' in this way, Winston et al. solve many of the problems associated with reasoning across part_of relationships; thus, we are adopting their approach with SO. The parts contained in the sequence ontology are mostly of the type component_part_of such as exon is a part_of transcript, although there are a few occurrences of member_part_of such as read is a part_of contig.
SO's relationships facilitate software design and bioinformatics research
Genomic annotations are substrates for a multitude of software applications. Annotations, for example, are rendered by graphical viewers, or, as another example, their features are searched and queried for purposes of data validation and genomics research. Using an ontology for sequence annotation purposes offers many advantages over the traditional Feature Table approach. Because controlled vocabularies do not specify the relationships that obtain between their terms, using the Feature Table has meant that relationships between features have had to be hard-coded in software applications themselves; consequently, adding a new term to the Feature Table and/or changing the details of the relationships that obtain between its terms has meant revising every software application that made use of the Feature Table. Ontologies mitigate this problem as all of the knowledge about terms and their relationships to one another is contained in the ontology, not the software.
SO-compliant software need only be provided with an updated version of the ontology, and everything else will follow automatically. This is because SO-compliant software need not hard-code the fact that a tRNA is a kind_of transcript; it need merely know that kind_of relationships are transitive and hierarchical and be capable of internally navigating the network of relationships specified by the ontology (see Figure 1) in order to logically infer this fact. This means that every time a new form of ncRNA is discovered, and added to SO, all SO-compliant software applications will automatically be able to infer that any data labeled with that new term is a kind_of transcript. This means that existing graphical viewers will render those data with the appropriate transcript glyph, and validation and query tools will automatically deal with this new data-type in a coherent fashion. Placing the biological knowledge in the ontology rather than in the software means that the ontology and the software that uses it can be developed, revised, and extended independently of one another. Thus ontologies offer the bioinformatics programming community significant opportunities as regards software design and the speed of the development cycle. Using an ontology does, however, mean that software applications must meet certain professional standards; namely, they must be capable of parsing an OBO file and navigating the network of relationships that constitute the ontology, but these are minimal hurdles.
SO facilitates bioinformatics research in ways that reach far beyond its utility as regards software design. For example, SO's kind_of relationships provide a subsumption hierarchy, or classification system for its terms. This added depth of knowledge greatly improves the searching and querying capabilities of software using SO. The ontology's higher-level terms may be used to query via inference, even if they are never used for annotation. We recommend that annotators label their data using terms corresponding to terminal nodes in the ontology. Transcripts, for example, might be annotated using terms such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA (see Figure 1). Note that doing so means that if, for example, non-coding RNA sequences are required for some subsequent analysis, then SO-compliant software tools can locate annotations labelled with the subtypes of ncRNA, and retrieve tRNAs and rRNAs to the exclusion of mRNAs, even though these data have not been explicitly labelled with the term ncRNA. Thus, many analyses become easy, for example, how many ncRNAs are annotated in H. sapiens? Of these what percent have more than one exon? Are any maternally imprinted? Moreover, using SO as part of a database schema ensures that such questions 'mean' the same thing in different databases.
SO also greatly facilitates the automatic validation of annotation data, as the relationships implied by an annotation can be compared to the allowable relationships specified in the ontology. For example, an annotation that asserts an intron to be part_of an mRNA would be invalid, as this relationship is not specified in the ontology (Figure 1). On the other hand, an annotation that asserted that an UTR sequence was part_of mRNA would be valid (Figure 1). This makes possible better quality control of annotation data, and makes it possible to check existing annotations for such errors when converting them to a SO-compliant format such as GFF3.
To summarize, by identifying the set of relationships between terms that are possible, we are also specifying the inferences that can be drawn from these relationships: that is, the software operations that can be carried out over the data. As a consequence, software is easier to maintain, SO can easily be extended to embrace new biological knowledge, quality controls can be readily implemented, and software to mine data can be written so as to be very flexible.
EM operators and SO
SO also enables some modes of analyses of genomics data that are completely new to the field. One such class of analyses involves the use of extensional mereology (EM) operators to ask questions about gene parts. Although new to genomics, EM operators are well known in the field of ontology, where they provide a basis for asking and answering questions pertaining to how parts are distributed within and among different wholes (reviewed in [26,27]). These operators are usually applied to studies of how parts are shared between complex wholes - such as different models of automobiles or personal computers - for the purpose of optimizing manufacturing procedures. Below we explain how these same operators can be applied to the analyses of genomics data. Although these operators, difference and overlap, share the same name as topological operators, they are different as they function on the parts of an object, not on its geometric coordinate space. The topological operators, regarding the coincidence of edges and interiors - equality, overlap, disjointedness, containment and coverage of spatial analysis [21] - may also be applied to biological sequence.
EM is a formal theory of parts: it defines the properties of the part_of relationship and then provides a set of operations (Table 2) that can be applied to those parts. These operators are akin to those of set theory, but whereas set theory makes use of an object's kind_of relationships, EM operators function on an object's part_of relationships. Only wholes and their 'proper parts' are legitimate substrates for EM operations. Proper parts are those parts that satisfy three self-evident criteria: first, nothing is a proper part of itself (a proper part is part of but not identical to the individual or whole); second, if A is a proper part of B then the B is not a part of A; third, if A is a part of B and B is a part of C then A is a part of C.
Table 2. The EM operators
Note that the third criterion of proper parts is that they obey the rule of transitivity. As we discussed earlier, not all part_of relationships are transitive. Accordingly, we have restricted our analyses (see Results and discussion) to component parts (Table 2).
Figure 2 illustrates the effects of applying EM operations to analyze the relationships 'transcript is a part_of gene' and 'exon is a part_of transcript'. The EM operations overlap and disjoint pertain to relationships between transcripts, whereas difference and binary product pertain to exons. Two transcripts overlap if they share one or more exon in common. Two transcripts are disjoint if they do not share any exons in common. The exons shared between two overlapping transcripts are the binary product of the two transcripts, and the exons not shared in common comprise the difference between the two transcripts. The binary sum of two transcripts is simply the sum of their parts.
Figure 2. Using EM operations to characterize alternatively spliced transcripts and their exons. The EM operations overlap and disjoint can be used to characterize pair-wise relationships between alternative transcripts. Binary product and difference, on the other hand, pertain to exons shared, or not-shared between two alternative transcripts.
One key feature of EM operations is that they operate in 'identifier space' rather than 'coordinate space'. Two transcripts overlap only if they share a part in common rather than if their genomic coordinates overlap. Thus, two transcripts may be disjoint even if their exons partially overlap one another. This is one way in which EM analyses differ from standard bioinformatics analyses, and it has some interesting repercussions. This is particularly so with regard to modes of alternative splicing, as each of the EM operations suggests a distinct category by means of which two alternatively spliced transcripts can be related to one another. We further explore the potential of these operations to classify alternative transcripts and their exons below.
Results and discussion
As part of a pilot project to evaluate the practical utility of SO as a tool for data management and analysis, we have used SO to name and enumerate the parts of every protein-coding annotation in the D. melanogaster genome. Doing so has allowed us to compare annotations with respect to their parts, for example, number of exons, amount of UTR sequence, and so on.
These data afford many potential analyses, but as our motivation was primarily to demonstrate the practical utility of SO as a tool for data management, rather than comparative genomics per se, we have focused more on what exon-transcript-gene part-whole relationships have to say about the annotations themselves, than what the annotations have to say about the biology of the genome. Accordingly, we have used EM-operators to characterize the annotations with respect to their parts, especially with regard to alternative splicing. The current version of FlyBase (5 August, 2004) contained 13,539 genes, (of which 10,653 have a single transcript and 2,886 are alternatively spliced), 18,735 transcripts and 61,853 exons.
An EM-based scheme for classifying alternatively spliced genes
As we had characterized the parts of the annotations using SO, we were able to employ the EM operators over these parts. This proved to be a natural way to explore the relative complexity of alternative splicing, as the alternatively spliced transcripts have different combinations of parts: that is, exons. We grouped alternatively spliced transcripts into two classes. An alternatively spliced gene will contain overlapping transcripts if at least one of its exons is shared between two of its transcripts, and will have disjoint transcripts if one of its transcripts shares no exons in common with any other transcript of that gene. For the purposes of this analysis, we further classified disjoint transcripts as sequence-disjoint and parts-disjoint. We term two disjoint transcripts sequence-disjoint if none of their exons shares any sequence in common with one another; and parts-disjoint if one or more of their exons overlap on the chromosome but have different exon boundaries. Note that the three operations are pairwise, and thus not mutually exclusive. To see why this is, imagine a gene having three transcripts, A, B, and C. Obviously, transcript A can be disjoint with respect to B, but overlap with respect to C. Thus, we can speak of a gene as having both disjoint and overlapping transcripts.
The relative numbers of disjoint and overlapping transcripts in a genome says something about the relative complexity of alternative splicing in that genome. A gene may have any combination of these types of disjoint and overlapping transcripts, so we created a labeling system consisting of the seven possible combinations. We did this by asking three EM-based questions about the relationships between pairs of a gene's transcripts: How many pairs are there of sequence-disjoint transcripts? How many pairs are there of parts-disjoint transcripts? How many pairs are there of overlapping transcripts? Doing so allowed us to place that gene into one of seven classes with regards to the properties of its alternatively spliced transcripts. We also kept track of the number of times each of the three relationships held true for each pair combination. For example, a gene having two transcripts that are parts-disjoint with respect to one another would be labeled 0:1:0. Keeping track of the number of transcript pairs falling into each class provides an easy means to prioritize them for manual review. These results are summarized in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Examples of alternatively spliced genes from Entrez Gene at the NCBI. Of the seven classes of alternatively spliced genes, some classes are more likely to indicate annotation problems than others - particularly those genes having one or more sequence-disjoint transcripts. Parts-disjoint transcripts, on the other hand, are more suggestive of complex biology. Alternatively spliced genes having only overlapping transcripts (0:0:N) comprise the vast majority of instances.
Of the alternatively spliced fly genes, none has a sequence-disjoint transcript, 275 have parts-disjoint transcripts, and 2,664 have overlapping transcripts, and 53 have both parts-disjoint and overlapping transcripts. The percentage of D. melanogaster genes in each category is shown in Table 3. Most alternatively spliced genes contain at least one pair of overlapping transcripts. These data also have something to say about the ways in which research and management issues are intertwined with one another with respect to genome annotation, as some aspects of these data are clearly attributable to annotation practice. The lack of any sequence-disjoint transcripts in D. melanogaster, for example, is due to annotation practice; in fact, current FlyBase annotation practices forbid their creation, the reason being that any evidence for such transcripts is evidence for a new gene [28]. This is not true for all genomic annotations. Annotations converted from the genomes division of GenBank to a SO-compliant form, were subjected to EM analysis, and inspection of the corresponding gene-centric annotations provided by Entrez Gene [29] revealed examples of genes that fall into each of the seven categories. Some of these annotations are shown in Figure 3.
Table 3. Percentage of each of the seven EM-based classes among the alternatively spliced genes in the D. melanogaster genome
The frequencies of genes that fall into each of the seven classes shown in Table 3 provides a concise summary of genome-wide trends in alternative splicing in the fly. This EM-based classification schema, when applied to many model organisms, from many original sources, makes very apparent the magnitude of the practical challenges that surround decentralized annotation, and the distribution and redistribution of annotations. Certainly, they highlight the need for data-management tools such as SO to assist the community in enforcing biological constraints and annotation standards. Only then will comparative genomic analyses show their full power.
Exons as alternative parts of transcripts
EM-operators can also be used to classify the exons of alternatively spliced genes. Exons shared between two transcripts comprise the binary product of the two transcripts; whereas those exons present in only one of the transcripts constitute their difference (see Table 2 and Figure 2 for more information). These basic facts suggest a very simple, three-part classification system. If an exon is the difference between all other transcripts, then it is only in one transcript; we term these UNIQUE exons. If an exon is the difference of some transcripts, and the binary product of others, it is in a fraction of transcripts; we term these SOMETIMES_FOUND exons. And, if an exon is the binary product of all combinations of transcripts, then it must be in all transcripts; we term such exons ALWAYS_FOUND exons. Classifying exons in this way allows us to look more closely at alternative splicing from the exon's perspective.
As can be seen from Table 4, despite the low frequency of alternatively spliced genes, a large fraction of their exons are associated with alternatively spliced transcripts - almost 39%. A sizable proportion of SOMETIMES_FOUND and ALWAYS_FOUND exons are coding exons in some of the transcripts and entirely untranslated exons in others. In some cases, this is due to actual biology: some transcripts in D. melanogaster are known to produce more than one protein (see, for example [30]). In other cases, this situation appears to be a result of best attempts on the part of annotators to interpret ambiguous supporting evidence; in yet others the supporting data sometimes unambiguously points to patterns of alternative splicing that would seem to produce transcripts destined for nonsense-mediated decay [31]. Whatever the underlying cause, these exons, like the N:0:0 class annotations, should be subjected to further investigation.
Table 4. Summary of the types of exons present in each of the genomes and their functions
To investigate these conclusions in more detail, we further examined each exon with respect to its EM-based class and its coding and untranslated portions. These results are shown Figure 4, and naturally extend the analyses presented in Table 4. First, regardless of exon class, most entirely untranslated exons are 5-prime exons; the lower frequency of 3-prime untranslated exons is perhaps due to nonsense-mediated decay [31], as the presence of splice junctions in a processed transcript downstream of its stop codon are believed to target that transcript for degradation. A second point made clear by the data in Table 4 is that alternatively spliced genes of D. melanogaster are highly enriched for 5-prime untranslated exons compared with single-transcript genes. Most of these exons belong to ALWAYS_FOUND; thus, there seems to be a strong tendency in D. melanogaster for alternative transcripts to begin with a unique 5' UTR region. This fact suggests that alternative transcription in the fly may, in many cases, be a consequence of alternative-promoter usage and perhaps tissue-specific transcription start sites. The high percentage of untranslated 5-prime UNIQUE exons in D. melanogaster may also be a consequence of the large numbers of 5' ESTs that have been sequenced in the fly [32].
Figure 4. A series of Venn diagrams showing the relationship between exon class and coding potential. An exon may be fully protein coding, partially protein coding, or be fully UTR. An exon may be a part_of a single transcript gene (single-transcript genes), be a part_of either one (UNIQUE exons), all (ALWAYS_FOUND exons), or a fraction (SOMETIMES_FOUND exons) of transcripts in an alternatively transcribed gene.
Figure 4 also shows that most (> 95%) D. melanogaster ALWAYS_FOUND exons are coding. This makes sense, as it seems likely that one reason for an exon's inclusion in every one of a gene's alternative transcripts is that it encodes a portion of the protein essential for its function(s).
As with our previous analyses of alternative transcripts, our analyses of alternatively transcribed exons also illustrate the ways in which basic biology and annotation-management issues intersect one another. The fact that most ALWAYS_FOUND exons are entirely coding, for example, may have something important to say about which parts of a protein are essential for its function(s). Whereas the over-abundance of un-translated UNIQUE exons probably has more to say about the resources available to, and the protocols used by, the annotation project than it does about biology. Such considerations make it clear that the evidence used to produce an annotation is an essential part of the annotation. In this regard SO has much to offer, as it provides a rational means by which to manage annotation evidence in the context of gene-parts and the relations between those parts.
Conclusion
We have sought to provide an introduction to the SO and justify why its use to unify genomic annotations is beneficial to the model organism community. We illustrate some of the ways in which SO can be used to analyze and manage annotations. Relationships are an essential component of SO, and understanding their role within the ontology is a basic prerequisite for using SO in an intelligent fashion. Much of this paper revolves around the part_of relationship because SO is largely a meronomy - a particular kind of ontology concerned with the relationships of parts to wholes. Extensional mereology (EM) is an area that is largely new to bioinformatics for which there are several excellent reference works available [26,27,33], and even a cursory examination of these texts will make it clear that EM has much to offer bioinformatics.
Using all of the relationships in SO allows us to automatically draw logical conclusions about data that has been labelled with SO terms and thereby provide useful insights into the underlying annotations. We have shown how SO, together with the EM-based operations it enables, can be used to standardize, analyze, and manage genome annotations.
Given any standardized set of genome annotations described with SO these annotations can then be rigorously characterized. For our pilot analyses, we focused on alternatively transcribed genes and their exons, and explored the potential of EM-operators to classify and characterize them. We believe that the results of these analyses support two principle conclusions. First, EM-based classification schemes are simple to implement, and second, they capture important trends in the data and provide a concise, natural, and meaningful overview of annotations in these genomes.
One criticism that might be justifiably leveled against the SO- and EM-based analyses presented here is that they are too formal, and that simpler approaches could have accomplished the same ends. As our discussion of part_of relationships made clear, however, reasoning across diverse types of parts is a complicated process; ad-hoc approaches will not suffice where the data are complex. The more formal approach afforded by SO means that analyses can be easily be extended beyond the domain of transcripts and exons to include many other gene parts and relationships as well - including evidence. It seems clear that over the next few years both the number and complexity of annotations will increase, especially with regard to the diversity of their parts. Drawing valid conclusions from comparisons of these annotations will prove challenging. That SO has much to offer such analyses is indisputable.
SO and SOFA provide the model organism community with a means to unify the semantics of sequence annotation. This facilitates communication within a group and between different model organism groups. Adopting SO terminology to type the features and properties of sequence will provide both the group and the community the advantages of a common vocabulary, to use for sharing and querying data and for automated reasoning over large amounts of sequence data.
Materials and methods
SO and SOFA have been built and are maintained using the ontology-editing tool OBO-Edit. The ontologies are available at [34].
The FlyBase D. melanogaster [35] data was derived from the GadFly [36] relational database and converted to Chaos-XML using the Bio-chaos tools. The features were annotated to the deepest concept in the ontology possible, given the available information. For example, the degree of information in annotations was sufficiently deep to describe the transcript features with the type of RNA such as mRNA, or tRNA. It was therefore possible to restrict the analysis to given types of transcript. CGL tools were used to validate each of the annotations, iterate through the genes and query the features. EM-operators were applied to the part features of genes.
Other organism data was derived from the genomes section of GenBank [37]. GenBank flat files were converted to SO-compliant Chaos-XML using the script cx-genbank2chaos.pl (available from [19]) and BioPerl [23]. The BioPerl GenBank parser, Bio::SeqIO::genbank was used to convert GenBank flat files to Bioperl SeqFeature objects. Feature_relationships between these objects were inferred from location information using the Bioperl Bio::SeqFeature::Tools::Unflattener code. GenBank Feature Table types were converted to SO terms using the Bio::SeqFeature::Tools::TypeMapper class, which contains a hardcoded mapping for the subset of the GenBank Feature Table which is currently used in the genomes section of GenBank. The same Perl class was used to type the feature_relationships according to SO relationship types. The EM analysis was performed over the Chaos-XML annotations using the CGL suite of modules to iterate over the parts of each gene.
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7. Dwight SS, Balakrishnan R, Christie KR, Costanzo MC, Dolinski K, Engel SR, Feierbach B, Fisk DG, Hirschman J, Hong EL, et al.: Saccharomyces genome database: underlying principles and organization.
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14. Miyazaki S, Sugawara H, Ikeo K, Gojobori T, Tateno Y: DDBJ in the stream of various biological data.
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15. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland; 2002.
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24. Smith B, Ceusters W, Köhler J, Kumar A, Lomax J, Mungall CJ, Neuhaus F, Rector A, Rosse C: Relations in biological ontologies.
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login ask-a-question questions unanswered tags faq
"Washi" is the Japanese name for "rice paper" (so called in the West, but not made of rice, actually), used in lots of traditional arts and crafts (ShoDo, Sumi-E, Origami).
I practice ShoDo so I often look online for places to get different kinds of papers. Recently I have seen products named "Washi Paper masking tape" and I wonder what exactly it is, and what it can be used for.
Anyone has tried it and can tell me more about characteristics and intended usage?
Thanks.
asked Jun 05 '11 at 02:47
Pamar
1
It looks like it is used to decorate existing paper products. I have a friend in Japan who when I asked said he thought people used it to wrap presents. It's function appears to be primarily aesthetic.
link
answered Jun 06 '11 at 10:29
oliver
551
Ok, I have checked out a bit more and found a nice site for washi tape. I am posting the Url here so that anyone interested can find it, too.
