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presidency and presidency, she has maintained the title of Legislative & Tech Policy Director since 2014. <mask> has been teaching law courses at the University of Miami School of Law since 2010. Between 2010 and 2015, <mask> served as an Associate Professor of Law and was promoted to a Professor of Law in 2015. In 2019, <mask> was recognized as a Dean's Distinguished Scholar for the Profession, an honor bestowed upon law faculty members whose scholarly contributions to the legal profession are significant and influential.Personal life
<mask> is Taiwanese-American. While <mask> is best known for her legal scholarship and activism, she is also an instructor in Krav Maga, a self-defense system developed for the military in Israel. On the topic of women's empowerment through honing self-defense skills, <mask> said, "Society puts a lot of focus on women as objects as opposed to women asserting their subject-hood. I’m concerned with ways that women can create a relationship with their bodies that’s about making them stronger, faster, as well as more secure." She is also a vocal proponent of hand-to-hand self-defense techniques over the use of firearms: "What troubles me about Florida when it comes to the psychology of self-defense is that our answer for defending ourselves is always a gun. Krav Maga is a nuanced approach to defending oneself and protecting one’s space. You can respond effectively, but no one gets shot, no one dies."Selected works
Articles
Academic Scholarship
References
External links
Personal website
Loyola University New Orleans alumni
American Rhodes Scholars
Living people
Krav Maga practitioners
Harvard Law School alumni
University of Miami faculty
American feminist writers
American legal scholars
American activists
1977 births
American women of
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<mask> (born 24 June 1965) is an Italian activist, television personality and actress. <mask> was a Communist Refoundation Party MP, belonging to The Union coalition led by Romano Prodi. She was the first openly transgender member of Parliament in Europe, and the world's second openly transgender MP after New Zealander Georgina Beyer. She lost her seat in the election of April 2008. In the 2006 general election, <mask> was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by the Lazio 1 constituency in Rome. She lost her seat in the 2008 election. After the retirement of Beyer and <mask>, there were no transgender MPs reported in the world, until 2011, when Anna Grodzka was elected to the Polish parliament.Biography
Born in Foggia, Apulia, Luxuria moved to Rome in 1985 to study foreign languages and literature. She also began to act, notably in cabaret, and through this developed her gender ambiguity as a hallmark. Her assumed surname, Luxuria, means lust in Latin. She earned her first acting credit in Cena alle nove by Paolo Breccia in 1991; and began organizing parties and gay pride events, becoming director of the Muccassassina, the self-financing party of the Circle of homosexual culture Mario Mieli. She graduated in foreign languages and literatures at University of Rome La Sapienza with a master thesis on Joseph Conrad. She organized Italy's first pride festival, in Rome on 2 June 1994, which attracted some ten thousand people. From 2001 to 2003 she toured Italian theatres with the musical Emotions co-starring with Sabrina Salerno and Ambra Angiolini.Her career as performer was not restricted to stage shows, and in 2005 she hosted a television show about nostalgia
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Luxuria declared that she had used the toilets for years and that using the male lavatory would engender even greater problems.In the 2008 election, the Refoundation Communist Party joined a coalition of left-wing parties known as the Rainbow Left. However this group gained only 3.2% of the vote and lost all of its seats in parliament. Silvio Berlusconi's centre-right coalition swept to victory. Luxuria was not re-elected. Paolo Ferrero, then leader of the Communist Refoundation Party, said that he would be open to the idea of her returning to politics as a nominee for the 2009 European Parliament election after her win on L'Isola dei Famosi, but Luxuria said that she had no plans to re-enter politics. Gay rights
Luxuria has long been a strong advocate for gay rights and a participant in events promoting equality for homosexuals. She helped organize Italy's first gay pride festival in 1994 and continued her activism throughout her tenure as a politician; in May 2007, she took part in the second Muscovite gay pride parade.She used her prominence in Italian politics once elected as a platform for advocating gay rights. In the lead-up to her election, Luxuria made gay rights an issue of her campaign and felt herself to be a representative of the LGBT community, saying, "We don't want privileges – we want our rights." In addition, <mask> called for civil unions to be enabled for gay couples and for Italy to accommodate political asylum for "all gays who try to get into Italy from countries where homosexuality is punishable by death." Luxuria also campaigned prior to the elections for gays to have cohabitation rights, and had helped campaign by winning the
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support of Italy's left. Furthermore, <mask> outlined her long-term support for full gay marriage rights, comparable with Spain's implementation of the law. In September 2006, she stated that the Vatican's ongoing influence in politics, specifically in regards to gay marriage, contravened clauses of the Italian Constitution. <mask> reacted to Pope Benedict XVI's end-of-year speech in 2008, when he compared protecting the environment with saving humanity from a "blurring of gender" (homosexual or transsexual behaviour), by saying that such comments were "hurtful".Filmography
Films
Television
Theater
Emozioni (2001–2003)
Che fine ha fatto Cenerentola? (2003)
One Drag Show (2003)
Male di Luna (2004)
My name is Silvia (2005)
Persone naturali e strafottenti (2010)
La donna uomo (2010)
Morning has broken - Una vita spezzata (2010)
Si sdrai perfavore (2011 - 2012)
Bibliography
Chi ha paura della muccassassina? Il mio mondo in discoteca e viceversa, Bompiani, 2007
Le favole non dette, Bompiani, 2009
Eldorado, Bompiani, 2011
L'Italia migliore, Bompiani, 2013
Discography
Der Traurige, in Hey Roma! (Klang Records - klg 003 - 1989)
References
External links
<mask>
"Meglio fascista che frocio" A short passage of the video showing the quarrel between Mussolini and Luxuria. (as <mask>)
(as Wladimiro Guadagno)
1965 births
People from Foggia
Living people
Transgender and transsexual politicians
Communist Refoundation Party politicians
Transgender and transsexual women
LGBT politicians from Italy
Italian actor-politicians
LGBT rights activists from Italy
Survivor (franchise) winners
Participants in Italian reality television series
LGBT
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<mask> (, ; March 6, 1963) is an Iranian film, stage, TV, and radio actor/director
Early life and education
<mask> was born in Shahrud, Iran. He graduated from Radio acting school in Iran, and studied Acting with Hamid Samandarian. He started his professional acting career by playing as Oceanus, in Prometheus Bound tragedy and performed in many notable roles on stage. He went on to film work, beginning with 2001 Inventor, followed by What's Up? and My Eyes for You. Hakimi, had successful performances in many Television series including Asleep & Awake, Love province, Paternal House, Passenger, Evil Mind, and The Gradual Death of a Dream. In 2007 he won the 24th Fajr International Theater Festival award for best performance in the leading role, for the role of Bahman Ahang in the Melody of the Rainy City drama, written by Akbar Radi.Small Heaven Directed by "Masoud Rasam"
Played in Mr.Paranoid (1989) a.k.a. Mr.Dollar Directed by "Majid Beheshti"
Played in Section
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<mask> (June 9, 1760, hacienda Ciénega del Rincón Jalisco – October 4, 1808, Mexico City) was a New Spain lawyer and politician and a proponent of independence from Spain. He was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities for his advocacy, and died in prison. He is considered one of the protomartyrs of Mexican independence. Born at the hacienda of Ciénega del Rincón in what is now the Municipality of Ojuelos de Jalisco in the State of Jalisco but was then under the jurisdiction the village of Santa María de los Lagos (nowadays Lagos de Moreno); from the religious point of view, the hacienda of Ciénega del Rincón, belonged to the Parish Church of the actual city of Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. <mask> studied in the College of San Ildefonso in Mexico City, graduating as a lawyer. He was a student of the American and French Revolutions, and of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His friend and comrade Licenciado <mask> later described him as a "true scholar" (sabio).In 1808, he was a member of the Cabildo (city council) of the ayuntamiento (city government) in the capital of the viceroyalty. He was a Criollo by virtue of his birth in America, and a prominent member of the Criollo party in government. Criollos were prominent in the agitation for autonomy or independence from Spain, and this agitation was increasing. The Cabildo of Mexico City was composed of professional men, Criollos. It is possible that <mask> <mask> was also a member of one of the secret societies working for the independence of the colony, but that is not known with certainty. Independence of Mexico
On March 19, 1808, at the summer palace of Aranjuez, King Carlos IV of Spain was forced to abdicate a court faction that removed Prime Minister <mask>e Fernado as Fernando VII.Napoleon's troops occupied Madrid and he invited Carlos IV and Fernando VII to Bayonne, France, where he forced both to abdicate in favor of his brother
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Joseph Bonaparte in May 1808. News of this second abdication was received in Mexico on July 11, 1808. The way now seemed open for the Criollo, party to achieve autonomy for New Spain. An old Spanish law was invoked that in the absence of the head of state, sovereignty reverts to the people, expressed through their representatives in the Cortes. The application of this law would allow a legal route for New Spain to weaken its ties with Spain. This was arguably an attempt to preserve the monarchical constitution in the face of foreign aggression, rather than a subversion of it. On July 19, councilmen Azcárate y <mask> and <mask> <mask> presented a plan to form a provisional, governing junta for an autonomous New Spain, with Viceroy <mask> <mask> at its head.The justification for this was that the mother country was now occupied by foreign troops, and the royal family was being held prisoner. The plan was accepted by the viceroy and the Cabildo, but not by the Audiencia. (Just as the Cabildo was dominated by liberal Criollos, the Audiencia was dominated by conservative Peninsulares, large landowners and wealthy businessmen born in Spain.) On August 9, 1808, at a meeting of Notables called to debate the situation, <mask> <mask> spoke in favor of popular sovereignty. Some of the oidores (members of the Audiencia) spoke in rebuttal, declaring the proposal seditious and subversive. Inquisitor Bernardo Prado <mask> declared it heresy and anathema. The Notables adopted an intermediate position — New Spain would recognize no supreme authority other than the king of Spain, now considered to be Ferdinand VII.On August 31, 1808, the crisis took a sharper turn with the arrival of Juan Gabriel Jabat, representative of the Junta of Seville, and a message from the Junta of Asturias. Both juntas requested New Spain's recognition as the legitimate government of Spain, thus providing evidence of the
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lack of any legitimate government in the country. On September 1, 1808, Melchor <mask>, a Peruvian priest and the intellectual leader of the Criollo party, delivered two tracts to the Cabildo, in favor of separation from Spain and the convoking of a Mexican congress. On September 15, 1808, the Spaniards opposed to independence and popular sovereignty, headed by the rich businessman Gabriel J<mask> Yermo, staged a coup. Viceroy <mask> was deposed and <mask> <mask>, Melchor <mask> and other members of the Criollo party were arrested. The viceroy was replaced with General <mask> <mask>. <mask> <mask> and others were imprisoned in the jail of the archbishop, subject to trial.With this seizure of power, Yermo and the Peninsulares initiated a "half century of uprisings and coups d'état", in both colonial and independent Mexico (Fuentes Mares, p. 81). Death
On October 4, 1808, <mask> <mask> was found dead in his cell, of suicide or murder. Circumstances suggested the latter and poison was suspected, but that was never proven. Today in Mexico <mask> <mask> <mask> is revered as one of the protomartyrs of Mexican independence. Notes
References
"<mask> y <mask>, <mask> <mask>," Enciclopedia de México, v. 14. Mexico City, 1988. Fuentes Mares, José.Biografía de una nación: <mask> a López Portillo. Mexico City: Océano, 1982. <mask> <mask> y <mask>, <mask>, "Memoria Póstuma", en Genaro García, Documentos Históricos Mexicanos, v. II. Mexico City: Comisión Nacional para la Celebración del 175 Aniversario de la Independencia Nacional y 75 Aniversario de la Revolución Mexicana, 1985. Lancaster-Jones, Ricardo; "Primo Verdad, Jalisciense Neto", Gaceta de Guadalajara, No. 228, 1959, pp. 8–14.External links
Biography and analysis
Short biography
Biography
Colonial Mexico
1760 births
1808 deaths
Mexican people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in Spanish detention
Politicians from
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<mask> (5 February 1920 – 3 March 2007), also known as Mien van Trouw, was a social worker and member of the Dutch Resistance who rescued dozens of Jewish children who were at risk of persecution and deportation by Nazi officials during World War II. She also played a role in the development of the Dutch newspaper, Trouw, as one of its earliest employees. She was declared to be Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem on 7 June 1992 for her rescue of Jewish children during the war. Formative years
Born in the village of Gees in the Netherlands province of Drenthe on 5 February 1920, <mask> was a daughter of the Rev. J. J. Bouwman. Sometime around the start of World War II, the family resided in Almelo; their father had been forced into hiding for forbidding a prominent member of the Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging (the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands or NSB) from taking part in religious services related to an evening meal. World War II
<mask> found love during the early years of World War II with Willem Pieter (“Wim”) Speelman (1919-1945), one of the organizers of Trouw (“True” or “Allegiance”), an orthodox Protestant underground newspaper which was published illegally in violation of Nazi laws prohibiting the free operation of independent press outlets.An economics student at the Vrije Universiteit (Free University), Speelman had been involved with the Dutch Resistance since 1940, writing content for resistance advocacy pamphlets, as well as with Vrij Nederland (Free the Netherlands). Under increasing scrutiny by Dutch and German officials, Speelman was forced to go into hiding on 20 April 1941 when that scrutiny turned into a wave of arrests at Trouw. Bouwman would later recall that his date of
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<mask> Bouwman became active with the ongoing Crèche rescues. Picking up children in Amsterdam on her return from courier trips for Trouw, she transported those children to safe houses located in Friesland and Groningen. Additional rescue trips were also undertaken to Drenthe and Overijssel. In one case, she escorted Barend Stempel on a dangerous train trip north. After dropping the two-year-old off at a temporary shelter, she was able to return home safely.Mien van Trouw overladen, Trouw, March 5, 2007. By September 1943, as child rescues from the Crèche declined, <mask> Bouwman resumed her covert activities for Trouw. Three months later, her fiancé was arrested, but then managed to escape on 30 December.In January 1944, they relocated to Amsterdam in order to facilitate new resistance activities. A year later, her fiancé was arrested when the Sicherheitsdienst (also known as the “SD”) raided the printing office of Trouw on Amsterdam's Lijnbaansgracht. Just over two weeks later, Wim Speelman was executed. He was just 26 years old when he died at Halfweg on 19 February 1945. Soldiering on, <mask> Bouwman (aka “Mien van Trouw”) took over her fiancé's former job with the newspaper. Ten weeks later, she oversaw the publication of Trouws 5 May 1945 Liberation edition.Mien van Trouw overladen, Trouw, March 3, 2007.Bak, Peter. Ze moest wel meedoen aan de verzetsstrijd, Trouw.Post-war life
Following her nation's liberation from its occupation by Germany and the end of World War II, <mask> Bouwman left her newspaper work behind, and became a social worker at the Stichting Gezinszorg in Kennemerland. She also married and was widowed by fellow former Trouw courier Gerrit Dijkstra. Later, she wed for a second time, marrying Henk
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<mask> (September 30, 1822 – December 4, 1884) was the 10th Mayor of San Francisco who served from July 1, 1863, to December 1, 1867. He was one of the most versatile men ever to hold the office, having previously worked as a teacher, doctor, lawyer, druggist and businessman. <mask> was born on September 30, 1822, in Columbia County, New York, the youngest of 13 children, and was raised in the Presbyterian church. His parents sent him to Claverack Academy, near Hudson, New York, where he spent two or three years. He then attended Williams College where he graduated with the class of 1844. After college, he was the superintendent of Claverack Academy for a short time before beginning studies for the ministry. After about a year, his biography records that a severe cold settled into his throat that spoiled his voice for public speaking, which he ultimately regained in California's milder climate.At that point, he selected medicine as his profession. After receiving his medical degree from the Philadelphia College of Medicine in 1848, he returned to Hudson, New York where he married Ruthetta Folger on September 18, 1849. He then established a medical practice in Syracuse, New York. In 1853, he left for California, leaving his wife and infant daughter behind for the time being, although they joined him the following year. He and Ruthetta ultimately had four children: three sons and a daughter. After arriving in San Francisco in 1853, he established a new medical practice, complete with an apothecary shop and a chemical-importing company. Coon also participated in organizing manufacturing and wholesale vinegar businesses.He was an active member of
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San Francisco's Vigilance Committee of 1856. When the Vigilance Committee transformed itself into a political party called the Peoples' Party later that year, he was the party's nominee for police judge. He was elected to the judgeship on November 4, 1856, receiving 8,706 votes out of 11,038 cast. Coon established a reputation for being tough on criminals (compared to the previous attitude of leniency toward them). Coon also gained notoriety for refusing to stop a duel between California Supreme Court Justice David S. Terry and U.S. Senator David C. Broderick, in which Broderick was killed. At the end of his second term in 1860, <mask> stepped down from the post to return to his medical practice.In early 1861, he and his family traveled to the East Coast but returned to San Francisco late that year when he again resumed the practice of medicine. <mask> reluctantly ran for mayor in 1863 after being approached by the People's Party, winning by nearly a thousand votes in the election of May 16, 1863. While he spent his first two years in office with ceremonial duties, including participating in the opening of the Bank of California, and leading a procession through the streets after President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, his second two-year term would be quite traumatic. In the same election in which <mask> was first elected, there had been a bond measure known as the Railroad Subscription Act. The measure—which easily passed—called for the city government to issue $650,000 in bonds for an equal amount of stock in the Central Pacific Railroad Company. <mask>, at first, refused to issue the bonds. After the railroad company obtained an
