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New Research has found that children could be less likely to develop nut allergies if their mothers eat nuts during pregnancy.
It was previously assumed that eating nuts during pregnancy and while breastfeeding risked sensitising children, making them more susceptible to allergies. The new research suggests that the advice may have been not only misleading, but at odds with potential benefits.
The study of more than 8,000 children in the US found that those with non-allergic mothers who ate nuts at least five times a week during pregnancy had a lower risk of peanut or tree nut allergies.
The results are particularly interesting as they contradict studies that have shown either no effect of nut consumption during pregnancy or suggested a possible risk of increased consumption.
Dr Adam Fox, a consultant children’s allergist said:
To make things even more complicated, there is also strong evidence to suggest that nut allergy doesn’t develop until after birth and that it is exposure of the infant’s skin to nut protein that is most important in the development of allergy
With such differing results from different studies, it is currently impossible to offer advice about exactly what mothers should do regarding nut consumption during pregnancy, but current international guidance is that there is no need to either avoid nuts, nor to actively eat them.
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Slip Point of Beds in Solid-Liquid Pipeline Flowby Kenneth C. Wilson, Sr. Hydr. Engr.; Ingledow and Assoc. Ltd., Vancouver, Canada,
Serial Information: Journal of the Hydraulics Division, 1970, Vol. 96, Issue 1, Pg. 1-12
Document Type: Journal Paper
Errata: (See full record)
In view of the relatively low mean velocities which give optimum efficiency for pipelines transporting granular solids, it is important to study the conditions for which stationary deposits occur in pipes. The limit of deposition is the slip point, at which the force driving the bed exceeds the coefficient of friction times the total normal force exerted by the bed grains against the pipe wall. Although the state of intergranular stress in the deposit is generally indeterminate, it is shown that near the slip point it is a reasonable assumption that the granular pressure at the periphery of the bed follows a hydrostatic distribution. Experimental verification of this assumption was obtained from two types of tests, one involving flow conditions in a recirculating system and the other the slipping of deposits in a tilting pipe. The relationship derived for the hydrostatic distribution of granular pressure shows that the pressure gradient at the slip point is directly proportional to the underwater weight per unit volume of bed, and increases with the angle subtended by the deposit.
Subject Headings: Solids flow | Pipe bedding | Pipe flow | Pressure distribution | Granular materials | Hydrostatics | Fluid velocity | Pipelines | Friction
Services: Buy this book/Buy this article
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What is a Full-Service or Community School?
Why Full-Service Schools?
Lessons From AIP’s Full-Service Schools
AIP at the Irving is the oldest existing full-service school in the Boston school district and the first to receive federal funding (through the U.S. Department of Education/Eisenhower Foundation) specifically for its full-service school model. AIP’s model at the Irving is recognized nationally as the most elaborated example of a full-service school organized around special education. We have a longstanding interest in promoting full-service schools as a powerful model for education reform and for improving outcomes for students in large urban school districts.
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Using public schools as a hub, community schools bring together many partners to offer a range of supports and opportunities to children, youth, families and communities -- before, during and after school, seven days a week. For a more detailed explanation of Full-Service Schools, click here.
(Source: Coalition for Community Schools)
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Children need intellectual, social, physical, and emotional supports in order to be ready to learn. Research by the National Research Council validates that these same supports are important predictors of future adult success.* The Eisenhower Foundation’s comprehensive 2005 evaluation of full-service community schools, conducted on behalf of the US Departmet of Education, including AIP’s program at the Washington Irving Middle School, found that students' needs are better met when services are delivered in a well-coordinated and collaborative manner.
Schools are ideal sites for providing a wide variety of supports and enrichment because children spend so much of their time at school. Full-service schools create an optimal environment for success in instruction, mental health, youth development, physical health, and family engagement. They are collaborative, so they engage multiple organizations and a variety of professionals, parents, and volunteers in the lives of children. They are efficient (and, therefore, affordable) because they leverage existing community resources and multiple funding streams rather than relying on public education dollars to meet the myriad needs of school children. By bringing services into schools, providers can help children to achieve their potential within the children’s natural environment, thus reducing stigma and making for a one-stop-shopping convenience for busy working families.
Full-service schools create an effective context for education. When outside partners provide non-academic services to students, schools are free to focus on what they do best: instruction.
Research on Outcomes of Full-Service Schools shows that full-service schools have “a positive impact on what matters most to students, parents, communities and schools.” (Source: Coalition for Community Schools)
* Eccles, J.S., and J. Gootman, 2002, Programs to Promote Youth Development. Washington, DC: Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Institute of Medicine, National Research Council.
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AIP’s track record demonstrates important lessons for policy and practice in the development of full-service schools. Key lessons:
1. Full-service schools can be sustainable over time through a public/private partnership. AIP’s full-service schools use public dollars as core funding and then build on that commitment to leverage matching dollars from private sources. This extra infusion of support into the schools pays for extensive additional services provided in partnership with the school district. Public school districts are very interested in leveraging significant fiscal matches that advance their goals. Full-service schools will always need some ongoing private funding alongside the school district’s support. For well over a decade, AIP has demonstrated a sustainable and attractive public-to-private funding ratio.
2. Special education resources can effectively drive a full-service school. AIP’s full-service school at the Washington Irving Middle School offers an operating example of this promising model in which an existing school accepted a new special education program designed to attract multiple community partners and funder interest.
3. Full-service schools work when they are developed from the ground up, through a public/private partnership. AIP’s full-service school at the Lilla G. Frederick Pilot Middle School demonstrates the potential of schools that are designed with a full-service vision and operating structure from the outset.
AIP offers an innovative and tested approach to building sustainability into a full-service school from the beginning. By using special education dollars as its core funding, AIP at the Irving optimizes the promise of a full-service school while addressing some key challenges.
Special education dollars pay for core clinical staff to be present full-time in the school. These mental health resources make the school a place where a broad spectrum of children can succeed. For every one child in the Irving Inclusion Day Program, AIP delivers a variety of clinical, afterschool, and other “full-service” supports to more than five other children in the school. This programming includes activities as varied as community service learning, sports teams, school-based counseling, afterschool programs, arts, activity clubs, homework help, summer program, tutoring, and parent outreach.
On top of our core school district funding, AIP leverages in more than double that amount from other public and private funding sources. All of these resources are pooled to provide a well-supported program for Irving Middle School regular education and special education students. This has been a very successful financial strategy for our organization and for the local school department, illustrating the power of using special education dollars to leverage the build-out of a full-service school.
At the Frederick Pilot Middle School, AIP’s experience demonstrates the benefits of creating a full-service school from the ground up. We joined early in the planning of the school in order to integrate full-service components into the school’s design. The result has been a full-service school that is growing rapidly and organically, with multiple points of overlap and interplay between the school and its lead community partner. The seamless nature of the partnership serves the school and its students well.
AIP at the Frederick is a unique model in part because the Frederick is a new school (opened in 2003) as a Boston pilot school. Pilot schools exist as a result of an agreemnt beween the district and teacher's union to allow the school's leadership considerable autonomy in structuring and operating the school. The full-service school model fits with the Frederick School's pilot status and and vision of their new school as a center of community where the education of the children becomes the shared responsibility of the entire neighborhood.
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Community schools are highly relevant and visible on the current policy agenda. AIP’s work in Boston is linked with a highly significant policy movement in American education at the federal level. In 2008, U.S. House of Representatives Majority Leader Steny Hoyer’s Full-Service Community Schools Act, authorized $4.9 million for the first time. In FY09, the nation will see the fruits of a first-ever legislative appropriation to fund the infrastructure of full-service school sites across the country.
AIP is proud of our role in helping to bring about this significant change in national education policy, which links U.S. Department of Education dollars and full-service schools for the first time. The federal government’s decision to fund full-service schools was based in part on the positive outcomes of the U.S. Dept. of Education/Eisenhower Foundation’s three-year full-service school demonstration and replication project. The Foundation commissioned a comprehensive evaluation in 2002, which found that “students' needs are better met when the adults responsible for providing services to students come together to deliver those services in a well-coordinated and collaborative manner” (as stated in the 2008 U.S. Federal Register announcement about the Full-Service Community Schools program).
AIP at the Irving was an active participant in the U.S. Department of Education/Eisenhower Foundation national project. Our Irving Full-Service School was one of the project’s demonstration schools and its only urban full-service school site. During the years of the project (2002-2005), we hosted frequent visits from the Eisenhower Foundation and from visitors from across the U.S., Europe, and Asia, as a showcase for the Eisenhower Foundation’s Full-Service Schools Demonstration and Replication Project.
As the evidence for full-service schools grows, it is our hope that the Congressional support at the very highest levels for full-service schools will keep apace.
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Through these venues, we contribute to the dissemination of knowledge about full-service schools and to the creation of a favorable policy climate for full-service schooling:
Boston Full-Service Schools Roundtable - Locally, AIP is active in Boston’s Full-Service Schools Roundtable as a founding member and a steering committee member. This coalition of providers, school district, Massachusetts state human services leaders, and other stakeholders leads the local policy and advocacy agenda to promote full-service schools in Boston and in Massachusetts.
Coalition for Community Schools - Nationally, AIP participates in the efforts of the Coalition for Community Schools to disseminate and replicate full-service schools. This alliance of national, state, and local organizations advocates for community schools as the vehicle for strengthening schools, families, and communities so that together they can improve student learning. The Coalition's mission is to mobilize the resources and capacity of multiple sectors and institutions to create a united movement for community schools.
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Difference between head lice and dandruff can be a little bit blurry sometimes when you have them. Both seem to be very itchy and very irritating.
If people know you have the problems, they will instantly get a real distance to you. Well, that is only logical. You should know the difference before you know how to treat it. Learn from the following facts and know your problem.
The first head lice and dandruff difference is on the appearance. Dandruff, scientifically called seborrheic dermatitis, is basically your scalp skin flake. It can be dry or oily, based on the hair condition, and it can be white as it commonly appears, and it can also be a little yellow.
The color is also based on oil contain on your scalp skin. Meanwhile, the head lice appear mostly in three ways. The eggs, which are also called nits, are the white specks. It can also be a nymph. On adult, lice can appear as small insect in tan color that hatched from the nits. Their bites cause most of the itch. Adult lice are still very small just like sesame seed size.
The difference between head lice and dandruff also lies on the causes of the case. Dandruff can be provoked by several things like too dry or too oily scalp skin, certain autoimmune issue, and build up shampoo on your scalp.
Someone can also get this problem genetically when one of his family members, not necessarily the parents, has dandruff problems. Meanwhile, lice head can be transferred from someone near you. This explains why a kid can get lice too if one of his classmates has it.
Close contact will allow the lice to get on your hair and reach your scalp in no time. On several cases, these lice came from several stuffs around you like towels, combs, bed linens, and maybe your clothes.
Population on Affect
You can also find the head lice and dandruff difference on the people who suffer it. Lice head issue is very common among small kids, preschoolers and elementary students. The transfer is also made easy by their every day contact to each other at school. Adult who live among kids with lice will commonly suffer the same issue to even though lice head issue is not common on adult.
Meanwhile, dandruff commonly happens on at least young adult and adolescents. This happens due to adult habit on wrong hair treatment, and health issue. However, older adults as well as children can have the flaky scalp too due to medical condition. The condition may not be critical but it needs special treatment.
These two cases have quite distinctive symptoms other than the white particles existence on your scalp. Dandruff is easier to remove. You can try to comb your hair to find out. If the white particles drop easily, this is definitely dandruff. They tend to be dry and they don’t stick on your hair or scalp.
On the other hand, lice are harder to get. If you comb your hair, their eggs will not drop. They stick on your scalp and hair. The itch is caused by the lice sucking your blood. Their saliva is irritating your scalp skin. That’s why it is felt so itchy all the time. Plus, you must get the feeling like something is crawling on your scalp.
The other head lice and dandruff difference lies on the shampoo you should use to cure it. For dandruff, you will be medically recommended to shampoo that contains selenium sulfide, ketoconazole, salicylic acid, or coal tar. You can also have a shampoo with the combinations of them all. Several advanced and medically proven shampoo will need doctor prescription.
Meanwhile, to get rid of lice, children and all people above two years old will need a shampoo with pyrethrin and permethrin. Those will kill the lice and the eggs too. You are often suggested to repeat using the shampoo within the next ten days. Children under two will need manual and natural removal due to the chemical exposure though.
Both cases have possibility on home remedies too. However, the difference between head lice and dandruff lies on the kind of the remedies. For dandruff, you can start a diet with menu that contains enough zinc and vitamin B and enough exposure to sunshine as medically suggested by the Mayo Clinic.
On the other hand, lice have home remedies too. Home remedies for lice are more on working form. You basically need to clean the whole things. Wash your linens, clothes, and towels with hot water and high heat dry. Vacuum stuffed animals, rugs and carpet, furniture, pillows and bolsters, and almost everything else in the three days. This will remove their food. Without food, they will die.
These cases have their own prevention action, making it the last head lice and dandruff difference you must know. For dandruff, you should follow recommendation from medical journals and research reports you can find. It commonly recommends you to maintain healthy diet intake and less stressing life. Those are proven to be the most effective prevention unless you inherit the case genetically.
Meanwhile, for lice, you should limit your contact with people who have lice. You also need to maintain sterile condition in the house. It doesn’t have to be extreme as in hospital, but you must hot wash and hot dry your linen, clothes, and towels every once in a while.
Regular vacuum on your furniture, carpet and rugs, pillows and bolsters, as well as stuffed animals and anything else is highly needed. It prevents lice to nest in your environment and on your family scalp.
Lice and dandruff have similarities tough. They both attack your scalp, and it causes the itch. You will not find the right remedies unless you know what causes your itch. Learning from the facts above, it will be easy for you to find out the cause since you already know the difference between head lice and dandruff.
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Use the filter menu and interactive map to explore the past competitions offered and grants awarded through the Environmental Literacy Program.
To learn more about project findings and outcomes, view the summaries of our grantees’ summative evaluation reports.
Worldviews Network: Ecological Literacy Programming for Digital Planetariums and Beyond
The Worldviews Network - a collaboration of institutions that have pioneered Earth systems research, education and evaluation methods - is creating innovative approaches for engaging the American public in dialogues about human-induced global changes. Leveraging the power of immersive scientific visualization environments at informal science centers across the US, we are developing transformative educational processes that integrate the benefits of visual thinking, systems thinking, and design thinking. This "seeing, knowing, doing" approach empowers educators with tools and techniques that help audiences to visualize, comprehend, and address complex issues from a whole-systems perspective. The Worldviews Network will make explicit the interconnections of Earth’s life support systems across time and space as well as inspire community participation in design processes by providing real-world examples of successful projects that are increasing the healthy functioning of regional and global ecosystems
Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS)
The Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS) is a citizen science program where thousands of volunteers across the country measure and report the amount of precipitation that falls each day in their own neighborhood. In the next three years CoCoRaHS will use strategies from the “Citizen Science Toolkit” and align activities to the “Essential Principles to Climate Science” to engage thousands more participants in collecting, reporting and exploring precipitation. Evapotranspiration measurements will be added to teach and demonstrate the hydrologic cycle in action. Through strong NOAA partnerships with the National Weather Service, the National Climatic Data Center, the Earth Systems Research Lab and the National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center, precipitation data quality and accessibility for professional users will be enhanced. The CoCoRaHS network will be constructing training, data entry and visualization tools utilizing Web 2.0 concepts, cyberlearning tools and hand-held device applications with a goal of increasing participation and expanding the volunteer network into broader, younger, more diverse audiences.
In the project entitled "The GLOBE Program 2010: Collaborative Environmental Research at Local to Global Scales", the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) will improve the functionality of the GLOBE Program (www.globe.gov) by providing: (1) new methods, tools, and services to enhance GLOBE Partner and teacher abilities to facilitate inquiry-based learning and student research, (2) initial pilot testing and assessment of student and teacher learning activities and events related to Climate Science research, (3) improvements in GLOBE's technology infrastructure and data systems (e.g. database, social networking, information management) to support collaborations between students, scientists, and teachers, and (4) development of a robust evaluation plan. In addition, the UCAR will continue to provide support to the worldwide GLOBE community, as well as program management and timely communication with program sponsors.
R4Ed: Rigor, Relevance, and Relationships in Resilience Education
In this project, high school students in Houma, Louisiana, will investigate which areas of their community are most vulnerable and what can be done to be resilient in the face of hurricanes and sea level rise, today and in the future. To do this, they will collect local stories of coastal erosion, hurricane damage, and disappearing land and compare them with data from the NOAA Digital Coast Tool and the NCAR Cyclone Damage Potential (CDP) Index. Linking the impacts that community members have experienced with the data about these events and future projections, students will identify vulnerable areas in their community, identify the types of hurricanes that have been the most destructive to their community, and make resilience recommendations that they will present to their peers and the community at large. Project partners, the UCAR Center for Science Education, the NCAR Capacity Center for Climate and Weather Extremes, and the South Louisiana Wetlands Discovery Center, will develop the curriculum, facilitate the instruction, and disseminate the educational resources to other coastal educators. The successful completion of this project will result in a model approach for how students in other coastal communities can use data, stories, and the CDP as they engage in coastal resilience planning. This model approach will be described in a collection of educational resources, allowing educators to implement the approach with students in other Gulf Coast and Atlantic locations affected by hurricanes and sea level rise.
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A WICKED PACK OF CARDS: CULTURAL ALLUSIONS AND INTERTEXTUALITY IN ‘THE WASTE LAND’
Eliot once wrote that all literature had a simultaneous existence no matter where or when it was originally composed. He argued that no poet had his complete meaning alone and that ‘his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets’. He wrote this in his essay ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’ and his poem, ‘The Waste Land’, illustrates this idea. An artistic patchwork that unites the traditions, myths, and beliefs of the East and West with its multitude of cultural allusions and various intertextual references, Eliot had to provide additional notes for some of his poem because it was so rich with literary and anthropological references. It’s a typical modernist poem in being such a collage, but it’s amazing just how much ‘The Waste Land’ depends on the work of other writers, and an understanding of other cultures, to make much sense at all.
THE WISEST WOMAN IN EUROPE
Take Madame Sosostris, for example. The poem clearly indicates she’s a mystic, a clairvoyant who can read Tarot cards, but a fuller appreciation of her role emerges when you realise she’s an allusion to Aldous Huxley’s novel Crome Yellow. Crome Yellow focuses on the disenchantment of an age that had seen The Great War and its aftermath, so referencing such a work adds to the mood Eliot is to build upon throughout ‘The Waste Land’. Additionally, in Crome Yellow, Sesostris is a man dressed as fortune teller woman, so now the character of ‘The Waste Land’ is also sexually ambiguous by association.
Ambiguity and ideas of transformation are key to Eliot’s poem: we have Philomel’s transformation into a bird; the use of Tiresias who changed sex; Actaeon’s transformation into a stag. There is also ambiguity in the role of narrator for it transforms several times throughout the various sections; rather than a consistent narrator figure there is a merging of voices, a fluidity of identity that crosses boundaries and knows no restriction of age, race, or gender. Madame Sosostris’s card of the Phoenician Sailor readies the reader for this as those ‘pearls that were his eyes’ alludes to Shakespeare’s The Tempest, the line featuring in Ariel’s song which is one of transformation ‘into something rich and strange’. In using so many cultural references, ‘The Waste Land’ does exactly that, making something rich and strange from its different sources.
HURRY UP PLEASE IT’S TIME
The concept of change is closely related to that of time. Eliot’s interest in this is emphasised by the repeated cry of ‘HURRY UP PLEASE IT’S TIME’, the pub call for last orders strikingly out of place alongside the various historical references within ‘The Waste Land’. The Sibyl, aging beyond normal mortality; Tiresias, resurrected from the dead to foresee the future; Philomel, living eternally as the nightingale: each of these figures embodies time. Madame Sosostris, too, is a similar figure for she is foretelling the future via her ‘wicked pack of cards’. She is a prophet figure like the Sibyl and Tiresias, and as her cards reveal the future, so do they foreshadow elements of the poem. The ‘drowned Phoenician Sailor’ appears later and ‘fear death by water’ warns of this forth section of the poem, whereas the ‘one-eyed merchant’ recurs as ‘Mr. Eugenides, the Smyrna merchant’ of part three. Eliot associates the ‘Hanged Man’ with the hooded figure of part five and the ‘crowds of people’ are met again flowing over London Bridge. Such internal allusions serve to create a sense of unity within an otherwise fragmented poem, developing themes and concerns which are highlighted as timeless by the historical allusions. It’s a particularly effective way to emphasise one theme of the poem: regeneration.
I DO NOT FIND THE HANGED MAN
In being self-referential and repetitive, and in employing allusions to previous works and myths to resurrect sources of the past, ‘The Waste Land’ is itself an act of regeneration. Figures emphasising this include ‘The Hanged Man’ of Madame Sosostris’s pack, associated in Eliot’s mind with the Hanged God of Frazer’s well-known book, The Golden Bough. This Norse god, Odin, drank from a well of knowledge, but he had to trade one of his eyes to do so, making him similar to the one-eyed merchant of line 52. The hanged god reference, however, comes from the time he speared himself and hung as a corpse, again in a desire for secret knowledge; after nine days and nights he was able to cast off death and thus become a figure of regeneration.
Yet despite these references to regeneration, there seems to be a contradictory desire for finality in the poem. Again, various allusions emphasise this. Sybil laments ‘I want to die’ in the epigraph and we are shown fear in the ‘handful of dust’ that is her longevity. References to Cleopatra, Dido, and Ophelia remind us of suicide, whilst the ‘shanti shanti shanti’ of the final line directly mimics the formal ending of Hindu literature. However, any possibility of an ending to ‘The Waste Land’ is denied entirely because of such references: allusions that flit back and forth across time mean the poem can’t finish.
Cultural references to regeneration and fertility make an otherwise bleak poem rather optimistic. The Fisher King of Arthurian legend, indicated here by the ‘man with three staves’, had a sickness that was reflected in the state of the country, his own weakness and sterility making it a barren waste land. He and his realm were one. Many have read Eliot’s poem as an expression of the disillusionment of a generation or a criticism of contemporary society and its effect on the individual, and it has become something of a cliché, but this allusion to The Fisher King also represents hope, for to cure the individual is to cure the land, and vice versa. The Fisher King also adds to the poem’s mythological feel, and in being without precise history, myth can explain past, present, and future, reminding the reader of Eliot’s views regarding literature and simultaneous existence. ‘The Waste Land’ is regenerative. It ‘breeds lilacs out of the dead land’ that is the past, ‘stirring dull roots with spring rain’ whilst at the same time using the past to interpret the present and future.
THERE ARE ONLY YOU AND I TOGETHER
Myth does more than extend the poem’s span across time or emphasise its significance; it creates a poem that is impersonal. There is no clear definition of the poet within ‘The Waste Land’ and the multicultural references, together with the fragmented structure, forces our attention to the content and deliberately makes identifying a singular poetic voice difficult. By employing the words and phrases of other poets before him, Eliot is able to keep his distance; he’s there, but he’s ‘the third who walks always beside you’, glimpsed but never really seen. ‘The Waste Land’ is less about writing and more about reading. Even Madame Sosostris, who may be considered a poet figure inasmuch as she reveals truth, is really primarily a reader for she finds her truths in cards which demand interpretation. But even she is forbidden to see the blank card which the merchant carries, suggesting that full interpretation will always be elusive.
THINKING OF THE KEY, EACH CONFIRMS A PRISON
Eliot’s poem defies any definitive reading, and he acknowledges this via figures like the Sibyl, Tiresias, and Madame Sosostris, figures associated with riddles. Considering the complexity of the poem, such references are very apt. But do you have to understand all of the puzzle to enjoy the poem? Certainly not; simply reading it aloud is enough for that. A deeper appreciation of ‘The Waste Land’ may come from understanding each allusion, but the use of so many that are obscure seems to mark a deliberate attempt to reintroduce an element of mystery to poetry, the intertextual references teasing with additional depths of meaning rather than simply validating the work by indirectly namedropping Ovid, Dante, Wagner, Milton, Shakespeare. There is barely a single line within the poem that does not refer to another source, be it another poem, the Bible, Greek, Roman, or Germanic myth, Eastern mantra or Australian army ballad, and readings of ‘The Waste Land’ are just as numerous and varied. The cultural references of the poem are rather like the cards of Madame Sosostris, each depending upon individual interpretation, for anything else would be too restrictive. Rather than existing independently in an apparently fragmented structure, and far from making a ‘sprawling chaotic poem’ as Eliot claimed, the allusions and intertextual references in ‘The Waste Land’ coexist to bind it into a unified pack that can be dealt and read again in different ways. It’s up to the reader just how ‘wicked’ they allow the pack to be.
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by Nick Engler
Wood is a cantankerous substance; there’s no two ways about it. Its virtues, of course, are legendary. It’s attractive, abundant and easy to work. Pound for pound, it’s stronger than steel. If properly finished and cared for it will last indefinitely. But none of that makes up for the fact that it’s a complex and often perplexing building material.Unlike metals and plastics, whose properties are fairly consistent, wood is wholly inconsistent. It expands and contracts in all directions, but not at the same rate.It’s stronger in one direction than it is in another. Its appearance changes not only from species to species, but from log to log — sometimes board to board.That being so, how can you possibly use this stuff to make a fine piece of furniture? Or a fine birdhouse, for that matter? To work wood — and have it work for you — you must understand three of its unique properties:
• Wood has grain.
• Wood moves more across the grain than along it.
• Wood has more strength along the grain than across it.
Sounds trite, I know. These are “everyone-knows-that” garden-variety facts. But there is more grist here for your woodworking mill than might first appear.
Wood Has Grain
As a tree grows, most of the wood cells align themselves with the axis of the trunk, limb or root. These cells are composed of long thin bundles of fibers, about 100 times longer than they are wide. This is what gives wood its grain direction.Additionally, a tree grows in concentric layers, producing annual rings. You must pay close attention to these two characteristics — grain direction and annual rings — the way a sailor watches the wind. Ignore them, and they’ll bite you bigtime.Sawyers commonly use two methods to cut trees into boards, each revealing a different type of grain.
• Plain-sawn boards are cut tangent to the annual rings. The sawyer “cuts around”the log, turning it for each series of cuts so the faces of the boards will show mostly flat grain (also called tangential or plain grain).
• Quartersawn boards are cut through the radius of the growth rings. The sawyer cuts the logs into quarters or bolts, and then saw each bolt so the boards show quarter grain (or radial grain) on their faces.
Lumber doesn’t always show a single type of grain on its face. Plain-sawn boards in particular may show mixed grain — flat grain in one area and quarter grain in another. The grain between the two, where the surface is cut at a 30- to 60-degree angle to the annual rings, displays rift grain.Each type of grain has a distinct pattern, depending on the wood species.You can use these grain patterns to enhance the design of your furniture or your bird-houses. More importantly, if you know how to “read” the patterns, you can predict which way the wood will move and how much.
For the full article (from the June 2000 issue of Popular Woodworking Magazine), click the title below:
Here are some supplies and tools we find essential in our everyday work around the shop. We may receive a commission from sales referred by our links; however, we have carefully selected these products for their usefulness and quality.
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- German course A1.1 – no (or very limited) German knowledge
- German course A1.2 – basic German knowledge (A1.1)
On the level A1 your language competence will be continuously built up in the skills listening, speaking, reading and writing by our experienced German trainers in small groups with a maximum of nine participants. You learn daily-used phrases, simple sentences and you are able to give and ask for basic information.
The basis for advanced grammar on higher levels is set and practised in our courses on the level A1. After you finish the courses on the level A1 you can talk about your daily life, personal information and familiar topics, when the conversation speed is slow and the diction of your conversation partner is simple and clearly articulated.