Zakka Life
link
answered Jun 09 '11 at 01:47
Pamar
1
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Hack4Reno: Open government with a shared purpose
Image credits: hack4reno
(2 votes)
Hack4Reno is a 24-hour hackathon being held on October 15-16, 2011. But you don't need to hack on code to be part of this movement. The goal is to build things that make Reno better by demonstrating the value of open data and open government. This event allows developers, designers, and citizens to learn new technology, showcase their talent, and, ultimately, build new applications that help make Reno a smarter, more engaged place to live.
We are literally holding our open data event out in the open--we'll be setting up tents and tables in the plaza at the downtown events center. In fact, all our planning is happening in the open. We use GitHub for data, documents, and wiki--and use the issues to track our progress. Our plan is to open source the entire process.
We've added a series of workshops and classes leading up to the main event, in addition to a small unconference-style track. We're interested in this combination and think it's the perfect pairing to attract a variety of folks that want to improve Reno with their ideas and their code. Our hope is that the local citizenry takes an interest in what is happening and comes out to learn something or even better, to share ideas.
Right now, the organizers are busy scurrying around collecting data for our hackers to use, finishing our GitHub based hackathon team registration application, building a wifi network with second-hand equipment, and finalizing the sponsorships.
It's been a fascinating process and we've been rewarded by our open and welcoming local governments and organizations. Last week our Mayor issued a proclamation that this weekend is "Hack4Reno Weekend" in Reno. Additionally, the organizers have received support from Washoe County and cold calls from the state Department of Transportation. Perhaps more surprising to us is the list of supporters that just seems to keep growing and growing. People seem to get it and seem eager to connect with others and our government through a shared purpose.
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BE Board
From OpenWetWare
Revision as of 13:16, 27 October 2006 by Ninja7101 (Talk | contribs)
Jump to: navigation, search
For current website see begradboard.mit.edu
Welcome to the BE Board's wiki. We represent the graduate students of Biological Engineering at MIT. From here, you can find out what we do and what's happening now. As a wiki, you can add content, post pictures from events, participate in discussions etc. To do so, you need an OpenWetWare account. Most BE students already have accounts but if you don't, see this page to sign up. If you are unfamiliar with editing a wiki, check out this getting started tutorial. This site replaces our old website and also has a parallel nonwiki version.
Activities
Academic events
Community service
Diversity events
Intramural sports
Social events
Student representation
Discussion Forum
Post-doc Talk
iGEM Leader Recruitment
Course 20 T-Shirts
Newsletter
New event fund
Student awards
Upcoming Events
Recent Announcements
• 10/24/06 - New First-year Representative is Ranjani Krishnan! Meet her and the rest of the BE 2006 class at the party Nov. 3.
• 10/5/06 - Please fill out the BE Annual Survey by October 12.
• 10/4/06 - Second BE Board Newsletter is issued. Nice work Amy and all those who helped!
• 4/19/06 - BE visiting committee meet with students. The visiting committee give BE a great report to the Institute.
Goals of the BE Board
• Represent graduate student views and interests to the faculty and the Institute.
• Take appropriate actions to ensure graduate student views and interests are respected by the department.
• Maintain and improve graduate student life within the department.
• Act as liaisons between the graduate students, the undergraduates, the faculty, administration, and the Institute.
• Promote the unification of the department through social events, academics, and outreach.
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Quotation added by staff
Why not add this quote to your bookmarks?
He didn't dare to, because his father had a weak heart and habitually threatened to drop dead if anybody hurt his feelings. You may have noticed that people with weak hearts are the tyrants of English married life. Shaw, George Bernard
This quote is about family · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
A bit about Shaw, George Bernard ...
George Bernard Shaw (July 26, 1856 November 2, 1950) was an Irish playwright and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1925.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
Make and then buy your OWN fantastic personalized gift from this quote
You can't know too much, but you can say too much. Coolidge, Calvin
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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My kids idea of a hard life is to live in a house with only one phone. Foreman, George
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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{
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People give us credit only for what we ourselves believe. Gutzkow
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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The Latest Non-News on Marquis Daniels
Chuck - Red's Army August 27, 2009 Uncategorized 17 Comments
Via John Hollinger's chat on ESPN.com:
Q. Who should the celts sign as back up PG?
JH: They
already have a deal with their guy, Marquis Daniels, they just haven't
inked yet because they're desperately trying to make it a sign and
trade. Daniels will play with House in the backcourt with the second
unit and they'll trade assignments on D.
So Hollinger likes Daniels at the point on offense, while covering the two-guard on the other end of the floor. If that's the case, who is spelling Paul Pierce?
Q. If daniels plays back-up point for the Celts, who backs up Pierce at
the 3? And please don't say Tony "I have never seen a shot fake I
didn't jump out of my shoes for" Allen.
JH: I
like Allen better than you do, but I think he'll have a lot of
competition from Bill Walker for those minutes … if the Celtics don't
trade him first.
Hollinger – who once called J.R. Giddens "terrible" – likes Tony Allen. Is he trying to lose all credibility?
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Help Wikitravel grow by contributing to an article! Learn how.
Coastal Albania
From Wikitravel
Europe : Balkans : Albania : Coastal Albania
Jump to: navigation, search
A beach in Southern Albania
Coastal Albania is a region of Albania.
[edit] Regions
[edit] Cities
• Durrës — one of the oldest cities in Albania. Flooded three times during its history. The current city is built on the ruins of two previous ones. It has the largest amphitheater in the Balkans. It is currently the largest port of Albania and has the longest shoreline.
• Fier — about eight miles outside the modern city of Fier are the early Greek and Roman ruins of the ancient city of Apollonia. Much of this ancient city still remains buried under the hills.
• Lezhe — a small city home to Skanderbeg's Tomb, panoramic Lezhe Castle and several renovated churches
• Lukove - part of the Albanian Riviera
• Sarandë — a city in southern Albania known for its unforgettable beaches and colorful spring blooms.
• Shkodra — the biggest town in Northern Albania. The Rozafa Castle is a major tourist attraction here.
• Vlorë — lively seaside city, nice beaches south of town. Passenger ferries to and from Italy dock here.
• Vuno — small village a few kilometres north to the town of Himarë and part of the Albanian Riviera
[edit] Other destinations
• Bregu — also known as the Albanian Riviera along the Ionian Sea
• Bylis — second largest archaeological site from Roman era in Albania
• Butrint — Largest archaeological site from Greek and Roman era in Albania. It lies on the coast in the southernmost tip of the country, near the Greek border. Minibuses are available from Saranda.
• Dhërmi — in the Albanian Riviera is one of the finest of many beaches along the coastal road between Vlore and Saranda, perfect for camping
• Lagoon of Kune-Vain west of Lezhe
• Shengjin
• Beaches of Rana e Hedhun, Ishull Lezhë, Bishti i Pallës, Gjiri i Lalzit, Spille, Plazhi i Gjeneralit, Seman, and Zvërnec.
• Divjaka-Karavasta Lagoon National Park — incorporating the Ramsar List protected Karavasta Lagoon and the Divjaka Pines.
• Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park — proclaimed in 2010 and the only marine park in the country, the park encompasses the surrounding coastal area of Karaburun Peninsula and Sazan Island. From ruins of ancient ships to spectacular coral reefs, this park is worth a dive.
[edit] Understand
This region comprises a long narrow strip of between about 10 and 30 km wide along the whole of the Albanian coast, bordering both the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, in addition to the shores of Lake Skadar which is slightly inland, forming part of Albanian-Montenegrin border.
[edit] Talk
[edit] Get in
[edit] Get around
The roadways along the beach are new and in good condition. Velipoja, Shengjin, Durres, Golem, Vlora, Divjaka, "Bregu" and Saranda, all are connected very well with the national roadway. "Rruga e Bregut" is the roadway from Vlora to Saranda. It starts with Llogara and ends at Lukove. The view is amazing, and this is one of the most picturesque highways in Balkan. The road between Durres and Kavaja is a bit crowded in summer, so be careful.
[edit][add listing] See
• Golem Beach. One of the biggest beaches in Albania. The touristic center for the tourists from Kosovo and Macedonia. Full of hotels and bars, but the cleanliness of the beach and water is lower than in the southern beaches like Vlora, Dhermi, Qeparo or Saranda. edit
• Velipoja. The touristic center of Shkodra and Northern Albania in general. The beach is long and wide, and a lot of hotels offer nice rooms. However, the beaches are crowded in August. If you prefer quiter beaches, you should go to Southern Albania edit
• Vlora. The biggest touristic city in Southern Albania. The beaches after "Uji i Ftohte" south of the city are the most preferred, as the water and beach are cleaner. Vlora is full of hotels and restaurants, where you can find great sea products. Very preferred from families as well as young people, even teenagers. edit
• Lushnje. Visit the Historical Museum of Lushnje showcasing various exhibits including those on the famous Congress of Lushnje that proclaimed Tirana capital of Albania. edit
• Lezhe Castle
• Zvernec Monastery
• Bashtova Castle near Kavaja
• Franz Joseph Island near Velipoja
• Scanderbeg Castle, Ishem Castle and Shen Ndout Church near Lalzi Bay north of Durres.
[edit][add listing] Do
• Camping. All along the Albanian coast, there exist camping facilities at or nearby the coast.
• If you prefer active holidays, there is a great way to discover the Albanian coastline; try to paddle along the beautiful Ionian sea. This tour will let you explore some secluded beaches and caves that you can access only through water Paddling along the Ionian sea.
• Of course, tasting delicious seafood goes without saying
[edit][add listing] Eat
[edit][add listing] Drink
[edit] Stay safe
Insect repellant is recommended as recently mosquitos are a problem especially near swamps. Some areas suffer from excessive noise pollution from outdoor beach clubs.
[edit] Get out
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Southwest Bulgaria
From Wikitravel
Europe : Balkans : Bulgaria : Southwest Bulgaria
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Southwest Bulgaria is in Bulgaria.
[edit] Regions
[edit] Cities
• Bansko (Банско) — a beautiful old town in the Pirin mountains with refurbished homes, stone wall, and cobblestone streets, but increasingly being overtaken by resort hotels, as this is a major ski destination in Southeast Europe. Not far away from Bansko, there are hot-water mineral springs, located at the villages of Banya (Баня) and Ognianovo (Огняново).
• Belitsa (Белица) — the park where the last three "dancing bears" of Bulgaria, ending a long and cruel tradition with their liberation in 2007, now live is here
• Blagoevgrad (Благоевград) — the largest city of Southwest Bulgaria known for the beautiful nature that surrounds it, the many local cultural sights and festivals
• Borovets (Боровец) — wintersports resort close to the national capital, Sofia
• Devin (Девин)
• Dupnitsa (Дупница) — a large town at the foot of Rila Mountain
• Kustendil (кусендил) — This small town just over the border from Macedonia is a lovely place to visit. Sit in one of the many terrace restaurants and watch the world go by.
• Melnik (Мелник) — sample wonderful red wines from the region, see the sand pyramids, and take the long hike to Rozhen Monastery
• Pamporovo (Пампорово) — ski resort in Rhodope Mountains, where you can glimpse a view of as far away as Greek coast
• Pernik (Перник) — A rather sad post-industrial city. The centre area is much improved in recent years, but there is a lot of poverty and hardship.
• Samokov (Самоков) — city with some communist architecture, and the hub of the nearby ski resorts
• Sandanski (Сандански)
• Semkovo (Семково) — a mountain resort 17 km to the north of the town of Belitsa, situated south of the main ridges of the Rila Mountains, nestling in a wide field among pine forests
• Smolyan (Смолян) — a great destination for holiday makers and nature lovers, this municipality town is famous for its planetarium center, drama theater, historical museum. Several kilometers away is the ski resort of Pamporovo.
• Velingrad (Велинград) — a city is surrounded by the Rhodope Mountains, with more than 90 mineral springs nearby, making it the city with the most mineral springs in a country rich with these vital waters
[edit] Other destinations
• Pirin National Park — a great hiking destination in summer with beautiful landscapes, lakes, and the second highest summit of the country
[edit] Understand
The people in the Southwest region are very friendly and will gladly be your host. They are very caring and they for sure treat their guests with respect.
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Rila Monastery
• Rila Monastery (Рилски манастир) — a UNESCO World Heritage site and one of the most popular and beautiful places in all of Bulgaria — one of the centers of both the religious and cultural spirit of the Bulgarian nation. Founded in the 10th century, it is the largest and most famous Eastern Orthodox monastery in Bulgaria. It is situated in the northwestern Rila Mountains, 117 km (73 mi) south of the capital Sofia. It is traditionally thought that the monastery was founded by the hermit St.John of Rila (Ivan Rilski), whose name it bears, during the rule of Tsar Peter I (927-968).
The monastery has a spectacular architecture which is well combined with the picturesque nature of the Rila Mountain. Inside the complex, the main church stands in the center of the inner ring. The entire church is decorated with amazing wood-carving, and it's famous for the gold-plated iconostasis. Outside the Rila Monastery, you can find a variety of little pubs and restaurants, where one can experience the fine Bulgarian cuisine. There are a lot of gift shops for the tourists with reasonable prices.
[edit] Itineraries
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[edit][add listing] Drink
[edit] Stay safe
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Difference between revisions of "Ilam"
From Wikitravel
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(added listing)
(added listing)
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==See==
==See==
+
+
*<see name="" alt="" address="" directions="" phone="" url="" hours="" price="" lat="" long="">tea garden</see>
===Itineraries===
===Itineraries===
Revision as of 12:16, 24 March 2010
Ilam is a tea-producing town in the Middle Hills, Nepal.
Contents
Regions
Cities
Other destinations
Understand
Talk
Get in
Get around
See
• tea garden
Itineraries
Do
Eat
• Chayanba Hotel
Drink
Stay safe
Get out
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
1338.1.55.001 - Statistical Trends, NSW, 2007
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 19/09/2007 First Issue
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
HEALTH
The health sector is well served by statistics and there are many different approaches to judging performance. Looking at the broadest level – life expectancy and death rates – NSW health continued to improve between 2000 and 2005. During the same period, the life expectancy at birth of men improved by 2.1 years to reach 78.5 years, and the death rate for all persons fell from 6.9 to 5.9 per 1000 persons.
Life Expectancy and Mortality Rates
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Life expectancy male(a) years
76.4
76.9
77.3
77.7
78.0
78.5
Life expectancy female(a) years
81.9
82.4
82.6
82.9
83.3
83.3
Standardised death rate per 1,000 population(b) rate
6.9
6.6
6.6
6.4
6.3
5.9
nya not yet available
(a) Based on three years of population and deaths data.
(b) Age standardised to the 2001 Australian population.
Source: Deaths, Australia (ABS cat. no. 3302.0).
Deaths per 100,000 persons from heart disease and cerebrovascular disease have declined since 2000, however, deaths from cancer have increased from 163 to 177 per 100,000 persons in 2005.
Deaths per 100,000, By cancer, heart and cerebrovascular disease(a)
Deaths of Young People
One goal of health systems is to reduce preventable deaths – those related to risk behaviours or where earlier medical interventions may have prevented death. In 2005, nearly half of all deaths of young men and a third of young women aged 15–34 years in NSW, were due to suicide, transport accidents or accidental drug overdoses (418 persons).
In 2005, as many young people died from suicide (173 persons) as from transport accidents (167 persons), and four times as many young men (330) died from suicide, transport or drug causes, as young women (88).
Selected Causes of Death, By persons aged 15–34 years2005
In 2005, the number of deaths from transport accidents were highest between the ages 20 and 29 years.
Deaths from suicide and accidental drug overdose were highest between the ages 30 and 49 years. At these ages more people die from either suicide or accidental drug overdose than from a transport fatality.
Selected Causes of Death, By persons aged 15–54 years2005
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 2006
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 20/01/2006
Page tools: Print Page RSS Search this Product
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABS PRODUCTS
There are no ABS publications devoted to forestry and fishery statistics for Australia as a whole. Some related information can be obtained from:
Manufacturing Production, Australia (8301.0)
Labour Force, Australia, Detailed - Electronic Delivery (6291.0.55.001)
OTHER REFERENCES
ABARE (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics):
2005a, Australian Fisheries Statistics 2004, Canberra, February 2005
2005b, Australian Forest and Wood Products Statistics, September and December quarters 2004,
Canberra, May 2005
DAFF (Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry) National Aquaculture Development Committee, Aquaculture Industry Action Agenda, Discussion Paper, June 2001
BRS (Bureau of Rural Sciences):
Caton, A. and McLoughlin, K. (eds) (2004) Fishery Status Reports 2004: Status of Fish Stocks Managed by the Australian Government, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra
National Forest Inventory 2003
National Plantation Inventory 2005
WEB SITES
Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, last viewed July 2005
<http://www.daff.gov.au>
Australian Fisheries Management Authority, last viewed July 2005 <http://www.afma.gov.au>
Bureau of Rural Sciences, last viewed July 2005 <http://www.daff.gov.au/brs>
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Forestry and Forest Products, last viewed
July 2005 <http://www.ffp.csiro.au>
Department of the Environment and Heritage, last viewed July 2005 <http://www.deh.gov.au>
FISHBASE, last viewed July 2005 <http://www.fishbase.org>
Previous PageNext Page
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
4190.5 - National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Survey: Western Australia, 1994
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 17/09/1996
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Research article
Codon usage is associated with the evolutionary age of genes in metazoan genomes
Yosef Prat1, Menachem Fromer1, Nathan Linial1,2 and Michal Linial2,3*
Author Affiliations
1 School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
2 Sudarsky Center for Computational Biology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
3 Deptartment of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2009, 9:285 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-285
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/9/285
Received:21 August 2009
Accepted:8 December 2009
Published:8 December 2009
© 2009 Prat et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Codon usage may vary significantly between different organisms and between genes within the same organism. Several evolutionary processes have been postulated to be the predominant determinants of codon usage: selection, mutation, and genetic drift. However, the relative contribution of each of these factors in different species remains debatable. The availability of complete genomes for tens of multicellular organisms provides an opportunity to inspect the relationship between codon usage and the evolutionary age of genes.
Results
We assign an evolutionary age to a gene based on the relative positions of its identified homologues in a standard phylogenetic tree. This yields a classification of all genes in a genome to several evolutionary age classes. The present study starts from the observation that each age class of genes has a unique codon usage and proceeds to provide a quantitative analysis of the codon usage in these classes. This observation is made for the genomes of Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, and Drosophila melanogaster. It is even more remarkable that the differences between codon usages in different age groups exhibit similar and consistent behavior in various organisms. While we find that GC content and gene length are also associated with the evolutionary age of genes, they can provide only a partial explanation for the observed codon usage.
Conclusion
While factors such as GC content, mutational bias, and selection shape the codon usage in a genome, the evolutionary history of an organism over hundreds of millions of years is an overlooked property that is strongly linked to GC content, protein length, and, even more significantly, to the codon usage of metazoan genomes.
Background
The degeneracy of the genetic code implies that different codon triplets encode the same amino acid. The frequencies with which these different codons are used vary significantly between different organisms and between proteins within the same organism [1].
Many studies have analyzed the differences in codon usage across species [2,3]. Some of the main conclusions of these studies are: (i) In prokaryotes, archaea, and single-cell eukaryotes [4], translational efficiency (or fidelity) underlies the strong codon usage bias discovered for highly expressed genes [5]. This correlation is valid as well in multicellular organisms, such as worms [6,7], flies, and plants [8,9], but does not hold in higher multicellular organisms [10]; (ii) There exists a strong correlation between codon usage and genomic GC content. This result was demonstrated in diverse organisms ranging from bacteria to metazoa. Moreover, it was even suggested that human codon usage is determined solely by GC content and its isochores composition [1]. The causal relationships between GC content, codon usage, and the underlying evolutionary constraints that may have shaped them are still not fully understood.
Nonetheless, several evolutionary processes have been postulated as the major factors that determine codon usage: selection, mutation, and genetic drift. However, the relative contribution of each of these factors in different species remains debatable [11-14]. For a number of different organisms, it was suggested that codon usage is best explained by selection for tRNA abundance, gene expression levels, and translational optimization [15]. In other cases, the dominant roles were attributed to mutation bias for local composition, mutation rate, mutation preference [16], biased gene conversion, and recombination rates [17]. Among other attributes considered are gene and protein properties [18], including protein structure [19], gene length [9], and mRNA characteristics (e.g., secondary structure) [20]. Mutation bias towards the transcribed strand [21], environmental conditions [22], and generation time [23] were also proposed in explaining the preferred usage of codons in specific genes and some genomes.
