manu/mldr-zoomed-100char-total-queries-documents

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71_122	for disease propagation. 24 days later, the Peruvian man died of a severe pneumonia, being the
71_123	first death of the Delta variant in the country.
71_124	On 26 November 2021, Scatec ASA, a Norwegian company specializing in renewable energy systems, held
71_125	a Christmas party in Oslo, Norway attended by 120 people, all of whom were fully vaccinated against
71_126	COVID-19 and tested negative for COVID-19 prior to the party being held. One person who attended
71_127	the party had recently returned from South Africa, the epicenter of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant
71_128	outbreak and a country where the company has a solar panel project. It was later found that the
71_129	attendee from South Africa had been infected with the Omicron variant. More than half of the
71_130	party's attendees have since tested positive for COVID-19 and of those attendees, at least 13 of
71_131	them were confirmed to have the variant.
71_132	Several factors are identified as contributing to superspreading events with COVID-19: closed
71_133	spaces with poor ventilation, crowds, and close contact settings ("three Cs").
71_134	Statistical analyses of the frequency of coronavirus superspreading events, including SARS-CoV-2
71_135	and SARS, have shown that they correspond to fat-tailed events, indicating that they are extreme,
71_136	but likely, occurrences.
71_137	A SARS-CoV-2 superspreading events database maintained by a group of researchers at the London
71_138	School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine includes more than 1,600 superspreading events from around
71_139	the world.
71_140	SARS outbreak: 2003
71_141	The first cases of SARS occurred in mid-November 2002 in the Guangdong Province of China. This was
71_142	followed by an outbreak in Hong Kong in February 2003. A Guangdong Province doctor, Liu Jianlun,
71_143	who had treated SARS cases there, had contracted the virus and was symptomatic. Despite his
71_144	symptoms, he traveled to Hong Kong to attend a family wedding. He stayed on the ninth floor of the
71_145	Metropole Hotel in Kowloon, infecting 16 other hotel guests also staying on that floor. The guests
71_146	then traveled to Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam, spreading SARS to those locations and
71_147	transmitting what became a global epidemic.
71_148	In another case during this same outbreak, a 54-year-old male was admitted to a hospital with
71_149	coronary heart disease, chronic kidney failure and type II diabetes mellitus. He had been in
71_150	contact with a patient known to have SARS. Shortly after his admission he developed fever, cough,
71_151	myalgia and sore throat. The admitting physician suspected SARS. The patient was transferred to
71_152	another hospital for treatment of his coronary artery disease. While there, his SARS symptoms
71_153	became more pronounced. Later, it was discovered he had transmitted SARS to 33 other patients in
71_154	just two days. He was transferred back to the original hospital where he died of SARS.
71_155	In his post-mortem reflection, Low remained puzzled as to the reason for this phenomenon and
71_156	speculated that "possible explanations for (the superspreaders') enhanced infectivity include the
71_157	lack of early implementation of infection control precautions, higher load of SCoV, or larger
71_158	amounts of respiratory secretions."
71_159	The SARS outbreak was eventually contained, but not before it caused 8,273 cases and 775 deaths.
71_160	Within two weeks of the original outbreak in Guangdong Province, SARS had spread to 29 countries.
71_161	Measles outbreak: 1989
71_162	Measles is a highly contagious, air-borne virus that reappears even among vaccinated populations.
71_163	In one Finnish town in 1989, an explosive school-based outbreak resulted in 51 cases, several of
71_164	whom had been previously vaccinated. One child alone infected 22 others. It was noted during this
71_165	outbreak that when vaccinated siblings shared a bedroom with an infected sibling, seven out of nine
71_166	became infected as well.
71_167	Typhoid fever
71_168	Typhoid fever is a human-specific disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. It is highly
71_169	contagious and becoming resistant to antibiotics. S. typhi is susceptible to creating asymptomatic
71_170	carriers. The most famous carriers are Mary Mallon, known as Typhoid Mary, from New York City, and