Course material: Menschen A1 volume 1 (A1.1) | Menschen A1 volume 2 (A1.2)
Language levels according to CEFR: German A1 | Levels: A1.1 und A1.2
Test preparation upon request: ÖSD A1 Grundstufe Deutsch 1 | telc A1 | ÖIF A1 – Fit für Österreich
A1.1 – 1 month | A1.2 – 1 month
Finish one level in only one month!
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Esdras Calderan/Wikimedia Commons
Everybody knows that the Scientific Revolution began in the 16th century, when Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo (plus some philosophical input from Francis Bacon) revived the long dormant Greek love for knowledge about nature. But in fact the seeds of that revolution had been planted three centuries earlier, when a handful of thinkers, most of them religious scholars, began contemplating rational explanations for worldly phenomena. My rankings of them are guaranteed to be at least as good as pretournament NCAA basketball polls.
10. Adam Marsh (?-1259, aka Doctor Illustris)
Very little is known about Marsh, a Franciscan friar who was a student of Robert Grosseteste at Oxford. But Marsh was apparently an accomplished mathematician and was highly regarded by Roger Bacon, who considered Marsh in the same intellectual category as Grosseteste. That was high praise from Bacon, who thought most of his scientific contemporaries were dolts.
9. Zakariya al-Qazwini (c. 1203-1283)
Al-Qazwini was born in Persia. He studied in Damascus and later became a judge in what is now Iraq. His own insights were not especially groundbreaking, but he had vast knowledge of science and wrote major works on geography and the nature of the universe. As with most scientists of the era, al-Qazwini’s ideas were mixed in with religion, but he did believe that appreciating the spiritual wonder in the world required scientific knowledge about nature. That’s enough to get him into the Top 10, as there aren’t all that many candidates.
8. Henrik Harpestræng (?-1244)
Reputed to be the physician for King Erik Plovpenning of Denmark, Harpestræng wrote treatises on the medical use of herbs and other drugs and was a major figure in bringing “modern” medicine to Scandinavian countries. Roskilde, the capital of Denmark in those days, became an important center for studying medicine thanks to Harpestræng’s influence.
7. Peter Nightingale (aka Peter Philomena of Dacia, Petrus Danus)
His birth and death dates are unknown, but Nightingale was active in the last decade of the 13th century as a mathematician and astronomer. Originally from Denmark, he taught in Bologna and spent time in Paris before returning to Denmark. He wrote an important commentary on arithmetic, proposed a new way of calculating cube roots, and authored many important astronomical tables, some especially valuable for calendrical purposes. He also constructed novel astronomical instruments for computing the positions of the planets.
6. Witelo of Silesia (d. after 1275)
A Polish natural philosopher, Witelo apparently wrote several treatises on various earth, space and biological sciences, but most of them have not survived. A major work on optics, though, is enough to establish him as one of the century’s top thinkers. He surveyed the geometry of light rays, the nature of color and explored the physiology of vision and the nature of perceptual illusions. Witelo seems to have been influenced by Grosseteste and Bacon; in turn Witelo’s work influenced many later scientists, including Descartes and Galileo.
5. Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170-after 1240, aka Leonardo of Pisa)
Western Europe’s first big-name mathematician, Leonardo learned math as an accountant for his father’s business. That job took him traveling to places like Syria and Egypt, in the course of which he found out about Arabic numerals, which he introduced to Europe to make every accountant’s life easier.
He is also famous for the series of numbers named for him in which each number is the sum of the preceding two. So if a test asks you what number comes next in the series 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 … a good guess would be 21.
4. Peter Peregrinus (aka Pierre de Maricourt)
Dates for birth and death unknown, but his most famous work, a treatise on magnetism, was completed in 1269. He might have been an engineer who served in the army of the King of Sicily during a campaign against the city of Lucera in Italy. Peter’s work provided the first comprehensive account of all the scientific aspects of magnetism. He particularly emphasized the physics of magnetic polarity and suggested improvements in magnetic compasses. His treatise was instrumental in the modern science of magnetism initiated by William Gilbert more than three centuries later.
3. Saint Albertus Magnus (c. 1200-1280, aka Albert the Great, Doctor Universalis)
Very few scientists achieve sainthood or get nicknamed “the great,” but Albert was exceptional. Born in Bavaria, he studied in Italy where he learned all about Aristotle before becoming a Dominican preacher. He later taught in Germany before studying theology in Paris. Albert wrote on all aspects of science and played a major role in bringing Aristotelian science to western Europe through elaborate commentaries on Aristotle’s works. On matters that Aristotle hadn’t treated, Albert filled in the gap.
Albert was a master of the entire spectrum of scientific knowledge; he emphasized that the scientific understanding of reality was compatible with religion and theology. His most famous student was Saint Thomas Aquinas. Albert himself was awarded sainthood in 1931. In 1941 Pope Pius XII designated him the patron saint for scientific researchers. One notable contemporary was not so impressed with Albert, though. Roger Bacon wrote that Albert’s useful writings could have been summed up in a 20th of his works’ actual length.
2. Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1292, aka Doctor Mirabilis)
Some consider Bacon the first modern scientist. Some older sources say he was a student of Grosseteste’s at Oxford, but there may not be solid evidence for that. In any case, Bacon was certainly influenced by Grosseteste, whose work he admired. Later Bacon studied at Paris, perhaps under Peter Peregrinus.
Bacon was a shrill advocate for experiment; he was an independent thinker, disdainful of authority and did not suffer fools well, all excellent qualities for a good scientist. Bacon became a Franciscan friar, though, and the Franciscans kept him quiet. He nevertheless wrote on all areas of science and made remarkably prescient forecasts of future developments, even envisioning machines for traveling on land or water, submarines and air travel.
1. Robert Grosseteste (c. 1170-1253)
An intellectual giant, no matter that his last name translates as “fathead.” He both recognized the importance of Aristotle but also insisted that experiments, not Aristotle’s writings, settled questions about nature. Grosseteste was an expert on every area of knowledge, and he established the scientific spirit in the minds of many medieval scholars. His treatises and philosophy influenced and inspired all the great thinkers that followed him in the 13th century, including Bacon and Albertus Magnus. Grosseteste emphasized the importance of mathematics and applied it in detail to optics and other realms of natural science.
Most of all, he emphasized that reason was not incompatible with religious faith, and that finding the rational explanations for the entirety of natural phenomena was a noble undertaking. “Truly Grosseteste was one of the great encyclopedic thinkers of the world,” his biographer Francis Seymour Stevenson wrote in the 19th century. “In the domain of intellectual activity Grosseteste must … be regarded as the founder and inspirer of … the encyclopedic school of the thirteenth century, imparting to it a unity of purpose and a loftiness of conception to which those who followed him hardly ever attained.”
Follow me on Twitter: @tom_siegfried
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|Classification and external resources|
Viral pneumonia is a pneumonia caused by a virus. Viruses are one of the two major causes of pneumonia, the other being bacteria; less common causes are fungi and parasites. Viruses are the most common cause of pneumonia in children, while in adults bacteria are a more common cause.
Signs and symptoms
Common causes of viral pneumonia are:
- Influenza virus A and B
- Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
- Human parainfluenza viruses (in children)
Rarer viruses that commonly result in pneumonia include:
- Adenoviruses (in military recruits)
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS coronavirus)
Viruses that primarily cause other diseases, but sometimes cause pneumonia include:
- Herpes simplex virus (HSV), mainly in newborns
- Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
- Measles virus
- Rubella virus
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV), mainly in people with immune system problems
Viruses must invade cells in order to reproduce. Typically, a virus will reach the lungs by traveling in droplets through the mouth and nose with inhalation. There, the virus invades the cells lining the airways and the alveoli. This invasion often leads to cell death either through direct killing by the virus or by self-destruction through apoptosis.
Further damage to the lungs occurs when the immune system responds to the infection. White blood cells, in particular lymphocytes, are responsible for activating a variety of chemicals (cytokines) which cause leaking of fluid into the alveoli. The combination of cellular destruction and fluid-filled alveoli interrupts the transportation of oxygen into the bloodstream.
In addition to the effects on the lungs, many viruses affect other organs and can lead to illness affecting many different bodily functions. Viruses also make the body more susceptible to bacterial infection; for this reason, bacterial pneumonia often complicates viral pneumonia.
In cases of viral pneumonia where influenza A or B are thought to be causative agents, patients who are seen within 48 hours of symptom onset may benefit from treatment with oseltamivir or zanamivir. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) may be treated with ribavirin. Herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus infections are usually treated with aciclovir, whilst ganciclovir is used to treat cytomegalovirus. There is no known efficacious treatment for pneumonia caused by SARS coronavirus, adenovirus, hantavirus, parainfluenza or H1N1 virus; treatment is largely supportive.
Viral pneumonia occurs in about 200 million people a year which includes about 100 million children and 100 million adults.
- "viral pneumonia" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, U.S.A. What Causes Pneumonia?
- Table 13-7 in: Mitchell, Richard Sheppard; Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson. Robbins Basic Pathology: With STUDENT CONSULT Online Access. Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2973-7. 8th edition.
- Ruuskanen, O; Lahti, E, Jennings, LC, Murdoch, DR (2011-04-09). "Viral pneumonia.". Lancet 377 (9773): 1264–75. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6. PMID 21435708.
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- What Is Known About UTIs
- Healthy Steps: UTIs—First Steps
- Healthy Steps: UTIs—Full Program
- Preventing UTIs
- From Dr. Deborah's Desk
It starts as a twinge right after you urinate. Then you notice a burning during the next trip to the bathroom, which happened painfully soon after the last trip, and yielded little urine. Pretty soon you are automatically drinking more water so that at least something happens when you respond to the constant feeling of urging in your bladder. And then you realize, "Ahah, a bladder infection!"
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This book tells the story of the late colonial and early reservation history of the Seneca Indians, and of the prophet Handsome Lake, his visions, and the moral and religious revitalization of an American Indian society that he and his followers achieved in the years around 1800. Until this volume, there has been no single book written that relates the history and life style of one of the Iroquois peoples with the encompassing depth and breadth of knowledge, clarity, and interest that the subject deserves. Finally, this book does it for the Seneca. It is enthralling history, told in a knowledgeable, highly readable way.
Anthony Francis Clarke Wallace is a Canadian-American anthropologist who specializes in Native American cultures, especially the Iroquois. His research expresses an interest in the intersection of cultural anthropology and psychology. He is famous for the theory of revitalization movements. He was born in Toronto, Ontario, in 1923, the son of the historian Paul Wallace, and did both undergraduate and graduate work at the University of Pennsylvania, where he was a student of A. Irving Hallowell and Frank Speck. He received his Ph.D. in 1950. He later taught at the University of Pennsylvania, where his students included the anthropologist Raymond D. Fogelson. He was also for a time the Director of Clinical Research at the Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute.
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Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common natural occurring degenerative conditions of the body’s joints affecting people of all ages however it is more prevalent as we age. It is characterised primarily by a loss of cartilage around a joint, which helps to provide smooth gliding of a joint, and results in pain and swelling as the joint loses its ability to work in a smooth fluid process. So why does osteoarthritis occur? The primary reason we see damage build in joints is loss of the normal function of the joint. The joint has no direct blood supply so it is reliant upon function for nutrients to be pushed into the joint as movement occurs. If normal joint movement is diminished by change in alignment, the nourishing process is inhibited and the damage of osteoarthritis starts to build.
Research indicates that 90% of people will have some type of osteoarthritic changes occurring in their weight bearing joints by the time they are 40 years of age. While not all of these are symptomatic, patients with osteoarthritis present regularly to their doctors or chiropractors with joint pain with or without inflammation. These damaged joints can be irritated by too much activity or not enough activity. Different joints are affected depending on posture, injury, past history and a range of hereditary factors.
It can affect any joint in the body however the body’s major weight bearing joints such as the knees, hips, lumbar spine and ankles are more commonly affected than others. Pain is the most common symptom.
Chiropractors provides conservative care that may give effective results even with joints severely damaged by osteoarthritis . A thorough assessment is vital for treatment prescription. Treatment may comprise of:
- Spinal manipulation and joint mobilisation to restore normal joint function (or as close as possible)
- Exercise prescription to develop an individualised plan of exercises to improve flexibility and strength.
- Assistance with functional, gait and balance training to address impairments of positional awareness, balance and strength in individuals who are at higher risk of injury due to falls.
- Soft tissue therapy to the surrounding tissues, often the pain associated with osteoarthritis involves more than just the joint
- A home exercise program if done regularly will assist in reducing additional osteoarthritic flare-ups. Unfortunately long term compliance with this management plan does not always occur. Many patients will discontinue exercising once pain has subsided and function semi-restored until the next flare-up of pain. This can create further joint damage and deterioration by the repetitive cycle of exercise and inactivity.
A maintenance chiropractic visit every 4-6 weeks is an effective method of maintaining joint mobility and nourishing. It will also allow the chiropractor to review, modify and reinforce the prescribed exercises. Research indicates that while maintenance is ongoing, the overall medical costs are reduced for the patient due to the control of acute flare-ups.
Don’t be Afraid to Reach Out!
The best people to understand the challenges you face are others with arthritis. They can commiserate with your difficulties, share encouragement, and give you tips that come from their own experiences. Sometimes, just sharing that you’ve had a hard day and having someone respond, “I understand completely” can help you feel better.
As for friends and family, be honest with them—let them know how you may need extra help. Tell your kids you need them to play quietly while you nap or tell your spouse that he or she is in charge of dinner. Remember that your loved ones want to support you, they just may not know how.
Stretch of the Month
Forward Fold Stretch
- Start by standing with your feet shoulder-width apart and slowly bend forward from the waist. Keep your legs as straight as possible and don’t bounce.
- Don’t worry if you can’t reach the floor; you can even reach for a chair cushion to start if that’s what your flexibility allows.
- Hold the stretch for 20 to 30 seconds three times.
PH: (08) 9310 1788
Specific times are available for New Patients outside those listed below
Tuesday 7.00am-11.00am Wednesday 2.30pm-7.00pm Thursday 7.00am-11.00am Friday 8.00am-11.00am
Ask Our Chiropractor
Subscribe to receive our free montly newsletter.
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- Open Access
Unraveling the diversity, phylogeny, and ecological role of cryptic Coleopteran species of Vadodara district: a first comparative approach from India
The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology volume 79, Article number: 53 (2018)
More than 350 K described species, Coleoptera (beetles) represent the most diverse order from Class Insecta in the entire animal kingdom. However, their phylogeny is highly controversial due to their morphological crypticness and multiple markers used previously for sequence homology. Although many studies suggest that their diversity currently relies majorly on morphological analysis, nevertheless DNA barcodes may provide a functional, standardized tool for their unique identification. In the present report, a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene has been proposed as standard DNA barcoding marker for the identification of organisms.
To evaluate this hypothesis, a random sampling was conducted in and around Vadodara, Gujarat, where 2690 individual of 65 species belonging to 16 families were reported from different sites, and diversity indices were employed to unravel the species composition of that habitat. Further, 12 beetles from dominant families were selected for sequence analysis using various bioinformatics tools and were compared with the rest of the beetles to obtain a more robust phylogeny which is not reported earlier in previous studies.
Hence, the present study suggests that Scarabaeidae tends to be more diverse in and nearby of Vadodara compared to all other families of Coleoptera and while in contrast Chrysomelidae showed maximum diversity of pest species. DNA barcoding and nucleotide analysis resolves the phylogeny of controversial taxa; (Adephaga(Gyrinidae+ (Dytiscidae++ Carabidae)) (Polyphaga(Histeridae+Buprestidae+Lampyridae+Elateridae+(Scarabaeidae+(Coccinelidae+ Apionidae+Curculionidae+ (Meloidae+Tenebrionidae+(Cerambycidae+Chrysomelidae)))))).
Insects comprise the most diverse and successful group of multicellular organisms on the planet, and they contribute significantly to vital ecological functions such as pollination, pest control, decomposition, and maintenance of wildlife species (Losey and Vaughan, 2006). The composition of this group reflects the dynamicity of the ecosystem (Fagundes et al. 2011) and is fundamental in the investigating of the landscape structure. An approximation of 350,000 species of beetles that is identified which comprise about 40% of all insects and 30% of all animals out of which 15,088 are reported from India (Choate, 2001; Kazmi and Ramamurthy, 2004). Beetles comprise of 25% of all described species (Hunt et al. 2007).
The Coleoptera can be found in nearly all natural habitats, that is, vegetative foliage, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots, even inside plant tissue like galls, tissue, including dead or decaying ones (Gullan and Cranston, 2010). About three fourth of beetle species are phytophagous in both the larval and adult stages, living in or on plants, wood, fungi, and a variety of stored products, including cereals, tobacco, and dried fruits (Gillott, 2005). Many of the beetles are considered as pest (Banerjee, 2014); they are also beneficial, acting as predators by controlling the populations of pests (Davis et al. 2001; Shearin et al. 2007; Brown et al. 2010). Some are bio-control agents for, e.g., dung beetles have been successfully used to reduce the populations of certain pestilent flies and parasitic worms that breed in cattle dung (Brown et al. 2010; Kakkar and Gupta, 2010), and they also prompt a series of ecosystem functions ranging from secondary seed dispersal to nutrient cycling and parasite suppression (Nichols et al. 2009), forest disruptions (Davis et al. 2001) and shaping the landscape structure. (Büchs, 2003).
Routine identification based on morphological characters are sometimes difficult and time-consuming if the specimen is damaged or is an immature stage of development, even specialist may be unable to make identification. However, barcoding solves these problems and serves a dual purpose as a new tool in the taxonomists’ toolbox supplementing their traditional knowledge as well as being an innovative device. (Valentini et al. 2008). The DNA barcoding are of high value which helps in obtaining more detailed analysis of the species, broadening our understanding of both phylogenetic signal and population-level variation. (Hajibabaei et al. 2007). In this context, the use of DNA sequences represents a promising and effective tool for fast and accurate species identification. Further, DNA barcoding shares an emphasis on large-scale genetic data acquisition that offers new answers to questions previously beyond the reach of traditional disciplines. It consists of a standardized short sequence of DNA that can be easily generated and characterized for all species on the planet (Koch, 2010).
Globally, Coleoptera is the largest order among insects in terms of described species diversity (Foottit and Adler, 2009). Despite “the Creator’s inordinate fondness for beetles” (Puspitasari, 2016), Coleoptera has not been favored to date by barcodes. For example, using the public data portal available through BOLD v.4, there were only 23,000 public barcode records for beetles forming 32,758 BIN’S from 159 countries. By comparison, the others of the top four most diverse insect orders are represented by approximately 2.5-fold (Hymenoptera), 3.5-fold (Diptera), and 8.5-fold (Lepidoptera). Moreover, several important studies on genetic variability within and between beetle species have largely employed genetic regions other than the standard animal barcode region (Bergsten et al. 2012). Thus, the DNA barcoding of Coleoptera is still in its infancy, especially when considering their known (Foottit and Adler, 2009) and projected (Odegaard, 2000) global diversity.
Diversity of Coleoptera based on their morphological characters in Gujarat has been reported earlier from Shoolpaneshwar sanctuary (Pilo et al. 1996); from Gir PA, (Parikh, 2001) from Vadodara district, (Naidu and Kumar, 2011), and from Gujarat (Thakkar and Parikh, 2016), if the identification of beetles with DNA barcodes are concerned, no studies have been reported for Vadodara district till date. Moreover, studies linking the diversity and ecological status (pest and beneficial) are scarce. Hence, the present study aims to find the diversity and classify beetles with the help of DNA barcode approach in agriculture field of Vadodara district.
Materials and methods
Site selection and insect collection
Vadodara was surveyed and a total of 20 sites were visited monthly without any habitat bias keeping agricultural fields common in each (Fig. 1). They were collected by standard collecting methods, viz. hand-picking, light trap, net-sweeping, and pitfall trap. In addition, visual sighting and photo documentation were also carried out. Following the standard protocols of pinning each specimen was pinned for further identification. Identification was done by using standard reference books and published articles according to their morphological traits till species level or morphospecies. The species identified were confirmed by comparing with the authentic specimens from the repository at Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
Isolation of DNA, PCR, and sequencing
For DNA isolation, the protocol from Silveira et al. (1998) was followed by required modification. The procedure used was as follows: muscles were removed from the thoracic and abdominal region and were homogenized with lysis buffer (0.4 M NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 2 mM EDTA pH 8.0, containing proteinase k, and 2% SLS). Then, the homogenate was incubated at 60 °C for 1 h, later 6 M NaCl was added to the suspension and vortexed for 1 min, followed by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was removed, and an equal amount of isopropanol was added (1:1) and was further incubated at − 20 °C for 1 h followed by next cycle of centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 20 min. The obtained pellet was washed with 70% ethanol and kept in 25 μl of milliQ water at − 20 °C condition for further process. The integrity of DNA was checked by using 0.8% Agarose using gel electrophoresis. Quantification of DNA was done by calculating the ratio of optical density obtained at 260/280 nm. The DNA product was then amplified in PCR at 94 °C denaturation for 1 min, 45 °C annealing for 1:30 min and50 °C for 1:30 min, and extension was carried out 72 °C for 7 min. A total of 35 cycles were performed using primers LCO-1490 5′GTCAACAAATCATAAAGATATTGG-3′, HCO2198–5′TAAACTTCAGGGTGACCAAAAAATCA-3′ (Folmer et al. 1994). The amplified product was purified using the thermos-Exosap kit (cat. no. 78200.200.UL.), and sequencing steps were performed according to Yuan et al. (2015a, b).
The diversity indices like Shannon diversity indices, Pielou’s evenness, and Margalef’s richness were calculated by PAST 3.X software.
Sequence validation and bioinformatics analysis
The sequence was validated and specific contigs of 12 beetles were obtained using BioEdit 18.104.22.168.
Further, the sequence was submitted to BOLD v.4 having process Id as given in Additional file 1: Table S1 and barcode gap analysis (Additional file 2: Table S2) was performed to find out the distance from the nearest neighbor. To have a holistic approach, COI sequences of 43 beetles were downloaded from NCBI as given in (Additional file 2: Table S2). Nucleotide composition and codon usage of all the beetles was determined using the MEGA7 software. The sequence was subjected to strand asymmetric analysis which was calculated using the formula(s)
AT-skew = (A−T)/(A + T), GC skew = (G−C)/(G + C).
Taxa selection and phylogenetic analysis
Among all the families reported Scarabaeidae, Carabidae, and Tenebrionidae species were selected due to their abundance. Chrysomelidae and Cerambycidae, due to their pest status, on the other hand, Lampyridae and Gyrinidae were selected due to its sparse availability and only representative of water beetle respectively. Hence, a total 65 individuals belonging to 16 families found in the present study, from which 56 species were selected for phylogenetic tree analysis. Furthermore, it was subjected to tree construction using statistical neighborhood joining distance where the test of phylogeny was performed using the bootstrap method with 500 replicates and was subjected to nucleotide type substitution. The maximum composite likelihood method and Gamma rate (G) were used to assess the diversity, and complete deletion was applied to obtain the complete sequence. This was accomplished through phyloT and was viewed in interactive Tree of life (iTOL) and re-confirmed in MEGA7 software.
Diversity, pest-status, and indices
During the present survey, 2690 individuals representing 65 species, belonging to 16 families of Coleoptera were recorded. Annotated checklist and pest statuses of recorded species are represented in Table 1. Of the total 16 families, Scarabaeidae was found to be the most dominant with 18 representatives, followed by Carabidae with 9 species; Chrysomelidae with 8 species, followed by Cerambycidae having 5 species. Tenebrionidae, Meloidae, and Coccinellidae were represented by four species and Elateridae with three species. Only two representatives were from Dytiscidae and Curculionidae. Families Gyrinidae, Buprestidae, Histeridae, Apionidae, Cicindelidae, and Lampyridae were represented by only one species each.
As far as diversity indices are concerned, Scarabaeidae, Carabidae, and Chrysomelidae families were found to be most diverse and rich among all families with Shannon diversity index above 2.0 and Margalef’s Index in the range of 1.1–2.5 (Fig. 2). Tenebrionidae, Elateridae, Meloidae, Coccinellidae, and Cerambycidae had Shannon index ranged between 1.08 and 1.56, and the Margalef’s richness index was in the range of 0.23–0.56 indicating moderately rich families. Buprestidae, Gyrinidae, Apionidae, Histeridae, Cicindelidae, and Lampyridae had just one representative species making the least diverse families (Fig. 2). Pest and beneficial status was observed in different species as an ecological evaluation parameter. Among all the species reported, the highest numbers of Phytophagus pest species were from Chrysomelidae (six) trailed by Scarabaeidae (five), Carabidae (four), and Cerambycidae (four). However, the beneficial insects were represented by Scarabaeidae (five) as decomposers, followed by Elateridae, Meloidae, and Buprestidae as pollinators having one species each.
Universal primers were used in this study, which perfectly amplified a 710 bp fragment of the mitochondrial COI gene when applied to template DNA (Fig. 3) from the specimens as shown in Fig. 4. Twelve species barcode sequences were obtained from the seven selected families. Table 2 represents the processID and sampleID of the species submitted on BOLD v.4.
To find the sequence composition, GC% analysis was performed which resulted in decreasing order as follows; O. nasicora (39.4%), B. rufomacula (35.9%), C. maderae (35.3%), Luciola sp. (34.9%), Pherophophus sp. (34.4%), Mesostena sp. (33.4%), Oides sp. (31.9%), G. miliaris (31.6%), X. jamaicensis (30.9%), G. natator (29.9%), P. albipes (29.3%). Further, the sequence was analyzed for GC and AT skews, where GC skew was found the maximum in Luciola sp. (0.1), whereas the lowest was found in O. nasicora (− 0.2) among the selected species. However, overall comparison with other species, the maximum GC skew was shared between Chlaenius sp. and Luciola sp. of Carabidae and Lampyridae respectively (Fig. 5).
However, the AT% was ranging from 70.7% to 60.6%, where P. albipes was more AT-biased (70.7%), while O. nasicora had the lowest AT% (60.4%). Additionally, AT skew analysis revealed that Luciola sp. (0.10) has the highest AT value, whereas the lowest one was C. indicus (− 0.13). To map the AT richness of selected species among the other species, we found that P. strennus had the highest value (+ 0.13), while Trachysida sp. was recorded with the lowest value of (− 0.2) (Fig. 6).
Coleoptera is considered to be one of the most controversial orders of Class Insecta, as it is the dominant order representing the highest level of species among other insect orders. Hence, the neighbor-joining statistical method for phylogeny reconstruction was performed which yielded maximum likelihood among the selected species. The sequence analysis also revealed that the computed overall mean distance was 833.28 ± 83.3 among the species; however, the pairwise mean distance showed a remarkable range of 2254.84 (Trachysida sp.) to 0.024 (O. taurus) of individual species comparison as depicted in Table 3 and Additional file 2: Table S2.
Nucleotide substitution with maximum composite likelihood method with Gamma distribution (G) yielded the sequence similarity suggesting that among all the species selected for the study, G. natator, P. albipes, and Pheropsophus sp. belong to suborder Adephaga, while other nine species belong to Polyphaga. The present study also reported that scarabaeids were closest to Elateridae and Coccinellidae compared to other Polyphagans. On the other hand, Carabidae was found to be closer to Dytiscidae (Fig. 7).
Further, we tried to look into the phylogeny of individual species (Additional file 1: Table S1) taking into consideration only barcoded species, the study showed that in family Scarabaeidae, O. nasicora, and X. jamaicensis were phylogenetically more close belonging to subfamily of Dynastini. On the other hand, C. indicus and G. miliaris were closest belonging to subfamily Scarabaeinae. In case of Carabidae, the obtained phylogeny showed that P. albipes, C. maderae, Pheropsophus sp. belong to Platininae, Carabinae, and Brachininae respectively (Fig. 8). The least distance was obtained between P. albipes and C. maderae suggesting they are more phylogenetically close. Moreover, as in the present study, individual species reported from Gyrinidae, Tenebrionidae, Chrysomelidae, Lampyridae, and Cerambycidae were less, it is difficult to comment on its phylogeny.