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injunction ordering him to do so, he acquiesced.He also opposed William Ralston's plan to extend Montgomery Street past Howard Street in the South of Market area, even though he helped Ralston open the Bank of California. Ralston had bought land south of the intersection and had obtained approval from the Board of Supervisors. However, after <mask>'s veto, Ralston had to content himself with building the Palace Hotel. <mask> also turned his energies to adorning the city. He hired a crew to survey a very sandy area in the western part of the city. This sandy area would be the site of Golden Gate Park. On April 3, 1865, by order of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, <mask> became ex officio President of the city's Board of Health.After leaving office in 1867, he did not resume the practice of medicine but engaged in the insurance business as well as dealing in real estate. He amassed enough wealth to purchase two large ranches, one of them became part of the campus of Stanford University. In 1868, he was appointed by the Governor to the office of Tide Lands Commissioner. In 1870–71, he and his family visited Great Britain and many parts of continental Europe. His wife, Ruthetta, died in 1877 and he remarried the next year to the widow of a Navy doctor. <mask> died of heart failure on December 4, 1884, at Ralston's Palace Hotel. In reporting his death, the Daily Alta California newspaper of San Francisco noted that "throughout his career in this city he has been conspicuous as an energetic citizen in local enterprises, with strong executive ability, conservative business principles, and the firmest integrity in all his transactions.In
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private life he was highly esteemed as a gentleman of kind sociability and true friendship. The activity and usefulness of his life was unbroken from the days of the pioneers up to yesterday. "<ref>Daily Alta California”, December 5, 1884, archived at the UCR Center for Bibliographical Studies and Research, California Digital Newspaper Collection https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=DAC18841205.2.23&srpos=30&dliv=none&e=-------en--20-DAC-21--txt-txIN-Coon-------1%2f accessed March 3, 2019</ref>
He is interred at the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California. Sources
Heintz, William F., San Francisco's Mayors: 1850-1880. From the Gold Rush to the Silver Bonanza. Woodside, CA: Gilbert Roberts Publications, 1975. (Library of Congress Card No.75-17094)
<mask>, H.I., Life of <mask><mask>'', unpublished manuscript c.1885, in the California State Library, California History Room, Sacramento, California
References
External links
The Political Graveyard
San Francisco's Alcades and Mayors
1822 births
1884 deaths
Mayors of San Francisco
California Populists
People from Columbia County, New York
Williams College alumni
Burials at Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)
People's Party (United States) elected officials
19th-century American
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<mask> (, , 5 May 1936 – 29 March 2007) was a Ukrainian painter, graphic artist, designer, Honored Artist of Ukraine, and professor, known for watercolor paintings, graphics, design, medal art. Winner of Nikolai Ostrovsky Premium in 1986. Life
<mask> was born on 5 May 1936 in small village of Kustine, Sumy region, Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine). Father <mask> (1896–1947) was a railroad worker, fought in the Red Army during World War II, was wounded and died shortly after the war ended. Mother – <mask> (Radchenko) (1898-19??). The family had six children. Two older brothers died during the Holodomor of the 1930s.The elder brother Danilo <mask>, went missing in November 1943. Prior to that he was awarded two medals "For Courage". After the war, the older sisters Galina, Maria and the youngest <mask> lived with their mother. Following his education at the Leningrad Vera Mukhina Higher School of Art and Design (1957-1963), <mask> <mask> worked as an art-designer of the "Ukrdipromebli" Institute and the Institute of Technical Aesthetics in Kyiv (1964–1967). <mask> was a chief artist of the "Ukrtorgreklama" (1966–1973). He has been the member of the Ukrainian Artists Union since 1967. <mask> is an author of the Khreshchatyk street holiday lighting (1967–1977).<mask> <mask> created a series of lamps for public institutions; musical instruments for Chernihiv and Zhytomyr musical
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factories (in particular, the famous piano "Ukraine"); children's wooden toys and souvenirs, which were produced in the 1960-1970s at the Chernihiv and Kyiv factories. Radio receivers "Olimpik", "Olimpik-401" are designed by <mask> <mask> (1977). <mask> is an author of cutlery made of gold and silver, souvenirs made by the "Ukrsamotsvity" jewelry factory, watch design, filmoscopes, loudspeakers, and other household products. They are copyrighted and produced since the 1970s, some were produced up to the 2000s. Since the 1980s, <mask> <mask> has been engaged in environmental and landscape design. Comprehensive presentation of Ukraine at the 12th World Festival of Youth and Students in Moscow, 1985 (M. Ostrovsky Prize, 1986). Small architectural forms and history museum in Varva (1986–1990).Memorial "Defenders of the Motherland" in Borova (1987). Belgorod Central Park (Russia, 1988), ukrainian-russian restaurant in Dubai (UAE, 1996), etc. In the field of graphics, M<mask> developed the corporate style of the "Science" club of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (1980–1983). He is an author of series of commemorative medals and badges for Kiev radio plant "Slavutich" (1982–1989). In 1992 <mask> <mask> received the honorary title of Honored Artist of Ukraine. In 1999 in tight competition M<mask> became the author of the state award Order "For Courage" and about twenty departmental
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awards. In 1999 he was nominated for the honorary title of People's Artist of Ukraine.Watercolor paintings of <mask> <mask> are among the best created in this technique by contemporary artists. Are written alla prima, extremely transparent, passionate and at the same time are in logical design, rhythm and composition. Both in painting and in design <mask> <mask> does not copy the objects of nature, but expresses the regularities by all means available. Watercolor paintings were exhibited at numerous personal and group exhibitions. Paintings by M<mask> can be found in private collections throughout the US, United Kingdom, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Canada, Ukraine, Germany, United Arab Emirates, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Russia and others. During last years of life, <mask> <mask> passed on his skills to students of the Institute of Interior Design and Landscape (National Academy of Government Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts). He died at his home in Kiev on 29 March 2007, surrounded by his family.Selected works
a series of watercolor paintings in own exquisite technique. ;
Author of state and departmental awards of Ukraine
Order "For Courage", 3 classes (1995, State Award of Ukraine)
Honorary award of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine (1995, Ministry of Internal Affairs)
Honorary award "For achievement" (1995, Ministry of Internal Affairs)
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<mask><mask> (September 6, 1915 – February 4, 1990) was an American Roman Catholic priest, scholar and educator, college president, author in Ohio whose educational career spanned over fifty years. <mask> devoted more than sixty years to the Pontifical College Josephinum and is considered by many to be its most prominent 20th century graduate, scholar, administrator and leader having occupied more positions of responsibility and leadership than anyone else during that time. <mask>, as he preferred to be called, at both Ohio Dominican University, the Josephinum and other institutions and churches, in both the classroom and from the pulpit, inspired generations of English students with his witty insights into the intricacies of the English language – into writing, poetry, literature and theatre and in insights into the life of <mask> and his Church. Fick's critical and mentoring skills influenced a host of college-educated men and women who would go on to be priests, teachers, scholars and leaders in all walks of life. Childhood
<mask> was born in Rich Fountain, Missouri, on September 6, 1915. He was the oldest of the four sons of Herman and <mask>. His family were German-speaking Catholics.He graduated from Sacred Heart Elementary School in 1928. Seminary education
Because of his German background, when young <mask> decided that he wanted to study to become a Catholic priest, it was only natural that he would consider a seminary founded by a German and that was still conducting some classes in German, although the institution had grown into a Pontifical College with a growing international emphasis. This seminary was the Pontifical College Josephinum, a school founded by a German priest, <mask>; <mask>, raised in Germany, distinguished himself for bravery in fierce fighting for his country and eventually founded an orphanage in Ohio. Out of that orphanage grew a
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seminary; naturally, <mask> was attracted to the Josephinum. Beginning his high school studies in the fall of 1929, <mask> arrived at the Josephinum to begin his high school seminary studies. He would distinguish himself all the way through his training as a gifted scholar. Academic career
When he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1941, the young priest was requested to stay on and join the teaching faculty at the Josephinum.So as a student, teacher and administrator, <mask> would be associated with the Josephinum for more than 61 years. After graduating from the Seminary College, <mask> went on to study English literature at St. Louis University, the University of California at Berkeley and the Ohio State University, where he completed his doctoral studies in 1951. In 1958 <mask> was appointed to the first level of Monsignorate by Rome. He would be appointed to the second level in 1967. For twenty-one years, 1948–1969, Monsignor <mask> also taught English at the College of St. Mary of the Springs, (now Ohio Dominican University). <mask> was immensely popular among students, introducing them to literary classics, creative writing, research and drama. A Monsignor <mask> literary committee still meets at Ohio Dominican in his honor.He was also a moderator of several literary clubs formed by graduates. He addressed the seminary section at meetings of the National Catholic Education Association and helped other seminaries as a member of various teams that were sent to inspect the status of vocational education by the US Bishops' Committee on Priestly Formation. <mask> was named chairman of the English Department of the College in 1952. In 1958 he was named academic dean. He served as Vice Rector of the combined schools of the Josephinum Campus from 1969 until 1989. Teaching
Because Fick had traveled much in his studies, he had the opportunity to meet
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well-known American authors including William Faulkner whom he met in a coffee house favored by the literary set in New York City. Sometimes, to illustrate a point in the classroom, <mask> would make references to one of these encounters.When a student grew discouraged at the amounts of red ink expended on their term papers and essays, <mask> would typically tell the student to persist in his or her efforts, reminding the student that "Knowledge maketh a bloody entrance," or similar quips. As editor of The Josephinum Review, he had a standing bet with his students to pay a dollar if anyone could find a single grammatical mistake. Never one to mince words, in the midst of an attack on an alleged grammatical "mistake" in his magazine, he told one student that he "had the tact of a wet noodle." At times, vice rectors of the Josephinum (the apostolic delegate to the United States was the nominal rector) restricted students' access to "worldly literature." One such episode occurred after a visit of Bishop <mask> McShea of Allentown, Pennsylvania, that led to a new vice rector, Ralph Thompson, and strict new rules, among them a "book policy" that limited what students could read. Beyond spiritual and classroom books, students had to have a permission slip signed by a professor for any book in their college rooms. One college student went to see <mask> and asked him to sign a slip for <mask> Passos' trilogy "USA."With great sadness, <mask> told him that while he was greatly pleased that this student wanted to read such a great work of American literature in three volumes, he didn't want his signature on a permission slip for such an author given the repressive atmosphere then in place at the Josephinum. <mask> told the student to wait until summer, buy the book and read it during the vacation period. In addition to his regular classes, when Fick could generate enough
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interest and time, he would offer a rare elective college course on the college level, World Literature. He limited the size of the class and required massive readings. Students recalled that they still referred to their notes for this class more than 40 years later for new things to read when they developed the literary version of the attitude <mask> warned them against with the German phrase, "Ich hab schon alles gesehen." (literally, "I have already all things seen"). As late as 2007, one former Fick student reported that next to his bedside table was Gösta Berling's Saga by Selma Lagerlöf, who in 1909 became the first woman and the first Swede to win the Nobel Prize for literature.Accreditation efforts for the Josephinum schools
At the Josephinum Schools, <mask> could see that the institution's future was tied to its stature academically both within Catholic as well as public educational accreditation institutions. To that end, <mask> undertook a long-term effort at attaining accreditation. As a direct result of his work, the Josephinum College was granted candidacy in 1972 in the North Central Association and full accreditation in 1976. This process took sixteen years of sustained and detailed effort including five self-studies and mountains of paperwork. When full accreditation was awarded it also included the Graduate School of Theology. Author and writer
Msgr <mask> authored numerous papers, articles and several books. In 1947 <mask> edited the school publication formerly named The Josephinum Weekly, that had been in print since 1916, and renamed it The Josephinum Review.<mask> was editor of this magazine for twenty years and authored the editorial column on the front page as well. <mask> wrote The Light Beyond: A Study of Hawthorne's Theology, , a book originally published in 1955 by The Newman Press and reprinted in 1975 by Norwood Editions. He also
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authored a book on the German stigmatic, Therese Neumann, What about Therese Neumann: A concise background for and analysis of the critical reception accorded Hilda C. Graef's the case of Therese Neumann, The Newman Press, 1951 ASIN, B0007H5KMO In November 1988, <mask> authored the definitive history of the Pontifical College Josephinum, The Jessing Legacy, 1888–1988: A Centennial History of the Pontifical College Josephinum. through the Kairos Press. Death in 1990
<mask> died from complications of heart disease in 1990. He was buried in the Josephinum Cemetery, on the grounds of the institution after a memorial service attended by over five hundred people including several bishops and over eighty priests. Legacy
Ohio Dominican University (ODU), where he taught for over twenty years, continues to sponsor the Ohio Dominican Literary Committee that <mask> started and hosts Ohio Dominican Literary events featuring guest speakers.ODU also started the Monsignor <mask> Scholarship Fund in his honor for ODU students majoring in English. The school holds an annual Monsignor <mask> Literary Brunch, which honors the late Ohio Dominican faculty member and raises funds for Literary events. At his beloved Josephinum, prior to his death and in recognition of his notable service to the Josephinum, the auditorium in the College's 1958 recreation building was named in his honor. See also
<mask>
Pontifical College Josephinum
References
External links
Selected Writings of <mask>. <mask>
2006-2007 PCJ Catalog
1915 births
1990 deaths
Pontifical College Josephinum faculty
American religious writers
American Roman Catholic religious writers
Ohio State University alumni
Writers from Columbus, Ohio
Pontifical College Josephinum alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Catholics from Ohio
20th-century American Roman Catholic
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<mask> (or <mask>) <mask> (, , ; Italian <mask>; 7 December 159828 November 1680) was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was more prominently the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture. As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, Bernini may be to sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantaneously identifiable with a particular manner and vision, and whose influence was inordinately powerful ..." In addition, he was a painter (mostly small canvases in oil) and a man of the theater: he wrote, directed and acted in plays (mostly Carnival satires), for which he designed stage sets and theatrical machinery. He produced designs as well for a wide variety of decorative art objects including lamps, tables, mirrors, and even coaches. As an architect and city planner, he designed secular buildings, churches, chapels, and public squares, as well as massive works combining both architecture and sculpture, especially elaborate public fountains and funerary monuments and a whole series of temporary structures (in stucco and wood) for funerals and festivals. His broad technical versatility, boundless compositional inventiveness and sheer skill in manipulating marble ensured that he would be considered a worthy successor of Michelangelo, far outshining other sculptors of his generation. His talent extended beyond the confines of sculpture to a consideration of the setting in which it would be situated; his ability to synthesize sculpture, painting, and architecture into a coherent conceptual and visual
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whole has been termed by the late art historian Irving Lavin the "unity of the visual arts".Biography
Youth
<mask> was born on 7 December 1598 in Naples to Angelica Galante, a Neapolitan, and Mannerist sculptor <mask>, originally from Florence. He was the sixth of their thirteen children. <mask> <mask> was the definition of childhood genius. He was "recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, [and] he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as 'the Michelangelo of his century'”. More specifically, it was Pope Paul V, who after first attesting to the boy <mask>'s talent, famously remarked, 'This child will be the Michelangelo of his age,' later repeating that prophecy to Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (the future Pope Urban VIII), as <mask> reports in his biography of his father. In 1606 his father received a papal commission (to contribute a marble relief in the Cappella Paolina of Santa Maria Maggiore) and so moved from Naples to Rome, taking his entire family with him and continuing in earnest the training of his son <mask> <mask>.Several extant works, dating circa 1615–1620, are by general scholarly consensus, collaborative efforts by both father and son: they include the Faun Teased by Putti (c. 1615, Metropolitan Museum, NYC), Boy with a Dragon (c. 1616–17, Getty Museum, Los Angeles), the Aldobrandini Four Seasons (c. 1620, private collection), and the recently discovered Bust of the Savior (1615–16, New York, private collection). Sometime after the arrival of the <mask> family in Rome, word about the great
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talent of the boy <mask> <mask> got around and he soon caught the attention of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew to the reigning pope, Paul V, who spoke of the boy genius to his uncle. <mask> was therefore presented before Pope Paul V, curious to see if the stories about <mask> <mask>'s talent were true. The boy improvised a sketch of Saint Paul for the marveling pope, and this was the beginning of the pope's attention on this young talent. Once he was brought to Rome, he rarely left its walls, except (much against his will) for a five-month stay in Paris in the service of King Louis XIV and brief trips to nearby towns (including Civitavecchia, Tivoli and Castelgandolfo), mostly for work-related reasons. Rome was <mask>'s city: “'You are made for Rome,’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, 'and Rome for you'”. It was in this world of 17th-century Rome and the international religious-political power which resided there that <mask> created his greatest works.<mask>'s works are therefore often characterized as perfect expressions of the spirit of the assertive, triumphal but self-defensive Counter Reformation Roman Catholic Church. Certainly <mask> was a man of his times and deeply religious (at least later in life), but he and his artistic production should not be reduced simply to instruments of the papacy and its political-doctrinal programs, an impression that is at times communicated by the works of the three most eminent Bernini scholars of the previous generation, Rudolf Wittkower, Howard Hibbard, and Irving Lavin. As Tomaso Montanari's recent revisionist monograph, La libertà di Bernini (Turin: Einaudi, 2016) argues and