The availability of a substantial number of complete metazoan genomes provides an opportunity to inspect the codon usage signal vis-a-vis the age of the genes that contain these codons. Here, we examine the varying use of codons in different groups of genes, where the groups are defined according to their relative evolutionary age within a single organism. We show a significant coupling between the evolutionary age of a gene and its codon preferences in representative metazoan genomes. We also show that the GC content of a gene and its length are associated with its evolutionary age. However, we demonstrate that the latter two linkages provide only a partial explanation of the codon usage bias. We propose that the evolutionary history of genes has been maintained in the frequencies of their codons throughout extremely long evolutionary processes.
Results and Discussion
The analysis of metazoan codon usage is made possible by the availability of a large number of complete genomes. Hundreds of eukaryotic genomes are currently at their final stages of assembly and genome annotation. Complete high-quality proteomes of about 40 animal genomes are available as well. These resources have allowed us to determine with much certainty, for each of the protein sequences of a given organism, if homologues are present or absent along the evolutionary phylogenetic tree.
Codon usage and evolutionary age
Proteins encoding gene sequences were obtained from the ENSEMBL database [24]. To avoid bias due to genome annotation quality, we focused our analysis solely on genes marked as 'known'. Very short genes were also removed to avoid statistical bias in all subsequent homology searches (see Methods).
We divided the set of about 17,000 analyzed human genes into 9 groups according to the evolutionary age of each gene (Table 1). The age of a gene was determined by the evolutionarily most distant genome containing an identified homologue to that gene. Relative evolutionary distance was based on the accepted phylogenetic tree (Figure 1). Homology relationships were extracted from ENSEMBL and are based on an exhaustive list of 27 fully sequenced genome annotations that represent the main model organisms of the animal kingdom (Figure 1). Note that despite the large variation in group sizes (Tables 1 and 2), even the smallest age groups contain more than enough codon appearances to make statistically robust conclusions (e.g., human Age group 2 contains over 42,000 codon counts).
Table 1. Partition of H. sapiens and M. musculus genes into age groups
Table 2. Partition of D. melanogaster genes into age groups
Figure 1. Phylogenetic tree used to define the relative age groups for the human and mouse genes. The labeled age classes were defined as the major evolutionary branching points with respect to the 27 genomes analyzed and the species of interest (human or mouse). Thus, genes are grouped according to their estimated time of appearance in evolution. For example, human genes in Age group 5 are presumed to have appeared after the split between birds and mammals, since they do not have homologues in the non-mammal species studied. On the other hand, they already existed in the least common ancestor (LCA) of all mammals, as evidenced by their respective homologues in O. anatinus. The species included in the analysis are: C. elegans (worm), D. melanogaster (fruitfly), T. rubripes (fugu), X. tropicalis (xenopus), G. gallus (chicken), O. anatinus (platypus), M. domestica (Gray Short-tailed opossum), B. Taurus (cow), C. familiaris (dog), D. novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo), E. telfairi (lesser hedgehog tenrec), E. europaeus (west european hedgehog), F. catus (cat), L. Africana (elephant), M. lucifugus (bat), S. araneus (common shrew), C. porcellus (guinea pig), M. musculus (mouse), O. princes (pika), O. cuniculus (rabbit), R. norvegicos (rat), S. tridecemlineatu (squirrel), P. troglodytes (chimpanzee), M. mulatta (macaque), M. murinus (gray mouse lemur), O. garnettii (bushbaby), and H. sapiens (human). For the analysis of the human genome, Age 1 includes only primate-specific genes, while for the analysis of the mouse genome, Age 1 includes only rabbit and rodent-specific genes. Note that the evolutionary time scale (in millions of years ago, MYA) is approximate.
For each group of genes, codon usage frequencies were independently calculated for each of the amino acids. Thus, each of the 59 redundant codons that account for these 18 amino acids were assigned a number between 0 and 1 (see Methods).
The analysis of the 9 evolutionary age groups reveals substantial differences in their codon usage. This was observed for almost all codons of all amino acids. Representative results for arginine, threonine, and cysteine are depicted in Figure 2 (middle column). As a comparison, we show the codon usage variation for the ~17,000 genes within 9 randomly assigned age groups of similar sizes (Figure 2, right column). It is evident that the randomized grouping results in a complete loss of age dependency.
Figure 2. Age-dependent codon usages for representative codons. The age dependent codon usages for the arginine (top), threonine (middle), and cysteine (bottom) codons for the mouse and human genes are shown. In the right column, the codon usages for these amino acids after a random reshuffling of the age assignments for the human genes are shown. See Figure 1 for the definition of the age groups used.
To robustly test the statistical significance of our observation for each of the 59 analyzed codons, we measured the variance of the codon usage between the 9 age groups. This variance was compared to that of 9 randomly selected gene groups with similar sizes, and this comparison was independently repeated 10,000 times. The variance of the codon usage among the 9 age groups was greater than the random groups' variance in more than 95% of the tests for 58 codons (p < 0.05), and 94% for the CTA codon (encoding leucine, p < 0.06). These tests confirm the observation that the age groups are significantly different from one another with respect to their codon usage. Another noteworthy observation is that a number of codon frequencies change monotonically with the age of the gene group considered (Additional file 1).
Additional file 1. Age-dependent codon usage for human genes. This file depicts the age-dependent codon usage for human genes, for each of the 18 degenerately coded amino acids (denoted by one letter codes).
Format: EPS Size: 196KB Download file
Recent research of codon usage bias has typically employed measures such as the codon adaptation index (CAI) [25] or the effective number of codons (ENC) [26]. However, since these measures are gene-focused, they were not appropriate for this study, where we characterized hundreds of genes at a time, without the use of a reference set or other simplifying assumptions. In addition, other studies have used relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) values to measure the deviation from random per-amino acid codon usage [27]. We did not use this measure here since we were interested in measuring the variation of the frequency for each specific codon between different age groups, without comparing between codons of the same amino acid (see discussion in [28,29]).
Previous studies have proposed that GC content is a major determinant of codon usage [30]. We thus examined the GC content differences between the age groups. Indeed, the GC content within the coding regions of the ~17,000 human genes shows significant variance between the 9 groups (Figure 3) and is more variable than in randomly selected groups (permutation test, p < 10-6). Thus, we report here a seemingly overlooked association between the GC content and the evolutionary age of a gene. Previous studies have shown a decrease in GC-rich isochores in mammalian genomes [31], as can also be noted among synonymous codons from the newest age groups (Additional files 1 and 2).
Additional file 2. Age-dependent codon usage for mouse genes. This file shows the age-dependent codon usage for mouse genes, for each of the 18 degenerately coded amino acids.
Format: EPS Size: 196KB Download file
Figure 3. Age-dependent GC content and length of human, mouse, and fly genes. For each age group, the average GC content of the coding regions of the genes, or average protein length, is shown. See Figure 1 and Table 2 for the definition of the age groups used. For each of human, mouse, and fly, the variance between age groups for both GC content and protein length is statistically significant (permutation test, p < 10-6).
Using similar tests, we found that protein length, which has also been suggested to correlate with codon usage [9] is associated (p < 10-6) with the age group to which the gene belongs (Figure 3).
In order to uncouple the age dependence of GC content and gene length from that of codon usage, we tested whether genes with very similar GC content (or length) still show a significant linkage between gene age and codon usage. We thus binned the genes into sets of similar GC content (or length) and further divided each such set into the 9 age groups defined above. For each GC content (or length), the variance among the age groups was re-tested. We found statistically significant variation between the age groups for many of the codons (Figure 4). Thus, the coupling between age and GC content (or age and protein length) does not entirely explain our main observation indicating age-dependent codon usage (Figure 2, middle column).
Figure 4. Age-dependent codon usage for fixed GC content and length. For each of human, mouse, and fly (left to right), its genes were binned by either their GC contents (top) or lengths (bottom). For each such bin, the number of codons (out of the 59 analyzed) with statistically significant age-dependent variance is shown. A particular codon was labeled as being age-dependent if its variance between ages was different than random (false discovery rate (FDR) corrected for multiple hypotheses < 0.05). Red 'X' mark bins for which the sub-division into age groups resulted in some groups having fewer than 5 genes; the results for such bins should be disregarded, since they are statistically inadequate.
To additionally confirm our conclusion that GC content does not dominate the age-dependent codon usages observed, we performed the following novel information-theoretic test. Intuitively, if changes in GC content were the only factor in causing aberrations from the overall codon usage of the organism, we would expect the codon usage of a particular age group to be dictated by its GC content, while deviating as little as possible from the overall codon usage of the genome. Thus, for each group, we determined the codon usage expected to comply with its GC content. In detail, we calculated the usage that minimizes the Kullback-Leibler divergence (DKL) with the genomic codon usage, while constraining the GC content (see Methods). We found the observed codon usages for each of the age groups to be significantly different than those expected based on GC alone (χ2 test, p < 10-10); this result was consistent for human, mouse, and fly (see below).
Codon usage preference by evolutionary age is a universal phenomenon
We tested whether the association between evolutionary age and codon usage preferences observed in Homo sapiens carries over to other metazoa. To this end, we applied a similar analysis for the Mus musculus and the Drosophila melangoaster genomes (Table 2). For the latter genome, we overcome the uneven full-genome sampling of the evolutionary tree from human to fly by taking advantage of the recent sequencing and annotations efforts for 12 species from the Drosophila genus [32].
For the mouse and fly species, a linkage between gene age and codon usage biases (Figure 2, left column and Additional files 2 & 3) was confirmed by applying the same tests applied for the human genome. The variance in codon usage was significantly higher than random (p < 0.05) for 54 codons in mouse (excluding: CGT (R), CTC (L), CCT (P), GCC (A), GTC (V)), and for 57 codons in fly (the exceptions being CGT (R) and GTC (V)). Therefore, the linkage between codon usage and gene age is not specific to the human genome and is likely to apply to other metazoans as well.
Additional file 3. Age-dependent codon usage for fly genes. This file portrays the age-dependent codon usage for fly genes, for each of the 18 degenerately coded amino acids.
Format: EPS Size: 193KB Download file
For the fly genome, the correlation between gene age and GC content seems to be stronger than for the human and mouse genes (Figure 3). And, indeed, while the GC content only weakly explains the age dependency of codon usage for mouse genes (similar to that observed for human), the age-related codon bias of fly genes seems to be mostly, but not entirely, dominated by the GC content (Figure 4, middle-top and right-top panels, respectively). It is also worth noting that, in D. melanogaster, age-dependent monotonic behavior was observed in the GC content as well as in the codon usage for most of the 59 codons (Additional file 3), perhaps implying a stronger link between these two age-dependent phenomena. Furthermore, for almost all amino acids in the fly, the usage of synonymous codons is more uniform in the newer age groups relative to the old ones (Additional file 3). This may reflect the combination of: (i) the GC content necessarily restricts the possible uniformity of codon usage [33] (Figure 3, old age groups); (ii) a potential overlap between the old age groups and slow evolving genes, which have previously been shown to possess large differences in the usage of synonymous codons [34].
We now set out to test whether the coupling found between the codon usage and gene age behaves similarly in human, mouse, and fly. For simplicity, we grouped the genes of each organism into two groups representing 'new' and 'old' genes. The 'new' set contains all genes that are primate-specific (for human), rodent and rabbit-specific (for mouse), and melanogaster subgroup-specific (for fly). The 'old' ones are those that are not included in the 'new' group (see Figure 1 and Table 2).
We then measured the deviation of the codon usage for the 'new' genes from that of the 'old' genes, for each of the three model organisms. The codon usage was represented by a 59-coordinate vector (one coordinate for each codon, whose value is its relative usage frequency among the codons encoding its amino acid). Hence, the deviation between the 'new' and 'old' groups in each genome is quantified as the difference of the 'new' and 'old' vectors (see Methods). Thus, these calculations yield three vectors, each representing the influence of age on the codon usage in each organism. When we measure the angle between the three vectors in the 59-dimensional space, a remarkable resemblance is observed. These deviation vectors have practically the same directions (i.e., multidimensional "trajectory") for the human, mouse, and fly, with a statistical significance of p < 10-8 (Table 3, see Methods). This is particularly noteworthy, since the 'new' groups are expected to have evolved independently, since, by definition, they include genes that appeared after the separation of each pair among human, mouse, and fly.
Table 3. Pairwise comparison of age-dependent codon usage deviation vectors for human, mouse, and fly genes
We subsequently proceeded to quantify the level of dependence of the usage frequency on the age signal, for each of the 59 codons. Namely, we examine the extent to which different codons (or their amino acids) encapsulate the evolutionary age signal and ask which codons are more "sensitive" to gene age, across the three metazoan representatives examined. To this end, we ranked the codons in each organism according to their responsiveness to evolutionary age (Figure 5), using the variance among the 9 age groups. Indeed, human and mouse codons showed similar patterns regarding the specific dependency of age (Spearman's rank correlation test: ρ = 0.92, p < 10-6 with permutations test). Moreover, this pattern was somewhat conserved for Drosophila (ρ = 0.74, p < 10-6). We tested the properties of the codons showing high responsiveness toward evolutionary age (and those that are indifferent to it) according to the biochemical grouping of the corresponding amino acids. No clear correlation was found between the biochemical grouping of the amino acids and the ranks of their codons.
Figure 5. Codon age-responsiveness for the 59 degenerately coding codons. For each codon, the age-dependent variance was calculated. For each genome, the 59 resulting variance scores were rank-ordered. The 59 codons are sorted by their rank-ordering in the human genome, and the rank-ordering in the mouse genome is compared. A strong overall similarity of codon rank-ordering between the human and mouse genomes is shown. Spearman's rank correlation test: ρ = 0.92, p-value < 10-6. The codons are colored according to a standard biochemical grouping of the amino acids for which they encode.
Properties of evolutionary age groups
We further checked whether the evolutionary age groupings might be correlated with some functional classification. It is well known that certain functions are found in only specific parts of the evolutionary phylogenetic tree, e.g. those involved in morphogenesis, organ development, differences in brain function, and behavior. Moreover, certain traits (e.g., the immune system and pathogen defense mechanisms) were acquired late in metazoan evolution. Indeed, studying the trend of development-specific genes along the evolutionary tree supports the notion that the molecular signal of evolutionary history is partially retained [35,36].
We tested the possible enrichment of Gene Ontology (GO) annotations [37] in each of the 9 age groups of human genes. It turns out that a few functional annotations are enriched in some age groups. Specifically, newer age groups were enriched with "nucleic acid binding" genes, while older groups showed enrichment with the process of "molecular transducer activity". The function that was most prevalent in the oldest age group was "catalytic activity". However, the number of genes annotated with these GO terms was relatively small and thus only insignificantly influenced the group character.
Conclusion
In this study, we provide an unbiased measurement, in metazoan genomes, of the effect of the evolutionary age of genes on their codon usage. We adopt a critical statistical perspective that analyzes the codon usage signal on a genomic scale, rather than from a gene-centric point of view. This approach has revealed weak signals that may otherwise be masked by gene-to-gene variation.
Our results are quite surprising. Most correlations that were previously suggested to dominate the determination of codon usage are time-independent, thereby implying that the evolutionary history of a gene or a species is less important than its current properties. Most studies that suggest selection as the major driving force for codon bias have analyzed protein structures, mRNA stability, expression efficiency, and recombination mechanisms [17]. These studies took advantage of the availability of absolute gene expression, proteomic expression levels, and expression breadth. These features are used as appropriate approximations to selective forces. Of note, none of these models include an element of evolutionary age. Indeed, since it is assumed that current metazoan genomes are near equilibrium with respect to mutation and selection [30], it was unexpected to find age-dependent differences in the codon usage of genes, as reported here.
We have herein reported a phenomenon relating the age of gene groups and their codon preferences. The evolutionary mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are yet to be discovered. It is important to note that our assessment of evolutionary age might be influenced by biological noise, such as rapidly evolving genes. In addition, our analysis could be confounded by cases where there is no gene homologue in the representative genomes for some branches of the evolutionary tree. Thus, one should be cautious about the definition of homologues, which could lack detection sensitivity due to the uneven and somewhat biased selection of genomes that were completely sequenced. For example, an intermediate genome that is not yet sequenced can provide a missing link that will redefine the partition of an age group and will thus directly affect the assignment of a gene to its appropriate age. Mechanistically, this could be the consequence of gene loss, lateral transfer of genetic material (through retroviral dynamics), but also through recombination and gene conversion processes [17]. These potential drawbacks increase the unavoidable inaccuracy of the genomic data used in this study. Notwithstanding these reservations, we did find a significant degree of age dependency for codon usage. We have also reported here phenomena of the dependence of GC content and protein length on gene age, but we showed that these phenomena do not dominate the coupling of codon usage to gene age.
The age dependence of codon usage was found to apply to all three representative organisms tested. Not only does this pattern remain as a general trend, but the dependence on age is in fact similar for the human, mouse, and fruit fly genomes. We conclude that the evolutionary history of an organism, over hundreds of million years, is strongly reflected in its codon usage.
Methods
Databases and Resources
Protein encoding gene sequences were obtained from the ENSEMBL database [24]. We included in our analysis only genes marked as 'known' and ignored genes that are annotated as 'novel'. In cases of alternative splicing variants, only a single splice variant was included. The numerous non-protein coding genes (including rRNA, tRNA, miRNA, snoRNA, etc.) were excluded. Genes encoding proteins of length shorter than 150 amino acids were also removed, since it is difficult to find statistically significant homologues for short proteins. A total of 17,274 human genes and 18,216 genes from mouse were included in the analysis.
For the analysis of the fly genome, we overcome the uneven full-genome sampling of the evolutionary tree from human to fly by taking advantage of the recent sequencing and annotation efforts of 12 species from the Drosophila genus [32]. The D. melanogaster proteome is based on the FlyBase database [38]. A total of 10,983 genes are included in the analysis.
For the human and mouse proteomes, homology was extracted from ENSEMBL using a predetermined list derived from a reciprocal BLAST identification scheme. These homologues are based on an exhaustive list of fully sequenced genomes (detailed in Figure 1) having high quality proteome annotations in a broad range of the evolutionary tree, from H. sapiens to C. elegans (Figure 1). Within the metazoa, we excluded the branch leading to distant phyla, including Placozoa, Porifera (sponges), and Cnidaria (corals and jellyfish) and focused on major model organisms of the animal kingdom. For the homologues from the perspective of the D. melanogaster genome (Table 2), we used the FlyBase database, in addition to ENSEMBL (including the S. cerevisiae genome), for obtaining the predetermined homologies of the genes [38].
Functional assignment for groups of genes is based on the enrichment of Gene Ontology (GO) annotations [37], with respect to the appearance of the GO annotation in the entire proteome.
Age group assignments
The age of a gene was determined by the evolutionarily most distant genome containing an identified homologue to that gene. Thus, Age 1 denotes genes most specific to the organism being analyzed, and Age 9 (Age 8 for fly) includes genes found in the least common ancestor (LCA) of all analyzed species.
Codon usage measurements
For each group of genes, codon usage frequencies were independently calculated for each of the amino acids. For each of the 18 degenerately encoded amino acids, the empirical frequencies of its corresponding codons were separately counted and normalized to sum to 1. The other two amino acids (tryptophan and methionine) each have a single codon and were not included in the analysis. Thus, each of the 59 redundant codons that account for these 18 amino acids were assigned a number between 0 and 1.
Calculation of expected codon usage for a given GC content
We derived a method to calculate the codon usage expected for a given GC content, where this usage is most similar to a background codon usage. In our case, the background is the overall genomic codon usage. Formally, we seek the codon frequencies f that are closest to the background frequencies B, while constraining the GC content to a level of G:
where DKL denotes the Kullback-Leibler divergence, nj is the number of codons encoding amino acid j, qj is the relative frequency of amino acid j, is the GC content of the i-th codon for the j-th amino acid, and and are the background and optimized frequencies of the i-th codon for the j-th amino acid, respectively.
We used Matlab to numerically solve this optimization problem. For each age group, the expected frequencies calculated by this method were compared to the observed frequencies using the χ2 test for goodness of fit.
Age dependence of codon usage
For all pairs of organisms analyzed, the similarity between the age-dependent responsiveness of their codon usages was calculated. In detail, for each genome analyzed, the deviation vector was defined as the difference of the codon usage vectors for 'old' and 'new' genes. Specifically, the 'new' set contains all genes in the Age 1 class (primate-specific for human, rodent and rabbit-specific for mouse, and melanogaster subgroup-specific for fly). The 'old' ones are those in all other age classes.
