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General Holm may refer to:
Jeanne M. Holm (1921–2010), U.S. Air Force major general
Karl Eric Holm (1919–2016), Swedish Army lieutenant general
Norbert Holm (1895–1962), German Wehrmacht major general
See also
General Holmes (disambiguation)
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A rubber washer is a ring made of rubber used in mechanical devices. It is used to prevent vibration from spreading from one part to another, reducing the noise levels.
Typical uses are mounting computer parts, like fans and hard disk drives. By decoupling the motor from the computer case it prevents the resonance chamber effect from amplifying the noise.
Hardware (mechanical)
Rubber products
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The Beginning may refer to:
Film and television
"The Beginning" (Eureka Seven)
"The Beginning...", an episode of Gotham
"The Beginning" (Red Dwarf)
"The Beginning" (Samurai Jack)
"The Beginning" (The X-Files)
The Beginning (2007 film), a 2007 skateboarding film
The Beginning (TV series), a Chinese TV drama series
The Beginning (1970 film), a 1970 Soviet film
Baahubali: The Beginning, a 2015 Indian film
Music
Albums
The Beginning (The Black Eyed Peas album)
The Beginning (Broiler album), Norwegian DJ and electronic music duo Broiler
The Beginning (Brooklyn Bounce album), German dance band Brooklyn Bounce
The Beginning (EP), a 2004 EP by The Features
The Beginning (Jandek album), 1999
The Beginning (JYJ album), South Korean pop group JYJ
The Beginning (Kevin Borg album), Maltese pop singer Kevin Borg, 2009
The Beginning (Mercyful Fate album), 1987 compilation
The Beginning, a 1980 album by Midnight Star
The Beginning (Miles Davis album)
The Beginning (Trae album), American rapper Trae
Songs
"The Beginning" (Billy Ray Cyrus song)
"The Beginning", song by Alicia Keys from Here
The Beginning (Little Mix song)
"The Beginning" (One Ok Rock song)
The Beginning (RuPaul Song)
"The Beginning" (Seal song), a 1991 song by Seal
"The Beginning", a song by As I Lay Dying from the album Frail Words Collapse
Other
The Beginning (concerts), by The Black Eyed Peas
The Beginning (novel), a 2001 novel in the Animorphs series
The Beginning, a Beanie Baby bear produced after the 1999 Beanie Baby retirement vote
See also
B The Beginning, a 2018 anime series
Beginning (disambiguation)
Begin (disambiguation)
In the Beginning (disambiguation)
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Samsung Galaxy J1 (2016) - бюджетный Android-смартфон производства компании Samsung, входящий в серию Galaxy J.
В версии с двумя SIM-картами он известен как J1 (2016) Duos, в версии AT&T Galaxy Express 3, в версии Cricket Galaxy Amp 2.
Технические характеристики
Оборудование
Galaxy J1 (2016) - смартфон размером 132,6 x 69,3 x 8,9 миллиметра и весом 131 грамм.
Устройство оснащено поддержкой GSM, HSPA, LTE, Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n с Wi-Fi Direct и точкой доступа, Bluetooth 4.1 с A2DP и LE, GPS с A-GPS и GLONASS, а также FM RDS радио. Он имеет порт microUSB 2.0 и вход 3,5-мм аудиоразъема.
Galaxy J1 (2016) оснащен емкостным сенсорным экраном S-AMOLED с диагональю 4,5 дюйма, соотношением сторон 5:3 и разрешением 480 x 800 пикселей (плотность 207 пикселей на дюйм). Корпус изготовлен из пластика. Литий-ионный аккумулятор емкостью 2050 мАч является съемным.
Чипсет - Spreadtrum SC9830, с четырехъядерным процессором, состоящим из 4 ядер Cortex-A7 с частотой 1,3 ГГц и графическим процессором Mali-400. Объем встроенной памяти составляет 8 Гб, а оперативной памяти - 1 Гб.
Задняя камера имеет 5-мегапиксельный сенсор, оснащена автофокусом и светодиодной вспышкой, способна записывать видео в максимальном разрешении HD со скоростью 30 кадров в секунду, в то время как фронтальная камера имеет 2 мегапикселя.[2]
Программное обеспечение
Операционная система - Android, в версии 5.1.1 Lollipop, которая не может быть официально обновлена до более поздней версии. Только канадская модель была выпущена сразу с Android версии 6.0.1 Marshmallow, но даже в этом случае она не обновляется до более поздних версий. Он оснащен пользовательским интерфейсом TouchWiz.
См. также
Samsung Galaxy
Внешние ссылки
Примечания
Смартфоны Samsung
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Crème de banane () is a sweet, banana-flavored liqueur, usually bottled at 17–25% ABV. It is mostly used in alcoholic drinks but also in cooking; it is an ingredient of various cocktails and desserts.
Cooking
Crème de banane can be used as a syrup on frozen desserts. In some baked dishes, it may be added to obtain a strong banana flavor.
Production
Companies such as Marie Brizard, Lucas Bols, and DeKuyper make this liqueur. It is based on neutral-tasting, unaged grape brandy flavored by means of infusion or maceration.
Fruit liqueurs
Bananas
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Elaine may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Elaine (opera), composed by Herman Bemberg
"Elaine" (short story), 1945 short story by J. D. Salinger
"Elaine" (song), by ABBA
Places
Elaine, Victoria, a town in Australia
Elaine, Arkansas, a US city
People
Elaine (given name), real people and fictional characters with the given name
Elaine (legend), name shared by several different female characters in Arthurian legend, including:
Elaine of Astolat
Elaine of Corbenic
Elaine (singer), South African singer
See also
Elaine's, a New York City restaurant
The Exploits of Elaine, 1914 film serial in the genre of The Perils of Pauline
"Miss Elaine", song by Run–D.M.C. from the album Tougher Than Leather
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Samsung Galaxy Xcover 3 (код модели: SM-G388F или R3) - это Android смартфон производства Samsung, третья модель в серии прочных (т.е. обладающих особой устойчивостью к воде, пыли, ударам и падениям) Galaxy Xcover устройств.
Технические характеристики
Оборудование
Galaxy Xcover 3 - смартфон размером 132,9 x 70,1 x 10 миллиметров и весом 154 грамма. Устройство оснащено GSM, HSPA, Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n с Wi-Fi Direct, Bluetooth 4.0 с A2DP, GPS с A-GPS и GLONASS, NFC и FM-радио. Он имеет порт microUSB 2.0 и вход 3,5 мм аудиоразъем..
Galaxy Xcover 3 оснащен емкостным сенсорный экран диагональю 4,5 дюйма, типа PLS TFT, с соотношением сторон 5:3 и WVGA разрешением 480 x 800 пикселей (плотность 207 пикселей на дюйм). Корпус изготовлен из пластика. Литий-ионная батарея емкостью 2200 мАч является съемной.
Чипсет представляет собой Marvell Armada PXA1908, с четырехъядерным CPU (ARM Cortex-A53, 1,2 ГГц) и GPU Vivante GC7000. Объем встроенной памяти составляет 8 Гб, а объем RAM - 1,5 Гб..
Задняя камера имеет 5 мегапиксельный сенсор, оснащена автофокусом и вспышкой, способна записывать видео в формате 720p при 30 fps, а фронтальная камера - 2 мегапикселя..
Устройство соответствует стандарту IP67, поэтому оно защищено от проникновения пыли и обладает водонепроницаемостью до 30 минут погружения на глубину одного метра, оно также соответствует военному стандарту MIL-STD-810G..
Программное обеспечение
Операционной системой Мобильное устройство является Android, в версии 4.4.4 KitKat, с возможностью обновления до 5.0 Lollipop.. Он имеет пользовательский интерфейс TouchWiz.
Примечания
Смартфоны
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Fleetwood Mac is a British-American rock band.
Fleetwood Mac may also refer to:
Fleetwood Mac (1968 album), also known as Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac, or the "Dog & Dustbin" album (from the album cover picture)
Fleetwood Mac (1975 album), also known as the White Album
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Athletics may refer to:
Sports
Sport of athletics, a collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking
Track and field, a sub-category of the above sport
Athletics (physical culture), competitions based on human qualities of stamina, fitness, and skill
College athletics, non-professional, collegiate- and university-level competitive physical sports and games
Teams
Oakland Athletics, an American professional baseball team
Philadelphia Athletics (1860–76), an American professional baseball team
Philadelphia Athletics (American Association), an American professional baseball team, 1882–1890
Philadelphia Athletics (1890–91), an American baseball team
Philadelphia Athletics (NFL), a professional American football team, 1902–1903
Other uses
Athletics (band), an American post-rock band
See also
Athlete (disambiguation)
Athletic (disambiguation)
athleticism
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The meerkat (Suricata suricatta) or suricate is a small mongoose found in southern Africa. It is characterised by a broad head, large eyes, a pointed snout, long legs, a thin tapering tail, and a brindled coat pattern. The head-and-body length is around , and the weight is typically between . The coat is light grey to yellowish-brown with alternate, poorly-defined light and dark bands on the back. Meerkats have foreclaws adapted for digging and have the ability to thermoregulate to survive in their harsh, dry habitat. Three subspecies are recognised.
Meerkats are highly social, and form packs of two to 30 individuals each that occupy home ranges around in area. There is a social hierarchy—generally dominant individuals in a pack breed and produce offspring, and the nonbreeding, subordinate members provide altruistic care to the pups. Breeding occurs around the year, with peaks during heavy rainfall; after a gestation of 60 to 70 days, a litter of three to seven pups is born.
They live in rock crevices in stony, often calcareous areas, and in large burrow systems in plains. The burrow systems, typically in diameter with around 15 openings, are large underground networks consisting of two to three levels of tunnels. These tunnels are around high at the top and wider below, and extend up to into the ground. Burrows have moderated internal temperatures and provide a comfortable microclimate that protects meerkats in harsh weather and at extreme temperatures.
Meerkats are active during the day, mostly in the early morning and late afternoon; they remain continually alert and retreat to burrows when sensing danger. They use a broad variety of calls to communicate among one another for different purposes, for example to raise an alarm on sighting a predator. Primarily insectivorous, meerkats feed heavily on beetles and lepidopterans, arthropods, amphibians, small birds, reptiles, and plant material in their diet.
Commonly living in arid, open habitats with little woody vegetation, meerkats occur in southwestern Botswana, western and southern Namibia, and northern and western South Africa; the range barely extends into southwestern Angola. With no significant threats to the population, the meerkat is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Meerkats are widely depicted in television, movies and other media.
Etymology
The word 'meerkat' derives from the Dutch name for a kind of monkey, which in turn comes from the Old High German mericazza, possibly as a combination of meer ('lake') and kat ('cat'). This may be related to the similar (markat, or monkey), deriving from Sanskrit, though the Germanic origin of the word predates any known connections to India. The name was used for small mammals in South Africa from 1801 onward, possibly because the Dutch colonialists used the name in reference to many burrowing animals. The native South African name for the meerkat is 'suricate', possibly deriving from the , which in turn may have a Dutch origin. In Afrikaans the meerkat is called graatjiemeerkat or stokstertmeerkat; the term mierkatte or meerkatte can refer to both the meerkat and the yellow mongoose (). In colloquial Afrikaans mier means 'ant' and kat means 'cat', hence the name probably refers to the meerkat's association with termite mounds.
Taxonomy
In 1776, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber described a meerkat from the Cape of Good Hope, giving it the scientific name Viverra suricatta. The generic name Suricata was proposed by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1804, who also described a zoological specimen from the Cape of Good Hope. The present scientific name Suricata suricatta was first used by Oldfield Thomas and Harold Schwann in 1905 when they described a specimen collected at Wakkerstroom. They suggested there were four local meerkat races in the Cape and Deelfontein, Grahamstown, Orange River Colony and southern Transvaal, and Klipfontein respectively. Several zoological specimens were described between the late 18th and 20th centuries, of which three are recognised as valid subspecies:
S. s. suricatta occurs in southern Namibia, southern Botswana, and South Africa.
S. s. majoriae occurs in central and northwestern Namibia.
S. s. iona occurs in southwestern Angola.
Phylogeny and evolution
Meerkat fossils dating back to have been excavated in various locations in South Africa. A 2009 phylogenetic study of the family Herpestidae split into two lineages around the Early Miocene (25.4–18.2 mya)—eusocial and solitary mongooses. The meerkat belongs to the monophyletic eusocial mongoose clade along with several other African mongooses: Crossarchus (kusimanse), Helogale (dwarf mongoose), Liberiictis (Liberian mongoose) and Mungos (banded mongoose). The solitary mongoose lineage comprises two clades including species such as Meller's mongoose (Rhynchogale melleri) and the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata). The meerkat genetically diverged from the rest of the clade 22.6–15.6 mya. The phylogenetic relationships of the meerkat are depicted as follows:
Characteristics
The meerkat is a small mongoose of slim build characterised by a broad head, large eyes, a pointed snout, long legs, a thin tapering tail and a brindled coat pattern. It is smaller than most other mongooses except the dwarf mongooses (genus Helogale) and possibly Galerella species. The head-and-body length is around , and the weight has been recorded to be between without much variation between the sexes (though some dominant females can be heavier than the rest). The soft coat is light grey to yellowish brown with alternate, poorly-defined light and dark bands on the back. Individuals from the southern part of the range tend to be darker. The guard hairs, light at the base, have two dark rings and are tipped with black or silvery white; several such hairs aligned together give rise to the coat pattern. These hairs are typically between , but measure on the flanks. Its head is mostly white and the underparts are covered sparsely with dark reddish-brown fur, with the dark skin underneath showing through. The eyes, in sockets covering over 20% of the skull length, are capable of binocular vision. The slim, yellowish tail, unlike the bushy tails of many other mongooses, measures , and is tipped with black. Females have six nipples. The meerkat looks similar to two sympatric species—the banded and the yellow mongooses. The meerkat can be told apart from the banded mongoose by its smaller size, shorter tail and bigger eyes relative to the head; the yellow mongoose differs in having a bushy tail and lighter coat with an inner layer of yellow fur under the normal brown fur.
The meerkat has 36 teeth with the dental formula of . It is well adapted for digging, movement through tunnels and standing erect, though it is not as capable of running and climbing. The big, sharp and curved foreclaws (slightly longer than the hindclaws) are highly specialised among the feliforms, and enable the meerkat to dig efficiently. The black, crescent-like ears can be closed to prevent the entry of dirt and debris while digging. The tail is used to balance when standing upright. Digitigrade, the meerkat has four digits on each foot with thick pads underneath.
The meerkat has a specialised thermoregulation system that helps it survive in its harsh desert habitat. A study showed that its body temperature follows a diurnal rhythm, averaging during the day and at night. As the body temperature falls below the thermoneutral zone, determined to be , the heart rate and oxygen consumption plummet; perspiration increases sharply at temperatures above this range. Additionally, it has a basal metabolic rate remarkably lower than other carnivores, which helps in conserving water, surviving on lower amounts of food and decreasing heat output from metabolic processes. During winter, it balances heat loss by increasing the metabolic heat generation and other methods such as sunbathing.
Ecology and behaviour
The meerkat is a social mammal, forming packs of two to 30 individuals each comprising nearly equal numbers of either sex and multiple family units of pairs and their offspring. Members of a pack take turns at jobs such as looking after pups and keeping a lookout for predators. Meerkats are a cooperatively breeding species—typically the dominant 'breeders' in a pack produce offspring, and the nonbreeding, subordinate 'helpers' provide altruistic care for the pups. This division of labour is not as strictly defined as it is in specialised eusocial species, such as the breeder-worker distinction in ants. Moreover, meerkats have a clear dominance hierarchy with older individuals having a higher social status. A study showed that dominant individuals can contribute more to offspring care when fewer helpers were available; subordinate members increased their contributions if they could forage better.
Packs live in rock crevices in stony areas and in large burrow systems in plains. A pack generally occupies a home range, large on average but sometimes as big as , containing many burrows apart, of which some remain unused. A 2019 study showed that large burrows towards the centre of a range are preferred over smaller ones located near the periphery; this was especially the case with packs that had pups to raise. A pack may shift to another burrow if the dominant female has little success finding prey in an area. The area near the periphery of home ranges is scent marked mostly by the dominant individuals; there are communal latrines, large, close to the burrows. Packs can migrate collectively in search of food, to escape high predator pressure and during floods.
Meerkats are highly vigilant, and frequently survey their surroundings by turning their heads side to side; some individuals always stand sentry and look out for danger. Vocal communication is used frequently in different contexts; for instance repetitive, high-pitched barks are used to warn others of predators nearby. They will generally retreat to their burrows for safety, where they will remain until the danger is gone. They stick their heads out of burrows to check the area outside, still barking. Mobs of meerkats fiercely attack snakes that may come near them. Raptors such as bateleurs, martial eagles, tawny eagles, and pale chanting goshawks are major aerial predators; on the ground, meerkats may be threatened by bat-eared foxes, black-backed jackals, and Cape foxes.
Social behaviour
Encounters between members of different packs are highly aggressive, leading to severe injuries and often deaths; 19% of meerkats die by conspecific violence, which is the highest recorded percentage among mammals. Females, often the heaviest ones, try to achieve dominance over the rest in many ways such as fierce competition or taking over from the leader of the pack. A study showed that females who grew faster were more likely to assert dominance, though males did not show such a trend. Males seeking dominance over groups tend to scent mark extensively and are not submissive; they often drive out older males in a group and take over the pack themselves. Subordinate individuals face difficulties in breeding successfully; for instance, dominant females often kill the litters of subordinate ones. As such, subordinate individuals might disperse to other packs to find mates during the breeding season. Some subordinate meerkats will even kill the pups of dominant members in order to improve their own offspring's position. It can take days for emigrants to secure entry into other packs, and they often face aversion from the members. Males typically succeed in joining existing groups; they often inspect other packs and their burrow systems in search of breeding opportunities. Many often team up in 'coalitions' for as long as two months and travel nearly a day on twisted paths. Dispersal appears to be less common in females, possibly because continuing to stay within a pack can eventually win them dominance over other members. Dispersed females travel longer than coalitions, and tend to start groups of their own or join other similar females; they aim for groups of emigrant males or those without a breeding female. Subordinate females, unlike subordinate males, might be ousted from their packs, especially in the latter part of the dominant female's pregnancy, though they may be allowed to return after the birth of the pups.
Burrowing
Meerkat burrows are typically in diameter with around 15 openings, though one of dimensions with as many as 90 holes has been reported. These large underground networks comprise two to three levels of tunnels up to into the ground; the tunnels, around high at the top, become broader after descending around a metre. The entrances, in diameter, are created by digging at an angle of 40 degrees to the surface; the soil accumulated as a result can slightly increase the height of burrow sites. 'Boltholes' are used for a quick escape if dangers are detected. While constructing or renovating burrows meerkats will line up to form a continuous head-to-tail chain, break the soil into crumbs with their foreclaws, scoop it out with their forepaws joined and throw it behind them between their hindlegs.
Outside temperatures are not reflected at once within burrows; instead there is usually an eight-hour lag which creates a temperature gradient in warrens, so that burrows are coolest in daytime and warmest at night. Temperatures inside burrows typically vary between in summer and in winter; temperatures at greater depths vary to a much lesser extent, with summer temperatures around and winter temperatures around . This reduces the need for meerkats to thermoregulate individually by providing a comfortable microclimate within burrows; moreover, burrowing protects meerkats in harsh weather and at extreme temperatures. Consequently, meerkats spend considerable time in burrows; they are active mainly during the day and return to burrows after dark and often to escape the heat of the afternoon. Activity peaks during the early morning and late afternoon. Meerkats huddle together to sleep in compact groups, sunbathe and recline on warm rocks or damp soil to adjust their body temperatures.
Meerkats tend to occupy the burrows of other small mammals more than constructing them on their own; they generally share burrows with Cape ground squirrels and yellow mongooses. Cape ground squirrels and meerkats usually do not fight for space or food. Though yellow mongooses are also insectivores like meerkats, competition for prey is minimal as yellow mongooses are less selective in their diet. This association is beneficial to all the species as it saves time and efforts spent in making separate warrens. Many other species have also been recorded in the meerkat burrows, including African pygmy mice, Cape grey mongooses, four-striped grass mice, Highveld gerbils, rock hyraxes, slender mongooses, South African springhares and white-tailed rats.
Vocalisations
Meerkats have a broad vocal repertoire that they use to communicate among one another in several contexts; many of these calls may be combined by repetition of the same call or mixing different sounds. A study recorded 12 different types of call combinations used in different situations such as guarding against predators, caring for young, digging, sunbathing, huddling together and aggression.
Short-range 'close calls' are produced while foraging and after scanning the vicinity for predators. 'Recruitment calls' can be produced to collect meerkats on sighting a snake or to investigate excrement or hair samples of predators or unfamiliar meerkats. 'Alarm calls' are given out on detecting predators. All these calls differ in their acoustic characteristics, and can evoke different responses in the 'receivers' (meerkats who hear the call); generally the greater the urgency of the scenario in which the call is given, the stronger is the response in the receivers.
This indicates that meerkats are able to perceive the nature of the risk and the degree of urgency from the acoustics of a call, transmit it and respond accordingly. For instance, upon hearing a terrestrial predator alarm call, meerkats are most likely to scan the area and move towards the source of the call, while an aerial predator alarm call would most likely cause them to crouch down. A recruitment call would cause receivers to raise their tails (and often their hair) and move slowly towards the source.
The complexity of calls produced by different mongooses varies by their social structure and ecology. For instance eusocial mongooses such as meerkats and banded mongooses use calls in a greater variety of contexts than do the solitary slender mongooses. Moreover, meerkats have more call types than do banded mongooses. Meerkat calls carry information to identify the signaling individual or pack, but meerkats do not appear to differentiate between calls from different sources. The calls of banded mongooses also carry a 'vocal signature' to identify the caller.
Diet
The meerkat is primarily an insectivore, feeding heavily on beetles and lepidopterans; it can additionally feed on eggs, amphibians, arthropods (such as scorpions, to whose venom they are immune), reptiles, small birds (such as the southern anteater-chat), plants and seeds. Captive meerkats include plenty of fruits and vegetables in their diet, and also kill small mammals by biting the backs of their skulls. They have also been observed feeding on the desert truffle Kalaharituber pfeilii. Meerkats often eat citron melons and dig out roots and tubers for their water content.
Mongooses spend nearly five to eight hours foraging every day. Like other social mongooses, meerkats in a pack will disperse within of one another and browse systematically in areas within their home range without losing visual or vocal contact. Some individuals stand sentry while the rest are busy foraging. Meerkats return to an area only after a week of the last visit so that the food supply is replenished sufficiently. They hunt by scent, and often dig out soil or turn over stones to uncover hidden prey. Meerkats typically do not give chase to their prey, though they may pursue geckos and lizards over several metres. Food intake is typically low during winter.
Reproduction
Meerkats breed throughout the year with seasonal peaks, typically during months of heavy rainfall; for instance, maximum births occur from January to March in the southern Kalahari. Generally only dominant individuals breed, though subordinate members can also mate in highly productive years. Females become sexually mature at two to three years of age. Dominant females can have up to four litters annually (lesser for subordinate females), and the number depends on the amount of precipitation. Mating behaviour has been studied in captive individuals. Courtship behaviour is limited; the male fights with his partner, getting hold of her by her snout. He will grip the nape of her neck if she resists mounting, and hold her down by grasping her flanks during copulation.
After a gestation of 60 to 70 days, a litter of three to seven pups is born. Pups weigh around in the first few days of birth; the average growth rate for the first three months is per day, typically the fastest in the first month. A 2019 study showed that growth and survival rates of pups might decrease with increase in temperature.
Infants make continuous sounds that resemble bird-like tweets, that change to a shrill contact call as they grow older. Young pups are kept securely in a den, from where they emerge after around 16 days, and start foraging with adults by 26 days. The nonbreeding members of the pack help substantially with juvenile care, for instance they feed the pups and huddle with them for warmth. A study showed that nearly half of the litters of dominant females, especially those born later in the breeding season were nursed by subordinate females, mostly those that were or recently had been pregnant.
Sex biases have been observed in feeding; for instance, female helpers feed female pups more than male pups unlike male helpers who feed both equally. This is possibly because the survival of female pups is more beneficial to female helpers as females are more likely to remain in their natal pack. Some helpers contribute to all activities more than others, though none of them might be specialised in any of them. Sometimes helpers favour their own needs over those of pups and decide not to feed them; this behaviour, known as "false-feeding", is more common when the prey is more valued by the meerkat.
The father remains on guard and protects his offspring, while the mother spends a lot of time foraging to produce enough milk for her young. Mothers give out shrill, repetitive calls to ensure their pups follow them and remain close together. Unable to forage themselves, young pups vocalise often seeking food from their carers. Like many species, meerkat pups learn by observing and mimicking adult behaviour, though adults also engage in active instruction. For example, meerkat adults teach their pups how to eat a venomous scorpion by removing the stinger and showing the pups how to handle the creature. The mother runs around with prey in her mouth, prompting her pups to catch it. Pups become independent enough to forage at around 12 weeks of age. Meerkats are estimated to survive for five to 15 years in the wild; the maximum lifespan recorded in captivity is 20.6 years.
Females appear to be able to discriminate the odour of their kin from that of others. Kin recognition is a useful ability that facilitates cooperation among relatives and the avoidance of inbreeding. When mating occurs between meerkat relatives it often results in negative fitness consequences (inbreeding depression), that affect a variety of traits such as pup mass at emergence from the natal burrow, hindleg length, growth until independence and juvenile survival. These negative effects are likely due to the increased homozygosity or higher genetic similarity among individuals that arise from inbreeding and the consequent expression of deleterious recessive mutations.
Distribution and habitat
The meerkat occurs in southwestern Botswana, western and southern Namibia, northern and western South Africa; the range barely extends into southwestern Angola. It lives in areas with stony, often calcareous ground in a variety of arid, open habitats with little woody vegetation. It is common in savannahs, open plains and rocky areas beside dry rivers in biomes such as the Fynbos and the Karoo, where the mean yearly rainfall is below . The average precipitation reduces to towards the northwestern areas of the range. It prefers areas with short grasses and shrubs common in velds, such as camelthorn in Namibia and Acacia in the Kalahari. It is absent from true deserts, montane regions and forests. Population densities vary greatly between places, and are significantly influenced by predators and rainfall. For instance, a study in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, where predation pressure is high, recorded a lower mean meerkat density relative to a ranch with lower occurrence of predators; in response to a 10% decrease in rainfall over a year, the density fell from .
Threats and conservation
The meerkat is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List; the population trend appears to be stable. There are no significant threats except low rainfall, which can lead to deaths of entire packs. Research has shown that temperature extremes have negative impacts on Kalahari Desert meerkats. Increased maximum air temperature is correlated with decreased survival and body mass in pups, perhaps as a result of dehydration from water loss during evaporative cooling or decreased water content in food, or from the heavier metabolic costs of thermoregulation on hot days. Higher temperatures are also associated with increased rates of endemic tuberculosis infection; this may be due to decreased immune function resulting from physiological stress, as well as increased male emigration rates observed during heat waves.
Meerkats occur in several protected areas such as the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Makgadikgadi Pan. The Kalahari Meerkat Project, founded by Tim Clutton-Brock, is a long-term research project run by four different research groups that focuses on understanding cooperative behaviour in meerkats. It began in the Gemsbok National Park but was shifted to the Kuruman River Reserve in 1993.
In culture
Meerkats are generally tame animals. However, they are unsuitable as a pet as they can be aggressive and have a strong, ferret-like odour. In South Africa meerkats are used to kill rodents in rural households and lepidopterans in farmlands. Meerkats can transmit rabies to humans, but yellow mongooses appear to be more common vectors. It has been suggested that meerkats may even limit the spread of rabies by driving out yellow mongooses from their burrows; meerkats are generally not persecuted given their economic significance in crop protection, though they may be killed due to rabies control measures to eliminate yellow mongooses. Meerkats can also spread tick-borne diseases.
Meerkats have been widely portrayed in movies, television and other media. A popular example is Timon from the Lion King franchise, who is an anthropomorphic meerkat. Meerkat Manor (2005–2008), a television programme produced by Oxford Scientific Films that was aired on Animal Planet, focused on groups of meerkats in the Kalahari that were being studied in the Kalahari Meerkat Project. Meerkats populated an acidic floating island in the 2012 film Life of Pi.
See also
The Meerkats, a 2008 documentary feature film
Compare the Meerkat
Eusociality
References
Further reading
External links
Mongooses of Sub-Saharan Africa
Mammals of Southern Africa
Mammals described in 1776
Extant Pleistocene first appearances
Carnivorans of Africa
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Everybody's Autobiography is a book by Gertrude Stein, published in 1937.
It is a continuation of her own memoirs, picking up where The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, published in 1933, left off. Both were written in a less experimental, more approachable style than most of her other work.
In chapter four of this book is found the famous quote "There is no there there" which refers to her disappeared childhood home in Oakland, California.
References
Books by Gertrude Stein
1937 non-fiction books
Culture of Oakland, California
Books about the San Francisco Bay Area
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El término La rosa tatuada puede referirse:
a La rosa tatuada, una obra de teatro de Tennessee Williams;
a La rosa tatuada, una película estadounidense basada en la anterior.
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A desktop traditionally refers to:
The surface of a desk (often to distinguish office appliances that fit on a desk, such as photocopiers and printers, from larger equipment covering its own area on the floor)
Desktop may refer to various computer terms:
Desktop computer, a personal computer designed to fit on a desk
Desktop metaphor, a style of graphical user interface modeled after a physical work surface
Desktop environment, software that provides a comprehensive computer user interface
Remote desktop software, software that allows a personal computer's desktop environment to be run remotely on one system
Client (computing), sometimes referred to as a desktop to distinguish a Client from the Server
Desktop (word processor), a program for the ZX Spectrum
See also
Laptop
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Equatorial may refer to something related to:
Earth's equator
the tropics, the Earth's equatorial region
tropical climate
the Celestial equator
equatorial orbit
equatorial coordinate system
equatorial mount, of telescopes
equatorial bond, a type of chemical bond orientation
See also
Equator (disambiguation)
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"She Thinks She Needs Me" is a song written by Shane Minor, Sonny LeMaire and Clay Mills, and recorded by American country music artist Andy Griggs. It was released in February 2004 as the lead-off single from his album This I Gotta See. It peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
Chart performance
The song debuted at number 60 on the Hot Country Songs chart dated February 28, 2004. Having charted for 33 weeks on that chart, it peaked at number 5 on the country chart dated September 11, 2004. It also peaked at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Year-end charts
References
2004 singles
Andy Griggs songs
Songs written by Shane Minor
Songs written by Clay Mills
RCA Records Nashville singles
2004 songs
Songs written by Sonny LeMaire
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Balkan Mahala (în ) este un sat în comuna Lăki, regiunea Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
Demografie
La recensământul din 2011, populația satului Balkan Mahala era de locuitori. . Pentru % din locuitori nu este cunoscută apartenența etnică.
Note
Sate din regiunea Plovdiv
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The National Marine Aquarium of Namibia is an aquarium in Swakopmund, Namibia. The Aquarium features fauna from the cold Benguela Current in the southern Atlantic Ocean.
References
Aquaria in Namibia
Swakopmund
Buildings and structures in Erongo Region
Articles needing infobox zoo
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In the theory of general relativity, the Gibbons–Hawking effect is the statement that a temperature can be associated to each solution of the Einstein field equations that contains a causal horizon. It is named after Gary Gibbons and Stephen Hawking.
The term "causal horizon" does not necessarily refer to event horizons only, but could also stand for the horizon of the visible universe, for instance.
For example, Schwarzschild spacetime contains an event horizon and so can be associated a temperature. In the case of Schwarzschild spacetime this is the temperature of a black hole of mass , satisfying (see also Hawking radiation).
A second example is de Sitter space which contains an event horizon. In this case the temperature is proportional to the Hubble parameter , i.e. .
See also
Hawking radiation
References
General relativity
Stephen Hawking
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Gerry is both a surname and a masculine or feminine given name. As a given name, it is often a short form (hypocorism) of Gerard, Gerald or Geraldine. Notable people with the name include:
Surname
Elbridge Gerry (1744–1814), fifth US vice president (1813–1814) after whom the term gerrymander was named
Ann Gerry (1763–1849), wife of Elbridge
Thomas Russell Gerry (1794–1848), son of Elbridge and Ann
Elbridge Thomas Gerry (1837–1927), American lawyer and reformer, son of Thomas
Peter G. Gerry (1879–1957), U.S. Senator from Rhode Island, great grandson of Elbridge
Edith Stuyvesant Gerry (1873–1958), American philanthropist and wife of Peter
Elbridge T. Gerry Sr. (1908–1999), American banker and polo player, great-great grandson of the vice president
Robert L. Gerry Jr. (1911–1979), American polo player, brother of Elbridge Sr
Robert L. Gerry III (born 1937), American businessman, son of Robert L. Jr
Alan Gerry (born 1929), American billionaire and founder of Cablevision Industries
Elbridge Gerry (Maine politician) (1813–1886), American lawyer and politician
Eloise Gerry (1885–1970), American forestry research scientist
Nathan Gerry (born 1995), American football player
Robert Gerry (politician) (1858–1931), American politician
Given name
Gerard Gerry Adams (born 1948), Irish republican politician
Gerry Adams Sr. (1926–2003), Irish Republic Army volunteer, father of the Irish politician and alleged abuser of his family
Gerry Adams (fencer) (born 1962), Australian fencer
Doroteo Gerardo Gerry Alanguilan Jr. (1968–2019), Filipino comic book artist and writer
Gerald Gerry Armstrong (activist) (born 1946), critic and former member of the Church of Scientology
Gerard Gerry Armstrong (footballer) (born 1954), Northern Irish footballer
Gerry Barney (born 1939), British designer
Gerry Bohanon (born 1999), American football player
Joseph Gaétan Robert Gérald Gerry Boulet (1946–1990), Canadian rock singer
Gerry Bertier (1953–1981), Virginia high school football player
Gerry Brown (disambiguation)
Gerard Gerry Brownlee (born 1956), New Zealand politician
Gerry Byrne (politician) (born 1966), Canadian politician
Gerald Gerry Byrne (footballer, born 1938) (1938–2015), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Cheevers (born 1940), Canadian retired National Hockey League goaltender, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
Gerry Cinnamon, Scottish musician born Gerald Crosbie in 1985
Gerry Collins (disambiguation)
Gerry Cooney (born 1956), American former boxer
Gerry Davis (disambiguation)
Gerry Dee, Canadian comedian born Gerard Donoghue in 1968
Gerry De Silva (born 1940), general, Commander of the Sri Lanka Army from 1994-1996
Gerry Dick, American journalist and host of Inside Indiana Business
Geraldine Ferraro (1935–2011), American attorney and politician, first female US vice presidential candidate
Gerald Gerry Francis (born 1951), English former footballer and manager
Gerald Gerry Francis (footballer, born 1933), South African-born footballer, first black footballer to play for Leeds United
Pierce Gerry Geran (1896–1981), American ice hockey player
Gerry Glaude (1927–2017), Canadian ice hockey defenceman
Gerald Gerry Goffin (1939–2014), American lyricist, husband of Carole King
Gerry Harris (disambiguation), multiple people
Gerry Harvey (born 1939), Australian entrepreneur
Gerald Gerry Hitchens (1934–1983), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Kearby (1947–2012), entrepreneur of the "dot-com" boom of the late 1990s
Gerard Gerry Kelly (born 1953), Irish republican politician and former Provisional Irish Republican Army volunteer
Gerald Gerry Kelly (broadcaster) (born 1948), Northern Irish broadcaster and journalist
Gerard Gerry Kelly (footballer) (1908–1983), English footballer
Gerry Leonard (born 1961/1962), Irish musician
Gerald Gerry Lindgren (born 1946), American track and field runner
Gerry McMonagle, political figure in Ireland
Gerry McCoy (born 1960), Scottish footballer
Gerard Gerry Marsden (born 1942), English musician, frontman of Gerry and the Pacemakers
Gerry Morrow (born 1949), Martinique-born Canadian professional wrestler
Gerald Gerry Mulligan (1927–1996), American jazz saxophonist, clarinetist, arranger and composer
Gerry Murphy (disambiguation)
Gerry O'Connor (disambiguation)
Geronimo Gerry Peñalosa (born 1972), Filipino former boxer and WBC and WBO world champion
Gerald Gerry Peyton (born 1956), Irish former football goalkeeper and coach
Gerry Phillips (born 1940), Canadian former politician
Gerald Gerry Rafferty (1947–2011), Scottish singer and songwriter
Gerard Gerry Reynolds (Irish politician) (born 1961), Irish politician
Gerald Gerry Reynolds (British politician) (1927–1969), British politician
Gerardo Roxas (1924–1982), Filipino politician
Gerry Ryan (disambiguation)
Phillip Edward Gerald Gerry Sayer (1905–1942), chief test pilot for Gloster Aircraft
Geraldine Mary Gerry Scott (1944–2007), English television production designer
Virginio Gerry Scotti (born 1956), Italian television presenter
Gerry Sharpe (disambiguation)
Gerald Gerry Sherry, American football player
Gerald Gerry Spence (born 1929), American semi-retired trial lawyer
Gerald Gerry Steinberg (1945–2015), British politician
Gerard Gerry Sutcliffe (born 1953), British politician
Gerald Gerry Tuttle (1926–2006), American football player
Gerald Gerry Ward (footballer) (1936–1994), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Ward (basketball) (born 1941), American retired National Basketball Association player
Gerry Bubba Watson (born 1978), American golfer
Gerry Williams (footballer) (1877–1901), Australian rules footballer
Fictional characters
Gerry, a character from The Ridonculous Race
Gerard 'Gerry' Keays from The Magnus Archives
See also
Gery (disambiguation)
Geraldine (disambiguation)
Gerhard, a male given name
Geri (disambiguation)
Jerry (given name)
Hypocorisms
Masculine given names
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Riverdale High School may refer to:
Schools
Riverdale High School, Riverdale, California, U.S.
Riverdale High School (Fort Myers, Florida), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Riverdale, Georgia), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Port Byron, Illinois), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Jefferson Parish, Louisiana), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Hancock County, Ohio), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Portland, Oregon), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Murfreesboro, Tennessee), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Muscoda, Wisconsin), U.S.
Riverdale High School (Quebec), Canada
Fictional entities
Riverdale High School (Archie Comics), the fictional school in Archie Comics
See also
Riverdale Collegiate Institute, a high school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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A bridgehead is a military fortification that protects the end of a bridge that is closest to the enemy.
Bridgehead may also refer to:
Bridgehead Coffee, a Canadian coffeehouse business
"Bridgehead" atoms in a bicyclic molecule or polycyclic compound, shared by two or more cycles
BridgeHead Software, a software company
A headline in a book that is outside the normal hierarchy of sections
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Bygides groenlandicus is a marine scale worm that lives in cold waters.
Description
It has 39 segments and is 70 millimeters (about 2.76 inches) in length. It possesses very long, filamentous chaetae. It scales are brown on its dorsal, medial, and posterior sides, and its ventral side is grey or colorless. Two bands of lighter color run across its dorsal side.
Distribution
It is found in the Arctic and North Atlantic waters, as well as off the coast of Massachusetts, the Gulf of Maine, and Newfoundland.
References
External links
World Register of Marine Species page
Phyllodocida
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Powdered sugar, also called confectioners' sugar, or icing sugar, is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granulated sugar into a powdered state. It usually contains between 2% and 5% of an anti-caking agent – such as corn starch, potato starch or tricalcium phosphate – to absorb moisture, prevent clumping, and improve flow. Although most often produced in a factory, a proxy for powdered sugar can be made by processing ordinary granulated sugar in a coffee grinder, or by crushing it by hand in a mortar and pestle.
Use
Powdered sugar is used in industrial food production when a quick-dissolving sugar is required. Home cooks use it principally to make icing or frosting and other cake decorations. It is often dusted onto baked goods to add a subtle sweetness and delicate decoration.