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Franco Mormando's anti-hagiographic biography, Bernini: His Life and His Rome (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), illustrates, <mask> and his artistic vision maintained a certain degree of freedom from the mindset and mores of Counter-Reformation Roman Catholicism. Partnership with Scipione Borghese
Under the patronage of the extravagantly wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the young <mask> rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor. Among his early works for the cardinal were decorative pieces for the garden of the Villa Borghese, such as The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun. This marble sculpture (executed sometime before 1615) is generally considered by scholars to be the earliest work executed entirely by <mask> himself. Among <mask>'s earliest documented work is his collaboration on his father's commission of February 1618 from Cardinal Maffeo Barberini to create four marble putti for the Barberini family chapel in the church of Sant'Andrea della Valle, the contract stipulating that his son Gian <mask> would assist in the execution of the statues.Also dating to 1618 is a letter by Maffeo Barberini in Rome to his brother Carlo in Florence, which mentions that he (Maffeo) was thinking of asking the young <mask> <mask> to finish one of the statues left incomplete by Michelangelo, then in possession of Michelangelo's grandnephew which Maffeo was hoping to purchase, a remarkable attestation of the great skill that the young <mask> was already believed to possess. Although the Michelangelo statue-completion commission came to naught, the young <mask> was shortly thereafter (in
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1619) commissioned to repair and complete a famous work of antiquity, the sleeping Hermaphrodite owned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese (Galleria Borghese, Rome) and later (circa 1622) restored the so-called Ludovisi Ares (Palazzo Altemps, Rome). Also dating to this early period are the so-called Damned Soul and Blessed Soul of circa 1619, two small marble busts which may have been influenced by a set of prints by Pieter de Jode I or Karel van Mallery, but which were in fact unambiguously cataloged in the inventory of their first documented owner, Fernando de Botinete y Acevedo, as depicting a nymph and a satyr, a commonly paired duo in ancient sculpture (they were not commissioned by nor ever belonged to either Scipione Borghese or, as most scholarship erroneously claims, the Spanish cleric, Pedro Foix Montoya). By the time he was twenty-two, <mask> was considered talented enough to have been given a commission for a papal portrait, the Bust of Pope Paul V, now in the J. Paul Getty Museum. <mask>'s reputation, however, was definitively established by four masterpieces, executed between 1619 and 1625, all now displayed in the Galleria Borghese in Rome. To the art historian Rudolf Wittkower these four works—Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius (1619), The Rape of Proserpina (1621–22), Apollo and Daphne (1622–1625), and David (1623–24)—"inaugurated a new era in the history of European sculpture". It is a view repeated by other scholars, such as Howard Hibbard who proclaimed that, in all of the seventeenth century, "there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini".Adapting the classical grandeur of Renaissance sculpture and
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the dynamic energy of the Mannerist period, <mask> forged a new, distinctly Baroque conception for religious and historical sculpture, powerfully imbued with dramatic realism, stirring emotion and dynamic, theatrical compositions. <mask>'s early sculpture groups and portraits manifest "a command of the human form in motion and a technical sophistication rivaled only by the greatest sculptors of classical antiquity." Moreover, <mask> possessed the ability to depict highly dramatic narratives with characters showing intense psychological states, but also to organize large-scale sculptural works that convey a magnificent grandeur. Unlike sculptures done by his predecessors, these focus on specific points of narrative tension in the stories they are trying to tell: Aeneas and his family fleeing the burning Troy; the instant that Pluto finally grasps the hunted Persephone; the precise moment that Apollo sees his beloved Daphne begin her transformation into a tree. They are transitory but dramatic powerful moments in each story. <mask>'s David is another stirring example of this. Michelangelo's motionless, idealized David shows the subject holding a rock in one hand and a sling in the other, contemplating the battle; similarly immobile versions by other Renaissance artists, including Donatello's, show the subject in his triumph after the battle with Goliath.<mask> illustrates David during his active combat with the giant, as he twists his body to catapult toward Goliath. To emphasize these moments, and to ensure that they were appreciated by the viewer, <mask> designed the sculptures with a specific viewpoint in mind. Their
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original placements within the Villa Borghese were against walls so that the viewers' first view was the dramatic moment of the narrative. The result of such an approach is to invest the sculptures with greater psychological energy. The viewer finds it easier to gauge the state of mind of the characters and therefore understands the larger story at work: Daphne's wide open mouth in fear and astonishment, David biting his lip in determined concentration, or Proserpina desperately struggling to free herself. In addition to portraying psychological realism, they show a greater concern for representing physical details. The tousled hair of Pluto, the pliant flesh of Proserpina, or the forest of leaves beginning to envelop Daphne all demonstrate <mask>'s exactitude and delight for representing complex real world textures in marble form.Papal artist: the pontificate of Urban VIII
In 1621 Pope Paul V Borghese was succeeded on the throne of St. Peter by another admiring friend of <mask>'s, Cardinal Alessandro Ludovisi, who became Pope Gregory XV: although his reign was very short (he died in 1623), Pope Gregory commissioned portraits of himself (both in marble and bronze) by Bernini. The pontiff also bestowed upon Bernini the honorific rank of 'Cavaliere,' the title with which for the rest of his life the artist was habitually referred. In 1623 came the ascent to the papal throne of his aforementioned friend and former tutor, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, as Pope Urban VIII, and henceforth (until Urban's death in 1644) <mask> enjoyed near monopolistic patronage from the Barberini pope and family. The new Pope Urban is reported to
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have remarked, "It is a great fortune for you, O Cavaliere, to see Cardinal Maffeo Barberini made pope, but our fortune is even greater to have Cavalier <mask> alive in our pontificate." Although he did not fare as well during the reign (1644–55) of Innocent X, under Innocent's successor, Alexander VII (reigned 1655–67), <mask> once again gained pre-eminent artistic domination and continued in the successive pontificate to be held in high regard by Clement IX during his short reign (1667–69). Under Urban VIII's patronage, <mask>'s horizons rapidly and widely broadened: he was not just producing sculpture for private residences, but playing the most significant artistic (and engineering) role on the city stage, as sculptor, architect, and urban planner. His official appointments also testify to this—"curator of the papal art collection, director of the papal foundry at Castel Sant'Angelo, commissioner of the fountains of Piazza Navona".Such positions gave <mask> the opportunity to demonstrate his versatile skills throughout the city. To great protest from older, experienced master architects, he, with virtually no architectural training to his name, was appointed Chief Architect of St Peter's in 1629, upon the death of Carlo Maderno. From then on, <mask>'s work and artistic vision would be placed at the symbolic heart of Rome. <mask>'s artistic pre-eminence under Urban VIII and Alexander VII meant he was able to secure the most important commissions in the Rome of his day, namely, the various massive embellishment projects of the newly finished St. Peter's Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Maderno's
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nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Within the basilica he was responsible for the Baldacchino, the decoration of the four piers under the cupola, the Cathedra Petri or Chair of St. Peter in the apse, the tomb monument of Matilda of Tuscany, the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament in the right nave, and the decoration (floor, walls and arches) of the new nave. The St Peter's Baldacchino immediately became the visual centerpiece of the new St. Peter's. Designed as a massive spiraling gilded bronze canopy over the tomb of St Peter, <mask>'s four-pillared creation reached nearly from the ground and cost around 200,000 Roman scudi (about 8 million US dollars in the currency of the early 21st century)."Quite simply", writes one art historian, "nothing like it had ever been seen before". Soon after the St Peter's Baldacchino, <mask> undertook the whole-scale embellishment of the four massive piers at crossing of the basilica (i.e., the structures supporting the cupola) including, most notably, four colossal, theatrically dramatic statues, among them, the majestic St. Longinus executed by <mask> himself (the other three are by other contemporary sculptors François Duquesnoy, Francesco Mochi, and <mask>'s disciple, Andrea Bolgi). In the basilica, <mask> also began work on the tomb for Urban VIII, completed only after Urban's death in 1644, one in a long, distinguished series of tombs and funerary monuments for which <mask> is famous and a traditional genre upon which his influence left an enduring mark, often copied by subsequent artists. Indeed,
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<mask>'s final and most original tomb monument, the Tomb of Pope Alexander VII, in St. Peter's Basilica, represents, according to Erwin Panofsky, the very pinnacle of European funerary art, whose creative inventiveness subsequent artists could not hope to surpass. Begun and largely completed during Alexander VII's reign, Bernini's design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative and successful architectural designs, which transformed a formerly irregular, inchoate open space into an aesthetically unified, emotionally thrilling, and logistically efficient (for carriages and crowds), completely in harmony with the pre-existing buildings and adding to the majesty of the basilica. Despite this busy engagement with large works of public architecture, <mask> was still able to devote himself to his sculpture, especially portraits in marble, but also large statues such as the life-size Saint Bibiana (1624, Church of Santa Bibiana, Rome). Bernini's portraits show his ever increasing ability to capture the utterly distinctive personal characteristics of his sitters, as well as his ability to achieve in cold white marble almost painterly-like effects that render with convincing realism the various surfaces involved: human flesh, hair, fabric of varying type, metal, etc.These portraits included a number of busts of Urban VIII himself, the family bust of Francesco Barberini and most notably, the Two Busts of Scipione Borghese—the second of which had been rapidly created by <mask> once a flaw had been found in the marble of the first. The transitory nature of the expression on Scipione's face is
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often noted by art historians, iconic of the Baroque concern for representing fleeting movement in static artworks. To Rudolf Wittkower the "beholder feels that in the twinkle of an eye not only might the expression and attitude change but also the folds of the casually arranged mantle". Other marble portraits in this period include that of Costanza Bonarelli (executed around 1637), unusual in its more personal, intimate nature. (At the time of the sculpting of the portrait, <mask> was having an affair with Costanza, wife of one of his assistants, sculptor, Matteo.) Indeed, it would appear to be the first marble portrait of a non-aristocratic woman by a major artist in European history. Beginning in the late 1630s, now known in Europe as one of the most accomplished portraitists in marble, <mask> also began to receive royal commissions from outside Rome, for subjects such as Cardinal Richelieu of France, Francesco I d'Este the powerful Duke of Modena, Charles I of England and his wife, Queen Henrietta Maria.The sculpture of Charles I was produced in Rome from a triple portrait (oil on canvas) executed by Van Dyck, that survives today in the British Royal Collection. The bust of Charles was lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of 1698 (though its design is known through contemporary copies and drawings) and that of Henrietta Maria was not undertaken due to the outbreak of the English Civil War. Temporary eclipse and resurgence under Innocent X
In 1644, with the death of Pope Urban with whom <mask> had been so intimately connected and the ascent to power of the fierce Barberini-enemy Pope Innocent X Pamphilj, <mask>'s career
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suffered a major, unprecedented eclipse, which was to last four years. This had not only to do with Innocent's anti-Barberini politics but also to <mask>'s role in the disastrous project of the new bell towers for St. Peter's basilica, designed and supervised entirely by <mask>. The infamous bell tower affair was to be the biggest failure of his career, both professionally and financially. In 1636, eager to finally finish the exterior of St. Peter's, Pope Urban had ordered <mask> to design and build the two, long-intended bell towers for its facade: the foundations of the two towers had already been designed and constructed (namely, the last bays at either extremity of the facade) by Carlo Maderno (architect of the nave and the facade) decades earlier. Once the first tower was finished in 1641, cracks began to appear in the facade but, curiously enough, work nonetheless continued on the second tower and the first storey was completed.Despite the presence of the cracks, work only stopped in July 1642 once the papal treasury had been exhausted by the disastrous War of Castro. Knowing that <mask> could no longer depend on the protection of a favorable pope, his enemies (especially Francesco Borromini) raised a great alarm over the cracks, predicting a disaster for the whole basilica and placing the blame entirely on <mask>. The subsequent investigations, in fact, revealed the cause of the cracks as Maderno's defective foundations and not <mask>'s elaborate design, an exoneration later confirmed by the meticulous investigation conducted in 1680 under Pope Innocent XI. Nonetheless, <mask>'s opponents in Rome succeeded in
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seriously damaging the reputation of Urban's artist and in persuading Pope Innocent to order (in February 1646) the complete demolition of both towers, to <mask>'s great humiliation and indeed financial detriment (in the form of a substantial fine for the failure of the work). After this, one of the rare failures of his career, <mask> retreated into himself: according to his son, Domenico. his subsequent unfinished statue of 1647, Truth Unveiled by Time, was intended to be his self-consoling commentary on this affair, expressing his faith that eventually Time would reveal the actual Truth behind the story and exonerate him fully, as indeed did occur. Although he received no personal commissions from Innocent or the Pamphilj family in the early years of the new papacy, <mask> did not lose his former positions granted to him by previous popes.Innocent X maintained <mask> in all of the official roles given to him by Urban, including that of chief Architect of St. Peter's. Under <mask>'s design and direction, work continued on decorating the massive, recently completed but still entirely unadorned nave of St. Peter's, with the addition of an elaborate multi-colored marble flooring, marble facing on the walls and pilasters, and scores of stuccoed statues and reliefs. It is not without reason that Pope Alexander VII once quipped, 'If one were to remove from Saint Peter's everything that had been made by the Cavalier Bernini, that temple would be stripped bare.' Indeed, given all of his many and various works within the basilica over several decades, it is to Bernini that is due the lion's share of responsibility for the final and
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enduring aesthetic appearance and emotional impact of St. Peter's. He was also allowed to continue to work on Urban VIII's tomb, despite Innocent's antipathy for the Barberini. A few months after completing Urban's tomb, in 1648 <mask> won, in controversial circumstances, the Pamphilj commission for the prestigious Four Rivers Fountain on Piazza Navona, marking the end of his disgrace and the beginning a yet another glorious chapter in his life. If there had been doubts over <mask>'s position as Rome's preeminent artist, they were definitively removed by the unqualified success of the marvelously delightful and technically ingenious Four Rivers Fountain, featuring a heavy ancient obelisk placed over a void created by a cavelike rock formation placed in the center of an ocean of exotic sea creatures.<mask> continued to receive commissions from Pope Innocent X and other senior members of Rome's clergy and aristocracy, as well as from exalted patrons outside of Rome, such as Francesco d'Este. Recovering quickly form the humiliation of the bell tower, <mask>'s boundless creativity continued as before. New types of funerary monument were designed, such as, in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, the seemingly floating medallion, hovering in the air as it were, for the deceased nun Maria Raggi, while chapels he designed, such as the Raimondi Chapel in the church of San Pietro in Montorio, illustrated how <mask> could use hidden lighting to help suggest divine intervention within the narratives he was depicting. One of the most accomplished and celebrated works to come from <mask>'s hand in this period was the Cornaro Family
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Chapel in the small Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. The Cornaro Chapel (inaugurated in 1651) showcased <mask>'s ability to integrate sculpture, architecture, fresco, stucco, and lighting into "a marvelous whole" (bel composto, to use early biographer Filippo Baldinucci's term to describe his approach to architecture) and thus create what scholar Irving Lavin has called the "unified work of art". The central focus of the Cornaro Chapel is the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, depicting the so-called "transverberation" of Spanish nun and saint-mystic, Teresa of Avila. <mask> presents the spectator with a theatrically vivid portrait, in gleaming white marble, of the swooning Teresa and the quietly smiling angel, who delicately grips the arrow piercing the saint's heart.On either side of the chapel the artist places (in what can only strike the viewer as theater boxes), portraits in relief of various members of the Cornaro family – the Venetian family memorialized in the chapel, including Cardinal Federico Cornaro who commissioned the chapel from <mask> – who are in animated conversation among themselves, presumably about the event taking place before them. The result is a complex but subtly orchestrated architectural environment providing the spiritual context (a heavenly setting with a hidden source of light) that suggests to viewers the ultimate nature of this miraculous event. Nonetheless, during <mask>'s lifetime and in the centuries following till this very day, <mask>'s Saint Teresa has been accused of crossing a line of decency by sexualizing the visual depiction of the saint's experience, to a degree that
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no artist, before or after Bernini, dared to do: in depicting her at an impossibly young chronological age, as an idealized delicate beauty, in a semi-prostrate position with her mouth open and her legs splayed-apart, her wimple coming undone, with prominently displayed bare feet (Discalced Carmelites, for modesty, always wore sandals with heavy stockings) and with the seraph "undressing" her by (unnecessarily) parting her mantle to penetrate her heart with his arrow. Matters of decorum aside, Bernini's Teresa was still an artistic tour de force that incorporates all of the multiple forms of visual art and technique that <mask> had at his disposal, including hidden lighting, thin gilded beams, recessive architectural space, secret lens, and over twenty diverse types of colored marble: these all combine to create the final artwork—"a perfected, highly dramatic and deeply satisfying seamless ensemble". Embellishment of Rome under Alexander VII