For example, we denote the usage vector of the 'new' human genes as:
where denotes the frequency of the i-th codon (normalized by its respective amino acid). Next, we calculate the codon usage deviation vector between 'old' and 'new' human genes:
Finally, to compare human and mouse deviations, we calculated the angle between their respective vectors [θ(human, mouse)]:
The p-value of randomly finding two vectors with an incident angle whose cosine is at least as small as this was calculated as: [39].
Abbreviations
GO: gene ontology; LCA: least common ancestor; MYA: millions of years; DKL: Kullback-Leibler divergence.
Authors' contributions
YP conceived of the study, carried out the analysis, and drafted the manuscript. MF contributed to the analysis and to the writing of the manuscript. NL supported the statistical and analytical tests and edited the manuscript. ML led the research and contributed to the writing and the finalization of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We thank the ProtoNet research group for comments and discussions. YP and MF are fellows of the Sudarsky Center for Computational Biology. This research is partially supported by EU Prospects FR7 and the Israel Science Foundation (ISF 592/07).
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Research article
An automated method for analysis of microcirculation videos for accurate assessment of tissue perfusion
Sumeyra U Demir1, Roya Hakimzadeh1, Rosalyn Hobson Hargraves1,2,4, Kevin R Ward1,4,5,6, Eric V Myer1 and Kayvan Najarian1,3,4,5*
Author Affiliations
1 Signal Processing Technologies LLC, Richmond, VA, USA
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
3 Department of Emergency Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
4 Virginia Commonwealth University Reanimation Engineering Science (VCURES), Richmond, VA, USA
5 Department of Computer Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
6 Department of Emergency Medicine, Michigan Center for Integrative Research in Critical Care, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Medical Imaging 2012, 12:37 doi:10.1186/1471-2342-12-37
Published: 21 December 2012
Abstract
Background
Imaging of the human microcirculation in real-time has the potential to detect injuries and illnesses that disturb the microcirculation at earlier stages and may improve the efficacy of resuscitation. Despite advanced imaging techniques to monitor the microcirculation, there are currently no tools for the near real-time analysis of the videos produced by these imaging systems. An automated system tool that can extract microvasculature information and monitor changes in tissue perfusion quantitatively might be invaluable as a diagnostic and therapeutic endpoint for resuscitation.
Methods
The experimental algorithm automatically extracts microvascular network and quantitatively measures changes in the microcirculation. There are two main parts in the algorithm: video processing and vessel segmentation. Microcirculatory videos are first stabilized in a video processing step to remove motion artifacts. In the vessel segmentation process, the microvascular network is extracted using multiple level thresholding and pixel verification techniques. Threshold levels are selected using histogram information of a set of training video recordings. Pixel-by-pixel differences are calculated throughout the frames to identify active blood vessels and capillaries with flow.
Results
Sublingual microcirculatory videos are recorded from anesthetized swine at baseline and during hemorrhage using a hand-held Side-stream Dark Field (SDF) imaging device to track changes in the microvasculature during hemorrhage. Automatically segmented vessels in the recordings are analyzed visually and the functional capillary density (FCD) values calculated by the algorithm are compared for both health baseline and hemorrhagic conditions. These results were compared to independently made FCD measurements using a well-known semi-automated method. Results of the fully automated algorithm demonstrated a significant decrease of FCD values. Similar, but more variable FCD values were calculated using a commercially available software program requiring manual editing.
Conclusions
An entirely automated system for analyzing microcirculation videos to reduce human interaction and computation time is developed. The algorithm successfully stabilizes video recordings, segments blood vessels, identifies vessels without flow and calculates FCD in a fully automated process. The automated process provides an equal or better separation between healthy and hemorrhagic FCD values compared to currently available semi-automatic techniques. The proposed method shows promise for the quantitative measurement of changes occurring in microcirculation during injury.
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CARROT Reforms as STIC, Unveils Demographic Demands
by Leonard Richardson
Published on segfault.org 07/12/2000
The Coalition of Advertisers for Responsible Regulation of Online Trade (CARROT) announced today its intention to reform as the Society for Tracking and Incapacitating Consumers (STIC). STIC chair Rick O'Shay cited the renaming as reflecting a much-needed shift in the business models of STIC member companies, many of which have seen their stocks devalued in the recent downturn in dot-com stocks.
"Previously, most STIC members operated under an 'incentive' model, under which consumers were offered goods and services--online calendar services, web-based email, coffee mugs, DSL, money, heroin--in exchange for their personal information," said O'Shay. "However, over the past few months, our working groups have discovered that it's far more lucrative--not to mention more satisfying--to simply beat into submission those who do not comply with our requests."
STIC's initial demands include basic demographic information on every US citizen, with nuclear weapons to be detonated in the five counties with the lowest response rates. The resulting devastation could render up to 9% of the U.S. uninhabitable due to radioactive fallout.
More individual-specific threats are planned, as well. STIC executive member Tony "The Tiger" Tetrazzini today unveiled the society's "reverse compensation" plan, under which consumers who refuse to provide personal information to STIC will recieve punishment in proportion. "Compensation" items range from soaped-up house windows for failure to provide car odometer readings, to severe beatings for email address and "cement overshoes" for date of birth.
"You no establish date of birth, we establish date of death," said Tetrazzini. "Capiche?"
"Of course, consumers will be able to 'opt-out' of all beatings and personal mishap," says O'Shay, "so it's really a completely voluntary system. We've gone to great lengths to accommodate that small but vocal minority of the American public which wants both personal privacy and freedom from grevious bodily harm."
However, critics allege that the STIC opt-out provisions unfairly exclude those without access to electron microscopes and sophisticated atom-manipulation technology (required to read and initial the 22,506 lines of the pinhead-sized STIC opt-out contract). An Internet-based opt-out system is in place, but connecting to it requires STIC's specialized client software, dubbed CATCH (Consumer Access To Collection Halt). Version 2.2 of CATCH, required to connect to STIC's opt-out system, is licensed under conditions forbidding its use for connection to STIC's opt-out system. STIC spokesman Carney Asada denies that this poses any problem to consumers.
"You can opt out of any conditions of the CATCH 2.2 licensing agreement you feel are restrictive via the online opt-out system, accessible right from your CATCH console," says Asada. "I've done it myself, and feel confident that I can settle out of court with my employer as regards the resulting breach of contract suit."
This document (source) is part of Crummy, the webspace of Leonard Richardson (contact information). It was last modified on Friday, January 26 2007, 03:02:30 Nowhere Standard Time and last built on Saturday, May 18 2013, 06:00:03 Nowhere Standard Time.
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Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles
Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Mark McGinley
Introduction
Aldabra Atoll (9°25'S, 46°25'E) is a World Heritage Site and is located in the Indian Ocean.
Geographical Location
An atoll in the Mozambique Channel, situated approximately 400 kilometers (km) north-west of Madagascar and 680 km east of the East African mainland. 9°25'S, 46°25'E
Date and History of Establishment
Map of the Seychelles. (Source: Harvard Museum of Natural History Travel Program)
Designated a strict nature reserve on 17 February 1976 under the Protection and Preservation of Wild Life Ordinance, 1970 (BIOT) and a special reserve by Designation of Special Reserve (Aldabra) Order, 1981. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1982.
Area
35,000 hectares (ha) (terrestrial: 18,800 ha; mangrove: 2,000 ha; marine: 14,200 ha).
Land Tenure
Government, administered by the Seychelles Island Foundation. The Royal Society acquired a 14-year lease in 1976 from the Government of the British Indian Ocean Territory. This was then taken over in 1980 by the Seychelles Islands Foundation, a charitable trust established under the Seychelles Islands Foundation Decree 1979.
Altitude
Most of the reserve is about 8 meters (m) above sea level.
Physical Features
Aldabra is a classic coral atoll, 34 km long by maximum of 14.5 km wide, which has been built up from the seabed. It comprises four main islands of coral limestone separated by narrow passes and encloses a large shallow lagoon. Most of the land surface comprises ancient coral reef (about 125,000 years old) now raised above sea level, the rest being even older reef limestones. The lagoon, which covers some 14,000 ha, contains many smaller islands and the entire atoll is surrounded by an outer reef. Geomorphological processes have produced a varied and generally rugged topography. Weathering has eroded the limestone into holes and pits over much of the surface of the islands, although the surface at the eastern end is comprises raised lagoonal sediments. The limestone cliffs along the coast are undercut, and there is a perched beach and sand dunes on the southern (windward) coast. Tidal range is more than 3 m which can lead to strong channel currents.
Climate
Tropical with an average annual temperature of 27°C. Average rainfall is about 1,200 millimeters (mm), although the annual rainfall varies greatly between years. There is a pronounced wet season from November to April and a drier season from May to November. The area is occasionally affected by cyclones.
Vegetation
Mangrove swamp, Aldabra Atoll. (Source: The Evergreen State College)
The terrestrial flora includes some 178 species of indigenous flowering plants, of which about 20% are thought to be endemic. Many of these plants are considered to be threatened. Mangrove swamp grows around the edge of the lagoon and inshore waters support sea-grass meadows. Much of the fretted limestone terrain is covered with dense Pemphis acidula thicket. On flat limestone, there is a mixed growth of low trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. On the west coast, there are a few limited areas where coconut groves have been planted.
Fauna
Geochelone gigantea, Aldabra Atoll. (Source: CalPhotos)
This island group is one of the few areas in the world where reptiles dominate the terrestrial fauna, with the largest world population (152,000) of giant tortoise Geochelone gigantea (R), which appears to be self-sustaining. Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) and Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) breed here. There are 13 species of terrestrial birds including the last representative of the western Indian Ocean flightless birds - the endemic Aldabran white-throated rail Dryolimnas cuvieri aldabranus (about 5,000 individuals). Aldabran drongo Dicrurus aldabranus (approximately 1,500 individuals) is also an endemic species which inhabits scrub, mangrove and casuarina areas. Aldabra warbler Nesillas aldabranus (E) has not been seen for several years and might be naturally extinct. Previously restricted to 10 ha of coastal tall scrub, this was considered possibly the most endangered bird in the world, as only five birds have been seen since its discovery in 1968. Aldabra is the main breeding site in the Indian Ocean for red-tailed tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda, red-footed booby Sula Sula, greater frigatebird Fregata minor and lesser frigatebird F. ariel. There are also large numbers of white-tailed tropic bird P. lepturus, masked booby Sula dactylatra, Abbott's booby S. leucogaster. Thousands of nesting terns can also be found on the atoll.
The only indigenous mammals are fruit bat Pteropus seychellensis and three insectivorous bats Taphozous mauritianus, Triaenops furculus and Tadarida pusilla. The atoll is an important refuge for coconut crab Birgus latro, which has disappeared from most other islands in the Seychelles.
Cultural Heritage
None.
Local Human Population
There are no permanent settlement. The resident population is composed of Foundation employees and visiting scientists.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities
No information.
Scientific Research and Facilities
An intensive research effort covering the whole atoll has been in operation since 1967. Particular mention should be made of the survey and monitoring of the tortoise and turtle populations initiated in 1982 (funded by WWF), and the study made on Aldabra warbler by Prys-Jones. Additional studies are regularly carried out by scientists from the Smithsonian Institution. A fully-equipped research station was established by the Royal Society in 1971, and is maintained by the Seychelles Islands Foundation, to whom it was donated in 1980. The Seychelles Government maintains a meteorological station. Accommodation and a network of field stations are available for a maximum of 15 scientists.
Conservation Value
This small and morphologically diverse atoll has allowed a variety of discrete insular flora and fauna communities, with a high incidence of endemism to develop. The atoll constitutes a refuge for the giant tortoise and flightless bird populations of the western Indian Ocean, as well a substantial marine turtle breeding population and large seabird colonies.
Conservation Management
Protective regulations under the National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act (Cap 159) came into force on 9 September 1981. Previously, only partial protection for specified animals was provided. The reserve extends to 1 km below the high water mark. The history of conservation at Aldabra is fully described in Stoddart. The present requirement is to maintain the policy of minimum human interference while continuing the research/monitoring program. Particular attention is directed towards the ecology of exotic species to provide a basis for future management. Successive national development plans stress provision for the economic development of the outer islands of the Seychelles. The Seychelles Islands Foundation/Royal Society document 'A management plan for Aldabra', has been accepted by the Government of Seychelles as a guideline for the future management of the atoll.
Management Contraints
The mangroves and populations of turtles, fish and tortoises have recovered from past exploitation. However, the difficulties of effectively patrolling the atoll and easy access by sea, threatens the integrity of the reserve through unauthorized export of tortoises and turtles, disturbance of seabird colonies and other wildlife, and the hazard of fire. Rats, cats and goats have been introduced and established. Goats increased four-fold between 1977 and 1982. Two scientific eradication campaigns have been conducted in 1987 and 1988 with UNESCO support, on Malabar and Grande Terre islands. The total number of goats killed during the two programs represents approximately 75%-85% of the total population. The eradication is being actively followed up. Prys-Jones recommended that no east-west paths should be cut on this island, to try and limit goat or tortoise encroachment. The proliferation of mealy bug accidentally introduced into Aldabra, has seriously damaged native vegetation, particularly endemic species. A program of biological control of this species, through the introduction of a specific coccinellid predator was launched in 1988 with ORSTOM assistance and is still being implemented. Attempts have been made to control the spread of exotic plants. The maintenance of conservation interest, and realization of full scientific value of the site, is dependent upon the ability of the Foundation to support adequate wardening staff and a functioning research station. The Foundation is wholly dependent upon subscription and donation income, and shortage of funds, is therefore, a potential danger. Development is restricted to small-scale tourism, deep-sea fishing and limited exploitation of some natural resources.
Staff
Warden appointed by the Seychelles Island Foundation in 1982 and seconded from the Department of Environment with eight to ten resident Foundation employees.
Budget
• 1981: US$534,000 raised in the 1979 appeal.
• 1982: £45,000 annual grant one-third of which was provided by the Seychelles Government.
• In 1990, the total annual budget of the Seychelles Islands Foundation was SR1.3 million (US$250,000).
• Regular contributions from the Royal Society, the Smithsonian Institution and the Seychelles Government and occasional donations provide about 20% of the Foundation's revenues.
IUCN Management Category
• Ia (Strict Nature Reserve)
• Natural World Heritage Site - Criteria ii, iii, iv
Further Reading
• Two main sources for bibliography are: Philosophical Transactions- Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 260 (1971), and Philosophical Transactions- Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 286. (1979). (The latter volume contains a map at approximately 1:100,000 with place-names.)
• Collar, N.J. (1994). The conservation status in 1982 of the Aldabra white-throated rail Dryolimnas cuvieri aldabranus. Bird Conservation International 3(4): 299-305.
• Directorate of Overseas Surveys Print Laydown (1969). 1:25,000. West sheet and East sheet DOS (PL SEY) 3099A and 3099B.
• Feare, C.J. (1984). Seabird Status and Conservation in the Tropical Indian Ocean. In: Croxhall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H. and Schreiber, R.W. (Eds) Status and Conservation of the World's seabirds. ICBP, Cambridge. ISBN: 0946888035.
• IUCN/WWF Project 1784. Seychelles, Aldabra Island.
• Prys-Jones, R.P. (1979). The ecology and conservation of the Aldabra brush warbler Nesillas aldabranus. Philosophical Transactions- Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences B 286: 211-224.
• Seabrook, W. (1990). The impact of the feral cat Felis catus on the native fauna of Aldabra Atoll Seychelles, Indian Ocean. Revue d'Ecologie la Terre et la Vie 45(2): 135-146.
• Stoddart, D.R. (1971). 'Settlement, development and conservation of Aldabra'. Philosophical Transactions- Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences B 260: 611-628.
• Stoddart, D.R. (1976). Publications resulting from the Royal Society Research Programme at Aldabra and nearby islands, 1967-1976. Aldabra Research Committee, the Royal Society ALD/13(76). 10 pp. (List of over 140 references).
• Stoddart, D.R. (1995). Bibliography of Aldabra Atoll (Third Edition). Seychelles Islands Foundation. 93pp.
• Stoddart, D.R. and Ferrari, J.D. (1983). Aldabra Atoll. Nature and Resources 19(1): 20-28.
• Stoddart, D.R. and Morris, M.G. (1980). A management plan for Aldabra. (Draft, 59 pp including many diagrams and maps).
• World Heritage Nomination (1981). Aldabra Atoll.
Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content.
Citation
United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation M (Lead Author);Mark McGinley (Topic Editor) "Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth April 7, 2009; Last revised Date April 7, 2009; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Aldabra_Atoll,_Seychelles>
The Author
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is a collaboration between the United Nations Environment Programme, the world's foremost intergovernmental organization, and WCMC 2000, a UK-based charity. Our Vision A world where biodiversity counts Our Mission To evaluate and highlight the many values of biodiversity and put authoritative biodiversity knowledge at the centre of decision-making Our Goal To be an internationally recognised Centre of Excellence for the synthe ... (Full Bio)
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Cardiovascular Psychiatry and Neurology
Volume 2010 (2010), Article ID 703563, 5 pages
doi:10.1155/2010/703563
Review Article
Perinatal S100B Protein Assessment in Human Unconventional Biological Fluids: A Minireview and New Perspectives
1Department of Maternal, Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, C. Arrigo Children's Hospital, Alessandria, Italy
2Research Laboratory, Department of Cardiac Surgery, San Donato University Hospital, San Donato Milanese, Italy
3Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Largo Francesco Vito, 1, I-00168 Rome, Italy
Received 1 April 2010; Accepted 3 May 2010
Academic Editor: Claus W. Heizmann
Copyright © 2010 Diego Gazzolo and Fabrizio Michetti. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Growing evidence is now available on the use of S100B protein as a valuable marker of brain damage and its role as a neurotrophic factor. Bearing in mind, among different S100B protein properties that are still being investigated, the possibility of measuring this protein in different biological fluids renders it suitable for use in several disciplines. This is the case with perinatal medicine where even more noninvasive techniques are particularly desirable in order to ensure the minimal handling diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. In this setting, the present minireview reports data on the presence and the usefulness of S100B protein as brain damage marker and as a neurotrophic factor in the so-called unconventional biological fluids such as saliva and human milk, respectively. Results offer new possibilities for the use of S100B in perinatal medicine as a key-protein for the investigations focusing on central nervous system development and damage.
1. Introduction
The term S100B refers to a member of a multigenic family of calcium-modulated proteins first identified in 1965 by Moore [1], each of which exhibits a unique pattern of tissue- or cell type-specific expression; the term S100 refers to their solubility in a 100%-saturated solution with ammonium sulfate. To date at least 25 proteins have been identified as belonging to the S100 protein family, characterized by the presence of a pair of so-called EF-hand (i.e., helix-loop-helix) calcium-binding motifs, first discovered in the crystal structure of parvalbumin, that induce conformational changes of the protein after binding to calcium. Most S100 proteins exist as dimers (frequently homodimers) within cells and are generally expressed and distributed in a cell-definite fashion, indicating a conserved biological role. In this setting, S100B is a homodimer of the beta subunit, mainly concentrated in the nervous system and in the adipose tissue. In the nervous system S100B appears to be most abundant in glial cells and its presence in specific neuronal subpopulations has also been described [26]. S100B is present intracellularly and extracellularly; it is believed to regulate several cellular functions (protein phosphorylation, protein degradation, calcium homeostasis, cell locomotion, transcription factors, cell proliferation and differentiation, enzymes, regulation of receptor function, cytoskeleton) while its biological intracellular role has not yet been completely elucidated in unifying terms. An extracellular biological role is also attributed to S100B, which is secreted by astrocytes as a cytokine exerting an autocrine or paracrine effect on glia, neurons and microglia; the protein may have a trophic effect during both development and nerve regeneration at physiologic (nanomolar) concentrations (the Jekyll side), but at high (micromolar) concentrations (the Hyde side) could be neurotoxic, participating in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders [710]. In this respect, transcriptional effects of micromolar S100B on neuroblastoma cells have been shown to result in perturbation of cholesterol homeostasis and interference in the cell cycle [11]. Both effects of S100B on target cells are believed to be mediated through RAGE engagement [5]. Apart from its still unknown function, the presence of S100B in biological fluids is interesting, since at present it constitutes an established index of brain injury [10]. It should be noted in this respect that its half-life is approximately 1 hour and it is mainly eliminated by the kidney [12]. In particular, the assessment of S100B in biological fluids has been usefully employed in perinatal medicine [12, 13]. After its established use in conventional fluids (CSF, blood, urine, amniotic fluid), this minireview is focused on the assessment of S100B levels in unconventional fluids (saliva, milk), which may open new perspectives for studies on this protein.