Powdered sugar is available in varying degrees of fineness, most commonly XXX, XXXX, and 10X: the greater the number of Xs, the finer the particles. Finer particles absorb more moisture, which results in caking. Because of anticaking agents, it cannot always be used as a substitute for granulated sugar. Canadian regulations limit powdered sugar to 5% starch or an anticaking agent.
Other varieties
Caster sugar
Caster sugar (also referred to as superfine, bar, or baker's sugar) has a larger particle size than powdered sugar, approximately half that of granulated sugar, and has no added starch. It is commonly used in baking and cold mixed drinks because it dissolves faster than granulated white sugar. Caster sugar can be easily prepared at home by grinding white sugar in a food processor to make it finer. The most common food caster sugar is used in is meringue.
Snow powder
Snow powder (or snow sugar) is a non-melting form of icing sugar used for visual appeal on cakes or pastries that require refrigeration. It usually contains glucose, starch, and anti-binding agents (such as titanium dioxide, which gives it a vibrant white color), and retains its structure and look even when dusted onto baked goods that are slightly wet like fruit bars and tarts. It will not melt even if it is sprinkled on whipped cream or ice cream. It is mostly used for decorative purposes.
Snow sugar is less sweet than regular powdered sugar because glucose is around 20% less sweet than table sugar, which also contains fructose. Fructose tastes more than twice as sweet as glucose.
Citations
General sources
External links
Sugars
Powders
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The X chromosome is one of the two sex chromosomes in many organisms, including mammals, and is found in both males and females. It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and XO sex-determination system. The X chromosome was named for its unique properties by early researchers, which resulted in the naming of its counterpart Y chromosome, for the next letter in the alphabet, following its subsequent discovery.
Discovery
It was first noted that the X chromosome was special in 1890 by Hermann Henking in Leipzig. Henking was studying the testicles of Pyrrhocoris and noticed that one chromosome did not take part in meiosis. Chromosomes are so named because of their ability to take up staining (chroma in Greek means color). Although the X chromosome could be stained just as well as the others, Henking was unsure whether it was a different class of object and consequently named it X element, which later became X chromosome after it was established that it was indeed a chromosome.<ref>David Bainbridge, 'The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives, pages 3-5, Harvard University Press, 2003 .</ref>
The idea that the X chromosome was named after its similarity to the letter "X" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and take on a well defined shape only during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.
It was first suggested that the X chromosome was involved in sex determination by Clarence Erwin McClung in 1901. After comparing his work on locusts with Henking's and others, McClung noted that only half the sperm received an X chromosome. He called this chromosome an accessory chromosome, and insisted (correctly) that it was a proper chromosome, and theorized (incorrectly) that it was the male-determining chromosome.
Inheritance pattern
Luke Hutchison noticed that a number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as the "origin" of his own X chromosome (), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent (). The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually, a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)
Humans
Function
The X chromosome in humans spans more than 153 million base pairs (the building material of DNA). It represents about 800 protein-coding genes compared to the Y chromosome containing about 70 genes, out of 20,000–25,000 total genes in the human genome.
Each person usually has one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Females typically have two X chromosomes, whereas males typically have one X and one Y chromosome. Both males and females retain one of their mother's X chromosomes, and females retain their second X chromosome from their father. Since the father retains his X chromosome from his mother, a human female has one X chromosome from her paternal grandmother (father's side), and one X chromosome from her mother. This inheritance pattern follows the Fibonacci numbers at a given ancestral depth.
Genetic disorders that are due to mutations in genes on the X chromosome are described as X linked. If the X chromosome has a genetic disease gene, it always causes illness in male patients, since men have only one X chromosome and therefore only one copy of each gene. Females, instead, may stay healthy and only be carrier of genetic illness, since they have another X chromosome and possibility to have healthy gene copy. For example, hemophilia and red-green colorblindness run in family this way.
The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.
The partial inactivation of the X-chromosome is due to repressive heterochromatin that compacts the DNA and prevents the expression of most genes. Heterochromatin compaction is regulated by Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2).
Genes
Number of genes
The following are some of the gene count estimates of human X chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.
Gene list
The following is a partial list of genes on human chromosome X. For complete list, see the link in the infobox on the right.
Structure
It is theorized by Ross et al. 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal (non-sex-related) genome of other mammals, evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments.
The X chromosome is notably larger and has a more active euchromatin region than its Y chromosome counterpart. Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two. However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one X chromosome, they are more likely to have an X chromosome-related disease.
It is estimated that about 10% of the genes encoded by the X chromosome are associated with a family of "CT" genes, so named because they encode for markers found in both tumor cells (in cancer patients) as well as in the human testis (in healthy patients).
Role in disease
Numerical abnormalities
Klinefelter syndrome:
Klinefelter syndrome is caused by the presence of one or more extra copies of the X chromosome in a male's cells.
Males with Klinefelter syndrome typically have one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell, for a total of two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (47,XXY). It is less common for affected males to have two or three extra X chromosomes (48,XXXY or 49,XXXXY) or extra copies of both the X and Y chromosomes (48,XXYY) in each cell. The extra genetic material may lead to tall stature, learning and reading disabilities, and other medical problems. Each extra X chromosome lowers the child's IQ by about 15 points, which means that the average IQ in Klinefelter syndrome is in general in the normal range, although below average. When additional X and/or Y chromosomes are present in 48,XXXY, 48,XXYY, or 49,XXXXY, developmental delays and cognitive difficulties can be more severe and mild intellectual disability may be present.
Klinefelter syndrome can also result from an extra X chromosome in only some of the body's cells. These cases are called mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY.
Triple X syndrome (also called 47,XXX or trisomy X):
This syndrome results from an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Females with trisomy X have three X chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. The average IQ of females with this syndrome is 90, while the average IQ of unaffected siblings is 100. Their stature on average is taller than normal females. They are fertile and their children do not inherit the condition.
Females with more than one extra copy of the X chromosome (48, XXXX syndrome or 49, XXXXX syndrome) have been identified, but these conditions are rare.
Turner syndrome:
This results when each of a female's cells has one normal X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing or altered. The missing genetic material affects development and causes the features of the condition, including short stature and infertility.
About half of individuals with Turner syndrome have monosomy X (45,X), which means each cell in a woman's body has only one copy of the X chromosome instead of the usual two copies. Turner syndrome can also occur if one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged rather than completely missing. Some women with Turner syndrome have a chromosomal change in only some of their cells. These cases are called Turner syndrome mosaics (45,X/46,XX).
X-linked recessive disorders
Sex linkage was first discovered in insects, e.g., T. H. Morgan's 1910 discovery of the pattern of inheritance of the white eyes mutation in Drosophila melanogaster. Such discoveries helped to explain x-linked disorders in humans, e.g., haemophilia A and B, adrenoleukodystrophy, and red-green color blindness.
Other disorders
XX male syndrome is a rare disorder, where the SRY region of the Y chromosome has recombined to be located on one of the X chromosomes. As a result, the XX combination after fertilization has the same effect as a XY combination, resulting in a male. However, the other genes of the X chromosome cause feminization as well.
X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy is an extremely rare disease of cornea associated with Xq25 region. Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy is associated with Xp22.3.
Megalocornea 1 is associated with Xq21.3-q22
Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare and fatal disorder that is carried by the mother on the x-cell. It affects only boys between the ages of 5 and 10 and destroys the protective cell surrounding the nerves, myelin, in the brain. The female carrier hardly shows any symptoms because females have a copy of the x-cell. This disorder causes a once healthy boy to lose all abilities to walk, talk, see, hear, and even swallow. Within 2 years after diagnosis, most boys with Adrenoleukodystrophy die.
Cytogenetic band
Research
In March 2020 researchers reported that their review supports the unguarded X hypothesis: according to this hypothesis one reason for why the average lifespan of males is not as long as that of females – by 18% on average according to the study – is that they have a Y chromosome which cannot protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes are not expressed.
In July 2020 scientists reported the first complete and gap-less assembly of a human X chromosome.
See also
List of X-STR markers
Sex linkage
X-inactivation
Pseudoautosomal region
Y chromosome
References
Earlier versions of this article contain material from the National Library of Medicine, a part of the National Institutes of Health (USA,) which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain.''
External links
Chromosomes
Chromosome X
Cytogenetics
Sex-determination systems
Sexual dimorphism
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Scotch bonnet (also known as Bonney peppers, or Caribbean red peppers) is a variety of chili pepper named for its supposed resemblance to a Scottish tam o' shanter bonnet. It is ubiquitous in West Africa as well as the Caribbean. Like the closely related habanero, Scotch bonnets have a heat rating of 100,000–350,000 Scoville units. For comparison, most jalapeño peppers have a heat rating of 2,500 to 8,000 on the Scoville scale. However, completely sweet varieties of Scotch bonnet called cachucha peppers are grown on some of the Caribbean islands.
Scotch bonnets are used to flavor many dishes and cuisines worldwide and are often used in hot sauces and condiments. The Scotch bonnet has a sweeter flavor and stouter shape, distinct from its habanero relative with which it is often confused, and gives jerk dishes (pork/chicken) and other Caribbean dishes their unique flavor. Scotch bonnets are mostly used in West Africa, West Indian, Sri Lankan, and Maldivian cuisines and pepper sauces, though they often show up in other Caribbean recipes. It is also used in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama for Caribbean-styled recipes such as rice and beans, rondón, saus, beef patties, and ceviche.
Fresh, ripe Scotch bonnets can change from green to yellow to scarlet red; some varieties of this pepper can ripen to orange, yellow, peach, or even a chocolate brown.
See also
Bajan pepper sauce
Caribbean cuisine
Cuisine of Jamaica
Cuisine of Nigeria
Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago
Jamaican jerk spice
List of Capsicum cultivars
Nagabon
References
External links
Capsicum cultivars
Caribbean cuisine
Costa Rican cuisine
Chili peppers
Flora of Jamaica
Guyanese cuisine
Maldivian cuisine
Nicaraguan cuisine
Panamanian cuisine
Sri Lankan cuisine
Surinamese cuisine
West African cuisine
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Mark McElroy may refer to:
Mark McElroy (Arkansas politician), American politician, member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from the 11th district
Mark McElroy (Ohio politician) (1906–1981), American Democratic politician from Cleveland, Ohio
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On the Line may refer to:
Film and television
On the Line (1971 film), a film featuring Shane Stanley
On the Line (1984 film), a film starring David Carradine
On the Line (1998 film), an American TV movie starring Linda Hamilton
On the Line (2001 film), an American romantic comedy directed by Eric Bross
On the Line (2007 film), a Swiss German short film
On the Line (2011 film), a Canadian documentary by Frank Wolf
On the Line (2021 film), a South Korean crime action film
On the Line (2022 film), an American film starring Mel Gibson
On the Line, a UK sport show presented by Sally Jones
Music
Albums
On the Line (Gary U.S. Bonds album), 1982
On the Line (Jenny Lewis album) or the title song, 2019
On the Line (Michael Wycoff album) or the title song, 1983
On the Line (soundtrack) or the title song, from the 2001 film
Songs
"On the Line" (Michael Jackson song), 1997
"On the Line" (San Cisco song), 2020
"On the Line", by Demi Lovato from Don't Forget, 2008
"On the Line", by Julian Perretta, 2018
"On the Line", by Peter Cetera from Peter Cetera, 1981
Other uses
On the Line (horse), a Thoroughbred race horse, winner of the 1988 San Fernando Stakes
On the Line, a 2010 novel by S. J. Rozan
On the Line, a 1957 short-story collection by Harvey Swados
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10 (ten) is the even natural number following 9 and preceding 11. Ten is the base of the decimal numeral system, by far the most common system of denoting numbers in both spoken and written language. It is the first double-digit number. The reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans have ten fingers (digits).
Anthropology
Usage and terms
A collection of ten items (most often ten years) is called a decade.
The ordinal adjective is decimal; the distributive adjective is denary.
Increasing a quantity by one order of magnitude is most widely understood to mean multiplying the quantity by ten.
To reduce something by one tenth is to decimate. (In ancient Rome, the killing of one in ten soldiers in a cohort was the punishment for cowardice or mutiny; or, one-tenth of the able-bodied men in a village as a form of retribution, thus causing a labor shortage and threat of starvation in agrarian societies.)
Other
The number of kingdoms in Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
The house number of 10 Downing Street.
The number of Provinces in Canada.
Number of dots in a tetractys.
The number of the French department Aube.
The number in tarot decks that corresponds to either Chance, Fortune, or the Wheel of Fortune, depending on the deck variant.
In mathematics
Ten is the fifth composite number. Ten is the smallest noncototient, a number that cannot be expressed as the difference between any integer and the total number of coprimes below it. It is the second discrete semiprime () and the second member of the () discrete semiprime family. Ten has an aliquot sum σ(10) of 8 and is accordingly the first discrete semiprime to be in deficit, with all subsequent discrete semiprimes in deficit. Ten is the smallest number that can be written as the sum of two prime numbers in two different ways (), and the only number whose sum and difference of its prime divisors yield prime numbers ( and ). It is also the smallest semiprime that is the sum of all the distinct prime numbers from its lower factor through its higher factor (). In general, powers of 10 contain divisors, where is the number of digits: 10 has 22 = 4 divisors, 100 has 32 = 9 divisors, 1,000 has 42 = 16 divisors, 10,000 has 52 = 25 divisors, and so forth. Ten is the eighth Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by (5, 5, 7).
According to conjecture, ten is the average sum of the proper divisors of the natural numbers if the size of the numbers approaches infinity.
As important sums,
, the sum of the first three prime numbers.
, the sum of the first four positive integers.
, the sum of the first four factorials.
, the sum of the squares of the first two odd numbers.
The factorial of ten is equal to the product of the factorials of the first three odd primes, . Ten is also the first number whose fourth power can be written as a sum of two squares in two different ways ( and ).
In the sequence of triangular numbers, indexed powers of 10 in this sequence generate the following sequence of triangular numbers in decimal: 55 (10th), 5,050 (100th), 500,500 (1,000th), ...
While 55 is the tenth triangular number, it is also the tenth Fibonacci number, and the largest such number to also be a triangular number.
Ten is the first non-trivial decagonal number, the third centered triangular number and tetrahedral number, and the fifth semi-meandric number.
A magic square has a magic constant of 505.
The aliquot sequence for 10 comprises five members (10, 8, 7, 1, 0) with this number being the second composite member of the 7-aliquot tree.
10 is the fourth telephone number, and the number of Young tableaux with four cells. It is the number of -queens problem solutions for .
Ten is the smallest number whose status as a possible friendly number is unknown.
There are ten small Pisot numbers that do not exceed the golden ratio.
In geometry
A polygon with ten sides is called a decagon. As a constructible polygon with a compass and straight-edge, it has an internal angle of degrees and a central angle of degrees. All regular -sided polygons with up to ten sides are able to tile a plane-vertex alongside other regular polygons alone; the first regular polygon unable to do so is the eleven-sided hendecagon. A decagon can fill a plane-vertex alongside two regular pentagons, and alongside a fifteen-sided pentadecagon and triangle. Ten of the eleven regular and semiregular (or Archimedean) tilings of the plane are Wythoffian, the elongated triangular tiling is the only exception.
The regular decagon is the Petrie polygon of the regular dodecahedron and icosahedron, and it is the largest face that an Archimedean solid can contain, as with the truncated dodecahedron and the truncated icosidodecahedron. The decagon is the hemi-face of the icosidodecahedron, such that a plane dissection yields two mirrored pentagonal rotundae. A regular ten-pointed } decagram is the hemi-face of the great icosidodecahedron, as well as the Petrie polygon of two regular Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra. Ten non-prismatic uniform polyhedra contain regular decagons as faces (U26, U28, U33, U37, U39, ...), and ten contain regular decagrams as faces (U42, U45, U58, U59, U63...). The decagonal prism is also the largest prism that is a facet inside four-dimensional uniform polychora.
There are ten regular star polychora in the fourth dimension. All of these polychora have orthographic projections in the Coxeter plane that contain various decagrammic symmetries, which include the regular } form as well as its three alternate compound forms.
is a multiply transitive permutation group on 10 points. It is an almost simple group, of order 720 = 24·32·5 = 2·3·4·5·6 = 8·9·10. It functions as a point stabilizer of degree 11 inside the smallest sporadic group , a Mathieu group which has an irreducible faithful complex representation in 10 dimensions.
is an infinite-dimensional Kac–Moody algebra which has the even Lorentzian unimodular lattice II9,1 of dimension 10 as its root lattice. It is the first Lie algebra with a negative Cartan matrix determinant, of −1.
There are precisely ten affine Coxeter groups that admit a formal description of reflections across dimensions in Euclidean space. These contain infinite facets whose quotient group of their normal abelian subgroups is finite. They include the one-dimensional Coxeter group [∞], which represents the apeirogonal tiling, as well as the five affine Coxeter groups , , , , and that are associated with the five exceptional Lie algebras. They also include the four general affine Coxeter groups , , , and that are associated with simplex, cubic and demihypercubic honeycombs, or tessellations. Regarding Coxeter groups in hyperbolic space, there are infinitely many such groups; however, ten is the highest rank for paracompact hyperbolic solutions, with a representation in nine dimensions. There also exist hyperbolic Lorentzian cocompact groups where removing any permutation of two nodes in its Coxeter–Dynkin diagram leaves a finite or Euclidean graph. The tenth dimension is the highest dimensional representation for such solutions, which share a root symmetry in eleven dimensions. These are of particular interest in M-theory of string theory.
List of basic calculations
In science
The SI prefix for 10 is "deca-".
The meaning "10" is part of the following terms:
decapoda, an order of crustaceans with ten feet.
decane, a hydrocarbon with 10 carbon atoms.
Also, the number 10 plays a role in the following:
The atomic number of neon.
The number of hydrogen atoms in butane, a hydrocarbon.
The number of spacetime dimensions in some superstring theories.
The metric system is based on the number 10, so converting units is done by adding or removing zeros (e.g. 1 centimeter = 10 millimeters, 1 decimeter = 10 centimeters, 1 meter = 100 centimeters, 1 dekameter = 10 meters, 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters).
Astronomy
The New General Catalogue object NGC 10, a magnitude 12.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Sculptor.
Messier object M10, a magnitude 6.4 globular cluster in the constellation Ophiuchus.
In religion and philosophy
References in the Bible, Judaism and Christianity:
The Ten Commandments of Exodus and Deuteronomy are considered a cornerstone of Judaism and Christianity.
People traditionally tithed one-tenth of their produce. The practice of tithing is still common in Christian churches today, though it is disputed in some circles as to whether or not it is required of Christians.
In Deuteronomy 26:12, the Torah commands Jews to give one-tenth of their produce to the poor (Maaser Ani). From this verse and from an earlier verse (Deut. 14:22) there derives a practice for Jews to give one-tenth of all earnings to the poor.
Ten Plagues were inflicted on Egypt in .
Jews observe the annual Ten Days of Repentance beginning on Rosh Hashanah and ending on Yom Kippur.
In Jewish liturgy, Ten Martyrs are singled out as a group.
There are said to be Ten Lost Tribes of Israel (those other than Judah and Benjamin).
There are Ten Sephirot in the Kabbalistic Tree of Life.
In Judaism, ten men are the required quorum, called a minyan, for prayer services.
In Genesis 28:23-32, Abraham pleads on behalf of Sodom and Gomorrah, asking to save the cities if there are enough righteous people there. He starts at 10 per city, and ends with 10 total in all cities.
Interpretations of Genesis in Talmudic and Midrashic teachings suggest that on the first day, God drew forth ten primal elements from the abyss in order to construct all of Creation: Heaven (or Fire), Earth, Chaos, Void, Light, Darkness, Wind (or Spirit), Water, Day, and Night. See also Bereshit (parsha).
Jesus tells the Parable of the Ten Virgins in .
In Pythagoreanism, the number 10 played an important role and was symbolized by the tetractys.
In Hinduism, Lord Vishnu appeared on the earth in 10 incarnations, popularly known as Dashaavathar.
In Sikhism, there are ten human Gurus.
In money
Most countries issue coins and bills with a denomination of 10 (See e.g. 10 dollar note). Of these, the U.S. dime, with the value of ten cents, or one tenth of a dollar, derives its name from the meaning "one-tenth" − see Dime (United States coin)#Denomination history and etymology.
In music
The interval of a major tenth is an octave plus a major third.
The interval of a minor tenth is an octave plus a minor third.
"Ten lords a-leaping" is the gift on the tenth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
In sports and games
Decathlon is a combined event in athletics consisting of ten track and field events.
In association football, the number 10 is traditionally worn by the team's advanced playmaker. This use has led to "Number 10" becoming a synonym for the player in that particular role, even if they do not wear that number.
In gridiron football, a team has a limited number of downs to advance the ball ten yards or more from where it was on its last first down; doing this is referred to as gaining another first down.
In auto racing, driving a car at ten-tenths is driving as fast as possible, on the limit.
In a regular basketball game, two teams playing against each other have 5 members each, for a total of 10 players on court. Under FIBA, WNBA, and NCAA women's rules, each quarter runs for 10 minutes.
In blackjack, the Ten, Jack, Queen and King are all worth 10 points.
In boxing, if the referee counts to 10 whether the boxer is unconscious or not, it will declare a winner by knockout.
In men's field lacrosse, each team has 10 players on the field at any given time, except in penalty situations.
Ten-ball is a pool game played with a cue ball and ten numbered balls.
In most rugby league competitions, the number 10 is worn by one of the two starting props. One exception to this rule is the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.
In rugby union, the starting fly-half wears the 10 shirt.
In ten-pin bowling, 10 pins are arranged in a triangular pattern and there are 10 frames per game.
In technology
Ten-codes are commonly used on emergency service radio systems.
Ten refers to the "meter band" on the radio spectrum between 28 and 29.7 MHz, used by amateur radio.
ASCII and Unicode code point for line feed.
In MIDI, Channel 10 is reserved for unpitched percussion instruments.
In the Rich Text Format specification, all language codes for regional variants of the Spanish language are congruent to 10 mod 256.
In macOS, the F10 function key tiles all the windows of the current application and grays the windows of other applications.
The IP addresses in the range 10.0.0.0/8 (meaning the interval between 10.0.0.0 and 10.255.255.255) are reserved for use by private networks by .
Age 10
This is generally the age when a child enters the preteen stage and also a denarian (someone within the age range of 10–19).
The ESRB recommends video games with an E10+ rating to children aged 10 and up.
In other fields
Blake Edwards' 1979 movie 10.
Series on HBO entitled 1st & Ten which aired between December 1984 and January 1991.
Series on ESPN and ESPN2 entitled 1st and 10 which launched on ESPN in October 2003 to 2008 and moved to ESPN2 since 2008.
In astrology, Capricorn is the 10th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
In Chinese astrology, the 10 Heavenly Stems, refer to a cyclic number system that is used also for time reckoning.
A 1977 short documentary film Powers of Ten depicts the relative scale of the Universe in factors of ten (orders of magnitude).
CBS has a game show called Power of 10, where the player's prize goes up and down by either the previous or next power of ten.
"Ten Chances" is one of the pricing games on The Price is Right.
There are ten official inkblots in the Rorschach inkblot test.
The traditional Snellen chart uses 10 different letters.
Ten is an Australian television network. The Sydney member of the network has the three-letter call-sign TEN and used to broadcast in analogue on VHF Channel 10.
Number Ten (also called Ella) is a character in the book series Lorien Legacies. The sixth book, The Fate of Ten, is named after her.
A Cartoon Network franchise Ben 10, which has a number on its title.
See also
List of highways numbered 10
References
External links
Integers
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Orchard station may refer to:
Singapore
Orchard MRT station, a railway station in Singapore
Orchard Boulevard MRT station, a railway station in Singapore
United States
Orchard station (RTD), a light rail station in Denver, Colorado, U.S.
Orchard station (VTA), a light rail station in San Jose, California, U.S.
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7 (seven) is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. It is the only prime number preceding a cube.
As an early prime number in the series of positive integers, the number seven has greatly symbolic associations in religion, mythology, superstition and philosophy. The seven Classical planets resulted in seven being the number of days in a week. It is often considered lucky in Western culture and is often seen as highly symbolic. Unlike Western culture, in Vietnamese culture, the number seven is sometimes considered unlucky.
In English, it is the first natural number whose pronunciation contains more than one syllable.
Evolution of the Arabic digit
In the beginning, Indians wrote 7 more or less in one stroke as a curve that looks like an uppercase vertically inverted (ᒉ). The western Ghubar Arabs' main contribution was to make the longer line diagonal rather than straight, though they showed some tendencies to making the digit more rectilinear. The eastern Arabs developed the digit from a form that looked something like our 6 to one that looked like an uppercase V. Both modern Arab forms influenced the European form, a two-stroke form consisting of a horizontal upper stroke joined at its right to a stroke going down to the bottom left corner, a line that is slightly curved in some font variants. As is the case with the European digit, the Cham and Khmer digit for 7 also evolved to look like their digit 1, though in a different way, so they were also concerned with making their 7 more different. For the Khmer this often involved adding a horizontal line to the top of the digit. This is analogous to the horizontal stroke through the middle that is sometimes used in handwriting in the Western world but which is almost never used in computer fonts. This horizontal stroke is, however, important to distinguish the glyph for seven from the glyph for one in writing that uses a long upstroke in the glyph for 1. In some Greek dialects of the early 12th century the longer line diagonal was drawn in a rather semicircular transverse line.
On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, 7 is the digit with the most common graphic variation (1, 6 and 9 also have variant glyphs). Most calculators use three line segments, but on Sharp, Casio, and a few other brands of calculators, 7 is written with four line segments because in Japan, Korea and Taiwan 7 is written with a "hook" on the left, as ① in the following illustration.
While the shape of the character for the digit 7 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender (⁊), as, for example, in .
Most people in Continental Europe, and some in Britain and Ireland as well as Latin America, write 7 with a line in the middle ("7"), sometimes with the top line crooked. The line through the middle is useful to clearly differentiate the digit from the digit one, as the two can appear similar when written in certain styles of handwriting. This form is used in official handwriting rules for primary school in Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Poland, other Slavic countries, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland, Romania, Germany, Greece, and Hungary.
Mathematics
Seven, the fourth prime number, is not only a Mersenne prime (since ) but also a double Mersenne prime since the exponent, 3, is itself a Mersenne prime. It is also a Newman–Shanks–Williams prime, a Woodall prime, a factorial prime, a Harshad number, a lucky prime, a happy number (happy prime), a safe prime (the only ), a Leyland prime of the second kind and the fourth Heegner number.
Seven is the lowest natural number that cannot be represented as the sum of the squares of three integers. (See Lagrange's four-square theorem#Historical development.)
Seven is the aliquot sum of one number, the cubic number and is the base of the 7-aliquot tree.
7 is the only number D for which the equation has more than two solutions for n and x natural. In particular, the equation is known as the Ramanujan–Nagell equation.
There are 7 frieze groups in two dimensions, consisting of symmetries of the plane whose group of translations is isomorphic to the group of integers. These are related to the 17 wallpaper groups whose transformations and isometries repeat two-dimensional patterns in the plane. The seventh indexed prime number is seventeen.
A seven-sided shape is a heptagon. The regular n-gons for n ⩽ 6 can be constructed by compass and straightedge alone, which makes the heptagon the first regular polygon that cannot be directly constructed with these simple tools. Figurate numbers representing heptagons are called heptagonal numbers. 7 is also a centered hexagonal number.
A heptagon in Euclidean space is unable to generate uniform tilings alongside other polygons, like the regular pentagon. However, it is one of fourteen polygons that can fill a plane-vertex tiling, in its case only alongside a regular triangle and a 42-sided polygon (3.7.42). This is also one of twenty-one such configurations from seventeen combinations of polygons, that features the largest and smallest polygons possible.
In Wythoff's kaleidoscopic constructions, seven distinct generator points that lie on mirror edges of a three-sided Schwarz triangle are used to create most uniform tilings and polyhedra; an eighth point lying on all three mirrors is technically degenerate, reserved to represent snub forms only.
Seven of eight semiregular tilings are Wythoffian, the only exception is the elongated triangular tiling. Seven of nine uniform colorings of the square tiling are also Wythoffian, and between the triangular tiling and square tiling, there are seven non-Wythoffian uniform colorings of a total twenty-one that belong to regular tilings (all hexagonal tiling uniform colorings are Wythoffian).
In two dimensions, there are precisely seven 7-uniform Krotenheerdt tilings, with no other such k-uniform tilings for k > 7, and it is also the only k for which the count of Krotenheerdt tilings agrees with k.
The Fano plane is the smallest possible finite projective plane with 7 points and 7 lines such that every line contains 3 points and 3 lines cross every point. With group order 168 = 23·3·7, this plane holds 35 total triples of points where 7 are collinear and another 28 are non-collinear, whose incidence graph is the 3-regular bipartate Heawood graph with 14 vertices and 21 edges. This graph embeds in three dimensions as the Szilassi polyhedron, the simplest toroidal polyhedron alongside its dual with 7 vertices, the Császár polyhedron.
In three-dimensional space there are seven crystal systems and fourteen Bravais lattices which classify under seven lattice systems, six of which are shared with the seven crystal systems. There are also collectively seventy-seven Wythoff symbols that represent all uniform figures in three dimensions.
The seventh dimension is the only dimension aside from the familiar three where a vector cross product can be defined. This is related to the octonions over the imaginary subspace in 7-space whose commutator between two octonions defines this vector product, wherein the Fano plane describes the multiplicative algebraic structure of the unit octonions , with an identity element.
Also, the lowest known dimension for an exotic sphere is the seventh dimension, with a total of 28 differentiable structures; there may exist exotic smooth structures on the four-dimensional sphere.
In hyperbolic space, 7 is the highest dimension for non-simplex hypercompact Vinberg polytopes of rank n + 4 mirrors, where there is one unique figure with eleven facets. On the other hand, such figures with rank n + 3 mirrors exist in dimensions 4, 5, 6 and 8; not in 7. Hypercompact polytopes with lowest possible rank of n + 2 mirrors exist up through the 17th dimension, where there is a single solution as well.
There are seven fundamental types of catastrophes.
When rolling two standard six-sided dice, seven has a 6 in 6 (or ) probability of being rolled (1–6, 6–1, 2–5, 5–2, 3–4, or 4–3), the greatest of any number. The opposite sides of a standard six-sided dice always add to 7.
The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the problems remain unsolved.
Basic calculations
In decimal
divided by 7 is exactly . Therefore, when a vulgar fraction with 7 in the denominator is converted to a decimal expansion, the result has the same six-digit repeating sequence after the decimal point, but the sequence can start with any of those six digits. For example, and
In fact, if one sorts the digits in the number 142,857 in ascending order, 124578, it is possible to know from which of the digits the decimal part of the number is going to begin with. The remainder of dividing any number by 7 will give the position in the sequence 124578 that the decimal part of the resulting number will start. For example, 628 ÷ 7 = ; here 5 is the remainder, and would correspond to number 7 in the ranking of the ascending sequence. So in this case, . Another example, , hence the remainder is 2, and this corresponds to number 2 in the sequence. In this case, .
In science
Seven colors in a rainbow: ROYGBIV
Seven Continents
Seven Seas
Seven climes
The neutral pH balance
Number of music notes in a scale
Number of spots most commonly found on ladybugs
Atomic number for nitrogen
In psychology
Seven, plus or minus two as a model of working memory.
Seven psychological types called the Seven Rays in the teachings of Alice A. Bailey
In Western culture, Seven is consistently listed as people's favorite number.
When guessing numbers 1-10 the number 7 is most likely to be picked.
Seven-year itch: happiness in marriage said to decline after 7 years
Classical antiquity
The Pythagoreans invested particular numbers with unique spiritual properties. The number seven was considered to be particularly interesting because it consisted of the union of the physical (number 4) with the spiritual (number 3). In Pythagorean numerology the number 7 means spirituality.
References from classical antiquity to the number seven include:
Seven Classical planets and the derivative Seven Heavens
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Seven metals of antiquity
Seven days in the week
Seven Seas
Seven Sages
Seven champions that fought Thebes
Seven hills of Rome and Seven Kings of Rome
Seven Sisters, the daughters of Atlas also known as the Pleiades
Religion and mythology
Judaism
The number seven forms a widespread typological pattern within Hebrew scripture, including:
Seven days (more precisely yom) of Creation, leading to the seventh day or Sabbath (Genesis 1)
Seven-fold vengeance visited on upon Cain for the killing of Abel (Genesis 4:15)
Seven pairs of every clean animal loaded onto the ark by Noah (Genesis 7:2)
Seven years of plenty and seven years of famine in Pharaoh's dream (Genesis 41)
Seventh son of Jacob, Gad, whose name means good luck (Genesis 46:16)
Seven times bullock's blood is sprinkled before God (Leviticus 4:6)
Seven nations God told the Israelites they would displace when they entered the land of Israel (Deuteronomy 7:1)
Seven days of the Passover feast (Exodus 13:3–10)
Seven-branched candelabrum or Menorah (Exodus 25)
Seven trumpets played by seven priests for seven days to bring down the walls of Jericho (Joshua 6:8)
Seven things that are detestable to God (Proverbs 6:16–19)
Seven Pillars of the House of Wisdom (Proverbs 9:1)
Seven archangels in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit (12:15)
References to the number seven in Jewish knowledge and practice include:
Seven divisions of the weekly readings or aliyah of the Torah
Seven Jewish men (over the age of 13) called to read aliyahs in Shabbat morning services
Seven blessings recited under the chuppah during a Jewish wedding ceremony
Seven days of festive meals for a Jewish bride and groom after their wedding, known as Sheva Berachot or Seven Blessings
Seven Ushpizzin prayers to the Jewish patriarchs during the holiday of Sukkot
Christianity
Following the traditional of the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament likewise uses the number seven as part of a typological pattern:
Seven loaves multiplied into seven basketfuls of surplus (Matthew 15:32–37)
Seven demons were driven out of Mary Magdalene (Luke 8:2)
Seven last sayings of Jesus on the cross
Seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost and wisdom (Acts 6:3)
Seven Spirits of God, Seven Churches and Seven Seals in the Book of Revelation
References to the number seven in Christian knowledge and practice include:
Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit
Seven Corporal Acts of Mercy and Seven Spiritual Acts of Mercy
Seven deadly sins: lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy, and pride, and seven terraces of Mount Purgatory
Seven Virtues: chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, kindness, patience, and humility
Seven Joys and Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Mary
Seven Sleepers of Christian myth
Seven Sacraments in the Catholic Church (though some traditions assign a different number)
Islam
References to the number seven in Islamic knowledge and practice include:
Seven ayat in surat al-Fatiha, the first book of the holy Qur'an
Seven circumambulations of Muslim pilgrims around the Kaaba in Mecca during the Hajj and the Umrah
Seven walks between Al-Safa and Al-Marwah performed Muslim pilgrims during the Hajj and the Umrah
Seven doors to hell (for heaven the number of doors is eight)
Seven Earths and seven Heavens (plural of sky) mentioned in Qur'an (S. 65:12)
Night Journey to the Seventh Heaven, (reported ascension to heaven to meet God) Isra' and Mi'raj of the Qur'an and surah Al-Isra'.
Seventh day naming ceremony held for babies
Seven enunciators of divine revelation (nāṭiqs) according to the celebrated Fatimid Ismaili dignitary Nasir Khusraw
Circle Seven Koran, the holy scripture of the Moorish Science Temple of America
Hinduism
References to the number seven in Hindu knowledge and practice include:
Seven worlds in the universe and seven seas in the world in Hindu cosmology
Seven sages or Saptarishi and their seven wives or Sapta Matrka in Hindu mythology
Seven Chakras in eastern philosophy
Seven stars in a constellation called "Saptharishi Mandalam" in Indian astronomy
Seven promises, or Saptapadi, and seven circumambulations around a fire at Hindu weddings
Seven virgin goddesses or Saptha Kannimar worshipped in temples in Tamil Nadu, India
Seven hills at Tirumala known as Yedu Kondalavadu in Telugu, or ezhu malaiyan in Tamil, meaning "Sevenhills God"
Seven steps taken by the Buddha at birth
Seven divine ancestresses of humankind in Khasi mythology
Seven octets or Saptak Swaras in Indian Music as the basis for Ragas compositions
Seven Social Sins listed by Mahatma Gandhi
Eastern tradition
Other references to the number seven in Eastern traditions include:
Seven Lucky Gods or gods of good fortune in Japanese mythology
Seven-Branched Sword in Japanese mythology
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove in China
Seven minor symbols of yang in Taoist yin-yang
Other references
Other references to the number seven in traditions from around the world include:
Seven palms in an Egyptian Sacred Cubit
Seven ranks in Mithraism
Seven hills of Istanbul
Seven islands of Atlantis
Seven Cherokee clans
Seven lives of cats in Iran and German and Romance language-speaking cultures
Seven fingers on each hand, seven toes on each foot and seven pupils in each eye of the Irish epic hero Cúchulainn
Seventh sons will be werewolves in Galician folklore, or the son of a woman and a werewolf in other European folklores
Seventh sons of a seventh son will be magicians with special powers of healing and clairvoyance in some cultures, or vampires in others
Seven prominent legendary monsters in Guaraní mythology
Seven gateways traversed by Inanna during her descent into the underworld
Seven Wise Masters, a cycle of medieval stories
Seven sister goddesses or fates in Baltic mythology called the Deivės Valdytojos.
Seven legendary Cities of Gold, such as Cibola, that the Spanish thought existed in South America
Seven years spent by Thomas the Rhymer in the faerie kingdom in the eponymous British folk tale
Seven-year cycle in which the Queen of the Fairies pays a tithe to Hell (or possibly Hel) in the tale of Tam Lin
Seven Valleys, a text by the Prophet-Founder Bahá'u'lláh in the Bahá'í faith
Seven superuniverses in the cosmology of Urantia
Seven psychological types called the Seven Rays in the teachings of Alice A. Bailey
Seven, the sacred number of Yemaya
In culture
In literature
Seven Dwarfs
The Seven Brothers, a 1870 novel by Aleksis Kivi
Seven features prominently in A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin, namely, the Seven Kingdoms and the Faith of the Seven
In visual art
The Group of Seven Canadian landscape painters
In sports
Sports with seven players per side
Kabaddi
Rugby sevens
Water Polo
Netball
Handball
Flag Football
Ultimate Frisbee
Seven is the least number of players a soccer team must have on the field in order for a match to start and continue.
A touchdown plus an extra point is worth seven points.
See also
Diatonic scale (7 notes)
Seven colors in the rainbow
Seven continents
Seven liberal arts
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Seven days of the Week
Septenary (numeral system)
Year Seven (School)
Se7en (disambiguation)
Sevens (disambiguation)
One-seventh area triangle
Z with stroke (Ƶ)
List of highways numbered 7
Notes
References
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group (1987): 70–71
Integers
7 (number)
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Gakkō no Kaidan (literally School Ghost Stories) may refer to:
Gakkō no Kaidan (novel series), a series of Japanese light novels by Takaaki Kaima
Gakkō no Kaidan (film), a series of Japanese horror movies based on the books by Toru Tsunemitsu
Ghost Stories (anime), a series of anime episodes
Gakkō no Kaidan (2015 TV series), a series of Japanese drama starring Suzu Hirose
See also
Kaidan (parapsychology), ghost or horror story
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Valley Health Systems may refer to:
The Valley Hospital, a hospital in Ridgewood, New Jersey, whose affiliates fall under the handle the "Valley Health System"
Holyoke Medical Center, a hospital in Holyoke, Massachusetts, whose affiliates fall under the handle "Valley Health Systems"
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Hillary: The Movie is a 2008 political documentary about United States Senator and presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. It was produced by the conservative non-profit organization Citizens United. The film was scheduled to be offered as video-on-demand on cable TV right before the Democratic primaries in January 2008, but would have been classified as "electioneering communication", which was made illegal under the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, by the Federal Election Commission. The producers went to U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia to get a declaration that they could show their movie and promotional ads for it despite BCRA. This case was titled Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission and its final decision at the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in a major change in campaign finance law.