In the present study, an attempt has been made to correlate the identification and assess the diversity of Coleoptera of Vadodara morphologically and genetically. An annotated list of the Coleoptera is represented in Table 1. Of all the collected species, the Scarabaeidae was the most dominant which is not a surprise as it is the largest family of the order Coleoptera. Unlike other groups of insects, the members of the family Scarabaeidae contain both coprophagous (beneficial) and phytophagous (harmful) beetles. The coprophagous represented by 14 species have an important ecological role through their habitat of burrowing and burying of dung. This performs a series of ecological functions such as nutrient cycling, soil aeration, and secondary seed dispersal. (Larsen 2004; Chandra et al. 2012a, b; Chandra and Gupta, 2013). On the other hand, phytophagous (leaf chafers) represented by four species were the agricultural pests of various commercial crops, feeding on leaves, flowers, fruits, roots, and other parts of the plant. A good assemblage of Scarabaeidae is thus self-explanatory. (Chatterjee, 2009; Thakkar and Parikh, 2016). Due to the presence of diverse vegetation, five Phytophagus pest beetles were recorded, two pest-feeding species, and five species of decomposers suggest that they were evenly distributed in different habitats.
The second most diverse family was Carabidae, representing a total of nine species. These beetles are increasingly used as a taxonomic study group in biodiversity and as bio-indicators in monitoring or site assessment studies for nature conservation purposes (Ghahari et al. 2010). Four predator species were found in the study that were feeding on small insects and larvae suggesting population of pest species are high due to which Carabids were found more. So an appreciable number of ground beetles in Vadodara and its predator habit thus suggest a positive ecological role of these insects. (Koivula, 2011; Thakkar and Parikh, 2016).
Leaf beetles or Chrysomelidae are considered to be one of important pest family due to their phytophagous feeding habits (Ding et al. 2007; Meissle et al. 2009). In the present study, eight species were reported making it the third most diverse family. Among all, the highest number of Phytophagus pest species was recorded (six) in this family. Furthermore, the remaining data obtained suggests it biological control activity. Hence, feeding characteristic and their high abundance makes them an important component of the food webs and a major component of herbivore guilds as well as an important food component for higher trophic organisms (Sánchez-Reyes et al. 2014).
Tenebrionidae is one more family having the highest number of stored grain pest. Stored product insects have a large economic impact on stored bulk grains and processed commodities. These insects can survive on small amounts of food that accumulate in inaccessible places. (Campbell and Arbogast, 2004). It is estimated that over-all damage caused by stored grain pest account for 10–40% loss annually (Mishra and Tripathi, 2011). The beetles found in this family showed more or less Phytophagus pest habit. Example of tenebrionid species includes Tribolium castaneum, feeds on flour, cereals, meals, crackles’, beans, spices, pasta, etc. (Weston and Rattingourd, 2000). Due to their nocturnal habit, small size, and their burrowing tendency that may have led to less number of Tenebrionidae in this study.
Families like Buprestidae, Apionidae, Lampyridae, and Gyrinidae were very less diverse as beetles of these families are very habitat specific. Hence, in the present study, the less number sighted could be because habitat species studies were not carried out. Buprestidae (jewel beetles) and Meloidae beetles are found nearby flowering plants suggesting their ecological role as pollinators. Gyrinids are water beetle so availability of water determines their presence. A single species of Apionidae family which was collected is Apion clavipes and is considered to be a pest of Pigeon pea (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2009). In case of Elateridae, they were commonly sighted under the bark of the trees. Phytophagus individuals were found on feeding large variety of crops, resulting in damage to seeds, roots, stems, and harvestable plant parts, which can facilitate secondary crop damage by pathogens.
Coccinellidae, Cerambycidae, and Curculionidae families were represented by total of 11 species in the study area. However, as these groups of coleopterans are usually considered to be the harmful one and at no time or place, they were reported to be in aggregation that can lead to the serious problem. Hence, the reported harmful groups of coleopterans are comparatively less. Although records of beetles as habitat indicator are common, however, most of the species collected in this work hold up huge alteration in the environmental factors and there is no substitution of species along with the diversification of the habitat (Spector & Ayzama, 2005; Scheffler 2005; Da Silva et al. 2010). Thus, at this point, it is difficult to comment on their habitat distribution and ecophysiological nature of the studied beetles.
The vast number of insect species are often exceedingly difficult to recognize using only morphological approach (Witt et al. 2006) and thus creates an insurmountable barrier for cataloging total biodiversity by only traditional taxonomy (Blaxter 2004; Pentinsaari et al. 2014), for which morphological identification have fallen short and the DNA barcoding has filled the gap (Bourke et al. 2013; Laurito et al. 2013). Several scientists are now using DNA-barcoding to understand the biodiversity of insects (Hebert et al. 2003; Hajibabaei et al. 2007). In line with this, the present study was focused on barcoding of 12 species on the basis of its habit, number, previously known literature, and its controversial status (Yuan et al. 2016), where barcoding and sequence analysis were totally based on mitochondrial COI. The selection of this marker is based on its low rate of mutation caused by habitat-specific adaptive radiation (Raupach et al. 2010) and so that a concrete phylogenetic tree is constructed of the selected species using standard models (lanfear et al. 2014).
Scarabaeidae considered to be one of the important family in Coleoptera as discussed above was found to be monophyletic to Elateridae, Buprestidae, Lampyridae, and Histeridae. The barcoding of X. jamaicensis and O. nasicora illustrated very less paired-wise distance indicating its phylogenetic closeness. Both the species had almost the same morphological characteristics, i.e., both have horns, similar size, thoracic, and abdominal hairs making it controversial for identification (Dechambre and Lachaume, 2001). However, in the present report, barcoding of these species revealed that both of them belong to individual tribe and genus. Similarly, Carabidae was found to be monophyletic to Gyrinidae; however, it shared homology with Dytiscidae. Species-level phylogeny showed P. albipes and C. maderae showed least paired-wise distance compared to Pheropsophus sp. This is the first study which shows the phylogenetic distance among these species of this family.
Moreover, Gyrinidae was found to be monophyletic to Dytiscidae and polyphyletic to Carabidae. During the present investigation, only G. natator was found as a representative of Gyrinidae and was closest to Eretes sp. belonging from Dytiscidae, suggesting that both shares ancestral characteristics of the clade (Yuan et al. 2016). Similarly, Tenebrionidae was polyphyletic to Cerambycidae and Chrysomelidae. However, it was found to be monophyletic to Meloidae (lanfear et al. 2014). The sister clade of B. rufomaculata, O. bipunctata, and Mesostena sp. was showing lowest pairwise distance to Trachysida sp., P. fuscicornis, and Gonocephalum sp. respectively. Our study is parallel with previous established molecular and morphological studies. (Caterino et al. 2002; Hunt et al. 2007; Pons et al. 2010; Lawrence et al. 2011; Bocak et al. 2014).
GC and AT% provided the evidence of two suborders, Adephaga and Polyphaga. Our results account for the fact that Scarabaeidae forms sister clade with Elateridae, Lampyridae, Buprestidae, and Histeridae. Correspondingly, Carabidae with Dytiscidae and Gyrinidae, Chrysomelidae with Cerambycidae, Tenebrionidae with Meloidae, Curculionidae, and Coccinellidae. Our studies were incongruent with earlier mitochondrial genomes studies of Yuan et al. (2015a, b, 2016).
Despite optimistic views, the taxonomic impediment remains the main concern and thus demands an urgent need for comprehensive biodiversity assessments due to biodiversity crises: the risk of human activity causing mass extinction. Thus, barcoding can accelerate the process of taxonomic inventory. In conclusion, the present study incorporates genetical, morphological, and ecological data which specify its species distribution, richness, and diversity in different sites of Vadodara, Gujarat, and the phylogeny derived from present study unravels the status of unknown species of Coleoptera:
(Adephaga(Gyrinidae+ (Dytiscidae++ Carabidae))
(Polyphaga(Histeridae+Buprestidae+Lampyridae+Elateridae+(Scarabaeidae+(Coccinelidae+ Apionidae+Cucurlionodae+ (Meloidae+Tenebrionidae+(Cerambycidae+Chrysomelidae))))))
Thus, from this study, it can be derived that Scarabidae are the most diverse group of beetles in and around Vadodara, and pest status of beetles are high due to several adaptations. Thus, we suggest further studies are needed to understand the ecophysiological role of different beetle families.
Barcode Of Life Data System
Interactive Tree of life
Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis
Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I
Polymerase chain reaction
Phylogenetic Tree Generator
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The authors are thankful to the head of Department of Zoology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara for providing lab facilities to carry out the present work.
This is a study performed by corresponding authors and her group (other authors) and has not taken any funding from any of the agencies.
Availability of data and materials
Please contact the author(s) for data requests.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All the insects collected were according to the laws of India, and none of the collected species were in the IUCN red list. We declare that we do not need ethical clearance for the present diversity and phylogeny work.
Consent for publication
Not applicable to the present study.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Table S1. Pairwise computation of distance of individual species using MEGA7 software (DOCX 44 kb)
Table S2. The sequence obtained was subjected to barcode gap analysis that represented the distance to nearest neighbor (NN). The barcode gap analysis was performed in BOLD v.4to find the nearest neighbor distance using K2P parameter. The overall mean distance was reported to be 35.95% in the present study (DOCX 11 kb)
About this article
Cite this article
Singhal, S., Thakkar, B., Pandya, P. et al. Unraveling the diversity, phylogeny, and ecological role of cryptic Coleopteran species of Vadodara district: a first comparative approach from India. JoBAZ 79, 53 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41936-018-0062-2
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"If we don't change the direction soon, we'll end up where we're going." Irwin Corey
AI technologies are forecast to add USD 15 trillion to the global economy by 2030. At this moment, around the world, at least 50 countries (including the EU as a whole) have developed, or are in the process of developing, a national AI strategy. Of these, 36 have (or plan to have) either separate strategies in place for public sector AI, or a dedicated focus embedded within a broader strategy.
This means it is quite safe to state that artificial intelligence is far from being a novelty for most individuals around the globe. It also shows that the new technology is already impacting, to a significant extent actually, the way we act as humans in general, and as users of digital products in particular.
AI-powered tools are integrated into various businesses from different areas, ranging from retail and education, to the medical system, cybersecurity and even the defense sector. With so many advancements and considering the effort and investments that the governments put into adopting and further developing AI, it is only normal that we ask ourselves: should this be regulated? Is there a standard we should have in mind when building AI products? Should there be laws, government accountability and corporate transparency?
What is regulation and why would AI need to be regulated?
Regulation of businesses also existed in the ancient Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Modern regulation, however, can be traced back to the 19th and 20th century, when much of the ruling in the US was handled and enforced by regulatory agencies which produced their own administrative laws and procedures under the authority of statutes.
New technologies and groundbreaking discoveries or innovations have always called for new regulations or amendments to the existing ones. And, as with any other change, opinions are divided when it comes to the benefits of regulation. Some believe it hinders progress and is an impediment to corporate and small-business profits and a waste of resources. Others see it as a great way to protect individuals or businesses and to address the potential unintended consequences of disruption. The truth is that regulation should be able to maintain a balance between doing these while also fostering innovation.
With regard to AI, there are a lot of voices calling for such a regulation that would prevent governments and any other businesses from using the technology to their advantage. For instance, Bill Gates, who believes AI will “allow us to produce a lot more goods and services with less labor,” expects labor force dislocations and has suggested a robot tax. Elon Musk, who is well-known for his warnings about AI and its threat to the existence of human civilization, calls for proactive regulation “before it is too late.”
But why would we need to regulate AI? Why not let the technology follow its course and turn into this unprecedented, amazing tool?
1. AI can be both good and evil
Artificial intelligence has indeed proven it can bring unexpected benefits to numerous sectors. From less boring and time consuming jobs, decreased costs, improved quality and performance, better decision-making processes, to more accurate and faster medical diagnostics as well as early detection of cancer and other chronic diseases, AI turns out to be a great ally in improving our lives.
But it is not all rainbows and sunshine. AI can also be biased, manipulative and inconsistent. There were numerous cases in which AI was used for targeted political adverts - remember Facebook and Cambridge Analytica who served up manipulative fake news stories to people based on their psychological profiles.
2. Machines make mistakes too
And this is not actually the real problem. The problem is that, most of the times, we tend to believe that an algorithm is always right, because it's all mathematics and logic. Well, this is not even remotely true. In her book "Hello World", Hannah Fry presents a series on interesting events in which algorithms were misleading, but humans decided to trust them blindly. For instance, on March 22nd 2009, a man almost drove off a cliff because his GPS told him it had found a shortcut to his house. Although the road was narrow and full of dirt, the man stated he had no reason not to trust his TomTom sat-nav. In other shocking examples, she presents how some algorithms used in the judicial system have allowed judges to wrongfully convict several citizens.
3. Ethics is a big conundrum
Ethics in artificial intelligence has been long debated. Sadly, we still have no final decision or course of action on this.
A few years ago, five technology giants have joined forces to create an ethics standard for AI. Researchers from Alphabet, Amazon, Facebook, IBM and Microsoft have met to discuss the most tangible issues, such as the impact of AI on employment, transport and even wars. Furthermore, Google employees pledged to not use AI for military applications.
Yet, people are still wandering whether or not AI will be used to power warfare or how we should address the subject of driverless cars.
What is currently being done?
Experts, researchers, governments and other AI enthusiasts are becoming aware of the fact that the future development of machine learning, NLP, deep learning etc, could easily get out of control.
We are already starting to see different groups that want to impose certain regulation on how this technology is used. The main purpose of this is to make sure AI will benefit people, not cause them harm - voluntarily or not.
In 2015, a thousand experts, including physicist Stephen Hawking, the co-founder of Apple, Steve Wozniak, Elon Musk, co-creator of PayPal, linguist Noam Chomsky, and Demis Hassabis, chief executive of Google’s AI company, signed a petition that was drawing attention to the dangers of artificial intelligence and demanded it be regulated.
Furthermore, President Trump’s executive order, “Maintaining American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence,” calls for a coordinated approach to regulation of AI. The strategy is based on five principles:
· Driving technological breakthroughs
· Developing appropriate technical standards
· Training a workforce for the future
· Fostering public trust and confidence
· Ensuring international trade of AI-enabled products
Although all these initiatives are not enough to regulate the field of AI, they represent a promising start. It is clear artificial intelligence needs regulation and that almost everyone seems to be on board with this idea. The question that still remains now is - can AI be regulated?
The Stanford project, "A study into one hundred years of Artificial Intelligence" is a report published by a group of experts from Stanford University led by Eric Horvitz, a Microsoft researcher. The authors claim it will be impossible to regulate AI.
“The consensus of the study agrees that attempts to regulate AI in general would be an error, since there is no clear definition of what AI is (it’s not just one thing), and the risks and considerations to bear in mind are very different for the different domains”. The Stanford project, "A study into one hundred years of Artificial Intelligence"
Talking about arms control, Henry Kissinger, former US secretary of state, believes it may be a lot harder to control the development of AI weapons than nuclear ones.
Indeed, AI will be difficult to regulate as a whole, because it is too diverse and has its own way of developing and pushing through the known boundaries. However, this does not mean that we should stop trying. AI is the technology of the future so we need to understand and manage it if we want to have a harmonious human-machine relation.
At this point, no one holds the correct answer related to regulation of artificial intelligence, but we'll continue our part in making everyone aware of the economic, social and humanitarian implications of AI.
In the end, we leave you with an interesting report about the AI readiness level of governments around the world.
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Switch Grass, Panicum
A native of the prairie grasslands, switch grass naturalizes equally well in an informal border and a natural meadow.
Switch grass thrives in full sun, light shade or partial shade. The soil should be of low fertility and well drained, though this grass adapts to moist or dry soils and tolerates conditions ranging from heavy clay to lighter sandy soil.
The flower stems may break under heavy, wet snow or in exposed, windy sites. Cut switch grass back to 4–6" from the ground in early spring.
Plant switch grass singly in small gardens or in large groups in spacious borders or at the edges of ponds or pools for a dramatic, whimsical effect. The seed heads attract birds, and the foliage changes color in fall, so place this plant where you can enjoy both features.
P. virgatum is suited to wild meadow gardens. It comes in both blue and red varieties. Some of its popular blue cultivars include ‘Heavy Metal,’ an upright plant with narrow, steely blue foliage flushed with gold and burgundy in fall, and ‘Prairie Sky,’ an arching plant with deep blue foliage. ‘Shenandoah’ is a small, compact selection with red-tinged, green foliage that turns burgundy in fall.
Features: clumping habit; green, blue or burgundy foliage; airy panicles of flowers; fall color; winter interest
Hardiness: zones 3–9
Notes: Switch grass’ delicate, airy panicles fill gaps in the garden border and can be cut for fresh or dried arrangements.
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Heed soil status when irrigating manure
Michigan livestock farms are catching and storing more manure containing a high amount of rain and resulting runoff in an effort to protect surface water quality around the farmsteads. As a result, more irrigation systems have been installed to land-apply these manure streams. The basic principles of manure application correlate to manure irrigation plus some additional safeguards.
Generally, these manure streams are very low in nutrients and percent solids. When based on agronomic land base needs, the gallonage of water that may be calculated is probably much higher than what the land can absorb, intake and hold without creating runoff, ponding or releases through tile drain systems. Since the initial goal of capturing the runoff and manure was to protect surface waters, farmers should remain mindful of that goal when irrigating with these systems.
Manure and soil should be tested, but current soil condition is the limiting factor for irrigation rates. Timing and soil moisture conditions are even more important. Be sure the current soil moisture is low enough that it can handle additional water without runoff or leaching. The irrigation should not travel over, nor the end gun reach any sensitive areas such as wetlands, neighbor’s property, roads or ditches. Any conservation practices in the fields, such as grassed waterways that are conduits to surface water, should not receive irrigation.
• Irrigated manure requires a few additional safeguards.
• Be sure soil moisture is low enough to handle extra water without runoff.
• On tile-drained fields, check the outlets before, during and after all applications.
Tile-drained fields are not typically irrigated, but due to catchment of runoff and rainwaters, this is not always true. Irrigated fields need additional precautions to be sure they can take in the irrigation without pushing manure to the tile drains.
Be sure not to irrigate a field where runoff occurs and travels to any surface water inlets. Whenever applying manure to tile-drained fields, check the outlets before, during and after all applications.
If there is water flowing, do not apply manure. If manure begins to reach tile and flow, cease applications immediately and have tile blocks ready to utilize.
Most irrigation systems can be controlled for speed and resulting volume of application. Running the system several times at lower application rates may cost more, but results in safer applications. Using a cover crop during the fall and spring on a field you know will need to be utilized for manure irrigation can also provide greater infiltration and uptake of the watery manure.
Running low-disturbance tillage over a compacted soil layer ahead of irrigation can also assist in less runoff on fields with a compacted surface layer after a winter of snow and rain on the surface.
All fields should be assessed for the ability of infiltration and water-holding capacity before any manure application, but especially so when irrigating manure.
Rector writes from Michigan State University Extension.
irrigating manure: Be sure not to irrigate a field where runoff occurs and travels to any surface water inlets.
This article published in the August, 2012 edition of MICHIGAN FARMER.
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Catechism of the Catholic Church
396 God created man in his image and established him in his friendship. A spiritual creature, man can live this friendship only in free submission to God. The prohibition against eating "of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil" spells this out: "for in the day that you eat of it, you shall die." 276 The "tree of the knowledge of good and evil" 277 symbolically evokes the insurmountable limits that man, being a creature, must freely recognize and respect with trust. Man is dependent on his Creator, and subject to the laws of creation and to the moral norms that govern the use of freedom.
397 Man, tempted by the devil, let his trust in his Creator die in his heart and, abusing his freedom, disobeyed God's command. This is what man's first sin consisted of. 278 All subsequent sin would be disobedience toward God and lack of trust in his goodness.
398 In that sin man preferred himself to God and by that very act scorned him. He chose himself over and against God, against the requirements of his creaturely status and therefore against his own good. Constituted in a state of holiness, man was destined to be fully "divinized" by God in glory. Seduced by the devil, he wanted to "be like God", but "without God, before God, and not in accordance with God". 279
399 Scripture portrays the tragic consequences of this first disobedience. Adam and Eve immediately lose the grace of original holiness. 280 They become afraid of the God of whom they have conceived a distorted image - that of a God jealous of his prerogatives. 281
400 The harmony in which they had found themselves, thanks to original justice, is now destroyed: the control of the soul's spiritual faculties over the body is shattered; the union of man and woman becomes subject to tensions, their relations henceforth marked by lust and domination. 282 Harmony with creation is broken: visible creation has become alien and hostile to man. 283 Because of man, creation is now subject "to its bondage to decay". 284 Finally, the consequence explicitly foretold for this disobedience will come true: man will "return to the ground", 285 for out of it he was taken. Death makes its entrance into human history. 286
401 After that first sin, the world is virtually inundated by sin There is Cain's murder of his brother Abel and the universal corruption which follows in the wake of sin. Likewise, sin frequently manifests itself in the history of Israel, especially as infidelity to the God of the Covenant and as transgression of the Law of Moses. And even after Christ's atonement, sin raises its head in countless ways among Christians. 287 Scripture and the Church's Tradition continually recall the presence and universality of sin in man's history:
What Revelation makes known to us is confirmed by our own experience. For when man looks into his own heart he finds that he is drawn towards what is wrong and sunk in many evils which cannot come from his good creator. Often refusing to acknowledge God as his source, man has also upset the relationship which should link him to his last end, and at the same time he has broken the right order that should reign within himself as well as between himself and other men and all creatures. 288
402 All men are implicated in Adam's sin, as St. Paul affirms: "By one man's disobedience many (that is, all men) were made sinners": "sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned." 289 The Apostle contrasts the universality of sin and death with the universality of salvation in Christ. "Then as one man's trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one man's act of righteousness leads to acquittal and life for all men." 290
403 Following St. Paul, the Church has always taught that the overwhelming misery which oppresses men and their inclination towards evil and death cannot be understood apart from their connection with Adam's sin and the fact that he has transmitted to us a sin with which we are all born afflicted, a sin which is the "death of the soul". 291 Because of this certainty of faith, the Church baptizes for the remission of sins even tiny infants who have not committed personal sin. 292
404 How did the sin of Adam become the sin of all his descendants? The whole human race is in Adam "as one body of one man". 293 By this "unity of the human race" all men are implicated in Adam's sin, as all are implicated in Christ's justice. Still, the transmission of original sin is a mystery that we cannot fully understand. But we do know by Revelation that Adam had received original holiness and justice not for himself alone, but for all human nature. By yielding to the tempter, Adam and Eve committed a personal sin, but this sin affected the human nature that they would then transmit in a fallen state. 294 It is a sin which will be transmitted by propagation to all mankind, that is, by the transmission of a human nature deprived of original holiness and justice. And that is why original sin is called "sin" only in an analogical sense: it is a sin "contracted" and not "committed" - a state and not an act.
405 Although it is proper to each individual, 295 original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam's descendants. It is a deprivation of original holiness and justice, but human nature has not been totally corrupted: it is wounded in the natural powers proper to it, subject to ignorance, suffering and the dominion of death, and inclined to sin - an inclination to evil that is called concupiscence". Baptism, by imparting the life of Christ's grace, erases original sin and turns a man back towards God, but the consequences for nature, weakened and inclined to evil, persist in man and summon him to spiritual battle.
406 The Church's teaching on the transmission of original sin was articulated more precisely in the fifth century, especially under the impulse of St. Augustine's reflections against Pelagianism, and in the sixteenth century, in opposition to the Protestant Reformation. Pelagius held that man could, by the natural power of free will and without the necessary help of God's grace, lead a morally good life; he thus reduced the influence of Adam's fault to bad example. The first Protestant reformers, on the contrary, taught that original sin has radically perverted man and destroyed his freedom; they identified the sin inherited by each man with the tendency to evil (concupiscentia), which would be insurmountable. The Church pronounced on the meaning of the data of Revelation on original sin especially at the second Council of Orange (529) 296 and at the Council of Trent (1546). 297
407 The doctrine of original sin, closely connected with that of redemption by Christ, provides lucid discernment of man's situation and activity in the world. By our first parents' sin, the devil has acquired a certain domination over man, even though man remains free. Original sin entails "captivity under the power of him who thenceforth had the power of death, that is, the devil". 298 Ignorance of the fact that man has a wounded nature inclined to evil gives rise to serious errors in the areas of education, politics, social action 299 and morals.
408 The consequences of original sin and of all men's personal sins put the world as a whole in the sinful condition aptly described in St. John's expression, "the sin of the world". 300 This expression can also refer to the negative influence exerted on people by communal situations and social structures that are the fruit of men's sins. 301
409 This dramatic situation of "the whole world [which] is in the power of the evil one" 302 makes man's life a battle:
The whole of man's history has been the story of dour combat with the powers of evil, stretching, so our Lord tells us, from the very dawn of history until the last day. Finding himself in the midst of the battlefield man has to struggle to do what is right, and it is at great cost to himself, and aided by God's grace, that he succeeds in achieving his own inner integrity. 303
English Translation of the Cathechism of the Catholic Church for the United States of America © 1997, United States Catholic Conference, Inc.
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Kids with learning and behavioral problems often have issues with sensory processing and motor skills. Finding sensory activities your kids enjoy can help fill long summer days while improving motor planning and processing skills. Below we've compiled some of our favorite sensory-based and imaginative play ideas for you and your children to enjoy this Summer:
We love this idea from The Imagination Tree! Create an outdoor kitchen full of herbs, plant clippings, sand, and mud, and let your kids create all kinds of concoctions. Re-purpose old flower containers, buckets, pots and whatever you can find for mixing. This activity will provide lots of sensory input for children who crave it and encourage children who avoid messy play to give it a try. While this is a great activity for younger kids, we think even older kids will join in the fun of getting creative and dirty outdoors!
Scooter boards are an easy and inexpensive way to build core strength while improving balance and focus. Don't have a scooter board? Make your own with this simple DIY project! There are many great scooter board activities to choose from, but we especially love the "body bowling" game. Set up toy bowling pins (tall plastic bottles work in a pinch), put your tummy on the scooter board, and use your hands to roll yourself into the "bowling pins". It's no secret that exercise releases endorphins and helps calm the nervous system, so head outside in the morning before it gets too hot and try this fun game or make up your own to help your kids strengthen their brains and bodies!
Need a sensory activity for a rainy day? Try this awesome 3-D masking tape maze from The Weekend Homemaker. In a long hallway, stretch multiple pieces of tape from one wall to the other at varying heights along the hall, and have kids try to navigate the maze without touching the tape. This indoor activity encourages balance and coordination and is just plain fun!
If your family has some favorite sensory activities for summertime, please share them with us below in our comments section.
Does your child with learning or behavioral issues need help with confidence, motor skills, and academic struggles? Contact us today to learn more about our program and take advantage of our special Summer offers!
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Nicephorus GregorasArticle Free Pass
Nicephorus Gregoras, Nicephorus also spelled Nikephoros (born c. 1292, Heraclea Pontica, sultanate of Rūm [now Eregli, Turkey]—died c. 1360, near Constantinople, Byzantine Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey]), Byzantine humanist scholar, philosopher, and theologian whose 37-volume Byzantine History, a work of erudition, constitutes a primary documentary source for the 14th century.