1.1. S100B and Conventional Biological Fluids
S100B protein has been measured in several biological fluids (cerebrospinal fluid, blood, urine and amniotic fluid) by a series of immunoassays, which have been variously used in different fluids.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)was the first of various biological fluids in which the role of S100B as a marker of active brain damage was demonstrated [14, 15]. In perinatal medicine, measurements of S100B protein in CSF have been used to monitor infants affected by perinatal asphyxia and post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilatation brain damage during cardiac surgery. S100B concentrations correlated with the extent of brain lesions, with long-term prognosis, and with neurological impairment at 1 year of age or death before that time [1618].
The idea of measuring S100B into blood was based on the hypothesis that during active brain injury at least some of the S100B released from the damaged tissue could spread into the systemic circulation [19], also as a result of hemodynamic rearrangement of the blood brain barrier. Increased blood concentrations of S100B were indeed detected in cases of chronic hypoxia and/or intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) in preterm infants, in full-term infants suffering by perinatal asphyxia and adverse neurological outcomes [2023]. S100B was also measured in the blood of women whose pregnancies are complicated by intrauterine growth retard and whose newborns develop intraventricular haemorrhage [24].
In the urine S100B concentrations at birth were significantly higher in preterm newborns developing intraventricular haemorrhage and/or brain damage. In a cross-sectional study using urine obtained from preterm newborns, the protein has been found to be a valuable predictor of early neonatal death [2528].
In the amniotic fluid S100B concentration has been shown to correlate with gestational age and with cerebral ultrasound scanning results in healthy fetuses [29]. In addition, amniotic S100B concentrations are higher in monoamniotic than in diamniotic and singleton pregnancies, hinting at the possibility that each foetus releases a physiologically defined amount of S100B during pregnancy [30]. Elevated S100B concentrations in the amniotic fluid have also been shown to constitute a reliable marker of foetus pathological conditions, including trisomy 21 [3135].
1.2. S100B and Unconventional Biological Fluids
Among human biological fluids, in the perinatal period, the studies aimed at investigating the presence of S100B protein in biological fluids, namely “unconventional” biological fluids such as saliva and milk, are especially intriguing. In particular saliva, which is more easily collected than CSF, blood or urine offers the hope of simple non-invasive tests especially useful in perinatal medicine. This possibility could even represent the reaching of the so called “gold standard” for non-invasive longitudinal monitoring of occurring brain damage eagerly awaited in clinical practice. Future prospects also include the possibility of monitoring the true effectiveness of the even more risky therapeutic strategies such as mechanical ventilation, brain cooling and experimental medications. Even more interesting prospects are offered by the detection of S100B in breast milk, candidating the protein as a participant in the biochemical communication between mother and child. This might contribute to the identification of biochemical markers with a series of unknown functions that to date confirm that the role of maternal milk instead of artificial ones in brain maturation involvement is unique.
1.2.1. S100B and Saliva
The possibility that S100B could be assessed in different biological fluids has been substantiated in the last decade, thanks to continuous interactions among physicians of several disciplines. In this regard, the concept of minimal handling of patients derives from neonatologists and perinatologists who need, in the phase of critical intensive care medicine, non-invasive parameters able to detect cases at risk of brain damage at the earliest stage in order to prevent it. Among non-invasive biological fluids saliva meets the optimality requirements since it can be collected any time without newborn stress, its measurements are reproducible and can be compared with other “invasive” biological fluids.
Studies of human fetuses have shown that members of the S100 protein family are present in different tissues of the salivary glands during ontogenesis. Results showed that different S100 proteins are expressed during different phases of pregnancy up to adulthood, whilst S100B in particular has been found to be essentially absent from fetal salivary glands from 32 weeks of gestation onwards [36, 37]. Data on physiology of salivary glands reported that systemic blood and saliva are isotonic and contain the same concentrations of ions in the same ratios, thanks to a continuous exchange of ions and protein between blood and saliva. In addition, an increase or a decrease in the volume of saliva release is systemic circulation-dependent and mediated by ortho/parasympathetic activation [38]. These findings indicate that the salivary glands do not produce S100B in the third trimester of pregnancy and that S100B concentrations detected in saliva likely derive from systemic circulation. The first observation of the presence of S100B in saliva was supported by immunoluminometric assay confirmed by Western blot analysis and also offered a reference curve of the protein in this biological fluid in normal preterm and term newborns [39]. Results showed that saliva can be used in the clinical monitoring of S100B levels, which, as already established for other biological fluids, such as CSF, blood, urine or amniotic fluid, can constitute a reliable index to diagnose/monitor brain distress. Since saliva samples are more easily collected than other biological fluids, tests performed on this biological fluid appear to be especially convenient in the clinical evaluation of newborns.
1.2.2. S100B and Milk
The hypothesis of assessing the protein in a so complex biological fluid was based on the following elements: (i) S100 proteins are highly conserved in amino acid composition among vertebrate species, suggesting a pivotal, although still unknown, biological role for the protein [40]; (ii) S100-like proteins have also been immunologically detected in spinach leaves suggesting a potential role in human food-chain [41], adipose tissue also constitutes a site of concentration for the protein [42]; (iii) breast milk is known to contain growth factors and cytokines [4346]; (iv) milk is abundant in other calcium-binding proteins (e.g., alpha-lactalbumin, calmodulin, osteocalcin) [4749]. Results showed S100B in human breast milk; in addition, S100B milk content was estimated to be 80/100 times higher than those detected in CSF, blood, urine [50]. Interestingly, significant differences have been found in S100B milk concentrations among different mammalian species such as human, cow, goat, donkey and sheeps. The S100B concentration is higher in human milk, thus raising possible speculations on a relationship between the milk concentration of this neurotrophic factor and species evolution [51]. Western blot analysis confirmed that the immunoreactivity observed using immunoluminometric assay refers to S100B protein and RT-PCR analysis also detected human S100B mRNA in the human milk [50]. This latter finding likely refers to the presence in the milk of cell types expressing S100B, including mammary epithelial cells and lymphocytes, which reasonably may be supposed to be the source of S100B in the milk. The presence of S100B at very high concentration in human breast milk may be related to its putative neurotrophic role, given that breast-feeding is believed to exert a stimulatory effect on brain maturation [52]. More detailed information will be needed to corroborate the possibility that S100B may participate in the nutritional aspects of milk, including possible effects on intestinal development and/or trophism of the enteric nervous system. In this respect it should be noted that human breast milk is known to contain different substances that may actively influence infant growth and development, including hormones, growth factors and cytokines [53]. Interestingly, S100B levels in human breast milk significantly increase during milk maturation, being very low in colostrum, intermediate in transition milk (7 and 14 days) and high in mature milk (30 days) [54]. Further studies investigated the impact of industrial preparation procedures (skimmed cow milk, protein sources supplementation, pasteurization and spray-drying procedures) on S100B content. Results showed that S100B has a sufficient thermo-stability to resist pasteurization but not spry-drying, suggesting that new feeding strategies in preterm and term infants are therefore warranted in order to preserve S100B and other potential brain constituents during industrial preparation [55]. It may be relevant in this respect that, thanks to the considerable technological improvement in dietetics preparations and progresses in laboratory biochemistry, evidence is growing that artificial milks could need to be enriched with recent discovered constituents: S100B can be included among these on account of its neurotrophic properties.
Finally, apart from the possible trophic role on the newborn exerted by the maternal breast milk, the examination of S100B level in this unconventional biological fluid could offer new prospects in the investigation of maternal physiopathological conditions with a potential direct impact on the newborn health.
Acknowledgment
Supported by Università Cattolica del S. Cuore, Rome, “Let’s Improve Perinatal Life” and from “Stella Cometa” Foundations, Rome.
References
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About this Journal Submit a Manuscript Table of Contents
Journal of Nanomaterials
Volume 2011 (2011), Article ID 814903, 9 pages
doi:10.1155/2011/814903
Research Article
Preparation, Characterization, and Properties of Polyurethane-Grafted Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes and Derived Polyurethane Nanocomposites
1Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
2Department of Applied Physics, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
3Department of Electronics, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung County 833, Taiwan
Received 15 July 2011; Accepted 3 October 2011
Academic Editor: Gaurav Mago
Copyright © 2011 Tzong-Liu Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
We incorporated hydroxyl groups into the polyurethane backbone and then used the “grafting to” approach to functionalize the multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) via the esterification reaction between MWNTs and segmented polyurethanes (PUs). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra showed that the sidewalls of MWNTs had been functionalized with acid treatment, and the amount of COOH increased with increasing acid treatment time. FTIR spectra further confirmed that PU was covalently attached to the sidewalls of MWNTs. The functionalized acid amount and the grafted PU amount were determined by thermogravimetric analyses (TGAs). Comparative studies based on SEM images of the PU-functionalized and chemically defunctionalized MWNT samples also revealed the covalent coating character. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of nanocomposite films prepared from PU and PU-functionalized MWNTs showed enhanced mechanical properties and increased soft segment . Tensile properties indicated that PU-functionalized MWNTs were effective reinforcing fillers for the polyurethane matrix.
1. Introduction
In recent decades, polymer-carbon nanotube composite materials have attracted much attention for their potential applications in unique lightweight materials with distinctly superior mechanical, thermal, and electronic properties [14]. This can be attributed to the fascinating electronic, thermal, and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [5, 6]. With extremely high mechanical strength and chemical stability, CNTs represent attractive possibilities for developing ultrastrong composite materials [7, 8]. The effective utilization of CNTs in nanocomposite applications depends strongly on the ability to disperse the CNTs homogeneously throughout a matrix without destroying the integrity of the CNTs. The CNTs can offer a kind of nanosize reinforcement with a light weight, a hollow-core immerse aspect ratio, and an exceptionally high axial strength. Hence, significant efforts have been made in the fabrication of these nanocomposites by dispersing either single-walled (SWNT) or multiple-walled (MWNT) carbon nanotubes into various polymer matrices.
However, the manipulation and processing of CNTs have been limited by their insolubility in most common solvents [9]. By functionalization or modification of nanosurfaces of CNTs, it has unlocked a new era in the development and applications of CNTs containing hybrid nanomaterials [1012]. This can be generally fulfilled by the “grafting to” [1316] and “grafting from” [1720] approaches. Some experimental studies on CNT-reinforced polymer composites have been reported for various kinds of organic polymers, including polyethylene [21, 22] polypropylene [23], poly(methyl methacrylate) [24, 25], polystyrene [26], pitch [27], and epoxy [28, 29], with enhanced mechanical and electrical properties. More recently, polyurea-functionalized CNTs have also been prepared via an in situ polycondensation approach [30]. In a similar manner, polyurethane-functionalized SWNTs have also been prepared through a two-step reaction [31]. However, Gao’s and Xia’s approaches could not be used in the preparation of segmented polyurethane elastomers functionalized carbon nanotubes, because polyurethane elastomers must be prepared through a prepolymer technique. In addition, although Kwon and Kim reported dispersion of CNTs in a waterborne polyurethane matrix [32, 33], the dispersion of carbon nanotubes in the polyurethane elastomer matrix was only through a noncovalent solution blending.
Elastomeric thermoplastic block copolymers are typically microphase-separation materials containing two types of segments in their molecular architecture. It was expected CNTs functionalized with polyurethane elastomers (i.e., segmented copolyurethanes or polyurethane block copolymers) via a covalent bonding would be more compatible with polyurethane elastomer matrices and hence could reinforce polyurethane elastomers. Since polyurethane block copolymers are a class of high-performance materials for versatile end use, nanocomposites prepared from polyurethane elastomers reinforced with CNTs may extend its application in various fields.
In a previous report, we have presented a methodology to bind as-prepared segmented polyurethanes to CNTs via the “grafting to” approach [34]. In this work, we incorporated hydroxyl groups into the polyurethane backbone and then used the “grafting to” approach to functionalize the MWNTs via the esterification reaction between MWNTs and PU. The segmented polyurethanes with hydroxyl groups pendant on the chain extender were synthesized by the conventional prepolymer technique. The functionalized CNTs and MWNT-PU nanohybrids have been characterized to confirm the covalent linkage. In addition, results from the fabrication and characterization of the polyurethane-carbon nanotube nanocomposite films are presented and discussed.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
The MWNTs used in this work were purchased from Desunnano Co., Ltd.; the purity is higher than 95%. Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) was obtained from Aldrich and used as received. 4,4′-Methylenebis(phenyl isocyanate) (MDI, Aldrich), methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK, Hayashi Chemicals), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, Tokyo Chemicals), ethyl acetate (EA, Tokyo Chemicals), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, Nacalai Tesque, Inc.) were distilled under reduced pressure. 1,1,1-Tris(hydroxymethyl)propane (TMP, Fluka) and tetrahydrofuran (THF, Tokyo Chemicals) were used as received. Poly(tetramethylene ether glycol) (PTMG, ) was degassed in vacuo at 55°C and 600 Pa (4.5 mmHg) for 3 h to remove any absorbed water. Nitric acid (EP grade), and sulfuric acid (EP grade) were purchased from Nihon Shiyaku Industries, Ltd. and used as received.
2.2. Synthesis of the Segmented Polyurethane Elastomer (PUT)
The preparation method of the segmented polyurethane elastomer carrying a pendant hydroxyl group in the chain extender has been described in our previous article [34]. GPC (DMF): g/mol, g/mol, and PDI = 1.63. The reaction is given in Scheme 1. For convenience, this polymer is designated as PUT.
Scheme 1: Synthetic route for the functionalization of MWNTs with segmented polyurethanes (PUT).
2.3. Acid Treatment and Acylation of MWNTs
The detail procedures have been published previously [34]. The samples (MWNT-COOH) obtained for acid treatment of 8 and 24 h were designated as NT-COOH-8 and NT-COOH-24, respectively. After acylation, the samples (MWNT-COCl) were washed with purified EA three times and ready for esterification with PUT.
2.4. Esterification of Acylated MWNTs with PUT
0.2 g of as-prepared MWNT-COCl was immediately reacted with 1.0 g of PUT at 100°C for 24 h, obtaining PUT-grafted MWNTs after repeated centrifugation at 7500 rpm, washing, and vacuum drying. The products (MWNT-PUT) prepared from acylation of NT-COOH-8 and NT-COOH-24 were designated as NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24, respectively.
2.5. Preparation of Nanocomposite Films
In a typical experiment, the matrix PUT (4 g) was dissolved in DMF (16 mL) to form a homogeneous solution. To the solution was added dropwise a DMF solution of PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes (NT-PUT-8) under constant stirring. The resulting solution was cast onto a glass substrate and dried at 50°C for 48 h. In this study, three different compositions, that is, 1 wt%, 5 wt%, and 10 wt% of NT-PUT-8 based on the original amount of PUT (4 g) were prepared for comparison. The composite films were designated as PUT/NT-PUT-8-1, PUT/NT-PUT-8-5, and PUT/NT-PUT-8-10, respectively.
2.6. Characterization
Infrared spectra of samples were obtained using a Bio-Rad FTS 165 Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. The spectra were obtained over the frequency range of 4000 to 400 cm−1 at a resolution of 4 cm−1.
XPS surface analysis was carried out using a VG Instruments X-ray photoelectron spectrometer. Mg-Kα radiation was used as the X-ray source and the photoelectron peaks (in the wide-scan spectra) from the samples were numerically fitted using Lorentzian curves with an integral background subtraction and analyzed at an angle of 45° to the surface. The adventitious C(1s) signal at 284.6 eV was used to calibrate the charge-shifted energy scale.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) experiments were carried out on samples placed in a platinum sample pan using a TA Instruments SDT-2960 analyzer. Products ranging from 4 to 5 mg were loaded into the platinum pan and sealed in the sample chamber. The samples were heated from 50°C to 900°C under a nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 10°C/min.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were recorded using a Hitachi S-4800 field-emission microscope, and the samples were precoated with a homogeneous gold layer by sputtering technology.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was performed on a Perkin Elmer DMA7e unit with an operating temperature range of −100~50°C. The heating rate was set at 5°C/min. The sample size was approximately 5.5 × 1.5 × 0.5 mm3.
Stress-strain data of nanocomposite films were obtained using a Universal Testing Machine (Shimadzu AGS-500A Series) with a 10 kg load cell and film grips. The crosshead speed was 20 mm/min. Measurements were made at room temperature using a 1.2 × 0.4 cm2 dumbbell sample.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Analysis of Acid-Treated MWNTs
In our previous article, Raman spectroscopy has showed that the suitable time of acid treatment was ca. 8 h [34]. Therefore, our polymeric carbon nanocomposites discussed here and after were all prepared from NT-PUT-8 in view of processing and application.
In the present study, electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (i.e., XPS) was further used to provide qualitative and quantitative information about the elemental composition of acid-treated MWNTs [35, 36]. In the high-resolution spectra of C(1s), as shown in Figure 1, it is evident that the C(1s) core level spectra of acid-treated MWNTs consist of three well-resolved peaks after curve-fitting. The major peak, referenced to 284.6 eV (C–C or C=C), is ascribed as unsubstituted aromatic carbon in carbon nanotubes. The peak shifted approximately 0.7 eV (i.e., at 285.3 eV) toward the higher binding energy side of the main peak corresponds to the carbon singly bound to oxygen (C–O). This is probably due to the residual oxygen after the purification step of pristine MWNTs or ether-type oxygen (–C–O–) of COOH. The small peak, present at 288.8 eV, can be attributed to the carbon double-bonded (C=O) to oxygen in the carboxylic acid groups. The quantitative results of XPS are listed in Table 1. The higher surface oxygen content for the carboxylic acid functionalized MWNTs, NT-COOH-8, and NT-COOH-24, in comparison with that of the pristine materials, is evidence of COOH groups on the MWNT surface.
Table 1: (1) XPS peak position (in eV) and (2) percentage (in atom-%) from high-resolution C(1s) spectra of crude MWNTs and acid-treated MWNTs.
Figure 1: High-resolution XPS spectra of crude MWNTs and acid-treated MWNTs with different treatment times.
3.2. Synthesis and Characterization of MWNT-Polyurethane Nanohybrids
Through the “grafting to” approach, the MWNTs were functionalized by grafting polyurethane to the sidewalls of MWNTs (Scheme 1). The chemical structure of the resulting MWNT-polyurethane nanohybrids is also illustrated in Scheme 1. It is noteworthy that the adsorbed polyurethane can be efficiently removed from the products by filtration and washing as mentioned in Section 2. From IR measurements for the upper layer of DMF solution, collected by centrifuging (1 h at a rate of 7500 rpm) of MWNT-PUT samples from the solution it is shown that no polyurethane signals appeared in the spectrum. This indicates that the adsorbed polymer quantity is negligible. Therefore, the “grafting to” approach presented here promised the grafting of polyurethanes onto CNT surfaces with some extent of control.
The molecular composition of the resulting MWNT-polyurethane nanohybrids was confirmed by FTIR measurements. The IR spectra of NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24 are shown in Figure 2. For both samples, the characteristic absorption peaks of polyurethane such as –CH2–, NHCOO–, and C–O–C, and clearly appear at 2930/2853, 1730, 1100 cm−1, respectively. The benzene-ring C=C absorption peak from MDI is at ca. 1600 cm−1, while the peaks at 1530 cm−1 and 1220 cm−1 correspond to C–N of urethane groups. This spectrum clearly shows that PUT has been grafted to MWNTs successfully.
Figure 2: FTIR spectra of PUT, NT-PUT-8, and NT-PUT-24.
In general, polymer-functionalized CNTs would show much higher solubility or better dispersibility as compared with pristine nanotubes. Herein, as polyurethane is polar, our resulting samples of MWNT-polyurethane are readily dispersed in polar organic solvents such as DMSO, DMF, 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP), and N,N-dimethyl acetamide (DMAc). The clear, gray solutions from the soluble samples are stable, without any precipitations over time.