The documentary interviewed various conservative figures such as Dick Morris and Ann Coulter and reviewed various scandals in which Hillary Clinton purportedly participated, such as the White House travel office controversy, White House FBI files controversy, Whitewater controversy, and cattle futures controversy. The factual finding of the three-judge district court was that there was "no reasonable interpretation [of the movie] other than as an appeal to vote against Senator Clinton", thus making it "electioneering communication". The Supreme Court did not change that decision, but applied the strict scrutiny test for the First Amendment of the Constitution and said corporations could not be banned from making electioneering communications.
Legal case
In December 2007, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. was filed at the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. A special three-judge panel (as specified in BCRA) sided with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) that under the McCain-Feingold Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act Hillary: The Movie could not be shown on television right before the 2008 Democratic primaries.
Another provision in BCRA specified that constitutional appeals from the District Court must be immediately filed directly with the U.S. Supreme Court. Citizens United did so on August 18, 2008. Oral arguments were heard on March 24, 2009; a decision was expected sometime in the early summer months of 2009.
In 2010 the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that the spending limits in the McCain-Feingold Act were unconstitutional under the First Amendment, which allowed essentially unlimited independent expenditures by non-profit organizations. Contrary to popular belief, the FEC still limits corporate campaign contributions.
See also
Clinton Cash – a 2016 book and film critical of the Clintons
Super-PAC
References
External links
Official website
Commentary on Vimeo
2008 documentary films
2008 films
American documentary films
Citizens United Productions films
Documentary films about American politicians
Documentary films about women
Works about Hillary Clinton
Works subject to a lawsuit
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
Hillary Clinton controversies
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(The) Lake House may refer to:
Lake house (real estate), a house located on or near a lake; a cottage or summer house
Places
Lake House (Antarctica), a lake in Victoria Land, Antarctica
Entertainment
The Lake House (film), a 2006 film – unrelated to the novel of the same title
The Lake House (Patterson novel), a 2003 novel by James Patterson – unrelated to the film of the same title
The Lake House (Morton novel), a 2015 novel by Kate Morton – unrelated to the novel and the film of the same name
The Lake House (Rhode novel), a 1946 detective novel by John Rhode
Lakehouse (2013 EP), album by Lebanese band Postcards (band)
The Lakehouse (2006 song), song by Rachel Portman, from the 2006 film The Lake House, on the soundtrack album The Lake House: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
"The Lake House" (Brooklyn Nine-Nine), an episode of the eighth season of Brooklyn Nine-Nine
Facilities and structures
The Lake House (Waterford, Maine), a historic tavern
Lake House, an Elizabethan country house in Wiltshire, England
Lake House, a building in the Olds-Robb Recreation-Intramural Complex, Eastern Michigan University's recreation center
Lake House, recreational park at Angelo State University, Texas
Lakehouse, a residential highrise in Denver, Colorado, USA; see List of tallest buildings in Denver
Companies
Lake House, now known as Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited, located in Sri Lanka
Lakehouse plc, a British energy company, renamed Sureserve in October 2018.
See also
Loon Lake House, a hotel at Loon Lake (Franklin County, New York)
Moon's Lake House, a resort at Saratoga Springs, New York
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Robert Berry is an American guitarist, vocalist and producer.
Robert Berry may also refer to:
Robert Marion Berry (born 1942), American politician
Robert Berry (MP) (died 1618), Member of Parliament (MP) for Ludlow
R. J. Berry (1934–2018), British geneticist
Robert E. Berry, American food scientist
Robert Edward Fraser Berry (1926–2011), Anglican bishop
Robert Berry (runner) (1972–2014), marathon runner who died at the 2014 London Marathon
Robert Griffith Berry (1869–1945), Welsh minister
Robert Mallory Berry (1846–1929), American naval officer and Arctic explorer
See also
Bob Berry (disambiguation)
Robert Barry (disambiguation)
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Hey Girl is an American weekly half-hour sketch comedy television series that aired on MTV. It was developed by Daniel Powell and Jessi Klein, and stars JC Coccolli, Daniella Pineda, Esther Povitsky, Ali Wong, Emily Axford, Laura Willcox, Shelby Fero, Sasheer Zamata, and Wendy McColm. It aired on Sundays at 9pm, first in a "sneak peek" airing of four episodes on July 28, 2013, and then with an official premiere on October 27, 2013, with new episodes at 9pm and 9:30pm. The show was pulled from the broadcast schedule after the second week, having aired eight episodes. Four additional episodes were gradually released at MTV.com in February and March 2014.
References
External links
2010s American sketch comedy television series
2013 American television series debuts
English-language television shows
MTV original programming
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John Hall was the fifth president of New York University in New York City, serving 1881–1891.
References
History of the Office. New York University. Accessed 2011-02-24.
Presidents of New York University
Year of death missing
Year of birth missing
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Gross may refer to:
Finance
Gross Cash Registers, a defunct UK company with a high profile in the 1970s
Gross (economics), is the total income before deducting expenses
Science and measurement
Gross (unit), a counting unit equal to 144 items
Gross weight
Gross heating value, see Heat of combustion
Places
Gross, Illinois, an unincorporated community
Gross, Kansas, an unincorporated community
Gross mine, a gold mine in Russia
Gross, Nebraska, a village
Gross Hills, Ellsworth Land, Antarctica
33800 Gross, an asteroid
Other uses
Gross (surname)
In golf, the gross score is the number of strokes taken before accounting for any handicap allowances
"In gross", legally associated with a legal person as opposed to a piece of land; as in:
Easement in gross as opposed to easement appurtenant
Hereditary in gross service, as opposed to serjeanty
Profit in gross as opposed to profit appurtenant
Villein in gross (tied to the lord) as opposed to villein regardant (tied to the manor)
See also
Gros (disambiguation)
Grosz (disambiguation)
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The Rideau Canal is a 202 kilometre long canal that links the Ottawa River, at Ottawa, with the Saint Lawrence River at Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Its 46 locks raise boats from the Ottawa River 83 metres upstream along the Rideau River to the Rideau Lakes, and from there drop 50 metres downstream along the Cataraqui River to Kingston.
Opened in 1832 for commercial shipping, freight was eventually moved to railways and the St. Lawrence Seaway, and it remains in use today for pleasure boating, operated by Parks Canada May to October. It is the oldest continuously operated canal system in North America, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Toponymy
It is named for the Rideau River, which was in turn named for the Rideau Falls. Rideau, French for "curtain", is derived from the curtain-like appearance of the falls where they join the Ottawa River.
History
Plan
After the War of 1812, information was received about the United States' plans to invade the British colony of Upper Canada from upstate New York by following the St. Lawrence River. This would have severed the lifeline between Montreal and the major naval base at Kingston. To protect against such an attack in the future, the British began construction or reinforcement of a number of defences including Citadel Hill in Halifax, La Citadelle in Quebec City, and Fort Henry in Kingston.
To ensure safe passage between Montreal and Kingston, a new route was planned that would proceed westward from Montreal along the St. Lawrence, north along the Ottawa River to the mouth of the Rideau River, later the site of Bytown (now Ottawa), then southwest via canal to Kingston and out into Lake Ontario. The Rideau would form the last portion of this route, along with shorter canals at Grenville, Chute-à-Blondeau and Carillon to bypass rapids and other hazards along the route.
Construction
The construction of the canal was supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers. Private contractors such as future sugar refining entrepreneur John Redpath, Thomas McKay, Robert Drummond, Thomas Phillips, Andrew White and others were responsible for much of the construction, and the majority of the actual work was done by thousands of Irish, Scottish, French-Canadian labourers. Colonel John By decided to create a slackwater canal system instead of constructing new channels. This was a better approach as it required fewer workers, was more cost effective, and would have been easier to build.
The canal work started in the fall of 1826, and it was completed by the spring of 1832. The first full steamboat transit of the canal was made by Robert Drummond's steamboat, Rideau (aka "Pumper"), leaving Kingston on May 22, 1832 with Colonel By and family on board, and arriving in Bytown on May 29, 1832.
The final cost of the canal's construction was £822,804 when all the costs, including land acquisition, were accounted for (January 1834). Because of the unexpected cost overruns, John By was recalled to London and was retired; he received no accolades or recognition for his tremendous accomplishment.
Commercial use
Since the canal was completed, no further military engagements have taken place between Canada and the United States. Although the Rideau was not put to defensive use, it played a pivotal role in the early development of Canada and encouraged shipping, trade, and settlement of Upper Canada by tens of thousands of immigrants.
The canal was easier to navigate than the St. Lawrence River because of significant rapids in the river between Montreal and Kingston. As a result, the Rideau Canal became a busy commercial artery between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It was also used by tens of thousands of immigrants from the British Isles heading westward into Upper Canada in this period.
It was a major route for shipping heavy goods (timber, minerals, grain) from Canada's hinterland east to Montreal. Hundreds of barge loads of goods were shipped each year along the Rideau; in 1841, for instance, some 19 steamboats, 3 self-propelled barges, and 157 unpowered or tow barges used the Rideau Canal. The canal had to compete with the Erie Canal through New York State. Some of the shipments that might have been made from Kingston east, instead were taken to the opposite side of the St. Lawrence River to Oswego, New York. There they traveled by the Oswego Canal to reach the Erie and, via the Hudson River, New York City markets.
Businessmen in Kingston studied the issue. They considered building another canal to Lake Simcoe and on to the French River and Georgian Bay, thereby enabling traffic on the upper Great Lakes to use canals all the way to Montreal and avoid shipping through the entire lakes system. This plan eventually emerged as the Trent-Severn Waterway. It had originally been surveyed as a military route but never built. A simpler plan was to route around the dangerous parts of the St. Lawrence to allow direct shipping from Kingston to Montreal, and this was soon underway.
By 1849, the rapids of the St. Lawrence had been tamed by a series of locks, and commercial shippers were quick to switch to this more direct route. But commercial use of the Rideau largely ended after the Prescott and Bytown Railway was opened in December 1854. It provided faster service than shipping by the canal.
Further work improving the direct route continued along the St. Lawrence River. In the 1950s it was developed as the current Saint Lawrence Seaway, which allowed ocean-going ships access to the Great Lakes.
Current use
After the arrival of railway routes into Ottawa, most use of the canal was for pleasure craft. The introduction of the outboard motor led to an increase in small pleasure craft and increasing use of inland waterways like the Rideau and Trent-Severn. Today the Rideau forms part of the Great Loop, a major waterway route connecting a large area of the eastern United States and Canada.
Construction deaths
As many as one thousand of the workers died during the construction of the canal. Most deaths were from disease, principally complications from malaria (P. vivax), which was endemic in Ontario within the range of the Anopheles mosquito, and other diseases of the day. Accidents were fairly rare for a project of this size; in 1827 there were seven accidental deaths recorded. Inquests were held for each accidental death. The men, women and children who died were buried in local cemeteries, either burial grounds set up near work sites or existing local cemeteries. Funerals were held for the workers and the graves marked with wooden markers (which have since rotted away—leading to a misconception that workers were buried in unmarked graves).
Some of the dead remain unidentified as they had no known relatives in Upper Canada. Memorials have been erected along the canal route, most recently the Celtic Cross memorials in Ottawa, Kingston and Chaffeys Lock. The first memorial on the Rideau Canal acknowledging deaths among the labour force was erected in 1993 by the Kingston and District Labour Council and the Ontario Heritage Foundation at Kingston Mills.
Three canal era cemeteries are open to the public today: Chaffey's Cemetery and Memory Wall at Chaffey's Lock—this cemetery was used from 1825 to the late 19th century; the Royal Sappers and Miners Cemetery (originally called the Military and Civilian Cemetery and then as the Old Presbyterian Cemetery) near Newboro—used from 1828 to the 1940s; and McGuigan Cemetery near Merrickville—used from the early 19th century (c. 1805) to the late 1890s.
Recognition
The Rideau Canal was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1925, and marked with a federal plaque the next year, and again in 1962 and 2013.
The canal has been featured on postage stamps issued by Canada Post. Two 45-cent stamps—'Rideau Canal, Summer Boating at Jones Falls' and 'Rideau Canal, Winter Skating by Parliament'—were issued on June 17, 1998, as part of the Canals and Recreational Destinations series. The stamps were designed by Carey George and Dean Martin, based on paintings by Vincent McIndoe.
In 2014, the canal appeared on a $2.50 international rate stamp as part of a Canada Post set honoring World Heritage Sites. The same design was reprised on a 2016 domestic-rate stamp.
In 1993, British Waterways and Parks Canada agreed to twin the canal with the Caledonian Canal in Scotland.
In 2000 the Rideau Waterway was designated a Canadian Heritage River in recognition of its outstanding historical and recreational values.
In 2007 it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognizing it as a work of human creative genius. The Rideau Canal was recognized as the best preserved example of a slack water canal in North America demonstrating the use of European slackwater technology in North America on a large scale. It is the only canal dating from the great North American canal-building era of the early 19th century that remains operational along its original line with most of its original structures intact. It was also recognized as an extensive, well preserved and significant example of a canal which was used for military purposes linked to a significant stage in human history – that of the fight to control the north of the American continent.
A plaque was erected by the Ontario Archaeological and Historic Sites Board at Jones Falls Lockstation commemorating Lieutenant Colonel John By, Royal Engineer, the superintending engineer in charge of the construction of the Rideau Canal. The plaque notes the Rideau Canal, built as a military route and incorporating 47 locks, 16 lakes, two rivers, and a , dam at Jones Falls (Jones Falls Dam), was completed in 1832.
Other plaques to the canal erected by the Ontario Heritage Trust are at Kingston Mills, Smiths Falls, and Rideau Lakes.
Waterway
The of the Rideau Canal incorporate sections of the Rideau and Cataraqui rivers, as well as several lakes, including the Lower, Upper and Big Rideau lakes. About of the route is artificial. Communities along the waterway include Ottawa, Manotick, Kars, Burritts Rapids, Merrickville, Smiths Falls, Rideau Ferry, Portland, Westport, Newboro, Seeleys Bay and Kingston. Communities connected by navigable waterways to the Rideau Canal include Kemptville and Perth.
Since World War I and the construction of more extensive rail lines into rural Ontario, only pleasure craft make use of the Rideau Canal. It takes 3–5 days to travel one way through the Rideau Canal system by motor boat. Boat tours of the canal are offered in Ottawa, Kingston, Merrickville, and Chaffeys Lock. A cruise line operates the ship Kawartha Voyageur. Recreational boaters can use it to travel between Ottawa and Kingston.
Most of the locks are still hand-operated. There are a total of 45 locks at 23 stations along the canal, plus two locks (locks 33 and 34) at the entrance to the Tay Canal (leading to Perth). The elevation between the Ottawa River and its summit at Upper Rideau Lake, is 83 metres (273 feet), the elevation change from Upper Rideau Lake to Lake Ontario is 50 metres (164 feet). Furthermore, there are four blockhouses and some of the original 16 defensible lockmasters residences along the waterway. The original Commissariat Building and foundation of the Royal Engineers' barracks remain at the Ottawa Lock Station. The waterway is home to many species of birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and fish.
In 1973–74 a new Smiths Falls Combined Lock, 29a, was built a few dozen metres to the north of the original flight of three locks (locks 28–30). The original locks were bypassed but left in place.
Locks
The Rideau Canal uses a lock system that is still fully functioning. The gates that let boats in and out of the locks last approximately 12–15 years. When the canal was constructed, the gates were made at the lock sites by carpenters and blacksmiths, but presently they are made in Smiths Falls, Ontario, and sometimes it takes up to two months to build a set of gates. The gates used on the Rideau Canal are made of Douglas Fir and are mitre-shaped to ensure a tight seal due to water pressure. The average Rideau Canal lock lift uses 1.3 million litres ( or ) of water.
Rideaumax
In normal operations the canal can handle boats up to in length, in width, and in height with a draft of up to (boats drafting over are asked to contact the Rideau Canal Office of Parks Canada prior to their trip). In special circumstances a boat up to in length by in width can be handled.
Blockhouses
Four blockhouses were built from 1826 to 1832 to provide protection for the canal which was under the control of the British Forces:
Merrickville Blockhouse – used briefly during 1837 Rebellion, it became a residence for the lockmaster, upper floor removed in 1909 and restored in 1960 as a museum
Kingston Mills Blockhouse – used in 1837–1838, then enlarged to use as a residence, more alterations made in 1909 and restored to 1830 layout in the 1960s
Newboro Blockhouse – built by the British Ordnance Department, it was also used briefly for its intended military role in the 1830s and then converted to home for lockmaster; restored in 1960s to original blockhouse configuration.
Rideau Narrows Blockhouse – built by William H. Tett it was also altered in the 19th century to become lockmaster's residence and restored from 1967 to 1970 to its original layout.
A fifth blockhouse at Burritts Rapids was partially built in 1832 before work was stopped with only the foundation and walls completed, then rebuilt in 1914–1915 and finally demolished to be replaced by the current lock station in 1969.
Commissariat Building
The Commissariat Building is the oldest stone building still standing in Ottawa. It was built in 1827 as a storehouse for the British Military in Upper Canada. The building has three floors, a secure vault, two sets of staircases, and a block and tackle on the front for hauling goods into the upper floors. After being divided into workshops and residential apartments, the Commissariat Building has housed the Bytown Museum since 1917.
Parliament Hill was intended to be the site of a fortress, to be called Citadel Hill, where the canal ended at the Ottawa River.
Skateway
In winter, a section of the Rideau Canal passing through central Ottawa becomes officially the world's largest and second longest skating rink. The cleared length is and has the equivalent surface area of 90 Olympic ice hockey rinks. It runs from the Hartwells Lockstation at Carleton University to the locks between the Parliament Buildings and the Château Laurier, including Dow's Lake in between. It serves as a popular tourist attraction and recreational area and is also the focus of the Winterlude festival in Ottawa. In 2023, unseasonably warm weather prevented the opening of the Skateway for Winterlude. Beaver Tails, a fried dough pastry, are sold along with other snacks and beverages, in kiosks on the skateway. Kiosks were removed in early 2023 due to the resulting lack of tourism.
In January 2008, Winnipeg, Manitoba, achieved the record of the world's longest skating rink at a length of 8.54 kilometres but with a width of only 2 to 3 metres wide on its Assiniboine River and Red River at The Forks. In response, the Rideau Canal was rebranded as "the world's largest skating rink". The Rideau Canal Skateway was added to the Guinness Book of World Records in 2005 for being the largest naturally frozen ice rink in the world.
The Skateway is open 24 hours a day. The length of the season depends on the weather, but typically the Rideau Canal Skateway opens in January and closes in March. Because of global warming, the region's average winter temperature has risen at an accelerating rate since the 1970s, which has gradually pushed back the opening day of skating and shortened the skating season. In 1971–1972, the Skateway's second winter, the skating season was 90 days long, which was its longest season. By 2022–23, warm temperatures combined with snow and rain led to the first ever season with zero skating days. Before then, the 2015–2016 season was the shortest in which the Skateway was opened, being a mere 34 days long (and with only 18 skating days).
Although some residents of Ottawa used the canal as an impromptu skating surface for years, the official use of the canal as a skateway and tourist attraction is a more recent innovation. As recently as 1970, however, city government of Ottawa considered paving over the canal to make an expressway. The federal government's ownership of the canal, however, prevented the city from pursuing this proposal. When Doug Fullerton was appointed chair of the National Capital Commission, he proposed a recreational corridor around the canal, including the winter skateway between Carleton University and Confederation Park. The plan was implemented on January 18, 1971, despite opposition by city council. A small section of ice near the National Arts Centre was cleared by NCC employees with brooms and shovels, and 50,000 people skated on the canal the first weekend. Today the skating area of the canal is larger because of the equipment available for ice resurfacing and 24/7 maintenance crews. The skateway now has an average of one million visits per year. City councillor and author Clive Doucet credits this transformation of the canal with reinvigorating the communities of the Glebe, Old Ottawa East and Old Ottawa South.
Preparation and maintenance
The preparation for the Skateway starts as early as mid-October. At the end of the boating season, the water is drained at the Ottawa locks near Parliament by Parks Canada. Facilities on the ice such as shelters, chalets, and access ramps for vehicles are then installed. Next, "beams are placed at the locks, and the water is raised to skating level." After this step, the essentials are added such as stairs to access the ice, and hookups for both plumbing and electricity. The ice cap that forms as the canal freezes becomes the Rideau Canal Skateway. When the canal has built up a sufficient ice thickness, snow is removed from the ice surface and it is flooded in order to make the ice even more thick and smooth. Samples of ice are tested for quality and thickness. When it is safe to skate on, the Rideau Canal Skateway is opened for the season.
The Rideau Canal Skateway is maintained by the NCC (National Capital Commission). The ice is maintained by crews 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The snow and ice shavings are cleared off the surface every day and the ice surface is flooded each night with a "water dispersion machine" (weather permitting) to fill in any cracks caused by the contracting and expanding ice. There are approximately 20 holes along the side of the Skateway that flood the ice surface to make it smoother for skaters.
Two types of ice can form on the Rideau Canal Skateway, which are "white ice" and "clear ice". White ice has a milky appearance with air bubbles, and is formed when snow and water mix and then freeze. White ice can also be formed by mechanically flooding the ice surface with water to increase the thickness of the ice cap. The other type of ice is called "clear ice", which has a colourless appearance and is formed when ice crystals build up below the frozen surface in cold temperatures. If snow accumulates on the ice it can negatively impact the conditions for skating. Snow depresses the ice surface and slows down the formation of ice crystals beneath the surface.
Ice conditions can be classified as very good, good, fair or poor. They are updated twice daily by the NCC. The ideal ("very good") conditions mean there are "a limited number of pressure cracks", the ice is very hard and durable overall, the ice surface is clean and smooth, there are a "limited number of rough areas", and there is a "very good gliding surface."
See also
Capital Pathway – the recreational pathway along the Rideau Canal
Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue Canal
Saint Lawrence Seaway – Ontario–Quebec waterway system
Tay Canal – a branch canal of the Rideau
Trent-Severn Waterway – Central Ontario Canal System
Welland Canal – Niagara region Canal System
References
Further reading
External links
Official Parks Canada Site: Rideau Canal National Historic Site of Canada
Rideau Canal Tourism
Rideau Canal Waterway
Actual Specifications, beam, draft, etc.
History of the canal – Bytown Museum and the National Research Council Canada
Eyewitness: Thomas Burrowes on the Rideau Canal, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
Friends of the Rideau
Rideau Heritage Route – Tourism
Rideau Canal Skateway
World Heritage Sites in Canada
Canals in Ontario
Parks in Ontario
Canadian Heritage Rivers
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Tourist attractions in Ottawa
Tourist attractions in Kingston, Ontario
1832 establishments in Canada
Canals opened in 1832
Heritage sites in Ontario
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In Swahili culture, most notably in Zanzibar and in some areas of western Kenya, the word unyago refers both to a set of rituals and to the music and dance styles that are traditionally associated with such rituals.
The unyago rituals were practiced to celebrate the coming of age of girls or during weddings. In those rituals, older women would teach the young ones about sex and conjugal life. These rituals would last several days and be accompanied by dances and music.
In modern East Africa, unyago rituals are still occasionally practiced, but unyago dances and music are also performed independent of such rituals, as part of the local folk music. Bi Kidude and Bi Ngwali are two well-known Zanzibari singers who occasionally perform unyago music.
Footnotes
Tanzanian music
Kenyan styles of music
Swahili culture
African traditional music
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The state of Oregon in the United States has established an international reputation for its production of wine, ranking fourth in the country behind California, Washington, and New York. Oregon has several different growing regions within the state's borders that are well-suited to the cultivation of grapes; additional regions straddle the border between Oregon and the states of Washington and Idaho. Wine making dates back to pioneer times in the 1840s, with commercial production beginning in the 1960s.
American Viticultural Areas entirely within the state are the Willamette Valley AVA (with 10 nested AVAs) and the Southern Oregon AVA with (5 nested AVAs). Parts of the Columbia Gorge, Walla Walla Valley, and Snake River Valley AVAs lie within Oregon. Pinot noir and Pinot Gris are the top two grapes grown, with over harvested in 2016. Oregon winemakers sold just under 3.4 million cases in 2016.
With 908 wineries in Oregon, a tourism industry has developed around wine tasting. Much of the tourism focuses on the wineries and tasting rooms in and around the Yamhill Valley southwest of Portland. It is estimated that enotourism contributed USD $207.5 million to the state economy in 2013 excluding sales at wineries and tasting rooms.
History
Wine has been produced in Oregon since the Oregon Territory was settled in the 1840s; however, winemaking has only been a significant industry in the state since the 1960s. Grapes were first planted in the Oregon Territory in 1847. Valley View, the first recorded winery, was established by Peter Britt in the late 1850s in Jacksonville. Throughout the 19th century, there was experimentation with various varietals by immigrants to the state. In 1904, an Oregon winemaker won a prize at the St. Louis World's Fair. Wine production stopped in the United States during Prohibition. As in other states, the Oregon wine industry lay dormant for thirty years after Prohibition was repealed.
The Oregon wine industry started to rebuild in the 1960s, when California winemakers opened several vineyards in the state. By 1970, there were five commercial wineries, with 35 recorded acres ().
This included the planting of Pinot noir grapes in the Willamette Valley, a region long thought too cold to be suitable for viticulture. In the 1970s, more out-of-state winemakers migrated to the state and started to organize as an industry. The state's land-use laws had prevented rural hillsides from being turned into housing tracts, preserving a significant amount of land suitable for vineyards. In 1979, The Eyrie Vineyards entered a 1975 Pinot noir in the Wine Olympics; the wine was rated among the top Pinots in the world, thus gaining the region its first international recognition.
The accolades continued into the 1980s, and the Oregon wine industry continued to add both wineries and vineyards. The state industry continued to market itself, establishing the first of several AVAs (American Viticulture Areas) in the state. The state also grew strong ties with the Burgundy region of France, as Oregon's governor Neil Goldschmidt paid an official visit to Burgundy and a leading French winemaking family bought land in Dundee.
In the early 1990s, the wine industry was threatened by a Phylloxera infestation in the state, but winemakers quickly turned to the use of resistant rootstocks to prevent any serious damage. The state legislature enacted several new laws designed to promote winemaking and wine distribution. The state found a newfound focus on "green" winemaking, leading the global wine industry into more environmentally friendly practices. In 2005, there were 314 wineries and 519 vineyards in operation in Oregon. By 2014, the a number of wineries in the state has increased to 676, the 3rd most behind California and Washington. Oregon remains the 4th largest wine producer in the country in cases produced behind New York.
Varieties of wine
Like other wines produced in the United States, Oregon wines are marketed as varietals. Oregon law requires that wines produced in the state must be identified by the grape variety from which it was made, and for most varietals, it must contain at least 90% of that variety. The exceptions to the 90% law are the following varietals: Red and White Bordeaux varietals, Red and White Rhône varietals, Sangiovese, Tempranillo, Zinfandel and Tannat. For these wines, they follow the Federal guidelines of 75%. Oregon law has long forbidden the use of place names, except as appellations of origin. Oregon is most famous for its Pinot noir, which is produced throughout the state. Pinot noirs from the Willamette Valley have received much critical acclaim from wine connoisseurs and critics, and Oregon is regarded as one of the premier Pinot-producing regions in the world.
In 2016 the top five varieties produced in Oregon were:
Pinot noir ,
Pinot gris ,
Chardonnay ,
Riesling ,
Cabernet Sauvignon ,
Other varieties with significant production by harvested acres in 2016 are Syrah, Merlot, Tempranillo, Pinot blanc, Gewürztraminer, Viognier, Cabernet franc, Müller-Thurgau, Sauvignon blanc, and Zinfandel, V. vinifera based wines produced in smaller quantities include Arneis, Baco noir, Black Muscat, Chenin blanc, Dolcetto, Gamay noir, Grenache, Marechal Foch, Malbec, Muscat, Nebbiolo, Petite Syrah, Sangiovese, and Sémillon. The state also produces fruit wine, sparkling wine, late harvest wine, ice wine, and dessert wine.
Facts and figures
As of the 2015 wine growing season, the state of Oregon has 702 wineries and 1052 vineyards growing Vitis vinifera, composing a total of of which were harvested. Out of all US wine growing regions, Oregon ranks third in number of wineries and fourth in production. Nearly 3 million cases of Oregon wine were sold in 2015. The retail value of these cases was $470,650,919 a 9% increase over the previous vintage.
The industry has had a significant economic impact on the state. The industry contributed a total of US$3.35 billion to the Oregon economy. 17,100 people participate in the wine industry with $527 million in wages. In 2014 70% was sold to US markets outside Oregon and 4% was sold internationally.
Oregon produces wine on a much smaller scale than the California wine industry. Oregon's leading producer, King Estate, ships only 401,400 cases per year and most produce under 35,000 cases. The state features many small wineries that produce less than 5,000 cases per year. In contrast, E & J Gallo, the United States' largest winery with more than 50 different brands including Washington's Columbia Winery and Covey Run holds a 22.8% share of the US market. The majority of wineries in the state operate their own vineyards, although some purchase grapes on the market. Oregon contains a significant number of independent vineyards.
The Oregon wine industry focuses on the higher-priced segments of the wine market. Oregon growers receive a higher average return per ton and a higher average revenue per case than do growers in other wine-producing regions in the United States. Despite producing a much smaller volume of wine, Oregon winery revenues per capita are comparable to those of New York and Washington.
Major wine-producing regions
There are, loosely speaking, three main wine producing regions with a major presence in the state of Oregon, as defined by non-overlapping American Viticultural Areas. Two of them—the Willamette Valley AVA and the Southern Oregon AVA—are wholly contained within Oregon; a third, the Columbia Gorge AVA straddles the Columbia River and includes territory in both Oregon and Washington; however, this AVA is considered to be an Oregon AVA. Portions of the Walla Walla Valley AVA, an area primarily in Washington (along with the Columbia Valley AVA, which contains it), descend into Oregon in the Milton-Freewater area. The Southern Oregon AVA was recently created as the union of two Southern Oregon winegrowing regions long considered distinct, the Rogue Valley and the Umpqua Valley. Several other smaller AVAs are found within some of these larger regions. The Snake River Valley AVA, which straddles Oregon's border with Idaho along the Snake River, is the first AVA to include a part of Eastern Oregon.
Willamette Valley AVA
The Willamette Valley AVA is the wine growing region that encompasses the Willamette Valley. It stretches from the Columbia River in the north to just south of Eugene in the south, where the Willamette Valley ends; and from the Oregon Coast Range in the West to the Cascade Mountains in the East. At , it is the largest AVA in the state, and contains most of the state's wineries; with 545 as of 2016.
The climate of Willamette Valley is mild year-round, with cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers; extreme temperatures are uncommon. Most rainfall occurs outside the growing season and the valley gets relatively little snow. Not all parts of the Valley are suitable for viticulture, and most wineries and vineyards are found west of the Willamette River, with the largest concentration in Yamhill County.
The region is best known for its Pinot noir, and also produces large amounts of Pinot gris, Chardonnay, Pinot blanc, and Riesling. The region also produces Cabernet Sauvignon, Gewürztraminer, Müller-Thurgau, Sémillon, and Zinfandel grapes, but in far smaller quantities.
The region is divided into 10 nested AVAs: Chehalem Mountains AVA, Dundee Hills AVA, Eola-Amity Hills AVA, Laurelwood District AVA, Lower Long Tom AVA, McMinnville AVA, Ribbon Ridge AVA, Tualatin Hills AVA, Van Duzer Corridor AVA, and the Yamhill-Carlton District AVA. Ribbon Ridge AVA and Laurelwood District AVA are nested within the Chehalem Mountains AVA. In addition, many wine connoisseurs further divide the Willamette Valley into northern and southern regions approximately at the latitude of Salem.
Southern Oregon AVA
The Southern Oregon AVA is an AVA formed as the union of two existing AVAs—the Rogue Valley AVA and the Umpqua Valley AVA. (A small strip of the connecting territory is included in the Southern Oregon AVA to make it a contiguous region; however, this strip passes through mountains regions not suitable for vineyards.) This AVA was established in 2004 to allow the two principal regions in Southern Oregon to jointly market themselves.
As the Rogue Valley and Umpqua Valley regions produce different grapes and different varietals, they are examined separately.
Umpqua Valley AVA
The Umpqua Valley AVA contains the drainage basin of the Umpqua River, excluding mountainous regions. The Umpqua Valley has a warmer climate than the Willamette Valley, but is cooler than the Rogue Valley to the south. It is the oldest post-prohibition wine region in Oregon. Grapes grown here include Tempranillo, Baco noir, Pinot noir, Pinot gris, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Riesling, Grüner Veltliner, and a host of lesser-known Vitis vinifera. The region includes two sub-AVAs, the Red Hill Douglas County, Oregon AVA, a single vineyard AVA, as well as the Elkton Oregon AVA, which was established in early 2013.
Rogue Valley AVA
The Rogue Valley AVA includes the drainage basin of the Rogue River and several tributaries, including the Illinois River, the Applegate River, and Bear Creek. Most wineries in the region are found along with one of these three tributaries, rather than along the Rogue River itself. The region is wide by long (although much of the land within the AVA is not suitable for grape cultivation); there are currently 32 wineries with only planted. The three valleys differ greatly in terroir, with the easternmost Bear Creek valley being warmest and driest, and the westernmost Illinois River valley being coolest and wettest. Each river valley has a unique climate and grows different varieties of grapes. Overall, however, this region is the warmest and driest of Oregon's wine-growing regions. The region has one sub-AVA, the Applegate Valley AVA.
Columbia Gorge AVA
The Columbia Gorge AVA is found in the Columbia Gorge. This region straddles the Columbia River, and thus lies in both Oregon and Washington; it is made up of Hood River and Wasco counties in Oregon, and Skamania and Klickitat counties in Washington.
The region lies to the east of the summits of nearby Mount Hood and Mount Adams, situated in their rain shadows; thus, the region is significantly drier than the Willamette Valley. It also exhibits significant differences in elevation due to gorge geography, and strong winds common in the area also play a factor in the region's climate. This allows a wide variety of grapes to be grown in the Columbia Gorge. The region has nearly 40 vineyards, growing a wide variety of grapes, including Syrah, Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot gris, Riesling, and Sangiovese.
Columbia Valley AVA
Portions of northeastern Oregon (in the vicinity of Milton-Freewater) are part of the Walla Walla Valley AVA established in 1984; which in turn is nested within the Columbia Valley AVA. Both Columbia Valley and Walla Walla Valley AVAs reside primarily within Washington state. The Oregon subsection has 5 wineries and planted. Wines grown in the valley include Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as Sangiovese and a few exotic varietals including Counoise, Carmenère, Mourvèdre, Cabernet Franc, Nebbiolo and Barbera.
A new nested AVA, The Rocks District of Milton–Freewater, was established in 2015.
Snake River Valley AVA
A new viticultural area along the Snake River was established on April 9, 2007. Principally located in Idaho, the area also encompasses two large counties in Eastern Oregon, Baker County and Malheur County. The region's climate is unique among AVAs in Oregon; the average temperature is relatively cool and rainfall is low, creating a shorter growing season. Current production is led by hardy grapes such as Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Chardonnay. The climate also lends itself extremely well to the production of ice wine. However, the AVA is quite large and warmer microclimates within the area can also support different types of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.
Enotourism
With the continuing improvement in the region's winemaking reputation, enotourism in Oregon has become a significant industry in its own right. On-site sales are becoming an increasingly important part of the business of Oregon winemaking, and other businesses that cater to wine tourists, such as lodging, fine restaurants, art galleries, have been appearing in places like Dundee, many of which have long been rural farming communities. Wine festivals and tastings are commonplace. It is estimated that enotourism contributed USD $207.5 million to the state economy in 2013 excluding sales at wineries and tasting rooms. There are approximately 1.8 million visits to Oregon wineries each year, 59% by Oregonians and 41% from out-of-state visitors. Major events drawing significant numbers of tourists to wine country include the International Pinot Noir Celebration which is held the last weekend of July every year since 1987 and the more recent Oregon Chardonnay Celebration.
Since wine themed events are a significant driver of tourism new ones are launched each year.
Memorial Day weekend and Thanksgiving weekend (since 1983) feature open house events at most wineries across the entire state.
¡Salud! is a wine fundraising organization that has held annual November auctions since 1991
The Oregon Wine Experience is in its 19th year.
The Pour Oregon wine festival, launched in 2017 by Oregon wine club Cellar 503, typically features 50+ wineries from the entire state.
Facilities for wine tourists in Oregon are considered underdeveloped compared to wine regions in California, especially premium growing regions like the Napa Valley AVA. Only 5% of overnight leisure trips in the state involve visits to wineries, a much smaller figure than comparable Californian growing regions, which range from 10% to 25%.
The increase in winery-related tourism, as well as the presence of a casino in the Willamette Valley, has greatly impacted the region's transportation infrastructure. Oregon Route 99W, the highway running through the heart of Willamette Valley wine country (and which is the main street in towns such as Newberg and Dundee), is plagued with frequent traffic jams. Phase I of the Newberg Dundee Bypass (avoiding the prime growing areas in the hills) is under construction and expected to open in 2017.
Wine Industry
A growing number of organizations have been established to promote Oregon Wine. In February of each year the Oregon Wine Board and Oregon Wine Grower's association team up to hold the Oregon Wine Symposium.
Statewide organizations:
Oregon Beer and Wine Distributors Association is a full-service, professional trade association representing beer and wine distribution companies in Oregon since 1975.
Oregon Pinot Camp brings together invite-only members of the wine trade to learn about Oregon Pinot Noir so they can better represent Oregon Wines to their customers.
Oregon Pinot Gris is a pinot gris centered marketing organization created by nine Oregon wineries in 2011.
Oregon Wine Board is a semi-independent Oregon state agency managing marketing, research and education initiatives that support and advance the Oregon wine and wine grape industry.
Oregon Wine Grower's Association advances and protects the investments of its members.
Oregon Wine Press is a monthly print and online publication supporting the wine industry.
Steamboat Pinot Noir Conference is an annual event for winemakers held since 1980 to openly exchange information and share experiences regarding the growing of Pinot noir and the styles and techniques of Pinot noir winemaking.
Regional organizations, largely aligned to AVAs:
Applegate Valley Wine Trail supports 17 member wineries.
Chehalem Mountain Winegrowers Association supports 67 member vineyards and wineries.
Columbia Gorge Winegrowers supports wineries from both Oregon and Washington along the Columbia gorge.
Dundee Hills Winegrowers Association supports 41 member wineries within the Dundee Hills AVA.
Heart of Willamette Wineries supports 18 member wineries located between Salem and Junction City Oregon.
McMinnville Foothills Winegrowers supports 8 member vineyards and wineries within the McMinnville AVA.
North Willamette Vintners brings together wineries, vineyards and tourism partners to support and advance the North Willamette wine region.
Ribbon Ridge Winegrower's Association supports 20 member vineyards and wineries within the AVA.
Rogue Valley Winegrowers Association supports more than 40 wineries within the Rogue Valley.
South Willamette Wineries Association has 20 member wineries from the region encircling Eugene OR.
Southern Oregon Winery Association supports more than 150 wineries spanning 4 AVAs: Applegate Valley AVA (a sub-appellation of Rogue Valley AVA), Elkton Oregon AVA, Rogue Valley AVA, and Umpqua Valley AVA.
Umpqua Valley Wineries has 23 member wineries from the Umpqua Valley AVA.
Willamette Valley Wineries Association was created in 1986 with 11 members from Yamhill County and has grown to 215 members.
Willamette Valley Visitors Association promotes the region with their popular Oregon Wine Country website.
Yamhill-Carlton Winegrowers Association has 64 vineyard members as of August 2016.
Recognition
Recognition for quality
Oregon wines have won several major awards, and/or been praised by notable wine critics.
In 1904, Forest Grove winemaker Ernest Reuter won a silver medal at the St. Louis World's Fair.
In 1979, Eyrie Vineyards' 1975 South Block Pinot noir placed in the top 10 of Burgundy-style wines at the Gault-Millau French Wine Olympiades, and was rated the top Pinot noir. In a rematch, however, the Eyrie finished second to a French wine.