Having gained the favour of the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus (1282–1328) and of ecclesiastics in Constantinople, Gregoras was entrusted with diplomatic missions, including a legation to the Serbian king Stephan Uroš III in 1326. With the downfall of his patrons, however, Gregoras was, as was the custom, forced to retire to a nearby monastery. Gregoras emerged victorious in a philosophical disputation, accompanied by polemical tracts, against the monk Barlaam of Calabria, an outspoken Aristotelian scholastic, and was recognized as Constantinople’s leading academician. A theological controversy with deep political ramifications followed, in which Gregoras contended with the doctrine of Hesychasm. After the accession of the emperor John VI Cantacuzenus (1347), the Hesychast party, led by the monks of Mount Athos, enjoyed preference, requiring Gregoras to retire from public life. In 1351 he was excommunicated by a local church council, and after his death about 1360 his body was dragged through the streets of Constantinople.
His most renowned work, the Byzantine History, chronicles the events of the Eastern Empire from the time of the Latin conquest in the Fourth Crusade (1204) to 1359. Supplementing the work of the earlier 14th-century historian George Pachymeres, Gregoras enlarged on the philosophical and theological disputes in which he had engaged. His Correspondence, containing more than 160 letters, is a rich source for knowledge of the outstanding Byzantine ecclesiastical and political figures of the period. Among Gregoras’s other notable works are philosophical dialogues against the Sophists, studies in astronomy, a commentary on the Almagest of the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, eulogies for several emperors, and a proposal for calendar reform that anticipated Pope Gregory XIII’s revision of 1582.
What made you want to look up Nicephorus Gregoras?
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Cancer has been becoming among the leading causes of mortality globally. The major challenges of conventional cancer therapy were the failure of most chemotherapeutic agents to accumulate selectively in the tumor cells and severe systemic side effects. In the past three decades, a number of drug delivery approaches have been discovered to overwhelm the obstacles. Among these, nanocarriers have gained a lot of attention for their excellent and efficient drug delivery systems to improve specific tissue/organ/cell targeting. To further enhance the targeting effect, and reduce the some limitation associated with NPs, the surfaces of NPs were modified with different ligands. Nowadays, several kinds of ligand-modified nanomedicines have been reported. Recently, Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) are emerging drug delivery system and attracting the attention of researchers due to their ability to transport bioactive molecules intracellularly. Currently, nanocarriers functionalized with a scell penetrating and tumor targeting peptides have shown dramatically enhanced cellular uptake and specific cytotoxicity to cancer cells.
Therefore, in this review we focus on recent advances of tumor targeting strategies, cell penetrating peptides and its limitation as delivery systems, different classes of CPP; tumor targeting peptides. Furthermore, we discuss the application of CPP and/ or TTP in delivery of plant derived chemotherapeutic agents.
Cancer, Nanocarriers, cell penetrating peptide, targeting drug delivery, herb-based drug.
Despite huge efforts in development of anticancer drugs, cancer nevertheless remain one of the main reasons of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In 2015, cancer was accountable for 8.8 million deaths. Globally, from 6 deaths one is due to cancer. Within the coming two decades, it is estimated to be increased by about 70%. In addition, the significant and increasing economic impact of cancer has been observed. In 2010, the overall annual economic cost of cancer was estimated approximately 1.16 trillion US$ .
Chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery with chemotherapy are the major treatment protocol of cancer. Utilization of chemotherapy has demonstrated to enhance the survival rate of patients with malignant to some degree. In spite of the fact that surgery and radiotherapy are the most effective treatments for local tumor and non-metastatic cancers, they are beneficial for cancer that has not been dissiminated throughout the body. Therefore, chemotherapy is the treatment decision for the metastatic malignancies, since they are well distributed to every organ in the body . However, most of conventional chemotherapeutic agents currently in clinical use are limited by their several undesirable properties, including poor solubility and bioavailability, rapid elimination from systemic circulation, narrow therapeutic index, and non-selective site of action after intravenous / oral administration and cytotoxicity to normal tissues, which might be the main reason for treatment failure in cancer therapy.
Furthermore, the conventional chemotherapeutic agents often unable to penetrate and reach the internal part of solid tumors, leading to inefficient cytotoxicity to the cancerous cell. The other problem of traditional chemotherapy is associated with Pglycoprotein, a multidrug resistance protein(MRP) that is overexpressed in cancer cells, which is acting as the efflux pump and inhibit drug accumulation inside the tumor, and often mediates the development of resistance against anticancer drugs. Thus the administered drugs remain unsuccessful to produce the desired response [3, 4]. Various drug delivery approaches constituting antibodies, growth factors, hormones, etc. have been designed and administered timely, however a significant internalization the cancerous cells could not be achieved due to the presence reticuloendothelial system (RES) and intracellular enzymes. Consequently, in the late decades tremendous endeavors have been given to overcome the major drawbacks of the conventional cancer chemotherapy.
Various novel drug delivery strategies have been designed to date, including polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles , dendrimers , liposomes , viral nanparticles , carbon-based systems (carbon nanotubes and grapheme oxide), magnetic nanoparticles, silica and gold nanoparticles and lipid nanoparticles (solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanstructured lipid carriers). Nanoparticles possess several advantages including, the larger surface area in contrast to bigger particles, that can be easily modified to accommodate large quantity of drug, increase the circulation time of the drug in the blood and improve the accumulation of drugs in solid tumors through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and passive targeting of tumor cells. Nanocarriers have been also known to improve the solubility, bioavailability and pharmacokinetics profile of chemotherapeutic agents.
To date, decorating a surface of nanocarrier with different ligands targeting specific receptors that are over-expressed on the cancer cell have been developed for active targeting of chemotherapeutic agent to the cell . Most importantly, nanocarriers functionalized with a cell penetrating or/and tumor targeting peptides have been a highly promising strategies and attracting the attention of researchers. These peptides are very advantageous as they have efficiently delivered a broad variety of cargo intracellularly . In addition, CPPs are biocompatible and the amino acids sequence can be easily modifiable to fine tune hydrophobicity, affinity, charge, solubility and stability. They can also be readily synthesized in large quantity . CPPs-mediated drug delivery are achieved either by the formation of stable, non-covalent complexes or the covalent bond with the cargo . In this review we focuses on recent advances in tumor targeting approach of herbal based anticancer bioactive substances using cell penetrating and/or tumor targeting peptides modified nanocarriers.
Targeted cancer therapy is viewed as an irreplaceable component of current anticancer drug development . The best strategy to improve the efficacy and reduce the toxicity of a cancer drug is directing the drug to its target and maintaining its concentration for a sufficient time at the site to produce the desired therapeutic effect. Cancer cells can be targeted by the two approaches: such as passive targeting and active targeting.
Passive targeting involves the extravagation of drug preparation through leaky vasculature/capilary of tumor that results from abnormal angiogenesis at the site of tumor, resulting in accumulation and retention. This phenomenon was recognized as the Enhanced Permeation and Retention (EPR effect) (Fig. 1) . In addition, administration of pH-sensitive drug release in the acidic microenvironment inside the cancer cell [5, 17] and particulate carrier phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytosis systems (MPS) and privileged localization in the organs of the reticuloendothelial system (RES) are considered as passive targeting .
The size of drug carriers and the abnormal and permeable vasculature of the tumor are the base for passive targeting . Most of tumors manifest an abnormally dense and leaky vasculature formed via stimulation by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In normal vasculature, particles larger than 2 nm are prevented from crossing between endothelial cells due to tight junction . However, in tumor vasculature, the tight junctions and basement membrane are disordered, allowing passage of particles ranged from 10 to 200 nm through the leaky neovasculature of the tumor and then retain in tumor site. Furthermore, the poor venous and lymphatic clearance system in tumor created an opportunity for the NPs to accumulate in the tumor with high concentration for a long time . However, the passive targeting occurs to almost all nanocarriers, deprived of a selective delivery, and insufficient tumor cell uptake.
The other, more advanced approach of targeting for oncology applications is the modification of surface of nanoparticles with a specific tumor-homing ligands . The ligands are known to bind to receptors that can be overexpressed on the surface of cancer cell. The ligands, with a selctive affinity toward a specific receptor or molecule differentially expressed at the target site, are presented on the surface of nanocarriers, resulting in the selective accumulation and cellular uptake at the site of action . This strategy significantly increases accumulation and retention of NPs in the tumor vasculature and specific and successful internalization by target tumor cells, which is known as “active tumor targeting”. The ligands that have been used to modify NPs includes monoclonal antibodies, folic acid, hyaluronic acid, albumin, vitamins (folate, vitamin B12, thiamine, and biotin), transferrin, lectins, aptamers, and peptides [5, 18, 19, 24].
Depending on the degree of penetration, active targeting may occur at the tissue, cell, or subcellular level. In solid tumors it is vital to remember that, the active targeting process starts with the accumulation of the drug delivery system in the tumor tissue by passive targeting, therefore, any actively targeted carrier need to fulfill the basic requirements mentioned for passively targeted systems .
Effective targeting drug to tumors is achieved by using a combination of different independent concepts such as the events of EPR effect, the design and properties of nanoparticles, increased the circulation time by PEGylation, and ligand– receptor type interactions. . The other important aspect in cancer treatment is targeting circulating tumor cells (CTCs). The existence of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) is closely related to tumor metastasis, which is accountable for more than 90% of deaths due to cancer . CTCs often express sialylated carbohydrate ligands that bind to selectin protein on their surfaces. Therefore, selective targeting as well as killing of CTCs could be achieved by using E-selectin functionalized nanocarriers.
Recently, carrier-based strategies have been employed to circumvent the majority of the obstacles in the delivery of anticancer drug. Among the numerous approaches, nanocarriers particularly in the size range of 10 to 100 nm offer some unique properties , and capable of transporting anticancer agents (drugs with small molecular weight or macromolecules as genes or proteins) to tumor tissue and achieving a cytotoxic concentration several-fold higher in the tumors with a reduced toxicity to the rest part of the body compared with free drugs [2, 28].
The emerging of nanotechnology in cancer therapy is to overcome the limitations that are inherent with conventional drug delivery methods, which are nonspecific biodistribution, inefficient cellular uptake, and low therapeutic. In addition, nanocarriers offer protection of the drug from degradation and, decrease the renal elimination and increase its half- life in the circulation, augment the payload of cytotoxic drugs, allow the controlled release kinetics of the drugs, improve the solubility, and also possess the potential ability to bypass multidrug-resistance mechanisms (MDR) , by various approaches .
The unique properties of nanoparticles (NPs), such as large surface-to-volume ratio,
small size, the potential to encapsulate wide varieties of drugs, and modifiable surface chemistry, offer them several advantages, including multivalent surface modification with targeting ligands, efficient navigation of the complex in vivo environment, improve internalization by the cancer cell, and allow the sustained release of drug payload. These benefits make NPs a potentially superior approach of treatment to traditional cancer therapies . The size and surface charge of NPs are known to affect the half-life and biodistribution of NPs significantly. The larger NPs (>100 nm) are usually cleared from the circulation by phagocytosis. Similarly, the very small nanoparticles of particle size less than 10 nm has a high rate of clearance. The positive charge on the surface of particles assists internalization into the cancer cells. Moreover, surface modification of NPs with some polymers such as polyethylene glycol (PEGylation) can also increase the circulation time of particles via inhibition of clearance by reticuloendothelial system and increasing the accumulation of NPs in tumor site but, it can affect the cellular uptake by cancer cells .
To date, several types of nanocarriers have been emerged for the drug delivery of chemotherapeutic agents including magnetic and metallic nanoparticles, such as iron oxide or gold nanoparticles, silver NPs , nanodiamond, carbon based structures(graphene sheets and carbon nanotubes), polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, quantum dots, hydrogel-based delivery systems, and silica-based nanoparticles, lipid based NPs (liposomes(LP), solid lipid nanoparticles(SLN) and nanostructured lipid carrier(NLC)) and Viral NPs and Hybrid NPs (combination of two or more of above) [34, 35].
Though nanoparticles are commonly considered as a promising concept for delivery of drugs to specific tissues or cancer tumors, the delivery efficiency in vivo remains low, and only a few of them are in clinical use including Abraxane®, Doxil®, and Myocet® that are approved by FDA [36, 37]. The main reason for the clinical failure of NPs could be due to the presence of different barriers which hinder internalization into the cancer cells after they penetrate into the tumor vasculature. Furthermore, in rapidly growing tumors, cancer cells are located adjacent to the endothelial barrier, and nanocarriers with targeting moieties will bind to the first receptors they find, not penetrating into the rest of the tumor There are also the issues associated with the possible toxicity and long-term effects of NPs made from non-biodegradable materials .
Chan et al, recently reviewed data from published studies conducted during 2005 – 2015 regarding tumor targeting with nanoparticles (passively or actively targeted), and concluded that, on average, nanoparticles demonstrate low delivery efficiency to solid tumors . It is clear that new novel strategies should be inaugurated . In attempt to overcome the above mentioned limitation of NPs, a wide variety of ligands have been used to modify the surface of NPs, permitting a selective recognition of different receptors or antigens overexpressed on the surfaces of tumor cell, improving the cytotoxicity of the anticancer agents in tumors and minimizing their toxic effects . There are several targeting moieties that have been attached to the surface of NPs, and some examples are mentioned as follows.
Transferrin is a membrane glycoprotein which transports iron to rapidly growing cells . Transferrin binds to the transferrin receptor (Tfr) and gets internalized by the cells via endocytosis and finally dissociates the iron inside the acidic pH of the endosomes. Tfr are known to overexpressed in cancer cells up to 100-fold, which makes it as a promising candidate in targeted cancer therapy . Albumin-receptors on the plasma membrane are responsible for albumin uptake by cell . Albumin-bound nanoparticles have found to accumulate in the tumors by the EPR effect, and also by binding to glycoprotein 60 receptor that support the endothelial transcytosis.
The vitamins used for targeting potential includes folate, vitamin B12, thiamine, and biotin . Their receptor have been known to be upregulated in numerous human cancers. Particularly, the folate has been extensively used as a targeting moiety for nanocarriers.
Lectins are a group of sugar-binding cell surface protein receptors that distinguishes and binds to specific sugar moieties. Some of these receptors were well-known to be overexpressed in specifc cancer cells, e.g asialoglycoprotein receptor in hepatic cancers . It is suggested that binding of surface carbohydrates with their ligands (lectins) leads to accumulation of glycans into the cells via the endocytotic process.
The conjugation of monoclonal antibodies (mAb) to the surface of nanoparticles (immuno-nanoparticles) can specifically target antigens or receptors overexpressed in tumors. EGFR is one of the mAb targets with a higher clinical relevance, which is known to be overexpressed in several type cancers . Aptamer is a single-stranded RNA or DNA molecules, with three-dimensional structures, having a specific high affinity to nucleolin protein on the surface of cancer cells . Additionally, E3 is known to targets and internalizes into a variety of cancer, including lung, breast, ovarian, melanoma, colon, glioblastoma, leukemia, and liver cancers.
Most recently, peptide-based targeting ligands has been attracting the attention of
the researchers and is the main concern of this review. It provides several advantages over other ligands in terms of cellular targeting, precise chemical structure and chemical stability. Manufacturing of peptides is inexpensive, and easy to scale up. Furthermore, peptide ligands show good biocompatibility and their proteolytic degradation can be inhibited by chemical modifications, such as the cyclization or addition of D-amino acids or . Moreover, peptide ligands are highly selective for target tissues or cells and multiple ligands can be conjugated to a single drug carrier to offer multivalent conjugation, thus increasing binding affinity to the target . The detail of cell penetrating peptide is presented in the following section.
One of the recent advancement in the field of molecular biology that appears to have an enormous impact on drug delivery of cancer therapy is the innovation of a tissue or cell penetration system[13, 49], Cell penetrating peptides (CPP) is a short peptides that able to pass through tissue and cell membranes via energy dependent or independent mechanisms; used to transport a wide variety of bioactive conjugates (cargoes) including proteins, peptides, DNAs, siRNAs, and small drugs, fluorescent compounds, nanoparticles and other substances into cells.
Besides the use of CPP as inert vectors for transportation of cargo molecules, the dual-acting CPPs which are both cell permeating and bioactive, have been emerging in now days. Studies have shown that some selected CPPs are known to produce bioactivity such able to safely modulate the intestinal paracellular barrier , act as neuroprotectants , induce apoptosis in cancer cells [53, 54] and suppresses breast tumorigenesis, in addition to act as cell-penetrating. More recently, a cell penetrating peptide obtained from azurin ( p28 ) has found to prevent phosphorylation of VEGFR-2, FAK and Akt, leads to inhibition of tumor growth and angiogenesis .
CPPs can be conjugated to cargoes either by non-covalent complex formation or by covalent bonds. Covalent conjugation of a CPP may be obtained chemically through disulfide bonds, amine bonds, or specific linkers that enable the release of the cargo when internalized into the cell . However, the possibility to change the bioactivities of the conjugates is the main risk of the covalent conjugation of CPP . Furthermore, the covalent methods are associated with problems such as lack of suitable reactive groups on the polymer, unstable intermediates, and inefficient coupling and purification. In these case, non-covalent approach seem more appropriate . Non-covalent complex is formed by electrostatic and/or hydrophobic interactions between a positively charged CPPs and large, negatively charged cargoes .
CPP are extremely beneficial because they are biocompatible and the peptide sequence can be altered to fine tune hydrophobicity, affinity, charge, solubility and stability. They can also be readily synthesized in sufficient quantity . However, the lack of cell specificity remains the main limitation for further clinical study of CPP . Several approaches have been suggested to selectively target cancer cells using CPPs conjugated with targeting ligands. Among these, combined use of CPP with cell targeting peptides and activable cell-penetrating peptides, are discussed in the later section.
CPPs can be classified based their origin, function, sequence, or mechanism of uptake. According to their physicochemical properties, they can be categorized into three cationic, hydrophobic, and amphipathic peptides. Cationic CPPs are the peptides with highly positive net charges at physiological pH. Primarily they are originated from the basic short strands of arginines and lysines, for example TAT48-60 (GRKKRRQRRRPPQ), Penetratin (RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK), and DPV1047 (VKRGLKLRHVRPRVTRMDV). Hydrophobic CPP primarily containing nonpolar residues, which have amino acid groups that are vital for cellular uptake, along with a low net charge, for instance, Pep-7 (SDLWEMMMVSLACQY) and C105Y (CSIPPEVKFNKPFVYLI) are some of hydrophobic peptides A third class of CPPs is the amphipathic CPPs, which contain both polar (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) regions of amino acids. Pep-1 (KETWWETWWTEWSQPKKKRKV) and pVEC (LLIILRRRIRKQAHAHSK) are the typical examples .
In another mode of classification, CPPs are categorized based on the origin of the peptide: Derived CPP, Chimeric CPP and Synthetic CPP. Derived peptides are protein-derived peptides, for example, TAT and penetratin, Chimeric peptides include two or more motifs from different peptides, such as transportan, derived from mastoparan and galanin, and its shorter analogue TP10. Synthetic peptides for example the polyarginine family[63, 64].For the detailed review on the classification of CPP the reader is referred to [50, 61, 63].
Lack of cell specificity, which is a major drawback of CPPs is mainly due to their electrostatic interaction. Generally the cationic type of CPPs bind to anionic components of the plasma membrane, and this is principally accountable for their membrane transporting properties .
To overwhelm the problem of non-specificity, researchers have introduced the Activatable Cell penetrating peptides (ACPPs). ACPPs are novel targeting agents comprising of a polycationic CPP attached to a neutralizing polyanion unit via a cleavable linker (Fig. 2). Adsorption and uptake of CPPs into cells are prevented until the linker is cleaved . In ACPP, stimulus-responsive materials are exploited to stimulate the selective display of CPPs within the pathological environment of a tumor, such as lower pH caused by building up of lactic acid or overexpression of extracellular matrix development remodeling proteases, or may be external application of heat or light to a disease site .
The lower pH in the tumor microenvironment compared with normal tissues can be exploited as a targeting strategy . The utilization of this approach has been known to improve the intracellular delivery of cargo molecules performed with CPPs. CPPs via shelter in nanocarriers with triggered exposure mechanisms, such as acid-degradable cross-links .
A number of studies involving different approaches of acid-activated CPP for tumor targeted delivery have been reported. For instance, Jin et al investigated acid-active peptide by amidizing the TAT lysine residues’ amines to succinyl amides (aTAT), completely inhibiting TAT’s nonspecific interactions in the blood compartment. The succinyl amides in the aTAT were quickly hydrolyzed, fully restoring TAT’s functions in the acidic tumor tissue or inside the cell lyso/endosomes. Thus, aTAT-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) micelles resulted long circulation in the blood compartment and efficiently accumulated and transported doxorubicin to tumor tissues, offering a high antitumor activity and low toxicity to cardiovascular system. Moreover, Cheng et al also used pH activable cell-penetrating peptide (CR8G3PK6, ACPP) with of 2,3-dimethylmaleic anhydride (DMA) as a shielding group, and functionalized with anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) to produce a novel prodrug (DOX-ACPP-DMA) for tumor targeting drug delivery. The shielding group of DMA conjugated to ACPP through amide bond between DMA and the primary amines of K6, which was used to inhibit the cell-penetrating activity of the polycationic CPP (R8) by intramolecular electrostatic attraction at physiological pH 7.4. However, at tumor extracellular pH 6.8, the hydrolysis of the shielding group resulted charge reversal, activating and restoring the original function of CPP for improved cellular uptake by tumor cells. After cell internalization, the overexpressed intracellular proteases would further trigger drug release in cells .
Another example, Regberg et al demonstrated that Peptides (PepFect 3) modified with a leucine/histidine sequence have been known to be pH responsive CPP. The modified analogues PepFect 3 has shown a significantly improved cellular bioactivity than the unmodified PepFect .
Most recently, the group of Yao developed the acid activated CPP by the introduction of some electron donating group such as Ethyl, Isopropyl, and Butyl to C-2 position of histidine of the CPP named as TH (AGYLLGHINLHHLAHL(Aib)HHIL-NH2), to form corresponding TH analogs (Ethyl-TH, Isopropyl-TH and Butyl-TH). The new TH analogs formed were linked to the antitumor drug camptothecin (CPT), and butyl-TH modified conjugate showed a remarkably stronger pH-dependent cytotoxicity to cancer cells than TH and the other conjugates .
Quenching of the cell-penetrating activity of the polycationic peptide by electrostatic interactions with the polyanionic domain can block the cellular uptake. However, tumor tissues, matrix metalloproteases (MMP-2/9), which are overexpressed in cancer tissues, cleaved the substrate and released the polycationic from the polyanionic domain, thereby stimulating cellular adhesion and subsequent uptake of the polycationic peptide(Fig. 2) [68, 73]. Shi et al developed a conjugate of ACPP with antitumor drug doxorubicin (DOX) which is sensitive to matrix metalloproteinase(MMP-2/9) to form ACPP-DOX conjugate consisting of the polycationic domain (CPP), the cleavable MMP-2/9-sensitive substrate, the polyanionic domain, and DOX. Activation of ACPP-DOX was found to occur by matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2/9 in enzyme concentration–dependent manner. The result of the flow cytometry and laser confocal microscope studies demonstrated that a higher cellular uptake of ACPP-DOX was observed by HT-1080 cells (overexpressed MMPs) than MCF-7 cells (under-expressed MMPs) after enzymatic-triggered activation .
The aforementioned two type of ACPP invoves the activation of CPP in vivo in tumor tissue. Another approach, that is the external illumination of tumor by near-infrared or ultraviolet light to stimulate dissociation of photosensitive groups (PG) from CPP-NP, thus controlling the release of drugs at the tumor site . Shamay et al. developed photon-sensitive CPP using polymers bearing a light activated caged CPP for selective cellular uptake upon UV light illumination (365 nm), which may offers a promising approach to delivery of payload to the target cells. But, the use of UV light has been limited due to its harmful effect to tissue and low penetrability .
Near-IR (NIR) light able to penetrates tissues deeply and is less harmful to cells in contrast to UV light. With this line, Yang et al designed a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) conjugated with photon-sensitive cell penetrating peptides (psCPP) (CGRRMKWKK) and Asn-Gly-Arg (NGR) in attempt to improve targeted delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) to tumor cells. The psCPP unit facilitate specific cellular uptake after the cleavage the photon-sensitive protective group, whereas, NGR moiety selectively binds to CD13-positive tumors. The results of the study demonstrated that the tumor growth inhibition rate, and cellular up of psCPP/NGR-NLC group was significantly higher than the rest of PTX groups.
In this approach, the biopolymer elastin-like polypeptide (ELP), which is a heat sensitive carrier that able to undergo a phase transition upon reaching the externally applied heat to the tumor environment can be used. This carrier is specific to the tumor as it only aggregates at the heated tumor site between 39 °C and 42 °C [61, 78].
3 Tumor targeting peptides (TTP)
Tumor targeting peptides (TTP) are also known as tumor homing peptides which are small peptides shorter than CPPs by 3 to 10 residues which have a strong affinity and specificity to a tissue target or tumor cell . There is the up-regulation of specific receptors in most of tumors and their vasculature which are utilized by TTPs for which they show high binding ability . Among a number of different receptors that are known to be overexpressed on tumor cells, integrins are the most attractive target for drug delivery because integrins have crucial roles in the process of tumor cell proliferation, migration, invasion and survival .
Tumor vasculature varies from the normal blood vessel both structurally and morphologically. For example, the tumor blood vessels are leaky and porous, unlike normal vasculature [81, 82]. In addition to the altered morphology, tumor vasculature varies from that of normal by their molecular composition .
Arginine–glycine–aspartic acid (RGD) and asparagine-glycine-arginine (NGR) peptides are the two most extensively studied ligands for targeting the tumor vasculature and exhibiting that their receptors are overexpressed during angiogenesis . RGD peptide can selectively target tumor vasculature expressing αγβ3 and αγβ5 integrins, and a NGR peptide (CNGRC) binds to CD13 (animopeptidase N, APN) which are specifically expressed in the tumor vasculature . RGR is another peptide which was selected from phage display in pancreatic tumors that has been exhibited superior affinity to angiogenic vessels in insulinomas, and recognize various αβ integrins. RGR had been exploited as a carrier for the targeting deliver of therapeutic proteins (TNFa and IFN-g) to the targeted site in cancer therapy.
Another peptide that is targeting to angiogenic vasculature is the F3 peptide. The F3 (KDEPQRRSARLSAKPAPPKPEPKPKKAPAKK) is a peptide with 31-amino acid that able to target blood vessels and tumor tissue. F3 is known to target nucleolin, which selectively expressed on the surface of endothelial cells and tumor cells . After binding, F3 is internalized through receptor-mediated endocytosis, then translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, where it distributes itself throughout organelle .
Peptides such as CREKA, CLT1 (CGLIIQKNEC), and CLT2 (CNAGESSKNC) are also known to target tumor blood vessels and represented as a novel type of homing peptides. They have an affinity to bind with clotted plasma proteins which exist on the walls of tumor vessels as well as in tumor stroma . Recently, a number of peptides homing to tumor vasculature have been identified.
Furthermore, Li et al., identified TCP-1 (CTPSPFSHC) a vasculature homing peptide by the in vivo phage library selection in an orthotopic colorectal cancer model. The TCP-1 peptide was found to selectively recognize the vasculature of orthotopic colorectal cancer in normal BABL/c mice induced by syngeneic colon cancer cells (colon 26).