3.3. Thermal Analysis of the Resulting MWNT-Polyurethane Nanohybrids
In order to obtain the grafted amount of polyurethane on MWNTs, thermal analyses of MWNT-PUT prepared from MWNTs with different times of acid treatment (8 h and 24 h) were carried out. The thermal stability for crude MWNTs and functionalized MWNTs in nitrogen is illustrated in Figure 3. As seen in the figure, the TGA curves display a two-step degradation mechanism for PUT, NT-PUT-8, and NT-PUT-24, which is quite different with the one-step degradation mechanism of MWNT and acid-treated MWNTs (MWNT-COOH, i.e., NT-COOH-8 and NT-COOH-24). It is obvious that PUT has been grafted onto the sidewalls of MWNTs. In the MWNT-COOH case, there is a continuous but not very obvious decrease in weight, which is typical for acid functionalized MWNTs. In comparison with the curves of MWNTs and acid-treated MWNTs, the rapid degradation stage in NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24 may arise due to the decomposition of grafted PUT. As compared to crude MWNTs, the functionalized acid amount could be calculated by the subtraction of char yields of acid-treated MWNTs from pristine MWNT. Thus, the functionalized acid amounts for NT-COOH-8 and NT-COOH-24 are 10.0 and 12.2%, respectively. It is evident that the increased acid amount after acid treatment for 8 h is not much, demonstrating that longer acid-treated time may be not necessary. Therefore, to save the processing time for the application, our nanocomposites were only prepared from NT-PUT-8 nanohybrid. In addition, the grafted amounts of PUT were also obtained. According to the TGA traces, the PUT contents in the NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24 samples are approximately 35.6% and 42.2%, respectively. It was found that the longer acid treatment time results in a higher grafted amount of PUT. This further confirms the successful functionalization of MWNTs.
Figure 3: TGA weight loss curves of crude MWNTs, acid-treated MWNTs, and PUT-functionalized MWNTs under a nitrogen atmosphere.
3.4. Morphology of the MWNT-Polyurethane Nanohybrids
The fine nanostructures of the as-prepared MWNT-polyurethane nanohybrides were investigated by SEM. As shown in Figures 4(a) and 4(c), MWNTs were coated by a layer of polymer chains. From the SEM images of the PUT-grafted MWNT samples, we can clearly discern that the higher the quantity of the grafted polymer, the thicker the polymer shells. The calculated diameters for NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24 are ca. 79.7 and 85.5 nm, respectively. After heat treatment of NT-PUT-8 and NT-PUT-24 at 900°C for 2 h, the defunctionalized tube surfaces are relatively smooth and clean (Figures 4(b) and 4(d)), obviously different from those of the polyurethane-functionalized MWNTs. The tube diameters are ca. 58.1 and 61.3 nm, respectively, being close to the diameter of pristine MWNTs.
Figure 4: SEM micrographs of PUT-functionalized and chemically defunctionalized MWNT samples. (a) NT-PUT-8. (b) NT-PUT-8 defunctionalized at 900°C for 2 h. (c) NT-PUT-24. (d) NT-PUT-24 defunctionalized at 900°C for 2 h.
3.5. Preparation and Thermal Analysis of Polyurethane Nanocomposites
In this research, MWNTs were functionlalized with PUT in order to be more compatible with the polymer matrix, PUT, of the nanocomposites. Due to the urethane groups of PUT, there are strong intermolecular interactions arising from the hydrogen bondings between PUT and MWNT-PUT nanohybrids, resulting in high compatibility between both components. The common solubility of the PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes and the matrix PUT also makes the solution casting easier. The compatibility of the PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes with polyurethane and the dispersion of the nanotubes in polyurethane matrix were evaluated via the fabrication of nanocomposite thin films. The PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes used in this study are NT-PUT-8 as mentioned previously. In a typical experiment, a calculated amount of NT-PUT-8 (w/w) based on PUT matrix was dissolved in DMF and added to a PUT solution. For comparison, 1, 5, and 10 wt% of NT-PUT-8 based on 100 wt% of PUT were used as the reinforcing fillers. The nanocomposites prepared from PUT reinforced with the aforementioned amounts of NT-PUT-8 were designated as PUT/NT-PUT-8-1, PUT/NT-PUT-8-5, and PUT/NT-PUT-8-10, respectively. The resulting composite solution was allowed to settle overnight and then centrifuged to remove any residual insoluble species, followed by being concentrated to attain the desired viscosity. The viscous but transparent solution was used for the casting of a thin film. The polyurethane-MWNT composite thin film thus obtained is transparent with a high optical quality. The successful fabrication of optically high-quality nanocomposite thin films reflects the excellent compatibility of the PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes with polyurethane. It also serves as initial evidence for the notion that functionalized carbon nanotubes can be dispersed homogeneously into polymeric matrices. According to TGA results shown in Figure 5, it is obvious that the thermal stability of nanocomposites increases with increasing amounts of PUT-functionalized carbon nanotubes. As a result, the degradation temperature (ca. 335°C) of 10% weight loss for PUT/NT-PUT-8-10 composite is ca. 16°C higher than that of neat PUT. In addition, compared to the char yield (ca. 3.5%) of neat PUT, the higher char yield (ca. 16.9%) for this composite demonstrates that the effect of enhanced thermal stability due to the PUT-functionalized MWNTs may occur.
Figure 5: TGA weight loss curves of PUT and PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposites under a nitrogen atmosphere.
3.6. Mechanical Properties of Polyurethane Nanocomposites
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is most useful for studying the viscoelastic behavior of polymers. The mechanical properties and stiffness of the polyurethane nanocomposites were then analyzed with DMA. In the polyurethane composite, PUT-functionalized MWNTs serve as the reinforcement and segmented PUT acts as the matrix. Increasing the amount of NT-PUT-8 in the composite increased the storage modulus due to stronger intermolecular interactions between MWNT-PUT nanohybrid and PUT. The soft segment s of the three composite films were also obtained from loss tangent of DMA. As shown in Figure 6, the dynamic storage modulus (E′) and loss tangent (tan δ) of the PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films show enhanced mechanical properties and increased soft segment . The results of soft segment of the three composites are listed in Table 2. The enhanced E′s of PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposites are induced from the stiffening effect of the CNTs. E′ of the PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films prepared in this study increases with increasing NT-PUT-8 content, which is due to the stiffening effect of the NT-PUT-8. In comparison with the E′ values of PUT, the E′s of the three nanocomposites are significantly improved, indicating a strong adhesion between the reinforcement and the matrix. For the convenience of comparison, data of E′ at –40°C are also shown in Table 2. Moreover, with increasing NT-PUT-8 content, the glass-transition temperature of the soft segments of the PUD/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films shifts from –26 to –17°C. The increase of soft segment is attributed to the constraint of polyurethane chains by carbon nanotubes. This means that NT-PUT-8 nanohybrids are compatible with the amorphous regions of the soft segments in PUT matrix.
Table 2: Composition and physical properties of PUT and PUT/NT-PUT-8 composite films.
Figure 6: Temperature dependence of (a) storage modulus (E′); (b) loss tangent (tan δ) for PUT and PUT/NT-PUT-8 composite films.
Figure 7 shows the stress-strain curves of the PUT film and PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films. The results of tensile strength and elongation at break of the PUD/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films are also summarized in Table 2. The tensile strengths of the nanocomposite films are enhanced with 1 wt% to 10 wt% loading of NT-PUT-8 compared to the corresponding value of the original PUT film. As the NT-PUT-8 content increased from 1 wt% to 10 wt%, the tensile strength of the PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposite films increases from 286 to 675 KPa, corresponding to an increasing ratio of 59 to 275%; however, the elongation at break (% of strain) decreased from 192 to 116%. The increase of tensile strength in the PUT/NT-PUT-8 nanocomposites is due to the reinforcing effect of NT-PUT-8 in the PUT matrix.
Figure 7: Stress-strain curves for PUT and PUT/NT-PUT-8 composite films.
4. Conclusions
MWNTs were covalently functionalized with segmented polyurethanes using the “grafting to” technique. The segmented polyurethane (PUT) with hydroxyl groups pendant on the polymer backbone was synthesized by the conventional prepolymer technique. The functionalized MWNT-COCl was then reacted with polyurethane to prepare the MWNT-polyurethane nanohybrids. By XPS analysis, the presence of C(=O) (1s) for acid-treated MWNTs indicated the successful oxidization of MWNTs. From the characteristic peaks of PUT shown in IR spectra, PUT has been grafted to the surfaces of MWNTs successfully. TGA results indicated that acid treatment time for 8 h might be enough. SEM investigations gave direct evidence of the nanostructures of the MWNT-PUT hybrids. The MWNT-PUT nanohybrids were well dispersed in the same solvents for neat PU, thus allowing the intimate mixing of the functionalized nanotubes with the matrix polymer for the preparation of nanocomposites. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed the storage modulus and the soft segment of the nanocomposites increased with increasing NT-PUT-8 content. The tensile strengths of the nanocomposite films with different weight ratio loading of NT-PUT-8 were enhanced by about 59 to 275%, compared to the corresponding value of the original PUT film.
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Computer and Information Science » Information and Knowledge Engineering » "Watermarking - Volume 2", book edited by Mithun Das Gupta, ISBN 978-953-51-0619-7, Published: May 16, 2012 under CC BY 3.0 license
Chapter 12
The Digital Watermarking Techniques Applied to Smart Grid Security
By Xin Yan and Yang Wu
DOI: 10.5772/37816
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Publication Listing
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D. Appleton & Company - Books Published in 1880
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No ID Strange Stories, 1880, 190pp, hc, coll Erckmann-Chatrian [VERIFIED]
No ID Dr. Heidenhoff's Process, 1880, 140pp, hc Edward Bellamy
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Nano Express
Porous silicon bulk acoustic wave resonator with integrated transducer
Gazi N Aliev1*, Bernhard Goller1,4, Paul A Snow1, Helge Heinrich2, Biao Yuan2 and Robert Aigner3
Author Affiliations
1 Department of Physics, University of Bath, UK
2 Advanced Materials Processing and Analysis Center (AMPAC), University of Central Florida, 32816-2455, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., FL, USA
3 TriQuint Semiconductor, , 32703, FL, USA
4 Infineon Technologies AG, , 9500, Siemensstrasse 2, Austria
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Nanoscale Research Letters 2012, 7:378 doi:10.1186/1556-276X-7-378
Published: 9 July 2012
Abstract
We report that porous silicon acoustic Bragg reflectors and AlN-based transducers can be successfully combined and processed in a commercial solidly mounted resonator production line. The resulting device takes advantage of the unique acoustic properties of porous silicon in order to form a monolithically integrated bulk acoustic wave resonator.
Keywords:
Porous silicon; Acoustic resonator; BAW filter; Acoustic Bragg mirror
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Egypt as mirror of “Arab spring”
Being a Copt in Egypt, a Druze in Syria and just a Christian in Tunisia, Algeria and Libya is quite dangerous.
Christians have never been welcomed in Egypt, and in other Near Eastern countries either. Commonly, this is not the case with Armenian communities, except for Egypt, perhaps. Still, with Islamists coming to power, the Armenian communities may face serious problems.
PanARMENIAN.Net - However, being a Copt in Egypt, a Druze in Syria and just a Christian in Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya is even more dangerous. Hosni Mubarak who ruled the country with an iron fist banned, on penalty of death, any kind of inter-confessional discord that might result in bloodshed. Meanwhile, the situation in Egypt is different now.
The Copts accounting for an estimated 10% of the Egyptian population face the threat of physical annihilation. The Coptic Church is one of the most ancient Christian churches. Most Copts are Christians and members of the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church; others (around 100000 people) adhere to the Coptic Catholic Church. According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced to the Egyptians by Saint Mark in Alexandria,
Many Coptic intellectuals hold to "Pharaonism," which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture.
Also, the Copts are Monophysites, that is, they believe Jesus Christ had only a single "nature" which was either divine or a synthesis of divine and human.
This is what history says. At the same time, statistics on Arab countries is very often flawed, and the number of Coptic population may be significantly cut to please the Arab population.
Recent clashes between the Muslims and Copts in Egypt occurred last week.
At least 16 people have been wounded after Muslims attacked a church and Christian homes in a village near Cairo, BBC reports.
The unrest in Dahshur, about 40km south of Cairo, started after a Muslim man died of wounds sustained in an earlier clash on Friday.
Violence frequently flares between Egypt's Muslim majority and its Coptic Christian minority. It is the first instance since Mohammed Mursi took over as president in June.
Police in Dahshur early on Wednesday fired teargas to stop a Muslim mob from setting fire to a church, but the rioters instead torched several Christian properties and three police cars, officials said. Ten policemen were among the 16 injured, BBC says.
The office of the local Coptic archbishop of Giza said the entire Christian population of Dahshur had now fled.
The rioters "looted and torched shops, including a jewellery shop... and terrorised the local community, forcing them to leave their homes", he stated.
Tension first erupted on Friday after a Christian laundry worker was accused by a Muslim client of singeing his shirt while ironing it. Villagers from both sides threw fire-bombs at each other, fatally wounding a Muslim.
Copts fear that more radical forms of Islam, resurgent since the fall of former President Hosni Mubarak, could imperil their safety in Egypt.
Things are far worse in Syria; the rebels (named the opposition by the West) never conceal that they won’t spare the Christians and Alavites in case they come to power. Unfortunately, the Armenian community is the most jeopardized one, as the largest and most cohesive one among other minorities in Syria. The prospects of outflow of Christians and Armenians from the Near Eastern countries become more vivid recently. The Western stance in this regard is quite surprising; conniving at the Islamists, the West hopes to take better control of the regional situation here. Strictly saying, the West became pro-Islamic, while actually it should have protected the Christians, in view of the community of civilization and culture. However, the U.S. and Europe opt for ignoring the violation of Christians’ rights, nearly declaring the Islamists and even Al Qaeda the democracy advocates. Such policy will hardly yield anything positive, and the West may well face another 9/11.
Karine Ter-Sahakian
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Turkey's hopes for EU still vain European Union is concerned about repeated cases of violence along with impunity in governmental structures.
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DigitalPoint Forums to Hold Weekend In The Life Of...
Jul 21, 2005 • 2:17 pm | (0) by | Filed Under SEO & SEM Forum News
This is a little nice forum idea, to bring out the community spirit. Shawn at DigitalPoint posted a thread named Weekend In The Life Of... You.
He asks the forum members to take pictures of the activities they participate in this weekend and post them in that thread. The weekend he said would be in your local time; from 12:00 am Saturday morning to 11:59 pm Sunday night.
Can be anything you want, but get creative... if you are planning on going skydiving or something, do it this weekend. I will setup a place where people can upload their pictures, and will see about putting together a gallery of the best ones next week.
Previous story: MSN Traffic Volumes
blog comments powered by Disqus
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Google Webmaster Tools Link Reports Change
Jun 16, 2009 • 10:52 am | (1) by | Filed Under Google Search Engine Optimization
A Google Webmaster Help thread reports the small but yet significant changes made to how Google displays and aggregates the URLs listed in the external link reports within Google Webmaster Tools.
The main changes include:
• Link counts are reduced by a nice percentage
• Ordering of the URLs are now different
• 301 redirected URLs no longer seem to appear in this list
Google confirmed that they handle 301s differently. JohnMu explained:
Redirects are a normal part of the web, but for Webmaster Tools we've currently opted to show only the links that are actually verifiable by visiting the pages directly. It would be nice to show "everything", but at some point we have to draw the line and make sure that the average user can still use it :-).
Forum discussion at Google Webmaster Help.
Previous story: Daily Search Forum Recap: June 15, 2009
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Northern Neck Proprietary: Its Proprietors and Virginia Land Grants
Article Covers
Surnames
Culpeper
Fairfax
Places
Northumberland County, Virginia, United States
Lancaster County, Virginia, United States
Old Rappahannock County (extinct), Virginia, United States
Richmond County, Virginia, United States
Westmoreland County, Virginia, United States
King George County, Virginia, United States
Stafford County, Virginia, United States
Alexandria, Virginia, United States
Arlington, Virginia, United States
Augusta County, Virginia, United States
Clarke County, Virginia, United States
Culpeper County, Virginia, United States
Fairfax County, Virginia, United States
Fauquier County, Virginia, United States
Frederick County, Virginia, United States
Greene County, Virginia, United States
Loudon County, Virginia, United States
Madison County, Virginia, United States
Orange County, Virginia, United States
Page County, Virginia, United States
Prince William County, Virginia, United States
Rappahannock County, Virginia, United States
Shenandoah County, Virginia, United States
Warren County, Virginia, United States
Winchester, Virginia, United States
Berkeley County, West Virginia, United States
Hampshire County, West Virginia, United States
Hardy County, West Virginia, United States
Jefferson County, West Virginia, United States
Morgan County, West Virginia, United States
Year range
1649 - 1816
This article, initiated by User:Persisto was planned to be a history of the Northern Neck Proprietary of Virginia, its Proprietors, and a discussion of the land grants made in the counties here given. Hopefully, it will also include maps and illustrations. User:Persisto has set aside this work for now and others are encouraged to make it more complete. Please add what you can to this article.
Contents
Origins of the Royal Charter
The 30th day of January, 1649 was not the happiest day the House of Stuart had ever seen. On that date, King Charles I of England was beheaded in front of the Banqueting House at the Palace of Whitehall in London. Thus ended the English Civil War and began the era of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector. At least in England.
The heir to throne was King Charles II, then a young man of 19 years, who attempted to regroup the family fortunes from Scotland, but in this he was not successful. He found it much safer to seek refuge in France in October of 1651.
This did not mean the young King in exile had no loyal supporters. On 18 September 1649, Charles II bestowed upon seven of his favorites a patent for all the lands in Virginia lying between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers, from the Chesapeake Bay to "their headwaters" which were then uncharted and undefined. This converted to well over 5,250,000 acres of land eventually comprising 22 Virginia Counties, three of them in what is now West Virginia.
These seven men were Lord John Culpeper, his brother Thomas Culpeper, Lord Ralph Horton, Lord Henry Jermyn, Sir John Berkeley, Sir William Morton, and Sir Dudley Wyatt. All of these men were fellow exiles and all of whom were of no importance to the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell.
The Restoration of Charles II
Considering the political situation, such magnanimity was not worth the paper it was written upon. If Cromwell was even aware of this grant, it was never recognized. If the King was without a Kingdom, the Proprietors were without a Proprietary. At least, that is, for the next eleven years.
A much happier day for the House of Stuart dawned in 1660 when, on 29 May, he made a triumphant return to London. He was officially coronated at Westminster Palace on 23 April 1661.
Suddenly, the worthless Northern Neck Proprietary had became very valuable indeed.
Devolution to the Fairfax Family
To move this story along, through a series of maneuvers, machinations, re-charters and inheritances--and much opposition in Virginia to the entire scheme-- the ultimate ownership of the Proprietary devolved to Lord Thomas Culpeper (son of Thomas Culpeper, one of the original proprietors) in 1688. In that year, King James II issued a new charter to him as sole proprietor. This charter greatly enlarged the original territory and defined it to the headwaters of the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers. This was still not a very clear definition, but it laid the groundwork for a series of legal disputes that were not finally settled until 1745.
Lord Culpeper died soon after this royal charter. The Proprietorship descended to his widow Margaret Lady Culpeper, Thomas Lord Fairfax by his marriage to Katherine Culpeper, and Alexander Culpeper. Eventually, all of the shares became the property of Thomas Lord Fairfax and remained in that family until after the Revolution.
The Proprietor Asserts His Authority
By 1690, the Proprietary had settled a number of difficult issues, both internal and external, and was finally in a position to assert its rights under its Royal Charter. In the meantime, the Virginia Colony had issued thousands of acres of Royal patents for lands in this territory, which were recognized by both parties. This still left vast territory of yet unsettled land in the possession of the Proprietary.
Yet as people moved ever westwards, so did arguments about its boundaries. These disputes were not settled until 1745.
Baronial Manors and Small Farmers: A Blend of Old and New
The Northern Neck Proprietary added a simpler and new method for obtaining land in the Virginia Colony. Unlike the Virginia Land Office in Williamsburg, there was no limit to the size of a grant, and the Headright System was not recognized (though headrights could still be used for land in other parts of Virginia.) Instead, one purchased land directly from the proprietary for a nominal sum of money called the composition money. This was the cost of the survey and other fees associated with drafting the grant. The income to the proprietor came in the form of annual rents. A 1747 grant in Orange County is typical: one shilling sterling payable on the Feast of St. Michael.
Another important distinction from the Colonial Land office was that "seating" the land was not a requirement. In other words, one did not have to live on the property, or even improve it. This opened the door for large scale speculation, and had a detrimental effect of settling this new territory. In this, the Proprietary was attempting to transplant the old customs of Manors to Virginia. There were many takers, most notably Robert "King" Carter who also served as the Fairfax agent for the Northern Neck at various times. The Proprietary (by this time the Fairfax family) did not care. They collected the same amount of rent regardless.