Two gold medals in the International Wine Competition in London in 1982.
A Yamhill Valley Vineyards 1983 Pinot noir was the first place preference at the 1985 Oregon Pinot noir/French Burgundy Challenge at the International Wine Center in New York City.
Other recognition
Evening Lands's 98 point 2012 Eola-Amity Hills Seven Springs Vineyard La Source Pinot Noir was #3 of 100 on 2015 Wine Spectator's annual Top 100 Wines. 5 other Oregon wines made the 2015 list: Big Table Farm's 2012 Willamette Valley Pinot Noir at No. 11, Bergström's 2013 Ribbon Ridge Le Pré Du Col Vineyard Pinot Noir at No. 13, Soléna's 2012 Willamette Valley Grande Cuvée Pinot Noir at No. 38 and Colene Clemens' 2012 Chehalem Mountains Margo Pinot Noir at No. 45.
Beaux Freres The Upper Terrace 2012 received the second higher score in the history of Oregon wine a 97 also from Wine Spectator.
In 2006, seven Oregon wines made Wine Spectators annual Top 100 Wines list. Producers on the list included: Shea, Argyle, Archery Summit, Lemelson, Ken Wright, Elk Cove, and Benton Lane.
Notable wineries and vineyards
This is a list of notable operating and defunct wineries and vineyards in the state of Oregon''' in the United States, including those in the Southern Oregon AVA and Willamette Valley AVA. Included are wineries and vineyards owned or operated by larger wineries not based in Oregon.
See also
Alcoholic beverages in Oregon
Oregon Wine Board
References
Further reading, by publication date
Spectacular Wineries of Oregon: A Captivating Tour of Established, Estate, and Boutique Wineries, 2015,
Wine Map of the Pacific Northwest, 2015,
Explorer's Guide to Oregon Wine, 2013,
Winemakers of the Willamette Valley: Pioneering Vintners from Oregon's Wine Country, 2013,
The Law of Wine A Guide to Business and Legal Issues in Oregon, 2013
Voodoo Vintners: Oregon's Astonishing Biodynamic Winegrowers, 2011,
Essential Wines and Wineries of the Pacific Northwest: A Guide to the Wine Countries of Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and Idaho, 2010,
WineTrails of Oregon, 2009,
Oregon Eco-Friendly Wine: Leading the World in "Green" Wine, 2008,
Oregon: The Taste of Wine, 2008,
Pacific Pinot Noir: A Comprehensive Winery Guide for Consumers and Connoisseurs, 2008,
Cooking with the Wines of Oregon, 2007,
Grail, The: A year ambling & shambling through an Oregon vineyard in pursuit of the best pinot noir wine in the whole wild world, 2006,
At Home in the Vineyard: Cultivating a Winery, an Industry, and a Life, 2006,
Wines of the Pacific Northwest, 2006,
Oregon Wine Country, 2004,
Oregon Viticulture, 2003,
A Travel Companion to the Wineries of the Pacific Northwest: Featuring the Pinot Noirs of Oregon's Willamette Valley, 2002,
Boys Up North: Dick Erath and the Early Oregon Wine Makers, 1997,
Oregon Winegrape Grower's Guide, 1992,
The Wines and Wineries of America's Northwest: the Premium Wines of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, 1986,
External links
Oregon Winegrowers Association
Oregon Wine Center
Discover the Pacific Northwest Wineries, Breweries and Distilleries
OLCC changes wine label laws, a 2007 article from Portland Business Journal''
Oregon Wine: Grapes of Place Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
TTB AVA Map
Agriculture in Oregon
Wine regions of the United States by state
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In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae predominate in this role. Ecologists distinguish primary production as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.
Overview
Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules.
Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide () and water (H2O). The following two equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom):
+ H2O + light → CH2O + O2
+ O2 + 4 H2S → CH2O + 4 S + 3 H2O
In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CH2O)n, typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars. These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems.
Gross primary production and net primary production
Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy, typically expressed as carbon biomass, that primary producers create in a given length of time. Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP).
NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants]
Net primary production is the rate at which all the autotrophs in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy. Net primary production is available to be directed toward growth and reproduction of primary producers. As such it is available for consumption by herbivores.
Both gross and net primary production are typically expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m−2 yr−1) is most often used as the unit of measurement. Note that a distinction is sometimes drawn between "production" and "productivity", with the former the quantity of material produced (g C m−2), the latter the rate at which it is produced (g C m−2 yr−1), but these terms are more typically used interchangeably.
Terrestrial production
On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small fraction coming from algae and non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts. Before the evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a more significant role. Primary production on land is a function of many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature (the latter covaries to an extent with light, specifically photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), the source of energy for photosynthesis). While plants cover much of the Earth's surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally water and PAR) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions.
Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration. The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants. Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These structures also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain. Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants (the majority of plant species).
As shown in the animation, the boreal forests of Canada and Russia experience high productivity in June and July and then a slow decline through fall and winter. Year-round, tropical forests in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia have high productivity, not surprising with the abundant sunlight, warmth, and rainfall. However, even in the tropics, there are variations in productivity over the course of the year. For example, the Amazon basin exhibits especially high productivity from roughly August through October - the period of the area's dry season. Because the trees have access to a plentiful supply of ground water that builds up in the rainy season, they grow better when the rainy skies clear and allow more sunlight to reach the forest.
Oceanic production
In a reversal of the pattern on land, in the oceans, almost all photosynthesis is performed by algae, with a small fraction contributed by vascular plants and other groups. Algae encompass a diverse range of organisms, ranging from single floating cells to attached seaweeds. They include photoautotrophs from a variety of groups. Eubacteria are important photosynthetizers in both oceanic and terrestrial ecosystems, and while some archaea are phototrophic, none are known to utilise oxygen-evolving photosynthesis. A number of eukaryotes are significant contributors to primary production in the ocean, including green algae, brown algae and red algae, and a diverse group of unicellular groups. Vascular plants are also represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses.
Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of primary production in the ocean is performed by free-living microscopic organisms called phytoplankton. Larger autotrophs, such as the seagrasses and macroalgae (seaweeds) are generally confined to the littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone. There are exceptions, such as Sargassum, but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms.
The factors limiting primary production in the ocean are also very different from those on land. The availability of water, obviously, is not an issue (though its salinity can be). Similarly, temperature, while affecting metabolic rates (see Q10), ranges less widely in the ocean than on land because the heat capacity of seawater buffers temperature changes, and the formation of sea ice insulates it at lower temperatures. However, the availability of light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the ocean. Available Earth System Models suggest that ongoing ocean bio-geochemical changes could trigger reductions in ocean NPP between 3% and 10% of current values depending on the emissions scenario.
Light
The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone). This is a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur. For practical purposes, the thickness of the photic zone is typically defined by the depth at which light reaches 1% of its surface value. Light is attenuated down the water column by its absorption or scattering by the water itself, and by dissolved or particulate material within it (including phytoplankton).
Net photosynthesis in the water column is determined by the interaction between the photic zone and the mixed layer. Turbulent mixing by wind energy at the ocean's surface homogenises the water column vertically until the turbulence dissipates (creating the aforementioned mixed layer). The deeper the mixed layer, the lower the average amount of light intercepted by phytoplankton within it. The mixed layer can vary from being shallower than the photic zone, to being much deeper than the photic zone. When it is much deeper than the photic zone, this results in phytoplankton spending too much time in the dark for net growth to occur. The maximum depth of the mixed layer in which net growth can occur is called the critical depth. As long as there are adequate nutrients available, net primary production occurs whenever the mixed layer is shallower than the critical depth.
Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales. The most characteristic of these is the seasonal cycle (caused by the consequences of the Earth's axial tilt), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong spatial components. Consequently, primary production in temperate regions such as the North Atlantic is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in winter). In tropical regions, such as the gyres in the middle of the major basins, light may only vary slightly across the year, and mixing may only occur episodically, such as during large storms or hurricanes.
Nutrients
Mixing also plays an important role in the limitation of primary production by nutrients. Inorganic nutrients, such as nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid are necessary for phytoplankton to synthesise their cells and cellular machinery. Because of gravitational sinking of particulate material (such as plankton, dead or fecal material), nutrients are constantly lost from the photic zone, and are only replenished by mixing or upwelling of deeper water. This is exacerbated where summertime solar heating and reduced winds increases vertical stratification and leads to a strong thermocline, since this makes it more difficult for wind mixing to entrain deeper water. Consequently, between mixing events, primary production (and the resulting processes that leads to sinking particulate material) constantly acts to consume nutrients in the mixed layer, and in many regions this leads to nutrient exhaustion and decreased mixed layer production in the summer (even in the presence of abundant light). However, as long as the photic zone is deep enough, primary production may continue below the mixed layer where light-limited growth rates mean that nutrients are often more abundant.
Iron
Another factor relatively recently discovered to play a significant role in oceanic primary production is the micronutrient iron. This is used as a cofactor in enzymes involved in processes such as nitrate reduction and nitrogen fixation. A major source of iron to the oceans is dust from the Earth's deserts, picked up and delivered by the wind as aeolian dust.
In regions of the ocean that are distant from deserts or that are not reached by dust-carrying winds (for example, the Southern and North Pacific oceans), the lack of iron can severely limit the amount of primary production that can occur. These areas are sometimes known as HNLC (High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) regions, because the scarcity of iron both limits phytoplankton growth and leaves a surplus of other nutrients. Some scientists have suggested introducing iron to these areas as a means of increasing primary productivity and sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Measurement
The methods for measurement of primary production vary depending on whether gross vs net production is the desired measure, and whether terrestrial or aquatic systems are the focus. Gross production is almost always harder to measure than net, because of respiration, which is a continuous and ongoing process that consumes some of the products of primary production (i.e. sugars) before they can be accurately measured. Also, terrestrial ecosystems are generally more difficult because a substantial proportion of total productivity is shunted to below-ground organs and tissues, where it is logistically difficult to measure. Shallow water aquatic systems can also face this problem.
Scale also greatly affects measurement techniques. The rate of carbon assimilation in plant tissues, organs, whole plants, or plankton samples can be quantified by biochemically based techniques, but these techniques are decidedly inappropriate for large scale terrestrial field situations. There, net primary production is almost always the desired variable, and estimation techniques involve various methods of estimating dry-weight biomass changes over time. Biomass estimates are often converted to an energy measure, such as kilocalories, by an empirically determined conversion factor.
Terrestrial
In terrestrial ecosystems, researchers generally measure net primary production (NPP). Although its definition is straightforward, field measurements used to estimate productivity vary according to investigator and biome. Field estimates rarely account for below ground productivity, herbivory, turnover, litterfall, volatile organic compounds, root exudates, and allocation to symbiotic microorganisms. Biomass based NPP estimates result in underestimation of NPP due to incomplete accounting of these components. However, many field measurements correlate well to NPP. There are a number of comprehensive reviews of the field methods used to estimate NPP. Estimates of ecosystem respiration, the total carbon dioxide produced by the ecosystem, can also be made with gas flux measurements.
The major unaccounted pool is belowground productivity, especially production and turnover of roots. Belowground components of NPP are difficult to measure. BNPP (below-ground NPP) is often estimated based on a ratio of ANPP:BNPP (above-ground NPP:below-ground NPP) rather than direct measurements.
Gross primary production can be estimated from measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide made by the eddy covariance technique. During night, this technique measures all components of ecosystem respiration. This respiration is scaled to day-time values and further subtracted from NEE.
Grasslands
Most frequently, peak standing biomass is assumed to measure NPP. In systems with persistent standing litter, live biomass is commonly reported. Measures of peak biomass are more reliable if the system is predominantly annuals. However, perennial measurements could be reliable if there were a synchronous phenology driven by a strong seasonal climate. These methods may underestimate ANPP in grasslands by as much as 2 (temperate) to 4 (tropical) fold. Repeated measures of standing live and dead biomass provide more accurate estimates of all grasslands, particularly those with large turnover, rapid decomposition, and interspecific variation in timing of peak biomass. Wetland productivity (marshes and fens) is similarly measured. In Europe, annual mowing makes the annual biomass increment of wetlands evident.
Forests
Methods used to measure forest productivity are more diverse than those of grasslands. Biomass increment based on stand specific allometry plus litterfall is considered a suitable although incomplete accounting of above-ground net primary production (ANPP). Field measurements used as a proxy for ANPP include annual litterfall, diameter or basal area increment (DBH or BAI), and volume increment.
Aquatic
In aquatic systems, primary production is typically measured using one of six main techniques:
variations in oxygen concentration within a sealed bottle (developed by Gaarder and Gran in 1927)
incorporation of inorganic carbon-14 (14C in the form of sodium bicarbonate) into organic matter
Stable isotopes of Oxygen (16O, 18O and 17O)
fluorescence kinetics (technique still a research topic)
Stable isotopes of Carbon (12C and 13C)
Oxygen/Argon Ratios
The technique developed by Gaarder and Gran uses variations in the concentration of oxygen under different experimental conditions to infer gross primary production. Typically, three identical transparent vessels are filled with sample water and stoppered. The first is analysed immediately and used to determine the initial oxygen concentration; usually this is done by performing a Winkler titration. The other two vessels are incubated, one each in under light and darkened. After a fixed period of time, the experiment ends, and the oxygen concentration in both vessels is measured. As photosynthesis has not taken place in the dark vessel, it provides a measure of ecosystem respiration. The light vessel permits both photosynthesis and respiration, so provides a measure of net photosynthesis (i.e. oxygen production via photosynthesis subtract oxygen consumption by respiration). Gross primary production is then obtained by adding oxygen consumption in the dark vessel to net oxygen production in the light vessel.
The technique of using 14C incorporation (added as labelled Na2CO3) to infer primary production is most commonly used today because it is sensitive, and can be used in all ocean environments. As 14C is radioactive (via beta decay), it is relatively straightforward to measure its incorporation in organic material using devices such as scintillation counters.
Depending upon the incubation time chosen, net or gross primary production can be estimated. Gross primary production is best estimated using relatively short incubation times (1 hour or less), since the loss of incorporated 14C (by respiration and organic material excretion / exudation) will be more limited. Net primary production is the fraction of gross production remaining after these loss processes have consumed some of the fixed carbon.
Loss processes can range between 10 and 60% of incorporated 14C according to the incubation period, ambient environmental conditions (especially temperature) and the experimental species used. Aside from those caused by the physiology of the experimental subject itself, potential losses due to the activity of consumers also need to be considered. This is particularly true in experiments making use of natural assemblages of microscopic autotrophs, where it is not possible to isolate them from their consumers.
The methods based on stable isotopes and O2/Ar ratios have the advantage of providing estimates of respiration rates in the light without the need of incubations in the dark. Among them, the method of the triple oxygen isotopes and O2/Ar have the additional advantage of not needing incubations in closed containers and O2/Ar can even be measured continuously at sea using equilibrator inlet mass spectrometry (EIMS) or a membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS). However, if results relevant to the carbon cycle are desired, it is probably better to rely on methods based on carbon (and not oxygen) isotopes. It is important to notice that the method based on carbon stable isotopes is not simply an adaptation of the classic 14C method, but an entirely different approach that does not suffer from the problem of lack of account of carbon recycling during photosynthesis.
Global
As primary production in the biosphere is an important part of the carbon cycle, estimating it at the global scale is important in Earth system science. However, quantifying primary production at this scale is difficult because of the range of habitats on Earth, and because of the impact of weather events (availability of sunlight, water) on its variability. Using satellite-derived estimates of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for terrestrial habitats and sea-surface chlorophyll for the oceans, it is estimated that the total (photoautotrophic) primary production for the Earth was 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C yr−1; equivalent to the non-SI Gt C yr−1). Of this, 56.4 Pg C yr−1 (53.8%), was the product of terrestrial organisms, while the remaining 48.5 Pg C yr−1, was accounted for by oceanic production.
Scaling ecosystem-level GPP estimations based on eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange (see above) to regional and global values using spatial details of different predictor variables, such as climate variables and remotely sensed fAPAR or LAI led to a terrestrial gross primary production of 123±8 Gt carbon (NOT carbon dioxide) per year during 1998-2005
In areal terms, it was estimated that land production was approximately 426 g C m−2 yr−1 (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), while that for the oceans was 140 g C m−2 yr−1. Another significant difference between the land and the oceans lies in their standing stocks - while accounting for almost half of total production, oceanic autotrophs only account for about 0.2% of the total biomass.
Estimates
Primary productivity can be estimated by a variety of proxies. One that has particular relevance to the geological record is Barium, whose concentration in marine sediments rises in line with primary productivity at the surface.
Human impact and appropriation
Human societies are part of the Earth's NPP cycle, but exert a disproportionate influence in it. In 1996, Josep Garí designed a new indicator of sustainable development based precisely on the estimation of the human appropriation of NPP: he coined it "HANPP" (Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production) and introduced it at the inaugural conference of the European Society for Ecological Economics. HANPP has since been further developed and widely applied in research on ecological economics as well as in policy analysis for sustainability. HANPP represents a proxy of the human impact on Nature and can be applied to different geographical scales and also globally.
The extensive degree of human use of the Planet's resources, mostly via land use, results in various levels of impact on actual NPP (NPPact). Although in some regions, such as the Nile valley, irrigation has resulted in a considerable increase in primary production, in most of the Planet there is a notable trend of NPP reduction due to land changes (ΔNPPLC) of 9.6% across global land-mass. In addition to this, end consumption by people raises the total HANPP to 23.8% of potential vegetation (NPP0). It is estimated that, in 2000, 34% of the Earth's ice-free land area (12% cropland; 22% pasture) was devoted to human agriculture. This disproportionate amount reduces the energy available to other species, having a marked impact on biodiversity, flows of carbon, water and energy, and ecosystem services, and scientists have questioned how large this fraction can be before these services begin to break down. Reductions in NPP are also expected in the ocean as a result of ongoing climate change, potentially impacting marine ecosystems (~10% of global biodiversity) and goods and services (1-5% of global total) that the oceans provide.
See also
Biological pump
Biomass (ecology)
f-ratio
Productivity
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Lists of organisms by population
References
Plants
Ecology
Articles containing video clips
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The R-S-T system is used by amateur radio operators, shortwave listeners, and other radio hobbyists to exchange information about the quality of a radio signal being received. The code is a three digit number, with one digit each for conveying an assessment of the signal's readability, strength, and tone. The code was developed in 1934 by Amateur radio operator Arthur W. Braaten, W2BSR, and was similar to that codified in the ITU Radio Regulations, Cairo, 1938.
Readability
The R stands for "Readability". Readability is a qualitative assessment of how easy or difficult it is to correctly copy the information being sent during the transmission. In a Morse code telegraphy transmission, readability refers to how easy or difficult it is to distinguish each of the characters in the text of the message being sent; in a voice transmission, readability refers to how easy or difficult it is for each spoken word to be understood correctly. Readability is measured on a scale of 1 to 5.
Unreadable
Barely readable, occasional words distinguishable
Readable with considerable difficulty
Readable with practically no difficulty
Perfectly readable
Strength
The S stands for "Strength". Strength is an assessment of how powerful the received signal is at the receiving location. Although an accurate signal strength meter can determine a quantitative value for signal strength, in practice this portion of the RST code is a qualitative assessment, often made based on the S meter of the radio receiver at the location of signal reception. "Strength" is measured on a scale of 1 to 9.
Faint—signals barely perceptible
Very weak signals
Weak signals
Fair signals
Fairly good signals
Good signals
Moderately strong signals
Strong signals
Extremely strong signals
For a quantitative assessment, quality HF receivers are calibrated so that S9 on the S-meter corresponds to a signal of 50 μV at the antenna standard terminal impedance 50 ohms. One "S" difference should correspond to 6 dB at signal strength (2x voltage = 4x power). On VHF and UHF receivers used for weak signal communications, S9 often corresponds to 5 μV at the antenna terminal 50 ohms. Amateur radio (ham) operators may also use a signal strength of "20 to 60 over 9", or "+20 to +60 over 9." This is in reference to a signal that exceeds S9 on a signal meter on a HF receiver.
Tone
The T stands for "Tone" and is measured on a scale of 1 to 9. Tone only pertains to Morse code and other digital transmission modes and is therefore omitted during voice operations. With modern technology, imperfections in the quality of transmitters’ digital modulation severe enough to be detected by human ears are rare.
Suffixes were historically added to indicate other signal properties, and might be sent as 599K to indicate a clear, strong signal but with bothersome key clicks.
Variations
An example RST report for a voice transmission is "59", usually pronounced "five nine" or "five by nine", a report that indicates a perfectly readable and very strong signal. Exceptionally strong signals are designated by the quantitative number of decibels, in excess of "S9", displayed on the receiver's S meter. Example: "Your signal is 30 dB over S9," or more simply, "Your signal is 30 over 9."
Because the N character in Morse code requires less time to send than the 9, during amateur radio contests where the competing amateur radio stations are all using Morse code, the nines in the RST are typically abbreviated to N to read 5NN. In general, this practice is referred to as abbreviated or "cut" numbers.
The RSQ system has also been proposed for digital modes as an alternative to the RST system. The Q replaces "Tone" with "Quality" on a similar 1-9 scale indicating presence or number of unwanted 'sidebar pairs' in a narrow-band digital mode, such as PSK31 or RTTY.
See also
Plain Language Radio Checks
QSA and QRK code (for Morse code only)
SINPO
Signal strength and readability report
Circuit Merit (for wired and wireless telephone circuits only, not radiotelephony)
QSL card
R-S-M-Q, A Standard Method of Reporting for Telephony, A. M. Braaten, T. & R. Bulletin 1936
References
External links
Ham Radio RST Signal Reporting System for CW Operation, by Charlie Bautsch, W5AM
RSQ - An Improved Signal Reporting System for PSK
Amateur radio
Encodings
Operating signals
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1934
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Shyness (also called diffidence) is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. This commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people; a shy person may simply opt to avoid these situations. Although shyness can be a characteristic of people who have low self-esteem, the primary defining characteristic of shyness is a fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior. This fear of negative reactions such as being laughed at, humiliated or patronized, criticized or rejected can cause a shy person to retreat. Stronger forms of shyness can be referred to as social anxiety or social phobia.
Origins
The initial cause of shyness varies. Scientists believe that they have located genetic data supporting the hypothesis that shyness is, at least, partially genetic. However, there is also evidence that suggests the environment in which a person is raised can also be responsible for their shyness. This includes child abuse, particularly emotional abuse such as ridicule. Shyness can originate after a person has experienced a physical anxiety reaction; at other times, shyness seems to develop first and then later causes physical symptoms of anxiety. Shyness differs from social anxiety, which is a broader, often depression-related psychological condition including the experience of fear, apprehension or worrying about being evaluated by others in social situations to the extent of inducing panic.
Shyness may come from genetic traits, the environment in which a person is raised and personal experiences. Shyness may be a personality trait or can occur at certain stages of development in children.
Genetics and heredity
Shyness is often seen as a hindrance to people and their development. The cause of shyness is often disputed but it is found that fear is positively related to shyness, suggesting that fearful children are much more likely to develop being shy as opposed to children less fearful. Shyness can also be seen on a biological level as a result of an excess of cortisol. When cortisol is present in greater quantities, it is known to suppress an individual's immune system, making them more susceptible to illness and disease. The genetics of shyness is a relatively small area of research that has been receiving an even smaller amount of attention, although papers on the biological bases of shyness date back to 1988. Some research has indicated that shyness and aggression are related—through long and short forms of the gene DRD4, though considerably more research on this is needed. Further, it has been suggested that shyness and social phobia (the distinction between the two is becoming ever more blurred) are related to obsessive-compulsive disorder. As with other studies of behavioral genetics, the study of shyness is complicated by the number of genes involved in, and the confusion in defining, the phenotype. Naming the phenotype – and translation of terms between genetics and psychology — also causes problems.
Several genetic links to shyness are current areas of research. One is the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), the long form of which has been shown to be modestly correlated with shyness in grade school children. Previous studies had shown a connection between this form of the gene and both obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism. Mouse models have also been used, to derive genes suitable for further study in humans; one such gene, the glutamic acid decarboxylase gene (which encodes an enzyme that functions in GABA synthesis), has so far been shown to have some association with behavioral inhibition.
Another gene, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) exon III polymorphism, had been the subject of studies in both shyness and aggression and is currently the subject of studies on the "novelty seeking" trait. A 1996 study of anxiety-related traits (shyness being one of these) remarked that, "Although twin studies have indicated that individual variation in measures of anxiety-related personality traits is 40-60% heritable, none of the relevant genes has yet been identified", and that "10 to 15 genes might be predicted to be involved" in the anxiety trait. Progress has been made since then, especially in identifying other potential genes involved in personality traits, but there has been little progress made towards confirming these relationships. The long version of the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is now postulated to be correlated with shyness, but in the 1996 study, the short version was shown to be related to anxiety-based traits.
Thalia Eley, professor of developmental behavioural genetics at King's College London, argues that only about 30% of shyness as a trait is genetically inherited, while the rest emerges as a response to the environment.
As a symptom of mercury poisoning
Excessive shyness, embarrassment, self-consciousness and timidity, social-phobia and lack of self-confidence are also components of erethism, which is a symptom complex that appears in cases of mercury poisoning.
Prenatal development
The prevalence of shyness in some children can be linked to day length during pregnancy, particularly during the midpoint of prenatal development. An analysis of longitudinal data from children living at specific latitudes in the United States and New Zealand revealed a significant relationship between hours of day length during the midpoint of pregnancy and the prevalence of shyness in children. "The odds of being classified as shy were 1.52 times greater for children exposed to shorter compared to longer daylengths during gestation." In their analysis, scientists assigned conception dates to the children relative to their known birth dates, which allowed them to obtain random samples from children who had a mid-gestation point during the longest hours of the year and the shortest hours of the year (June and December, depending on whether the cohorts were in the United States or New Zealand).
The longitudinal survey data included measurements of shyness on a five-point scale based on interviews with the families being surveyed, and children in the top 25th percentile of shyness scores were identified. The data revealed a significant co-variance between the children who presented as being consistently shy over a two-year period, and shorter day length during their mid-prenatal development period. "Taken together, these estimates indicate that about one out of five cases of extreme shyness in children can be associated with gestation during months of limited daylength."
Low birth weights
In recent years correlations between birth weight and shyness have been studied. Findings suggest that those born at low birth weights are more likely to be shy, risk-aversive and cautious compared to those born at normal birth weights. These results do not however imply a cause-and-effect relationship.
Personality trait
Shyness is most likely to occur during unfamiliar situations, though in severe cases it may hinder an individual in their most familiar situations and relationships as well. Shy people avoid the objects of their apprehension in order to keep from feeling uncomfortable and inept; thus, the situations remain unfamiliar and the shyness perpetuates itself. Shyness may fade with time; e.g., a child who is shy towards strangers may eventually lose this trait when older and become more socially adept. This often occurs by adolescence or young adulthood (generally around the age of 13). In some cases, though, it may become an integrated, lifelong character trait. Longitudinal data suggests that the three different personality types evident in infancy – easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult – tend to change as children mature. Extreme traits become less pronounced, and personalities evolve in predictable patterns over time. What has been proven to remain constant is the tendency to internalize or externalize problems. This relates to individuals with shy personalities because they tend to internalize their problems, or dwell on their problems internally instead of expressing their concerns, which leads to disorders like depression and anxiety. Humans experience shyness to different degrees and in different areas.
Shyness can also be seen as an academic determinant. It has been determined that there is a negative relationship between shyness and classroom performance. As the shyness of an individual increased, classroom performance was seen to decrease.
Shyness may involve the discomfort of difficulty in knowing what to say in social situations, or may include crippling physical manifestations of uneasiness. Shyness usually involves a combination of both symptoms, and may be quite devastating for the sufferer, in many cases leading them to feel that they are boring, or exhibit bizarre behavior in an attempt to create interest, alienating them further. Behavioral traits in social situations such as smiling, easily producing suitable conversational topics, assuming a relaxed posture and making good eye contact, may not be second nature for a shy person. Such people might only affect such traits by great difficulty, or they may even be impossible to display.
Those who are shy are perceived more negatively, in cultures that value sociability, because of the way they act towards others. Shy individuals are often distant during conversations, which can result in others forming poor impressions of them and considering them stand-offish, egoist or snobbish. People who are not shy may be up-front, aggressive, or critical towards shy people in an attempt "to get them out of their shell". Even when an attempt to draw out a shy person is conducted in a kindly and well-intentioned manner the exercise may still backfire, as by focusing attention on the individual it increases their self-consciousness and sense of awkwardness.
Concepts
Versus introversion
The term shyness may be implemented as a lay blanket-term for a family of related and partially overlapping afflictions, including timidity (apprehension in meeting new people), bashfulness and diffidence (reluctance in asserting oneself), apprehension and anticipation (general fear of potential interaction), or intimidation (relating to the object of fear rather than one's low confidence). Apparent shyness, as perceived by others, may simply be the manifestation of reservation or introversion, a character trait which causes an individual to voluntarily avoid excessive social contact or be terse in communication, but are not motivated or accompanied by discomfort, apprehension, or lack of confidence. Introversion is commonly mistaken for shyness. However, introversion is a personal preference, while shyness stems from distress.
Rather, according to professor of psychology Bernardo J. Carducci, introverts choose to avoid social situations because they derive no reward from them or may find surplus sensory input overwhelming, whereas shy people may fear such situations. Research using the statistical techniques of factor analysis and correlation have found shyness overlaps mildly with both introversion and neuroticism (i.e., negative emotionality). Low societal acceptance of shyness or introversion may reinforce a shy or introverted individual's low self-confidence.
Both shyness and introversion can outwardly manifest with socially withdrawn behaviors, such as tendencies to avoid social situations, especially when they are unfamiliar. A variety of research suggests that shyness and introversion possess clearly distinct motivational forces and lead to uniquely different personal and peer reactions and therefore cannot be described as theoretically the same, with Susan Cain's Quiet (2012) further discerning introversion as involving being differently social (preferring one-on-one or small group interactions) rather than being anti-social altogether.
Research suggests that no unique physiological response, such as an increased heart beat, accompanies socially withdrawn behavior in familiar compared with unfamiliar social situations. But unsociability leads to decreased exposure to unfamiliar social situations and shyness causes a lack of response in such situations, suggesting that shyness and unsociability affect two different aspects of sociability and are distinct personality traits. In addition, different cultures perceive unsociability and shyness in different ways, leading to either positive or negative individual feelings of self-esteem. Collectivist cultures view shyness as a more positive trait related to compliance with group ideals and self-control, while perceiving chosen isolation (introverted behavior) negatively as a threat to group harmony; and because collectivist society accepts shyness and rejects unsociability, shy individuals develop higher self-esteem than introverted individuals. On the other hand, individualistic cultures perceive shyness as a weakness and a character flaw, while unsociable personality traits (preference to spend time alone) are accepted because they uphold the value of autonomy; accordingly, shy individuals tend to develop low self-esteem in Western cultures while unsociable individuals develop high self-esteem.
Versus social phobia (social anxiety disorder)
An extreme case of shyness is identified as a psychiatric illness, which made its debut as social phobia in DSM-III in 1980, but was then described as rare. By 1994, however, when DSM-IV was published, it was given a second, alternative name in parentheses (social anxiety disorder) and was now said to be relatively common, affecting between 3 and 13% of the population at some point during their lifetime. Studies examining shy adolescents and university students found that between 12 and 18% of shy individuals meet criteria for social anxiety disorder.
Shyness affects people mildly in unfamiliar social situations where one feels anxiety about interacting with new people. Social anxiety disorder, on the other hand, is a strong irrational fear of interacting with people, or being in situations which may involve public scrutiny, because one feels overly concerned about being criticized if one embarrasses oneself. Physical symptoms of social phobia can include blushing, shortness of breath, trembling, increased heart rate, and sweating; in some cases, these symptoms are intense enough and numerous enough to constitute a panic attack. Shyness, on the other hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living.
Social versus behavioral inhibition
Those considered shy are also said to be socially inhibited. Social inhibition is the conscious or unconscious constraint by a person of behavior of a social nature. In other words, social inhibition is holding back for social reasons. There are different levels of social inhibition, from mild to severe. Being socially inhibited is good when preventing one from harming another and bad when causing one to refrain from participating in class discussions.
Behavioral inhibition is a temperament or personality style that predisposes a person to become fearful, distressed and withdrawn in novel situations. This personality style is associated with the development of anxiety disorders in adulthood, particularly social anxiety disorder.
Misconceptions and negative aspects
Many misconceptions/stereotypes about shy individuals exist in Western culture and negative peer reactions to "shy" behavior abound. This takes place because individualistic cultures place less value on quietness and meekness in social situations, and more often reward outgoing behaviors. Some misconceptions include viewing introversion and social phobia synonymous with shyness, and believing that shy people are less intelligent.
Intelligence
No correlation (positive or negative) exists between intelligence and shyness. Research indicates that shy children have a harder time expressing their knowledge in social situations (which most modern curricula utilize), and because they do not engage actively in discussions teachers view them as less intelligent. In line with social learning theory, an unwillingness to engage with classmates and teachers makes it more difficult for shy students to learn. Test scores, however, indicate that whereas shyness may limit academic engagement, it is unrelated to actual academic knowledge. Depending on the level of a teacher's own shyness, more indirect (vs. socially oriented) strategies may be used with shy individuals to assess knowledge in the classroom, and accommodations made. Observed peer evaluations of shy people during initial meeting and social interactions thereafter found that peers evaluate shy individuals as less intelligent during the first encounter. During subsequent interactions, however, peers perceived shy individuals' intelligence more positively.
Benefits
Thomas Benton claims that because shy people "have a tendency toward self-criticism, they are often high achievers, and not just in solitary activities like research and writing. Perhaps even more than the drive toward independent achievement, shy people long to make connections to others often through altruistic behavior." Susan Cain describes the benefits that shy people bring to society that US cultural norms devalue. Without characteristics that shy people bring to social interactions, such as sensitivity to the emotions of others, contemplation of ideas, and valuable listening skills, there would be no balance to society. In earlier generations, such as the 1950s, society perceived shyness as a more socially attractive trait, especially in women, indicating that views on shyness vary by culture.
Sociologist Susie Scott challenged the interpretation and treatment of shyness as being pathological. "By treating shyness as an individual pathology, ... we forget that this is also a socially oriented state of mind that is socially produced and managed." She explores the idea that "shyness is a form of deviance: a problem for society as much as for the individual", and concludes that, to some extent, "we are all impostors, faking our way through social life". One of her interview subjects (self-defined as shy) puts this point of view even more strongly: "Sometimes I want to take my cue from the militant disabled lobbyists and say, 'hey, it's not MY problem, it's society's'. I want to be proud to be shy: on the whole, shys are probably more sensitive, and nicer people, than 'normals'. I shouldn't have to change: society should adapt to meet my needs."
Different cultural views
In cultures that value outspokenness and overt confidence, shyness can be perceived as weakness. To an unsympathetic observer, a shy individual may be mistaken as cold, distant, arrogant or aloof, which can be frustrating for the shy individual. However, in other cultures, shy people may be perceived as being thoughtful, intelligent, as being good listeners, and as being more likely to think before they speak.
In cultures that value autonomy, shyness is often analyzed in the context of being a social dysfunction, and is frequently contemplated as a personality disorder or mental health issue. Some researchers are beginning to study comparisons between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, to examine the role that shyness might play in matters of social etiquette and achieving group-oriented goals. "Shyness is one of the emotions that may serve as behavioral regulators of social relationships in collectivistic cultures. For example, social shyness is evaluated more positively in a collectivistic society, but negatively evaluated in an individualistic society."
In a cross-cultural study of Chinese and Canadian school children, researchers sought to measure several variables related to social reputation and peer relationships, including "shyness-sensitivity." Using peer nomination questionnaire, students evaluated their fellow students using positive and negative playmate nominations. "Shyness-sensitivity was significantly and negatively correlated with measures of peer acceptance in the Canadian sample. Inconsistent with Western results, it was found that items describing shyness-sensitivity were separated from items assessing isolation in the factor structure for the Chinese sample. Shyness-sensitivity was positively associated with sociability-leadership and with peer acceptance in the Chinese sample."
Western perceptions
In some Western cultures shyness-inhibition plays an important role in psychological and social adjustment. It has been found that shyness-inhibition is associated with a variety of maladaptive behaviors. Being shy or inhibited in Western cultures can result in rejection by peers, isolation and being viewed as socially incompetent by adults. However, research suggests that if social withdrawal is seen as a personal choice rather than the result of shyness, there are fewer negative connotations.
British writer Arthur C. Benson felt shyness is not mere self-consciousness, but a primitive suspicion of strangers, the primeval belief that their motives are predatory, with shyness a sinister quality which needs to be uprooted. He believed the remedy is for the shy to frequent society for courage from familiarity. Also, he claimed that too many shy adults take refuge in a critical attitude, engaging in brutal onslaughts on inoffensive persons. He felt that a better way is for the shy to be nice, to wonder what others need and like, interest in what others do or are talking about, friendly questions, and sympathy.
For Charles Darwin shyness was an 'odd state of mind' appearing to offer no benefit to our species, and since the 1970s the modern tendency in psychology has been to see shyness as pathology. However, evolutionary survival advantages of careful temperaments over adventurous temperaments in dangerous environments have also been recognized.
Eastern perceptions
In Eastern cultures shyness-inhibition in school-aged children is seen as positive and those that exhibit these traits are viewed well by peers and are accepted. They tend to be seen as competent by their teachers, to perform well in school and to show well-being. Shy individuals are also more likely to attain leadership status in school. Being shy or inhibited does not correlate with loneliness or depression as in the West. In Eastern cultures, being shy and inhibited is perceived as a sign of politeness, respectfulness, and thoughtfulness.
Examples of shyness and inhibition
In Hispanic cultures shyness and inhibition with authority figures is common. For instance, Hispanic students may feel shy towards being praised by teachers in front of others, because in these cultures students are rewarded in private with a touch, a smile, or spoken word of praise. Hispanic students may seem shy when they are not. It is considered rude to excel over peers and siblings; therefore it is common for Hispanic students to be reserved in classroom settings. Adults also show reluctance to share personal matters about themselves to authority figures such as nurses and doctors.
Cultures in which the community is closed and based on agriculture (Kenya, India, etc.) experience lower social engagement than those in more open communities (United States, Okinawa, etc.) where interactions with peers are encouraged. Children in Mayan, Indian, Mexican, and Kenyan cultures are less expressive in social styles during interactions and they spend little time engaged in socio-dramatic activities. They are also less assertive in social situations. Self-expression and assertiveness in social interactions are related to shyness and inhibition in that when one is shy or inhibited one exhibits little or no expressive tendencies. Assertiveness is demonstrated in the same way, being shy and inhibited lessen one's chances of being assertive because of a lack of confidence.
In Italian culture emotional expressiveness during interpersonal interaction is encouraged. From a young age children engage in debates or discussions that encourage and strengthen social assertiveness. Independence and social competence during childhood is also promoted. Being inhibited is looked down upon and those who show this characteristic are viewed negatively by their parents and peers. Like other cultures where shyness and inhibition is viewed negatively, peers of shy and inhibited Italian children reject the socially fearful, cautious and withdrawn. These withdrawn and socially fearful children express loneliness and believe themselves to be lacking the social skills needed in social interactions.
Intervention and treatment
Psychological methods and pharmaceutical drugs are commonly used to treat shyness in individuals who feel crippled because of low self-esteem and psychological symptoms, such as depression or loneliness. According to research, early intervention methods that expose shy children to social interactions involving team work, especially team sports, decrease their anxiety in social interactions and increase their all around self-confidence later on. Implementing such tactics could prove to be an important step in combating the psychological effects of shyness that make living normal life difficult for anxious individuals.