LyP-1 (CGNKRTRGC) and LyP-2 (CNRRTKAGC)) are the peptides that home to tumor lymphatics and have also been demonstrated in several reports. Laakkonen et al., identified LyP-1 (CGNKRTRGC) by screening breast carcinoma xenografts (MDA-MB-435) . p32 is a mitochondrial protein which is known to be the receptorfor LyP-1. LyP-1, selectively binds to p32, which shows unusual expression on the surface tumor lymphatics, tumor cells, and a subset of myeloid cells, which contributes to the specificity of LyP-1 homing to tumors. LyP-1 has found to distinguish lymphatics and tumor cells in MDA-MD-435 and, MMTV-PyMT breast carcinoma, and KRIB osteosarcoma xenografts, and their metastatic lesions, however unable recognize C8161 melanomas. Simultaneously, the LyP-2 peptide (CNRRTKAGC) homes to the lymphatics of C8161 melanomas and K14-HPV16 skin and cervical carcinomas but not to the MDA-MB-435 tumors, showing heterogeneity in the molecular markers of tumor cells and lymphatic. Another peptide, RMS-II (CMGNKRSAKRPC), which has some sequence similarity with LyP-1 was also identified in an in vitro screen for peptides binding to RMS cell lines. Better targeting ability to the RMS xenografts was observed by RMS-II than LyP-1in vivo. Furthermore, RMS-II recognized tumor blood vessels, but not tumor lymphatic vessels which show the different specificities of these two peptides.
Some of the homing peptides have known to possess cell-penetrating properties. For example, F3 and LyP-1 peptides are cell type-specific CPPs. These peptides have the ability to enter into tumor cells and blood (F3) or lymphatic endothelial cells(LyP-1) in the tumors they home . CRGRRST (RGR) and CGKRK are another homing peptides that are conveyed into a nucleus of the targeted cell after the cellular uptake. These peptides consist a number of basic amino acids, which are considered to be accountable for interacellular and intranuclear transportation.
A number of endothelial cell-targeting peptides are found to act as tumor penetrating peptides to enable the internalization of a conjugated drug to the cancer cell. These peptides share a specific C-terminal C-end Rule (CendR) sequence, (R/K)XX(R/K), which is responsible for tissue penetration and cell internalization. For example, internalizing RGD (iRGD; CRGDKGPDC, one of the most innovative tumor-targeting peptides which is a 9-amino acid cyclic peptide where the lysine residue can also be an arginine, and the aspartic acid a glutamic acid. bIn addition to targeting the αvβ3 integrin receptor, it is able to penetrate tumor. As compared to other RGD peptides, iRGD can distribute much more extensively into extravascular tumor tissue .
Tumor targeting peptides binds with receptors which are up-regulated on tumor cells specifically, but may not be capable to reach the target by themselves. On the other side, CPPs penetrate plasma membrane effectively, but lack target specificity. A target specific CPP that able to both penetrate the plasma membrane and selectively transport the drug to the desired target of the action is will be considered an ideal type of CPP .
Combining a TTP with a suitable CPP has known to facilitates the translocation of the conjugate moieties to target tumor sites with better selectivity and specificity. Studies have shown that TTPs conjugated with CPPs have dramatically increased the efficiency to translocate drug molecule specifically to cancer cells as compared to TTPs alone [94, 95]. The study conducted by Mae et al., using the cyclic peptide cCPGPEGAGC (PEGA), which is a homing peptide that has been known to target the breast tumor tissue in mice, and PEGA peptide is a CPP that can not pass the plasma membrane. The combined use of this two peptide by conjugation of PEGA to pVEC has exhibited to specifically target breast cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the conjugated PEGA-pVEC chimeric peptide has found to increase the efficacy of chlorambucil by more than 4 times.
The further study by the same group, used the combination of CREKA with the pVEC, as a chimeric peptide for delivery of a chlorambucil intracellularly. The result of the study revealed that the chlorambucil- CREKA-pVEC conjugate produced a significantly better anticancer activity in vitro than the anticancer drug alone. The study also showed that CREKA-pVEC is better in translocating cargo molecules
inside cancer cells as compared to the PEGA–pVEC peptid [96, 97].
More recently, Fan et al., evaluated the synergistic effect of SP90 (SMDPFLFQLLQL) with C peptide (GPGLWERQAREHSERKKRRRESECKAA) in the breast cancer homing ability. SP90 is able to bind specifically into breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231cell), while C peptide alone had no cell-selectivity. The combined use of SP90 with C-peptide (SP90-C) has shown a 12-fold or 10-fold increase in efficiency of the intracellular delivery as compared to SP90 or C peptide alone, respectively. Furthermore, SP90 and SP90-C conjugation have been used for delivery of HIV-1 VPR, which is a potential novel anticancer protein drug to breast cancer cell. SP90-VPR-C has demonstrated an improved apoptosis-inducing and antiproliferative activity of HIV-1 VPR, without affecting normal breast cell. .
Nowadays, a sequence of peptides that possessed both cell penetrating property and specific cell selectivity have been developed using mRNA display technology. For instance, RLW (RLWMRWYSPRTRAYG) is known to exhibit both properties and could target A549 cells specifically. Gao et al., conjugated RLW with nanoparticles to form RNPs for targeting delivery into lung cancer. Cells(A549), and a conventional CPP(R8, RRRRRRRR), was used as a control. The result in vitro cellular uptake study has shown that NPs functionalized with RLW specifically improved the uptake by A549 cells as compared to human umbilical vein endothelial cells. However, the conjugation with R8 increased the uptake by both cells, which indicates a better targeting specificity of RNP. The RNP loaded with docetaxel, has demonstrated RLW could specifically target to A549 cells and enhanced the cytotoxicity of the drug in vitro .
Most recently, anticancer drug-CPP/TTP conjugates have been one of the promising strategies to overcome tumor multidrug resistance (MDR). Sheng et al., designed a dual-targeting hybrid peptide HAIYPRHGGCGMPKKKPTPIQLNP (T10-ERK) which is composed of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) peptide inhibitor (MPKKKPTPIQLNP), a thiol linker (i.e.GGCG) and transferrin receptor (TfR)-binding peptide (HAIYPRH) inorder to overwhelmed the problem of drug resistance. Then, T10-ERK was conjugated to DOXO-EMCH (a prodrug of DOX), resulting T10-ERK-DOX. The efficacy of T10-ERK-DOX in reversing drug resistance as compared with free DOX and T10-DOX was determined by using MCF-7/ADR cells and nude mice bearing MCF-7/ADR xenografts.The result of the study indicated that T10-ERK-DOX could efficiently inhibit drug resistance and improve the cytotoxicity of DOX by blocking P-gp
mediated drug efflux and inducing apoptosis .
Furthermore, Lelle et al. formulated a conjugate consisting of octaarginine cell-penetrating peptide (Ac-CRRRRRRRR-NH2) and doxorubicin dimer with a high DNA affinity. The cytotoxicity of the peptide-drug conjugate was evaluated against drug-sensitive and doxorubicin-resistant cancer cells, and showed that that the conjugate can overcome drug resistance in neuroblastoma cells efficiently . Feng et al also studied the DOX- SAPSP (slightly acidic pH-sensitive peptide) conjugate in order to interfere drug resistance in cancer therapy. In this study, DOX was attached to SAPSP, CHGAHEHAGHEHAAGEHHAHE-NH2 to achieve SAPSP-DOX prodrug. The cellular uptake studies have demonstrated that SAPSP-DOX selectively accumulated in both Dox sensitive and DOX resistance cells cancer cells along with 26-fold less toxic toward noncancerous MCF-10A cells than free DOX did.
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Groups plan to sue the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service over the monarch butterfly
This week, two environmental groups, the Center for Biological Diversity and the Center for Food Safety, put theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Serviceon notice.
They’re planning to sue the agency because they say it’s dragging its feet on protecting the monarch butterfly.
Tierra Curry is a senior scientist with the Center for Biological Diversity and she notes there’s been a big drop in the monarch’s population: 82% over the past two decades.
Monarchs are vulnerable because they need milkweed to survive.
“The biggest threats are pesticide use in the United States that’s causing milkweed to decline and then logging in their Mexican overwintering grounds,” Curry says.
Curry says monarchs have been doing better the past few years (last winter's estimate puts their numbers at 56.5 million), but they’re still a long way from where they were in the 1990s (an estimated one billion butterflies).
From the Center for Biological Diversity:
The population is expected to undergo a sizable rebound this winter due to favorable spring and summer weather, but monarchs need a very large population size to be resilient to threats from severe weather events. A single winter storm in 2002 killed an estimated 500 million monarchs — eight times the size of the entire current population. Severe weather is expected to take a toll on the population later this winter due to the strong El Niño this year.
Why they're suing
In 2014, both environmental groups petitioned the agency to list the butterfly as threatened. That could mean more money to protect their habitat.
“When you petition for a species, when a citizen petitions forEndangered Species Act protection for a species, the Service is supposed to decide within 12 months,” Curry says.
But she says the agency is now more than a year late with that decision.
“And sometimes species wait a really long time, up to 20 years, and so we want them to go ahead and make a decision on the monarch,” she says. “And that’s why we filed the notice of intent to sue.”
A major backlog
Georgia Parham is with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. She says the agency hasn't started the status review for the monarch yet.
“We haven’t established a schedule yet for addressing this and other backlogged petitions,” she says. “So we don’t have a firm or projected date for the 12-month finding for the monarch.”
But Parham says the USFWS is concerned about the butterfly, and they're taking action in the meantime.
“We are engaged in quite a few international conservation efforts to protect and restore monarch habitat throughout the country,” she says.
The hope is that these efforts will help the species enough that listing it under the Endangered Species Act won’t be necessary, Parham says.
She says the agency does see the dramatic drop in the monarch's numbers as worrisome.
“That is a cause of concern and it’s one of the triggers that we’ve used to engage with partners to try to implement conservation measures throughout the range of the monarch,” she says.
That typically involves planting milkweed.
“Monarchs depend on milkweed,” Parham says. “It’s a really simple, easy thing that almost anyone can do that will have a pretty positive effect for monarchs.”
The other backlogged species
Parham says the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service uses a “candidate list” of species.
“These are species that we have determined should be proposed for listing under the Endangered Species Act and we update that list every year,” she says.
But there are a lot of plants and animals waiting in line.
“In addition to that, we have about 500 species that we’ve been petitioned to list, including the monarch, where we have to get to the point to determine whether or not they should be a candidate species and whether we should propose them for listing,” Parham says.
She says limited resources slow this process down.
“We have to make sure we’re focusing our resources on the species that need the help immediately, and address those concerns first,” she says.
One thing that's important to note: if you do want to plant milkweed in your yard, you should check to make sure those plants haven't been treated with pesticides called neonicitinoids. Plants that are treated can kill monarch caterpillars.
Copyright 2021 Michigan Radio. To see more, visit Michigan Radio.
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Brain Games: Do They Work?
Do brain training games improve cognitive or brain function? Brain training consists of puzzles or games that, with practice, are advertised to enhance your cognitive abilities, such as memory or attention. You can find many brain game companies online or via smartphone apps like Luminosity or Elevate. There are even entire ‘brain performance centers’ that promise similar results, such as treating ADHD or memory loss symptoms.
Why is the neuroscience community skeptical that brain games may not achieve the results they promise? One word: transfer.
When you practice shooting a basketball, you become better at shooting a basketball. Most people don’t assume that practicing basketball will help them ace an upcoming math test or name every U.S. president.
The same principle applies to brain training. When you play brain games, you become better at the brain games themselves. However, there is not much data to suggest that becoming better at brain games improves your daily functioning or reduces your risk of developing dementia. There is limited evidence that brain games transfer the rehearsed skills to situations outside of the brain game itself.
What about traditional “brain games” that require thinking such as Sudoku or crossword puzzles? These games seem like another obvious way to improve cognition, daily functioning, and reduce the risk of dementia while being less reliant on technology. Unfortunately, there is minimal scientific evidence that these games, in isolation, can improve cognitive or daily functioning.
There is evidence that a cognitively stimulating lifestyle (lifelong learning, staying socially active) can help delay symptoms of dementia, but the data largely support lifestyle factors and patterns rather than one single behavior. With that said, there is nothing harmful about doing a crossword puzzle, so keep playing these games if you enjoy them! Just don’t view them as a sufficient activity or replacement for medical treatment or a health plan.
Like brain games, online or app-based brain tests do not provide a full picture of your cognitive health and might give you the wrong impression. A neuropsychological evaluation provides detailed information about your current cognitive abilities in the context of your medical history and reported symptoms compared to others with a similar background. Neuropsychologists are uniquely trained to assess cognitive and behavioral functioning. They can help you and your loved ones understand the impact your symptoms may be having on your lives.
If you’re looking for another way to improve your memory or attention-span, one of the simplest and most effective ways is to stay active both physically and socially. Keep in mind that if an activity is good for your heart, it’s probably good for your brain too. Healthy brain-behavior involves managing your diet and reducing heart disease risk factors, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes. Go for a walk, take up a new hobby, or volunteer! Your brain will thank you, AND you’ll feel good about it too.
The Latest Technology & Award-Winning Quality Care. Learn about the specialties and treatments we offer at the Ochsner Neuroscience Institute.
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Every teacher desires and struggles with getting their students excited about their subject. We want our students to be as passionate about it as we are. The percentage of pure passion for a subject is limited to a few in each class. So how can we get the rest of the students to enjoy and look forward to coming to our class? I suggest trying to use multiple intelligence learning styles, differentiated instruction as well as increasing student choice.
Multiple intelligence learning styles are a great way to start to increase interest in a subject and use differentiated instruction. The multiple intelligence theory was developed by Dr. Howard Gardner. There are seven original multiple intelligences and thus the same number of learning styles but there are considered to be more now. Some even think there are hundreds of them.
I like to stick to the original basic seven as to not be overwhelmed during the differentiated instruction planning process. In my experience they will work for most students in the class. In the rare occasion they don’t, teachers can include one of the new multiple intelligence learning styles to reach the student.
The seven original multiple intelligence learning styles are intrapersonal, interpersonal, linguistic, spatial, musical, logical-mathematical, and kinesthetic. You can use multiple intelligence learning styles in all aspects of the lesson to include different ways of presenting each piece of content in a mini-lesson or offering choices for activities during a work session dealing with different multiple intelligence learning styles, which brings us to the next suggestion to get students excited in a class, differentiated instruction.
Differentiated Instruction has been a hot topic for a while now, however many teachers still don’t quite know how to do it, don’t have time to do it, or they just think it’s a phase. It can be a great tool to use to interest and excite your students and, in my opinion, shouldn’t be overlooked as an option for every day lessons.
Differentiated instruction can be done through the use of the multiple intelligence learning styles as well as leveling, scaffolding or tiering.
Teachers can use multiple intelligence learning styles to differentiate instruction in not only the mini-lesson but also the work session activities and pretty much any other part of the lesson. Offer students up to four choices of activities for a work session, all using the same content, but using different multiple intelligence learning styles. The students will choose the one that they think will be the most interesting to do. I’ve noticed that if you allow them to choose the activities the day before, their interests peak. They feel like they have ownership in their education and look forward to coming to the class the next day. I have also noticed a decrease in complaining about work sessions because they can’t blame you as the teacher. After all, they chose it.
I’m sure you are wondering how I actually have time to create four options of activities for students to choose from. I created a system of activity templates that saves me a ton of time. I offer about 55 of them at http://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Store/Kasha-Mastrodomenico. They even include rubrics. I can tweak them easily to fit almost anything I need my students to work on.
Another way to differentiate instruction to increase excitement is through the use of leveling. Leveling is also known as tiering and scaffolding. This can be done by using the same content once again but at different levels. This is not less and or more work depending on “how smart” your students are. It has to do with taking students from one level to the next through the use of small steps. Differentiating instruction through the use of leveling is easily done with expository writing. Teachers can take a student from a topic sentence and the listing of three facts to a topic sentence with one fact sentence and then listing two facts and so on. Students need to see that there is hope at the end of the tunnel and if they have a learning disability or are ELL, many times writing can be an overwhelming task for them. Using small differentiated instruction leveled steps helps them feel success and improves their attitude in the subject.
Whether a teacher uses leveling or multiple intelligence learning styles to differentiate instruction, they stand a chance of really interesting their students in their subject area or content. To read more about differentiated instruction, click here.
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Cerebral palsy cannot be cured, but a lot can be done to help people with the condition.
Children, in particular, can benefit from the services of a team of health professionals to help with:
- speech, seeing and hearing
- eating and drinking
- control of bladder and bowel
- emotional wellbeing.
Physiotherapists> and occupational therapists can help with everyday tasks like sitting, walking, dressing and using the toilet. They may suggest casts, splints or orthotics, and give you exercises to help strengthen muscles. As well as expert advice, they can help with equipment such as walking frames, wheelchairs and modified shoes.
Medicines such as botox or diazepam may be able to help relax stiff or overactive muscles, reducing pain and improving mobility. There are special braces to help with muscle imbalance, and surgery and mechanical aids to help overcome other impairments. You might also need medicines if you have epilepsy, pain, sleep or eating disorders due to the cerebral palsy.
There are also experts who can help with learning, communication and emotional issues that are often experienced by people with cerebral palsy.
Particular issues for adults
Adults with cerebral palsy who work may find that their working conditions need to change, with flexible hours, more rest time and changes to the physical environment. Mobility can be an issue especially in doing simple transfers say from bed to sitting. An assessment of the environment by an occupational therapist may help enable a person to get around any disabling issues.
Sexuality can also be an issue. Find out more about sex and disability.
Last reviewed: November 2016
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Posted with permission from
by Shelley Bluejay Pierce
Saturday, 31 May 2008
These famous words from the 1776 Declaration of Independence sound good in theory but in actuality, at the time they were written, the evident truth was that only a select few humans were deemed “equal.”
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
Equality did not include black slaves, most certainly was not bestowed upon the “heathen, savage, Indians” and did not include women or other minorities. Perhaps more accurately, the “self-evident” matter of equality for all human beings was a decision made by a small minority of European immigrants to this new land.
The actual definition of the term, self-evident is, “Evident without need of proof or explanation.”
The legal definition of the term unalienable is, “The state of a thing or right which cannot be sold….The natural rights of life and liberty are unalienable.”
As the founders of this new government began to set in motion the legal bulwark for the United States of America, they created such guiding documents as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitutional Amendments. As these lofty goals for the new union were set upon paper, perhaps these men were seeing what the future held for this country rather than the actualities of the time they lived in. For if in fact, these new leaders truly lived in accordance with these new guidelines, they would not have behaved in the ways that they did or treated their fellow human beings in the manner that history recounts.
If it were truly “self-evident” that such things as the natural world and all that was dwelling within or upon it could not be bought or sold due to its being an “unalienable” right as the very source for all of mankind’s survival, then the stealing and mass “ownership” mentality would not have prevailed. The ravaging of these new lands, long inhabited by the Indigenous people, would not have occurred and the abuse of the natural resources would not have proliferated.
If “all men are created equal” then the mass genocide of millions of original occupants to this land would not have been allowed. The decimation of entire cultures and thefts of the lands they dwelled upon for centuries would have not occurred because the original authors of this text would have seen that the land itself was an unalienable right, not for sale or transfer, because it was the land itself that offered the human race its means for survival.
The pervasive attitude carried by this European culture was one of “taming the wilderness.” Those inhabitants who had lived in harmony with these lands were forced off of them or annihilated so that “modern and civilized” expansion could take place. Perhaps in truth, the European mindset was nothing more than a grand opportunity to perpetuate all the destructive behaviors that had surrounded these people prior to them leaving Europe in the first place. Looking at the ongoing rape and ruination of the lands and natural resources makes it clear that the pervasive mindset has changed little over the last 200 plus years.
Over many decades of internal warfare, foreign wars, upheavals and massacres, we arrive into a new era that brought perhaps the greatest period of change to our United States of America. During the 1960’s and 1970’s, protests and civil unrest boiled over into all segments of the population. The “peace and love” movement grew to monumental levels and such civil rights as those fought for by Dr. Martin Luther King and others gained enormous momentum.
During this period of time there was a demand for change and for the first time ever in this country, true equality and access to those “unalienable rights” was a goal for ALL people, not just a select few. The changing times brought with it, a demand for a cleaner, safer environment that in turn brought the creation of new governmental agencies such as the Federal Drug Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency. Both of these agencies were created to provide protection for all citizens in the United States and for the protection of the environment that sustains them.
The general population placed enormous public pressure upon the government and its leaders. Demanding peace, civil rights and increased environmental protection, the citizens of the USA brought to the forefront, a radical change in the way this country functioned. However, with this blossoming potential for radical change, there festered a dangerous mindset that would take decades to be acknowledged.
With alterations to the status quo came an increased sense of trust and peace of mind within the mindset of the average citizen. Each of us became dependent upon and truly believed that we would be protected by the leadership. We as a people trusted our military and first responders to care for our safety, both as a nation and as individuals, in our times of need. We trusted our new governmental agencies to ensure that we had access to all the unalienable rights such as clean water, safe food supplies, access to safe living conditions and medications to treat our illnesses.
That initial trust grew into a state of what may be more likened to “blind faith.” Failures discovered within this government have previously been responded to so that faults in the system could be addressed and corrected. Over the past decade, we have silently watched as all governing systems have seemingly taken on a life of their own and the enormous impact of its layered deception has brought this country to its knees.
The enormous and cumbersome size of the agencies set in place to “protect” us has become unapproachable even by the most studied citizen. The overwhelming amount of contradictory information available to each person leaves most individuals daunted by the task of being socially aware of the issues. The “information over-load” has hit every sector of this society to the point where the average citizen often chooses to ignore the information coming in from all directions and focuses simply on the personal realm they inhabit each day.
As we look at just one issue, the Iraq war, most of us are incapable of deciphering the facts from the propaganda. We cannot grasp the enormous expenditures involved with this one issue because the monetary figures are incomprehensible to most citizens. Perhaps examining a smaller “bite” of the full plate of issues is necessary for us to clearly see what is happening to us on the broader, national level. If the statement, “the sum of all parts makes up the whole” is true? Then a targeted examination may give us a good snapshot into our country as a whole.
Let’s choose an area of the country that most people assume as a peaceful country setting. There are no mass transit systems and the crime rates are not what you encounter in the large metropolitan cities across the USA. This is a small town consisting of farmers, ranchers, homeowners, shopkeepers and such things as one would expect to find in the mid-section of this country. Wide-open prairie lands, expansive horizons and peaceful surroundings are what brings many occupants to this community.
Zero in on Marty, South Dakota for this targeted investigation. This is a community situated within the boundaries of the Ihanktowan Nation, better known to most people as the Yankton Sioux tribal lands. Like many communities across the USA, there are limited or no zoning restrictions here due to the fact that they have never been required. The land itself and the environment in which the people dwell have dictated the lifestyle and activities of the occupants.
The unimaginable becomes your new daily nightmare if you are a member of this community when the agencies assigned to protect you, actually turn against you. These agencies approve the permits for a new resident moving in amongst you and you find out that your newest “neighbor” is a large, commercial hog farm, which will house as many as 3000 sows and produce as many as 75,000 hogs per year. Commonly referred to as a CAFO operation, (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation) these industrial sized farms are usually located at a distance from human habitation and city services due to their potential impacts upon the “neighbors” and the environment.
We as citizens of the USA have come to “trust” with “blind faith,” that our governing agencies will protect us from harm and ensure a safe environment in which to exist and prosper. However, in this case, the EPA and other agencies have approved this CAFO hog farm even with the knowledge that it will be situated in the midst of human occupation, culturally historic, and environmentally sensitive areas.
Looking at the facts about CAFO’s, documentation abounds detailing the foul smells and the reported higher rates of respiratory problems in people living near large-scale animal operations. Proof exists at all levels regarding the fact that the waste from this many animals harms the environment and human health. Water and ground pollution often occur when the waste containment systems fail or when the CAFO owners gain permission from local farmers to spread the “waste” across their fields as a means of disposing of the tons of manure produced each day. Gently referred to as “free nutrients for your crops,” the overwhelming evidence shows that too much of something is not a good thing. This includes “free nutrients.” According to the 1998 National Water Quality Inventory conducted by the EPA, 30 percent of surveyed rivers, 44 percent of surveyed lakes, and 23 percent of surveyed estuaries were contaminated with unsafe levels of “nutrient” pollution.
Manure from CAFOs may degrade soil quality over time and since heavy metals are often added to animal feed to promote growth in the animals, the manure may carry such things as arsenic, copper, selenium, and zinc. The high concentration of manure in CAFO lagoons often enables heavy metals to accumulate in the surrounding environment which later leaches out into nearby soil, surface waters, invasion of local private wells used for drinking water, poisoning wildlife, and polluting groundwater. The area in which this South Dakota hog farm is located will provide “nutrients” for the Missouri River and all areas downstream due to run-off of surface water. This potentially effects millions of people located a great distance away from this one hog farm.
Additionally, the property values that you as a homeowner depend upon for such things as resale value and home equity loan value plummets. No one wants to buy property in close proximity to a large-scale animal production facility. The land you dreamed of being your little piece of paradise instantly becomes valueless. You fear that no one in leadership is listening to you as you bemoan your recent fate. All you can do as an individual is cry out for justice and protection from the sources you once believed were brought into existence to “protect you” and your unalienable rights to “life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.” All you find is a justice system meant to benefit others but not you, the private citizen.
The question now becomes, “How in the world did we get to this state of being in this country and why is no one listening to me?”
Follow the money trail and you will find, on a much smaller scale, the same problems as we find within the quagmire of the Iraq war and its funding processes. The government allots multi-millions of tax dollars to the rich farm corporations in the form of farm subsidies. The enormous tax funds are directed to those operations which make the biggest money and that includes CAFO’s. Why are these big tax-donated funds important? Why, to care for and repay the MILLIONS of dollars that these special interests group donate to the political campaigns for those officials that will support their causes once in office of course!
Case in point, in the 2006 election year, Agribusiness industries are reported to have contributed $44,732,566.00 to campaigns for elected officials in the USA. The Governor of South Dakota, Mike Rounds, reportedly received $36,250.00 for his 2006 electoral run from the agricultural businesses. Add to this figure all the agribusiness donations given to those Senators and Representatives representing the state where you dwell and you begin to understand why you now have a huge hog farm as a neighbor.
Money talks and bigger money speaks even louder in this country as history proves over and over again. The voice of the small, individual voter and citizen of this country means nothing in the bigger scheme of American politics. As one compares this localized scenario in South Dakota with the enormous Federal issues such as the Iraq war, similar layers of corruption are exposed. The farther up the political “food chain”one progresses, the less aid a single individual gets due to the larger amounts of political leverage gained by the contributions given by these special interests groups like agribusiness.
Lets take a look at some of the background issues surrounding the hog farm in South Dakota:
1) South Dakota Governor, Mike Rounds, cuts the Highway Patrol budget and states that he believes the agency “can get by with a $2 million reduction in its budget.” In early February 2008, a media source leaks a memo detailing how deep these budget cuts would hit the department.
2) One source states that the Highway Patrol budget cuts will take effect immediately and last only one year while another released memo states that the budget cuts will last “indefinitely.” (The citizens AND the Highway Patrol officers are left wondering what part media-spin is truth or fiction of course.)
3) One statement in the press says that this information comes from a written, authorized budget submitted by Governor Rounds but just a few days later, Governor Rounds tells the media that what is circulating was simply his “recommendations” for the upcoming expenditures and not the bottom line decisions. Once this memo was obtained by the media and circulated, Governor Rounds’ media-management team states that the memos were never meant for public circulation and that they were intended only for internal circulation. By February 15, 2008, the internal memos circulating in the State Highway Patrol were called a “miscommunication” by Governor Round’s office. (more media-spin and now the truth is even further from our grasp)
4) State Highway Patrol leadership released guidelines to their officers which I condense here. Startling issues begin to surface with these recommended cuts and leaves the average citizen in the coverage area wondering if there will be ANY response teams available should they need them. “Burning of overtime which will make it difficult to maintain current manpower requirements, especially on Fridays and weekends” is one of the department recommendations. Statements include the fact that there will be no new patrol vehicles purchased during the 2009 budget cycle. Governor Rounds states that troopers must save on gasoline requirements by having more “stationary patrols” where trooper will perform the “stare and glare” law enforcement techniques rather than actively pursue offenders. Other budget cuts will affect training for officers, Troopers will no longer help transport organ, eye or blood donations and search and rescue operations with the highway patrol airplane will be limited. Requests to assist BIA or tribal police with fatal crashes on reservations will be limited. Finally, the department acknowledges that because of these budget cuts, they will “more than likely be criticized by some agencies for their lack of manpower or response to incidents or accidents.” (Now the citizens in the area are really wondering about how safe they truly are in the event of an emergency.)