Upon his accession to the Chair of St Peter, Pope Alexander VII Chigi (1655–1667) began to implement his extremely ambitious plan to transform Rome into a magnificent world capital by means of systematic, bold (and costly) urban planning. In so doing, he brought to fruition the long, slow recreation of the urban glory of Rome—the "renovatio Romae"—that had begun in the fifteenth century under the Renaissance popes. Over the course of his pontificate Alexander commissioned many large-scale architectural changes in the city—indeed, some of the most significant ones in the city's recent history and for years to come—chosing Bernini as his principal collaborator (though other architects,
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especially Pietro da Cortona, were also involved).Thus did commence another extraordinarily prolific and successful chapter in <mask>'s career. <mask>'s major commissions during this period include the piazza in front of St Peter's basilica. In a previously broad, irregular, and completely unstructured space, he created two massive semi-circular colonnades, each row of which was formed of four white columns. This resulted in an oval shape that formed an inclusive arena within which any gathering of citizens, pilgrims and visitors could witness the appearance of the pope—either as he appeared on the loggia on the facade of St Peter's or on balconies on the neighboring Vatican palaces. Often likened to two arms reaching out from the church to embrace the waiting crowd, <mask>'s creation extended the symbolic greatness of the Vatican area, creating an "exhilarating expanse" that was, architecturally, an "unequivocal success". Elsewhere within the Vatican, <mask> created systematic rearrangements and majestic embellishment of either empty or aesthetically undistinguished space that exist as he designed them to the present day and have become indelible icons of the splendor of the papal precincts. Within the hitherto unadorned apse of the basilica, the Cathedra Petri, the symbolic throne of St Peter, was rearranged as a monumental gilded bronze extravagance that matched the Baldacchino created earlier in the century.<mask>'s complete reconstruction of the Scala Regia, the stately papal stairway between St. Peters's and the Vatican Palace, was slightly less ostentatious in appearance but still taxed <mask>'s creative powers
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(employing, for example, clever tricks of optical illusion) to create a seemingly uniform, totally functional, but nonetheless regally impressive stairway to connect two irregular buildings within an even more irregular space. Not all works during this era were on such a large scale. Indeed, the commission <mask> received to build the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale for the Jesuits was relatively modest in physical size (though great in its interior chromatic splendor), which <mask> executed completely free of charge. Sant'Andrea shared with the St. Peter's piazza—unlike the complex geometries of his rival Francesco Borromini—a focus on basic geometric shapes, circles and ovals to create spiritually intense buildings. Equally, <mask> moderated the presence of colour and decoration within these buildings, focussing visitors' attention on these simple forms that underpinned the building. Sculptural decoration was never eliminated, but its use was more minimal. He also designed the church of Santa Maria dell'Assunzione in the town of Ariccia with its circular outline, rounded dome and three-arched portico.Visit to France and service to King Louis XIV
At the end of April 1665, and still considered the most important artist in Rome, if indeed not in all of Europe, <mask> was forced by political pressure (from both the French court and Pope Alexander VII) to travel to Paris to work for King Louis XIV, who required an architect to complete work on the royal palace of the Louvre. <mask> would remain in Paris until mid-October. Louis XIV assigned a member of his court to serve as <mask>'s translator, tourist guide, and overall
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companion, Paul Fréart de Chantelou, who kept a Journal of Bernini's visit that records much of <mask>'s behaviour and utterances in Paris. The writer Charles Perrault, who was serving at this time as an assistant to the French Finance Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, also provided a first-hand account of <mask>'s visit. <mask>'s popularity was such that on his walks in Paris the streets were lined with admiring crowds. But things soon turned sour. <mask> presented finished designs for the east front (i.e., the all-important principal facade of the entire palace) of the Louvre, which were ultimately rejected, albeit formally not until 1667, well after his departure from Paris (indeed, the already constructed foundations for <mask>'s Louvre addition were inaugurated in October 1665 in an elaborate ceremony, with both <mask> and King Louis in attendance).It is often stated in the scholarship on <mask> that his Louvre designs were turned down because Louis and his financial advisor Jean-Baptiste Colbert considered them too Italianate or too Baroque in style. In fact, as Franco Mormando points out, "aesthetics are never mentioned in any of [the] ... surviving memos" by Colbert or any of the artistic advisors at the French court. The explicit reasons for the rejections were utilitarian, namely, on the level of physical security and comfort (e.g., location of the latrines). It is also indisputable that there was an interpersonal conflict between <mask> and the young French king, each one feeling insufficiently respected by the other. Though his design for the Louvre went unbuilt, it circulated widely throughout Europe by means of
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engravings and its direct influence can be seen in subsequent stately residences such as Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, England, seat of the Dukes of Devonshire. Other projects in Paris suffered a similar fate. With the exception of Chantelou, <mask> failed to forge significant friendships at the French court.His frequent negative comments on various aspects of French culture, especially its art and architecture, did not go down well, particularly in juxtaposition to his praise for the art and architecture of Italy (especially Rome); he said that a painting by Guido Reni was worth more than all of Paris. The sole work remaining from his time in Paris is the Bust of Louis XIV although he also contributed a great deal to the execution of the Christ Child Playing with a Nail marble relief (now in the Louvre) by his son Paolo as a gift to the Queen of France. Back in Rome, <mask> created a monumental equestrian statue of Louis XIV; when it finally reached Paris (in 1685, five years after the artist's death), the French king found it extremely repugnant and wanted it destroyed; it was instead re-carved into a representation of the ancient Roman hero Marcus Curtius. Later years and death
<mask> remained physically and mentally vigorous and active in his profession until just two weeks before his death that came as a result of a stroke. The pontificate of his old friend, Clement IX, was too short (barely two years) to accomplish more than the dramatic refurbishment by <mask> of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, while the artist's elaborate plan, under Clement, for a new apse for the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore came to an unpleasant end
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in the midst of public uproar over its cost and the destruction of ancient mosaics that it entailed. The last two popes of <mask>'s life, Clement X and Innocent XI, were both not especially close or sympathetic to <mask> and not particularly interested in financing works of art and architecture, especially given the disastrous conditions of the papal treasury. The most important commission by <mask>, executed entirely by him in just six months in 1674, under Clement X was the statue of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni, another nun-mystic.The work, reminiscent of <mask>'s Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, is located in the chapel dedicated to Ludovica remodeled under <mask>'s supervision in the Trastevere church of San Francesco in Ripa, whose facade was designed by <mask>'s disciple, Mattia de' Rossi. In his last two years, <mask> also carved (supposedly for Queen Christina) the bust of the Savior (Basilica of San Sebastiano fuori le Mura, Rome) and supervised the restoration of the historic Palazzo della Cancelleria as per papal commission under Innocent XI. The latter commission is outstanding confirmation of both <mask>'s continuing professional reputation and good health of mind and body even in advanced old age, inasmuch as the pope had chosen him over any number of talented younger architects plentiful in Rome, for this prestigious and most difficult assignment since, as his son Domenico points out, "deterioration of the palace had advanced to such an extent that the threat of its imminent collapse was quite apparent." Shortly after the completion of the latter project, <mask> died in his home on 28 November 1680 and was buried,
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with little public fanfare, in the simple, unadorned Bernini family vault, along with his parents, in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. Though an elaborate funerary monument had once been planned (documented by a single extant sketch of circa 1670 by disciple Ludovico Gimignani), it was never built and <mask> remained with no permanent public acknowledgement of his life and career in Rome until 1898 when, on the anniversary of his birth, a simple plaque and small bust was affixed to the face of his home on the Via della Mercede, proclaiming "Here lived and died <mask> <mask>, a sovereign of art, before whom reverently bowed popes, princes, and a multitude of peoples." Personal life
In the 1630s, Bernini had an affair with a married woman named Costanza (wife of his workshop assistant, Matteo Bonucelli, also called Bonarelli) and sculpted a bust of her (now in the Bargello, Florence) during the height of their romance. Costanza later had an affair with Bernini's younger brother, Luigi, who was Bernini's right-hand man in his studio.When <mask> found out about Costanza and his brother, in a fit of mad fury, he chased Luigi through the streets of Rome and into the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, threatening his life. To punish his unfaithful mistress, <mask> had a servant go to the house of Costanza, where the servant slashed her face several times with a razor. The servant was later jailed, while Costanza herself was jailed for adultery. <mask> himself, instead, was exonerated by the pope, even though he had committed a crime in ordering the face-slashing. Soon after, in May 1639, at age forty-one, <mask> wed a
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twenty-two-year-old Roman woman, Caterina Tezio, in an arranged marriage, under orders from Pope Urban. She bore him eleven children, including youngest son <mask>, who would later be his first biographer. After his never-repeated fit of passion and bloody rage and his subsequent marriage, <mask> turned more sincerely to the practice of his faith, according to his early official biographers, whereas brother Luigi was to once again, in 1670, bring great grief and scandal to his family by his sodomitic rape of a young Bernini workshop assistant at the construction site of the 'Constantine' memorial in St. Peter's Basilica.Architecture
<mask>'s architectural works include sacred and secular buildings and sometimes their urban settings and interiors. He made adjustments to existing buildings and designed new constructions. Among his most well known works are the Piazza San Pietro (1656–67), the piazza and colonnades in front of St. Peter's Basilica and the interior decoration of the Basilica. Among his secular works are a number of Roman palaces: following the death of Carlo Maderno, he took over the supervision of the building works at the Palazzo Barberini from 1630 on which he worked with Borromini; the Palazzo Ludovisi (now Palazzo Montecitorio, started 1650); and the Palazzo Chigi (now Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi, started 1664). His first architectural projects were the façade and refurbishment of the church of Santa Bibiana (1624–26) and the St. Peter's baldachin (1624–33), the bronze columned canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica. In 1629, and before St. Peter's Baldachin was complete, Urban VIII put him in
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charge of all the ongoing architectural works at St Peter's. However, <mask> fell out of favor during the papacy of Innocent X Pamphili: one reason was the pope's animosity towards the Barberini and hence towards their clients including <mask>.Another reason was the failure of the belltowers designed and built by <mask> for St. Peter's Basilica, commencing during the reign of Urban VIII. The completed north tower and the only partially completed south tower were ordered demolished by Innocent in 1646 because their excessive weight had caused cracks in the basilica's facade and threatened to do more calamitous damage. Professional opinion at the time was in fact divided over the true gravity of the situation (with <mask>'s rival Borromini spreading an extreme, anti-Bernini catastrophic view of the problem) and over the question of responsibility for the damage: Who was to blame? <mask>? Pope Urban VIII who forced <mask> to design over-elaborate towers? Deceased Architect of St. Peter's, Carlo Maderno who built the weak foundations for the towers? Official papal investigations in 1680 in fact completely exonerated <mask>, while inculpating Maderno.Never wholly without patronage during the Pamphili years, after Innocent's death in 1655 <mask> regained a major role in the decoration of St. Peter's with the Pope Alexander VII Chigi, leading to his design of the piazza and colonnade in front of St. Peter's. Further significant works by Bernini at the Vatican include the Scala Regia (1663–66), the monumental grand stairway entrance to the Vatican Palace, and the Cathedra Petri, the Chair of Saint Peter, in the apse of St. Peter's,
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in addition to the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament in the nave. <mask> did not build many churches from scratch; rather, his efforts were concentrated on pre-existing structures, such as the restored church of Santa Bibiana and in particular St. Peter's. He fulfilled three commissions for new churches in Rome and nearby small towns. Best known is the small but richly ornamented oval church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, done (beginning in 1658) for the Jesuit novitiate, representing one of the rare works of his hand with which <mask>'s son, Domenico, reports that his father was truly and very pleased. <mask> also designed churches in Castelgandolfo (San Tommaso da Villanova, 1658–1661) and Ariccia (Santa Maria Assunta, 1662–1664), and was responsible for the re-modeling of the Santuario della Madonna di Galloro (just outside of Ariccia), endowing it with a majestic new facade. When <mask> was invited to Paris in 1665 to prepare works for Louis XIV, he presented designs for the east facade of the Louvre Palace, but his projects were ultimately turned down in favor of the more sober and classic proposals of a committee consisting of three Frenchmen: Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and the doctor and amateur architect Claude Perrault, signaling the waning influence of Italian artistic hegemony in France.<mask>'s projects were essentially rooted in the Italian Baroque urbanist tradition of relating public buildings to their settings, often leading to innovative architectural expression in urban spaces like piazze or squares. However, by this time, the French absolutist monarchy now preferred the classicizing monumental severity of
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the Louvre's facade, no doubt with the added political bonus that it had been designed by a Frenchmen. The final version did, however, include <mask>'s feature of a flat roof behind a Palladian balustrade. Personal residences
During his lifetime <mask> lived in various residences throughout the city: principal among them, a palazzo right across from Santa Maria Maggiore and still extant at Via Liberiana 24, while his father was still alive; after his father's death in 1629, <mask> moved the clan to the long-ago-demolished Santa Marta neighborhood behind the apse of St. Peter's Basilica, which afforded him more convenient access to the Vatican Foundry and to his working studio also on the Vatican premises. In 1639, <mask> bought property on the corner of the via della Mercede and the via del Collegio di Propaganda Fide in Rome. This gave him the distinction of being the only one of two artists (the other is Pietro da Cortona) to be proprietor of his own large palatial (though not sumptuous) residence, furnished as well with its own water supply. <mask> refurbished and expanded the existing palazzo on the Via della Mercede site, at what are now Nos.11 and 12. (The building is sometimes referred to as "Palazzo Bernini," but that title more properly pertains to the <mask> family's later and larger home on Via del Corso, to which they moved in the early nineteenth century, now known as the Palazzo Manfroni-Bernini.) <mask> lived at No. 11 (extensively remodeled in the 19th century), where his working studio was located, as well as a large collection of works of art, his own and those of other artists. It is imagined that it must
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have been galling for <mask> to witness through the windows of his dwelling, the construction of the tower and dome of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte by his rival, Borromini, and also the demolition of the chapel that he, <mask>, had designed at the Collegio di Propaganda Fide to see it replaced by Borromini's chapel. The construction of Sant'Andrea, however, was completed by <mask>'s close disciple, Mattia de' Rossi, and it contains (to this day) the marble originals of two of <mask>'s own angels executed by the master for the Ponte Sant'Angelo. Fountains
True to the decorative dynamism of Baroque which loved the aesthetic pleasure and emotional delight afforded by the sight and sound of water in motion, among <mask>'s most gifted and applauded creations were his Roman fountains, which were both utilitarian public works and personal monuments to their patrons, papal or otherwise.His first fountain, the 'Barcaccia' (commissioned in 1627, finished 1629) at the foot of the Spanish Steps, cleverly surmounted a challenge that <mask> was to face in several other fountain commissions, the low water pressure in many parts of Rome (Roman fountains were all driven by gravity alone), creating a low-lying flat boat that was able to take greatest advantage of the small amount of water available. Another example is the long-ago dismantled "Woman Drying Her Hair" fountain that <mask> created for the no-longer-extant Villa Barberini ai Bastioni on the edge of the Janiculum Hill overlooking St. Peter's Basilica. His other fountains include the Fountain of the Triton, or Fontana del Tritone, and the Barberini Fountain of the Bees, the Fontana
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delle Api. The Fountain of the Four Rivers, or Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, in the Piazza Navona is an exhilarating masterpiece of spectacle and political allegory in which <mask> again brilliantly overcame the problem of the piazza's low water pressure creating the illusion of an abundance of water that in reality did not exist. An oft-repeated, but false, anecdote tells that one of the <mask>'s river gods defers his gaze in disapproval of the facade of Sant'Agnese in Agone (designed by the talented, but less politically successful, rival Francesco Borromini), impossible because the fountain was built several years before the façade of the church was completed. <mask> was also the artist of the statue of the Moor in La Fontana del Moro in Piazza Navona (1653). <mask>'s Triton Fountain is depicted musically in the second section of Ottorino Respighi's Fountains of Rome.Tomb monuments and other works
Another major category of <mask>'s activity was that of the tomb monument, a genre on which his distinctive new style exercised a decisive and long-enduring influence; included in this category are his tombs for Popes Urban VIII and Alexander VII (both in St. Peter's Basilica), Cardinal Domenico Pimental (Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome, design only), and Matilda of Canossa (St. Peter's Basilica). Related to the tomb monument is the funerary memorial, of which <mask> executed several (including that, most notably, of Maria Raggi [Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome] also of greatly innovative style and long enduring influence. Among his smaller commissions, although not mentioned by either of his earliest biographers, Baldinucci or