One important aspect of shyness is social skills development. If schools and parents implicitly assume children are fully capable of effective social interaction, social skills training is not given any priority (unlike reading and writing). As a result, shy students are not given an opportunity to develop their ability to participate in class and interact with peers. Teachers can model social skills and ask questions in a less direct and intimidating manner in order to gently encourage shy students to speak up in class, and make friends with other children.
See also
Boldness
Camera shyness
Haya (Islam)
People skills
Selective mutism
Avoidant personality disorder
Highly sensitive person
Medicalization of behaviors as illness
References
Further reading
External links
Lynn Henderson and Philip Zimbardo: "Shyness". Entry in Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (in press)
Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-SR)
Emotions
Interpersonal relationships
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A zeppelin bend (also known as the Rosendahl Bend) is an end-to-end joining knot formed by two symmetrically interlinked overhand knots. It is stable, secure, and highly resistant to jamming. It is also resistant to the effects of slack shaking and cyclic loading.
History
The commonly accepted name for this knot stems from its alleged use on airships: a zeppelin being a rigid-bodied type of airship, and Charles Rosendahl being the US Navy officer who allegedly insisted it be used on airships under his command. Dr Camplin asserts that a rolling hitch (#1735) is a more likely method used by ground handlers to join ropes. It is also likely that a 'toggle' was used to connect mooring lines with fixed eye splice terminations. Dr Camplin's report was published in issue #60 of 'Dirigible' in 2010. Historical records now point to Bob Thrun as the first to publish his discovery in 1966 – naming it simply 'An easily untied bend'. Bob Thrun was well known in the caving community, and a remarkable innovator.
Despite being declared by many sources as a nearly ideal rope joining knot, it is not very well known: it is not included in the chapter covering 'bends' (end-to-end joining knots) in the original publication of The Ashley Book of Knots. However, at illustration #582, Ashley identifies a 'lanyard knot' – which is remarkable because it is a blueprint for tying the Zeppelin bend. Budworth identifies #582 as a "blimp knot", because he recognized the geometric similarity with the Zeppelin bend.
With the hindsight of the qualities of the zeppelin bend, a novel use of ABOK#582 is as an alternative to butterfly loop, to isolate a worn section of a long rope where the knot is tied such that the worn section is isolated in the middle of a Z folded central (double-loop-crossing) rope section. The knot will then look like a double slipped zeppelin bend with no ends sticking out.
Tying
Fundamentally, the zeppelin bend is formed from two superposed loops of opposite chirality. This is in contrast to the rigger's bend (AKA Hunter's bend, #1425A) which is formed from two inter-linked loops of the same chirality.
Chirality refers to the "handedness" of the loop, which can be either left (designated "S") or right (designated "Z"). The chirality of a loop cannot be changed by flipping or turning it over – in the same way, a left shoe cannot be transformed into a right shoe by flipping or turning it over (it is always a left shoe).
The zeppelin bend is difficult to tie while ropes are under tension (which is further obvious evidence that it wasn't used with mooring lines during ground handling of airships). In fact, with any 'end-to-end joining knot' (i.e. bend), existing tension in the ropes makes the tying process extremely difficult (if not impossible). The zeppelin is therefore tied with two loose ends (i.e. no existing tension) ending with a simple knot on each, but woven to each other in a pattern specific to zeppelin. Butterfly bend, Hunter's bend, and Ashley's bend also weave one simple knot on either end but use their own different patterns.
Form a loop in each of the ends of rope (one loop must be "S" and the other must be "Z" chirality)
Superpose (overlay) one loop over the other, orienting each loop so that both working ends face outwards/away from the central overlap.
Feed each working end though the central overlap of the two loops, ensuring that each working end goes in opposite directions.
Dress and set the knot by sequentially pulling on all four rope segments.
To untie, loosen the collars that form around each Standing Part (SPart).
Another method of remembering this knot is to visualize a "69". To tie the knot with this method, follow the steps below:
Make a "6" with one line (rope) end. It is important that the working end (the free, short end) winds up on top of the standing end for the "6".
Make a "9" with the other line end. Make sure that the working end (the free, short end) winds up on the bottom of the standing end
While keeping the 6 and the 9 intact, place the "6" over the "9", with the holes of each number lining up, making absolutely sure the working ends are on opposite sides of the holes, and both working ends are outside, not in between the standing ends.
wrap the "tail" of the "6" first down, around both lines/hole edges, and up through the middle (circle) part of your "69".
wrap the "tail" part of the "9" up, around both lines/hole edges, and down through the middle (circle) part of your "69", it should pass along to the other working end in the opposite direction.
Pull each standing end while ensuring that the working ends are not pulled back out from the "69" holes to tighten. Pull each working end to tighten even more.
Variants
Corresponding eye (loop) knots
Every end-to-end joining knot, or 'bend', has four corresponding eye knots.
The usual method of creating an eye knot from a bend is by linking a tail with a Standing Part (SPart). Eye knots formed by linking of the two tails or the two SParts are usually of less utility due to the loading profile thus created.
The Zeppelin loop is quite useful and is also jam resistant, being formed by linking a tail to an SPart.
An example of a Zeppelin loop is found at this website: https://knots.neocities.org/zeppelinloop.html
Slipped
Having on both ends, an elbow of the end rather than the end itself, cross the knot center, gives a single or double slipped version. It is still easier to untie by pulling the opposing bridges away from each other rather than by pulling the slipped end(s). The slipped Zeppelin bend can also be locked by pushing ends respectively through the eye of its own slip on the opposite side.
Tied with bights
If instead of two ends, one forms two bights of the same rope, then three reliable loops are created; a loop at each of the two bights, and a third formed by the rope section connecting the two bights. These versions also have the same advantage with less curvature nearest the main ropes, thus having a higher break strength and being as easy to untie. This is also a way to shorten the rope, and/or to isolate up to three weak rope sections near each other.
See also
List of bend knots
List of knots
Zeppelin loop
References
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wiki
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Phalacrocoracidae is a family of approximately 40 species of aquatic birds commonly known as cormorants and shags. Several different classifications of the family have been proposed, but in 2021 the IOU (formerly the IOC) adopted a consensus taxonomy of seven genera. The great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and the common shag (Gulosus aristotelis) are the only two species of the family commonly encountered in Britain and Ireland and "cormorant" and "shag" appellations have been later assigned to different species in the family somewhat haphazardly.
Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large birds, with body weight in the range of and wing span of . The majority of species have dark feathers. The bill is long, thin and hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes. All species are fish-eaters, catching the prey by diving from the surface. They are excellent divers, and under water they propel themselves with their feet with help from their wings; some cormorant species have been found to dive as deep as . They have relatively short wings due to their need for economical movement underwater, and consequently have among the highest flight costs of any flying bird.
Cormorants nest in colonies around the shore, on trees, islets or cliffs. They are coastal rather than oceanic birds, and some have colonised inland waters. The original ancestor of cormorants seems to have been a fresh-water bird. They range around the world, except for the central Pacific islands.
Names
"Cormorant" is a contraction derived either directly from Latin corvus marinus, "sea raven", or through Brythonic Celtic. Cormoran is the Cornish name of the sea giant in the tale of Jack the Giant Killer. Indeed, "sea raven" or analogous terms were the usual terms for cormorants in Germanic languages until after the Middle Ages. The French explorer André Thévet commented in 1558: "the beak [is] similar to that of a cormorant or other corvid", which demonstrates that the erroneous belief that the birds were related to ravens lasted at least to the 16th century.
No consistent distinction exists between cormorants and shags. The names "cormorant" and "shag" were originally the common names of the two species of the family found in Great Britain Phalacrocorax carbo (now referred to by ornithologists as the great cormorant) and Gulosus aristotelis (the European shag). "Shag" refers to the bird's crest, which the British forms of the great cormorant lack. As other species were encountered by English-speaking sailors and explorers elsewhere in the world, some were called cormorants and some shags, depending on whether they had crests or not. Sometimes the same species is called a cormorant in one part of the world and a shag in another, e.g., the great cormorant is called the black shag in New Zealand (the birds found in Australasia have a crest that is absent in European members of the species). Van Tets (1976) proposed to divide the family into two genera and attach the name "cormorant" to one and "shag" to the other, but this nomenclature has not been widely adopted.
Description
Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large seabirds. They range in size from the pygmy cormorant (Microcarbo pygmaeus), at as little as and , to the flightless cormorant (Nannopterum harrisi), at a maximum size and . The recently extinct spectacled cormorant (Urile perspicillatus) was rather larger, at an average size of . The majority, including nearly all Northern Hemisphere species, have mainly dark plumage, but some Southern Hemisphere species are black and white, and a few (e.g. the spotted shag of New Zealand) are quite colourful. Many species have areas of coloured skin on the face (the lores and the gular skin) which can be bright blue, orange, red or yellow, typically becoming more brightly coloured in the breeding season. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes, as in their relatives.
Habitat
They are coastal rather than oceanic birds, and some have colonised inland waters – indeed, the original ancestor of cormorants seems to have been a fresh-water bird, judging from the habitat of the most ancient lineage. They range around the world, except for the central Pacific islands.
Behaviour
All cormorants and shags are fish-eaters, dining on small eels, fish, and even water snakes. They dive from the surface, though many species make a characteristic half-jump as they dive, presumably to give themselves a more streamlined entry into the water. Under water they propel themselves with their feet, though some also propel themselves with their wings (see the picture, commentary, and existing reference video). Imperial shag cormorants fitted with miniaturized video recorders have been filmed diving to depths of as much as to forage on the sea floor.
After fishing, cormorants go ashore, and are frequently seen holding their wings out in the sun. All cormorants have preen gland secretions that are used ostensibly to keep the feathers waterproof. Some sources state that cormorants have waterproof feathers while others say that they have water-permeable feathers. Still others suggest that the outer plumage absorbs water but does not permit it to penetrate the layer of air next to the skin. The wing drying action is seen even in the flightless cormorant but not in the Antarctic shags or red-legged cormorants. Alternate functions suggested for the spread-wing posture include that it aids thermoregulation or digestion, balances the bird, or indicates presence of fish. A detailed study of the great cormorant concludes that it is without doubt to dry the plumage.
Cormorants are colonial nesters, using trees, rocky islets, or cliffs. The eggs are a chalky-blue colour. There is usually one brood a year. Parents regurgitate food to feed their young, whose deep, ungainly bills show a greater resemblance to those of the pelicans (to which they are related) than is obvious in the adults.
Taxonomy
The scientific family name is Latinised from Ancient Greek phalakros "bald" and korax "raven". This is often thought to refer to the creamy white patch on the cheeks of adult great cormorants, or the ornamental white head plumes prominent in Mediterranean birds of this species, but is certainly not a unifying characteristic of cormorants.
The cormorant family are a group traditionally placed within the Pelecaniformes or, in the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy, the expanded Ciconiiformes. This latter group is certainly not a natural one, and even after the tropicbirds have been recognised as quite distinct, the remaining Pelecaniformes seem not to be entirely monophyletic. Their relationships and delimitation – apart from being part of a "higher waterfowl" clade which is similar but not identical to Sibley and Ahlquist's "pan-Ciconiiformes" – remain mostly unresolved. Notwithstanding, all evidence agrees that the cormorants and shags are closer to the darters and Sulidae (gannets and boobies), and perhaps the pelicans or even penguins, than to all other living birds.
In recent years, three preferred treatments of the cormorant family have emerged: either to leave all living cormorants in a single genus, Phalacrocorax, or to split off a few species such as the imperial shag complex (in Leucocarbo) and perhaps the flightless cormorant. Alternatively, the genus may be disassembled altogether and in the most extreme case be reduced to the great, white-breasted and Japanese cormorants. In 2014, a landmark study proposed a 7 genera treatment, which was adopted by the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International, and later by the IOC in 2021, standardizing it.
The cormorants and the darters have a unique bone on the back of the top of the skull known as the os nuchale or occipital style which was called a xiphoid process in early literature. This bony projection provides anchorage for the muscles that increase the force with which the lower mandible is closed. This bone and the highly developed muscles over it, the M. adductor mandibulae caput nuchale, are unique to the families Phalacrocoracidae and Anhingidae.
Several evolutionary groups are still recognizable. However, combining the available evidence suggests that there has also been a great deal of convergent evolution; for example the cliff shags are a convergent paraphyletic group. The proposed division into Phalacrocorax sensu stricto (or subfamily "Phalacrocoracinae") cormorants and Leucocarbo sensu lato (or "Leucocarboninae") shags does have some degree of merit. The resolution provided by the mtDNA 12S rRNA and ATPase subunits six and eight sequence data is not sufficient to properly resolve several groups to satisfaction; in addition, many species remain unsampled, the fossil record has not been integrated in the data, and the effects of hybridisation – known in some Pacific species especially – on the DNA sequence data are unstudied.
A multigene molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 provided a genus-level phylogeny of the family.
List of genera
As per the IOU, the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International, the family contains 7 genera:
Prior to 2021, the IOU (or formerly the IOC) classified all these species in just Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax, and Leucocarbo.
Some authorities such as the Clements Checklist have just two genera, Microcarbo with 5 species, and the rest in Phalacrocorax.
For details, see the article "List of cormorant species".
Evolution and fossil record
Cormorants have a very ancient body plan, with similar birds reaching back to the time of the dinosaurs. In fact, the earliest known modern bird, Gansus yumenensis, had essentially the same structure. The details of the evolution of the cormorant are mostly unknown. Even the technique of using the distribution and relationships of a species to figure out where it came from, biogeography, usually very informative, does not give very specific data for this probably rather ancient and widespread group. However, the closest living relatives of the cormorants and shags are the other families of the suborder Sulae—darters and gannets and boobies—which have a primarily Gondwanan distribution. Hence, at least the modern diversity of Sulae probably originated in the southern hemisphere.
While the Leucocarbonines are almost certainly of southern Pacific origin—possibly even the Antarctic which, at the time when cormorants evolved, was not yet ice-covered—all that can be said about the Phalacrocoracines is that they are most diverse in the regions bordering the Indian Ocean, but generally occur over a large area.
Similarly, the origin of the family is shrouded in uncertainties. Some Late Cretaceous fossils have been proposed to belong with the Phalacrocoracidae:
A scapula from the Campanian-Maastrichtian boundary, about 70 mya (million years ago), was found in the Nemegt Formation in Mongolia; it is now in the PIN collection. It is from a bird roughly the size of a spectacled cormorant, and quite similar to the corresponding bone in Phalacrocorax. A Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous, c. 66 mya) right femur, AMNH FR 25272 from the Lance Formation near Lance Creek, Wyoming, is sometimes suggested to be the second-oldest record of the Phalacrocoracidae; this was from a rather smaller bird, about the size of a long-tailed cormorant. However, cormorants likely originated much later, and these are likely misidentifications.
As the Early Oligocene "Sula" ronzoni cannot be assigned to any of the suloid families—cormorants and shags, darters, and gannets and boobies—with certainty, the best interpretation is that the Phalacrocoracidae diverged from their closest ancestors in the Early Oligocene, perhaps some 30 million years ago, and that the Cretaceous fossils represent ancestral suloids, "pelecaniforms" or "higher waterbirds"; at least the last lineage is generally believed to have been already distinct and undergoing evolutionary radiation at the end of the Cretaceous. What can be said with near certainty is that AMNH FR 25272 is from a diving bird that used its feet for underwater locomotion; as this is liable to result in some degree of convergent evolution and the bone is missing indisputable neornithine features, it is not entirely certain that the bone is correctly referred to this group.
Phylogenetic evidence indicates that the cormorants diverged from their closest relatives, the darters, during the Late Oligocene, indicating that most of the claims of Cretaceous or early Paleogene cormorant occurrences are likely misidentifications.
During the late Paleogene, when the family presumably originated, much of Eurasia was covered by shallow seas, as the Indian Plate finally attached to the mainland. Lacking a detailed study, it may well be that the first "modern" cormorants were small species from eastern, south-eastern or southern Asia, possibly living in freshwater habitat, that dispersed due to tectonic events. Such a scenario would account for the present-day distribution of cormorants and shags and is not contradicted by the fossil record; as remarked above, a thorough review of the problem is not yet available.
Even when Phalacrocorax was used to unite all living species, two distinct genera of prehistoric cormorants became widely accepted today:
Limicorallus (Indricotherium middle Oligocene of Chelkar-Teniz, Kazakhstan)
Nectornis (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of Central Europe – Middle Miocene of Bes-Konak, Turkey) – includes Oligocorax miocaenus
The proposed genus Oligocorax appears to be paraphyletic – the European species have been separated in Nectornis, and the North American ones placed in the expanded Phalacrocorax; the latter might just as well be included in Nannopterum. A Late Oligocene fossil cormorant foot from Enspel, Germany, sometimes placed in Oligocorax, would then be referable to Nectornis if it proves not to be too distinct. Limicorallus, meanwhile, was initially believed to be a rail or a dabbling duck by some. There are also undescribed remains of apparent cormorants from the Quercy Phosphorites of Quercy (France), dating to some time between the Late Eocene and the mid-Oligocene. All these early European species might belong to the basal group of "microcormorants", as they conform with them in size and seem to have inhabited the same habitat: subtropical coastal or inland waters. While this need not be more than convergence, the phylogeny of the modern (sub)genus Microcarbo – namely, whether the Western Eurasian M. pygmaeus is a basal or highly derived member of its clade – is still not well understood at all as of 2022.
Some other Paleogene remains are sometimes assigned to the Phalacrocoracidae, but these birds seem rather intermediate between cormorants and darters (and lack clear autapomorphies of either). Thus, they may be quite basal members of the Palacrocoracoidea. The taxa in question are:
Piscator (Late Eocene of England)
"Pelecaniformes" gen. et sp. indet. (Jebel Qatrani Early Oligocene of Fayum, Egypt) – similar to Piscator?
Borvocarbo (Late Oligocene of C Europe)
The supposed Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene "Valenticarbo" is a nomen dubium and given its recent age probably not a separate genus.
The remaining fossil species are not usually placed in a modern phylogenetic framework. While the numerous western US species are most likely prehistoric representatives of the coastal Urile or inland Nannopterum, the European fossils pose much more of a problem due to the singular common shag being intermediate in size between the other two European cormorant lineages, and as of 2022 still of mysterious ancestry; notably, a presumably lost collection of Late Miocene fossils from the Odesa region may have contained remains of all three (sub)genera inhabiting Europe today. Similarly, the Plio-Pleistocene fossils from Florida have been allied with Nannopterum and even Urile, but may conceivably be Phalacrocorax; they are in serious need of revision since it is not even clear how many species are involved. Provisionally, the fossil species are thus all placed in Phalacrocorax here:
Phalacrocorax marinavis (Oligocene – Early Miocene of Oregon, US) – formerly Oligocorax; Urile or Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax littoralis (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of St-Gérand-le-Puy, France) – formerly Oligocorax; Nectornis?
Phalacrocorax intermedius (Early – Middle Miocene of C Europe) – includes P. praecarbo, Ardea/P. brunhuberi and Botaurites avitus; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax macropus (Early Miocene – Pliocene of north-west US) – Urile or Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax ibericus (Late Miocene of Valles de Fuentiduena, Spain) – Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax lautus (Late Miocene of Golboçica, Moldavia) – Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax serdicensis (Late Miocene of Hrabarsko, Bulgaria); Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax sp(p). (Late Miocene of Odesa region, Ukraine) – up to 4 species, one of which is probably P. longipes; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax and/or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax femoralis (Modelo Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of WC North America) – formerly Miocorax; Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax sp. (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US) – Nannopterum or Phalacrocorax?
Phalacrocorax sp. 1 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of WC South America) – probably Leucocarbo
Phalacrocorax sp. 2 (Pisco Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of SW Peru) – Poikilocarbo or Leucocarbo?
Phalacrocorax longipes (Late Miocene – Early Pliocene of Ukraine) – formerly Pliocarbo; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax goletensis (Early Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of Mexico) – Urile or Nannopterum, perhaps Poikilocarbo or Leuocarbo
Phalacrocorax wetmorei (Bone Valley Early Pliocene of Florida) – Nannopterum or Phalacrocorax?
Phalacrocorax sp. (Bone Valley Early Pliocene of Polk County, Florida, US) – Nannopterum or Phalacrocorax?
Phalacrocorax leptopus (Juntura Early/Middle Pliocene of Juntura, Malheur County, Oregon, US) – Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax reliquus (Middle Pliocene of Mongolia) – Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax idahensis (Middle Pliocene – Pleistocene of Idaho, US, and possibly Florida) – Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax destefanii (Late Pliocene of Italy) – formerly Paracorax; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax filyawi (Pinecrest Late Pliocene of Florida, US) – may be P. idahensis; Nannopterum or Phalacrocorax, perhaps Urile?
Phalacrocorax kennelli (San Diego Late Pliocene of California, US) – Urile or Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax kumeyaay (San Diego Late Pliocene of California, US) – Urile or Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax macer (Late Pliocene of Idaho, US) – Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax mongoliensis (Late Pliocene of W Mongolia) – Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Gulosus?
Phalacrocorax sp. (La Portada Late Pliocene of N Chile) – may be same as Late Miocene/Early Pliocene "Phalacrocorax sp. 2"; Poikilocarbo or Leucocarbo?
Phalacrocorax rogersi (Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of California, US) – Urile or Nannopterum?
Phalacrocorax chapalensis (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Jalisco, Mexico) – Urile or Nannopterum, perhaps Poikilocarbo or Leucocarbo?
Phalacrocorax gregorii (Late Pleistocene of Australia) – possibly not a valid species; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Leucocarbo?
Phalacrocorax vetustus (Late Pleistocene of Australia) – formerly Australocorax, possibly not a valid species; Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax or Leucocarbo?
Phalacrocorax sp. (Sarasota County, Florida, US) – may be P. filawyi/idahensis; Nannopterum or Phalacrocorax?
The former "Phalacrocorax" (or "Oligocorax") mediterraneus is now considered to belong to the bathornithid Paracrax antiqua. "P." subvolans was actually a darter (Anhinga).
In human culture
Cormorant fishing
Humans have used cormorants' fishing skills in various places in the world. Archaeological evidence suggests that cormorant fishing was practised in Ancient Egypt, Peru, Korea and India, but the strongest tradition has remained in China and Japan, where it reached commercial-scale level in some areas. In Japan, cormorant fishing is called . Traditional forms of ukai can be seen on the Nagara River in the city of Gifu, Gifu Prefecture, where cormorant fishing has continued uninterrupted for 1300 years, or in the city of Inuyama, Aichi. In Guilin, Guangxi, cormorants are famous for fishing on the shallow Li River. In Gifu, the Japanese cormorant (P. capillatus) is used; Chinese fishermen often employ great cormorants (P. carbo). In Europe, a similar practice was also used on Doiran Lake in the region of Macedonia. James VI and I appointed a keeper of cormorants, John Wood, and built ponds at Westminster to train the birds to fish.
In a common technique, a snare is tied near the base of the bird's throat, which allows the bird only to swallow small fish. When the bird captures and tries to swallow a large fish, the fish is caught in the bird's throat. When the bird returns to the fisherman's raft, the fisherman helps the bird to remove the fish from its throat. The method is not as common today, since more efficient methods of catching fish have been developed, but is still practised as a cultural tradition.
In folklore, literature, and art
Cormorants feature in heraldry and medieval ornamentation, usually in their "wing-drying" pose, which was seen as representing the Christian cross, and symbolizing nobility and sacrifice. For John Milton in Paradise Lost, the cormorant symbolizes greed: perched atop the Tree of Life, Satan took the form of a cormorant as he spied on Adam and Eve during his first intrusion into Eden.
In some Scandinavian areas, they are considered good omen; in particular, in Norwegian tradition spirits of those lost at sea come to visit their loved ones disguised as cormorants. For example, the Norwegian municipalities of Røst, Loppa and Skjervøy have cormorants in their coat of arms. The symbolic liver bird of Liverpool is commonly thought to be a cross between an eagle and a cormorant.
In Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, Odysseus (Ulysses) is saved by a compassionate sea nymph who takes the form of a cormorant.
In 1853, a woman wearing a dress made of cormorant feathers was found on San Nicolas Island, off the southern coast of California. She had sewn the feather dress together using whale sinews. She is known as the Lone Woman of San Nicolas and was later baptised "Juana Maria" (her original name is lost). The woman had lived alone on the island for 18 years before being rescued. When removed from San Nicolas, she brought with her a green cormorant dress she made; this dress is reported to have been removed to the Vatican.
The bird has inspired numerous writers, including Amy Clampitt, who wrote a poem called "The Cormorant in its Element". The species she described may have been the pelagic cormorant, which is the only species in the temperate U.S. with the "slim head ... vermilion-strapped" and "big black feet" that she mentions.
A cormorant representing Blanche Ingram appears in the first of the fictional paintings by Jane in Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre.
In the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Veiled Lodger", Dr. Watson warns that if there are further attempts to get at and destroy his private notes regarding his time with Holmes, "the whole story concerning the politician, the lighthouse, and the trained cormorant will be given to the public. There is at least one reader who will understand."
A cormorant is humorously mentioned as having had linseed oil rubbed into it by a wayward pupil during the "Growth and Learning" segment of the 1983 Monty Python movie Monty Python's The Meaning of Life.
The cormorant served as the hood ornament for the Packard automobile brand.
Cormorants (and books about them written by a fictional ornithologist) are a recurring fascination of the protagonist in Jesse Ball's 2018 novel Census.
The Pokémon Cramorant, featured in the 8th generation of the video game series may take its name and design from a cormorant.
The cormorant was chosen as the emblem for the Ministry of Defence Joint Services Command and Staff College at Shrivenham. A bird famed for flight, sea fishing and land nesting was felt to be particularly appropriate for a college that unified leadership training and development for the Army, Navy and Royal Air Force.
After a member produced a mock magazine cover from a photograph of roosting Cormorants, the bird became the unofficial mascot of the Pentax Discuss Mailing List with many posts dedicated to discussion of the photography of the species.
https://www.mail-archive.com/search?q=cormorant&l=pdml%40pdml.net
See also
Anhinga
Cormorant culling
References
Sources
Benson, Elizabeth (1972): The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. Praeger Press, New York.
Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum (1997) The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Dorst, J. & Mougin, J.L. (1979): Family Phalacrocoracidae. In: Mayr, Ernst & Cottrell, G.W. (eds.): Check-List of the Birds of the World Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Struthioniformes, Tinamiformes, Procellariiformes, Sphenisciformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, Phoenicopteriformes, Falconiformes, Anseriformes): 163–179. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge.
Hope, Sylvia (2002): The Mesozoic radiation of Neornithes. In: Chiappe, Luis M. & Witmer, Lawrence M. (eds.): Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs: 339–388.
IUCN (2007): 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland.
Orta, Jaume (1992): Family Phalacrocoracidae. In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1 (Ostrich to Ducks): 326–353, plates 22–23. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Robertson, Connie (1998): Book of Humorous Quotations. Wordsworth Editions.
Thevet, F. André (1558): About birds of Ascension Island. In: Les singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommee Amerique, & de plusieurs terres & isles decouvertes de nostre temps: 39–40. Maurice de la Porte heirs, Paris.
van Tets, G. F. (1976): Australasia and the origin of shags and cormorants, Phalacrocoracidae. Proceedings of the XVI International Ornithological Congress: 121–124.
External links
Cormorant videos on the Internet Bird Collection
First video of cormorant deep sea dive, by the Wildlife Conservation Society and the National Research Council of Argentina. WCS press release, 2012-07-31
Phalacrocoracidae
Seabirds
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach
Taxa described in 1850
Extant Oligocene first appearances
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Shag, or Shagged, or Shagger, or Shagging, or Shags may refer to:
Animals
Shag or cormorant, a bird family
European shag, a specific species of the shag or cormorant family
Great cormorant another species of the family
People
Pseudonym
Shag (artist), stage name of the American artist Josh Agle (born 1962)
Shag, a name used on some pop records in the early 1970s by British record producer Jonathan King
Shags Horan (1895-1969), American baseball player
Name
Shag (name)
Shag Thomas (1924–1982), American professional wrestler
Avraham-Haim Shag (1883–1958), Israeli politician
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
The Shag, also known as The Shags (one of many bands of that name) or Shag, a 1960s garage and psychedelic rock band from Milwaukee
The Shags (Connecticut band), a 1960s rock band from Connecticut
Dance
Carolina shag, a swing dance that originated in South Carolina in the 1940s and still is their state dance
Collegiate shag, a swing dance that originated in the 1920s (popular in the 1930s and 40s)
St. Louis shag, a swing dance that evolved from the Charleston
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Shag (film), a 1989 film
Shag, a fictitious character from Road Rovers
Other uses
Shag (fabric), a fabric typically used to make deep-pile carpets
Shag (hairstyle)
Shag (tobacco), fine-cut tobacco
Shag, a British slang term for sexual intercourse
Shag, a party and fundraiser for an engaged couple, also known as a stag and doe
Shagger (bruise), a temporary bruise caused by kissing, sucking, or biting the skin forcefully enough to burst blood vessels beneath the skin
Shagging (baseball), to catch fly balls in baseball outside a game
Ball shagger or shag, fabric for the cleaning of golf balls
See also
Shag Island (disambiguation)
Shag Rocks (disambiguation)
Shaggy (disambiguation)
The Shaggs
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El Departamento de Policía de Houston (Houston Police Department, HPD) es el departamento de policía de la ciudad de Houston, Texas. El departamento, el mayor departamento de policía municipal de Texas, tiene su sede en el edificio 1200 Travis en Downtown Houston. A partir de 2011 Charles McClelland es el jefe del departamento.
Notas
Enlaces externos
Departamento de Policía de Houston (en inglés)
Houston
Policía
Agencias de fuerzas de seguridad de Estados Unidos
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Boarding Pass is a Philippine television informative show. The show focuses on immigration, finance, employment, and other concerns of Filipinos abroad. Hosted by Mike Templo, it premiered on January 25, 2014.
Segments
On Board - Atty. Mike Templo tackles immigration concerns and provides answers with the help of Atty. Rio and Atty. Tsui.
Balikbayan Box - features stories of Filipinos who have been successful because of, or in their work abroad.
Sikap Pinoy - features investment and business education tips for OFWs and their families.
Happy Trip - features travel and leisure destinations that OFW families can enjoy.
External links
Boarding Pass website
References
2014 Philippine television series debuts
Filipino-language television shows
GMA News TV original programming
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The "Argentine National Anthem" () is the national anthem of Argentina. Its lyrics were written by the Buenos Aires-born politician Vicente López y Planes and the music was composed by the Spanish musician Blas Parera. The work was adopted as the sole official song on 11 May 1813, three years after the May Revolution; 11 May is therefore now Anthem Day in Argentina.
Some first, quite different, anthems were composed from 1810; a version was then introduced in 1813, which was used throughout the 19th century. What is now officially codified as the state's national anthem is shorter than the original composition and comprises only the first and last verses and the chorus of the 1813 "Patriotic March", omitting much emotional text about the struggle for independence from Spain ("with strong arms they tear to pieces the arrogant Iberian lion").
Etymology
The third Argentine national anthem was originally named "" (), later renamed "" (), and then "" (). It has been called "Himno Nacional Argentino" since it was published with that name in 1847.
History
The first Argentine national anthem was the "Patriotic March", published on 15 November 1810 in the . It had lyrics by Esteban de Luca and music by Blas Parera. This original composition made no reference to the name of Argentina (the country was not formally named "República Argentina" until 1826, although it was referred to as such) or an independentist will, and talked instead about Spain being conquered by France in the Peninsular War, the absolutist restoration begun by the Council of Regency, and the need to keep the republican freedoms achieved so far in the Americas: "Spain was victim / of the plotting Gaul / because to the tyrants / she bent her neck / If there treachery / has doomed a thousands cities / let sacred freedom and union reign here / Let the father to the sons / be able to say / enjoy rights / that I did not enjoy".
In mid-1812, the ruling triumvirate ordered the Buenos Aires Cabildo to commission a national anthem. Cayetano Rodríguez, a Franciscan friar, wrote a text that was approved on 4 August. The Catalan musician Blas Parera, music director of the local theater, set it to music and performed it for the first time with the orchestra he conducted on 1 November.
Less than a year later the Assembly of Year XIII estimated that the song was not effective enough to serve as a national anthem. On 6 March 1813 several poets were asked to submit lyrics. The poem by the lawyer Vicente López y Planes was unanimously considered the best. It was approved as the "sole national march" ("") on 11 May 1813. Parera was asked to compose a new musical setting around the same date. He must have finished the piece in a few days. Oral tradition has it that the premiere took place on 14 May 1813, at the home of the aristocrat Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, but there is no documentary evidence of that. If this is true, then Parera, contrary to certain misconceptions, wrote quickly and under no visible coercion. The published song sheet is dated 14 May 1813. He again conducted the official premiere in the theater on 28 May, and was paid 200 pesos.
The composition was then known as (National Patriotic Song), and later simply as (Patriotic Song), but in Juan Pedro Esnaola's early arrangement, dated around 1848, it appeared under the title , and the name has been retained until today. In the complete version of the Anthem of May (as was christened by López) it is noted that the political vision portrayed is not only Argentine, but Latin American. The lyrics are ardently pro-independence and anti-Spanish, as the country was at that time fighting for its independence from Spain.
The song became popular immediately. Within ten years documented performances took place throughout Argentina, and also in Chile, Peru, and Colombia until they had their own national anthems. Different versions emerged, making mass singing difficult; several reforms were then proposed. In 1860 Esnaola was commissioned to create an official version. He took the task to heart, making many changes to the music, including a slower tempo, a fuller texture, alterations to the melody, and enrichment of the harmony. In 1927 a committee produced a historicist version that undid several of Esnaola's changes, but introduced new problems in the sung line. After a heated public debate fueled by the newspaper , this version was rejected and, following the recommendations of a second committee, Esnaola's arrangement was officially reinstated. In 1944 it was confirmed as the official state anthem.
Throughout the 19th century the anthem was sung in its entirety. However, once harsh feelings against Spain had dissipated, and the country had become home to many Spanish immigrants, a modification was introduced by a decree of President Julio Argentino Roca on 30 March 1900:
Controversy
The song includes a line that has given rise to controversy: . In the manuscript and an early printed song-sheet the word is used; a slightly later version of the song-sheet correcting obvious errors such as spelling mistakes was issued with the same date of 14 May 1813, but with changed to . The meaning reverses: "Buenos Aires opposes the front of the people of the union" to "Buenos Aires positions itself at the front ...". The original has been interpreted as advancing part of the centralist views in Buenos Aires, but has also been considered a "tragical misprint". In many other lines the anthem goes beyond the Argentine theater of the Spanish American wars of independence and references events in Mexico, Central America, Northern South America, and Upper Peru. The growing ideas of independence are reflected in lines such as "On the surface of the earth rises a glorious new nation, her head is crowned with laurels, and a Lion lies defeated at her feet". This portrays not just Spanish absolutism, but Spain itself, as the enemy.
The words strongly attacking Spain were no longer sung.
Usage
Performance of the national anthem is mandatory during all official events, and Argentines in attendance are expected to stand up and sing it. Radio broadcasters voluntarily perform the anthem at midnight, while TV channels do so before closing down their daily broadcast. On national holidays, it is mandatory to perform the national anthem at midnight.
The national anthem is ruled in Argentine law by Decree 10302/1944.
The rock musician Charly García broke legal regulations dealing with the reproduction of the song when he included an idiosyncratic cover version in his 1990 album , stirring much controversy. In 1998 various Argentine artists reedited the anthem and other patriotic songs in the joint album . Other singers followed on their footsteps recreating the piece in their own ways.
A line from the original version of the national anthem was used as the Argentine title of the 1928 film known in English as The Charge of the Gauchos.
The national anthem appears at the beginning of the 1985 film The Official Story, an Academy Award winner.
Short instrumental versions
Due to the excessive length of the official version, in international events such as the Olympic Games, professional soccer games, and the Rugby World Cup, only the instrumental introduction (which lasts 1 minute 6 seconds) is played. Another variation is to play the instrumental introductory section followed by the last three lines (with the third line repeated), or the musical break that leads into the chorus, the chorus itself, and the coda. In profession soccer games, the final part of the anthem is played since 2019. Although traditional, these arrangements are not recognized by Argentine law.
Lyrics
Modern version
The following is the modern version, adopted in 1924, omitting the long anti-Spanish middle section.
Full lyrics
References
Notes
External links
Argentina: Himno Nacional Argentino - Audio of the national anthem of Argentina, with information and lyrics (archive link)
Argentine National Anthem MP3
Argentine National Anthem (vocal) MP3
Argentine National Anthem MP3
Argentine National Anthem with English subtitles on YouTube.
Listen in the Quechua language
Argentine National Anthem Upade Radio broadcast Television Versión.
National symbols of Argentina
Argentina
Spanish-language songs
1810s songs
National anthems
National anthem compositions in B-flat major
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Wörthsee (gemeente)
Wörthsee (meer)
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Wild is a survival game that is being developed by Wild Sheep Studio and to be published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. The game was announced in 2014 and had infrequent updates during development, with the game eventually being rumored to be cancelled after game director Michel Ancel retired from the game industry in 2020.
Gameplay
Wild is set during the prehistoric Neolithic period in a procedurally generated world. Within the game world, the player controls a human and can use smaller animals to spy on others, or larger animals to support the player and their tribe in fights with other humans. Animals can be controlled by using shamanic powers - once "possessing" an animal the gameplay moves to the point of view of the controlled creature, and then proceeds using the skills and characteristics of that animal.
Development
2014-2020: Announcement
Wild began development in 2014 at Wild Sheep Studio, a developer based in Montpellier founded by Michel Ancel from Ubisoft. Initial plans for the game included a very large, continent-sized open world, dynamic weather complete with seasonal variations, online play, and the ability to play as any wild creature in the world, including wolves, sheep, fish, ants, cats, birds, etc. A gameplay trailer for the game was shown at Gamescom in August 2014 and then at Paris Games Week in October 2015, where the developers released a new gameplay trailer and a film about the production of the game.
Due to the lack of updates during development, many journalists considered the game to be vaporware.
2020: Ancel's departure
In September 2020, Ancel announced his retirement from the gaming industry but added that development on the game would continue without him.
References
External links
Vaporware video games
Action-adventure games
Cancelled PlayStation 4 games
Open-world video games
Prehistoric people in popular culture
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Survival video games
Video games developed in France
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games about animals
Video games about witchcraft
Video games set in prehistory
Video games using procedural generation
Video games directed by Michel Ancel
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A span loop is a non-jamming loop that can be tied away from the ends of the rope.
Information
The span loop is known for being extremely easy to untie. The beginning of tying this knot begins with tying a Half Sheepshank, which is also known as a Bell Ringer's Knot. In order to tie this, the same one-handed twist method employed for tying a bowline can be used. One bight or loop will poke up through the half-hitch, and it will perfectly match the end of the rope that is also poking up through the signature half-hitch part of a bowline as it is done with the one hand twist method. The next thing to do is to push the bottom loop back up and through the top loop.
References
External links
Span Loop
Loop knots
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An Employer Reference Number Number (ERN Number) or Employer PAYE Reference is a unique reference number issued in the United Kingdom by HMRC to an employer. Every organisation operating a Pay As You Earn (PAYE) scheme is allocated an ERN, a unique set of letters and numbers used by HMRC (and others) to identify each employer, consisting of a three-digit HMRC office number and a reference number unique to each business.
The ERN is alphanumeric (consisting of both letters and numbers) in the format of 123/XX12345, or 123/X12345 (prior to 2001), where the first three characters represent the Tax Office catchment area and the last six or seven characters represent a unique organisation or employer. The ERN can be found on mandatory HMRC documentation, including P45, P60, P11/D and payslips.
The Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), which regulates insurance companies in the UK, requires insurers and brokers to obtain the ERN from clients whom they are insuring or for whom they are arranging insurance for Employers' Liability, and to state the ERN in their Employers' Liability Register. ERN's are also used by the Employers' Liability Tracing Office, an independent industry body recognised by the FCA, who can assist employees to find their former employer's Employers' Liability Insurance provider if they need to make a claim for injury or illness incurred at work.