Under the old manorial system, leases were commonplace, and often lasted for centuries. A typical land lease in England (and used in Virginia at times) would be to a husband and wife and one of the their children (usually the youngest) for the "longest liver" of the three. But why bother with a lease when one could purchase land outright and own it for a nominal quit-rent every year? This was the exactly the problem. The large manors did not develop and were simply passed over for other land further away.
Despite this one obstacle, the ability to buy land without using headrights (which had favored the monied classes) was so popular that the Virginia Colony adopted the same option via Treasury Warrants in 1699. The headright system was not repealed, and remained in use, but the "new improved" method of simply buying land directly for very little money soon became the norm.
Another important feature of the Northern Neck grants was the conveyance of mineral rights. "Royal Mines" were excepted, but property owners were granted the rights to one-third of any minerals found on the property. These were explicity identified: lead, copper, tin, coal, iron and iron ore. The reader will note that precious metals like gold and silver were not included. Those commodities remained reserved for the monarch.
A good example of a "manor" is the Octonia Grant in Orange County in 1722. Another good example is the Beverley Manor in Augusta County. These were, in effect, subdivions of the Northern Neck Proprietary. They, too were private land companies. As such, not all deeds were recorded at the county level. However, many of the survey books still exist.
Other than Land...
Despite the proprietary ownership of land, and how it was sold, the Virginia Colony retained all the same governmental powers as in any other part of the Commonwealth. Other than the vexing problem of annual quit-rents, local tithes for the support of the local county and the local parish, election of members to the House of Burgesses, organization of the local militia, and appointment of justices of the county courts, and every other manner of governmental administration remained uniform throughout the colony.
The Method of Obtaining a Grant: Warrants, Surveys and Final Grant
Despite the differences between a Crown Patent and a Northern Neck Grant, some things remained very similar. The process for obtaining the deed was nearly identical. A person staked (or claimed) the land he wanted. (1) a person staked out his claim for the land he wanted and purchase a warrant for survey--this was called the "composition money" (2) The warrant for survey was issued; (3) the land was surveyed and (4) the final patent or grant was issued. Copies were retained by either the Proprietary or the Land Office of the Colony, depending on the jurisdiction. In some cases, the owner recorded his grant/patent at the county level.
At any point in the process after the warrant for survey was issued, a person could sell or assign his right to the property. And it could be years or even decades before a final deed of ownership was issued.
Records at the Library of Virginia
Another distinction between the Northern Grants versus the Colonial Land Office is that the records of the Proprietary are remarkably intact. Unlike the Land Office, the records of warrants and surveys were not annually destroyed. These are available on microfilm at the Library of Virginia. Final grants have been digitized and are searchable (along with the Land Office patents) on the LVA web site. Abstracts of the Northern Neck warrants, surveys and grants have also been published. See under Sources below.
Disputes with the Virginia Colony
The Fairfax Line
The Last Proprietor, the End of the Proprietary and the Virginia Land Office
Sources
1. Weisiger, Minor T., compiler. "Northern Neck Land Proprietary Records." Research Notes Number 23. (Richmond: Library of Virginia, November 2002.)
2. Blankenbaker, John V. "The Northern Neck" Beyond Germanna. Vol. 3, No. 5 (Chadd's Ford, PA: John V. Blankenbaker, September 1991)
3. McClinton, Arthur T., John W. Coleman & Francis F. Wayland. The Fairfax Line: A Historic Landmark. (1925, Reprint; Edinburg VA: Shenandoah County Historical Society, 1990)
4. Morrison, Charles. The Fairfax Line, a Profile in History and Geography. (1970).] Repository:Library of Virginia
5. Simmons, C. Jackson. Speaking of the Northern Neck of Virginia. (Irvington, VA: Private Printing, 1998.) Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
6. Fauquier Bicentennial Committee. Fauquier County, Virginia 1759-1959. (Warrenton,VA: Virginia Publishing, Inc., 1959). For footnote, pages 9-11 Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
7. There are of course wikipedia article links, and other web sites found on a google search. Also search under "Fairfax Grant".
8. Gray, Gertrude. Virginia Northern Neck Land Grants 1694-1742. Vol. I (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1987) For footnote; introduction, ix
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
9. Gray, Gertrude. Virginia Northern Neck Land Grants 1742-1775. Vol. II (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1988) For footnote; introduction, vii
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
10. Gray, Gertrude. Virginia Northern Neck Land Grants 1775-1800. Vol. III (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1993) For footnote; introduction, vii
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
11. Gray, Gertrude. Virginia Northern Neck Land Grants 1800-1862. Vol. IV (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1993) For footnote; introduction, vii
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
12. Joyner, Peggy Shomo. Abstracts of the Northern Neck Warrants & Surveys." Vol. I . (Portsmouth, VA: Peggy Shomo Joyner, 1985.) For footnote; introduction, v-vi
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
13. Joyner, Peggy Shomo. Abstracts of the Northern Neck Warrants & Surveys. Vol. II. (Portsmouth, VA: Peggy Shomo Joyner, 1985.) For footnote; Preface, v-vi
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
14. Joyner, Peggy Shomo. Abstracts of the Northern Neck Warrants & Surveys. Vol. III. (Portsmouth, VA: Peggy Shomo Joyner, 1986.) For footnote; introduction, iii-iv
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
15. Joyner, Peggy Shomo. Abstracts of the Northern Neck Warrants & Surveys. Vol. IV. (Portsmouth, VA: Peggy Shomo Joyner, 1987.) For footnote; introduction, v-vi
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
16. Joyner, Peggy Shomo. Abstracts of the Northern Neck Warrants & Surveys. Vol. V. (Portsmouth, VA: Peggy Shomo Joyner, 1995.) For footnote; introduction, v-vi
Repository:Library of Virginia
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
17. Robinson, W. Stitt Jr., Mother Earth: Land Grants in Virginia 1607-1699 (Williamsburg, VA: Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation, 1957) Footnote: W. Stitt Robinson, Jr., pages 66-74
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
Probably Repository:Library of Virginia as well.
Repository:Project Gutenberg
18. Flemer, Carl F., Jr., Birthplace of the Nation: A Story Worth Telling. (Oak Grove, VA: The Author, 2008) Footnote: Carl F. Flemer, Jr., pages 28-31
Repository:Mary Ball Washington Museum & Library
Useful only for some illustrations
19. "The Northern Neck of Virginia," William & Mary Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Williamsburg, VA: Omohundro Institute of Early American History & Culture, 1898), 222-226.
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Place:South Attleboro, Massachusetts, United States
Watchers
NameSouth Attleboro
Alt namesSouth Attleboroughsource: Wikipedia
TypeVillage
Located inMassachusetts, United States
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
South Attleboro is a neighborhood of Attleboro, a city in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. It is perhaps best known for the South Attleboro station on the Attleboro/Stoughton Line of the MBTA Commuter Rail. U.S. 1 (the old Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike) and Route 1A (the old Lower Boston Post Road) pass through the area, which lies just north of the Rhode Island state line. The neighborhood is frequently referenced in the animated series Family Guy, as being home of "Jack's Joke Shop." The real Jack's Joke Shop was located on Tremont Street in Boston, MA, until it closed.
Research Tips
This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original content was at South Attleboro, Massachusetts. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with WeRelate, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.
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Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
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Concepts of Programming Languages
Wednesday I start teaching a course for BYU called Concepts of Programming Languages. This is a course I designed 10 years ago when I first went to BYU and its still taught in much the same manner. The text, which is an excellent introduction to how programming languages work, is Essentials of Programming Languages. In many curriculums, this course is a survey course that simply becomes a "programming language of the week" sort fo thing. I try to avoid that. The primary concepts that the course tries to teach are:
• The interpreter architecture pattern
• How static structures (i.e. programs) give rise to dynamic behavior
The class uses Scheme (a dialect of Lisp) and the students build a series of interpreters for a variety of language features, including one that interprets and object-oriented language, and one that does type checking. The class calendar is online (updated automatically from my iCal, of course). There are copius class notes. In my class last semester I had quite a few students who had Macs, so I'm going to encourage collaborative note taking using Hydra. I am thinking of establishing a class Wiki as well to see what happens. I'll be blogging the course, but not to my homepage. I've set up a separate category on my blog, so if you're interested in following along, you'll have to visit that page or subscribe to that RSS feed separately.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
6410.5 - Price Index of Western Australian Produced Hardwoods, Sep 1999
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 14/10/1999
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• About this Release
ABOUT THIS RELEASE
Contains index numbers measuring changes in prices for sawn timber produced from Western Australian hardwoods. The index relates to sawn timber sold by mills and merchants within Western Australia and to interstate and overseas markets. Separate indexes are also published for green jarrah, green karri and dry jarrah.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
1270.0.55.002 - Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): Volume 2 - Indigenous Structure, July 2011
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 20/09/2011 First Issue
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PREFACE
This publication is the second volume of a series detailing the new Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS). This publication describes the Indigenous Structure of the ASGS.
The Indigenous Structure of the ASGS provides a geographical standard for the publication of statistics about the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population of Australia. It has been designed for the purpose of disseminating Census data by spatial areas relevant to the distribution of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations. The boundaries produced for the Indigenous Structure are constructed from Statistical Areas Level 1 (SA1s).
The ASGS brings all the regions for which the ABS publishes statistics within the one framework and will be used by the ABS for the collection and dissemination of geographically classified statistics from 1 July 2011. It is the framework for understanding and interpreting the geographical context of statistics published by the ABS. The ABS also encourages the use of the ASGS by other organisations to improve the comparability and usefulness of statistics generally.
As a whole, the ASGS represents a more comprehensive, flexible and consistent way of defining Australia's statistical geography than the previous geographic classification, the Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC). For further information to assist you to move from the ASGC to the ASGS please refer to the ABS website at <http://www.abs.gov.au/geography>.
The first volume of the ASGS was released in December 2010 Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): Volume 1 - Main Structure and Greater Capital City Statistical Areas, July 2011 (cat. no. 1270.0.55.001). The third volume of the ASGS was released in July 2011 Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): Volume 3 - Non ABS Structures, July 2011 (cat. no. 1270.0.55.003). Future volumes will detail the: Urban Centres and Localities/Section of State and Remoteness Areas.
The digital boundaries, codes and labels for the regions described in this volume are available free of charge from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website at <http://www.abs.gov.au/geography>.
Any enquires regarding the ASGS, the Indigenous Structure or suggestions for their improvement can be made by emailing <geography@abs.gov.au> or <Indigenous.Statistics@abs.gov.au>.
Brian Pink
Australian Statistician
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Announcing the Winners of the New Year’s Challenge!
8
The AMO Editors New Year’s Challenge ran from December 22nd to February 22nd. We have tallied up the results, and here are the winners!
First Place
Our top prize goes to Nils Maier!
Nils is the author of the very popular DownThemAll! extension, as well as other add-ons such as Scriptish and MinimizeToTray revived. He is very valuable community member who has helped us raise the bar in add-on security, and is currently very active helping the MemShrink team with add-on memory leak reports and documentation.
Runners-Up
We decided to give away one extra prize because the runner-up race was pretty intense and everyone on this group deserved special recognition.
T-shirt Winners
All editors who completed at least 20 reviews during the contest period gets an awesome Firefox t-shirt. And they are:
Thanks!
Thanks to the excellent efforts of the review team, this contest was another resounding success. The volunteer reviewers completed a total of 3500 reviews during these 2 months, and for the first time ever we completely cleared the review queues. You guys are awesome!
If you’re an add-on developer and want to join our team, please visit our wiki page for more information. There are very exciting changes coming for the review team, and winning the occasional prize is only part of the fun
Tags: ,
Categories: contests, general
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Toward Understanding IJV Control: Parent Inside and Outside Control – An Exploratory Case Study
Yang Fan
Abstract
Previous studies have failed to recognize the difference between parent control over its ‘own people’ and ‘other
people’ in IJVs. The paper for the first time in the literature separates parent control into two modes of control
–inside and outside control upon the nature of the relationship between parents and respective IJV management
teams. We examine inside and outside control through an analytical inductive case study. Our result shows that
inside control determined by parent ownership is an endogenous contingent control. It has a broad but selective
control focus. It gives a parent adaptability and flexibility in selecting control extent and mechanisms. Outside
control is determined by parent overall bargaining power. It is a pre-determined control with a narrow specific
focus, and its control extent and mechanisms are predefined. Our study contributes to the literature on IJV
control by adding the nature of the relationship between parents and individual management groups into the IJV
control equation, unveiling two distinctive forms of control within IJVs.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
International Journal of Business and Management ISSN 1833-3850 (Print) ISSN 1833-8119 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
To make sure that you can receive messages from us, please add the 'ccsenet.org' domain to your e-mail 'safe list'. If you do not receive e-mail in your 'inbox', check your 'bulk mail' or 'junk mail' folders.
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Beware outside consultants? – Part 3, me (and others)
I’ve been thinking a lot about my previous two posts regarding Drs. Willard Daggett and Ruby Payne. Both make a great deal of money and have built mini-empires out of their speaking engagements, writing, and/or consulting enterprises. Both have serious, serious concerns attached to their work. When phrases like ‘riddled with unverifiable assertions’ or ‘[as] full of crap as a Christmas turkey get used, that’s not good…
Daggett and Payne aren’t the only ones to experience some criticism. For example, I have tremendous respect for Dr. Rick DuFour and the work that he and his team have done on professional learning communities. I’ve learned a boatload from their books and use On Common Ground as a required reading for my data-driven decision-making class. But I’ve been hearing from some educators across the country that they feel that the presentations are starting to get stale, that there are only so many times the Faces of Hope video can be shown before it loses its impact, that after one institute there’s no need to go back for more. Miguel Guhlin also points us to some criticism of Marc Prensky (whose ideas have been useful to me).
A number of folks in the educational technology community serve as speakers and/or consultants. Will Richardson, David Warlick, and Angela Maiers, for example, do this as their primary vocation. Others such as myself, Doug Johnson, Sheryl Nussbaum-BeachMiguel Guhlin, Dean Shareski, Sylvia Martinez, and Wesley Fryer occasionally do this on the side in addition to our regular employment.
What obligations do we have as speakers / consultants?
For those of us who do some professional speaking or consulting, this excerpt from the National Speakers Association’s Code of Professional Ethics is probably a good place to start:
Article 1. The NSA member shall accurately represent qualifications and experience in both oral and written communications.
Article 2. The NSA member shall act and speak on a high professional level so as to neither offend nor bring discredit to the speaking profession.
Article 3. The NSA member shall exert diligence to understand the client’s organization, approaches and goals in advance of the presentation.
Article 4. The NSA member shall avoid using materials, titles and thematic creations originated by others, either orally or in writing.
Article 5. The NSA member shall share knowledge and experience with others.
Article 6. The NSA member shall treat other speakers with professional courtesy and dignity.
Article 7. The NSA member shall limit services to those areas in which the member is qualified to serve, taking into consideration available opportunities for the member to develop new materials or undertake new fields. When unable or unqualified to fulfill requests for presentations, the NSA member shall make every effort to recommend the services of other qualified speakers, agencies or bureaus.
Article 8. The NSA member shall maintain the trust of clients, and fidelity concerning the business or personal affairs of a client, agents and other speakers who may reveal confidential information.
Article 9. The NSA member shall protect the public against fraud or unfair practices and shall attempt to eliminate from the speaking profession all practices which bring discredit to the profession.
Article 10. The NSA member shall not be party to any agreement to unfairly limit or restrain access to the marketplace by any other speaker, client or to the public, based upon economic factors, race, creed, color, sex, age, physical handicap or country of national origin of another speaker.
But these may not be specific or comprehensive enough. For example, the primary criticism of Daggett is that he just makes up stuff. Does that come under Article 2? Article 9? Or not at all? The primary criticisms of Payne are that she is overly stereotypical and makes unproven assertions. Under which article(s) do those fall?
Here are some key things that I think we speakers/consultants owe the organizations with whom we work:
1. Accuracy. Our work should be truthful and accurate. If we make an assertion, it should be based on a source that’s reasonably trustworthy. If it’s an opinion, it should be clearly indicated as such. If we don’t know, we should admit it. Can we make an occasional unverifiable assertion? Sure, but that shouldn’t constitute the bulk of our work. Does everything need to be ‘research-based?’ No, absolutely not, particularly given the inconclusive nature of educational research on many topics.
2. Currency. Our work should be as up-to-date as possible. This is tough, both in terms of monitoring numerous channels of information and in terms of finding the time to update one’s materials. It’s also difficult sometimes to take new approaches to older work; I empathize greatly with DuFour’s challenge of continually needing to find new ways to present, expand, and build upon what’s been done before. I think we owe it to the groups we’re serving to continually update our material and make it as relevant as possible to each organization rather than repeatedly doing the same schtick regardless of audience.
3. Transparency. If we make mistakes, say so. Publicly. If we’re wrestling mentally with an issue or otherwise are not sure of something, admit it. Is there a major line of research contesting our assertions (as is the case with Payne) or do we have a particular ideological bent? Acknowledge it so that the organization can make informed decisions about our work. The more transparent we can be, the better.
4. Service. It’s about the organization, not us. Professional development time and money usually are quite scarce. We can charge whatever we think our time and expertise are worth (and the market will bear), but we should be providing something of value. Usually that means something practical that members of the organization can start using and acting upon tomorrow. Oral presentations, written materials, and other resources should be professional, engaging, and helpful. [Note: I confess I have trouble with the “I was buried by an avalanche in the Himalayas for 2 weeks with nothing to eat but my clothing” or the “I was down and out but now I’m successful and at peace” speeches. Sure, they’re inspiring (and often quite expensive) but they don’t really help me do my job any better…]
This list is not meant to be conclusive but rather a starting place for conversation. What else should I have included?
Leave a Reply
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Step 5. Organize your informationEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Pacific Island Guide > Step 5. Organize your information
Many Tongan families keep a genealogical relationship chart (hohoko) where they write the names of their ancestors, descendants, and other relatives. Salote Wolfgramm wrote hers on sail cloth, while Kakolosi Tui`one recorded his on computer, using an architectural program.
In the picture above, Tisina Wolfgramm Gerber and her daughters are shown with her mother, Salote. They are copying their information from their sailcloth hohoko to the PAF computer program.
• We should find out how people of our island group traditionally keep track of their genealogy.
• We should use the charts we find to add any new information we have gathered onto our own family charts.
• We should keep adding information to our charts when someone is born, married, or dies.
• We can use these charts to refer to as we type our information into a computer.
Contents
The importance of getting our information into a computer
The Prophet of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has asked all families to enter their information onto a computer data base. This is because–
• Information can be copied easily and more accurately from the computer and re-used many times without re-typing it. We can get paper printouts from the computer when we want them.
• Our information must be on a computer in order to prepare names for LDS temples (using TempleReady). This is because the Official Temple Record is a computer database.
You can use the computers without charge at a Family History Center and in some ward meetinghouses worldwide. If you need help in using a computer, you can ask a staff member to help you.
Because the information on hohoko charts is already organized into families and generations, we can refer to them as a guide as we enter the information into the computer. If our information is not already organized into families and linked according to generations, we can write it on paper Oral Genealogy Lineage charts, Pedigree charts and Family Group Records.
Why should I use paper forms for family history and how can I get them?
These forms help us put the names, relationships, dates, places, and other information into an organized format. We can use these forms as a working copy of our information, adding to it as we go along.
Oral Genealogy Lineage Chart
An Oral Genealogy Lineage Chart may be best to use if we customarily record our lineage by starting with an ancestor and naming the generations until we come down to ourselves. An example follows.
• Use a separate chart for each lineage, and show all children from each marriage at each generational level.
• Write all the names each person was known by.
• Write dates or an approximate year, if known, in the “Necessary Explanations” space.
• The Informant is the person who provided the information on the form (the person we are
• The Interviewer is the person filling out the form, (usually yourself). It may be the same as the informant, if we are filling out the chart showing our own ancestors.
• The Page space is where we put the total number of pages in this lineage and the number of this particular page. For example, if there were 8 pages, the first page would be “1 of 8.”
• Generation number: Begin numbering the generations with the ancestor furthest back as 1. For example, the first ancestor is number 1. His son is number 2. His grandson is number 3, his great grandson is number 4, and so on.