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<mask>, the Elephant and Obelisk is a sculpture located near the Pantheon, in the Piazza della Minerva, in front of the Dominican church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Pope Alexander VII decided that he wanted a small ancient Egyptian obelisk (that was discovered beneath the piazza) to be erected on the same site, and in 1665 he commissioned <mask> to create a sculpture to support the obelisk. The sculpture of an elephant bearing the obelisk on its back was executed by one of <mask>'s students, Ercole Ferrata, upon a design by his master, and finished in 1667. An inscription on the base relates the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Roman goddess Minerva to the Virgin Mary, who supposedly supplanted those pagan goddesses and to whom the church is dedicated. A popular anecdote concerns the elephant's smile.To find out why it is smiling, legend has it, the viewer must examine the rear end of the animal and notice that its muscles are tensed and its tail is shifted to the left as if it were defecating. The animal's rear is pointed directly at one of the headquarters of the Dominican Order, housing the offices of its Inquisitors as well as the office of Father Giuseppe Paglia, a Dominican friar who was one of the main antagonists of <mask>, as a final salute and last word. Among his minor commissions for non-Roman patrons or venues, in 1677 <mask> worked along with Ercole Ferrata to create a fountain for the Lisbon palace of the Portuguese nobleman, the Count of Ericeira: copying his earlier fountains, <mask> supplied the design of the fountain sculpted by Ferrata, featuring Neptune with four tritons around a basin. The fountain has
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survived and since 1945 has been outside the precincts of the gardens of the Palacio Nacional de Queluz, several miles outside of Lisbon. Paintings and drawings
<mask> would have studied painting as a normal part of his artistic training begun in early adolescence under the guidance of his father, Pietro, in addition to some further training in the studio of the Florentine painter, Cigoli. His earliest activity as a painter was probably no more than a sporadic diversion practiced mainly in his youth, until the mid-1620s, that is, the beginning of the pontificate of Pope Urban VIII (reigned 1623–1644) who ordered <mask> to study painting in greater earnest because the pontiff wanted him to decorate the Benediction Loggia of St. Peter's. The latter commission was never executed most likely because the required large-scale narrative compositions were simply beyond <mask>'s ability as a painter.According to his early biographers, Baldinucci and <mask>, <mask> completed at least 150 canvases, mostly in the decades of the 1620s and 30s, but currently there are no more than 35–40 surviving paintings that can be confidently attributed to his hand. The extant, securely attributed works are mostly portraits, seen close up and set against an empty background, employing a confident, indeed brilliant, painterly brushstroke (similar to that of his Spanish contemporary Velasquez), free from any trace of pedantry, and a very limited palette of mostly warm, subdued colors with deep chiaroscuro. His work was immediately sought after by major collectors. Most noteworthy among these extant works are several, vividly penetrating self portraits
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(all dating to the mid 1620s – early 1630s), especially that in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, purchased during <mask>'s lifetime by Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici. <mask>'s Apostles Andrew and Thomas in London's National Gallery is the sole canvas by the artist whose attribution, approximate date of execution (circa 1625) and provenance (the Barberini Collection, Rome) are securely known. As for <mask>'s drawings, about 350 still exist; but this represents a minuscule percentage of the drawings he would have created in his lifetime; these include rapid sketches relating to major sculptural or architectural commissions, presentation drawings given as gifts to his patrons and aristocratic friends, and exquisite, fully finished portraits, such as those of Agostino Mascardi (Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris) and Scipione Borghese and Sisinio Poli (both in New York's Morgan Library). Disciples, collaborators, and rivals
Among the many sculptors who worked under his supervision (even though most were accomplished masters in their own right) were Luigi Bernini, Stefano Speranza, Giuliano Finelli, Andrea Bolgi, Giacomo Antonio Fancelli, Lazzaro Morelli, Francesco Baratta, Ercole Ferrata, the Frenchman Niccolò Sale, Giovanni Antonio Mari, Antonio Raggi, and François Duquesnoy.But his most trusted right-hand man in sculpture was Giulio Cartari, while in architecture it was Mattia de Rossi, both of whom traveled to Paris with <mask> to assist him in his work there for King Louis XIV. Other architect disciples include Giovanni Battista Contini and Carlo Fontana while Swedish architect, Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, who visited Rome twice
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after <mask>'s death, was also much influenced by him. Among his rivals in architecture were, above all, Francesco Borromini and Pietro da Cortona. Early in their careers they had all worked at the same time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death, under <mask>. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, and fierce rivalries developed, particularly between <mask> and Borromini. In sculpture, <mask> competed with Alessandro Algardi and Francois Duquesnoy, but they both died decades earlier than <mask> (respectively in 1654 and 1643), leaving <mask> effectively with no sculptor of his same exalted status in Rome. Francesco Mochi can also be included among <mask>'s significant rivals, though he was not as accomplished in his art as <mask>, Algardi or Duquesnoy.There was also a succession of painters (the so-called 'pittori berniniani') who, working under the master's close guidance and at times according to his designs, produced canvases and frescos that were integral components of <mask>'s larger multi-media works such as churches and chapels: Carlo Pellegrini, Guido Ubaldo Abbatini, Frenchman Guillaume Courtois (Guglielmo Cortese, known as 'Il Borgognone'), Ludovico Gimignani, and Giovanni Battista Gaulli (who, thanks to <mask>, was granted the prized commission to fresco the vault of the Jesuit mother church of the Gesù by <mask>'s friend, Jesuit Superior General, <mask> Paolo Oliva). As far as Caravaggio is concerned, in all the voluminous Bernini sources, his name appears only once, in the Chantelou Diary which records <mask>'s disparaging remark about him
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(specifically his Fortune Teller that had just arrived from Italy as a Pamphilj gift to King Louis XIV). However, how much <mask> really scorned Caravaggio's art is a matter of debate whereas arguments have been made in favor of a strong influence of Caravaggio on Bernini. <mask> would of course have heard much about Caravaggio and seen many of his works not only because in Rome at the time such contact was impossible to avoid, but also because during his own lifetime Caravaggio had come to the favorable attention of <mask>hese and the Barberini. Indeed, much like Caravaggio, <mask> used a theatrical light as an important aesthetic and metaphorical device in his religious settings, often using hidden light sources that could intensify the focus of religious worship or enhance the dramatic moment of a sculptural narrative. First biographies
The most important primary source for the life of Bernini is the biography written by his youngest son, Domenico, entitled Vita del Cavalier Gio. <mask>ino, published in 1713 though first compiled in the last years of his father's life (c. 1675–80).Filippo Baldinucci's Life of Bernini, was published in 1682, and a meticulous private journal, the Diary of the Cavaliere Bernini's Visit to France, was kept by the Frenchman Paul Fréart de Chantelou during the artist's four-month stay from June through October 1665 at the court of King Louis XIV. Also, there is a short biographical narrative, The Vita Brevis of Gian <mask>ini, written by his eldest son, Monsignor Pietro Filippo <mask>, in the mid-1670s. Until the late 20th century, it was generally believed that two years after <mask>'s death,
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Queen Christina of Sweden, then living in Rome, commissioned Filippo Baldinucci to write his biography, which was published in Florence in 1682. However, recent research now strongly suggests that it was in fact <mask>'s sons (and specifically the eldest son, Mons. Pietro Filippo) who commissioned the biography from Baldinucci sometime in the late 1670s, with the intent of publishing it while their father was still alive. This would mean that first, the commission did not at all originate in Queen Christina who would have merely lent her name as patron (in order to hide the fact that the biography was coming directly from the family) and secondly, that Baldinucci's narrative was largely derived from some pre-publication version of <mask>'s much longer biography of his father, as evidenced by the extremely large amount of text repeated verbatim (there is no other explanation, otherwise, for the massive amount of verbatim repetition, and it is known that Baldinucci routinely copied verbatim material for his artists' biographies supplied by family and friends of his subjects). As the most detailed account and the only one coming directly from a member of the artist's immediate family, Domenico's biography, despite having been published later than Baldinucci's, therefore represents the earliest and more important full-length biographical source of Bernini's life, even though it idealizes its subject and whitewashes a number of less-than-flattering facts about his life and personality.Legacy
As one Bernini scholar has summarized, "Perhaps the most important result of all of the [Bernini] studies and research of these past few
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decades has been to restore to Bernini his status as the great, principal protagonist of Baroque art, the one who was able to create undisputed masterpieces, to interpret in an original and genial fashion the new spiritual sensibilities of the age, to give the city of Rome an entirely new face, and to unify the [artistic] language of the times." Few artists have had as decisive an influence on the physical appearance and emotional tenor of a city as Bernini had on Rome. Maintaining a controlling influence over all aspects of his many and large commissions and over those who aided him in executing them, he was able to carry out his unique and harmoniously uniform vision over decades of work with his long and productive life Although by the end of <mask>'s life there was in motion a decided reaction against his brand of flamboyant Baroque, the fact is that sculptors and architects continued to study his works and be influenced by them for several more decades (Nicola Salvi's later Trevi Fountain [inaugurated in 1735] is a prime example of the enduring post-mortem influence of Bernini on the city's landscape). In the eighteenth century Bernini and virtually all Baroque artists fell from favor in the neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, that criticism aimed above all on the latter's supposedly extravagant (and thus illegitimate) departures from the pristine, sober models of Greek and Roman antiquity. It is only from the late nineteenth century that art historical scholarship, in seeking a more objective understanding of artistic output within the specific cultural context in which it was produced, without the a priori
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prejudices of neoclassicism, began to recognize <mask>'s achievements and slowly began restore his artistic reputation. However, the reaction against Bernini and the too-sensual (and therefore "decadent"), too emotionally charged Baroque in the larger culture (especially in non-Catholic countries of northern Europe, and particularly in Victorian England) remained in effect until well into the twentieth century (most notable are the public disparagement of Bernini by Francesco Milizia, Joshua Reynolds, and Jacob Burkhardt). Most of the popular eighteenth- and nineteenth-century tourist's guides to Rome all but ignore Bernini and his work, or treat it with disdain, as in the case of the best-selling Walks in Rome (22 editions between 1871 and 1925) by Augustus J.C. Hare, who describes the angels on the Ponte Sant'Angelo as 'Bernini's Breezy Maniacs.'But now in the twenty-first century, <mask> and his Baroque have now been enthusiastically restored to favor, both critical and popular. Since the anniversary year of his birth in 1998, there have been numerous Bernini exhibitions throughout the world, especially Europe and North America, on all aspects of his work, expanding our knowledge of his work and its influence. In the late twentieth century, <mask> was commemorated on the front of the Banca d'Italia 50,000 lire banknote in the 1980s and 90s (before Italy switched to the euro) with the back showing his equestrian statue of Constantine. Another outstanding sign of <mask>'s enduring reputation came in the decision by architect I.M. Pei to insert a faithful copy in lead of his King Louis XIV Equestrian statue as the sole
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Richard "<mask>" "Riccardo" <mask> (1 October 1911 – 3 September 1988) was a Swiss ice hockey player and coach, and luge athlete. He played for HC Davos from 1929 to 1950, and served as captain of the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team from 1933 to 1939. He scored 105 goals in 111 international matches for the national team, won two bronze medals in ice hockey at the Olympic Games and won an additional four medals at the Ice Hockey World Championships. Playing for HC Davos, he won 18 Swiss championships and six Spengler Cups. He was chosen as the flag bearer for Switzerland at the 1948 Winter Olympics, and recited the Olympic Oath at the same games hosted in St. Moritz. He later served as head coach of the Switzerland and Italy men's national ice hockey teams, and led EHC Visp to a National League A championship. He won a silver medal competing in men's singles at the FIL World Luge Championships 1957 held in Davos, Switzerland.He is considered the best Swiss ice hockey player ever, and was inducted into the inaugural class of the IIHF Hall of Fame in 1997. He is the namesake of the Torriani Award, given by the International Ice Hockey Federation since 2015 to recognize a player for a great international playing career. Early life
<mask> was born on 1 October 1911, in St. Moritz, Switzerland. He was nicknamed "<mask>" as a youth, due to being the youngest child and baby of his family. He played youth hockey in St. Moritz as a right winger, and was also known by the name "Riccardo". Playing career
<mask>'s professional career began as a member of EHC St. Moritz during the 1927–28, and 1928–29 seasons. In his first season with St. Moritz, he won the 1927–28 Swiss National Ice Hockey Championship.<mask> was selected to play for the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team at age 16, since the 1928 Winter Olympics were hosted in St. Moritz and the national team did not incur extra expenses to include exceptional local talent. He scored one goal in four games played in ice hockey at the 1928 Winter Olympics, and won
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a bronze medal with the national team. His appearance in the Olympics made him the youngest person to compete at a senior Ice Hockey World Championship. <mask> joined HC Davos after his father died in 1929, and remained with the team until 1950. He made his Ice Hockey World Championships debut in 1930 with Switzerland, and scored one goal at the 1930 World Ice Hockey Championships, and won a bronze medal. Switzerland opted not to participate in ice hockey at the 1932 Winter Olympics. <mask> and the national team participated at the Ice Hockey European Championship 1932 instead, and Switzerland won the bronze.<mask> served as the Switzerland national team captain from 1933 to 1939. He played on a forward line known as "The ni-storm" (), with brothers Hans Cattini and Ferdinand Cattini. The line was named for the last syllable (-ni) of players' surnames. The ni-storm was regarded as the top line of HC Davos and Switzerland's national hockey team from 1933 to 1950. On this line, he scored five goals in six games at the 1933 Ice Hockey World Championships, 14 goals in seven games at the 1934 World Ice Hockey Championships, and eight goals in eight games at the 1935 Ice Hockey World Championships. <mask> led Switzerland to a silver medal at the 1935 championships, and a bronze medal at the 1939 Ice Hockey World Championships. He also competed in ice hockey at the 1936 Winter Olympics, playing in three games with no goals scored.<mask> also played with HC Davos in international ice hockey competitions. The hosted the annual Spengler Cup tournament, which he won six times, in 1933, 1936, 1938, 1941, 1942 and 1943. HC Davos placed third at the Winter Sports Week held in February 1941, in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. HC Davos and Torriani won the Grand Prix of Berlin in March 1941, which included other club teams from Europe. HC Davos defeated Berliner Schlittschuhclub and Rotweiss Berlin, and then defeated Hammarby Hockey by a 4–2 score in the championship game. In 1943, HC Davos participated in a Gebirgsjäger tournament, versus other
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players from Germany, Italy and Sweden. <mask> was chosen as the flag bearer for Switzerland at the 1948 Winter Olympics hosted in St. Moritz.He was also chosen to recite the Olympic Oath on behalf of all athletes participating, and became the first hockey player to do so at the Olympic Games. He then scored two goals, four assists, and six points in five games, and led Switzerland to the bronze medal in ice hockey at the 1948 Winter Olympics. <mask> retired from playing in 1950. During his career, he won 18 Swiss championships with HC Davos, and played 111 international matches for Switzerland's national team and scored 105 goals. His ni-storm line had played 239 international matches together and combined for 246 goals scored. Coaching career
<mask> served as head coach of the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team in 1946–47, and again from 1948–49 to 1951–52. Under his leadership, the national team finished fourth in Group A at the 1947 Ice Hockey World Championships, fifth in Group A at the 1949 World Ice Hockey Championships, third in Group A at the 1950 World Ice Hockey Championships, third in Group A at the 1951 Ice Hockey World Championships, and fifth overall in ice hockey at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway.From 1954–55 to 1955–56, <mask> coached the Italy men's national ice hockey team. He led to team to a first-place finish in Group B at the 1955 World Ice Hockey Championships, and a promotion to Group A. Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, hosted ice hockey at the 1956 Winter Olympics. Before the games, his team was strengthened by players of Italian descent who had trained in Canada. <mask> led Italy to a third-place finish and Group A, and seventh place overall by winning the consolation round. <mask> coached in the European professional leagues from 1957 to 1971. His first team was SC Riessersee during the 1957–58 season, which he led to an undefeated regular season and a first-place finish in the South group of the German Oberliga, and a second overall finish in the champions pool. He remained in
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Germany for the 1958–59 season, and coached Mannheimer ERC to a third-place finish in the Eishockey-Bundesliga.He moved to Italy in the 1959–60 season to coach Diavoli HC Milano. He led Diavoli to a first-place finish in the Italian Hockey League - Serie A during the regular season. <mask> returned to coaching in Switzerland in 1960, and led EHC Visp for five seasons in National League A until 1965. His first year coaching resulted in a second-place finish in the 1960–61 season. In the 1961–62 season, he led EHC Visp to a first-place finish in the standings, and captured the National League A championship. His team followed up the championship finishing second place in both the 1962–63 season and the 1963–64 season. In his fifth year coaching, EHC Visp dropped to seventh place in the 1964–65 season.After one year away from coaching, <mask> led HC Lugano during the 1966–67 season, finishing the season third place in the east group of National League B. He returned to HC Lugano for the 1969–70 season, and led the team to another third-place finish in the east group of National League B. <mask>'s final season coaching was with HC Davos in the 1970–71 season. He led the team to a second-place finish in the east group of National League B. Personal life
<mask>'s older brother Conrad also played for EHC St. Moritz and the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team. The brothers were teammates at the Ice Hockey World Championships in 1930, 1933, 1934, and the 1932 Ice Hockey European Championship. Torriani won a silver medal competing in men's singles at the FIL World Luge Championships 1957 held in Davos, Switzerland. Two of <mask>'s sons were involved in Swiss hockey.<mask> played for EHC Basel and HC Davos, and Marco played for EHC Basel and SC Langnau Tigers, and later became president of Genève-Servette HC. As a manager, Marco helped Geneva earn a promotion from Swiss League 1 to National League A.