5) After the facts about this new hog farm came into mainstream media spotlight, Governor Rounds basically stated that he and his office preferred to let “tribal agencies work the issues out.” I am supposing that the Governor has forgotten that not ONLY tribal members are being impacted by this CAFO. The impacts are vast and have the potential to negatively impact many in South Dakota and all the way down the Missouri River.
6) Considering the fact that the South Dakota Highway Patrol is under major budget constraints and are told to limit all extra travel and deployment to scenes other than critical response areas, why did a reported 52 patrol cars roll onto the scene of a peaceful demonstration against the hog farm? Especially since the Highway Patrol leadership stated in their internal memo that, “requests to assist BIA or tribal police with fatal crashes on reservations will be limited.” (this was not a fatal crash, no one was armed with weapons and there were perhaps 50 or so protesters on the site…many of these were minors and children!)
Here is a picture of this small group of hog farm protesters that required 52 law enforcement vehicles (courtesy Yankton Sioux Tribe).
7) The road leading into the property where Longview Farms is building their hog farm has been considered by the Yankton Sioux Tribe and their own law enforcement officers as being under BIA jurisdiction which means that no local or State law enforcement agencies are to deploy there except under extreme circumstances. When construction of the hog farm began in early April, the community attempted to block the completion when the Yankton tribal council passed an exclusion order against Long View Farms, of Hull, Iowa. The BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) was asked to confirm its jurisdiction over the road leading into the hog farm property, which would have denied Longview Farms access to the building site. Even though there was NO FINAL DECISION MADE about the jurisdiction of this road, law enforcement from outside agencies descended en masse upon lands where jurisdiction was still very much in question.
The large mobile unit was a reported SWAT team. To the sides of where this picture was taken, was an entire hillside of patrol cars. This response for a handful of protesters? (photo courtesy of Yankton Sioux Tribe)
8) Several members of the Yankton tribe were arrested, jailed and released on bail money paid by the tribe. They individually have had to seek legal defense and are going through all the legal proceedings for what may turn out to be illegal arrests once the jurisdiction of the road is decided. The BIA, which is funded by taxpayers in the USA, has paid out millions of dollars since 1994 to maintain this very road and added it to its inventory following a signed agreement between all local agencies. However, on May 5, 2008, a commission in Charles Mix County voted to rescind the agreement in response to the BIA’s declaration of ownership. (I guess what we, the US taxpayers think of all this, is null and void?)
9) Go a step further and examine a rough estimate at the costs for this police response to a small group of peaceful protestors gathered along side of a road that is yet to be determined as to WHO has jurisdiction over it! Based on online available figures for average salaries and costs of such things as officers and patrol cars, we find that the average salary for a State highway patrol officer is $30 per hour. Multiplied that by the number of hours required for response, handling, and completion of each assigned duty location. Gasoline costs of $3.85 per gallon based on today’s average price per gallon of fuel across the USA. Add in equipment wear and tear, vehicle tires, radios, uniforms, uniform cleaning, paper used and miscellaneous expenses. Add in the salaries for radio dispatchers, and office staff costs and you have a very rough average of $180.00 for each unit to respond to the scene of a normal, easy-to-handle incident, which averages one hour from dispatch to clearing. That’s $180.00 per hour is for local calls only and does not include extra travel across long distances. This rough average cost multiplied by 52 police units comes to approximately $9,400.00 PER HOUR! SWAT or Mobile units as seen in the picture above are usually presumed to be double that cost due to extra equipment and training for their personnel so add in another $360.00 per hour. Protesters on the scene reported that Wagner Police, North Platte Police Department, and State Highway Patrol vehicles came in on this one scene. Any overtime pay is probably 1.5x their salaries and Highway Patrol cars may have traveled into the protest site from wide areas all over South Dakota. Add in the costs for arresting these protesters, jail staff, court clerks, judges and office staff to manage all of this? Beginning to feel similar to war expenditures at the Federal level?
But I thought Governor Rounds stated that there was this huge deficit in the budget and that every possible money-saving effort needed to be made inside the Highway patrol?
Really? All of the above expense and manpower to manage a small number of peaceful protestors?
Still confused about how this all impacts YOU and the potential impacts of a hog farm moving in to YOUR neighborhood? Still confused about how the Federal government and its agencies are layered with special interest groups, huge campaign financing and layers of deception?
By looking at one small issue in a rural location nestled inside the United States of America, perhaps the realities are sinking in. Just how far we have allowed ourselves to become blinded by “trust” is that festering wound I mentioned earlier. We have so blindly accepted the protection from our government and its agencies and leaders that we have missed the fact that we are now dependent and blind to truth. Perhaps the biggest “self-evident” fact before us as a Nation of individuals is that our trust is entirely misplaced. Perhaps the pursuit of life, liberty and happiness is truly an allowance for the elite after all. Perhaps it is history repeating itself but this time, ALL races are included in the destruction. The decimation of the lands and resources that sustain us all is at stake as is the very country we all call “home.”
Now… about that hog farm…. ready to become “neighbors?” Do you still believe it won’t happen to YOU?
Blind faith strikes again.
Shelley Bluejay Pierce is an investigative journalist covering political, environmental and indigenous rights issues. Her work appears in numerous written publications and online websites worldwide and is a frequent guest on radio shows addressing these issues.
(All rights reserved, permission to reprint this article must be granted by author, Shelley Bluejay Pierce by contacting email@example.com)
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One of the most fascinating tactical designs that has ever emerged in the history of football is Catenaccio.
It is always associated with negative or defensive football and some of today’s stereotypes such as ‘park the bus’, but there is far more to it. Here, our writer Rohit Rajeev takes a deep dive into how the tactic emerged and what made it so successful…
Catenaccio in Italy refers to a chain that is used to bolt the door of a house. Of course nowadays it refers to the defensive element of football that swamped Italian football in the 50s and peaked in the 60s.
Despite being an Italian term, Catenaccio did not originate in Italy but in Switzerland. Austrian professional Karl Rappan was assigned to take over Swiss local league team Servette, who were filled with players who were semi-professional and did not possess physical or technical skills the better teams had, so Rappan had to find a way.
Meanwhile in England, the FA passed a new amendment to the offside rule in 1925, the ‘two-player rule’ which gave rise to the famous WM formation devised by famous Arsenal and Huddersfield Town manager Herbert Chapman.
In the 1930’s, when Rappan took over Servette, the WM formation was rampant in Swiss football and as mentioned earlier Servette couldn’t compete against the professionals.
Rappan came up with a counter-measure: he had his half-wing players (called Mezzalas in Italian) play alongside the two full-backs who became centre-backs when the half-backs retreated. This system was famously referred to as the ‘Verrou’.
The most interesting development of the Verrou was the spare man at the back. Whichever flank the opposition attacked, Servette – from the half-wingers and the full-back converted centre-back – would man mark their opponents leaving a spare man.
In the centre there was a player to sweep up in case the ball got past the defence. This spare man was called as the Verroullier or Libero in Italian. Cesare Maldini, Franz Beckenbauer and Armando Picchi are some of the more famous Liberos in football.
Rappan became the coach of Switzerland and employed the Verrou and got results in the 1938 World Cup, but still his approach did not become mainstream.
A similar system, independent from Verrou, sprang up in the USSR. A team called as Krylya were promoted to the first division in 1945 having been newly formed and they came up against technically superior sides such CSKA Moscow and Dinamo Moscow and used to get beaten by big scores.
This forced their coach Abramov to employ a conservative strategy by having a full-back drop deep and have a centre-half sweep behind the full-backs. It is a slightly different method to Verrou, but a similar principle. Even then, Catenaccio was seen as tactics used by inferior teams.
Rise of Vianema and Catenaccio
The Swiss had left a lot of influence on Italians during the war and it extended to football. A few teams started to use the Verrou but the one who found success with it originally was Gippo Viani, then coach of Salernitana.
Viani’s explanation was that he got the idea of using a sweeper to clear lose balls behind the defense while watching fisherman using a spare net to catch the fish on the docks. While he was busy executing his ideas, a native of Trieste – Nereo Rocco – was coming through the ranks of Serie B. With Catenaccio he had taken his native Trieste to top four finishes and Padova to promotion while using Catenaccio.
The tactic was still known as the “right of the weak” mostly because none of the historical top teams used Catenaccio, until Inter in the mid 1950s. Alberto Foni, who coached Inter then, won the league after emerging 1-0 victors in six consecutive games and came under fire from the press.
He used the legendary Ivano Blason as a sweeper and introduced the concept of a ‘Tornati’ – a winger who tracks back and helps out in defence.
Catenaccio hits Milan
In 1961, Viani persuaded the then-Padova coach Nereo Rocco to take over at Milan due to Viani’s health. Rocco would take over at Milan and with Catenaccio he would win the 1961-62 Scudetto and most importantly the 1962-63 European cup against Benfica.
In his team he housed a Libero in the great Cesare Maldini, a proactive defensive midfielder in the form of Giovani Trappatoni, a very intelligent striker in Altafini and most importantly he had the ‘Golden Boy’ Gianni Rivera.
Rivera was the link between the defence and attack, and once the Rossoneri got the ball back they would pass to the No.10 who would launch quick counters.
If Milan introduced Catenaccio to Europe, Inter sealed its legacy. One of the most famous and notorious practitioners were Inter and their manager Helenio Herrera, a man who was reviled by players and coaches outside Italy.
A perfectionist and sometimes eccentric personality, Herrera controlled everything at Inter. He controlled players’ diets, their training, nutrition and introduced the ritiro where the squad were essentially locked up inside the training ground three days before a match to remove distractions.
Now, Herrera was not a coach who used Catenaccio at first, but was inspired by Rocco after Milan drubbed Inter 3-0 which saw Herrera risk losing his job.
Herrera then reverted to the ‘doorbolt’, which today’s generation would refer to as the 3-5-2 formation most notably used by Conte. Herrera used this to win two consecutive trophies until he was beaten by Jock Stein’s Celtic 2-1 in a game which was regaled as the victory of attack over defence. In the end, Herrera’s strength became his weakness and Inter disintegrated after the 1967-68 season, when he left for Roma.
Catenaccio as a tactic was initially used by teams that could not physically or technically match their opponent, until it reached Italy. Before the arrival of Total Football from the Netherlands and the concept of Zonal marking introduced by the Dutch in Europe, man marking was widely used.
In Catenaccio, with the use of the Libero the defending team had a spare man to sweep up any loose ball or any player who beat his marker. This came at the cost of a spare man in attack.
Catenaccio was all about players marking their opposite number tightly, not allowing space and forcing them to play horizontal passes. According to Rocco, if you make a mistake making a horizontal pass, you usually conceded a goal.
Using Milan as an example, here we can see tight man marking by Milan denying any space to Ajax in their European Cup final in 1969.
Here we can see Ajax’s Danilsson dancing past his marker but he cannot beat Milan’s Libero.
In terms of forward play, Catenaccio was all about quick counter-attacks. Back when the WM formation was used extensively wingers did not track back to midfield to help in defence. When teams used to get the ball they would launch quick breaks and score goals. Here is a goal on the counter by Prati against Ajax…
For Milan the creative force was Gianni Rivera and for Inter it was Luis Suarez, intelligent playmakers who could operate between the lines of any defence. They would make themselves quick passing options for their team-mates to find and launch fast vertical balls.
However, Rocco and Herrera had different approaches to their styles of play. Rocco had one sweeper back and two stoppers in front of the Libero. Either one of the inside forwards (Dino Sani or Lodetti) would drop to prevent the overload in the central areas.
Herrera was more defensive. He had a sweeper in Armando Picchi, accompanied by three full-backs in Fachetti, Guarneni and Burgnich. Whenever Inter lost the ball, Inter’s right wing-half would act as a Tornati and drop in as a modern wing-back, making it a five-man defence.
One thing that Herrera and Rocco agreed on was that horizontal football was a complete waste of time and both wanted to launch direct vertical passes to their forward players.
The death of Catenaccio
When Ajax beat Inter in 1972 European Cup final with Total Football, the Dutch newspaper celebrated it as the death of the Italian system.
What essentially happened was that, with many teams copying Catenaccio, its weakness became prevalent: the midfield can often get overloaded.
Below we can see that when played against a team playing WM formation the front three goes against the opposition’s three, the inside forwards up against the opposition’s half wingers then the team’s centre-half will be overloaded by the opposition’s inside forwards in a 2v1.
Initially Rappan solved it by defending with a deep line but with Total Football using zonal marking and beating man marking Catenaccio was slowly getting outdated.
Why it isn’t ‘parking the bus’
Ever since Jose Mourinho coined the term ‘bus driver’ and parked it against Barcelona in 2010, people tend to associate Catenaccio to the phrase, which is not the case.
As we can see the main idea behind parking the bus is to stay narrow and stay horizontally packed in order to deny any space to the opposition. They also do not press their opponents in order to not concede space.
As mentioned earlier, the central overload meant Catenaccio was getting outdated and coaches were trying to fix it. Finally, one of the disciples of Nereo Rocco – Giovanni Trappatoni – found the solution.
Using a combination of zonal and man marking they were able to neutralise the opponent’s man marking. This tactic was called as the “Zona Mista” or the Giocatore Al’ Italiana (Game of the Italians).
Catenaccio evolved and became Zona Mista. Trappatoni won the 1985 European Cup with Zona Mista and Italy won the 1982 World Cup with Enzo Bearzot as coach beating the 4-2-4 of the Brazilians.
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Cloud Computing Enables Business Scalability And Flexibility
The most common meaning of the term cloud computing refers to the delivery of scalable IT resources over the Internet as opposed to hosting and operating those resources locally. Cloud computing enables your company to react faster to the needs of your business, while driving greater operational efficiencies.
Cloud computing has a great impact on business thinking. It facilitates a change in the way companies operate, by offering shared and virtualized infrastructure that is easily scalable. It is also changing how we manage these resources. The challenge is no longer about how many physical servers a company has, but more about being able to manage these virtual resources.
Cloud computing offers businesses flexibility and scalability when it comes to computing needs:
- Flexibility. Cloud computing allows your employees to be more flexible – both in and out of the workplace. Employees can access files using web-enabled devices such as smartphones, laptops and notebooks. The ability to simultaneously share documents and other files over the Internet can also help support both internal and external collaboration. Many employers are now implementing “bring your own device (BYOD)” policies. In this way, cloud computing enables the use of mobile technology.
- Scalability. One of the key benefits of using cloud computing is its scalability. Cloud computing allows your business to easily upscale or downscale your IT requirements as and when required. For example, most cloud service providers will allow you to increase your existing resources to accommodate increased business needs or changes. This will allow you to support your business growth without expensive changes to your existing IT systems.
- Impact of scalability on managed data centers. Because of the highly scalable nature of cloud computing, many organizations are now relying on managed data centers where there are cloud experts trained in maintaining and scaling shared, private and hybrid clouds. Cloud computing allows for quick and easy allocation of resources in a monitored environment where overloading is never a concern as long as the system is managed properly. From small companies to large enterprise companies, managed data centers can be an option for your business.
Private cloud computing is a solution for scalable, customized and secure resources where control has to reside with your internal IT department.
Beyond the improvements on business flexibility and scalability, cloud computing has fundamentally changed the way we pay for resources. In the past, tasks that required considerable processing power or space needed significant capital investments in the necessary hardware. Now, cloud computing allows these users to purchase scalable space for heavy duty data crunching on demand, paying for only what they use.
Moreover, a new report by the Software & Information Industry Association, which includes opinions of 49 technology CXOs and VPs, notes that cloud computing’s impact grows even more significant when coupled with mobile and big data analytics.
From infrastructure, to mobility, virtualization, and on-demand applications, the true value of cloud is making its presence known throughout the entire IT ecosystem. Companies will continue to make infrastructure choices, either with or without cloud capabilities, but cloud solutions will continue to offer competitive advantages over traditional solutions.
By Ricks Blaisdell/ RicksCloud
- The Internet of Everything: Why The IoT Will Take Over Every Industry - April 29, 2016
- Make Your Smart Device Even Smarter By Answering These 4 Questions - April 20, 2016
- Infographic: How Wearables Are Revolutionizing Health Care Services - April 11, 2016
- How the Internet of Things will change your life - April 7, 2016
- Mondo Report: The Top 5 Cloud Positions/Skills In Highest Demand - April 5, 2016
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Choose Your Mask Wisely
The use of masks is part of a comprehensive package of the prevention and control measures that can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases, including COVID-19. Masks can be used either for protection of healthy persons (worn to protect oneself when in contact with an infected individual) or for source control (worn by an infected individual to prevent onward transmission). However, the use of a mask alone is insufficient to provide an adequate level of protection or source control, and other personal and community level measures should also be adopted to suppress transmission of respiratory viruses. Whether or not masks are used, compliance with hand hygiene, physical distancing and other infection prevention and control (IPC) measures are critical to prevent human-to human transmission of COVID-19.
Current evidence suggests that most transmission of COVID19 is occurring from symptomatic people to others in close contact, when not wearing appropriate PPE. Among symptomatic patients, viral RNA can be detected in samples weeks after the onset of illness, but viable virus was not found after day 8 post onset of symptoms for mild patients, though this may be longer for severely ill patients.
Prolonged RNA shedding, however, does not necessarily mean continued infectiousness. Transmissibility of the virus depends on the amount of viable virus being shed by a person, whether or not they are coughing and expelling more droplets, the type of contact they have with others, and what IPC measures are in place. Studies that investigate transmission should be interpreted bearing in mind the context in which they occurred.
Guidance on the use of masks for the general public
Types of mask to consider
- Medical mask
Medical masks should be certified according to international or national standards to ensure they offer predictable product performance when used by health workers, according to the risk and type of procedure performed in a health care setting. Designed for single use, a medical mask’s initial filtration (at least 95% droplet filtration), breathability and, if required, fluid resistance are attributed to the type (e.g. spunbond or meltblown) and layers of manufactured non-woven materials (e.g. polypropylene, polyethylene or cellulose).
The masks must block droplets and particles while at the same time they must also be breathable by allowing air to pass. Medical masks are regulated medical devices and categorized as PPE.
The use of medical masks in the community may divert this critical resource from the health workers and others who need them the most. In settings where medical masks are in short supply, medical masks should be reserved for health workers and at-risk individuals when indicated.
- Non-medical mask
Non-medical masks are made from a variety of woven and non-woven fabrics, such as polypropylene. Non-medical masks may be made of different combinations of fabrics, layering sequences and available in diverse shapes.
A non-medical mask is neither a medical device nor personal protective equipment. However, a non-medical mask standard has been developed by the French Standardization Association (AFNOR Group) to define minimum performance in terms of filtration (minimum 70% solid particle filtration or droplet filtration) and breathability (maximum pressure difference of 0.6 mbar/cm2 or maximum inhalation resistance of 2.4 mbar and maximum exhalation resistance of 3 mbar).
The following features of nonmedical masks: filtration efficiency (FE), or filtration, breathability, number and combination of material used, shape, coating and maintenance.
a) Type of materials: filtration efficiency (FE), breathability of single layers of materials, filter quality factor
Depending on fabric used, filtration efficiency and breathability can complement or work against one another. Recent data indicate that two non-woven spunbond layers, the same material used for the external layers of disposable medical masks, offer adequate filtration and breathability.
Commercial cotton fabric masks are in general very breathable but offer lower filtration. The filter quality factor known as “Q” is a commonly used filtration quality factor; it is a function of filtration efficiency (filtration) and breathability, with higher values indicating better overall efficiency.Table 3 shows FE, breathability and the filter quality factor, Q, of several fabrics and non-medial masks.
According to expert consensus three (3) is the minimum Q factor recommended. This ranking serves as an initial guide only.
b) Number of layers A minimum of three layers is required for non-medical masks, depending on the fabric used. The innermost layer of the mask is in contact with the wearer’s face. The outermost layer is exposed to the environment.
Fabric cloths (e.g., nylon blends and 100% polyester) when folded into two layers, provides 2-5 times increased filtration efficiency compared to a single layer of the same cloth, and filtration efficiency increases 2-7 times if it is folded into 4 layers. Masks made of cotton handkerchiefs alone should consist of at least 4 layers, but have achieved only 13% filtration efficiency.Very porous materials, such as gauze, even with multiple layers will not provide sufficient filtration; only 3% filtration efficiency.It is important to note that with more tightly woven materials, as the number of layers increases, the breathability may be reduced. A quick check for breathability may be performed by attempting to breathe, through the mouth, and through the multiple layers.
c) Combination of material used The ideal combination of material for non-medical masks should include three layers as follows:
1) an innermost layer of a hydrophilic material (e.g. cotton or cotton blends);
2), an outermost layer made of hydrophobic material (e.g., polypropylene, polyester, or their blends) which may limit external contamination from penetration through to the wearer’s nose and mouth;
3) a middle hydrophobic layer of synthetic non-woven material such as polypropylene or a cotton layer which may enhance filtration or retain droplets.
d) Mask shape Mask shapes include flat-fold or duckbill and are designed to fit closely over the nose, cheeks and chin of the wearer. When the edges of the mask are not close to the face and shift, for example, when speaking, internal/external air penetrates through the edges of the mask rather than being filtered through the fabric. Leaks where unfiltered air moves in and out of the mask may be attributed to the size and shape of the mask.
e) Coating of fabric Coating the fabric with compounds like wax may increase the barrier and render the mask fluid resistant; however, such coatings may inadvertently completely block the pores and make the mask difficult to breathe through. In addition to decreased breathability unfiltered air may more likely escape the sides of the mask upon exhalation. Coating is therefore not recommended.
- Masks should only be used by one person and should not be shared.
- All masks should be changed if wet or visibly soiled; a wet mask should not be worn for an extended period of time.
- Remove the mask without touching the front of the mask, do not touch the eyes or mouth after mask removal.
- Either discard the mask or place it in a sealable bag where it is kept until it can be washed and cleaned. Perform hand hygiene immediately afterwards.
- Non-medical masks should be washed frequently and handled carefully, so as not to contaminate other items.
- If the layers of fabrics look noticeably worn out, discard the mask. Clothing fabrics used to make masks should be checked for the highest permitted washing temperature.
- If instructions for washing are indicated on the clothing label, verify if washing in warm or hot water is tolerated. Select washable fabrics that can be washed.
- Wash in warm hot water, 60°C, with soap or laundry detergent.
- Non-woven polypropylene (PP) spunbond may be washed at high temperatures, up to 125°C.(72) Natural fibres may resist high temperature washes and ironing.
- Wash the mask delicately (without too much friction, stretching or wringing) if nonwoven materials (e.g. spunbond) are used. The combination of non-woven PP spunbond and cotton can tolerate high temperatures; masks made of these combinations may be steamed or boiled.
- Where hot water is not available, wash mask with soap/detergent at room temperature water, followed by either i) boiling mask for one minute OR ii) soak mask in 0.1% chlorine for one minute then thoroughly rinse mask with room temperature water, to avoid any toxic residual of chlorine.
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Oscar-winning filmmaker James Cameron, who has directed some of the biggest movies of the past 25 years, including “Titanic” and “Avatar,” will be traveling deep under water into the Mariana Trench — something that hasn’t been attempted in more than 50 years. Using much more advanced technology than was available during the previous mission, Cameron hopes to uncover scientifically useful information using 3-D high definition cameras and huge 8-foot tall arrays of LED lights. The mission will be as dangerous as anything attempted by the heroes of his movies and will involve putting himself in a tiny one-seater submersible in near freezing water with pressures so strong that they’ll compress the craft by 2.5 inches.
Further tests at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory have shown that, despite recent reports, neutrinos do not travel faster than the speed of light and obey the laws of physics as we currently understand them. A report from the OPERA group at the same lab back in September had reported that the electrically neutral particles appeared to go faster than the universal speed limit and scientists have been hard at work trying to explain what went wrong. While this experiment, performed by the ICARUS group, doesn’t necessarily indicate where the previous one was in error, it does suggest that the conclusions may not be correct. Other groups are hard at work to replicate the results.
Russian and South Korean scientists have agreed to join forces in order to bring the woolly mammoth back to life. The species, not seen on this planet for about 10,000 years, would be resurrected through advanced cloning technologies, which rely on finding well-preserved mammoth cells. These cells could be turned into an embryo, which would be implanted into a modern elephant (the mammoths’ closest living relative), who would then give birth to the creature. Other animals have been cloned using similar techniques, but this would be the first time that an extinct species could be brought back from the dead using modern science.
A recent experiment at the University of California, San Francisco, found that fruit flies that have recently had sexual encounters are less likely to eat food coated in alcohol than those who haven’t. The scientists think that this may be a result of how the brain handles pleasurable senses. At a certain point, the brain determines that the fly is happy enough and doesn’t need the alcohol to cheer up. Whether or not this kind of behavior applies to humans is a question for a
In an effort to push the limits of what is humanly possible, daredevil Felix Baumgartner plans to break the world record for highest free fall in history by more than 3 miles. Through the aid of a special suit — the air is much too thin and too cold for a human being to survive at that height — Baumgartner successfully and safely plunged 13 miles to Earth in a test run this past week. He is ready, if all goes according to plan, to break the sound barrier on his plunge from 23 miles up all the way back down to near the Earth’s surface before pulling the ripcord on his death-defying, record-breaking stunt.
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On This Page
ToxFAQsTM for Hydrogen Peroxide
This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions about hydrogen peroxide. For more information, you may call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-888-422-8737. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. It is important you understand this information because this substance may harm you. The effects of exposure to any hazardous substance depend on the dose, the duration, how you are exposed, personal traits and habits, and whether other chemicals are present.
Hydrogen peroxide is a manufactured chemical, although small amounts of hydrogen peroxide gas may occur naturally in the air. Low exposure may occur from use at home; higher exposures may occur from industrial use. Exposure to hydrogen peroxide can cause irritation of the eyes, throat, respiratory airway, and skin. Drinking concentrated liquid can cause mild to severe gastrointestinal effects. This substance has been found in at least 18 of the 1,585 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
What is hydrogen peroxide?
Hydrogen peroxide is a colorless liquid at room temperature with a bitter taste. Small amounts of gaseous hydrogen peroxide occur naturally in the air. Hydrogen peroxide is unstable, decomposing readily to oxygen and water with release of heat. Although nonflammable, it is a powerful oxidizing agent that can cause spontaneous combustion when it comes in contact with organic material.
Hydrogen peroxide is found in many households at low concentrations (3-9%) for medicinal applications and as a clothes and hair bleach. In industry, hydrogen peroxide in higher concentrations is used as a bleach for textiles and paper, as a component of rocket fuels, and for producing foam rubber and organic chemicals.
What happens to hydrogen peroxide when it enters the environment?
- Hydrogen peroxide released to the atmosphere will react very rapidly with other compounds found in air.
- Hydrogen peroxide breaks down rapidly in water.
- If released to soil, hydrogen peroxide will be broken down by reacting with other compounds.
- Hydrogen peroxide does not accumulate in the food chain.
How might I be exposed to hydrogen peroxide?
- You can be exposed to hydrogen peroxide through its use as a general disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide solutions used for this purpose are sold at almost all drugstores or supermarkets.
- Because hydrogen peroxide is used in many industries for a variety of purposes, workers in such industries may be exposed to this chemical through inhalation or contact with the skin.
How can hydrogen peroxide affect my health?