• Sex: Write M for male or F for female.
• The Ancestor is the first person you are starting with.
• List every spouse the ancestor was married to. Indent for each spouse, and write them in the order of marriage, even if divorced. (Write “divorced” in “Necessary Explanations.”) If the spouse is not known, leave the space blank.
• List all of the children from each marriage in order of birth, if known. All children will be considered natural children unless you write “Adopted” in the “Necessary Explanations” column.
• Show the sex of the person in the column to the left.
• Check the Check if Living box, if the person is living. Put any dates you know, such as the birth date, in the Necessary Explanations column.
• Necessary Explanations: Record as much information as you have for each person in this column, such as whether living, age at the time of death, birth date, place of birth, place of family residence, ancestral village, chiefly titles, whether adopted, divorced, etc.
Pedigree Chart
A Pedigree Chart records our parents, their parents, and their parents, going as many generations back as possible. It shows at a glance the information we have and what we still need to look for. We can use this chart as a map in organizing our family records. The example below is a Pedigree chart of Nani Olsen Kelly of Hawaii.
Family Group Record
On a Family Group Record we can write information about complete families, including children. In the example below, Nani Olsen Kelly of Hawaii has 2 sheets on which her great grandfather appears. On the top sheet, he is the son of Pekelo Papa. On the bottom one, he appears as the husband, Pekelo Liliokalani Papa.
For each set of parents on our pedigree chart, we should make a Family Group Record.
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• This page was last modified on 11 December 2011, at 00:50.
• This page has been accessed 3,450 times.
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Maryland BiographyEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 22:43, 9 February 2008 by Lhmoffett (Talk | contribs)
The Maryland Historical Society and the Enoch Pratt Free Library at http://www.prattlibrary.org/ have major collections of biographical materials. The "Biography File" at the Enoch Pratt Free Library is a 180-drawer card index to newspaper clippings, local histories, and periodicals from the 1800s and 1900s.
A valuable guide to biographical sketches is:
Andrusko, Samuel M. Maryland Biographical Sketch Index. Volume 1. Silver Spring, Maryland: Samuel M. Andrusko, 1983. (FHL book 975.2 D3a) This indexes over 10,500 biographical sketches.
Eleanor Passano's book (see the "Genealogy" section of this outline) is an excellent index to biographical and genealogical information. Indexes to the Maryland Historical Magazine give references to numerous biographical sketches. Other excellent card indexes are at the Enoch Pratt Free Library and the Maryland State Archives. Also search statewide, regional, and county histories for biographical information.
The following are examples of helpful collections of biographical information:
Papenfuse, Edward C., et al. A Biographical Dictionary of the Maryland Legislature, 1635-1789, Two Volumes. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, 1985. (FHL book 975.2 N2p) This dictionary has considerable information on early Maryland families.
Spencer, Richard Henry. Genealogical and Memorial Encyclopedia of the State of Maryland. . . Two Volumes. New York, New York: The American Historical Society, 1919. (FHL book 975.2 D3s; film 1000060 items 1-2; fiche 6046929) This work contains three- to four-page biographical sketches.
Men of Mark in Maryland: Biographies of Leading Men in the State. Four Volumes. Washington, D.C.: Johnson-Wynne Co., 1907-12. (FHL book 975.2 D3m). This work contains three- to four-page biographical sketches.
Biographical Cyclopedia of Representative Men of Maryland and District of Columbia. Baltimore, Maryland: National Biographical Publishing Co., 1879. (FHL book 975 D3b; film 1000059 item 3).
The Place Search of the Family History Library Catalog lists more of these records under:
MARYLAND - BIOGRAPHY
MARYLAND, [COUNTY] - BIOGRAPHY
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Skip to main content Help Control Panel
Lost? Search this Naples Florida website...|Add our search|Login A+ A- 54.226.5.29
Hints « Recipes «
Leningrad Special Buckwheat Pancakes
Register with us in one easy step!
Yield: 6 servings
1/2 c All-purpose flour; 1 lg Egg; beaten slightly
3/4 c Buckwheat flour; 1 c Water
1 ts Baking powder 1 tb Margarine; Melted
2 ts Sugar substitute 1 ts Margarine; for cooking
Blend flours, baking powder, and sugar substitute in bowl. Mix in
egg, water, and melted margarine. Let batter stand for 10 minuteats.
Melt 1 teaspoon margarine in a 10-in nonstick skillet over medium
heat. Drop batter by the tablespoonful onto hot skillet. Allow
pancakes to cook until bubbles form around the pancakes. Thin
remaining batter with additional water if necessary. Turn pancakes
over with a spatula. Continue cooking until pancakes are done. Place
on heated dish and continue cooking until all the pancakes have been
prepared.
Food Exchange per serving: 1 STARCH EXCHANGE + 1 FAT EXCHANGE
CHO: 18g; PRO: 3g; FAT: 4g; CAL: 118;
Low-sodium Diets: This recipe is suitable.
Source: The Art of Cooking for the Diabetic by Mary Abbott Hess,
R.D.,M.S. and Katharine Middleton
Brought by to you and Yours via Nancy OBrion and her Meal Master
4 1 rate
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Method
m:Explorer: multinomial regression models reveal positive and negative regulators of longevity in yeast quiescence
Jüri Reimand1,2,3*, Anu Aun4, Jaak Vilo2, Juan M Vaquerizas1, Juhan Sedman4 and Nicholas M Luscombe1,5*
Author Affiliations
1 EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
2 University of Tartu, Institute of Computer Science, Liivi 2, Tartu 50409, Estonia
3 Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
4 University of Tartu, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Riia 23, Tartu 51010, Estonia
5 EMBL-Heidelberg Gene Expression Unit, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg D-69117, Germany
For all author emails, please log on.
Genome Biology 2012, 13:R55 doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-6-r55
Published: 21 June 2012
Abstract
We developed m:Explorer for identifying process-specific transcription factors (TFs) from multiple genome-wide sources, including transcriptome, DNA-binding and chromatin data. m:Explorer robustly outperforms similar techniques in finding cell cycle TFs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We predicted and experimentally tested regulators of quiescence (G0), a model of ageing, over a six-week time-course. We validated nine of top-12 predictions as novel G0 TFs, including Δmga2, Δcst6, Δbas1 with higher viability and G0-essential TFs Tup1, Swi3. Pathway analysis associates longevity to reduced growth, reprogrammed metabolism and cell wall remodeling. m:Explorer (http://biit.cs.ut.ee/mexplorer/) is instrumental in interrogating eukaryotic regulatory systems using heterogeneous data.
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PREDICTION OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS WITH BOUSSINESQ VISCOSITY AND SECOND-MOMENT CLOSURE MODELS
Bard Brors, Karl J. Eidsvik
Abstract
Sediment auto-suspension criteria (specifying the limit between eroding, selfaccelerating flow and depositing, decelerating flow depending on the slope angle and particle settling velocity) differ by two orders of magnitude for different models in use. Experiments suggest that the results from ordinary density currents are applicable to turbidity currents. In the present study, models based upon well-known turbulence closures are applied in order to obtain a realistic description of turbidity currents: A two-equation (k-s) model predicts phase plane behaviour in accordance with results from theoretical work reported in the literature, and with limits for auto-suspension within the range of conventional estimates. However, by its design, this model and simpler gradient diffusion models are unable to produce turbulent diffusion of sediments up through the level of the velocity maximum. A model with second-moment Reynolds stress turbulence closure is applied. This model proves to overcome the problem of vanishing turbulent diffusivity in the velocity maximum and give plausible results for vertical distribution of flow parameters in turbidity currents.
Keywords
turbidity; Boussinesq model; second moment closure models; viscosity models
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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Man will occasionally stumble over the truth, but most of the time he will pick himself up and continue on. Churchill, Winston
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD FRS PC PC (Can) (30 November 1874 - 24 January 1965) was an English statesman and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Well-known as an orator, strategist, and politician, Churchill was one of the most important leaders in modern British and world history. He won the 1953 Nobel Prize in Literature for his many books on English and world history. Sir Winston Churchill was voted the greatest-ever Briton in the 2002 BBC poll the 100 Greatest Britons.
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...a wry face]. No, no: the Englishwoman is too prosaic for my taste, too material, too much of the animated beefsteak about her. The ideal is what I like. Now Larry's taste is just the opposite: he likes em solid and bouncing and rather keen about him. It's a very convenient difference; for we've never been in love with the same woman.
NORA. An d'ye mean to tell me to me face that you've ever been in love before?
BROADBENT. Lord! yes.
NORA. I'm not your first love?
BROADBENT.
First love is only a little foolishness and a lot of curiosity: no really self-respecting woman would take advantage of it. No, my dear Nora: I've done with all that long ago. Love affairs always end in rows. We're not going to have any rows: we're going to have a solid four-square home: man and wife: comfort and common sense--and plenty of affection, eh [he puts his arm round her with confident proprietorship]?
NORA [coldly, trying to get away]. I don't want any other woman's leavings.
BROADBENT [holding her]. Nobody asked you to, ma'am. I never asked any woman to marry me before.
NORA [severely]....
Shaw, George Bernard
Source: GEORGE BERNARD SHAW, John Bulls Other Island, act IV, Selected Plays with Prefaces, vol. 2, p. 596 . These words are spoken by Broadbent. · This quote is about love · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
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George Bernard Shaw (July 26, 1856 November 2, 1950) was an Irish playwright and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1925.
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The birthplace of success for each person is in his Inner-Consciousness. The Inner-Consciousness will use whatever it is given. If constructive thoughts are planted positive outcomes will be the result. Plant the seeds of failure and failure will follow. Madwed, Sidney
This quote is about thoughts and thinking · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
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If the freedom and justice are only owned by a few privileged persons, the whole nation will never have the real Freedom and Justice at all. Mak Kazeronnie
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I am a freelancer.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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The law is reason, free from passion. Aristotle
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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All things need watching, working at, caring for and marriage is no exception. Marriage is not something to be treated indifferently, or abused or something that simply takes care of itself. Nothing neglected will remain as it was or is, or will fail to deteriorate. All things need attention care and concern and especially so in this most sensitive of all relationships of life. Evans, Richard L.
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The first evil those who are prone to talk suffer, is that they hear nothing. Plutarch
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Quotes by Davies, Owen
We don't have a biography. Please consult wikipedia.
"The pace of progress will accelerate so that even engineers and technical managers will find it necessary to recycle back through school after no more than ten years. In particular fast-moving technologies skills will become obsolete every five years or so."
Davies, Owen on progress
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Revision as of 13 December 2011 at 03:46.
The [/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Nebuchadnezzar&offset=20111213034645&lqt_mustshow=7020 highlighted comment] was created in this revision.
...Neeeebby. Quick question...out of simple curiosity. Do you nom on the oinks?
Dumpling (talk)03:41, 13 December 2011
Not really. I'm not a big fan of ham or pork. I used to eat bacon occasionally, but I have to limit my consumption of red meat these days.
Nebuchadnezzar (talk)03:44, 13 December 2011
Oh noez. Why the limitations of the yum-noms?
Dumpling (talk)03:46, 13 December 2011
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Prophet
From RationalWiki
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One of many articles on
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A prophet is a person who claims to have received a message or revelation from a supernatural being (often, a god). The religions which are based on those revelations are called revealed religions. Prophets are regarded as fully human, but divinely inspired, unlike the Christian messiah, who is regarded as a human manifestation of God. The basic concept of prophecy is that the prophet is speaking for the supernatural; but often enough this involves revealing what is going to happen so that prophecy has acquired a secondary meaning of prediction by supernatural means.
Commonly accepted prophets within Abrahamic religions include Noah, Abraham, Moses and David. Islam considers Jesus to be a prophet, and holds Muhammad to be the last and greatest prophet of all.
Prophets are not just an ancient manifestation.
1. More recent examples include Joseph Smith, Jr. of Mormonism.
2. Current examples of self-proclaimed prophets include: David Koresh or Jim Jones.
Contents
[edit] False prophets
Religions that postulate prophets, must address people who claim to be prophets but fail in their predictive power, and those who simply say things the dominant group disagrees with. The concept "false prophet" is often invoked to deal with such problems.
People are supposed to be able to distinguish a false prophet by their lack of predictive power. However, when one considers the batting record of modern prophets, it starts to look like they're all false. In The Bible, readers are warned to "beware of false prophets and false messiahs leading thee astray." The Antichrist in the Book of Revelations is said to accompanied by a "False Prophet" who is cast into the Lake of Fire along with the Antichrist and Satan to suffer for all eternity.
[edit] Profits
Many prophets over the course of history have harbored a desire for profits. Sadly, the pun is purely coincidental.
[edit] Quotes
• Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. – Matthew 7:15
• And the beast was captured, and with him the false prophet who did mighty miracles on behalf of the beast--miracles that deceived all who had accepted the mark of the beast and who worshiped his statue. Both the beast and his false prophet were thrown alive into the fiery lake of burning sulfur. - Revelation 19:20
• "I am a False Prophet, God is a superstition!" - Eli Sunday, There Will Be Blood, 2007
[edit] See also
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Tuesday, May 31, 2005
Salon writes about a book on my wishlist, "Mix Tape: The Art of Cassette Culture." As I pointed out in Copy This Essay (PDF), mix tapes are creative, expressive endeavors made out of other people's creative endeavors. As Salon says, "the mix taper faces the same choices as the writer: what to include, what to exclude, where to start, where to end, what to emphasize and what to hide between the lines. Besides, for a large part of an entire generation, a good mix tape carries more emotion and potential for transport than any book, film or individual song."
Incidentally, tushnet.com has finally, finally been updated, including full-text versions of my publications.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
8755.0 - Construction Work Done, Australia, Preliminary, Jun 2007
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 29/08/2007
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
JUNE KEY FIGURES
Jun qtr 07
Mar qtr 07 to Jun qtr 07
Jun qtr 06 to Jun qtr 07
$m
% change
% change
TREND ESTIMATES(a)
Value of work done
Building
15 447.1
-0.2
3.9
Residential
9 446.7
0.4
3.7
Non-residential
6 001.3
-1.1
4.3
Engineering
11 912.6
3.3
10.7
Total construction
27 388.4
1.4
6.9
SEASONALLY ADJUSTED ESTIMATES(a)
Value of work done
Building
15 259.0
-2.2
1.2
Residential
9 371.0
-1.2
1.4
Non-residential
5 888.0
-3.7
1.0
Engineering
11 697.8
-1.5
5.5
Total construction
26 956.8
-1.9
3.0
(a) Reference year for Chain Volume Measures is 2004-05.
Value of construction work done, Volume terms - Trend estimates
Value of building work done, Volume terms - Trend estimates
JUNE KEY POINTS
VALUE OF CONSTRUCTION WORK DONE, VOLUME TERMS
TOTAL CONSTRUCTION
• The trend estimate for total construction work done rose 1.4% in the latest quarter.
• The seasonally adjusted estimate for total construction work done fell 1.9%, to $26,956.8m, in the latest quarter.
BUILDING WORK DONE
• The trend estimate for building work done fell 0.2% in the June quarter 2007. Residential building rose 0.4% while non-residential building fell 1.1%.
• The seasonally adjusted estimate of building work done fell 2.2% in the June quarter 2007, to $15,259.0m. Residential building fell 1.2% to $9,371.0m. Non-residential building fell 3.7%, to $5,888.0m.
ENGINEERING WORK DONE
• The trend estimate for Engineering work done rose 3.3% in the latest quarter.
• The seasonally adjusted estimate for Engineering work done fell 1.5%, to $11,697.8m, in the June quarter 2007.
WARNING
• Please see "Changes in this Issue" on page 2 regarding the impact of the privatisation of Telstra Corporation on the presentation of trend data.
NOTES
FORTHCOMING ISSUES
ISSUE (QUARTER) Release Date
September 2007 28 November 2007
December 2007 27 February 2008
ABOUT THIS ISSUE
This publication provides an early indication of trends in building and engineering construction activity. The data are estimates based on a response rate of approximately 80% of the value of both building and engineering work done during the quarter. More comprehensive and updated results will be released in Building Activity, Australia (cat. no. 8752.0) on 12 October 2007 and in Engineering Construction Activity, Australia (cat. no. 8762.0) on 11 October 2007.
CHANGES IN THIS ISSUE
Telstra Corporation was effectively privatised on 20 November 2006. For the purpose of ABS statistics this change from public sector to private sector is effective from March quarter 2007. This change has impacted on the data series presented in this publication, particularly the March quarter 2007 movements in private and public sector engineering work done and construction work done estimates.
As a result of this change, the private and public sector trend estimates for engineering work done and construction work done have been suspended for the March and June quarters 2007. It is anticipated that the trend estimates for these series will be resumed from the September quarter 2007.
For more information please see ABS Information Paper: Treatment of Telstra in ABS Statistics (cat. no. 8102.0) released 26 February 2007.
A new chain volume reference year is updated annually. From 2007 onwards the updating of the reference year will be completed in the September quarter each year. In September 2007 the new reference year will be 2005-06 for chain volume estimates. This will result in revisions to growth rates in quarters following 2005-06 but will preserve additivity in those quarters. For earlier periods re-referencing affects the levels of, but not the movements in, chain volume estimates.
DATA NOTES
There are no notes about the data.
INQUIRIES
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
8501.0 - Retail Trade, Australia, Mar 2010
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 05/06/2010
Directory of Statistical Sources
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Methods & Standards
Feature Articles by Title
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 0-9
J
Job flexibility of casual employees (Feature Article), Apr 2009 (cat no. 6105.0)
Job Search Experience of Unemployed People, Jul 2006 (cat no. 6105.0)
Job search experience: methods and barriers in finding jobs (Feature Article), Apr 2004 (cat no. 6105.0)
Job starters (Feature Article), Oct 2005 (cat no. 6105.0)
Jobless Families (Feature Article), Jan 2009 (cat no. 6105.0)
Journey to Work in the City of Adelaide (Feature Article), May 2009 (cat no. 1345.4)
Jurisdictional coverage, Jul 2009 (cat no. 6105.0)
Jurisdictional Coverage of Pay-Setting Arrangements (Feature Article), Jan 2008 (cat no. 6105.0)
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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"warc_url": "http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/article/view/7785"
}
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Employees’ skills and Organisational Commitment
Giovanni Passarelli
Abstract
Based on the survey Organisation, Learning and Competencies, the paper explore the relationship between skills development and organisational commitment. The findings, in general, suggest a low correlation between skills and more involvement in the organisations. Particularly, professionals show more attachment to their jobs than to their organisations, confirming that job commitment does not always imply organisational commitment.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
International Business Research ISSN 1913-9004 (Print), ISSN 1913-9012 (Online)
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Instead of AdBlock, enjoy ad-free CAN by becoming a member. Everybody wins!
breakfast
18/07/2012 / Cinder
Created by NYC collective Breakfast and located in Manhattan’s Herald Square at 885 6th Ave and 32nd Street, the 23x12 foot display is made up of 44,000 electromagnetic spinning dots which each flip from black to white creating a moving ...
20/03/2012 / Linux, Objects
Few days ago BREAKFAST launched Instaprint on Kickstarter. Instaprint is a location-based photo booth that turns Instagrams into physical prints. Set the device to listen for a specific hashtag and/or location and watch as it prints out all Instagrams with ...
13/08/2010 / Objects
Created by Breakfast, Precious is a bike, currently making it's way across the US to benefit LIVESTRONG®. Starting at the Atlantic and ending at the Pacific, Precious will spend 3 months riding across the country sharing his thoughts, experiences, body temperature ...
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<D <M <Y
Y> M> D>
(2) Python Question: Is there a Python library that's like the standard time library, except it can handle dates before 1900? It's not for myself that I ask; it's for a friend. Guido mocks his pain. Can't you help?
(1) Missing A Trick: Obviously this tiny LED flashlight should be called the Pak-LED.
[Main]
Unless otherwise noted, all content licensed by Leonard Richardson
under a Creative Commons License.
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{
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<D <M <Y
Y> M> D>
(2) Findings, Week k-(k+n): This feature went by the wayside, along with NYCB posting in general, because I get on the subway, and go to work, and get on the subway to go back home, and then I'm tired. Just like a real job!
Suffice to say that I'm gradually switching from implementing new features to improving the code that's already written, and we'll launch a semi-public beta in the next couple weeks.
A couple miscellaneous things learned from the week I spent writing web service clients:
[Main]
Unless otherwise noted, all content licensed by Leonard Richardson
under a Creative Commons License.
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}
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