<mask> died on 3 September 1988, in Chur, Switzerland at age 76. Honors and legacy
Torriani is considered the best Swiss ice
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hockey player ever, and has been inducted into the HC Davos Hall of Fame. He was posthumously inducted into the inaugural class of the IIHF Hall of Fame in 1997 as a player, and was the first Swiss to be honored. He is the namesake of the Bibi Torriani Cup, an annual competition for players aged 14 representing various Cantons of Switzerland. The event is used to identify future players for the national team program. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) established the Torriani Award in 2015, named after Torriani.When the new award was announced, the IIHF president René Fasel said; "We wanted to create a trophy which honours players for a great international career irrespective of where they played. Nowadays, with NHL players and international players often being the same, we feel that there are so many top players to honour. Still, we wanted to ensure we recognized players who didn't necessarily win Olympic and World Championship medals but who still had remarkable careers. As a result, we created the Torriani Award, and Lucio Topatigh is a very worthy first recipient". For the 100th anniversary of the Ice Hockey World Championships in 2020, <mask> was named to the IIHF All-time Switzerland team. See also
List of Olympic men's ice hockey players for Switzerland
Notes
References
External links
The Ni-Storm photo gallery
1911 births
1988 deaths
HC Davos players
HC Lugano
Ice hockey players at the 1928 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 1936 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 1948 Winter Olympics
IIHF Hall of Fame inductees
Italy men's national ice hockey team coaches
Medalists at the 1928 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 1948 Winter Olympics
Oath takers at the Olympic Games
Olympic bronze medalists for Switzerland
Olympic ice hockey players of Switzerland
Olympic medalists in ice hockey
People from Maloja District
Serie A (ice hockey) coaches
Swiss expatriate ice hockey people
Swiss ice hockey coaches
Swiss ice hockey right wingers
Swiss male lugers
Switzerland men's national ice hockey team
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<mask> (born <mask>; 18 February 1846 – 22 July 1904) was an English manager, actor, and playwright. With his company, <mask> is credited with attracting the largest crowds of English theatregoers ever because of his success with melodrama, an instance being his production of The Silver King (1882) at the Princess's Theatre of London. The historical tragedy The Sign of the Cross (1895) was <mask>'s most successful play, both in England and in the United States. Biography
1880s
<mask> was born into a farming family in Essex. He is remembered as an actor of handsome appearance (despite his small stature) and with a powerful voice. He made his first appearance on the stage at Halifax in 1864, and then played in the provinces alone and with his wife, Caroline Heath, in East Lynne. They married in 1866, having two sons, Frank and Alfred, and three daughters, Ellen, Katherine and Dorothea (Dollie).<mask> capitalized on his early success as an actor to start a career as a producer. After managerial experience at the Grand Theatre Leeds and elsewhere, in 1879 he took over the management of the Old Court theatre, where in the following year he introduced Madame Helena Modjeska to London in an adaptation of Maria Stuart (by Schiller), together with productions of Adrienne Lecouvreur, La Dame aux camélias and other plays. In 1881, <mask> took over the recently refurbished Princess's Theatre, where his
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melodramatic productions enjoyed great success (if not quite as much as before), with attendance being the highest ever for this theatre. There <mask> presented The Lights o' London, and then The Silver King, regarded as the most successful melodrama of the 19th century in England. It debuted on 16 November 1882, with <mask> as Wilfred Denver. He played this part for three hundred nights without a break, and repeated its success in W. G. Wills's Claudian. In 1885 he and Henry Arthur Jones produced Hoodman Blind and in 1886 co-operated with Clement Scott in Sister Mary.In 1886 <mask> left the Princess's Theatre, and in this same year he made a visit to America, repeated in later years. In 1884 <mask> had appeared in Hamlet, only to promptly return to melodrama. He was not to find much success in any Shakespearian role, apart from Mercutio in Romeo and Juliet. Though <mask> had occasional seasons in London he acted chiefly in the provinces, with his company being one of the most successful of the decade, receiving a £2,000 average yearly profit just from the Grand Theatre Leeds. His brother and his nephew were part of the company, and his grandson would join them eventually. His productions were not immune to accident. His melodrama Romany Rye was scheduled to open at the Theatre Royal, Exeter on 5 September 1887.In the middle of the performance, gas lighting ignited some gauze, fire broke out
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backstage, and then the curtain collapsed. According to Jacob Adler, <mask> was the most famous actor on the London stage of the 1880s. 1890s: The Sign of the Cross
By the 1890s, the London stage was already coming under new influences, and <mask>'s vogue in melodrama had waned, leaving him in financial difficulties. From 1894 he toured the United States, including the American and Knickerbocker theatres of Broadway. Still there in 1895, <mask> found fortune again with a production which would effectively become his most successful, the historical tragedy The Sign of the Cross—which was originally produced in the United States at the Grand Opera House, St. Louis, Missouri on 28 March 1895; in the United Kingdom, at the Grand Theatre, Leeds, on 26 August 1895; in London, at the Lyric Theatre, London on 4 January 1896; and in Australia, at Her Majesty's Theatre, Sydney on 8 May 1897—in which <mask> played Marcus Superbus, an old Roman patrician of the years of Nero, who falls in love with a young woman, Mercia (originally played by Maud Jeffries) and converts to Christianity for her, both sacrificing their lives in the arena to the lions. The plot in some ways strongly resembles the contemporary novel Quo Vadis, and it may have been an unofficial adaptation of it, though <mask> never acknowledged this. The theatre was crowded with audiences largely composed of people outside the ordinary circle of
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playgoers, shepherded by enthusiastic local clergymen.<mask> tried to repeat this success with more plays of a religious type, though not with equal effect, and several of his later attempts were failures. At the turn of the century he co-founded the company which became Waddingtons, originally as a theatre-focused printing firm. Death
<mask> died in a nursing home in London on 22 July 1904. Thanks largely to the success of the Sign of the Cross, he left £57,000, even after periods of relative failure, mainly during his later years managing the Old Court Theatre. His grandson, also named <mask>, became an actor director with the Brandon-Thomas Company before starting his own repertory in 1939, the Wilson Barrett Company, which based itself in Edinburgh's Lyceum, Glasgow at the Alhambra Theatre Glasgow and for a time in Aberdeen. It also performed on television, at the Edinburgh International Festival and, by invitation, in South Africa. The company was retired in 1954.Archives
<mask>'s descendants placed the majority of <mask>'s papers at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Over thirty boxes of materials include manuscript works by <mask>, business and personal correspondence, extensive financial records and legal agreements, as well as photographs, playbills and programs relating to <mask>'s productions, and Barrett and Heath family papers. Additional <mask> materials
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at the Ransom Center include letters by <mask> located in the literary manuscript collections of Richard Le Gallienne, John Ruskin, William Winter, and Robert Lee Wolff. The B. J. Simmons Co. costume design records include the company's renderings for The Sign of the Cross. A marked script of <mask>'s The Manxman can be found in the Playscripts and Promptbooks Collection. The British Library, the Folger Shakespeare Library, and the University of Leeds Special Collections Library each have a substantial number of letters by <mask>. The Victoria & Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Archives holds designs by Edward William Godwin for <mask>'s productions of Juana, Claudian, Hamlet, Junius, and Clito.The papers of <mask> the younger (1900-1981), a grandson of <mask> who was also an actor-manager and toured with his own Wilson Barrett Company, are located in the Scottish Theatre Archive at the University of Glasgow. Works
Theatre management
Grand Theatre Leeds, 1878-1895
Old Court theatre, 1879
Princess's Theatre, 1881–1886
Olympic Theatre (London), 1890-1891. Playwright
Sister Mary (1880s)
Hoodman Blind (1885), with Henry Arthur Jones
Good Old Times (1889), with Sir Hall Caine
Ben-My-Chree (1889), an adaptation of The Deemster, with Sir Hall Caine
Clito, with Sydney Grundy
The Manxman
Romany Rye
The Sign of the Cross (1895)
Lucky Durham
Later adaptations
In 1932, Cecil B. DeMille produced and
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directed a highly successful film version of The Sign of the Cross, starring Fredric March as centurion Marcus Superbus, Claudette Colbert as Poppea, Charles Laughton as Nero, and Elissa Landi as Mercia, the Christian woman with whom Marcus falls in love. Acting
The Silver King (1882)
Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello
The Sign of the Cross (1895)
Claudian, Ben-My-Chree, Virginius, The Manxman (1898)
Notes
References
<mask>'s Arrival: Proposed New Productions: Story of a Famous Play, The Sydney Morning Herald, (Monday, 6 December 1897), pp.5-6. R.W.B., "Stage Prejudice Broken: <mask>'s 'Sign of the Cross'", The Age Literary Section, (Saturday, 24 January 1948), p.6. <mask>, W. The Sign of the Cross, J.B. Lippincott Company, (Philadelphia), 1896: Barrett's novelized version of his play. Barrett, W., The <mask> Barrett Birthday Book: Illustrated, W. & D. Downey, (London), 1899.Mr. <mask>'s Farewell to Melbourne (Souvenir Theatre Programme), Princess Theatre, Melbourne, 21 May 1898. Disher, M.W., "Sex and Salvation: The Sign Of The Cross", pp.115-124 in Disher, M.W., Melodrama: Plots that Thrilled, The Macmillan Company, (New York), 1954. Shaw, G.B., "Mainly About Shakespeare", The Saturday Review, Vol.83, No.2170, (29 May 1897), pp.603-605..
Thomas, J., "<mask>'s New School 'Othello'", The Library Chronicle of the University of Texas at Austin, New Series No.22, (1983), pp.66-87. Thomas, J.M.,
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The Art of the Actor-Manager: <mask> and the Victorian Theatre, UMI Research Press, (Ann Arbor), 1984. External links
<mask> Papers at the Harry Ransom Center
Biography, at Encyclopedia.com
Picture collection, at the National Portrait Gallery
English male stage actors
Actor-managers
1846 births
1904 deaths
19th-century English male actors
19th-century theatre
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<mask> (flor. in Canada 1738–39) is notable in the history of the Jews in Canada as the first Jew to set foot in the country, travelling from France to New France. She was born around 1718, probably at Saint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne (near Bayonne), in the diocese of Dax. Jews in France were subject to waves of expulsion, and women's lives were limited by gender roles, which some tried to evade by cross-dressing. <mask> reinvented herself as Jacques La Fargue, a Roman Catholic boy, and became a sailor on the St-Michel, a ship bound from Bordeaux for the Port of Quebec. At that time, Canada was the only colony of the New World never reported to have been visited by a Jew. After a brief masquerade, <mask>'s religion and sex were both discovered.As a non-Catholic in a legally Catholic country, she was arrested on the orders of Gilles Hocquart, Intendant of New France, and taken to the Hôpital Général in Quebec City. Hocquart was initially under the impression that <mask> wished to convert to Catholicism and remain in the colony. However, later he wrote to the minister in France that conversion attempts had failed: she desired to live in Canada as a Jew. The government decided on deportation, and after correspondence with authorities in France, she was sent back home on a ship named Comte de Matignon at the expense of the State. After <mask>'s deportation to France, nothing more is known about her life. Historical background
Jews in 18th century Europe and European colonies
Historically, anti-Semitism was widespread in Christian Europe and European colonies, with many Jews displaced as a result. In the centuries leading up to the 1700s, European Christians widely associated Jews with unfair economic practices
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such as usury.Medieval prejudices against Jews, such as poisoning water wells to cause the Black Death, persisted in this era as well. Jews were also a popular subject in literature despite making up less than one percent of the French population, although they were often depicted negatively in these works. While Jews had reached the Americas centuries before <mask>, New France was one of the last places that Jews ever set foot in the Americas chronologically as the colony of New France was officially closed to all non-Catholics. In 1492, the year that the Spanish monarchy expelled Jews from its lands, several Jews joined Christopher Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. One Jew among this party, Louis de Torres, has been identified as the first white man to walk upon the New World. By the 17th century, several Jews had become sailors, bearing similarity to <mask>'s early life. In 1624 the first “openly Jewish” settlement, located in Brazil, was established in the Americas.In contrast to New France, the English colonies provided a relatively tolerant environment for Jews as early as the 17th century, partially due to the English acquisition of New Netherland where English ruled that Jews would continue to keep the rights that they enjoyed under Dutch rule. Many Jews in the English colonies established themselves as successful military commanders, merchants, or public servants. In 1733, just a few years before <mask>'s secret arrival in New France, a group of openly Jewish settlers had already helped to establish the English colony of Georgia. Women in New France
While women had more options for non-domestic activities in New France than in France due to the gender disparity that existed in the
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colony, a wife was still subject to her husband's wishes. A woman in New France could be expected to be married in her mid-teens (much younger than the average marriage age in France) to a man over a decade older, and the only grounds for separation was that of financial matters. Cases of domestic abuse in New France have been recorded. From a religious perspective, gender roles persisted as men were expected to play a more active religious while women were more revered for their sexual purity.With respect to <mask>'s situation, she was sent to a hospital rather than a jail due to the lack of prison facilities for women in New France. Legacy
Literature
<mask>'s story has inspired novelists, scholars, scriptwriters, and performance artists to create different pieces about her life. Canadian journalist and historian Benjamin G. Sack featured a historical essay about <mask> in History of the Jews in Canada translated in 1965. B.G. Sack would later be a credible source for <mask>'s story and serve as the main reference for her Dictionary of Canadian Biography which lays the foundation of what is known about <mask>'s life. There are two novels about her: <mask> (2004) by Sharon E. McKay and The Tale-Teller (2012) by Susan Glickman." The Tale-Teller takes readers through <mask>'s life as Jacques La Fargue and the obstacles <mask> faced because of her race and gender.Susan Glickman focuses on the way <mask> breaks the gender, race, and socio-economic status barriers. In Sharon E. McKay's Esther (2004), McKay sets the scene of life in 18th century Europe but specifically focuses one the lives of Jews and women. The fiction novel explains the law restrictions Jews faced and how numerous Jews were either
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forced to convert to Roman Catholicism or converted to escape persecution. Jewish women in Canada lived a constrained life and were expected to take on the traditional roles according to society. <mask>'s story provides a different perspective apart from the societal restrictions Jews and women faced. Performance art
Heather Hermant is a poet-scholar who works with video, installation, theatre, and analyzes the crossover between land, body, and archive. Hermant created a piece known as ribcage: this wide passage, based upon the first Jew to step foot into New France.When Heather was assigned to research an ancestor for a performance class, she explored Jewish-Canadian history which led to her discovery of <mask>'s story. Ribcage: this wide passage highlights <mask>'s experience multi-crossing from a Jewish female passing as a Christian male in the 18th century. The predominant theme of the performance is "multi-crossing" which suggests one who passes across gender, religion, geographies, some of what <mask> experienced on her journey to New France. Ribcage: this wide passage not only explores history and the unknown, but also is centered around finding a place of belonging. Hermant's Brandeau inspired work would be presented at Vancouver's 2010 Tremor's Festival, Le MAI in Montreal, and later be converted into a French version as well. See also
History of the Jews in Canada
References
External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Canadian people of French-Jewish descent
French emigrants to pre-Confederation Quebec
18th-century French Sephardi Jews
Immigrants to New France
Jewish Canadian history
People of New France
Settlers of Canada
Year of birth unknown
Year of
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<mask> (October 16, 1760October 9, 1824) was an American Founding Father and politician from the U.S. state of New Jersey. He was the youngest person to sign the Constitution of the United States and a member of the United States House of Representatives, serving as its third speaker, and later in the U.S. Senate. <mask> was arrested in 1807 for treason in connection with Aaron Burr's conspiracy. He was never tried, but his national political career never recovered. Biography
Early life
<mask> was born in Elizabethtown (now known as Elizabeth), New Jersey. He was the son of <mask>, a merchant who was prominent in local politics and had served as a militia officer in the French and Indian War, and his wife the former Hannah Rolfe. He graduated from the local academy, run by Tapping Reeve and Francis Barber, where he was classmates with Alexander Hamilton.He then attended the College of New Jersey (now known as Princeton University). He left college in 1775 to fight in the American Revolutionary War and received an honorary degree in 1776. Soldier
<mask> was 15 at the outbreak of the war in 1775 and served under his father in the 3rd New Jersey Regiment as an ensign. On January 1, 1777, he was commissioned a lieutenant and served as paymaster. He saw service under General George Washington, fighting in the battles of Brandywine Creek and Germantown. He remained with Washington at Valley Forge and helped push the British from their position in New Jersey into the safety of New York City. In October 1780, <mask> and an uncle were captured by Loyalists, who held them captive for the winter before releasing them in the following year.<mask> again served under his father in the New Jersey Brigade. On March 30, 1780, at age 19, he was promoted to the rank of captain and transferred to the 2nd New Jersey Regiment, where he took part in the Battle of Yorktown. The Revolutionary War pension records indicate that he served as aide-de-camp to General John Sullivan on his expedition
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against the Indians from May 1 to November 30, 1779. At the close of the Revolutionary War, <mask> was admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of New Jersey. On July 19, 1799, <mask> was offered a commission as major general in the Provisional United States Army, but he declined. Career
After the war, <mask> studied law and created a practice, dividing his time between land speculation, law, and politics. After serving as a New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention (of which he was the youngest member, at age 26), he became a prominent Federalist legislator.He was a member of the New Jersey General Assembly in 1786–1787, and again in 1790, and served in the New Jersey Legislative Council (now the New Jersey Senate) in 1789. <mask> was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1789, but he did not take his seat until he was chosen again in 1791. He served as speaker for the Fourth and Fifth Congresses. Like most Federalists, he supported the fiscal policies of Alexander Hamilton, and he helped organize the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion. He supported the Louisiana Purchase and opposed the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. Wealthy from his heavy investments in Ohio, where the city of Dayton would later be named after him, Dayton lent money to Aaron Burr, becoming involved by association in the alleged conspiracy in which Burr was accused of intending to conquer parts of what is now the Southwestern United States. Dayton was exonerated, but his association with Burr effectively ended his political career.Late life and family