References
Corporate taxation in the United Kingdom
Insurance in the United Kingdom
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The Gladstone Power Station is a power station at Callemondah, Gladstone, Queensland, Australia. It is Queensland's largest power station, with six coal powered steam turbines generating a maximum of 1,680 MW of electricity. Power from the station was first generated in 1976.
This fossil fuel power plant draws seawater for cooling. Black coal is brought by rail from the Rolleston coal mine, west of Rockhampton.
History
Preliminary investigations into a new power station in Central Queensland began in 1968. The demand from expanding industry and the proximity to low cost coal were the major reasons for locating a large power station in the Gladstone area.
The Gladstone Power Station was designed and constructed by the State Electricity Commission of Queensland. A 275 kV transmission line connecting the power station to South East Queensland was to be built as well. It initially consisted of four generating sets generating 275 MW each and was to cost A$198 million. The Federal Government recognised the national importance of the power station, agreeing to contribute up to $80 million.
A September 1975 report recommended the addition of two more generating units at Gladstone. This was approved by the Queensland Government in 1976. Contracts costing $81 million were placed for this expansion.
The plant was privatised in 1994. It is currently owned by a group, including Rio Tinto Aluminium, NRG Energy and other Japanese partners.
Emissions
Carbon Monitoring for Action estimates this power station emits 11.80 million tonnes of greenhouse gases each year as a result of burning coal.
See also
List of active power stations in Queensland
Stanwell Power Station, Queensland
References
External links
Wesfarmers page on Curragh mine
Coal-fired power stations in Queensland
Gladstone, Queensland
Power stations in Queensland
Energy infrastructure completed in 1976
1976 establishments in Australia
Buildings and structures in Central Queensland
NRG Energy
Rio Tinto (corporation)
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Rudy H. Fichtenbaum is an American economist. He is a professor emeritus at Wright State University, and in 2012, was elected the president of the American Association of University Professors.
References
Living people
Wright State University faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)
20th-century American economists
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United Kingdom and South Africa, a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine is called a 'pit', and the above-ground structures are a 'pit head'. In Australia, "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine.
Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts to large open-cut and longwall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks and shearers.
The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative environmental impacts on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as poor air quality and climate change. For these reasons, coal has been one of the first fossil fuels to be phased out of various parts of the global energy economy. The major coal producing countries, though, such as China, Indonesia, India and Australia, have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and US and proposed mines under development.
History
Methods of extraction
Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; overburden characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography (especially altitude and slope); climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.
Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two basic methods of mining. The choice of mining method depends primarily on depth, density, overburden, and thickness of the coal seam; seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately , are usually surface mined.
Coal that occurs at depths of are usually deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam . Coals occurring below are usually deep mined. However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany.
Surface mining
When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open-cut (also referred to as open-cast, open-pit, mountaintop removal or strip) mining methods. Opencast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. This equipment can include the following: Draglines which operate by removing the overburden, power shovels, large trucks in which transport overburden and coal, bucket wheel excavators, and conveyors. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, of the mining area. The overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured and thoroughly mined in strips. The coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used.
Most open cast mines in the United States extract bituminous coal. In Canada (BC), Australia and South Africa, open cast mining is used for both thermal and metallurgical coals. In New South Wales open casting for steam coal and anthracite is practiced. Surface mining accounts for around 80 percent of production in Australia, while in the US it is used for about 67 percent of production. Globally, about 40 percent of coal production involves surface mining.
Strip mining
Strip mining exposes coal by removing earth above each coal seam. This earth to be removed is referred to as 'overburden' and is removed in long strips. The overburden from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area and referred to as out-of-pit dumping. Overburden from subsequent strips is deposited in the void left from mining the coal and overburden from the previous strip. This is referred to as in-pit dumping.
It is often necessary to fragment the overburden by use of explosives. This is accomplished by drilling holes into the overburden, filling the holes with explosives, and detonating the explosive. The overburden is then removed, using large earth-moving equipment, such as draglines, shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the
underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal). This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it. This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain.
Equipment to be used depends on geological conditions. For example, to remove overburden that is loose or unconsolidated, a bucket wheel excavator might be the most productive. The life of some area mines may be more than 50 years.
Contour mining
The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around the hillside. This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain. It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems. To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas. These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with the spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first. A ridge of undisturbed natural material wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area. This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill.
The limitations of contour strip mining are both economic and technical. When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue. Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of highwall. At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden.
Mountaintop removal mining
Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills." Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.
Mountaintop removal mining combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus. The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating head-of-hollow-fills, or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.
Spoil is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed. When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes.
Underground mining
Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, a method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production. In deep mining, the room and pillar or bord and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point (limited by geology, ventilation, or economics), a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining, is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.
Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.
There are six principal methods of underground mining:
Longwall mining accounts for about 50 percent of underground production. The longwall shearer has a face of or more. It is a sophisticated machine with a rotating drum that moves mechanically back and forth across a wide coal seam. The loosened coal falls onto an armored chain conveyor or pan line that takes the coal to the conveyor belt for removal from the work area. Longwall systems have their own hydraulic roof supports which advance with the machine as mining progresses. As the longwall mining equipment moves forward, overlying rock that is no longer supported by coal is allowed to fall behind the operation in a controlled manner. The supports make possible high levels of production and safety. Sensors detect how much coal remains in the seam while robotic controls enhance efficiency. Longwall systems allow a 60-to-100 percent coal recovery rate when surrounding geology allows their use. Once the coal is removed, usually 75 percent of the section, the roof is allowed to collapse in a safe manner.
Continuous mining utilizes a Continuous Miner Machine with a large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide picks that scrape coal from the seam. Operating in a "room and pillar" (also known as "bord and pillar") system—where the mine is divided into a series of 20-to-30-foot (5–10 m) "rooms" or work areas cut into the coalbed—it can mine as much as 14 tons of coal a minute, more than a non-mechanised mine of the 1920s would produce in an entire day. Continuous miners account for about 45 percent of underground coal production. Conveyors transport the removed coal from the seam. Remote-controlled continuous miners are used to work in a variety of difficult seams and conditions, and robotic versions controlled by computers are becoming increasingly common. Continuous mining is a misnomer, as room and pillar coal mining is very cyclical. In the US, one can generally cut up to around . This may be increased with MSHA permission. In South Africa, the limit may be as high as . After the cutting limit is reached, the continuous miner assembly is removed and the roof is supported by the use of a roof bolter, after which the face has to be serviced before it can be advanced again. During servicing, the "continuous" miner moves to another face. Some continuous miners can bolt and rock dust the face (two major components of servicing) while cutting coal, while a trained crew may be able to advance ventilation, to truly earn the "continuous" label. However, very few mines are able to achieve it. Most continuous mining machines in use in the US lack the ability to bolt and dust. This may partly be because the incorporation of bolting makes the machines wider, and therefore, less maneuverable.
Room and pillar mining consists of coal deposits that are mined by cutting a network of rooms into the coal seam. Pillars of coal are left behind in order to keep up the roof. The pillars can make up to forty percent of the total coal in the seam, however, where there was space to leave the head and floor coal there is evidence from recent open cast excavations that 18th-century operators used a variety of room and pillar techniques to remove 92 percent of the in situ coal. However, this can be extracted at a later stage (see retreat mining).
Blast mining or conventional mining, is an older practice that uses explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coalbed so it will break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less than 5 percent of total underground production in the US today.
Retreat mining is a method in which the pillars or coal ribs used to hold up the mine roof are extracted; allowing the mine roof to collapse as the mining works back towards the entrance. This is one of the most dangerous forms of mining, owing to imperfect predictability of when the roof will collapse and possibly crush or trap workers in the mine.
Production
Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. 7,921 million metric tons (Mt) of coal were produced in 2019, a 70% increase over the 20 years since 1999. In 2018, the world production of brown coal (lignite) was 803.2 Mt, with Germany the world's largest producer at 166.3 Mt. China is most likely the second largest producer and consumer of lignite globally although specific lignite production data is not made available.
Coal production has grown fastest in Asia, while Europe has declined. Since 2011, world coal production has been stable, with decreases in Europe and US offset by increases from China, Indonesia and Australia. The top coal mining nations are:
Economic impact
Globally coal mining is highly concentrated in certain jurisdictions, concentrating much of the social and economic impacts of the industry. Globally the industry directly employs over 7 million workers, which creates millions of indirect jobs. In many parts of the world, producers have reached peak coal as the global economy shifts away from fossil fuels like coal to address climate change. A 2020 study found that renewables jobs could feasibly be created in these geographies to replace many of the coal mining jobs as part of a just transition; however, renewable energy was not suitable in some of the geographies with high concentrations of miners (such as in China).
Waste and refuse
Disasters
Modern mining
The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as "miner's canaries".
In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since EIA began collecting data in 1978. However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry.
Safety
Dangers to miners
Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is long. In the US alone, 104,895 coal miners were killed in mine accidents since 1900, 90 percent of the fatalities occurring in the first half of the 20th century. 3,242 died in 1907, the worst year ever; in 2020 there were five.
Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, rock burst, outbursts, and gas explosions.
Firedamp explosions can trigger the much-more-dangerous coal dust explosions, which can engulf an entire mine. Most of these risks are greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in most some parts of the developed world. Modern coal mining in the US has an average 23 deaths per year due to mine accidents (2001–2020).
However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions. China, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths occurred in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the US in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US.
Mine disasters have still occurred in recent years in the US, Examples include the Sago Mine disaster of 2006, and the 2007 mine accident in Utah's Crandall Canyon Mine, where nine miners were killed and six entombed. In the decade 2005–2014, US coal mining fatalities averaged 28 per year. The most fatalities during the 2005–2014 decade were 48 in 2010, the year of the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in West Virginia, which killed 29 miners.
Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). The use of water sprays in mining equipment reduces the risk to miners' lungs.
Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word which means steam or vapor:
Black damp: a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in a mine can cause suffocation, and is formed as a result of corrosion in enclosed spaces so removing oxygen from the atmosphere.
After damp: similar to black damp, after damp consists of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion.
Fire damp: consists of mostly methane, a highly flammable gas that explodes between 5% and 15% – at 25% it causes asphyxiation.
Stink damp: so named for the rotten egg smell of the hydrogen sulfide gas, stink damp can explode and is also very toxic.
White damp: air containing carbon monoxide which is toxic, even at low concentrations
A heavy curtain used to direct air currents in mines and prevent the buildup of dangerous gases is known as a damp sheet.
Noise is also a contributing factor to potential adverse effects on coal miners' health. Exposure to excessive noise can lead to noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing loss developed as a result of occupational exposures is coined occupational hearing loss. To protect miners' hearing, the US Mine Safety and Health Administration's (MSHA) guidelines for noise place a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for noise at 90 dBA time-weighted over 8 hours. A lower cutoff, 85 dBA, is set for a worker to fall into the MSHA Action Level which dictates that workers be placed into hearing conservation programs.
Noise exposures vary depending on the method of extraction. For example, a study has found that among surface coal mine operations, dragline equipment produced the loudest sound at a range of 88–112 dBA. Within longwall sections, stageloaders used to transport coal from the mining face and shearers used for extraction represent some of the highest noise exposures. Auxiliary fans (up to 120 dBA), continuous mining machines (up to 109 dBA), and roof bolters (up to 103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment within continuous mining sections. Exposures to noise exceeding 90 dBA can lead to adverse effects on workers' hearing. The use of administrative controls and engineering controls can be used to reduce noise exposures.
Safety improvements
Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as safety-lamps or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, electrical equipment, and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with gas engines. Another innovation in recent years is the use of closed circuit escape respirators, respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised. Statistical analyses performed by the US Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by fatality rate. These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and oil and gas mining contribute to the majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year. One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time.
Health and environmental impacts
Coal mining by country
Top 10 hard and brown coal producers in 2012 were (in million metric tons): China 3,621, United States 922, India 629, Australia 432, Indonesia 410, Russia 351, South Africa 261, Germany 196, Poland 144, and Kazakhstan 122.
Australia
Coal has been mined in every state of Australia, but mainly in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. It is mostly used to generate electricity, and 75% of annual coal production is exported, mostly to eastern Asia.
In 2007, 428 million tonnes of coal was mined in Australia. In 2007, coal provided about 85% of Australia's electricity production. In the fiscal year 2008/09, 487 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 261 million tonnes was exported. In the fiscal year 2013/14, 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 375.1 million tonnes was exported. In 2013/14, coal provided about 69% of Australia's electricity production.
In 2013, Australia was the world's fifth-largest coal producer, after China, the United States, India, and Indonesia. However, in terms of proportion of production exported, Australia is the world's second largest coal exporter, as it exports roughly 73% of its coal production. Indonesia exports about 87% of its coal production.
A court in Australia has cited climate change in ruling against a new coal mine.
Canada
Canada was ranked as the 15th coal producing country in the world in 2010, with a total production of 67.9 million tonnes. Canada's coal reserves, the 12th largest in the world, are located largely in the province of Alberta.
The first coal mines in North America were located in Joggins and Port Morien, Nova Scotia, mined by French settlers beginning in the late 1600s. The coal was used for the British garrison at Annapolis Royal, and in the construction of the Fortress of Louisbourg.
Chile
Compared to other South American countries Chile has limited coal resources. Only Argentina is similarly poor. Coal in Chile is mostly sub-bituminous with the exception of the bituminous coals of the Arauco Basin in central Chile.
China
The China is by far the largest producer of coal in the world, producing over 2.8 billion tons of coal in 2007, or approximately 39.8 percent of all coal produced in the world during that year. For comparison, the second largest producer, the United States, produced more than 1.1 billion tons in 2007. An estimated 5 million people work in China's coal-mining industry. As many as 20,000 miners die in accidents each year. Most Chinese mines are deep underground and do not produce the surface disruption typical of strip mines. Although there is some evidence of reclamation of mined land for use as parks, China does not require extensive reclamation and is creating significant acreages of abandoned mined land, which is unsuitable for agriculture or other human uses, and inhospitable to indigenous wildlife. Chinese underground mines often experience severe surface subsidence (6–12 meters), negatively impacting farmland because it no longer drains well. China uses some subsidence areas for aquaculture ponds but has more than they need for that purpose. Reclamation of subsided ground is a significant problem in China. Because most Chinese coal is for domestic consumption, and is burned with little or no air pollution control equipment, it contributes greatly to visible smoke and severe air pollution in industrial areas using coal for fuel. China's total energy uses 67% from coal mines.
Colombia
Some of the world's largest coal reserves are located in South America, and an opencast mine at Cerrejón in Colombia is one of the world's largest open pit mines. The output of the mine in 2004 was 24.9 million tons (compared to total global hard coal production of 4,600 million tons). Cerrejón contributed about half of Colombia's coal exports of 52 million tons that year, with Colombia ranked sixth among major coal exporting nations. The company planned to expand production to 32 million tons by 2008. The company has its own 150 km standard-gauge railroad, connecting the mine to its coal-loading terminal at Puerto Bolívar on the Caribbean coast. There are two 120-car unit trains, each carrying 12,000 tons of coal per trip. The round-trip time for each train, including loading and unloading, is about 12 hours. The coal facilities at the port are capable of loading 4,800 tons per hour onto vessels of up to 175,000 tons of dead weight. The mine, railroad and port operate 24 hours per day. Cerrejón directly employs 4,600 workers, with a further 3,800 employed by contractors. The reserves at Cerrejón are low-sulfur, low-ash, bituminous coal. The coal is mostly used for electric power generation, with some also used in steel manufacture. The surface mineable reserves for the current contract are 330 million tons. However, total proven reserves to a depth of 300 metres are 3,000 million tons.
The expansion of the Cerrejón mine has been blamed for the forced displacement of local communities.
Germany
Germany has a long history of coal mining, going back to the Middle Ages. Coal mining greatly increased during the industrial revolution and the following decades. The main mining areas were around Aachen and the Ruhr area, along with many smaller areas in other parts of Germany, and until 1945 also in Upper Silesia, while the Saarland was repeatedly under French control. These areas grew and were shaped by coal mining and coal processing, and this is still visible even after the end of the coal mining.
Coal mining reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. After 1950, the coal producers started to struggle financially. In 1975, a subsidy was introduced (Kohlepfennig, coal penny as part of the electricity bill), which was discontinued in the 1990s. In 2007, due to EU regulations, the Bundestag decided to end subsidies by 2018. As a consequence, RAG AG, the owner of the two remaining coal mines in Germany, Prosper Haniel and Ibbenbüren, announced it would close all mines by 2018, thus ended underground coal mining in Germany.
Open pit lignite mining for electricity continues in Nordrhein-Westfalen, and in the eastern states of Brandenburg, Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt.
Greece
Lignite has been mined in Greece since 1873, and today supplies approximately 75% of the country's energy. The main mining areas are located in Western Macedonia (Ptolemaida) and the Peloponnese (Megalopolis).
India
Coal mining in India has a long history of commercial exploitation starting in 1774 with John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar River. Demand for coal remained low until the introduction of steam locomotives in 1853. After this, production rose to an annual average of 1 Mt and India produced 6.12 Mt per year by 1900 and 18 Mt per year by 1920, following increased demand in the First World War, but went through a slump in the early thirties. The production reached a level of 29 Mt by 1942 and 30 Mt by 1946. After independence, the country embarked upon five-year development plans. At the beginning of the 1st Plan, annual production went up to 33 Mt. During the 1st Plan period, the need for increasing coal production efficiently by systematic and scientific development of the coal industry was being felt. Setting up the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), a Government of India undertaking, in 1956 with the collieries owned by the railways as its nucleus was the first major step towards planned development of Indian Coal Industry. Along with the Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL) which was already in operation since 1945 and which became a government company under the control of Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1956, India thus had two Government coal companies in the fifties. SCCL is now a joint undertaking of Government of Telangana and Government of India.
Japan
The richest Japanese coal deposits have been found on Hokkaido and Kyushu.
Japan has a long history of coal mining dating back into the Japanese Middle Ages. It is said that coal was first discovered in 1469 by a farming couple near Ōmuta, central Kyushu. In 1478, farmers discovered burning stones in the north of the island, which led to the exploitation of the Chikuhõ coalfield.
Following Japanese industrialization additional coalfields were discovered northern Japan. One of the first mines in Hokkaido was the Hokutan Horonai coal mine.
New Zealand
Coal mining in New Zealand produced almost 4 million tonnes of coal in 2014, of which 44% was exported. In 2016, production was down to 2,834,956 tonnes.
Poland
Russia
Russia ranked as the fifth largest coal producing country in 2010, with a total production of 316.9 Mt. Russia has the world's second largest coal reserves. Russia and Norway share the coal resources of the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, under the Svalbard Treaty.
Spain
Spain was ranked as the 30th coal producing country in the world in 2010. The coal miners of Spain were active in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. In October 1934, in Asturias, union miners and others suffered a fifteen-day siege in Oviedo and Gijon. There is a museum dedicated to coal mining in the region of Catalonia, called Cercs Mine Museum.
In October 2018, the Sánchez government and Spanish Labour unions settled an agreement to close ten Spanish coal mines at the end of 2018. The government pre-engaged to spend 250 million Euro to pay for early retirements, occupational retraining and structural change. In 2018, about 2,3 per cent of the electric energy produced in Spain was produced in coal-burning power plants.
South Africa
South Africa is one of the ten largest coal producing countries and the fourth largest coal exporting country in the world.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, coal is distributed mainly in the northern area. All of the commercial coal deposits occurred in three Miocene coal-bearing formations, which are the Upper, the Middle and the Lower Coal Measures. The Middle Coal Measures was the most important with its wide distribution, great number of coal beds and extensive potential reserves. Taiwan has coal reserves estimated to be 100–180 Mt. However, coal output had been small, amounting to 6,948 metric tonnes per month from 4 pits before it ceased production effectively in 2000. The abandoned coal mine in Pingxi District, New Taipei, has now turned into the Taiwan Coal Mine Museum.
Turkey
Ukraine
In 2012 coal production in Ukraine amounted to 85.946 million tonnes, up 4.8% from 2011. Coal consumption that same year grew to 61.207 million tonnes, up 6.2% compared with 2011.
More than 90 percent of Ukraine's coal production comes from the Donets Basin. The country's coal industry employs about 500,000 people. Ukrainian coal mines are among the most dangerous in the world, and accidents are common. Furthermore, the country is plagued with extremely dangerous illegal mines.
United Kingdom
United States
Coal was mined in America in the early 18th century, and commercial mining started around 1730 in Midlothian, Virginia.
The American share of world coal production remained steady at about 20 percent from 1980 to 2005, at about 1 billion short tons per year. The United States was ranked as the second highest coal producing country in the world in 2010, and possesses the largest coal reserves in the world. In 2008 then-President George W. Bush stated that coal was the most reliable source of electricity. However, in 2011 President Barack Obama said that the US should rely more on cleaner sources of energy that emit lower or no carbon dioxide pollution. For a time, while domestic coal consumption for electric power was being displaced by natural gas, exports were increasing. US net coal exports increased ninefold from 2006 to 2012, peaked at 117 million short tons in 2012, then declined to 63 million tons in 2015. In 2015, 60% of net US exports went to Europe, 27% to Asia. US coal production increasingly comes from strip mines in the western United States, such as from the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana.
Coal has come under continued price pressure from natural gas and renewable energy sources, which has resulted in a rapid decline of coal in the U.S. and several notable bankruptcies including Peabody Energy. On 13 April 2016 it reported, that its revenue had reduced by 17 percent as coal prices fell and that it had lost two billion dollars the previous year. It then filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy on 13 April 2016. The Harvard Business Review discussed retraining coal workers for solar photovoltaic employment because of the rapid rise in U.S. solar jobs. A 2016 study indicated that this was technically possible and would account for only 5% of the industrial revenue from a single year to provide coal workers with job security in the energy industry as whole.
Donald Trump pledged to bring back coal jobs during the 2016 US presidential election, and as president he announced plans to reduce environmental protection, particularly by repealing the Clean Power Plan (CPP). However, industry observers have warned that this might not lead to a boom in mining jobs A 2019 projection by the Energy Information Administration estimated that coal production without CPP would decline over coming decades at a faster rate than indicated in the agency's 2017 projection, which had assumed the CPP was in effect.
See also
References
Works cited
Further reading
Daniel Burns. The modern practice of coal mining (1907)
Chirons, Nicholas P. Coal Age Handbook of Coal Surface Mining ()
Hamilton, Michael S. Mining Environmental Policy: Comparing Indonesia and the USA (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005). ().
Grisham, John. "Gray Mountain" (2014) novel set in Appalachia about a fictional legal clinic intern in Virginia coal miningGray Mountain (Grisham novel)
Hayes, Geoffrey. Coal Mining (2004), 32 pp
Hughes. Herbert W, A Text-Book of Mining: For the use of colliery managers and others (London, many editions 1892–1917), the standard British textbook for its era.
Kuenzer, Claudia. Coal Mining in China (In: Schumacher-Voelker, E., and Mueller, B., (Eds.), 2007: BusinessFocus China, Energy: A Comprehensive Overview of the Chinese Energy Sector. gic Deutschland Verlag, 281 pp., pp. 62–68)
Charles V. Nielsen and George F. Richardson. 1982 Keystone Coal Industry Manual (1982)
Saleem H. Ali. "Minding our Minerals, 2006."
A.K. Srivastava. Coal Mining Industry in India (1998) ()
Tonge, James. The principles and practice of coal mining (1906)
Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp 840–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide coal industry in 1950
Zola, Émile, Germinal (novel, 1885)
External links
Glossary of Mining Terms
Global Coal Mine Tracker, Global Energy Monitor
Coal Mine exploration and preservation
Abandoned Mine Research
Methods of mining – overview and graphic of coal mining methods
Coal Mining in the British Isles (Northern Mine Research Society)
National Coal Mining Museum for England
NIOSH Coal Workers' Health Surveillance Program
Purdue University – Petroleum and Coal
University of Wollongong – educational resource on longwall mining
Virtual coalmine – visual e-learning source with comprehensive display of long-wall face
World Coal Institute – Coal Mining
Fuel production
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Honor of the Mounted may refer to:
The Honor of the Mounted, a 1914 American silent short drama film
Honor of the Mounted (1932 film), an American pre-Code Western film
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Cooking spray is a spray form of an oil as a lubricant, lecithin as an emulsifier, and a propellant such as food-grade alcohol, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide or propane. Cooking spray is applied to frying pans and other cookware to prevent food from sticking. Traditionally, cooks use butter, shortening, or oils poured or rubbed on cookware. Most cooking sprays have less food energy per serving than an application of vegetable oil, because they are applied in a much thinner layer: US regulations allow many to be labelled "zero-calorie"; in the UK sprays claim to supply "less than 1 calorie per serving". Popular US brands include Pam, Crisco, and Baker's Joy. Sprays are available with plain vegetable oil, butter and olive oil flavor.
Cooking spray has other culinary uses besides being applied to cookware. Sticky candies such as Mike and Ike that are often sold in bulk vending machines may be sprayed with cooking spray to keep them from sticking together in the machines. Coating the inside of a measuring cup with the spray allows sticky substances such as honey to pour out more easily. Vegetables may be sprayed before seasoning to make the seasonings stick better.
References
Cooking oils
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The Anchoress is a historical fiction novel by Robyn Cadwallader published by Sarah Crichton Books in 2015. The plot is set in the 13th-century England.
References
Historical novels
2015 Australian novels
Novels set in the 13th century
Sarah Crichton Books books
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George Washington Williams (1849-1891) – politico, giornalista e avvocato statunitense
George Washington Williams (1869-1925) – ufficiale statunitense
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Artemis Fowl is a series of novels by Eoin Colfer.
Artemis Fowl may also refer to:
Artemis Fowl (novel), the first book in the series
Artemis Fowl II, main character of the series
Artemis Fowl I, father of Artemis Fowl II
Artemis Fowl (film), a sci-fi film adaptation of the first book
Artemis Fowl: The Graphic Novel, a graphic novel adaptation of the first book
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Not the Nine O'Clock News is a British television sketch comedy show which was broadcast on BBC2 from 1979 to 1982. Originally shown as a comedy alternative to the Nine O'Clock News on BBC1, it features satirical sketches on then-current news stories and popular culture, as well as parody songs, comedy sketches, re-edited videos, and spoof television formats. The programme features Rowan Atkinson, Pamela Stephenson, Mel Smith, and Griff Rhys Jones, as well as Chris Langham in the first series.
Format
The format was a deliberate departure from the stream-of-consciousness meta-comedy pioneered by Monty Python's Flying Circus, returning to a more conventional sketch format. Sketches were mostly self-contained, lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes, and often had a degree of naturalism in performance. The series launched the careers of several high-profile actors and writers, and also led to other comedic series including Blackadder and Alas Smith and Jones.
The series benefited from video editing and recording techniques. The pace was enhanced by jump-cutting between library clips, usually of politicians, royalty, or celebrities. Then-Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher complained when, by adroit image editing, the programme implied she had crashed a car. Effects used in pop videos, provided by the Quantel Paintbox, were often a highlight of the musical numbers.
History
Background
Not the Nine O'Clock News was produced by John Lloyd. Lloyd pitched the idea to the heads of BBC Comedy and Light Entertainment, and was given a six-programme series on condition that he collaborate with Sean Hardie, who had worked in current affairs at the BBC.
Initially, Lloyd and Hardie were considering doing a lampoon of actuality programmes à la The Frost Report with Rowan Atkinson portraying an old-fashioned host attacking liberal and/or modern trends. The programme was to be called Sacred Cows, but the news programme was chosen because of its larger number of sources. The series’ name derived from its schedule, as it originally aired on BBC2 at the same time as the Nine O'Clock News on BBC1.
Aborted first series
Aside from Atkinson, the original cast comprised Christopher Godwin, John Gorman, Chris Langham, Willoughby Goddard, and Jonathan Hyde, and the first episode of a planned series was scheduled for 2 April 1979; this also featured Chris Emmett (impersonating Denis Healey), Robert Llewelyn (impersonating Bob Hope) and Hertz Rental (narrating general elections in Greenland).
As the programme was originally scheduled to air in the time-slot occupied by Fawlty Towers, John Cleese was to have introduced the first episode in a sketch referring to a technicians' strike (then in progress) that hindered the production of the series, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no programme that week, so a "tatty revue" would be broadcast instead. However, the 1979 general election intervened, and the programme was pulled as being too political, being replaced with a repeat of the American sitcom Rhoda.
The sketch with Cleese was broadcast later that year, when the final episode of Fawlty Towers went out during the broadcast run of the first series of Not The Nine O'Clock News, though the significance of the sketch was lost to some degree. This link is included on the Region 2 DVD boxset of Fawlty Towers. Basil's waiter Manuel, played by Andrew Sachs, also appeared at the end of the unaired episode, trying to get a joke about the Ayatollah's contact lenses.
Other sketches of the unaired pilot episode were also lifted or remade on episodes throughout the first series. Healey's and Hope's impressions were achieved by the use of "talking head" puppets, which in the mid-1980s would become a characteristic staple of Spitting Image, produced by Lloyd in its early series.
In production
Lloyd and Hardie decided to re-cast the series, retaining Langham and Atkinson. They wanted to bring in a woman, but Victoria Wood turned the programme down. Lloyd met Pamela Stephenson at a party, and she agreed to join. Atkinson, Langham, and Stephenson were joined by Mel Smith, who was scheduled to work on the pilot, but declined after reading the script (he called the finished pilot in retrospect "the worst half hour of TV" that he’d ever seen). The first series was criticised for being "a poor mix of stand up, and a mild portion of sketches" and newspaper reviews referring to it as "extremely offensive" and that it “should not be allowed on TV". Ratings were dismal as well: the first episode had fewer than a million viewers.
However, the network controller reportedly liked the programme so much, that a second series of seven episodes was commissioned, also helped by budgetary cuts at BBC, which were repeatedly poked fun at in the second series' premiere episode, entitled "The Outrageously Expensive Not the Nine O'Clock News". Such cuts also forced the show to drastically reduce the use of outside scenes (which were recorded on film) as well as minor players. The shock value prominent during the first season was also toned down in favour of a more "offbeat" tone.
For the second series, Langham was replaced by Griff Rhys-Jones, who had already been a regular player during the first series, aside from having directed the radio programme The Atkinson People. The second series of Not the Nine O’Clock News won the Silver Rose at the Montreux Festival and a BAFTA Award for Best Light Entertainment Programme in 1982. The show's later series achieved improved ratings and became critically acclaimed.
Not the Nine O'Clock News became a stage production in Oxford and London in 1982, but the main performers decided to end the project while it was a success: Stephenson began a Hollywood film career, Atkinson recorded the first series of Blackadder in 1983, and Smith and Jones became a double act in Alas Smith and Jones. An American adaptation, Not Necessarily the News ran for seven years, from 1983 to 1990 on the Home Box Office cable television channel.
Content
Satire was a key theme in the series' comedy. For example, one spoof news element might include a routine announcement that NASA had once again announced a delay in the launch of its Space Shuttle owing to technical difficulties, as the screen showed the shuttle on its launch pad with oxygen streaming off the tanks, overlaid with the sound of a car engine turning over but not starting. An opening graphic featured the same blue screen and white analogue clock ticking down to 9:00 p.m. as preceded the original Nine O'Clock News, followed by an announcement of the time in similar voice and, in parody, the announcement that this was "definitely not the Nine O'Clock News". Skits could include scenes such as a group of rural Americans at a barbecue singing several minutes of comical implausibles like "I'm prepared to believe that Nixon wasn't a crook; I'm prepared to believe Love Story'''s a readable book..." and finally concluding, "I believe that the devil is ready to repent; – but I can't believe Ronald Reagan is president."
Legacy
The programme is credited with bringing alternative comedy to British television: Lloyd once commented he wanted to do a "modern, working-class" comedy in contrast to other series of the time, such as The Two Ronnies, as well as attempting to replicate the satire boom of the early 1960s that launched the careers of John Cleese, Dudley Moore, Eric Idle, Tim Brooke-Taylor and others. This also happened at a time that the magazine National Lampoon, The Second City troupes and Saturday Night Live became showcases of alternative comedy in North America.
In 2005, Atkinson, Smith, Stephenson, Langham, and producer Lloyd reunited to talk to Sue MacGregor about the series. Langham's departure was touched upon, with Lloyd seeming to take the blame, though Atkinson had campaigned for Langham to be kept in the cast. (Langham actually refused to speak to his former cast-mates for a number of years after he was fired, until appearing as a regular on Smith and Jones in the 1990s). The Reunion was broadcast on Radio 4 on 31 July 2005.
A documentary featuring the cast reminiscing about the making of the programme was shown on BBC 2 on 28 December 2009, before one of the 1995 compilation shows was aired (despite a "complete episode" being billed in television listings). The documentary was repeated on 3 August 2013, just over two weeks after the death of Smith.
Crew
The main writers included Colin Bostock-Smith, Andy Hamilton, Peter Brewis, Richard Curtis, and Clive Anderson. However, the producers accepted scripts for sketches from a wide range of writers (including a then-undergraduate Stephen Fry), and ensured the programme remained topical by recording sketches only days before broadcast. Howard Goodall (subsequently composer of the theme music for Blackadder, Red Dwarf, and The Vicar of Dibley) was musical director. Bill Wilson directed the first three series, while Geoff Posner handled the fourth.
Episodes
A total of 27 episodes of 25–30-minute duration were broadcast over four series.
Series 1 (1979)
Unaired Pilot Episode (scheduled to air - 2 April 1979)
Kenny Everett in Not the Nine O'Clock News – 16 October 1979
Episode 2 – 23 October 1979
Episode 3 – 30 October 1979
Episode 4 – 6 November 1979
Episode 5 – 13 November 1979
Episode 6 – 20 November 1979
Series 2 (1980)
The Outrageously Expensive Not the Nine O'Clock News – 31 March 1980
Episode 2 – 7 April 1980
Don't Get Your Vicars in a Twist – 14 April 1980
International Darts – 21 April 1980
Episode 5 – 28 April 1980
Episode 6 – 5 May 1980
Death Lasers of Kazaan – 12 May 1980
Series 3 (1980)
Not the Nine O'Clock in the Morning News – 27 October 1980
Election Special – 3 November 1980
Miss World 1980 – 10 November 1980
Nationwide – 17 November 1980
Episode 5 – 24 November 1980
Episode 6 – 1 December 1980
Episode 7 – 8 December 1980
Episode 8 – 15 December 1980
Series 4 (1982)
Episode 1 – 1 February 1982
Episode 2 – 8 February 1982
Hi Se Seo An Nuacht Ag A Naoi Chlog – 15 February 1982
Episode 4 – 22 February 1982
Made in Wales – 1 March 1982
Shame – 8 March 1982
Specials
Not the Least of Not the Nine O'Clock News (28 December 1979; Christmas Special)
The Best Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (9 September 1980)
25 Years Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (16 September 1980)
25 Years Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (23 September 1980; Material from Series 2)
Not The Nine O'Clock Christmas: Write Your Own (30 December 1980; Material from Series 3)
Not Another Not The Nine O'Clock News (9 October 1981)
An Eight Chance To See Not The Nine O'Clock News (16 October 1981)
The Last Of The Summer Repeats (23 October 1981; Material from Series 1, 2, and 3)
Not The Nine O'Clock News (7, 14 & 28 September 1983; Material from Series 4)
Not The Nine O'Clock News (October – December 1995; 8 Compilations)
The series has rarely been repeated; eight re-cut and condensed (to make it "faster and funnier than ever") "episodes" made for a video edition in 1995 are shown instead. This is primarily because the original episodes in their entirety lampooned events that were in the news at the time. The last repeat of the show was on Sunday 27 March 2016 at 2:55am on Gold.
Commercial releases
Video and DVD
Two highly edited VHS releases of the series, entitled The Gorilla Kinda Lingers and Nice Video, Shame about the Hedgehog, were released in 1995.
In August 2003, these videos were released on DVD under the title of The Best of Not the Nine O'Clock News: Volume One, with The Best of Not the Nine O'Clock News: Volume Two following a year later. Both of these are available in one set, unavailable separately, in Region 1.
Records
Three vinyl albums were released at the time the series was screening, entitled Not the Nine O'Clock News, Hedgehog Sandwich, and The Memory Kinda Lingers. These albums were very successful, with the first two both reaching the top ten of the UK albums chart, a rare feat for a spoken word album. Hedgehog Sandwich also peaked at number 89 in Australia.
The original version of The Memory Kinda Lingers is a double LP. The second disc is titled Not in Front of the Audience and is a live recording of the cast's stage production. Hedgehog Sandwich and the first disc of The Memory Kinda Lingers were later combined on a BBC double-length cassette and double-CD set.
"The Ayatollah Song" b/w "Gob on You" (as featured in the TV show) and "I Like Trucking" b/w "Supa Dupa" were also released as singles.
The 1980 single "Typing Pool" by 'Pam and the Paper Clips' (EMI 5015), is variously ascribed to Pamela Stephenson and NtNON. It was in fact written by Roger and Nigel Planer, who were among the show's many writers.
Books and miscellaneous
Three books were released to tie in with the series: Not! The Nine O'Clock News, a collection of classic material rewritten and restructured as a parody of the short-lived magazine Now!; Not the Royal Wedding (the royal wedding in question being the marriage of Charles and Diana); and Not the General Election, a tie-in with the 1983 general election. The first was reprinted in 1995 as Not for Sale. Not the Royal Wedding was promoted by a little-known radio spin-off, Not the Nuptials, transmitted on BBC Radio 1. The same station had also previously produced a behind-the-scenes documentary on Not the Nine O'Clock News as part of their magazine series Studio B15.
Two 'page-a-day' tear-off calendars, edited by John Lloyd and containing several contributions from Douglas Adams, were released in the early 1980s (Not 1982 and Not 1983). Also published around this time was a spoof Orwellian edition of The Times newspaper, Not the 1984 Times, which – although widely assumed to be – was not actually connected to the series.
See also
Not Necessarily the News''
Drop the Dead Donkey
References
External links
Comedy Guide
Complete episode guide sketch by sketch
Museum of Broadcast Communications: biographical information
1970s British television sketch shows
1980s British television sketch shows
1979 British television series debuts
1982 British television series endings
BBC television sketch shows
English-language television shows
British satirical television series
British black comedy television shows
News parodies
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Acini di pepe are a form of pasta. The name is Italian for "seeds of pepper". Acini is the plural of acino whose root is the Latin word acinus. In both Latin and Italian, the word means "grape" or "grape-stones", with the "stones of a grape" being the seeds of the grape. Acini di pepe then translates into "seeds of a pepper". They were and are known as a symbol of fertility, which is why they are used in Italian wedding soup. They are also sometimes referred to as pastina (Italian for "tiny dough"); however, some pasta makers distinguish pastina as smaller than acini di pepe. The individual pieces usually resemble tiny cylinders about 1mm, or less, in each dimension.
Acini di pepe work well in soups and cold salads. Acini di pepe are often used in Italian wedding soup. Frog's eye salad is an American cold salad that combines the pasta with whipped topping, marshmallows, pineapple and mandarin oranges.
References
Types of pasta
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YNN may refer to:
Your News Now, the brand for Time Warner Cable's 24-hour cable news television affiliates:
YNN Buffalo, serving Buffalo, New York
YNN Rochester, serving Rochester, New York
YNN Central New York, serving Central New York
YNN Capital Region, serving New York's Capital District
YNN Austin, serving the Austin, Texas area
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Bikateshwor temple is the holy place of Lord Shiva. It is located in Nasiksthan Sanga, part of Banepa Municipality in Kabhrepalanchok District in the Bagmati Zone of central Nepal. The temple is a main pilgrimage centre for Hindu pilgrims. The Punyamata river (tribute of Roshi River) flows through this temple.
History
The temple is described in Swasthani and the Skanda Purana.
Events
Shivaratri, the main festival of lord Shiva.
Bol Bom in the month of shrawan.
Kanya Pooja
References
Hindu temples in Bagmati Province
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Fort Lane may refer to:
Fort Lane (Kansas)
Fort Lane (North Carolina), a former U.S. Army post in James City, North Carolina
Fort Lane (Oregon)
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A Friends meeting house is a meeting house of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers).