71_171	Mr. N. the Milker, from Folkstone, England. Both were active around the same time. Mallon infected
71_172	51 people from 1902 to 1909. Mr. N. infected more than 200 people over 14 years from 1901 to 1915.
71_173	At the request of health officials, Mr. N. gave up working in food service. Mallon was at first
71_174	also compliant, choosing other work – but eventually she returned to cooking and caused further
71_175	outbreaks. She was involuntarily quarantined at Brothers Island in New York, where she stayed until
71_176	she died in November 1938, aged 69.
71_177	It has been found that Salmonella typhi persists in infected mice macrophages that have cycled from
71_178	an inflammatory state to a non-inflammatory state. The bacteria remain and reproduce without
71_179	causing further symptoms in the mice, and this helps to explain why carriers are asymptomatic.
71_180	See also
71_181	Scale-free network – A model in which most people spread an infection to few people, but a few
71_182	people spread infection to many
71_183	References External links
71_184	World Health Organisation (WHO) – authoritative source of information about global health issues
71_185	Past pandemics that ravaged Europe at the BBC
71_186	Influenza pandemic phases at the US Center for Disease Control (CDC)
71_187	European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
71_188	TED-Education video – How pandemics spread
71_189	Biological hazards Epidemics Epidemiology Global health Infectious diseases Pandemics Zoonoses
72_0	G protein-gated ion channels are a family of transmembrane ion channels in neurons and atrial
72_1	myocytes that are directly gated by G proteins.
72_2	Overview of mechanisms and function
72_3	Generally, G protein-gated ion channels are specific ion channels located in the plasma membrane of
72_4	cells that are directly activated by a family of associated proteins. Ion channels allow for the
72_5	selective movement of certain ions across the plasma membrane in cells. More specifically, in nerve
72_6	cells, along with ion transporters, they are responsible for maintaining the electrochemical
72_7	gradient across the cell.
72_8	G proteins are a family of intracellular proteins capable of mediating signal transduction
72_9	pathways. Each G protein is a heterotrimer of three subunits: α-, β-, and γ- subunits. The
72_10	α-subunit (Gα) typically binds the G protein to a transmembrane receptor protein known as a G
72_11	protein-coupled receptor, or GPCR. This receptor protein has a large, extracellular binding domain
72_12	which will bind its respective ligands (e.g. neurotransmitters and hormones). Once the ligand is
72_13	bound to its receptor, a conformational change occurs. This conformational change in the G protein
72_14	allows Gα to bind GTP. This leads to yet another conformational change in the G protein, resulting
72_15	in the separation of the βγ-complex (Gβγ) from Gα. At this point, both Gα and Gβγ are active and
72_16	able to continue the signal transduction pathway. Different classes of G protein-coupled receptors
72_17	have many known functions including the cAMP and Phosphatidylinositol signal transduction pathways.
72_18	A class known as metabotropic glutamate receptors play a large role in indirect ion channel
72_19	activation by G proteins. These pathways are activated by second messengers which initiate signal
72_20	cascades involving various proteins which are important to the cell's response.
72_21	G protein-gated ion channels are associated with a specific type of G protein-coupled receptor.
72_22	These ion channels are transmembrane ion channels with selectivity filters and a G protein binding
72_23	site. The GPCRs associated with G protein-gated ion channels are not involved in signal
72_24	transduction pathways. They only directly activate these ion channels using effector proteins or
72_25	the G protein subunits themselves (see picture). Unlike most effectors, not all G protein-gated ion
72_26	channels have their activity mediated by Gα of their corresponding G proteins. For instance, the
72_27	opening of inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels is mediated by the binding of Gβγ.
72_28	G protein-gated ion channels are primarily found in CNS neurons and atrial myocytes, and affect the
72_29	flow of potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+), and chloride (Cl−) across the plasma
72_30	membrane.
72_31	Types of G Protein-gated ion channels Potassium channels Structure