<mask> married Susan Williamson in 1779 and had two daughters. After resuming his political career in New Jersey, <mask> died on October 9, 1824, in his hometown. He was interred in an unmarked grave that is now under the St. John's Episcopal Church in Elizabeth, which replaced an original church in 1860. Shortly before Dayton's death, Lafayette visited him, as reported
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in an obituary in the Columbian Centinel on October 20, 1824: "In New-Jersey, Hon. JONATHAN DAYTON, formerly Speaker of the House of Representatives of Congress, and a Hero of the Revolution. When the Nation's Guest lately passed New-Jersey, he passed the night with General <mask>, and such were the exertions of this aged and distinguished federalist, to honor the Guest, and gratify the wishes of his fellow citizens to see, that he sunk under them; and expired, without regret, a few days after." Legacy
The city of Dayton, Ohio, was named after him.While he never visited the area, he was a signatory to the Constitution and, at the time the city of Dayton was established in 1796, he owned (in partnership with Arthur St. Clair, James Wilkinson and Israel Ludlow) 250,000 acres (1,011 km²) in the Great Miami River basin. The Jonathan Dayton High School in Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey, the Dayton neighborhood of Newark, New Jersey, Dayton Street in Madison, Wisconsin, and Dayton, New Jersey, are named in his honor. References
External links
<mask> at The Political Graveyard
The Society of the Cincinnati
American Revolution Institute
1760 births
1824 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Continental Army officers from New Jersey
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
18th-century American politicians
Speakers of the United States House of Representatives
Signers of the United States Constitution
Princeton University alumni
Politicians from Elizabeth, New Jersey
Members of the New Jersey General Assembly
Speakers of the New Jersey General Assembly
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey
Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council
United States senators from New Jersey
New Jersey Federalists
Federalist Party United States senators
American Episcopalians
History of Dayton, Ohio
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People of colonial New Jersey
Burials in New
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<mask> (born 17 November 1987) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for A-League club Macarthur FC. He has also played professional football for Plymouth Argyle, Exeter City, Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City, Bolton Wanderers and Melbourne City. Early life
<mask> was born in Kirkby. He joined Liverpool when he was nine years old and was released 7 years later. He then played junior and amateur football before signing with Wrexham when he was 15. Having been released after a year there, <mask> played non-league football and went to Myerscough football college for six months. He trained as a roofer while a non-league player and in 2008 worked on an extension at Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard's house.Playing career
Non-League football
He joined Skelmersdale United as a youth team player and made his first team debut during the 2005–06 season. Noone had a trial with Belgian club Royal Antwerp in January 2007 and later that year joined Burscough, which Skelmersdale manager Tommy Lawson described as a "great opportunity" for him. Having been signed by Liam Watson, Noone played regularly in the Conference North in 2007–08. Watson left Burscough for Southport in June 2008 and Noone joined him a few days later. In August, he made his league debut before Southport received a club record offer of £110,000 for him from Plymouth Argyle. Plymouth Argyle
Noone signed a two-year contract with Argyle the next day. "I am very excited by this signing," said manager Paul Sturrock."<mask> comes to us with a glowing reputation. It is now up to him to prove that it is merited." He made his debut at the end of the month in a 0–0 draw at Burnley, and scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win at Coventry City in November. After 10 substitute appearances for Plymouth, <mask> made his first start for the club in the league match versus Southampton on Boxing Day 2008, where his team won 2–0. On 3 January 2009, <mask> made his FA Cup debut coming off the bench during a 3–1 loss to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. On 10
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September 2009, after <mask> had only made two league substitute appearances so far in the 2009/10 season, Exeter City signed him on a 3-month loan deal. He made his debut against Leyton Orient and scored the equaliser in a 1–1 draw.<mask> scored in his final appearance for Exeter against Brentford before being recalled on 2 November. Brighton & Hove Albion
On 31 December 2010 it was confirmed that <mask> had transferred to Brighton & Hove Albion for an undisclosed fee. He became a fan favourite at Brighton with his pace and his unerring ability to beat the defender. He scored twice for Brighton in their League One title season, a great individual goal at home against Colchester United and a volley at home against Hartlepool United. He was part of Brighton's first match of pre-season in preparation for the 2011–2012 season against Burgess Hill. He played 45 minutes and impressed, having a long range effort well saved and he earned a penalty which he subsequently scored to make it 2–0. On 21 September 2011, <mask> was announced as the stadium sponsor's man of the match in a 1–2 defeat against his former employers and boyhood club, Liverpool, in a third round League Cup match at Falmer Stadium.The Liverpool-born player hit the crossbar from a long-range shot during the game and was praised by his boyhood hero Steven Gerrard. In January 2012, <mask> was subject to a £500,000 bid from Championship rivals Cardiff City, which was rejected by Albion. <mask> extended his contract at Brighton in March 2012, keeping him at the club until June 2015. Cardiff City
In August 2012, <mask> joined Cardiff City for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £1m, and signed a four-year contract. He made his debut in a 3–1 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers at the start of September, and scored his first goal for the club later in the month as Cardiff won 2–0 at Millwall. Two months after joining the club, <mask> scored in three consecutive games; a win against Burnley in October, and defeats at Bolton Wanderers and Charlton Athletic in November. He
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was sent off for two bookable offences against Derby County later that month.<mask>'s goal against Bolton in April ensured that Cardiff avoided defeat in their final home game of the season, which was followed by the club being presented with the Football League title for winning the Championship. <mask> made 32 appearances in his first season with Cardiff and scored seven goals. <mask> scored his first Premier League goal in January 2014 against Manchester City and was praised for his performance by Cardiff manager Ole Gunnar Solskjær. Cardiff however suffered relegation at the end of the season and returned to the Championship, where he only managed to find one goal in 39 appearances. The following season, <mask> started off brightly, coming on to score the equaliser against Fulham and scoring the winner against AFC Wimbledon. However, he didn't manage to find another goal until December where he scored against Sheffield Wednesday in a 2–2 draw, before scoring against Milton Keynes Dons. Bolton Wanderers
On 31 August 2017, <mask> joined Bolton Wanderers on a two-year contract.Melbourne City
On 17 June 2019, Noone signed a two-year contract with Melbourne City in the A-League. He scored his first goal on debut against Campbelltown City in the Round of 32 in the 2019 FFA Cup. Career statistics
Honours
Brighton & Hove Albion
Football League One: 2010–11
Cardiff City
Football League Championship: 2012–13
Melbourne City
A-League Premiership: 2020–21
A-League Championship: 2021
Individual
2020-21 A-League PFA Team Of The Season
References
External links
1987 births
People from Kirkby
Living people
English footballers
Association football midfielders
Skelmersdale United F.C. players
Burscough F.C. players
Southport F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Exeter City F.C.players
Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Melbourne City FC players
Northern Premier League players
National League (English football) players
English Football League players
Premier League
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<mask> CBE (; 8 May 1892 – 25 September 1967) was a Polish general in World War II. He fought in the Polish Campaign of 1939 and at the Battle of Arnhem (Netherlands) in 1944 as commander of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade. Early military career
Early years and studies
<mask> was born on 8 May 1892, in Stanislau (Polish: Stanisławów), in a railway workers' family. He graduated from a local gymnasium and in 1910 he was accepted as a student of the faculty of economy of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. However, the death of his father and the poor financial situation of his family forced him to abandon his studies and return to Stanislau. There he became a member of Drużyny Strzeleckie, a semi-clandestine Polish national paramilitary organisation. He was soon promoted to the head of all Polish Scouting groups in the area.World War I
In 1913, <mask> was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army. After training, he was promoted to the rank of corporal, serving in the 58th Infantry Regiment. After the outbreak of World War I he fought with his unit against the Imperial Russian Army in the battles of Rzeszów, Dukla Pass and Gorlice. For his bravery, he was awarded several medals and promoted to First Lieutenant. In 1915, he was badly wounded in action and withdrawn from the front. In November 1918, after Poland regained its independence <mask> volunteered for the newly formed Polish Army, but his wounds were still not healed and he was rejected as a front-line officer. Instead, he became a staff officer in the Ministry of War Affairs in Warsaw.Interwar period
After the Polish-Soviet War <mask>
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was promoted to Major and in 1922 he started his studies at the Higher Military School in Warsaw. After he finished his studies he was assigned to the Polish General Staff. Promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, in 1928 he was finally assigned to a front-line unit, the 75th Infantry Regiment, as commanding officer of a battalion. The following year he was assigned to the 3rd Podhale Rifles Regiment as its deputy commander. From 1930 he was also a professor of logistics at his alma mater. In 1937 <mask> was promoted to colonel and became the commanding officer of the 9th Polish Legions Infantry Regiment stationed in Zamość. In January 1939 he became the commander of the prestigious Warsaw-based 21st "Children of Warsaw" Infantry Regiment.Invasion of Poland 1939
According to the Polish mobilisation scheme, <mask>'s regiment was attached to the 8th Infantry Division under Col. . Shortly before the German invasion of Poland started his unit was moved from its garrison in the Warsaw Citadel to the area of Ciechanów, where it was planned as a strategic reserve of the Modlin Army. On 2 September the division was moved towards Mława and in the early morning of the following day it entered combat in the Battle of Mława. Although the 21st Regiment managed to capture Przasnysz and its secondary objectives, the rest of the division was surrounded by the Wehrmacht and destroyed. After that <mask> ordered his troops to retreat towards Warsaw. On 8 September <mask>'s unit reached the Modlin Fortress. The routed 8th Division was being reconstructed, but the 21st Regiment was attached to the corps led by general Juliusz Zulauf.After
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several days of defensive fights, the corps was moved to Warsaw, where it arrived on 15 September. Instantly upon arrival, <mask> was ordered to man the Grochów and the Kamionek defensive area and defend Praga, the eastern borough of Warsaw, against the German 10th Infantry Division. During the Siege of Warsaw the forces of <mask> were outmanned and outgunned, but managed to hold all their objectives. When the general assault on Praga started on 16 September, the 21st Infantry Regiment managed to repel the attacks of German 23rd Infantry Regiment and then successfully counter-attacked and destroyed the enemy unit. After this success, <mask> was assigned to command all Polish troops fighting in the area of Grochów. Despite constant bombardment and German attacks repeated every day, Sosabowski managed to hold his objectives at relatively low cost in manpower. On 26 September 1939, the forces led by Sosabowski bloodily repelled the last German attack, but two days later Warsaw capitulated.On 29 September, shortly before the Polish forces left Warsaw for German captivity, General Juliusz Rómmel awarded Col. Sosabowski and the whole 21st Infantry Regiment with the Virtuti Militari medal. France
Following the Polish surrender, <mask> was made a prisoner of war and interned at a camp near Żyrardów. However, he escaped and remained in Warsaw under a false name, where he joined the Polish resistance. He was ordered to leave Poland and reached France to report on the situation in occupied Poland. After a long trip through Hungary and Romania, he arrived in Paris, where the Polish government in exile assigned him to the
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Polish 4th Infantry Division as the commanding officer of infantry. Initially, the French authorities were very reluctant to hand over the badly needed equipment and armament for the Polish unit. Sosabowski's soldiers had to train with pre-World War I weapons.In April 1940, the division was moved to a training camp in Parthenay and was finally handed the weapons awaited since January, but it was already too late to organise the division. Out of more than 11,000 soldiers, only 3,150 were given arms. Knowing this, the commander of the division General ordered his unit to withdraw towards the Atlantic coast. On 19 June 1940, <mask> with approximately 6,000 Polish soldiers arrived at La Pallice, whence they were evacuated to Great Britain. Great Britain
Upon his arrival in London, <mask> turned up at the Polish General Staff and was assigned to 4th Rifles Brigade that was to become a core of the future 4th Infantry Division. The unit was to be composed mainly of Polish Canadians, but it soon became apparent that there were not enough young Poles in Canada from which to create a division. Then, <mask> decided to transform his brigade into a Parachute Brigade, the first such unit in the Polish Army.The volunteers came from all the formations of the Polish Army. In Largo House in Fife, a training camp was built and the parachute training was started. <mask> himself passed the training and, at 49 years of age, made his first parachute jump. According to relations of <mask>'s former subordinates, the colonel was a strict yet just commander. Impulsive and harsh, Sosabowski could not stand any opposition. This made the
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creation of a Polish parachute brigade possible, but also made contacts with his superiors problematic. In October 1942 the Brigade was ready for combat and was named the 1st Independent Parachute Brigade.Since the Polish General Staff planned to use the Brigade to assist a national uprising in Poland, the soldiers of the 1st Polish Para were to be the first element of the Polish Army in Exile to reach their homeland. Hence the unofficial motto of the unit: the shortest way (najkrótszą drogą). In September 1943, Lieutenant-General Frederick Browning proposed that <mask> reform his unit into a division and fill the remaining posts with British troops. <mask> himself would be assigned to the newly formed division and promoted to general. However, Sosabowski refused. Nevertheless, on 15 June 1944 he was promoted to Brigadier General. Warsaw Uprising
In early August 1944, news of the Warsaw Uprising arrived in Great Britain.The Brigade was ready to be dropped by parachute into Warsaw to aid their comrades from the underground Polish Home Army, who were fighting a desperate battle against overwhelming odds. However, the distance was too great for the transport aircraft to make a round trip and access to Soviet airfields was denied. The morale of the Polish troops suffered badly and many of the units verged on mutiny. The British staff threatened its Polish counterpart with disarmament of the Brigade, but <mask> retained control of his unit. Finally, Polish Commander in Chief Kazimierz Sosnkowski put the Brigade under British command, and the plan to send it to Warsaw was abandoned. It was not until after the war
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that General <mask> learnt that his son, , a medic and member of the Kedyw, had lost his sight during the uprising. Battle of Arnhem
During the planning for Operation Market Garden, <mask> expressed serious concerns regarding the feasibility of the mission.Among <mask>'s concerns were the poorly conceived drop zones at Arnhem, the long distances between the landing zones and Arnhem Bridge and that the area would contain a greater German presence than British intelligence believed. Despite <mask>'s concerns and warnings from the Dutch Resistance that two SS Panzer Divisions were in the operations area, Market Garden proceeded as planned. The Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade was among the Allied forces taking part in Market Garden. Due to a shortage of transport aircraft, the brigade was split into several parts before being dropped into the battle. A small part of the brigade with <mask> was parachuted near Driel on 19 September, but the rest of the brigade arrived only on 21 September at the distant town of Grave, falling directly on the waiting guns of the Germans camped in the area. The brigade's artillery was dropped with the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General Roy Urquhart, while the howitzers were to arrive by sea, which prevented the brigade from being deployed effectively. Three times Sosabowski attempted to cross the Rhine to come to the assistance of the surrounded 1st Airborne Division.Unfortunately, the ferry they hoped to use had been sunk and the Poles attempting to cross the river in small rubber boats came under heavy fire. Even so, at least 200 men made it across
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the river and reinforced the embattled British paratroopers. Despite the difficult situation, at a staff meeting on 24 September, <mask> suggested that the battle could still be won. He proposed that the combined forces of XXX Corps, under Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, and the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade should start an all-out assault on the German positions and try to break through the Rhine. This plan was not accepted, and during the last phase of the battle, on 25 and 26 September, <mask> led his men southwards, shielding the retreat of the remnants of the 1st Airborne Division. Casualties among the Polish units were high, approaching 40%, and were at least in part, the result of Lieutenant-General Browning's decision to drop the paratroops 7 kilometres from the bridge at Arnhem. After the battle, on 5 October 1944, <mask> received a letter from Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, commander of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, describing the Polish soldiers as having fought bravely and offering awards to ten of his soldiers.However, on 14 October 1944, Montgomery wrote another letter, this time to the British commanders, in which he scapegoated <mask> for the failure of Market Garden. <mask> was accused of criticizing Montgomery, and the Polish General Staff was forced to remove him as the commanding officer of his brigade on 27 December 1944. At the Moscow Conference in October 1944, a turning point came in Anglo-Polish relations. On Prime Minister Churchill's request, the Polish delegation arrived in Moscow on 12 October 1944. Upon arrival, Churchill told them to be present at the discussions
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between himself, Joseph Stalin and the Communist Polish Lublin Committee. Consequently, Churchill coerced Polish Prime Minister <mask> Mikołajczyk into cooperating with Stalin's disciples, or else risk losing Britain's support for the remainder of the war. From the British perspective, any news that could be beneficial to their coercion tactics would be welcome.The information came on 16 October in a telegram to Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, who was present in Moscow as Churchill's military advisor. The message stated that <mask>'s brigade performed badly. Churchill could use this claim to put more pressure on Mikołajczyk to cooperate, because it could be argued that one of his most valuable assets, <mask>'s elite brigade, was no longer useful to the Allied war effort. Montgomery's telegram is exceptional to his behavior in that timeframe. Two days prior to the telegram he was praising the Polish contribution to the war, while six weeks later he awarded a Distinguished Service Order to General <mask> Maczek and decorated members of the Polish 1st Armoured Division. In addition, war correspondents spoke highly of the Polish contribution to Market Garden in the same period as Montgomery was expressing his negative experiences, via Field Marshal Brooke, to Prime Minister Churchill. <mask> was eventually made the commander of rearguard troops and was demobilized in July 1948.He was portrayed by Gene Hackman in the 1977 war film A Bridge Too Far. After the war