Friends Meetinghouse may also refer to:
Friends Meetinghouse (Wilmington, Delaware)
Friends Meetinghouse (Uxbridge, Massachusetts)
Friends Meetinghouse (Casco, Maine)
Friends Meetinghouse (Dover, New Jersey)
Friends Meetinghouse (Mount Pleasant, Ohio)
Friends Meetinghouse (Jamestown, Rhode Island)
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Water in Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is divided into two types, Mutlaq and Mudaf for Tahara. Tahara or Taharah (the opposite of Najis) is an essential aspect of Islam. It means to remove all physical impurities (Najāsat) that blocks valid worship by Wudu or Ghusl.
Water divisions in Fiqh
Water in Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is divided into two types:
Mutlaq
Mudaf (Mudaaf or Mudhaf)
َAccording to Fiqh, Taharah (Wudu or Ghusl) is valid only with Mutlaq Water.
Mutlaq
Etymology
Mutlaq is an Arabic word that means to absolute or pure. The word means is used by Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) to refer to pure water.
Definition in Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
Mutlaq water is the same natural water when it fall out of the sky or coming out of the earth. In Fiqh, natural water is called Mutlaq water when no adjective or anything is added to the water which would change its natural condition. Water is still called Mutlaq water if it stays pure during the change such as e.g. mud, soil, stagnation, fallen leaves or collection of straw, etc., or the salt, sulfur, and other minerals that it contains at its source or picks up in its course.
Muslims can use Mutlaq water to wudu, ghusl, or any worship that needs to purity themselves.
Type of Mutlaq water
The types of Mutlaq water are as follows:
Kurr water: is a certain quantity of Mutlaq water (480 kg) that does not become Najis (impure) if it comes in contact with Najis things, also Kurr water can purge Najis things.
Qalil Water: is a specific quantity of water that is lesser than kurr water and is not Surface runoff or well water. Qalil water becomes Najis If it comes into contact with Najis.
Surface runoff (overland flow): is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface. Runoff includes the following:
Rainwater
Snow
Hail
Spring
River
Water of Well
Seawater
Mudaf
Etymology
Mudaf (Mudaaf or Mudhaf) is an Arabic word that comes to comes from 'idaafa'. Mudaf means the thing annexed. The word means is used by Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) to refer to mixed water.
Definition in Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
Mudaf water is a kind of water to which something has been added or It is not so pure that people no longer call it water. Mudaf water is used against Mutlaq water. Wudu and Ghusl are not valid with Mudaf water. Also, it cannot make clean what has become Najis.
Type of Mudaf water
some examples of Mudaf water is as follows:
Extremely muddy water, rosewater, water extracted from fruits, lime and grape juice, rose-water and soda-water.
See also
Tayammum
Salah
Tasbih
References
Islamic terminology
Salah
Ritual purity in Islam
Salah terminology
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"The Hardest Part Is the Night" is a single by American rock band Bon Jovi released exclusively in the UK. It is taken from their second album, 7800° Fahrenheit. It is notable for being the first Bon Jovi single to reach the top 100 in the UK, where it charted at number 68.
Overview
Among Bon Jovi's early songs, "The Hardest Part is the Night" is the one that expresses most clearly Jon Bon Jovi's concerns with working class issues and the struggles of the underdog, a theme that would later bring success to the band with "Livin' on a Prayer". The song makes vague references to a young man battling against the odds to succeed in life, though he knows that he is ultimately "going down".
The promotional video was an excerpt from a live performance in Japan and was directed by Sadao Matsunago for Spirit Entertainment, Ltd.
Chart performance
References
Bon Jovi songs
1985 songs
Songs written by Jon Bon Jovi
Songs written by Richie Sambora
Songs written by David Bryan
PolyGram singles
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Social Democrats is a name used by a number of political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy.
Social Democrats may refer to:
Social Democrats (Croatia), a social-democratic political party in Croatia
Social Democrats (Denmark), a social-democratic political party in Denmark
Social Democrats (Germany), a social-democratic political party in Germany
Social Democrats (Ireland), a centre-left political party in Ireland
Social Democrats (Italy), a centre-left political party in Italy
Social Democrats (Slovenia), a centre-left political party in Slovenia
Social Democrats (Sweden), a social-democratic political party in Sweden
Social Democrats, USA, a small association of democratic socialists and social democrats in the United States
Social Democrats of Uganda, a political party in Uganda
Åland Social Democrats, a social-democratic political party on the Åland Islands
Gibraltar Social Democrats, a liberal-conservative, centre-right political party in Gibraltar
Portuguese Social Democrats, a liberal-conservative political party in Portugal
Social Democrats of Montenegro, a centre-left political party in Montenegro
Supporters of social democracy in general
Various parties using the name Social Democratic Party
See also
List of social democratic parties, parties that consider themselves to uphold social democracy
Social Democracy (disambiguation)
Social-Demokraten (disambiguation)
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In fluid dynamics, an edge wave is a surface gravity wave fixed by refraction against a rigid boundary, often a shoaling beach. Progressive edge waves travel along this boundary, varying sinusoidally along it and diminishing exponentially in the offshore direction.
References
Further reading
Oceanography
Water waves
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Landmarks of Britain is a series of silver bullion coins produced by the Royal Mint in the United Kingdom. The first coin was released in 2017 and features a design of Big Ben previously used on a £100 coin released in 2015.
The second and third coins, both released in 2018, feature Tower Bridge and Trafalgar Square. The next coin is expected to portray Buckingham Palace. The coin has a maximum mintage of 50,000. The same designs appeared on a four coin proof set in 2014, these had trichromatic colour-printing and had a mintage of only 3,500 sets.
References
External links
List of British banknotes and coins
Coins of the pound sterling
Bullion coins
Silver as an investment
Coins of the United Kingdom
Silver coins
Bullion coins
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The penny of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from 1714 to 1901, the period in which the House of Hanover reigned, saw the transformation of the penny from a little-used small silver coin to the bronze piece recognisable to modern-day Britons. All bear the portrait of the monarch on the obverse; copper and bronze pennies have a depiction of Britannia, the female personification of Britain, on the reverse.
During most of the 18th century, the penny was a small silver coin rarely seen in circulation, and that was principally struck to be used for Maundy money or other royal charity. Beginning in 1787, the chronic shortage of good money resulted in the wide circulation of private tokens, including large coppers valued at one penny. In 1797 industrialist Matthew Boulton gained a contract to produce official pennies at his Soho Mint in Birmingham; he struck millions of pennies over the next decade. After that, it was not until 1825 that pennies were struck again for circulation, and the copper penny continued to be issued until 1860.
By the late 1850s, the state of the copper coinage was deemed unsatisfactory, with quantities of worn oversized pieces, some dating from Boulton's day, still circulating. They were replaced by lighter bronze coins beginning in 1860; the "Bun penny", named for the hairstyle of Queen Victoria on it, was issued from then until 1894. The final years of Victoria's reign saw the "Veiled head" or "Old head" pennies, which were coined from 1895 until her death in 1901.
Silver penny (18th century)
At the start of King George I's reign in 1714, the English penny had been struck from silver for about a thousand years. The Hanoverian dynasty in Britain began during the time that Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the Mint. Newton had in 1702 considered the issuance of a copper penny, but no action was taken. Silver at this time came to the Royal Mint only as the by-product of mining for other substances, and from chance deposits and windfalls—the scandal-plagued South Sea Company in 1723 was obliged to send a large quantity of silver bullion to the Mint's premises in the Tower of London. Nevertheless, so little was sent overall that MP John Conduitt, Newton's successor as Master, wrote in 1730 that since December 1701, "no silver has been imported to the Mint but what was forced thither". Only small quantities of silver pennies were struck in the early years of George's reign; it and the silver twopence were unpopular in any case because of their small size.
The change in dynasty did not affect the form of the silver penny—a 12 mm diameter coin weighing 0.5 gram. George's pennies had the inscription GEORGIVS DEI GRA continuing onto the other side with MAG BR FR ET HIB REX and the date, around the crowned "I". The representation of George was by John Croker or his assistant Samuel Bull; they had designed the busts of William III and of Queen Anne that had appeared on earlier pennies. The Roman numeral I on the coins dated from the reign of James II, and was at first intended to denote the King's initial in Latin (IACOBUS) but was kept a Roman numeral when the twopence, threepence, and fourpence were given Arabic numerals under William III and Mary. Pennies were minted in 1716, 1718, 1720, 1723, 1725, 1726 and 1727, the last of these the date of George's death and of the accession of his son, George II.
The major purpose for the silver penny in the 18th century was as Maundy money. Most silver pennies after 1727 were likely used for that purpose or for other royal largesse; the mintages were enough to provide for this, but not enough for general circulation. In some years, the Maundy money may have been composed entirely of pennies, though there are accounts of the twopence, threepence, and groat being used as well. At times, there were gaps in the dating as enough for several years was struck at once, to be held against need. There were enough silver pennies in circulation that Maundy recipients could spend their gifts. By 1727, the price of silver guaranteed that pennies were struck at a loss. When other regal coins began use of a bust showing George II as an older man in 1740–1743, the penny remained unaltered. Brian Robinson, in his book on the Royal Maundy, suggested that a new bust for a coin issued only in small quantities would not have been worth the 12 weeks' work it would have taken a Mint engraver to create new dies. In any event, between 1727 and 1816, silver cost too much for there to be much coinage of it. George II's pennies had a left-facing bust of him and the inscription GEORGIVS II DEI GRATIA continuing onto the other side with MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX and the date around the crowned "I". Pennies were minted in 1729, 1731, 1732, 1735, 1737, 1739, 1740, 1743, 1746 and 1750, and between 1752 and 1760. No pennies were issued dated 1733 or 1744, likely because the year in Britain still began on 25 March, and Maundy Thursday did not occur during those twelve-month periods.
Into the reign of King George III (1760–1820), the silver penny continued to be used mostly as a Maundy piece. Pennies similar to those of previous reigns, but bearing George III's head and the inscription GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA, were struck in 1763, 1766, 1770, 1772, 1776, 1779, 1780, 1781, 1784 and 1786. A new bust of the King was introduced to the penny in 1792, and was struck dated that year, 1795, and 1800. The third, laureated bust of the king with an unchanged obverse inscription was on the silver penny in 1817, 1818 and 1820. George III's first reverse, used until 1780, showed the crowned "I" in high relief, with the inscription MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX. A modification was made in 1781, with the relief of the central "I" on the reverse lowered, likely because part of the outline of the I had been visible on the King's head on the other side of the coin. This second reverse, used until 1786, was similar but in lower relief, the "I" being much flatter; the third reverse, used in 1792 only, was completely redesigned with a much smaller "I" under a smaller crown with the inscription running around the crown, with the same legend as before. The fourth reverse, used in 1795 and 1800 was similar to the first but with a redesigned crown. The fifth reverse, used from 1817, showed the crowned "I" with the inscription BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF and the date. From 1817, the diameter of the coin was reduced from 12 to 11 millimetres, although the weight remained the same at .5 grams.
Copper penny (1797–1860)
Soho issues (1797–1807)
With little silver coined in the second half of the 18th century, the burden of small change fell on the copper coinage, of which the highest denomination before 1797 was the halfpenny. Many official halfpennies were melted down clandestinely and lightweight counterfeits were made with the copper. In 1787, the Mint found that at most eight percent of "halfpennies" in circulation were genuine. A withdrawal of the existing copper coinage was deemed impractical due to transport difficulties. The Government would not accept copper coinage for taxes, and the small merchants who accumulated large stocks of real and dubious copper coin sought relief. Areas of the country not near the capital were sometimes short of coppers, since new issues could only be purchased at the Mint's office at the Tower of London, in packets of 5 or 10 shillings. The small change shortage made it difficult, by the late 1780s, for employers to pay workers.
The gap was filled, beginning in 1787, by private minters and companies, who issued copper halfpenny and penny tokens. Although not money in a legal sense, they served that purpose, and rapidly spread across the country. Many of the manufacturers of these tokens were found in Birmingham, where industrialist Matthew Boulton struck large numbers of tokens and also constructed the Soho Mint, the first to be powered by steam. He aggressively lobbied for a contract to strike official copper coins. In 1797, the government gave Boulton a contract to strike 480 tonnes of copper pennies and 20 tonnes of copper twopences. The first official British coins of those denominations to be made of copper, they were also the first official British coins to be struck by steam rather than by muscle power.
The large size of the coins, combined with the thick rim where the inscription was incuse (i.e. punched into the metal rather than raised from it), led to the coins being nicknamed "cartwheels". The design was by Boulton's employee Conrad Küchler. The obverse of the cartwheel coinage is a laureated right-facing bust of George III, with the inscription GEORGIUS III D G REX, while the reverse showed Britannia seated on a rock, facing left, holding an olive branch and trident with the inscription BRITANNIA 1797. Although Britannia had long appeared on the halfpenny and farthing, the 1797 coinage was the first time she was depicted ruling the waves, an allegory for Britain's status as a maritime power. The word SOHO may be seen in fine print on the face of the rock just below the shield. Boulton's pennies and twopences were meant to contain their face value in copper, i.e. they weighed one and two ounces each (penny28.3 grams, diameter 36 millimetres). In English measure, the penny was just over 1.4 inches in diameter, so that 17 pennies side by side would measure two feet. Boulton obtained a copy of the Royal Society's standard foot to get the measurement right. Even though pennies were struck first, reserving the twopences for later, the existing Soho Mint had trouble stamping such large pieces of copper, and Boulton built a new mint at Soho, where by 1799, each press was striking 60 pennies a minute. The 1,250 tonnes of "cartwheels" struck at Soho between 1797 and 1799 (all pieces were dated 1797) exceeded the total copper coinage by the Royal Mint in the 18th century.
Boulton was given a further contract in 1799, but only halfpennies and farthings were struck then. In 1805, Boulton gained another contract. By then, the price of copper had risen; in 1797, a pound of copper had coined 16 pence of coins, and in 1799 that amount of metal had made 18 pence-worth, but it took 24 of the 1806 pennies to weigh a pound. The pennies were issued dated 1806 or 1807; they weigh 18.9 grams ( ounces) and measure 34 millimetres (one-and-a-third inches) in diameter. These were more conventionally designed, also by Küchler, with a right-facing bust of the King and the same inscription as on the obverse of 1797 pennies. The reverse shows the seated Britannia facing left, with olive branch and trident and the inscription BRITANNIA. There is one unique penny coin known which is dated 1808, but this is thought to have been a proof. A total of 150 tonnes of copper were used to make the 1806 and 1807 pennies.
Regal issues (1825–1860)
Finding its premises at the Tower of London too cramped and unsuited to the new technology, the Mint moved to a new building on Tower Hill, and first struck coins there (for the East India Company) in 1811. The coinage was made by steam power, with equipment supplied by Boulton's firm. At the beginning of the Great Recoinage of 1816, only gold and silver coins were produced; the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nicholas Vansittart, deemed there to be enough official coppers in commerce to serve. Thus, it was not until after the death of George III in 1820 and the accession of his son George IV that the copper coinage was recommenced. Coinage of pennies and halfpennies resumed in 1825 after the first farthings of the new reign were minted in 1821. The new pennies were authorised by an Order in Council of 14 November 1825, and were made current by a proclamation of 30 January 1826. George IV's pennies were struck in only three years (1825, 1826, 1827) and most of the final year's mintage is believed to have been sent to Tasmania.
The obverse of George IV's pennies shows a left-facing laureated head engraved by William Wyon. This was the second portrait of George IV, and was adopted after the King expressed a dislike for the one engraved by Benedetto Pistrucci, which was never used on the penny. The penny is inscribed GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA and the date, while the reverse shows a right-facing seated Britannia with a shield and trident, inscribed BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. The penny at this time weighed 18.8 grams and had a diameter of 34 millimetres, the same as Boulton's 1806–1807 pennies.
The pennies of King William IV (1830–1837) are similar to those of his predecessor, also being engraved by William Wyon, based on a model by Sir Francis Chantrey. King William's head faces right, with the obverse inscribed GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA, while the reverse is identical to the George IV penny. Pennies were minted in 1831, 1834 and 1837. An 1836 penny has been reported but not confirmed.
The pennies of Queen Victoria (1837–1901) form one of the most intricate denominations of British coinage, both before and after the transition from copper to bronze pennies in 1860. A number of specialist books have been published on the many varieties of Victorian pennies. The final years of the copper penny, from 1839 to 1860, saw a portrait of the Queen by William Wyon, usually dubbed the "Young Head". It had a reverse largely unchanged from King William's but for changing an X to a G, thus REX became REG, short for Regina (queen), denoting the fact that the monarch was now a woman. Thus, the legend on Victorian copper pennies was VICTORIA DEI GRATIA/BRITANNIAR REG FID DEF. Copper pennies were issued for all years between 1839 and 1860 except 1840, 1842, 1850, and 1852. The Heaton Mint, of Birmingham, had been founded with equipment from the wound-up Soho Mint. Beginning in the early 1850s, it supplied large quantities of blanks for pennies to the Royal Mint, and at times was called upon to strike pennies, though its mint mark H would not appear on pennies until 1874. These contracts were because of the needs of Ireland (where counterfeits and tokens were common) and the colonies; the large quantities struck between 1797 and 1807 by Boulton ensured there were no shortages in England, Scotland and Wales.
Bronze penny (from 1860)
By 1857, both the Royal Mint and the public were dissatisfied by the state of the copper coinage. Much of it was worn or defaced by advertisements, and 14 percent of the pennies in commerce were Boulton's 1797 cartwheels. The fact that pennies of different specifications circulated side by side precluded the weighing of quantities of copper coin to ascertain the value. In addition to the pennies struck since 1806, there were Boulton's 1797 coppers and also, to a different standard, coppers struck for Ireland, which had been legal tender since 1826. Each sort of penny was deemed too heavy for daily use. The copper coins were so heavy that Charles Dickens in Nicholas Nickleby had Mr Mantalini contemplate suicide by drowning himself in the Thames, his pockets filled with halfpennies.
Thomas Graham, the Master of the Mint, in 1859 persuaded William Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, that the state of the copper currency demanded a lighter, more durable replacement. Bronze was selected as harder and less subject to oxidation. It was a material with which the Mint had experience, having recently struck bronze coins for the Canadian colonies, and it had been used in France since 1852. Gladstone told the House of Commons that were an old and a new penny placed side by side, no one unacquainted with them would dream they represented the same value. Parliament passed legislation in 1860 that allowed the penny to be struck from an alloy of metals. The act required that Britannia appear on the coin, as the design was felt to symbolise Britain as ruler of the waves, and to omit her would be seen as abandoning that role. The Mint in 1860 awarded a contract for 1,720 tonnes of bronze pennies, halfpennies and farthings to James Watt & Co of Birmingham, a contract that would not be completed until 1863. Heaton's was also called upon to supply dies and coins, especially as Watt's prepared to execute its huge contract.
Although there were calls for a public competition, William Wyon's son, Leonard Charles Wyon was chosen to execute the new design. Both the Queen and Prince Albert took a keen interest in the work, and repeated visits by Wyon to Buckingham Palace and Osborne House were necessary before Victoria gave her approval. There is a tale that the Queen returned the penny sent her for final approval by post, but a postman opened the parcel, throwing away the coin in disgust when he realised all that was inside was a penny. The new bronze pieces were made current by a proclamation dated 17 December 1860, and public reaction was positive, both for Wyon's designs and for the weight, which had been halved. The new coins were widely distributed through post offices, and in 1861, the Mint began the recall of the old copper pieces, paying a small premium and for the transport. The old copper coins soon vanished from towns; progress in rural areas was more gradual. The pre-1860 copper penny was demonetised after 1869 in Britain (though accepted at full face value by the Mint until 1873) and in 1877 for the colonies—roughly a quarter of the copper coinage struck by the Royal Mint between 1821 and 1856 had been sent overseas, with Ceylon the leading recipient.
The obverse of the new penny read VICTORIA D G BRITT REG F D. The Mint had intended to render it with the abbreviation BRIT, and some after the coins' release argued it should have done, but Gladstone had intervened to invoke the rule that the last consonant of a Latin abbreviation should be doubled to indicate the plural. The coin is dubbed the "Bun Head penny" or "Bun penny" for the Queen's hairstyle. The reverse depicts Britannia, wearing flowing robes, a breastplate and helmet, and grasping a trident. Her right hand grips a shield, on which is seen the combined crosses of the Union Jack. A ship sails out to sea on her right, and a lighthouse, supposedly the old Eddystone Lighthouse, is seen behind her on her left. The denomination, ONE PENNY, appears for the first time on the base-metal piece.
There are many varieties of the Bun penny, as several non-identical dies were prepared (especially in 1860) the design was tweaked a number of times over its 35 years, and the dies were sometimes used in different combinations. The 2017 edition of Spink & Son's Coins of England & the United Kingdom chronicles 13 obverses, 14 reverses and a large number of die combinations. Differences include the number of leaves on Victoria's wreath and whether the border is beaded or toothed. An "H" below the date on 1874, 1875, 1876, 1881 and 1882 pennies indicates that the coin was produced at Heaton's in Birmingham. When production at the Royal Mint was stopped for a complete reconstruction in 1882, Heaton's, pursuant to contract, produced 50 tonnes of pennies, halfpennies and farthings. Pennies of the Bun type were issued in all years between 1860 and 1894.
Joseph Edgar Boehm's "Jubilee head" of the Queen was placed on the gold and silver coinage in 1887 but was not adopted for the bronze, with the Bun head continuing. Boehm's rendering proved unpopular, and in 1893 was replaced with the "Veiled head" or "Old head", by Thomas Brock, and engraved by Chief Engraver of the Royal Mint George William de Saulles. The new penny design was introduced in 1895, the new version being authorised by a proclamation dated 11 May of that year. Victoria is seen as an elderly woman, wearing a diadem partially eclipsed by a veil. She wears a necklace with a pendant, an earring, and the Garter Riband with Star. The inscription became VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, as the title of Empress of India had been added to the Queen's titles in 1876. The reverse was modified by de Saulles, with the most significant change the deletion of the ship and lighthouse. The new design was struck each year from 1895 to 1901, the year in which Victoria died. Coins depicting her and dated 1901 continued to be struck until King Edward VII's coinage was ready in May 1902.
Mintages
Total mintage by date and mint mark. "H" is for Heaton Mint, Birmingham.
King George IV 1820–1830
Laureate Bust
1825 ~ 1,075,200
1826 ~ 5,913,000
1827 ~ 1,451,520
King William IV 1830–1837
Laureate Bust
1831 ~ 806,400
1834 ~ 322,560
1837 ~ 174,720
Queen Victoria 1837–1901
Copper:
Young Bust (W.W. on truncation)
1839 ~ Only in proof
1841 ~ 913,920
1843 ~ 483,830
1844 ~ 215,040
1845 ~ 322,560
1846 ~ 483,840
1847 ~ 430,080
1848 ~ 161,280
1849 ~ 268,800
1851 ~ 432,224
1853 ~ 1,021,440
1854 ~ 6,720,000
1855 ~ 5,273,866
1856 ~ 1,212,288
1857 ~ 752,640
Young Bust
1858 ~ 1,559,040
1859 ~ 1,075,200
1860 ~ 32,256
Bronze:
Laureate and Draped Bust – 'L.C.Wyon' (Beaded border)
1860 ~ 5,053,440
Laureate and Draped Bust – 'L.C.Wyon' (Toothed border)
1860 ~ Unknown
1861 ~ 36,449,280
Laureate and Draped Bust (Toothed border)
1861 ~ Unknown
1862 ~ 50,534,400
1863 ~ 28,062,700
1864 ~ 3,440,640
1865 ~ 8,601,600
1866 ~ 9,999,360
1867 ~ 5,483,520
1868 ~ 1,182,720
1869 ~ 2,580,480
1870 ~ 5,695,022
1871 ~ 1,290,318
1872 ~ 8,494,572
1873 ~ 8,494,200
1874 ~ 5,621,865
1874H ~ 6,666,240
1875 ~ 10,691,040
1875H ~ 752,640
1876H ~ 11,074,560
1877 ~ 9,624,747
1878 ~ 2,764,470
1879 ~ 7,666,476
1880 ~ 3,000,831
1881 ~ 2,302,362
1881H ~ 3,763,200
1882H ~ 7,526,400
1883 ~ 6,327,438
1884 ~ 11,702,802
1885 ~ 7,145,862
1886 ~ 6,087,759
1887 ~ 5,315,085
1888 ~ 5,125,020
1889 ~ 12,559,737
1890 ~ 15,330,840
1891 ~ 17,885,961
1892 ~ 10,501,671
1893 ~ 8,161,737
1894 ~ 3,883,452
Veiled Bust
1895 ~ 5,395,830
1896 ~ 24,147,156
1897 ~ 20,752,620
1898 ~ 14,296,836
1899 ~ 26,441,069
1900 ~ 31,778,109
1901 ~ 22,205,568
See also
1844 Victoria One Penny Model
Notes
Citations
References
External links
British Coins – information about British coins (from 1656 to 1952)
Royal Mint History of British Coins
Collection of copper & bronze pennies
Penny
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Porcine viruses may refer to:
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus
Porcine circovirus
Porcine parvovirus
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The shadow cabinet or shadow ministry is a feature of the Westminster system of government. It consists of a senior group of opposition spokespeople who, under the leadership of the Leader of the Opposition, form an alternative cabinet to that of the government, and whose members shadow or mirror the positions of each individual member of the Cabinet. Their areas of responsibility, in parallel with the ruling party's ministries, may be referred to as a shadow portfolio. Members of a shadow cabinet have no executive power. It is the shadow cabinet's responsibility to scrutinise the policies and actions of the government, as well as to offer alternative policies. The shadow cabinet makes up the majority of the Official Opposition frontbench, as part of frontbenchers to the parliament.
In most countries, a member of the shadow cabinet is referred to as a shadow minister. In the United Kingdom's House of Lords and in New Zealand, the term spokesperson is used instead of shadow. In Canada, the term opposition critic is also used.
Description and functions
The shadow ministers' duties may give them considerable prominence in the party caucus hierarchy especially if it is a high-profile portfolio. Although the salary and benefits paid from the public treasury to shadow ministers remain the same as for a backbencher—they have no executive responsibilities, unlike cabinet ministers—some opposition parties provide an additional stipend in addition to the salary they receive as legislators while many at least reimburse shadow ministers for any additional expenses incurred that are not otherwise eligible for reimbursement out of public funds. Moreover, in most Westminster-style legislative bodies all recognised parliamentary parties are granted a block of public funding to help their elected members carry out their duties, often in addition to the budgets individual legislators receive to pay for constituency offices and other such expenses. There is typically a stipulation that such funds must be used for official parliamentary business; however, within that restriction, parties can usually distribute the funds among their elected lawmakers as they see fit and thereby provide the money needed to staff and support shadow ministries.
Members of a shadow cabinet may not necessarily be appointed to the corresponding Cabinet post if and when their party forms a government, assuming that they retain their seats which by convention is usually considered a prerequisite to serve in the cabinet. However, the consistency with which parties assuming power appoint shadow ministers into the actual roles in government varies widely depending on such things as jurisdiction, the traditions and practices of the party assuming government, the exact circumstances surrounding their assumption of power and even the importance of the cabinet post in question.
As well as being potential future ministers, some shadow ministers have held ministerial posts in the past.
As a mark of discipline, shadow ministers are expected to speak within and not outside their portfolio areas.
Cultural applications
In the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, the major opposition party and specifically its shadow cabinet is called His (or Her) Majesty's Loyal Opposition. The adjective loyal is used because, while the role of the opposition is to oppose His Majesty's Government, it does not dispute the sovereign's right to the throne and therefore the legitimacy of the government. However, in other countries that use the Westminster system, the opposition is known simply as the parliamentary opposition.
Some parliamentary parties, notably the Australian Labor Party, elect all the members of their shadow cabinets in a party room ballot, with the Leader of the Opposition then allocating portfolios to the shadow ministers. In other parliamentary parties, the membership and composition of the Shadow Cabinet is generally determined solely by the Leader of the Opposition.
A related term is the shadow budget, which is often prepared by shadow cabinets (and, when released, usually presented by the shadow finance minister or equivalent) as an alternative to the real budget presented by the government. When prepared and released in an election year, an opposition party's shadow budget will typically form a key part of the party's manifesto, and will be largely if not wholly implemented if the opposition party subsequently forms a government (especially if it wins an outright majority).
Third parties
In many jurisdictions, third parties (who are neither participant in the government nor in the official opposition) may also form their own parliamentary front benches of spokespersons; however, parliamentary standing orders on the right of parties to speak often dictate that it can only be granted to a party or group if a minimum number of members can be recorded by the party. In Ireland, for example, technical groups are often formed by third parties and independent TDs in the Dáil Éireann in order to increase the members' right to speak against larger parties which can afford the right to speak as front benches in government or opposition.
Opposition parliamentary parties which are sufficiently small that they are about the same size as the government cabinet will often appoint all of their elected members to their shadow cabinet or equivalent, with third parties more likely compared to official opposition parties to use this sort of arrangement. If the parliamentary party is only slightly larger than the government's cabinet, its leadership potentially faces the awkward position of embarrassing a small minority of legislators by singling them out for exclusion from the shadow cabinet. On the other hand, incoming governments in the Westminster system often change the number and/or composition of ministries upon assuming office. Therefore, one solution to such an aforementioned issue when it occurs is to create nominal shadow "ministries" that correspond to currently nonexistent cabinet posts the party actually intends to create once in government. An opposition party can also employ this process in reverse by "merging" its shadow ministries to correspond to actual cabinet posts the opposition party wants to merge or otherwise eliminate.
Use outside English-speaking countries
While the practice of parliamentary shadow cabinets or frontbenches is not widespread in Germany, party leaders have often formed boards of experts and advisors ("teams of experts", or Kompetenzteam, in CDU/CSU and SPD parlance; alternate "top team", or Spitzenteam, in Bündnis '90/Die Grünen parlance).
In France, although the formation of a Shadow Cabinet is not compulsory and not common, several Shadow Cabinets have been formed.
In Hungary, a shadow cabinet under the leadership of Klára Dobrev was established by the strongest opposition party, the Democratic Coalition, for the first time, in 2022.
By country
Australia
Shadow cabinet of Australia (Liberal Party of Australia, Peter Dutton)
List of state and territory shadow cabinets
New South Wales
New South Wales Shadow Cabinet (Australian Labor Party, Chris Minns)
The Bahamas
Shadow Cabinet (Progressive Liberal Party, Philip "Brave" Davis)
Cameroon
Shadow Cabinet (Social Democratic Front (SDF)
SDF Shadow Cabinet
Canada
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet of the 44th Parliament of Canada (Conservative Party of Canada, Pierre Poilievre)
Ontario
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet of the 42nd Legislative Assembly of Ontario (New Democratic Party of Ontario, Peter Tabuns)
France
Shadow Cabinet of France
Hungary
Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Coalition, Klára Dobrev)
Iran
Shadow Cabinet (Saeed Jalili)
Ireland
Opposition Front Bench (Sinn Féin, Mary Lou McDonald)
Italy
Shadow Cabinet of Italy (Governo ombra) (Walter Veltroni)
Jamaica
Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica (People's National Party)
Japan
Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan (Kenta Izumi)
Lithuania
Shadow Cabinet of Lithuania (Šešėlinis kabinetas) (Andrius Kubilius)''.
Malaysia
Shadow Cabinet of Malaysia (Perikatan Nasional, Hamzah Zainuddin)
The Netherlands
Den Uyl Shadow Cabinet (Labour Party, D'66, PPR, Joop den Uyl)
New Zealand
Shadow Cabinet of Christopher Luxon (New Zealand National Party, Christopher Luxon)
Poland
Shadow Cabinet (Civic Platform led by Grzegorz Schetyna)
Serbia
Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Party, Bojan Pajtić)
Solomon Islands
Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Party and allies)
South Africa
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Alliance, John Steenhuisen)
Sudan
Sudanese Shadow Government (Official website, Wael Omer Abdin)
Thailand
Shadow Cabinet (Democrat Party, Abhisit Vejjajiva)
Ukraine
Shadow Government (Bloc of Yulia Tymoshenko, Arseniy Yatsenyuk)
United Kingdom
Official Opposition frontbench/Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (Labour, Keir Starmer)
Scotland
Shadow Cabinet (Scottish Conservatives, Douglas Ross )
Wales
Shadow Cabinet (Welsh Conservatives, Andrew R. T. Davies )
See also
Minority leader
References
Westminster system
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Naselje u Srbiji:
Donja Trepča (Čačak, Srbija), naselje u općini Čačak
Naselje u Crnoj Gori:
Donja Trepča (Nikšić, Crna Gora), naselje u općini Nikšić
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Georgios Ladas (1913–1997) was a Cypriot politician born in Nicosia.
Ladas studied law, political and economic sciences in Athens. He was member of DIKO. He was elected President of the House of Representatives of Cyprus from 1981 to 1985.
References
Presidents of the House of Representatives (Cyprus)
1913 births
1997 deaths
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The Anchoress may refer to:
The Anchoress (book), a 2015 novel
The Anchoress (musician), stage name of musician Catherine Anne Davies
See also
Anchoress, a type of female religious recluse
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Ronald Coleman may refer to:
Ronald D. Coleman, American politician
Ronald S. Coleman, United States Marine Corps lieutenant general
Ronnie Coleman, American bodybuilder
Ronnie Coleman (American football)
Ronald Coleman, American DJ better known as OG Ron C
Ronald Coleman (basketball), American college basketball coach
See also
Ronald Colman, English actor
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Polystachya concreta, the greater yellowspike orchid, is a species of orchid native to tropical and subtropical America, Africa and Asia.
Synonyms
Epidendrum concretum Jacq. is the basionym. Other synonyms include:
Callista flavescens (Lindl.) Kuntze
Cranichis luteola Sw.
Dendrobium flavescens Lindl.
Dendrobium polystachyum Sw.
Dendrorkis estrellensis (Rchb.f.) Kuntze
Dendrorkis extinctoria (Rchb.f.) Kuntze
Dendrorkis minuta (Aubl.) Kuntze
Dendrorkis polystachyon (Sw.) Kuntze
Dendrorkis purpurea (Wight) Kuntze
Dendrorkis wightii (Rchb.f.) Kuntze
Dendrorkis zollingeri (Rchb.f.) Kuntze
Epidendrum concretum Jacq.
Epidendrum minutum Aubl.
Maxillaria luteola (Sw.) Beer
Maxillaria purpurea (Wight) Beer
Onychium flavescens Blume
Polystachya bicolor Rolfe
Polystachya caquetana Schltr.
Polystachya colombiana Schltr.
Polystachya cubensis Schltr.
Polystachya estrellensis Rchb.f.
Polystachya extinctoria Rchb.f.
Polystachya flavescens (Blume) J.J.Sm.
Polystachya kraenzliniana Pabst
Polystachya luteola Hook.
Polystachya luteola Wight
Polystachya minuta (Aubl.) Frapp. ex Cordem.
Polystachya penangensis Ridl.
Polystachya pleistantha Kraenzl.
Polystachya purpurea var. lutescens Gagnep.
Polystachya purpurea Wight
Polystachya reichenbachiana Kraenzl.
Polystachya siamensis Ridl.
Polystachya singapurensis Ridl.
Polystachya wightii Rchb.f.
Polystachya zeylanica Lindl.
Polystachya zollingeri Rchb.f.
References
concreta
Orchids of Asia
Orchids of Africa
Orchids of Central America
Orchids of North America
Orchids of South America
Orchids of Florida
Flora without expected TNC conservation status
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Phytoclasts are microscopic plant fragments present in the fossil record, usually found in palynological preparations and acid macerations, and include banded tubes and various nematophytes.
References
Fossil record of plants
Prehistoric plants
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Several measures of light are commonly known as intensity:
Radiant intensity, a radiometric quantity measured in watts per steradian (W/sr)
Luminous intensity, a photometric quantity measured in lumens per steradian (lm/sr), or candela (cd)
Irradiance, a radiometric quantity, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2)
Intensity (physics), the name for irradiance used in other branches of physics (W/m2)
Radiance, commonly called "intensity" in astronomy and astrophysics (W·sr−1·m−2)
See also
Brightness, the subjective perception elicited by the luminance of a source
Luminance, the photometric equivalent of radiance (lm·sr−1·m−2)
Photometry (optics), measurement of light, in terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye
Radiometry, measurement of light, in absolute power units
Luminosity
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Arrhoges is a monospecific genus of medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Aporrhaidae and the superfamily Stromboidea.
Species
This genus contains the following species:
Arrhoges occidentalis (Beck, 1836)
References
External links
Underwater observers network : photos
Aporrhaidae
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In fashion design, "boyfriend" is a style of women's clothing that draws heavily from corresponding men's garments. Boyfriend-style clothes are designed to be looser or boxier and tend to be oversized — giving the appearance that one is wearing their boyfriend's clothing. The style can be traced back to the 1960s, when Marilyn Monroe wore her boyfriend's loosely-fitting jeans that highly contrasted with her feminine looks in favor of a masculine aesthetic. Modern boyfriend-style clothes are often designed to look unisex and fit most women. As the trend continues to grow, many brands such as Gap, Forever 21, H&M, and Urban Outfitters, have created boyfriend or men's-inspired fashion targeted at female consumers.
Background of women in menswear
In the 19th century, women's fashion Western society typically consisted of dresses, skirts, and corsets. Amelia Bloomer, a women's rights activist in the 1850s, was one of the first to change mainstream womenswear when she introduced the bloomer. In the 1930s, movie stars such as Katharine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich sometimes wore menswear-style fashion. During World War II, masculine attire became more acceptable as womenswear, especially as more women took on jobs that required physical labor. After the end of the war, many women returned to more feminine forms of dressing. It was not until the 1960s and early 1970s that menswear-inspired fashion was no longer considered a rebellious political statement.
In current fashion
Currently, the boyfriend style is gaining popularity, with many online retailers selling various garments in the style. Urban Outfitters, a popular clothing store for women, has many boyfriend-style clothing options that are becoming increasingly popular.
References
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion
Fashion aesthetics
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The "Virgin Islands March" is the regional anthem of the United States Virgin Islands. The song was composed by Sam Williams and U.S. Virgin Island native Alton Adams in the 1920s. It served as an unofficial regional anthem of the U.S. Virgin Islands until 1963, when it was officially recognized by Legislative Act.
The song itself is a brisk martial march, consisting of an introductory instrumental section followed by a very cheerful melody. The Guardian reporter Alex Marshall compared it favorably to some national anthems, suggesting that it was reminiscent of the music of the Disney film Mary Poppins.
Since the U.S. Virgin Islands is a U.S. insular territory, the national anthem is still the U.S. one, "The Star-Spangled Banner". During international sporting events, only the "Virgin Islands March" is played.
Lyrics
On most occasions, the first verse followed by the last verse is sung.
References
External links
MIDI version
North American anthems
Anthems of insular areas of the United States
United States Virgin Islands culture
1920s songs
National anthems
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A non-standard cosmology is any physical cosmological model of the universe that was, or still is, proposed as an alternative to the then-current standard model of cosmology. The term non-standard is applied to any theory that does not conform to the scientific consensus. Because the term depends on the prevailing consensus, the meaning of the term changes over time. For example, hot dark matter would not have been considered non-standard in 1990, but would be in 2010. Conversely, a non-zero cosmological constant resulting in an accelerating universe would have been considered non-standard in 1990, but is part of the standard cosmology in 2010.
Several major cosmological disputes have occurred throughout the history of cosmology. One of the earliest was the Copernican Revolution, which established the heliocentric model of the Solar System. More recent was the Great Debate of 1920, in the aftermath of which the Milky Way's status as but one of the Universe's many galaxies was established. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was equally divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of a rival steady state universe; this is currently decided in favour of the Big Bang theory by advances in observational cosmology in the late 1960s. Nevertheless, there remained vocal detractors of the Big Bang theory including Fred Hoyle, Jayant Narlikar, Halton Arp, and Hannes Alfvén, whose cosmologies were relegated to the fringes of astronomical research. The few Big Bang opponents still active today often ignore well-established evidence from newer research, and as a consequence, today non-standard cosmologies that reject the Big Bang entirely are rarely published in peer-reviewed science journals but appear online in marginal journals and private websites.