Hydrogen peroxide can be toxic if ingested, inhaled, or by contact with the skin or eyes. Inhalation of household strength hydrogen peroxide (3%) can cause respiratory irritation. Exposure to household strength hydrogen peroxide can cause mild ocular irritation. Inhalation of vapors from concentrated (higher than 10%) solutions may result in severe pulmonary irritation.
Ingestion of dilute solutions of hydrogen peroxide may result in vomiting, mild gastrointestinal irritation, gastric distension, and on rare occasions, gastrointestinal erosions or embolism (blockage of blood vessels by air bubbles). Ingestion of solutions of 10-20% strength produces similar symptoms, but exposed tissues may also be burned. Ingestion of even more concentrated solutions, in addition to the above, may also induce rapid loss of consciousness followed by respiratory paralysis.
Eye exposure to 3% hydrogen peroxide may result in pain and irritation, but severe injury is rare. More concentrated solution may result in ulceration or perforation of the cornea. Skin contact can cause irritation and temporary bleaching of the skin and hair. Contact with concentrated solutions may cause severe skin burns with blisters.
We do not know if exposure to hydrogen peroxide may affect reproduction in humans.
How likely is hydrogen peroxide to cause cancer?
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that hydrogen peroxide is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.
How does hydrogen peroxide affect children?
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to hydrogen peroxide. Documented cases of children being accidently exposed to hydrogen peroxide have described effects similar to those observed in adults.
We do not know if exposure to hydrogen peroxide may result in birth defects or other developmental effects in people.
How can families reduce the risk of exposure to hydrogen peroxide?
Most families may be exposed to household strength hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide should not be stored in containers that may appear attractive to children, such as soda bottles. Containers with hydrogen peroxide should be stored out of the reach of children.
Is there a medical test to show whether I've been exposed to hydrogen peroxide?
There are no clinical tests that show that you have been exposed to hydrogen peroxide. White foam from the mouth immediately after ingestion of significant amounts may provide a clue to emergency personnel.
Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets a limit of 1 part of hydrogen peroxide in a million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace for an 8-hour work shift, 40-hour work week.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2002. Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents. Volume III - Medical Management Guidelines for Acute Chemical Exposures: Hydrogen Peroxide. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
Where can I get more information?
If you have questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or environmental quality department or:
For more information, contact:
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop F-57
Atlanta, GA 30329-4027
Phone: 1-800-CDC-INFO · 888-232-6348 (TTY)
Email: Contact CDC-INFO
ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses resulting from exposure to hazardous substances.
Information line and technical assistance:
To order toxicological profiles, contact:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Phone: 800-553-6847 or 703-605-6000
Some PDF files may be electronic conversions from paper copy or other electronic ASCII text files. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors. Users are referred to the original paper copy of the toxicological profile for the official text, figures, and tables. Original paper copies can be obtained via the directions on the toxicological profile home page, which also contains other important information about the profiles.
The information contained here was correct at the time of publication. Please check with the appropriate agency for any changes to the regulations or guidelines cited.
- Page last reviewed: March 3, 2011
- Page last updated: July 27, 2015
- Content source: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
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Roosevelt’s objective seemed simple enough in the beginning. It had worked for his friend John Maynard Keynes in England: use borrowed federal money and tax revenues to buy the vote of the farmers. The redistributed monies would pay above-equilibrium prices for the farmers’ crops and additional subsidies for their unique farming lifestyles. They would be hooked. That was the plan.
But they failed to see that in the process they were running roughshod over the economic law of supply and demand. The farmers began investing their newly gained subsidies into their operations. That resulted in increased production and surpluses. Even a novice should have known that when there are surpluses the prices naturally go down in order to clear the market. But the government had to artificially keep the prices up to the consumers in order to pay the farmers. They had painted themselves into a corner, but could not admit it for fear of losing the farm votes. That was when they decided to start paying the farmers for not planting crops or raising livestock.
Of course, the matter worsened, and the surpluses kept growing. When it dawned on the planners that they could not manipulate and control the supply side of the equation, they came up with another brilliant idea. If they could get rid of the surpluses then there would be a demand for the products left, and the people would gladly pay the higher price for scarce products. If they played it right, they could dispose of the surpluses and buy yet even more votes through promising more redistribution and subsidies to new groups of voters.
April 20, 1939, the Food Stamp program was launched. “Food Stamps, the latest in Roosevelt’s administration plans to reduce the farm surplus, came off the presses today at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing . . . will be able to cash each one dollar stamp for food worth a dollar and fifty cents.”(1)
Of course I will continue to vote for someone who will just give me food, especially if the one dollar stamp will buy me one dollar and fifty cents worth of my items at the corner grocery store.
Congress frequently revisits the Food Stamp program to enhance it and expand it. In 1974, it was expanded into every state. The 1977 Food Stamp Act made broader accessibility. By 1988, the Act introduced the issuance of a debit type credit card called an Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card. (You may have heard of the recent problem with folks here in Colorado swiping their cards at the ATM machines, then taking the cash to purchase marijuana with the taxpayers’ money.) The program now assists well over thirty million recipients per month. The Food Stamp situation is a whole other issue that is open for your own further research.
After the death of President Roosevelt, the legacy continued. On June 4, 1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the National School Lunch Act into law. Its purpose was to “provide a market for agricultural production . . . and to improve the health and well-being of the nation’s youth . . . the raw materials come from USDA as donated commodities.”(2)
The real story was that the donated commodities from the United States Department of Agriculture had just come from the commandeered tax monies that were used to buy the votes of the farmers who had just raised the commodities.
On July 10, 1954, the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act was signed and became Public Law 480. The law created the Food for Peace program, “to promote the economic stability of American agriculture, to make maximum use of U.S. surplus agricultural products.”
The politicians could not cover the funds used to procure the support and votes of the farmers by trying to curb the supply of the expanding surpluses, so it was necessary to create a demand for the commodities by giving the farm products to those whose votes could additionally be procured.
One of the more recent endeavors of the U.S. Department of Agriculture to manipulate the demand for the government’s surplus crops was the production ofgasohol, a blend of gasoline and alcohol (ethanol) made from grain. Additionally,biodiesel, a fuel made from soybean oil and other vegetable oils, has been greatly subsidized in another effort toward demand enhancement.
Is it any wonder that the corporate and private exploration and development process of our own natural resources of oil has been so bitterly opposed? Why is the Federal Government tinkering in all of this?
I think I hear a voice of sanity and reason from somewhere hollering, “stop, Stop, and STOP all this tragic silliness. Why are we paying billions of dollars each year in individual subsidies to farmers, plus billions of dollars in above-equilibrium crop prices, and billions of dollars in administration costs to run a program that we are told is for our own good and we should be ashamed of ourselves for questioning any part of it? For all these expenditures we receive the privilege to pay at least two to three times the normal market price for such commodities as milk and sugar at the grocery store today, plus the privilege to pay additional billions in tax dollars on April 15th each year for what? . . . just for the securing of a vote that brings with it entitlement and power to promote and enact such waste and violation of public trust? What price greedy power and control?” Of course, that voice is ruckus and radical! Pay no heed.
There is already a simple solution to the Farm Policy problem that has already been set into motion and is today available. It is called free enterprise. There is no need for the Gosplan gurus to try to figure it all out with acreage allotments, long division, and stubby pencils.
Let the politicians earn their own votes on a platform of creativity, expansion, and production rather than manipulation, taxation, and redistribution. Wealth only comes through growth and economic production, not redistribution. Redistribution constricts, production expands. Let the farmers decide for themselves what they want to grow and to whomever they wish to sell. If they want to sell their crop at a discount to hot lunch programs, or even donate them of their own goodwill, then let them. Family farmers are very intelligent, caring, and industrious businessmen.
If their personal research tells them that the production of rice or oats will be short next year because of the floods caused by late snow melt or excess rain, let them grow those scarce crops on their own land and live with the expectation of abundant monetary reward because they took the risk to change their regular growing program to take advantage of the coming demand. If they mess up and miscalculate and fail to reap their expected return, they can adjust their crop choice the next year and be the wiser for it in the years to come. But if they make a good decision and they are rewarded handsomely, then they should be respected for being a creative part of solving real problems with their own investigation and initiative.
The free market will send immediate signals and distribute necessary information for all parties to make good decisions as they freely choose what is best for them. The results of all those free choices in the market will bring about the best good for the greatest number of people. Greed and manipulation of centralized economic systems, based on the concept of governmental redistribution, simply cripple creative efforts of the constituents and steal the justified wealth of nations. How a nation handles the concept of free enterprise, with its economic and cultural freedom to make and pursue individual choices, is the determining factor why some nations are poor and some nations are wealthy.
Global transformation takes place at the intersection of culture and economics.
Next Week: Recent Farm Financial Philosophy
(Research ideas from Dr. Jackson’s new writing project on Cultural Economics)
© Dr. James W. Jackson
Permissions granted by Winston-Crown Publishing House
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The scientists from NASA are trying to investigate their new findings that can help to address astronaut vision issues. Retired astronaut Scott Kelly, NASA's Human Research Program, was also a part of the mission.
The Research Program was focused on comparing previous six-month mission findings to One-Year Mission preliminary findings.
Nutritional Biochemistry Lab lead Scott M. Smith, Ph.D., took a broad look at biochemistry.
Smith studied the astronaut diets along with protein, vitamin, mineral, and other chemicals in blood and urine to look for indicators of disease or other physiological changes.
The scientists’ team found that astronauts with vision issues had biochemical differences before ever leaving Earth as compared to astronauts without vision issues.
Subsequently, it was considered that low vision is an evidence of a genetic predisposition for some astronauts to develop vision and eye issues. The scientists have added that the study is one of its kinds because the team is near to their goals to solve vision issues, faced by astronauts. Additionally, the study is an important finding as NASA prepares for a human journey to Mars.
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(Show plain text in new window)
The Priestly Garments...
And of the blue and purple and scarlet material they made woven garments, to do service in the set-apart place. And they made the set-apart garments which were for Aharon, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
And he made the shoulder garment of gold, of blue and purple and scarlet material, and of fine woven linen.
And they beat out sheets of gold and cut it into threads, to work it in with the blue and purple and scarlet material, and the fine linen, the work of a skilled workman.
They made shoulder pieces for it to join it, it was joined at its two edges.
And the embroidered band of his shoulder garment that was on it was of the same work of gold, and blue and purple and scarlet material, and of fine woven linen, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
And they made the shoham stones, set in plated work of gold, engraved as signets are engraved, according to the names of the sons of Yisra'el.
And he put them on the shoulders of the shoulder garment, stones of remembrance for the sons of Yisra'el, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
The Breastpiece / Breastplate...
And he made the breastplate, a work of a skilled workman, like the work of the shoulder garment, of gold, of blue and purple and scarlet material, and of fine woven linen.
It was square, they made the breastplate double, its length a span, its width a span, doubled.
And they filled it with four rows of stones: a row of ruby, a topaz, and an emerald was the first row;
and the second row a turquoise, a sapphire, and a diamond;
and the third row a jacinth, an agate, and an amethyst;
and the fourth row a beryl, a shoham, and a jasper - set in plated work of gold in their settings.
And the stones were according to the names of the sons of Yisra'el, twelve according to their names, engraved like a signet, each one with its own name according to the twelve tribes.
And they made braided chains of corded work for the breastplate at the ends, of clean gold.
And they made two settings of gold and two gold rings, and put the two rings on the two ends of the breastplate.
And they put the two cords of gold in the two rings on the ends of the breastplate.
And the two ends of the two cords they fastened in the two settings, and put them on the shoulder pieces of the shoulder garment in the front.
And they made two rings of gold and put them on the two ends of the breastplate, on the edge of it, which was on the inward side of the shoulder garment.
And they made two gold rings and put them on the two shoulder pieces, underneath the shoulder garment, on the front of it, close to its seam above the embroidered band of the shoulder garment.
And they bound the breastplate by means of its rings to the rings of the shoulder garment with a blue cord, so that it would be above the embroidered band of the shoulder garment, and that the breastplate would not come loose from the shoulder garment, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
Other Priestly Garments...
And he made the robe of the shoulder garment of woven work, all of blue.
And the opening of the robe was in the middle, like the opening in a scaled armour, with a woven binding all around the opening, so that it would not tear.
And they made on the hem of the robe pomegranates of blue and purple and scarlet material, twined.
And they made bells of clean gold, and put the bells between the pomegranates on the hem of the robe all around between the pomegranates:
a bell and a pomegranate, a bell and a pomegranate, all around the hem of the robe, for the service, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
And they made the long shirt of fine linen, the work of a weaver, for Aharon and his sons,
and a turban of fine linen, and the turban ornaments of fine linen, and short trousers of fine woven linen,
and a girdle of fine woven linen with blue and purple and scarlet material, the work of an embroiderer, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
And they made the plate of the set-apart sign of dedication of clean gold, and wrote on it an inscription like the engraving of a signet: SET-APARTNESS TO YHWH.
And they put on it a blue cord, to fasten it above on the turban, as YHWH had commanded Mosheh.
Moses (Mosheh) Inspects the Tabernacle...
And all the work of the Dwelling Place of the Tent of Meeting was completed. And the children of Yisra`el did according to all that YHWH had commanded Mosheh, so they did.
And they brought the Dwelling Place to Mosheh, the tent and all its furnishings, its hooks, its boards, its bars, and its columns, and its sockets,
and the covering of rams` skins dyed red, and the covering of fine leather, and the veil of the covering,
the ark of the Witness with its poles, and the lid of atonement,
the table, and all its utensils, and the showbread,
the clean lampstand with its lamps, the lamps to be put in order, and all its utensils, and the oil for light,
and the altar of gold, and the anointing oil, and the sweet incense, and the covering for the Tent door,
the bronze altar and its bronze grating, its poles, and all its utensils, the basin with its stand,
the screens of the courtyard, its columns and its sockets, the covering for the courtyard gate, its cords, and its pegs, and all the utensils for the service of the Dwelling Place, for the Tent of Meeting,
the woven garments, to do service in the set-apart place: the set-apart garments for Aharon the priest, and his sons' garments, to serve as priests.
According to all that YHWH had commanded Mosheh, so the children of Yisra'el did all the work.
And Mosheh looked over all the work and saw they did it as YHWH had commanded, so they had done. And Mosheh blessed them.
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Early Childhood Experiences and Lifelong Health
Did you know that early childhood experiences and environments have an impact on all body systems, not just the brain? Early experiences affect lifelong health as well as early learning and school readiness.
This animated video, narrated by Center on the Developing Child Director Jack P. Shonkoff, outlines what the latest science tells us. It is a quick introduction to the effects of childhood adversities on the developing brain and many other systems in the body. The negative experiences include poverty, discrimination, systemic racism, exposure to violence, and child maltreatment, abuse, and neglect.
To learn more, read:
- 5 Facts About Health That Are Often Misunderstood
- Connecting the Brain to the Rest of the Body: Early Childhood Development and Lifelong Health Are Deeply Intertwined
- Effects of positive and negative childhood experiences on adult family health
- Health and Learning Are Deeply Interconnected in the Body: A Guide for Policymakers
- InBrief: Connecting the Brain to the Rest of the Body
Family literacy programs contribute to positive early childhood experiences. They support parents and caregivers in learning about early childhood development. The benefits for children and adults can be long term.
Related Blog Posts
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Preschoolers can learn early coding skills through hands-on, screen-free activities that are fun. The T in STEM: Creating Play-Based Experiences That Support Children’s Learning of Coding and Higher Order Thinking …
Due to COVID-19, Screen-Free Week 2020 is now Screen-Free Saturdays! One day a week, every week, families are invited to turn off their devices and connect, explore and play while …
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This article was written by Hon Adekoya Dare Alaba. Happy Reading
The word “COWARD” is used derisively by the Igbos to denigrate and disparage the Yorubas.
Many of us simply ignored their boastive and garrulous attack because of the accommodative nature of the Yorubas and in order not to offend the tribal or ethnic sensibilities of our Igbo friends.
But, what option do we have when our friends and their tribal kinsmen continuously and contemptuously describe our race in the most humiliating manner.
The continuous silence by the Yorubas have given the Igbos the erroneous impression that their descriptions of the Yorubas as “Cowards” is true. This post therefore is intended to respond to the annoying description of the Yorubas as “Cowards” by the Igbos.
Let me take it for granted that we all have a good appreciation of the meaning of the word “Coward” as opposed to bravery or courageous conduct or behaviours.
In a recent post, Pastor Reno Omokri, former aide to former President Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, argued extensively with cogent examples to buttress the facts that the Yorubas are not cowards. He concluded by admonishing the Igbos to stop referring to the Yorubas as cowards.
The inevitable question that may be asked is: “who is the coward between the Igbos and the Yorubas”?.
To answer the question, it is imperative to make excursion into history by examining bravery and cowardly behaviours between the Igbos and Yorubas based on historical facts rather than conjecture.
Perhaps, we should also extend the discussion beyond the Igbos and the Yorubas to examine the courageous behaviours of some other tribes in Southern Nigeria.
The great Nana Olomu of Itsekiri (1852-1916) courageously fought the British imperialists from his fortified town of Ebrohimi on the Benin River with great vigour. His forces held the British at bay for many months. Nana Olomu of Itsekiri was an Itsekiri man and not Igbo.
The courageous King Jaja of Opobo (1821-1891) defied the marauding invading forces of the imperialists. He bravely fought the British for many months. King Jaja was an Ijo man and not Igbo.
King Kosoko (1797-1872) of Lagos stood up against the British and courageously fought them. He was a Yoruba man and not Igbo.
The wars between the British invaders and Madam Tinubu (1805-1887) of Lagos are still remembered. Madam Tinubu was the first Nigerian female heroine of the anti-colonial revolution. Madam Tinubu was a Yoruba woman and not Igbo.
The British Colonial plunderers had prolonged conflicts with the Egbas to the north-west of Lagos. The Egbas successfully fought the British. The Egbas are Yorubas and not Igbos.
The great Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi (1857-1914) of Benin courageously fought the British invading army with uncommon gut. Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi was partly Bini and partly Yoruba.
The British occupied Lagos in 1861, but they could not penetrate the Ijebu heartland because the Ijebus fought gallantly to stop them.
In a recent lecture delivered by Professor Godini G. Darah of Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State on the 11th day of February, 2017 at the 2016 Independent Newspaper Man of the Year Award Ceremony, held at Oriental Hotel, Lagos, the Professor of Oral Literature gave illuminating account of how the Ijebus singularly fought the British imperialist for three (3) years. The Ijebus are Yorubas and not Igbos.
The Agbekoya revolt (1968-1969) in Western Nigeria demonstrated beyond doubt the courageous ability of the Yorubas.
Agbekoya revolt led by their leaders Adegoke Akekuejo, Tafa Adeoye, Folarin Idowu, Mudasiru Adeniran and Tafa Popoola successfully fought the security forces.
The farmers marched to Mapo Hall demanding for reduced taxes, which led to violent crises, many government officials were killed.
They attacked courthouses and government buildings, setting free prisoners until the release of Chief Obafemi Awolowo from prison that helped to quell the riots and negotiated directly with their leaders.
Colonel Adekunle Fajuyi (1926-1966) hosted Major General Aguyi Ironsi in Ibadan in July, 1966. The Northern Soldiers invaded Government House in Ibadan. Col. Adekunle Fajuyi took a position that Aguyi Ironsi an Igbo man and his guest cannot be killed in his house.
He stood his ground and chose to die with his Commander in Chief. I am yet to see any Igbo man with such gut yet the Igbos did not appreciate Col. Adekunle Fajuyi.
On the 13th of February 1976, Col. Dimka attempted to over throw the Federal Military Government of Gen. Murtala Mohammed. His aide de camp, Lt. Col. Akintunde Akinsehinwa, a Yoruba man did not run away. He fought and courageously died with Gen. Murtala Mohammed.
Chief Obafemi Awolowo had the opportunity to escape arrest by the Federal Government during one of the darkest days of Nigerian history. He exhibited uncommon courage and did not evade arrest like Chief Anthony Enahoro. Chief Obafemi Awolowo was a Yoruba leader and not Igbo.
Unfortunately, I have to mention the Nigerian Civil War.
Unarguably, the Yorubas were the heroes of the civil war.
Major Banjo, a Yoruba man was the Commanding Officer of the Biafran army. Major Banjo led the Biafran army and fought vigorously conquering Towns, Cities, States and territories with extra ordinary skills.
Major Banjo was a jewel. A brilliant and audacious commander of the highest repute. He led the Biafra army up to Ore in the present Ondo State before he was recalled back to the East by Col. Ojukwu.
Unknown to Major Banjo, Col. Ojukwu has already plotted to kill him based on unfounded lies cooked up against Major Banjo by ethnic and tribal Igbos actuated by envy and ethnic bias.
Col Ojukwu behaved, as it is common with most Igbos in a rash manner and put Major Banjo to death without proper investigation.
The death of Major Banjo ended the success of the Biafran army.
It is a matter of historical fact that the Biafran army did not progress beyond where Major Banjo stopped. Perhaps the story of the civil war would have been different if Col. Ojukwu had not killed Major Banjo.
Brigadier Benjamin Adekunle (1936-2014), the Black Scorpion, Commander of the 3rd Marine Commando, a Yoruba man was unarguably one of the most courageous men the world has ever known.
Brigadier Benjamin Adekunle was an incredibly courageous, greatly feared at home and abroad. Brigadier Benjamin Adekunle, was well respected for his courage and exploits. He was a Yoruba man and not Igbo.
Whether we like it or not, abuse him if you chose, abuse will not change or alter history, General Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba man, took over the Command of the 3rd Marine Commando from Brigadier Benjamin Adekunle.
A man of uncommon courage. General Olusegun Obasanjo fought gallantly and made the Biafrans to surrender. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo is a Yoruba man and Nigerian war hero. It is difficult to find a man with Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo’s courage.
The Federal Government of Nigeria offered to release Chief Moshood Abiola under various bail conditions. Chief Moshood Abiola refused to accept any conditional bail. Rather, Chief Moshood Abiola chose to die in detention. What a courageous man! He was a Yoruba man and not Igbo.
Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe was aware of the first military coup in January, 1966. He left Nigeria before the coup under the pretence that he was going abroad on vacation and or medical trip and he abandoned his people during the war. Lack of courage. Chief Obafemi Awolowo would not have done such a thing.
Recently, the leader of the indigenous people of Biafra (IPOB) was admitted to bail with all manners of conditions while his two other compatriots were denied bail.
Surprisingly, Kanu accepted conditional bail while his compatriots are still languishing in detention. What a coward!
Nelson Mandela of South Africa refused conditional bail. Except a coward, a courageous freedom fighter or a secessionist will not accept conditional bail. Nnamdi Kanu is not a Yoruba man.
The German Emperor and dictator, Adolf Hitler who provoked World War II (1939-1945) was told that the Red Army was marching on his Praetorian. He did not escape.
He bravely committed suicide. His wife Eva Braun committed suicide with him by taking cyanic acid. But Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu ran away in the face of defeat and refused to die. What a cowardly behaviour!
Biblical King Saul not Saul who later became Apostle Paul was hit by archers in the face of battle and he said to his armour bearer “…draw your sword and thrust me through with it lest these uncircumcised men come and thrust me through and abuse me but his armour bearer would not for he was greatly afraid.
Therefore Saul took a sword and fell on it.” (1 Samuel Chapter 31 verses 3-4). In the face of battle, King Saul committed suicide, which was a better choice for him than arrest and humiliation by the philistines. Interestingly, King Saul armour bearer equally took his own life. What a courage! But what did Col. Ojukwu did when he was faced with similar circumstance? He ran away. What a coward!
It may not be appropriate to cite audacious criminal courage because the yorubas treat criminal conducts with disdain. But permit me to mention just one instance.
The most courageous armed robber in the history of Nigeria was Dr. Ishola Oyenusi, a Yorubaman. The celebrated robber, did not plead for any forgiveness and he courageously faced his trial and firing squad unlike the present day none Yoruba robbers and kidnappers who upon arrest begin to shed crocodile tears and begging for forgiveness like the prominent kidnapper; Chukwudi Onuamadike alias Evans, an Igbo man. What a coward!
I have searched through the web of Nigerian History to identify any heroic mark by the Igbos. Unfortunately, I cannot find any except the fictional Obi Okonkwo of Prof. Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” who killed a Whiteman and later hanged himself.
Do you mention Aba women riot? The magnitude of the riot was insignificant for mention on a courageous map.
The only historical record was the tribal coup of January 1966 led by middle rank Igbo military Officers who killed political leaders, Government Officials and Soldiers from all over Nigeria except their own fellow Igbo men and in Igbo land.
My own Ondo brother Brigadier Samuel Ademuwagun, the Commanding Officer of the 1st Brigade Nigerian Army, Kaduna and his wife Latifah were gruesomely murdered in the presence of their children by Major Timothy Onwuatugwu and five others.
Similarly, Nzeogwu and his criminal gangsters assassinated Col. Ralph Shodeinde, Deputy Commandant of Nigerian Defence Academy. His wife was shot in her hand and leg. They killed several Hausa and Yoruba officers.
Certainly, a coup that was staged to kill fellow human being and political leaders, Government Officials and Soldiers other than their own tribesmen was an act of cowardice.
In any case, killing of human being is not a courageous act. infact it is an act of cowardice.
I imagine, if it were the Yorubas that stage a coup to kill all other people except the Yorubas, the Igbos would apply all manners of derogatory and foul languages to describe the Yorubas far beyond tribal, ethnic and cowards which they presently express to describe the Yorubas inspite of the exploits of the Yorubas coupled with accommodation that the Yorubas gave the Igbos.
The Igbos should know that the coup of January 1966 staged by Igbo Military Officers who killed Political Leaders, Government Officials and Soldiers throughout Nigeria except in Igbo Land provoked the retaliatory coup staged by Northern Military Officer that brought General Yakubu Gowon to power in July 1966.
We must not play down on the issue. The tribal and ethnic characters of the Igbo Military Officers expose the Igbos as tribal and ethnic chauvinists who wantonly kill other people except their own fellow Igbos.
Instructively, Brigadier Samuel Ademuwagun was the most senior military officer next to Gen. Aguyi Ironsi. The Igbo coupists killed him and left their own brother Gen. Aguyi Ironsi.
Interestingly, I was told that one of the grievances of the Igbos against the Yorubas was the Carpet crossing in the Western Region House of Assembly that brought Chief Obafemi Awolowo to power as the Premier of the Western Region which prevented Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe from becoming the Premier of the Western Region.
Let me say unequivocally that the action of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Yoruba leaders was perfectly right and equitable which conform to the tenet of democracy and self-aspiration.
Nigeria at the material time was divided into three regions and the three regions have three apples to share among themselves.
Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello an Hausa Fulani and a Northerner took one of the apples for himself and the people of the north and thus became the Premier of the Northern Region.
The Second apple was taken by an Easterner.
Regrettably, another Easterner in the person of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe wanted to take the third apple that was meant for the Western Region regardless of the fact that his brother and compatriot had taken the second apple.
The question that confronted Chief Obafemi Awolowo and the Yoruba Leaders was “Why must one person take two out of three apples that was meant for three people?” Certainly, it is unjust, immoral, inequitable, oppressive, insensitive and ungodly.
In effect, an Easterner cannot be a Premier in the Eastern Region and another Easterner as Premier in the Western Region. Such arrangement would have stripped the Yorubas naked with nothing.
Certainly, if Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe was allowed to rule as Premier of the Western Region, the Yorubas would have become slaves to the Igbos.
Some Igbos have argued that Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe should have been allowed to become the Premier of Western Region on the principle of democracy since his party won majority seat in the Western Region House of Assembly.
My response to such argument is that the attempt by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe to present himself as the Premier of the Western Region was ill advised and secondly, what prevented Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe from sponsoring a Yorubaman for the position?.
Let me also say that the definition of democracy varies from country to country and from place to place depending on several factors and peculiarities.