Shortly after the war <mask> succeeded in evacuating his wife and only son from Poland. Like many other Polish
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wartime officers and soldiers who were unable to return to Communist Poland he settled in West London. He found a job as a factory worker at the CAV Electrics assembly plant in Acton. He died in London on 25 September 1967. It has been suggested that until his funeral at which his rank and achievements were read out, many of his friends and workmates in England were largely unaware of his military accomplishments. In 1969, <mask>'s remains were returned to Poland, where he was reinterred at Powązki Military Cemetery in Warsaw.In The Hague, on 31 May 2006, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands awarded the Military Order of William to the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade. The brigade's commander, <mask>, was posthumously awarded the "Bronze Lion". In part this was the result of a Dutch TV documentary depicting the brigade as having played a far more significant role in Market Garden than had been hitherto acknowledged. In this film by Geertjan Lassche, Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands said the Poles deserved to be honoured with at least a medal. The following day, on 1 June, a ceremony was held at Driel, the town where the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade fought. Among the speakers at the ceremony were the mayor of Overbetuwe, as well as <mask>'s grandson and great-grandson. In the summer of 2012 1st Airborne Major Tony Hibbert made a video appeal for <mask> to be pardoned and honoured.His bust was unveiled on 1 September 2013 in Kraków's Jordan Park. Sosabowski is one of many Polish historical figures honoured in the Park. Awards
He was awarded many military honours, including:
Knight's Cross
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<mask> (; ) (September 10 (O. S. August 29), 1875 in Smolensk – September 20, 1937), was a Russian Bolshevik activist and Soviet statesman, served as the first Commissar for Food at the establishment of the Council of People's Commissars (October - November 1917). He also became a Soviet historian of the Russian revolutionary movement. Life and political career
<mask>, the son of a land-surveyor from Smolensk, was born into a family of ethnic Polish origin. His father, two maternal uncles, and grandfather had all participated in insurrectionary activity; from this background, Teodorovich would write, he first learned to hate "tsarism, its officials, and [the] military establishment". Teodorovich spent his childhood in severe poverty: his mother, struggling to support six sons, worked as a seamstress and laundrywoman. <mask> attended Moscow State University, where he joined an early Marxist group in 1895. From 1902 to 1903 he served as a member of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.After a series of arrests, in 1903 the tsarist authorities sent <mask> into exile in Yakutia. Escaping in 1905, he fled to Switzerland, where he made personal contact with Vladimir Lenin. In October 1905 <mask> returned to Russia and operated in Saint Petersburg; he gained promotion to become a member of the Central Committee in 1907. In May 1909 he was arrested again and remained in custody until the February Revolution of 1917. After the February Revolution of March 1917 he left his place of exile and arrived in Petrograd in mid-March. He was a delegate to the 7th (April) All-Russian Conference (where he was elected a candidate member of the Central
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Committee) and to the 6th Congress of the RSDLP (B). From August 1917 he served as deputy chairman of the , then as a member of the council and special presence in food.After the October Revolution of November 1917, in the first Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SNK) he took the post of People's Commissar for Food. Immediately after the October Revolution, <mask> became the first Commissar for Agriculture in the first Bolshevik government. In November he resigned due to political disagreement with Lenin's majority over a proposed coalition with the Mensheviks and other factions (Teodorovich supported a broad coalition, against Lenin's will). In 1920 he returned to the board of the Commissariat for Agriculture and rose to become Deputy Commissar in May 1922; in 1928-1930 he chaired the Peasants' branch of the Comintern. As the Bolsheviks' expert on agriculture, Teodorovich delivered speeches to various councils and international forums, and authored brochures, journal and newspaper articles dealing with agriculture and agrarian policy. <mask> was a proponent of Lenin’s New Economic Policy (the NEP); he further endorsed liberal land-reforms (delegating authority over land from the state to peasants). Contrary to the Bolsheviks' platform on agrarian policy, <mask> vehemently opposed the policy of food requisition and war communism.He supported the formation of a homogeneous socialist government with the participation of the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. After The Central Committee of the RSDLP (B) rejected the agreement with these parties, Teodorovich on November 4 (17), 1917 signed a statement of
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withdrawal from the SNK, but continued to carry out his duties until December. "(T)he disagreement concerned the question of whether our party had to start with "war communism" or whether it was possible to proceed from what was called the "new economic policy" in 1921. I held in 1917 the latter opinion .." - <mask>vich Autobiography
In articles of the 1920s, Teodorovich interpreted the NEP as a means of accumulating funds in the capitalist agrarian sector through the development of "strong" peasant farms, which was to serve as a source of funds for industrialization, including its transition to socialism. In the People's Commissariat Teodorovich supervised the work of economist N. D. Kondratiev, who led the department of agricultural economics and statistics of the Department of Agriculture and provided <mask> with a degree of protection and patronage (in particular, Kondratiev contributed in 1920 to his release from arrest). At the beginning of 1918 <mask> left for Siberia after parting ways with Lenin's first government. In 1919-1920 he was in the red partisan units in Siberia.In 1920-1928 <mask> served as a member of the College of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture of the RSFSR. From May 1922 to 1928 he was deputy of the People's Commissar of Agriculture of the RSFSR, 1926-1930 Director of the International Agrarian Institute, from March 1928 to 1930 secretary general of the Peasant International (Krestintern), 1929-1935 editor of the Publishers of the Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiled Settlers, 1929- 1935 editor of the magazine . An ordinance of the Central Committee of the VKP (b) of the Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiled
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Settlers closed the magazine on June 25, 1935 for factional activities. In November 1930 <mask> was condemned as a counter-revolutionary "Kondratievist". <mask> was convicted in the trial of the so-called Moskva Center group (involving a total of 120 people). Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov sanctioned the trial on September 15, 1937. <mask> was executed five days later - a victim of Stalin's Great Purge.<mask> was posthumously rehabilitated on April 11, 1956, and is buried in the Don Cemetery in Moscow. Works
О государственном регулировании крестьянского хозяйства. М., 1921
Судьбы русского крестьянства, М., 1923, 1924, 1925
К вопросу о сельскохозяйственной политике в РСФСР, М., 1923
Уроки союза рабочих и крестьян в СССР. Доклад на 2-м съезде Международного крестьянского совета, М., 1925
Восемь лет нашей крестьянской политике. М., 1926
Вопросы индустриализации и сельское хозяйство. Свердловск, 1927
Историческое значение партии «Народной воли», М., изд. Политикаторжан, 1930
О Горьком и Чехове, М.—Л., ГИЗ, 1930
«1 марта 1881 г.», М., 1931
Family
Wife - Okulova-Teodorovich, Glafira Ivanovna (23.4 (6.5) .1878–19.10.1957) - Soviet politician and party leader.Son - <mask> <mask> (1907-1964) - an artist and writer
References
== External link ==
http://www.knowbysight.info/TTT/00395.asp
1875 births
1937 deaths
Comintern people
Party leaders of the Soviet Union
Great Purge victims from Russia
Old Bolsheviks
People from Smolensk
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
Russian revolutionaries
People of the Russian Empire of Polish descent
Soviet people of Polish descent
Polish people executed by the Soviet Union
Soviet politicians
Russian people of
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<mask> "Johnny" <mask> (February 22, 1912 – September 24, 1983) was a United States Army general who served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1964 to 1968. Regarded as a premier tactician, <mask> became skeptical that the level of resources given to the Vietnam War, much of which went into 'find, fix, and destroy the big main force units' operations, could deliver victory. <mask> came to believe that the Communist forces held a trump card, because they controlled whether there were engagements with U.S. forces, giving an option to simply avoid battle with U.S. forces if the situation warranted it. Early life
<mask> was born in Bowesmont, North Dakota, on February 22, 1912. After graduation from high school in 1929, <mask> attended the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. On June 13, 1933, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry. <mask>'s first duty assignment was with the 3rd Infantry (Old Guard) at Fort Snelling, Minnesota.Military career
In 1938, <mask> attended Infantry School at Fort Benning. Upon graduation, he was assigned to the 28th Infantry at Fort Niagara, New York. Requesting an overseas transfer, <mask> was reassigned to the 57th Infantry (Philippine Scouts) at Fort McKinley, Philippine Islands in 1940. World War II
After the Battle of Bataan, <mask> became a prisoner of war (POW) of the Japanese on 9 April 1942. Participating in the Bataan Death March, <mask> was eventually imprisoned at Camp O'Donnell, Cabanatuan and Bilibid Prison. In December 1944, the Japanese attempted to transfer <mask> and 1600 other POWs out of the Philippines. On 14 December 1944, American fighter planes sank the Japanese ship Ōryoku Maru, killing over 300 of the POWs.<mask> survived and was eventually transferred to Japan. Unwilling to give up their POWs to the advancing Allies, Japan again transferred <mask>. Finally ending up in Korea, <mask>
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was liberated by the 7th Infantry Division on September 7, 1945. Korean War and rise to senior command
After <mask>'s return to the United States, his first assignment was with the Ground Forces School. In August 1946, he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he remained as an instructor for another two years. <mask> next attended the Armed Forces Staff College in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1949. After graduation, he was assigned as commanding officer, 3rd Battalion, 7th Infantry at Fort Devens, Massachusetts.<mask> organized the 1st Provisional Infantry Battalion at Fort Devens and, in August 1950, he was dispatched to Korea. The battalion became the 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry Regiment, assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division for the defense of the Pusan Perimeter. Still with the 1st Cavalry Division, <mask> was later promoted to command the 5th and the 8th Cavalry Regiments. In February 1951, he was reassigned as Assistant Chief of Staff, G3 of I Corps. Returning to the United States, <mask> was assigned to the Office of the Chief of the Army Field Forces, Fort Monroe, Virginia. In 1952, he attended the National War College. After graduation, <mask> was assigned to the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G3, where he served first, as Chief of Joint War Plans Branch, then as the Assistant to the Chief of the Plans Division, and finally as the Executive Officer of the Assistant Chief of Staff.In January 1956, <mask> was assigned to duty as Assistant Division Commander of the 8th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado. Later in 1956, he transferred with the 8th Division to West Germany. <mask>'s next assignment was as chief of staff, Seventh Army Headquarters at Stuttgart-Vaihingen. Then in April 1959, <mask> moved to Headquarters, United States Army Europe as Assistant Chief of Staff, G3. The following December, he was appointed chief of
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staff, Central Army Group at NATO Headquarters concerned with planning for the employment of French, German, and American troop operations in Central Europe. Returning to the United States, <mask> was assigned as commandant, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In February 1963, he became assistant deputy chief of staff for military operations (operations and plans), Department of the Army, and in July was appointed as deputy chief of staff for military operations.Chief of Staff
On July 3, 1964, <mask> was appointed the 24th Chief of Staff of the United States Army; his reputation as an expert tactician led to him being selected over candidates with more seniority. He had told the National Guard Association that year that "military force ... should be committed with the object beyond war in mind" and "broadly speaking, the object beyond war should be the restoration of stability with the minimum of destruction, so that society and lawful government may proceed in an atmosphere of justice and order." Vietnam War
<mask> went to Vietnam in December 1965 after the Battle of Ia Drang. He "concluded that it had not been a victory at all and that Westmoreland's big-unit strategy was misconceived". However, <mask> publicly said there was no alternative to disrupting enemy main force units in the Central Highlands as preventing them from establishing base areas in the middle of the country was essential. After talking to junior officers involved in the first major actions, <mask> concluded that enemy main force units had the ability to evade engagements, giving them the option to keep casualties below an acceptable level, but they were in fact accepting the actual kill ratios being achieved, as evidenced by them attacking United States forces. <mask> started the process to have Westmoreland replaced in Vietnam, and commissioned the PROVN Study, which noted that "aerial
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attacks and artillery fire, applied indiscriminately, also have exacted a toll on village allegiance."There was a deep-seated reluctance among the Joint Chiefs of Staff to interfere with the command decisions of Westmoreland, but harassing artillery fire, by United States forces at least, was greatly reduced. As <mask> saw it, the communist units would always keep their casualties below what they considered a prohibitive level, and could not be swept away by US firepower. He did, however, acknowledge that the U.S. Commander in Vietnam, General William Westmoreland, had little choice but to engage the enemy's main formations, which had to be prevented from securing base areas where they could concentrate. <mask> was instrumental in altering the focus to a counterinsurgency approach, but was frustrated at the US Congress' refusal to provide the manpower necessary for successful pacification. In his later years <mask> said it had been obvious that US national mobilization was required to win in Vietnam, and he regretted not resigning in protest at the government asking the army to fight a war without hope of ultimate victory. Conditions for enlisted personnel
As Chief of Staff, one of <mask>'s noteworthy accomplishments was creating the office of the Sergeant Major of the Army to improve the quality of life for enlisted personnel.He selected Sergeant Major William O. Wooldridge to be the first to hold this post. <mask> also served as acting Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for a few months in 1967 during the convalescence of General Earle Wheeler. <mask> retired from active duty in July 1968. For three years, General <mask> headed the Freedoms Foundation at Valley Forge and afterwards worked as a banking executive until retiring for good. Final years
<mask> married Dorothy Rennix in 1935. During his term as chief of staff, he had been involved in many policy debates regarding the
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escalation of the Vietnam War as a proponent of full military mobilization to achieve a pacification of South Vietnam. He considered resigning in protest over President Lyndon B<mask>'s decision not to mobilize the reserves, and at the end of his life expressed regret at not doing so.He was the subject of a biography, Honorable Warrior, by Lewis Sorley. <mask> died on September 24, 1983, in Washington, D.C. <mask> came to regret not opposing the escalation of the Vietnam War, lamenting that "I am now going to my grave with that lapse in moral courage on my back." Tributes
"He had an unusual sense of loyalty to the men under him, the kind of thing ordinary soldiers notice and value when they grade an officer..."
"He was the best, someone born to lead men. I think he was always thinking about what was good for us. Nothing ever got by him." Decorations and awards
Dates of rank
References
External links
Thunderbolt by Lewis Sorley
Four Stars by Mark Perry
Army biography in Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History
Harold K. <mask> Collection US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
1912 births
1983 deaths
United States Army generals
United States Army Chiefs of Staff
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan
Bataan Death March prisoners
American torture victims
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Commandants of the United States Army Command and General Staff College
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
People from Pembina County, North Dakota
Burials at Arlington National
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Alasdair David George Murray (born 6 September 1986), professionally known as <mask>, is an Australian rapper from Frankston, Victoria. Illy first emerged onto the hip hop scene in 2009 and has released five studio albums and has won multiple ARIA Music Awards. Illy has performed at many Australian music festivals including headline spots at Groovin the Moo, Splendour in the Grass, Spilt Milk and Yours and Owls. Early life
Alasdair David George Murray was born on 6 September 1986 in Frankston, Melbourne, Australia. Career
2009–2011: Long Story Short and The Chase
Before his solo career, <mask> was a member of Crooked Eye, but opted to leave the group. Illy released his first album, Long Story Short in 2009. Long Story Short reached No.24 on the ARIA Top 40 Urban Albums chart and the lead single, "Pictures", was placed on national rotation on Triple J. In April 2010, <mask> embarked on his first national headlining tour, playing 12 dates nationally. In September the same year, <mask> toured nationally alongside Australian rappers 360 and Skryptcha for "The Three Up Tour". <mask> featured on the track "Take It from Me" on producer M-Phazes' 2010 debut album Good Gracious. In 2010, <mask> released the singles "The Chase" and "Cigarettes" and in October 2010, released his second studio album The Chase. The Chase peaked at number 25 on the ARIA Charts. The album's third single, "It Can Wait" became Illy's first charting single on the Australian Singles Chart, peaking at number
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fifty-eight.In February 2011, <mask> embarked on his 14-date nationwide "The Chase Tour", with special guest M-Phazes. In October 2011, "It Can Wait" was certified Gold by ARIA after selling 35,000 copies. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2011 The Chase was nominated for the ARIA Award for Best Urban Album. 2012–15: Bring It Back and Cinematic
In May 2012, <mask> released "Heard It All", the lead single from his third studio album. In September 2012, <mask> released his third album, Bring It Back, which peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Charts. <mask> described the album as a "passion project" and a "tribute" to the Australian hip hop scene. A 24-date nationwide tour supported the release, with Australian hip-hop producer Chasm and Skryptcha as support acts.At the ARIA Music Awards of 2013, Bring It Back won Illy his first ARIA Music Award, winning ARIA Award for Best Urban Album. In September 2013, <mask> left Obese Records to set up his own label, ONETWO records, and signed South Australian hip hop artist Allday. In November 2013, Illy released his fourth studio album, Cinematic. The album debuted at number 4 on the ARIA Charts. In March 2014, the album's fourth single "Tightrope" became Illy's first top 20 single, peaking at number 18. 2016–present: Two Degrees and sixth studio album
In July 2016, Illy released "Papercuts", featuring Vera Blue, which peaked at number 2 on the ARIA charts. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2016, the song was nominated for four awards.In October 2016, <mask>
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