The current standard model of cosmology is the Lambda-CDM model, wherein the Universe is governed by general relativity, began with a Big Bang and today is a nearly-flat universe that consists of approximately 5% baryons, 27% cold dark matter, and 68% dark energy. Lambda-CDM has been a successful model, but recent observational evidence seem to indicate significant tensions in Lambda-CDM, such as the Hubble tension, the KBC void, the dwarf galaxy problem, et cetera. Research on extensions or modifications to Lambda-CDM, as well as fundamentally different models, is ongoing. Topics investigated include quintessence, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and its relativistic generalization TeVeS, and warm dark matter.
History
Modern physical cosmology as it is currently studied first emerged as a scientific discipline in the period after the Shapley–Curtis debate and discoveries by Edwin Hubble of a cosmic distance ladder when astronomers and physicists had to come to terms with a universe that was of a much larger scale than the previously assumed galactic size. Theorists who successfully developed cosmologies applicable to the larger-scale universe are remembered today as the founders of modern cosmology. Among these scientists are Arthur Milne, Willem de Sitter, Alexander Friedman, Georges Lemaître, and Albert Einstein himself.
After confirmation of the Hubble's law by observation, the two most popular cosmological theories became the Steady State theory of Hoyle, Gold and Bondi, and the big bang theory of Ralph Alpher, George Gamow, and Robert Dicke with a small number of supporters of a smattering of alternatives. One of the major successes of the Big Bang theory compared to its competitor was its prediction for the abundance of light elements in the universe that corresponds with the observed abundances of light elements. Alternative theories do not have a means to explain these abundances.
Theories which assert that the universe has an infinite age with no beginning have trouble accounting for the abundance of deuterium in the cosmos, because deuterium easily undergoes nuclear fusion in stars and there are no known astrophysical processes other than the Big Bang itself that can produce it in large quantities. Hence the fact that deuterium is not an extremely rare component of the universe suggests both that the universe has a finite age and that there was a process that created deuterium in the past that no longer occurs.
Theories which assert that the universe has a finite life, but that the Big Bang did not happen, have problems with the abundance of helium-4. The observed amount of 4He is far larger than the amount that should have been created via stars or any other known process. By contrast, the abundance of 4He in Big Bang models is very insensitive to assumptions about baryon density, changing only a few percent as the baryon density changes by several orders of magnitude. The observed value of 4He is within the range calculated.
Still, it was not until the discovery of the Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965, that most cosmologists finally concluded that observations were best explained by the big bang model. Steady State theorists and other non-standard cosmologies were then tasked with providing an explanation for the phenomenon if they were to remain plausible. This led to original approaches including integrated starlight and cosmic iron whiskers, which were meant to provide a source for a pervasive, all-sky microwave background that was not due to an early universe phase transition.
Scepticism about the non-standard cosmologies' ability to explain the CMB caused interest in the subject to wane since then, however, there have been two periods in which interest in non-standard cosmology has increased due to observational data which posed difficulties for the big bang. The first occurred was the late 1970s when there were a number of unsolved problems, such as the horizon problem, the flatness problem, and the lack of magnetic monopoles, which challenged the big bang model. These issues were eventually resolved by cosmic inflation in the 1980s. This idea subsequently became part of the understanding of the big bang, although alternatives have been proposed from time to time. The second occurred in the mid-1990s when observations of the ages of globular clusters and the primordial helium abundance, apparently disagreed with the big bang. However, by the late 1990s, most astronomers had concluded that these observations did not challenge the big bang and additional data from COBE and the WMAP, provided detailed quantitative measures which were consistent with standard cosmology.
Today, heterodox non-standard cosmologies are generally considered unworthy of consideration by cosmologists while many of the historically significant nonstandard cosmologies are considered to have been falsified. The essentials of the big bang theory have been confirmed by a wide range of complementary and detailed observations, and no non-standard cosmologies have reproduced the range of successes of the big bang model. Speculations about alternatives are not normally part of research or pedagogical discussions, except as object lessons or for their historical importance. An open letter started by some remaining advocates of non-standard cosmology has affirmed that: "today, virtually all financial and experimental resources in cosmology are devoted to big bang studies...."
In the 1990s, a dawning of a "golden age of cosmology" was accompanied by a startling discovery that the expansion of the universe was, in fact, accelerating. Previous to this, it had been assumed that matter either in its visible or invisible dark matter form was the dominant energy density in the universe. This "classical" big bang cosmology was overthrown when it was discovered that nearly 70% of the energy in the universe was attributable to the cosmological constant, often referred to as "dark energy". This has led to the development of a so-called concordance ΛCDM model which combines detailed data obtained with new telescopes and techniques in observational astrophysics with an expanding, density-changing universe. Today, it is more common to find in the scientific literature proposals for "non-standard cosmologies" that actually accept the basic tenets of the big bang cosmology, while modifying parts of the concordance model. Such theories include alternative models of dark energy, such as quintessence, phantom energy and some ideas in brane cosmology; alternative models of dark matter, such as modified Newtonian dynamics; alternatives or extensions to inflation such as chaotic inflation and the ekpyrotic model; and proposals to supplement the universe with a first cause, such as the Hartle–Hawking boundary condition, the cyclic model, and the string landscape. There is no consensus about these ideas amongst cosmologists, but they are nonetheless active fields of academic inquiry.
Alternatives to Big Bang cosmologies
Before observational evidence was gathered, theorists developed frameworks based on what they understood to be the most general features of physics and philosophical assumptions about the universe. When Albert Einstein developed his general theory of relativity in 1915, this was used as a mathematical starting point for most cosmological theories. In order to arrive at a cosmological model, however, theoreticians needed to make assumptions about the nature of the largest scales of the universe. The assumptions that the current standard model of cosmology relies upon are:
the universality of physical laws – that the laws of physics don't change from one place and time to another,
the cosmological principle – that the universe is roughly homogeneous and isotropic in space though not necessarily in time, and
the Copernican principle – that we are not observing the universe from a preferred locale.
These assumptions when combined with General Relativity result in a universe that is governed by the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker metric (FRW metric). The FRW metric allows for a universe that is either expanding or contracting (as well as stationary but unstable universes). When Hubble's Law was discovered, most astronomers interpreted the law as a sign the universe is expanding. This implies the universe was smaller in the past, and therefore led to the following conclusions:
the universe emerged from a hot, dense state at a finite time in the past,
because the universe heats up as it contracts and cools as it expands, in the first moments that time existed as we know it, the temperatures were high enough for Big Bang nucleosynthesis to occur, and
a cosmic microwave background pervading the entire universe should exist, which is a record of a phase transition that occurred when the atoms of the universe first formed.
These features were derived by numerous individuals over a period of years; indeed it was not until the middle of the twentieth century that accurate predictions of the last feature and observations confirming its existence were made. Non-standard theories developed either by starting from different assumptions or by contradicting the features predicted by the prevailing standard model of cosmology.
Steady State theories
The Steady State theory extends the homogeneity assumption of the cosmological principle to reflect a homogeneity in time as well as in space. This "perfect cosmological principle" as it would come to be called asserted that the universe looks the same everywhere (on the large scale), the same as it always has and always will. This is in contrast to Lambda-CDM, in which the universe looked very different in the past and will look very different in the future. Steady State theory was proposed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Hermann Bondi and others. In order to maintain the perfect cosmological principle in an expanding universe, steady state cosmology had to posit a "matter-creation field" (the so-called C-field) that would insert matter into the universe in order to maintain a constant density.
The debate between the Big Bang and the Steady State models would happen for 15 years with camps roughly evenly divided until the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This radiation is a natural feature of the Big Bang model which demands a "time of last scattering" where photons decouple with baryonic matter. The Steady State model proposed that this radiation could be accounted for by so-called "integrated starlight" which was a background caused in part by Olbers' paradox in an infinite universe. In order to account for the uniformity of the background, steady state proponents posited a fog effect associated with microscopic iron particles that would scatter radio waves in such a manner as to produce an isotropic CMB. The proposed phenomena was whimsically named "cosmic iron whiskers" and served as the thermalization mechanism. The Steady State theory did not have the horizon problem of the Big Bang because it assumed an infinite amount of time was available for thermalizing the background.
As more cosmological data began to be collected, cosmologists began to realize that the Big Bang correctly predicted the abundance of light elements observed in the cosmos. What was a coincidental ratio of hydrogen to deuterium and helium in the steady state model was a feature of the Big Bang model. Additionally, detailed measurements of the CMB since the 1990s with the COBE, WMAP and Planck observations indicated that the spectrum of the background was closer to a blackbody than any other source in nature. The best integrated starlight models could predict was a thermalization to the level of 10% while the COBE satellite measured the deviation at one part in 105. After this dramatic discovery, the majority of cosmologists became convinced that the steady state theory could not explain the observed CMB properties.
Although the original steady state model is now considered to be contrary to observations (particularly the CMB) even by its one-time supporters, modifications of the steady state model have been proposed, including a model that envisions the universe as originating through many little bangs rather than one big bang (the so-called "quasi-steady state cosmology"). It supposes that the universe goes through periodic expansion and contraction phases, with a soft "rebound" in place of the Big Bang. Thus the Hubble Law is explained by the fact that the universe is currently in an expansion phase. Work continues on this model (most notably by Jayant V. Narlikar), although it has not gained widespread mainstream acceptance.
Proposals based on observational skepticism
As the observational cosmology began to develop, certain astronomers began to offer alternative speculations regarding the interpretation of various phenomena that occasionally became parts of non-standard cosmologies.
Tired light
Tired light theories challenge the common interpretation of Hubble's Law as a sign the universe is expanding. It was proposed by Fritz Zwicky in 1929. The basic proposal amounted to light losing energy ("getting tired") due to the distance it traveled rather than any metric expansion or physical recession of sources from observers. A traditional explanation of this effect was to attribute a dynamical friction to photons; the photons' gravitational interactions with stars and other material will progressively reduce their momentum, thus producing a redshift. Other proposals for explaining how photons could lose energy included the scattering of light by intervening material in a process similar to observed interstellar reddening. However, all these processes would also tend to blur images of distant objects, and no such blurring has been detected.
Traditional tired light has been found incompatible with the observed time dilation that is associated with the cosmological redshift. This idea is mostly remembered as a falsified alternative explanation for Hubble's law in most astronomy or cosmology discussions.
Redshift periodicity and intrinsic redshifts
Some astrophysicists were unconvinced that the cosmological redshifts are caused by universal cosmological expansion. Skepticism and alternative explanations began appearing in the scientific literature in the 1960s. In particular, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Tifft and Halton Arp were all observational astrophysicists who proposed that there were inconsistencies in the redshift observations of galaxies and quasars. The first two were famous for suggesting that there were periodicities in the redshift distributions of galaxies and quasars. Subsequent statistical analyses of redshift surveys, however, have not confirmed the existence of these periodicities.
During the quasar controversies of the 1970s, these same astronomers were also of the opinion that quasars exhibited high redshifts not due to their incredible distance but rather due to unexplained intrinsic redshift mechanisms that would cause the periodicities and cast doubt on the Big Bang. Arguments over how distant quasars were took the form of debates surrounding quasar energy production mechanisms, their light curves, and whether quasars exhibited any proper motion. Astronomers who believed quasars were not at cosmological distances argued that the Eddington luminosity set limits on how distant the quasars could be since the energy output required to explain the apparent brightness of cosmologically distant quasars was far too high to be explainable by nuclear fusion alone. This objection was made moot by the improved models of gravity-powered accretion disks which for sufficiently dense material (such as black holes) can be more efficient at energy production than nuclear reactions. The controversy was laid to rest by the 1990s when evidence became available that observed quasars were actually the ultra-luminous cores of distant active galactic nuclei and that the major components of their redshift were in fact due to the Hubble flow.
Throughout his career, Halton Arp maintained that there were anomalies in his observations of quasars and galaxies, and that those anomalies served as a refutation of the Big Bang. In particular, Arp pointed out examples of quasars that were close to the line of sight of (relatively) nearby active, mainly Seyfert galaxies. These objects are now classified under the term active galactic nuclei (AGN). Arp criticized using such term on the ground that it isn't empirical. He claimed that clusters of quasars were in alignment around cores of these galaxies and that quasars, rather than being the cores of distant AGN, were actually much closer and were starlike-objects ejected from the centers of nearby galaxies with high intrinsic redshifts. Arp also contended that they gradually lost their non-cosmological redshift component and eventually evolved into full-fledged galaxies. This stands in stark contradiction to the accepted models of galaxy formation.
The biggest problem with Arp's analysis is that today there are hundreds of thousands of quasars with known redshifts discovered by various sky surveys. The vast majority of these quasars are not correlated in any way with nearby AGN. Indeed, with improved observing techniques, a number of host galaxies have been observed around quasars which indicates that those quasars at least really are at cosmological distances and are not the kind of objects Arp proposes. Arp's analysis, according to most scientists, suffers from being based on small number statistics and hunting for peculiar coincidences and odd associations. Unbiased samples of sources, taken from numerous galaxy surveys of the sky show none of the proposed 'irregularities', nor that any statistically significant correlations exist.
In addition, it is not clear what mechanism would be responsible for intrinsic redshifts or their gradual dissipation over time. It is also unclear how nearby quasars would explain some features in the spectrum of quasars which the standard model easily explains. In the standard cosmology, clouds of neutral hydrogen between the quasar and the earth create Lyman alpha absorption lines having different redshifts up to that of the quasar itself; this feature is called the Lyman-alpha forest. Moreover, in extreme quasars one can observe the absorption of neutral hydrogen which has not yet been reionized in a feature known as the Gunn–Peterson trough. Most cosmologists see this missing theoretical work as sufficient reason to explain the observations as either chance or error.
Halton Arp has proposed an explanation for his observations by a Machian "variable mass hypothesis". The variable-mass theory invokes constant matter creation from active galactic nuclei, which puts it into the class of steady-state theories. With the passing of Halton Arp, this cosmology has been relegated to a dismissed theory.
Plasma cosmology
In 1965, Hannes Alfvén proposed a "plasma cosmology" theory of the universe based in part on scaling observations of space plasma physics and experiments on plasmas in terrestrial laboratories to cosmological scales orders of magnitude greater. Taking matter–antimatter symmetry as a starting point, Alfvén together with Oskar Klein proposed the Alfvén-Klein cosmology model, based on the fact that since most of the local universe was composed of matter and not antimatter there may be large bubbles of matter and antimatter that would globally balance to equality. The difficulties with this model were apparent almost immediately. Matter–antimatter annihilation results in the production of high energy photons which were not observed. While it was possible that the local "matter-dominated" cell was simply larger than the observable universe, this proposition did not lend itself to observational tests.
Like the steady state theory, plasma cosmology includes a Strong Cosmological Principle which assumes that the universe is isotropic in time as well as in space. Matter is explicitly assumed to have always existed, or at least that it formed at a time so far in the past as to be forever beyond humanity's empirical methods of investigation.
While plasma cosmology has never had the support of most astronomers or physicists, a small number of plasma researchers have continued to promote and develop the approach, and publish in the special issues of the IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. A few papers regarding plasma cosmology were published in other mainstream journals until the 1990s. Additionally, in 1991, Eric J. Lerner, an independent researcher in plasma physics and nuclear fusion, wrote a popular-level book supporting plasma cosmology called The Big Bang Never Happened. At that time there was renewed interest in the subject among the cosmological community along with other non-standard cosmologies. This was due to anomalous results reported in 1987 by Andrew Lange and Paul Richardson of UC Berkeley and Toshio Matsumoto of Nagoya University that indicated the cosmic microwave background might not have a blackbody spectrum. However, the final announcement (in April 1992) of COBE satellite data corrected the earlier contradiction of the Big Bang; the popularity of plasma cosmology has since fallen.
Alternatives and extensions to Lambda-CDM
The standard model of cosmology today, the Lambda-CDM model, has been extremely successful at providing a theoretical framework for structure formation, the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, and the accelerating expansion of the universe. However, it is not without its problems. There are many proposals today that challenge various aspects of the Lambda-CDM model. These proposals typically modify some of the main features of Lambda-CDM, but do not reject the Big Bang.
Anisotropic universe
Isotropicity – the idea that the universe looks the same in all directions – is one of the core assumptions that enters into the Friedmann equations. In 2008 however, scientists working on Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe data claimed to have detected a 600–1000 km/s flow of clusters toward a 20-degree patch of sky between the constellations of Centaurus and Vela. They suggested that the motion may be a remnant of the influence of no-longer-visible regions of the universe prior to inflation. The detection is controversial, and other scientists have found that the universe is isotropic to a great degree.
Exotic dark matter
In Lambda-CDM, dark matter is an extremely inert form of matter that does not interact with both ordinary matter (baryons) and light, but still exerts gravitational effects. To produce the large-scale structure we see today, dark matter is "cold" (the 'C' in Lambda-CDM), i.e. non-relativistic. Dark matter has not been conclusively identified, and its exact nature is the subject of intense study. The leading dark matter candidates are weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) and axions. Both of these are new elementary particles not included in the Standard Model of Particle Physics. A major difference between the two is their mass: WIMPs generally have masses in the GeV range, while axions are much lighter, with masses in the meV range or lower.
WIMPs and axions are far from the only dark matter candidates, and there are a variety of other proposals, e.g.:
Self-interacting dark matter, wherein dark matter particles interact with themselves.
Warm dark matter, which are more relativistic than cold dark matter, but less relativistic than the observationally-excluded hot dark matter.
Fuzzy cold dark matter, which have particles much lighter than axions – in the 10−22 eV range.
Yet other theories attempt to explain dark matter and dark energy as different facets of the same underlying fluid (see dark fluid), or hypothesize that dark matter could decay into dark energy.
Exotic dark energy
In Lambda-CDM, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that tends to accelerate the expansion of the universe. It is less well-understood than dark matter, and similarly mysterious. The simplest explanation of dark energy is the cosmological constant (the 'Lambda' in Lambda-CDM). This is a simple constant added to the Einstein field equations to provide a repulsive force. Thus far observations are fully consistent with the cosmological constant, but leave room for a plethora of alternatives, e.g.:
Quintessence, which is a scalar field similar to the one that drove cosmic inflation shortly after the Big Bang. In quintessence, dark energy will usually vary over time (as opposed to the cosmological constant, which remains a constant).
Inhomogeneous cosmology. One of the fundamental assumptions of Lambda-CDM is that the universe is homogeneous – that is, it looks broadly the same regardless of where the observer is. In the inhomogeneous universe scenario, the observed dark energy is a measurement artefact caused by us being located at an emptier-than-average region of space.
Variable dark energy, which is similar to quintessence in that the properties of dark energy vary over time (see figure), but different in that dark energy is not due to a scalar field.
Alternatives to General Relativity
General relativity, upon which the FRW metric is based, is an extremely successful theory which has met every observational test so far. However, at a fundamental level it is incompatible with quantum mechanics, and by predicting singularities, it also predicts its own breakdown. Any alternative theory of gravity would imply immediately an alternative cosmological theory since current modeling is dependent on general relativity as a framework assumption. There are many different motivations to modify general relativity, such as to eliminate the need for dark matter or dark energy, or to avoid such paradoxes as the firewall.
Machian universe
Ernst Mach developed a kind of extension to general relativity which proposed that inertia was due to gravitational effects of the mass distribution of the universe. This led naturally to speculation about the cosmological implications for such a proposal. Carl Brans and Robert Dicke were able to successfully incorporate Mach's principle into general relativity which admitted for cosmological solutions that would imply a variable mass. The homogeneously distributed mass of the universe would result in a roughly scalar field that permeated the universe and would serve as a source for Newton's gravitational constant; creating a theory of quantum gravity.
MOND
Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) is a relatively modern proposal to explain the galaxy rotation problem based on a variation of Newton's Second Law of Dynamics at low accelerations. This would produce a large-scale variation of Newton's universal theory of gravity. A modification of Newton's theory would also imply a modification of general relativistic cosmology in as much as Newtonian cosmology is the limit of Friedman cosmology. While almost all astrophysicists today reject MOND in favor of dark matter, a small number of researchers continue to enhance it, recently incorporating Brans–Dicke theories into treatments that attempt to account for cosmological observations.
Tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS) is a proposed relativistic theory that is equivalent to Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) in the non-relativistic limit, which purports to explain the galaxy rotation problem without invoking dark matter. Originated by Jacob Bekenstein in 2004, it incorporates various dynamical and non-dynamical tensor fields, vector fields and scalar fields.
The break-through of TeVeS over MOND is that it can explain the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, a cosmic optical illusion in which matter bends light, which has been confirmed many times. A recent preliminary finding is that it can explain structure formation without CDM, but requiring a ~2eV massive neutrino (they are also required to fit some Clusters of galaxies, including the Bullet Cluster). However, other authors (see Slosar, Melchiorri and Silk) argue that TeVeS can't explain cosmic microwave background anisotropies and structure formation at the same time, i.e. ruling out those models at high significance.
f(R) gravity
f(R) gravity is a family of theories that modify general relativity by defining a different function of the Ricci scalar. The simplest case is just the function being equal to the scalar; this is general relativity. As a consequence of introducing an arbitrary function, there may be freedom to explain the accelerated expansion and structure formation of the Universe without adding unknown forms of dark energy or dark matter. Some functional forms may be inspired by corrections arising from a quantum theory of gravity. f(R) gravity was first proposed in 1970 by Hans Adolph Buchdahl (although φ was used rather than f for the name of the arbitrary function). It has become an active field of research following work by Starobinsky on cosmic inflation. A wide range of phenomena can be produced from this theory by adopting different functions; however, many functional forms can now be ruled out on observational grounds, or because of pathological theoretical problems.
See also
Quantum cosmology
Notes
Bibliography
Arp, Halton, Seeing Red. Apeiron, Montreal. 1998.
Hannes, Alfvén D., Cosmic Plasma. Reidel Pub Co., 1981.
Hoyle, Fred; Geoffrey Burbidge, and Jayant V. Narlikar, A Different Approach to Cosmology: From a Static Universe through the Big Bang towards Reality. Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Lerner, Eric J., Big Bang Never Happened, Vintage Books, 1992.
Narlikar, Jayant Vishnu, Introduction to Cosmology. Jones & Bartlett Pub.
External links and references
Narlikar, Jayant V. and T. Padmanabhan, "Standard Cosmology and Alternatives: A Critical Appraisal". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol. 39, pp. 211–248 (2001).
Wright, Edward L. "Cosmological Fads and Fallacies:" Errors in some popular attacks on the Big Bang
Physical cosmology
Fringe physics
Astronomical controversies
Big Bang
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Shweta Sinha is an Indian television actress best known for her portrayal of Pari Bhardwaj in Colors TV's popular long running soap opera Sasural Simar Ka. She hails from Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.
Television
References
Living people
Indian television actresses
Actresses from Maharashtra
People from Nagpur
Year of birth missing (living people)
Female models from Maharashtra
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Headed may refer to:
A headed phrase, in linguistics
Headed notepaper
See also
Head (disambiguation)
Header (disambiguation)
Heading (disambiguation)
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Joanna Williams may refer to:
Jo Williams (speed skater), British short-track skater
Joanna Williams (author), British author and commentator
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Harold Marsh Harwood (29 March 1874 – 19 April 1959) was a British businessman, playwright, screenwriter and theatre manager. He was the son of the businessman and politician George Harwood and the husband of F. Tennyson Jesse who co-wrote some of Harwood's work. The Pelican was a successful play credited to the couple. Screen writing credits include The Iron Duke and Queen Christina.
Selected works
The Innocent Party (1938, play)
References
External links
1874 births
1959 deaths
British dramatists and playwrights
British male screenwriters
British businesspeople
British theatre directors
British male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British screenwriters
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Mohamed V may refer to:
Al-Mu'tazz, sometimes referred as Muhammad V was the Abbasid caliph (from 866 to 869).
Muhammed V of Granada (1338–1391), Sultan of Granada
Mehmed V (1848–1918), 39th Sultan of Ottoman Empire
Mohammed V of Morocco (1909–1961), king of Morocco
Mohamed V Dam, located in Morocco and named after the above
Mohammed V University, located in Rabat
Muhammad V of Delhi (died 1557)
Muhammad V of Kelantan (born 1969), Sultan of Kelantan and 15th King of Malaysia
Baba Mohammed ben-Osman also known as Mohammed V (1710-1791), Dey of Algiers
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Arcsec, ArcSec, ARCSEC, or arcsec may refer to:
Arcsecond, a unit of angular measurement
Arcsecant, an inverse trigonometric function
See also
sec−1 (disambiguation)
asec (disambiguation)
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The alt attribute is the HTML attribute used in HTML and XHTML documents to specify alternative text (alt text) that is to be displayed in place of an element that cannot be rendered. The alt attribute is used for short descriptions, with longer descriptions using the longdesc attribute. The standards organization for the World Wide Web, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), recommends that every image displayed through HTML have an alt attribute, though the alt attribute does not need to contain text. The lack of proper alt attributes on website images has led to several accessibility-related lawsuits.
The alt attribute is used to increase accessibility and user friendliness, including for blind internet users who rely on special software for web browsing. The use of the alt attribute for images displayed within HTML is part of W3C's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG). Screen readers and text-based web browsers read the alt attribute in place of the image. The text within the alt attribute substitutes the image when copy-pasted as text and makes images more machine-readable, which improves search engine optimization (SEO).
History
The attribute was first introduced in the HTML 1.2 draft in 1993 to provide support for text-based browsers. In HTML 4.01, which was released in 1999, the attribute was made to be a requirement for the img and area tags. It is optional for the input tag and the deprecated applet tag.
Internet Explorer 7 and earlier render text in alt attributes as tooltip text, which is not compliant with the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)'s HTML standards. This behavior led many web developers to misuse the alt attribute when they wished to display tooltips containing additional information about images, instead of using the title attribute that was intended for that use. As of Internet Explorer 8, released in 2009, alt attributes no longer render as tooltips on Internet Explorer.
Usage
The text in the alt attribute is used to replace the image when the image cannot be loaded, without changing the intended meaning of the page's contents. The W3C's web content accessibility guidelines state that the alt attribute is used to convey the meaning and intent of the image, rather than being a literal description of the image itself. For example, an alt attribute for an image of an institution's logo should convey that it is the institution's logo rather than describing details of what the logo looks like. The alt attribute is intended to be used for short and concise descriptions of the image. Longer descriptions can be given using the longdesc attribute, which provides more detailed information and complements but does not replace the alt attribute.
A screen reader such as Orca will read out the alt text in place of the image. A text-based web browser such as Lynx will display the alt text instead of the image (or will display the value attribute if the image is a clickable button). A graphical browser typically will display only the image, and will display the alt text only if the user views the image's properties, or has configured the browser not to display images, or if the browser was unable to retrieve or to decode the image.
The use of descriptions in the alt attribute improves search engine optimization and allows image-specific search engines, such as Google Images, to search for and display relevant images that are used on websites in search results. For non-image search results, the text within the alt attribute is read by search engines the same way that regular text on the page is read.
The W3C recommends that images that convey no information, but are purely decorative, be specified in CSS rather than in the HTML markup. If decorative images are rendered using HTML that do not add to the content and provide no additional information, then the W3C recommends that a blank alt attribute be included in the form of alt="". This makes the page more navigable for users of screen readers or non-graphical browsers by skipping over images that do not convey any meaning. If no alt attribute has been supplied, then browsers that cannot display the image will not overlook the image but instead will read or display the URL or another identifying marker. This creates ambiguity since the user is generally unable to determine from a bare reading of a URL if the image is relevant to the text or if it is a purely decorative element of the webpage. A 2021 Google Lighthouse audit showed that 27% of alt text attributes audited were empty, despite the fact that the majority of those images were non-decorative informational images.
Lawsuits
There have been many lawsuits over website accessibility and the lack of proper alt attributes on websites. Maguire v Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games was a 2000 lawsuit in which a blind man in Australia sued the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games because their website www.olympics.com was not accessible to him because of the lack of alt attributes on images. The Australian Human Rights Commission ruled that the website had discriminated against him for failing to conform to accessibility standards that enable blind individuals to navigate websites. During the lawsuit, the Australian commonwealth, state and territory governments issued a joint statement through the Department of Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy that they were adopting the W3C's accessibility guidelines for all .gov.au websites.
In the United States, there have been several high-profile lawsuits involving the lack of alt attributes on images that cite a violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The United States Department of Justice gives the lack of alt attributes as an example of a barrier to website accessibility. National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corp. was a 2006 class-action lawsuit that alleged that Target.com violated the ADA because the images did not use alt attributes. This lawsuit set a legal precedent in the United States for website accessibility and compliance with the ADA.
References
External links
Appropriate Use of Alternative Text from WebAIM
Mini-FAQ about the alternate text of images by Ian Hickson
HTML
Computer-related introductions in 1995
Web accessibility
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Longhorn Steakhouse est une chaîne de restaurants, d'origine américaine, mais également implantée en Australie.
Longhorn s'est spécialisé dans la vente de viandes de toutes sortes, dans un décor style western, et avec de la musique country en fond sonore.
Entreprise de restauration ayant son siège aux États-Unis
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Untersee (German: lower lake) may refer to:
Lake Untersee, Antarctica
Untersee (Lake Constance), section of Lake Constance
See also
Obersee (disambiguation)
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Financial regulation is a form of regulation or supervision, which subjects financial institutions to certain requirements, restrictions and guidelines, aiming to maintain the stability and integrity of the financial system. This may be handled by either a government or non-government organization. Financial regulation has also influenced the structure of banking sectors by increasing the variety of financial products available. Financial regulation forms one of three legal categories which constitutes the content of financial law, the other two being market practices and case law.
History
In the early modern period, the Dutch were the pioneers in financial regulation. The first recorded ban (regulation) on short selling was enacted by the Dutch authorities as early as 1610.
Aims of regulation
The objectives of financial regulators are usually:
market confidence – to maintain confidence in the financial system
financial stability – contributing to the protection and enhancement of stability of the financial system
consumer protection – securing the appropriate degree of protection for consumers.
Structure of supervision
Acts empower organizations, government or non-government, to monitor activities and enforce actions. There are various setups and combinations in place for the financial regulatory structure around the globe.
Supervision of stock exchanges
Exchange acts ensure that trading on the exchanges is conducted in a proper manner. Most prominent the pricing process, execution and settlement of trades, direct and efficient trade monitoring.
Supervision of listed companies
Financial regulators ensure that listed companies and market participants comply with various regulations under the trading acts. The trading acts demands that listed companies publish regular financial reports, ad hoc notifications or directors' dealings. Whereas market participants are required to publish major shareholder notifications. The objective of monitoring compliance by listed companies with their disclosure requirements is to ensure that investors have access to essential and adequate information for making an informed assessment of listed companies and their securities.
Supervision of investment management
Asset management supervision or investment acts ensures the frictionless operation of those vehicles.
Supervision of banks and financial services providers
Banking acts lay down rules for banks which they have to observe when they are being established and when they are carrying on their business. These rules are designed to prevent unwelcome developments that might disrupt the smooth functioning of the banking system. Thus ensuring a strong and efficient banking system.
Authority by country
The following is a short listing of regulatory authorities in various jurisdictions, for a more complete listing, please see list of financial regulatory authorities by country.
United States and its territories
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA)
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB)
Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)
Federal Reserve System ("Fed")
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC)
National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) (a State-based regulatory standards organization, the McCarran–Ferguson Act exempts the "business of insurance" from most regulation at the Federal level)
National Credit Union Administration (NCUA)
United Kingdom
Bank of England (BoE)
Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA)
Financial Conduct Authority (FCA)
Financial Services Agency (FSA), Japan
Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (BaFin), Germany
Autorité des marchés financiers (France) (AMF), France
Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), Singapore
Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), Hong Kong
Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority (FINMA), Switzerland
People's Republic of China
China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC)
China Insurance Regulatory Commission (CIRC)
China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC)
India:
Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI)
Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI)
Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA)
Unique jurisdictions
In most cases, financial regulatory authorities regulate all financial activities. But in some cases, there are specific authorities to regulate each sector of the finance industry, mainly banking, securities, insurance and pensions markets, but in some cases also commodities, futures, forwards, etc. For example, in Australia, the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) supervises banks and insurers, while the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) is responsible for enforcing financial services and corporations laws.
Sometimes more than one institution regulates and supervises the banking market, normally because, apart from regulatory authorities, central banks also regulate the banking industry. For example, in the USA banking is regulated by a lot of regulators, such as the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, the National Credit Union Administration, as well as regulators at the state level.
In the European Union, the European System of Financial Supervision consists of the European Banking Authority (EBA), the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) and the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) as well as the European Systemic Risk Board. The Eurozone countries are forming a Single Supervisory Mechanism under the European Central Bank as a prelude to Banking union.
There are also associations of financial regulatory authorities. At the international level, there is the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), the International Association of Insurance Supervisors, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, the Joint Forum, and the Financial Stability Board, where national authorities set standards through consensus-based decision-making processes.
The structure of financial regulation has changed significantly in the past two decades, as the legal and geographic boundaries between markets in banking, securities, and insurance have become increasingly "blurred" and globalized.
Regulatory reliance on credit rating agencies
Think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) have argued that most European governments pushed dogmatically for the adoption of the Basel II recommendations, adopted in 2005, transposed in European Union law through the Capital Requirements Directive (CRD), effective since 2008. In essence, they forced European banks, and, more importantly, the European Central Bank itself e.g. when gauging the solvency of EU-based financial institutions, to rely more than ever on the standardized assessments of credit risk marketed by two private US agencies- Moody's and S&P, thus using public policy and ultimately taxpayers’ money to strengthen an anti-competitive duopolistic industry.
See also
Bank regulation
Finance
Financial ethics
Financial repression
Global financial system
Group of Thirty
Insurance law
International Organization of Securities Commissions
International Centre for Financial Regulation
LabEx ReFi - European Laboratory on Financial Regulation
Macroprudential regulation
Microprudential regulation
Regulatory capture
Regulatory economics
Securities commission
Virtual currency law in the United States
References
Further reading
Labonte, Marc. (2017). Who Regulates Whom? An Overview of the U.S. Financial Regulatory Framework. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service.
Simpson, D., Meeks, G., Klumpes, P., & Andrews, P. (2000). Some cost-benefit issues in financial regulation. London: Financial Services Authority.
External links
Securities Lawyer's Deskbook from the University of Cincinnati College of Law
Ana Carvajal, Jennifer Elliott: IMF Study Points to Gaps in Securities Market Regulation
IOSCO: Objectives and Principles of Securities Regulation (PDF-Datei 67 Seiten)
Financial law
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Oho may refer to:
Oho!, Finnish entertainment magazine
Ōhō (応保), Japanese era from 1161 to 1163
Ōho (大保), Japanese location
Oho, Japan, a village in Tsukuba District, Ibaraki
Ōhō Konosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler
Octahemioctahedron
Okhotsk Airport (IATA code: OHO), airport in Russia
Oho, an experiment at KEKB (accelerator)
Hurricane Oho
See also
Ooho (disambiguation)
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Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged seabirds in the petrel family Procellariidae. They have a global marine distribution, but are most common in temperate and cold waters, and are pelagic outside the breeding season.
Description
These tubenose birds fly with stiff wings and use a "shearing" flight technique (flying very close to the water and seemingly cutting or "shearing" the tips of waves) to move across wave fronts with the minimum of active flight. This technique gives the group its English name. Some small species, like the Manx shearwater are cruciform in flight, with their long wings held directly out from their bodies.
Behaviour
Movements
Many shearwaters are long-distance migrants, perhaps most spectacularly sooty shearwaters, which cover distances in excess of from their breeding colony on the Falkland Islands (52°S 60°W) to as far as 70° north latitude in the North Atlantic Ocean off northern Norway. One study found Sooty shearwaters migrating nearly a year, which would give them the longest animal migration ever recorded electronically. Short-tailed shearwaters perform an even longer "figure of eight" loop migration in the Pacific Ocean from Tasmania to as far north as the Arctic Ocean off northwest Alaska. They are long-lived. A Manx shearwater breeding on Copeland Island, Northern Ireland, was (as of 2003/2004) the oldest known wild bird in the world: ringed as an adult (when at least 5 years old) in July 1953, it was retrapped in July 2003, at least 55 years old. Manx shearwaters migrate over to South America in winter, using waters off southern Brazil and Argentina, so this bird had covered a minimum of on migration alone.
Following the tracks of the migratory Yelkouan shearwater has revealed that this species never flies overland, even if it means flying an extra 1'000 km. For instance, during their seasonal migration towards the Black Sea they would circumvent the entire Peloponnese instead of crossing over the 6 km isthmus of Corinth.
Breeding
Shearwaters come to islands and coastal cliffs only to breed. They are nocturnal at the colonial breeding sites, preferring moonless nights to minimize predation. They nest in burrows and often give eerie contact calls on their night-time visits. They lay a single white egg. The chicks of some species, notably short-tailed and sooty shearwaters, are subject to harvesting from their nest burrows for food, a practice known as muttonbirding, in Australia and New Zealand.
Feeding
They feed on fish, squid, and similar oceanic food. Some will follow fishing boats to take scraps, commonly the sooty shearwater; these species also commonly follow whales to feed on fish disturbed by them. Their primary feeding technique is diving, with some species diving to depths of .
Taxonomy
There are about 30 species: a few larger ones in the genera Calonectris and Ardenna and many smaller ones in Puffinus. Recent genomic studies show that Shearwaters form a clade with Procellaria, Bulweria and Pseudobulweria. This arrangement contrasts with earlier conceptions based on mitochondrial DNA sequencing.
List of species
The group contains 3 genera with 32 species.
Puffinus
Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativatis
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus
Yelkouan shearwater, Puffinus yelkouan
Balearic shearwater, Puffinus mauretanicus
Bryan's shearwater, Puffinus bryani – first described in 2011
Black-vented shearwater, Puffinus opisthomelas
Townsend's shearwater, Puffinus auriculatus
Newell's shearwater, Puffinus newelli (split from Townsend's shearwater)
Rapa shearwater, Puffinus myrtae (split from Newell's shearwater)
Fluttering shearwater, Puffinus gavia
Hutton's shearwater, Puffinus huttoni
Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri
Persian shearwater, Puffinus persicus (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Tropical shearwater, Puffinus bailloni (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Galápagos shearwater, Puffinus subalaris (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Bannerman's shearwater, Puffinus bannermani
Heinroth's shearwater, Puffinus heinrothi
Little shearwater, Puffinus assimilis
Subantarctic shearwater, Puffinus elegans (split from little shearwater)
Barolo shearwater or Macronesian shearwater, Puffinus baroli
Boyd's shearwater, Puffinus boydi (split from Barolo shearwater)
Calonectris
Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas
Scopoli's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea (split from Cory's shearwater)
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea
Cape Verde shearwater, Calonectris edwardsii
Ardenna
Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacifica
Buller's shearwater, Ardenna bulleri
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna grisea
Short-tailed shearwater or mutton bird, Ardenna tenuirostris
Pink-footed shearwater, Ardenna creatopus
Flesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis
There are two extinct species that have been described from fossils.
† Lava shearwater or Olson's shearwater, Puffinus olsoni
† Dune shearwater or Hole's shearwater, Puffinus holeae
Phylogeny
Phylogeny of the shearwaters based on a study by Joan Ferrer Obiol and collaborators published in 2022. Only 14 of the 21 recognised species in the genus Puffinus were included.
References
External links
Shearwater videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Seabirds
Bird common names
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Middle Bridge may refer to:
Middle Bridge, Basel, a historic bridge across the Rhine in the Swiss city of Basel
Middle Bridge, Colorado, a bridge across the Blue Mesa Reservoir in the US state of Colorado
Middle Bridge, Somerset, a location in the United Kingdom in North Somerset
See also
Middle Arm Bridge, a transit bridge in Vancouver, Canada
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