71_122

for disease propagation. 24 days later, the Peruvian man died of a severe pneumonia, being the

71_123

first death of the Delta variant in the country.

71_124

On 26 November 2021, Scatec ASA, a Norwegian company specializing in renewable energy systems, held

71_125

a Christmas party in Oslo, Norway attended by 120 people, all of whom were fully vaccinated against

71_126

COVID-19 and tested negative for COVID-19 prior to the party being held. One person who attended

71_127

the party had recently returned from South Africa, the epicenter of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant

71_128

outbreak and a country where the company has a solar panel project. It was later found that the

71_129

attendee from South Africa had been infected with the Omicron variant. More than half of the

71_130

party's attendees have since tested positive for COVID-19 and of those attendees, at least 13 of

71_131

them were confirmed to have the variant.

71_132

Several factors are identified as contributing to superspreading events with COVID-19: closed

71_133

spaces with poor ventilation, crowds, and close contact settings ("three Cs").

71_134

Statistical analyses of the frequency of coronavirus superspreading events, including SARS-CoV-2

71_135

and SARS, have shown that they correspond to fat-tailed events, indicating that they are extreme,

71_136

but likely, occurrences.

71_137

A SARS-CoV-2 superspreading events database maintained by a group of researchers at the London

71_138

School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine includes more than 1,600 superspreading events from around

71_139

the world.

71_140

SARS outbreak: 2003

71_141

The first cases of SARS occurred in mid-November 2002 in the Guangdong Province of China. This was

71_142

followed by an outbreak in Hong Kong in February 2003. A Guangdong Province doctor, Liu Jianlun,

71_143

who had treated SARS cases there, had contracted the virus and was symptomatic. Despite his

71_144

symptoms, he traveled to Hong Kong to attend a family wedding. He stayed on the ninth floor of the

71_145

Metropole Hotel in Kowloon, infecting 16 other hotel guests also staying on that floor. The guests

71_146

then traveled to Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam, spreading SARS to those locations and

71_147

transmitting what became a global epidemic.

71_148

In another case during this same outbreak, a 54-year-old male was admitted to a hospital with

71_149

coronary heart disease, chronic kidney failure and type II diabetes mellitus. He had been in

71_150

contact with a patient known to have SARS. Shortly after his admission he developed fever, cough,

71_151

myalgia and sore throat. The admitting physician suspected SARS. The patient was transferred to

71_152

another hospital for treatment of his coronary artery disease. While there, his SARS symptoms

71_153

became more pronounced. Later, it was discovered he had transmitted SARS to 33 other patients in

71_154

just two days. He was transferred back to the original hospital where he died of SARS.

71_155

In his post-mortem reflection, Low remained puzzled as to the reason for this phenomenon and

71_156

speculated that "possible explanations for (the superspreaders') enhanced infectivity include the

71_157

lack of early implementation of infection control precautions, higher load of SCoV, or larger

71_158

amounts of respiratory secretions."

71_159

The SARS outbreak was eventually contained, but not before it caused 8,273 cases and 775 deaths.

71_160

Within two weeks of the original outbreak in Guangdong Province, SARS had spread to 29 countries.

71_161

Measles outbreak: 1989

71_162

Measles is a highly contagious, air-borne virus that reappears even among vaccinated populations.

71_163

In one Finnish town in 1989, an explosive school-based outbreak resulted in 51 cases, several of

71_164

whom had been previously vaccinated. One child alone infected 22 others. It was noted during this

71_165

outbreak that when vaccinated siblings shared a bedroom with an infected sibling, seven out of nine

71_166

became infected as well.

71_167

Typhoid fever

71_168

Typhoid fever is a human-specific disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. It is highly

71_169

contagious and becoming resistant to antibiotics. S. typhi is susceptible to creating asymptomatic

71_170

carriers. The most famous carriers are Mary Mallon, known as Typhoid Mary, from New York City, and

71_171

Mr. N. the Milker, from Folkstone, England. Both were active around the same time. Mallon infected

71_172

51 people from 1902 to 1909. Mr. N. infected more than 200 people over 14 years from 1901 to 1915.

71_173

At the request of health officials, Mr. N. gave up working in food service. Mallon was at first

71_174

also compliant, choosing other work – but eventually she returned to cooking and caused further

71_175

outbreaks. She was involuntarily quarantined at Brothers Island in New York, where she stayed until

71_176

she died in November 1938, aged 69.

71_177

It has been found that Salmonella typhi persists in infected mice macrophages that have cycled from

71_178

an inflammatory state to a non-inflammatory state. The bacteria remain and reproduce without

71_179

causing further symptoms in the mice, and this helps to explain why carriers are asymptomatic.

71_180