Let me be specific, no one will deny the fact that the ever cerebral and articulate students of Obafemi Awolowo University have a very strong democratic Students’ Union.
Election was organised but the winner was prevented from taking oven by some Students led by Mr. Seni Ajayi.
I became furious and I went to the Students’ Union Building to meet Mr. Seni Ajayi, a very distinguished students’ Union leader.
My argument was similar to the same argument the Igbos are making about Chief Obafemi Awolowo.
I told Seni Ajayi that Mr. Agoi who had won the Students’ Union Election should be allowed to assume office on the principle of Democracy.
Seni Ajayi calmly disarmed me with a new definition of democracy. He made it clear to me that “Democracy is the Votes of the People that Matters.”
Far beyond the fact that the people voted for Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and his party NCNC, the votes of the people that matters were the votes of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Yoruba leaders who infact were the Guardians of the conscience of the Yorubas and who knew what was the best for the Yorubas.
It was a matter of fact that Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe went back to the Eastern Region and took over as the Premier of the Eastern Region.
Let me say with abundant pride and profound relish that the carpet crossing in the Western Region that brought Chief Obafemi Awolowo to power was the greatest thing to have happened to the Yorubas.
Western Region under Chief Obafemi Awolowo was a pacesetter. The Civil Service which was the engine room of the government was second to none in the Commonwealth.
The Western Region Government under Chief Obafemi Awolowo was the first in everything that we can be proud of; free education, first high rising building in Nigeria, first Olympic size stadium, first television station, road infrastructural development that lead to the rural areas in Yoruba towns and villages to facilitate evacuation of farm produce which ultimately lead to wealth and growth, just to mention a few.
The benefits derived from the carpet crossing which brought Chief Obafemi Awolowo to power successfully laid the foundation for the development of Western Region which have become the envy of other Nigerians and the Yoruba race has been able to sustain the growth even though the progress was almost stunted by the military.
The question therefore is “what did Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe do in the Eastern Region?”. I know of the University of Nigeria Nsukka.
But the Yorubas also have their own University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University). Each of the three Premiers, Alhaji Sir. Ahmadu Bello, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Chief Obafemi Awolowo had the opportunity to develop their regions but Chief Obafemi Awolowo was a phenomena.
Instructively, if Dr. Azikiwe had been the Premier of the Western Region, he would not have performed better than what he did in the Eastern Region.
Indeed, generation of Yorubas are very proud of their Chief Obafemi Awolowo and other Yoruba political leaders that developed their region.
It is important to know that some of the things that the Igbos are saying about the carpet crossing in the Western Region House of Assembly are not true.
It is not true that Yoruba NCNC Parliamentarians abandoned Dr. Azikiwe on the floor of Western Region House of Assembly and crossed over to Chief Obafemi Awolowo side as often painted.
The correct position was that five (5) members out of the six (6) elected Parliamentarians from the Ibadan People Party (IPP) led by Chief Adisa Akinloye teamed up with Chief Obafemi Awolowo Action Group while the sixth Parliamentarian Adegoke Adelabu crossed carpet to Dr. Azikiwe NCNC.
All the Yoruba Parliamentarians in NCNC stood with their leader Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and not a single one of them crossed to Chief Obafemi Awolowo side.
In a plain language, those who crossed carpet were not parliamentarians from NCNC. In any case what happened in the Western Region House of Assemble is allowed under Parliamentary System of Government.
It is completely wrong for any Nigerian to accuse the Yorubas of tribalism.
In 2011, the Yorubas in the House of Representatives refused to vote for their fellow Yoruba candidate Mrs Adeola Mulikat.
The Yorubas teamed up with Northerners and Easterners to vote for Alhaji Aminu Tambuwal who thus became the Speaker of the House of Representatives. That is the Yorubas for you.
In the recent time, a Yoruba woman, Dr. Ameyo Stella Adadevoh exhibited unequal courage. She prevented Ebola from entering or spreading in Nigeria by paying with her own life.
I am yet to see any Igbo woman with such gut and courage.
Unfortunately, the incredible and tremendous courage of Dr. Ameyo Stella Adadevoh which limited the spread of Ebola in Nigeria was not rewarded by the Government of Dr. Goodluck Jonathan.
I can reasonably infer that the Igbos who were majority in that government deliberately refused to honour the outstanding Yoruba woman because she was a Yoruba woman.
Dr. Goodluck Jonathan ruled Nigeria for six years. The Yorubas voted for him massively in 2011 but what did the Yorubas get. He abandoned the Yorubas.
About 85% of all-important headships of government agencies and parastatals were occupied by the Igbos. There was no single Yoruba man from number 1 to 14 in the hierarchy of power. Yet, the Yorubas did not quarrel with any person. They waited patiently until the 2015 General election where they peacefully use their votes to their advantage.
Ironically, as soon as Dr. Goodluck Jonathan left, the shout of fake marginalisation started again.
Let me say without any fear of being contradicted that contrary to the shout of marginalisation, which the Igbos often used, the most powerful and economically viable position under the General Buhari Government are occupied by the Igbos.
The Governor of Central Bank, the most powerful Bank in Nigeria is in the hand of an Igbo man.
The Minister of State for petroleum Dr, Ibe Kachukwu though from Delta State is an Igboman. The Director of Budget of the Federation Mr. Ben Akabueze.
Apart from the Minister of Finance, the economic control of Nigeria is in the hands of the Igbos. The deputy Senate President is an Igboman yet they cry of marginalisation. “There is God o o”
The Igbos should know that the Yorubas are only slow to anger, which is dictated by the Yorubas sense of justice to examine or evaluate issues critically before taking decision rather than rash behaviours.
The accommodative nature of the Yorubas is mistaken for cowardice. When it comes to matter of courage and heroic behaviours, the Igbos should come and learn from the Yorubas who have demonstrated beyond doubt that they are the most courageous people in Nigeria.
The Yorubas are very loving and respectful people, all they want from the Igbos is mutual respect and not abuse.
As an addendum, let me say that the Igbos have started again.
Let them have their Biafra Republic. But, why would they arrogantly drew the map of Biafra to include other ethnic nationalities who do not believe in their Biafra project. Forceful incorporation of other ethnic nationalities into the Biafra agenda is the beginning of failure. It also amount to the repeat of the past mistake.
In the final analysis, I still love and cherish all my Igbo friends without any animosity against any of my friends.
It is only necessary to put things into proper perspectives. God bless you.
Published by: . Hon Adekoya Dare Alaba
“He who roll out the Drums of War…
Must be prepared to Dance with Pythons…”
………..Not go into hiding, like Zik n Emeka.
-DAK, 2017Sept- On Kanu/Biafra
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(Disclosure of the First Part of the Sixth Report of IPCC)
On August 9, 2021, IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report(AR6)’s first part ‘Climate Change 2021’ raised alarming warnings about natural disasters due to rising global temperature. According to the report, the earth’s average temperature is rising faster than earlier estimated. According to the estimates of scientists, the average temperature of the earth was estimated to rise by 1.5 degree Celsius by 2050 from the Pre-Industrial Revolution period. According to the report, in the next 20 years by 2040, the average temperature of the earth will cross the 1.5 degree Celsius threshold set by the Paris Climate Agreement (2015).
This threshold is shockingly going to be met 10 years sooner than what was earlier estimated to cross by the end of this century. The increase in the average temperature of the earth, oceans, and atmosphere is due to human activities. The report also states an increase in sea level by up to 2 meters by the end of this century, which cannot be ignored. Scientists preparing the report also warned that the Arctic is likely to be ‘practically sea ice-free’ in September at least once before 2050.
The report also states that each and every decade in the last four decades has been hotter than the previous ones. As seen from data, after 1970 the temperature began to rise sharply. Looking to the future, predictions are that summers will be longer and winters will be shorter in the coming decades. Extreme temperatures are expected in multiple geographical locations where temperatures could rise several degrees above the average. The frequency of heat waves incidents will increase rapidly.
Prolonged summers will inevitably impact the rain patterns and an increase in the incidents of heatwaves will adversely affect the agricultural sector. Heavy rains in some places will lead to floods and droughts in some places due to low rainfall. Rising temperatures will cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, rising sea levels, which could be a major problem for the coastal villages, cities, and islands. Rising ocean water temperature will further increase the probability of marine disasters, such as cyclones (hurricanes) and tsunamis.
In the report, the scientists made it clear that the rise in the earth’s average temperature is due to human activities whereas the earlier reports suggested the possibility of human activities. While human activity is playing an important role in the increasing average temperature of the earth, the real reason for it is the economic development model. Most countries in the world have indiscriminately depleted natural resources in the blind race for economic growth. According to a special report of the IPCC titled ‘Climate Change and Land’ released in 2019, human activities have changed 70 percent of the earth’s (ice-free) area.
The oceans are also being severely damaged by human activities. According to a study by Harvey, two-thirds of the ocean area is under extreme pressure from human activities. The amount of acidic matter and pollutants in the oceans are increasing which is causing various diseases to marine life, hence they are becoming extinct in large numbers. In the last week of June 2021, more than a billion marine animals died due to the heatwave in the western United States and Canada. Rising ocean temperature is increasing the number of natural disasters like cyclones and tsunamis and the magnitude of their effects.
According to a study by Singapore’s Nanyang Technological University, a 0.5 meter rise in sea level could increase the risk of tsunamis by 2.4 times and by one meter 4.7 times. According to a study by Daniel Levitt and Nico Camnada, a one-degree rise in sea water temperature would increase the wind speed in a hurricane by 5 per cent and a high-speed hurricane would wreak havoc.
Some prominent hurricanes we have seen recently are Harvey, Florence, Maria, Irma amongst others. The report also highlighted that the sea level could rise by 2 meters by the end of this century. If the sea level rises so much, many islands in the Pacific Ocean and cities along the coastal areas will suffer a lot.
The report makes it clear that by the end of the century, limiting the rise in temperature to 1.5 degree Celsius (the safe limit set by the Paris Climate Agreement) is becoming out of reach. Due to the rapid emission of greenhouse gases in the last century, the average temperature of the earth has risen by 1.1 degrees Celsius since the Pre-Industrial Revolution period and we are only 0.4 degrees Celsius away from crossing the 1.5 degree Celsius limit. Every part of a degree of temperature rise is very important. With every one-degree rise in temperature, there will be a 7 percent increase in the intensification of extreme rain events.
A special IPCC report released in October 2018 indicated that a mere half-degree Celsius rise in temperature could raise sea levels by up to 8 feet, causing damage to the human population of 3 to 8 million. At the same time, 410 million urban population will suffer from water scarcity, and 18 percent of insects, 16 percent flora, and 8 percent four-legged animals will disappear from the face of the earth forever.
With the increase in the average temperature of the earth, the frequency of heatwaves is increasing rapidly. A one degree Celsius increase in temperature is likely to increase the heat waves 5 times and a 2 degree Celsius increase is expected to increase the frequency of heatwaves 14 times. Rising temperature is not only increasing the recurring incidents of heat waves but is also increasing the frequency of other natural disasters such as droughts and wildfires. Lytton, a small town in Canada, was devastated by wildfires after a heatwave. A similar phenomenon recently occurred in Galatsona village on Evia island in Greece and the Northern California Dixie fire, to recall a few.
Climate change coupled with rising temperature is increasing the incidence of droughts. According to a 2020 report by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water, 68 percent of India’s areas are facing drought-like conditions. California in the western United States is currently suffering from drought where drought used to occur once in a decade but now it has increased by 70 percent.
The incidence of floods is also increasing with climate change. In July 2021, Western Europe experienced the worst floods for the first time in the last many decades western, hundreds of people were killed in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and the Netherlands caused by heavy rains. In China, flash floods in Henan province in July 2021 killed at least 300 people and affected more than 1.3 million people. All over the world, the incidence of heavy rains has increased by an average of 30 percent.
In fact, droughts and extreme heatwaves have an increased frequency and the duration of forest fires. Due to the long dry weather, the severity of wildfires is on the rise. According to CalFire, six out of the top 10 largest wildfires in California have occurred in 2020 or 2021, which reflects the severity of the situation.
The report has indicated that India will also continue to be prone to natural disasters resulting from rising sea levels and rising temperatures. These disasters will affect people living in its coastal areas. With the rise in seawater temperature, the number of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and as well in the Arabian Sea and their impact will increase.
UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres has said that the report raises serious concerns. We have very little time left to save the earth and its people from the damage caused by natural disasters. According to the Paris Climate Agreement, greenhouse gas emissions have to drastically be reduced to meet the target of 1.5 degree Celsius rise in global average temperature from the Pre-Industrial Revolution period to the end of the 21st century. The use of diesel, petrol, and coal must be reduced. Alas! Instead of declining, their use is growing at a rate of 2 percent per annum.
China, the United States, and India, which are currently emitting more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere than any other country in the world, should shut down their coal-fired thermal plants as soon as possible. Coal-fired plants are still being set up in China and India. China and the United States must quickly switch to renewable energy sources for economic growth. These countries should cut their carbon emissions as fast as European countries have done.
Although India has a very small share of global greenhouse gas emissions (2.65 Gigatonne) compared to China (10.06 Gigatonne) and the United States (5.4 Gigatonne), this does not mean that India does not require any action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Council on Energy, Environment, and Water, 75 percent of the districts in India are suffering from one or the other kind of natural disaster. The steps to be taken to deal with climate change are in the interest of our country and its people.
The IPCC report comes just six months before the 26th session of the United Nation led Conference of the Parties. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the leaders of all world leaders to come up with a solid plan for the reduction of greenhouse gases. So far, 90 countries have submitted their plans to the United Nations to cut greenhouse gas emissions, but that would reduce emissions by only 2.3 billion tonnes by 2030.
The need of the hour is ten times more reduction in greenhouse gases otherwise our planet will warm by more than 1.5 degrees Celsius. Therefore, China, the United States, and India should play their role in cutting down their greenhouse gas emissions as these three countries emit 50 percent of the total emissions into the atmosphere. All the nations of the world must unite and take firm and concrete steps. These steps include changing the current economic development model and people’s way of life, as well as ensuring clean technology and financial assistance to the developing and least developed countries by the developed countries.
About the Author :
Dr. Gurinder Kaur is Visiting professor at IMPRI and a Former Professor of, Department of Geography, Punjabi University, Patiala.
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The Propagation of Pomegranates
By Ashley Braun
In my paper I’m going to explain to you what a pomegranate is and its care. I will also go in depth on the different methods of propagating pomegranates. Pomegranates are not widely grown in the United States mostly because of unfavorable climate, but also because the demand for pomegranates is not very high in the United States. This lack of interest created a small problem with finding strong research information about the pomegranates propagation. There are several different propagation methods used to grow pomegranates. Much work needs to be done to increase production and information about the pomegranate, but the field and interest in the rare fruit is growing and has the potential to double within the next ten years.
The pomegranate is native to the Middle East and South Asia. It has wandered over the centuries to China, India, the Mediterranean, California, and Florida. The pomegranate is one of the first five cultivated foods in the world. There are some trees in Europe that are known to be over 200 years old. Throughout the centuries it has been used widely in literature and art and was often seen as a sign of fertility or wealth. The pomegranate is very high in potassium, vitamin C, and antioxidants.
The pomegranate plant comes in either a tree or a shrub. It is usually grown for its large fruit, but there are some dwarf cultivars used primarily for landscaping or bonsai trees. The foliage is long, thin, and glossy in appearance. It produces small flowers usually one inch in diameter. The flowers come in a wide variety of colors, but the most common are orange and red. The fruit produced is usually two to five inches in diameter with a hard rind. The rind comes in many different colors from green, yellow, orange, and red. Inside the fruit are locules separated by a thin, bitter membrane. Within the locules are many small jewel-like objects called arils. The arils contain tart to sweet flavored juice and a small seed. The juice ranges in color from clear to a deep staining red.
The pomegranate is capable of growing in a wide range of soils as long as it has good drainage. It likes to be placed in an area with a lot of sunlight. You should plant the tree or shrub in early spring with rows 15 to 18 feet apart, but make sure to protect it from any late frosts that come along. Every spring you may also add a couple inches of mulch around the base of the tree or shrub. The pomegranate is tolerant of drought, but only cold hardy till 12 degrees Fahrenheit. It prefers very warm temperatures, which improve the flavor of the fruit. For mass fruit production sprinkler irrigation is preferred, but should not be utilized close to harvest time because it causes fruit cracking. The pomegranate is self-pollinating, or it can be cross-pollinated by insects. Cross-pollination also increases fruit set and quality. The plant requires very little fertilizer, around 5-8 ounces of nitrogen a year. Minor pruning is needed, but necessary to decrease disease and increase fruit size. You must also remember to remove the suckers from the base of the plant.
The fruit takes five to seven months to mature after it blossoms. The fruits are usually harvested September to December. Almost all harvesting is done by hand. After being picked they should be kept at optimal conditions of 32 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit and 80 to 85% relative humidity. Pomegranates can be kept that long for up to seven months. The long storage improves the flavor of the fruit.
An easy method of propagation is to do it by seed. The seeds of the pomegranate germinate very quickly, even if sprinkled on the top of the soil. They usually have little problem with dormancy since the tree is native to warm climates. Seeds are also more economical than other methods of propagation. The biggest problem with seed propagation is that they are not true to type, and can loose some of the good qualities of the established cultivars. That is why the seed propagation is not used in large-scale production. It also takes longer for a fruit producing plant to grow from seed than other methods.
Hardwood cuttings are the most widely used method. You should take the cuttings November through January off of one-year-old wood. One source said the cuttings should be six to ten inches long while another source suggested cuttings of twelve to twenty inches in length. Treat the cuttings with a growth regulator and let them develop some roots in a greenhouse before planting in the spring. The cuttings are the best way to keep the properties of the original cultivars.
Grafting of pomegranate trees is rarely done in the United States. It is sparsely used in other parts of the world. Many different types of grafts have not been successful enough for use in commercial production. I have not found much information explaining why there is such difficulty getting successful grafts.
Tissue culture is another method of production that calls for the growth of the plant in a sterile environment using the tissue, seed, or cuttings. There is little, if almost no tissue culture of pomegranates. The United States has such a small pomegranate market that very little money is put into its research and the expense of tissue culture. Many of the countries that have large pomegranate production have poor economical status and cannot provide much money to its research.
I would have liked to find more specific information on the propagation of pomegranates. Since the fruit has been grown for hundreds of years with reliable results there is not much want for growers to explore other options. The minimal U.S. production posed a problem in finding information also. It was very easy to find general production knowledge and facts, but in depth statistical information is very hard to come by. The propagation of pomegranates has been done for many years and the plant has endured.
California Rare Fruit Growers. “Pomegranates.” June 4, 1997.
Corbis Photo Search. “Pomegranate.” April 26, 2003. <http://www.corbis.com>.
Gernot Katzer’s Spice Dictionary. “Pomegranates.” February 27, 2000.
POM Wonderful. July 14, 2001. <http://www.pomwonderful.com/home.asp>.
Pomegranate. March 24, 1999. <http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton /pomegranate.html>.
Virginia Cooperative Extension. “Pomegranates.” November 1, 1997.
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When it comes to Passover, most of the attention is placed on Moses (realizing this, the Jewish Sages who composed the Passover Haggada omitted any mention of Moshe!) Few give credit to Moses’ elder siblings (and prophets) Aaron and Miriam. It was the prophecy of the eldest Miriam that inspired the Israelites in Egypt to start procreating again, after they had previously decided not to bring any more children into such a cruel existence. That stimulus gave birth to Moses. It was Miriam who ensured the basket stayed afloat in the Nile, and who made sure Moses received a Jewish wet nurse (his mother!) even though he grew up in Pharaoh’s palace. Later, we are told that Miriam had a mystical well that supplied the Israelites with all their water needs during their travels through the wilderness. The Talmud explains Miriam was nicknamed Azuva (“left behind”) since she was physically unappealing and had a hard time finding a husband. However, a great man named Caleb married her for her spiritual holiness. Miraculously, she transformed into a very beautiful woman, and was thus renamed Efrat (which means “beauty”). This marriage gave birth to the ancestor of King David (and therefore Mashiach)!
Meanwhile, Aaron was the leader of the Jews in Egypt. Because Moses had a speech impediment, Aaron was the official mouthpiece and spokesperson of God. He also carried out the first three of the 10 plagues that struck the Egyptians. For his peace-loving and self-sacrificing ways, Aaron was later granted the high priesthood, and all his descendants became Cohanim. Amazingly, scientists have discovered a gene on the Y-chromosome that is shared by cohanim around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or other. The gene traces back 3300 years, which is precisely the time of the Exodus!
Words of the Week
There are none so hopelessly enslaved as those who believe they are free.
– Von Goethe
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What You Will Learn
You will learn how to create a simple version of the cartoon classic eye-pop animation. You will learn to exaggerate emotions for comical effect. You will use a combination of Wind-up, Shake, and Spacing to create an impact with this bit of acting.
Why Is This Important?
This recipe is a simple variation on a classic cartoon cliche. Part of the importance, aside from applying animation principles to a new piece of emotion reaction, with the eye-pop is that new animators now become part of the legacy of silliness and hyper exaggeration in cartoons. The Road Runner, Bugs Bunny, Tom and Jerry, Spongebob, etc. have all used the eye-pop frequently and to great effect.
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The importance of a prepared mind
(Tap or hover over green words for translation.)
Therefore, if one person sees this and another does not, and if Vedānta is looked upon as a pramāṇa, then the problem lies with the one who wants to understand. If Vedānta is not looked upon as a pramāṇa, it becomes a mystical experience. Once it is a pramāṇa, Vedānta should reveal the nature of the immediately available ātmā, because the saṃsāra that this knowledge is supposed to resolve is also immediately available, aparokṣa. If I have committed a mistake that is aparokṣa, the correction of that mistake must also be aparokṣa.
Ātmā cannot be known by perception or inference because, being yourself, it cannot be objectified. The only pramāṇa that will work is śabda. Here, statements such as 'tat tvam asi' are lakṣaṇa-vākyas and they produce immediate knowledge. They are similar to statements such as 'This is that Devadatta' or 'you are the tenth man', which produce immediate knowledge, aparokṣa-jñāna. If that recognition is not immediate, and if you do not understand that Vedānta is a pramāṇa, you will conclude that ātmā has to be experienced. Those who know the śāstra say that Vedānta is a pramāṇa, but very few know how to handle it. As a result, there is a tendency to conclude that one has to experience something and that Vedānta is the theory, which is the basis for that experience.
Then Vedānta ceases to be a pramāṇa [for you] as far as ātmā is concerned. If Vedānta does not give you immediate knowledge of the self-evident ātmā, which is always available and which is the basis for every experience, then Vedānta is not [regarded as] a pramāṇa for ātmā.
Since some people gain the knowledge and others do not, in spite of being exposed to the pramāṇa that is Vedānta, it is clear that some other factor is necessary. Instead of taking into consideration the qualifications of the student, the idea of experience was conceived of by some people. This problem is compounded by the use of the word anubhava in the śāstra, typically translated as 'experience'. This word, however, is used by the śāstra in the sense of 'seeing'-darśana, indicating immediate knowledge.
The problem of anubhava arose long ago when it was suggested that the study of śāstra had to be followed by a special 'other-worldly' cognition, laukika-pratyakṣa. But this was much more well thought out than the modern contention that first you must get the theory of ātmā from the śāstra and then, through practice, experience it.
This problem of not seeing the nature of ātmā can either lead you to the conclusion that ātmā is yet to be experienced or that you should look into your qualifications. Since mokṣa is in the form of knowledge, there are definitely requirements for it. Fulfilling those requirements is the nature of the effort that is made here.
The emphasis is on purity of mind, antaḥkaraṇa-śuddhi, which is accomplished by a life of karma yoga and the cultivation of values. The most important thing here is inquiry. All false values and improper attitudes are due to a lack of understanding of certain relative truths. It is, therefore, important to continue to listen to the śāstra while living a life of karma yoga.
'Bhagavad Gita Home Study Course' Ch.15 v.11 Swami Dayananda
© Copyright 2021 Arsha Vidya
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What is a physical therapist?
Physical therapy focuses on the evaluation, management, and prevention of disorders of human motion.
Physical therapists (PTs) are important members of the rehabilitation (rehab) team. They evaluate and provide treatment for persons with health problems and disabilities caused by injury, disease, overuse of muscles or tendons, pain, or loss of a body part.
PTs focus on restoring a person's movement (mobility) and function. They also help prevent further disability.
PTs may provide treatment and education for:
Balance and gait retraining
Heat and cold therapy and massage
Activities of daily living (ADLs)
Casting and splinting
Wheelchair, walkers, canes, and crutches
Use of braces and splints (orthotics) and prosthetics artificial limbs (prosthetics)
PTs work in many settings, including:
PTs have either a master's degree or a doctorate from a school accredited by the American Physical Therapy Association. To practice, all graduates must be licensed by their state by passing a national certification exam.
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This article focuses on the lifestyle of numerous early Hunter-Gatherer skeletons recovered from the Lagoa Santa region in central Brazil, and discusses how old they are, how they got there, and what the habits of these groups were. Overall, the good preservation of these skeletons in the Lagoa Santa rock shelter provides insight into their way of life.
The Lagoa Santa skeletons represent some of the oldest skeletons known in the Americas, as confirmed by many excavations and analyses of the archaeological material since the 1960s. The most recent work in the region, starting in 2000, confirmed that the region was occupied between 11,000-7,000 years before present, and the local groups seem to have coexisted peacefully with extinct megafauna for at least the first half of this period.
How these groups are tied to the initial occupation of the Americas is still highly debated. The Lagoa Santa individuals, know as Paleoamericans, are distinct from modern Native Americans when we look at their skull shape, which raises the question on how this variation occurred – whether these differences originated before or after the initial migration(s) to the Americas. Based on the analysis of cranial data of several archaeological collections from South America, the authors suggest that the differences observed are actually too large to have originated after the settlement of the Americas and therefore they support the idea that the differences reflect a population split that occurred in Asia before any migration into the New World.
The lifestyle seen in Lagoa Santa is also different from what is seen among other Hunter-Gatherer populations on the planet. While they show a typical reliance on small to medium sized animals, they seem to have relied more intensely on plants than traditional Hunter-Gatherers, as shown by their oral health problems. Moreover, their skeletal features suggest they were less mobile than traditional Hunter-Gatherers. As such, it is safe to say that this particular population was unlike the rest of prehistoric Native Americans, but only time will tell how unique they really were.
Based on previous genome research, all central/south American’s stemmed from a single homogenous population – with Anzick-1 (one of the few skeletons known that is associated to the Clovis-culture) being their common ancestor. Yet, as new DNA is recovered from prehistoric remains, this does not seem to be the case. This new article presents ancient DNA data recovered from 49 individuals from different corners of South America and from different ages. The analysis of this new data shows that there was at least four genetic dispersion waves that gave rise to the current genetic diversity found among Central and South Native Americans.
This research also shed some light on exactly how much ancestral DNA could be found in present day people. Individuals who lived prior to 6000 years ago showed significantly more ancestral DNA (similar to Anzick-1) than those who lived after that time.Could this be due to a replacement event that occurred around that time and erased the early genetic signal? Could it be something else? Time will tell. Until more data is collected, we will not be able to solve the puzzle of when these events really happened or which Native American groups were involved.
In this technical note by Cheverko and Hubbe explores the impact different statistical tests have on determining patterns and trends of osteoarthritis in past populations. This study aims to contribute to the analysis of any type of osteological marker based collected as present or absent. They compares the results of Chi-Square, the Fisher’s Exact, Odds Ratio tests, and ANCOVAs. The study included individuals from seven archaeological sites and examined the prevalence of osteoarthritis in the hip, knee, shoulder, and elbow. The comparison between tests shows that for larger sample sizes all tests provide similar accuracy, with the ANCOVA presenting the important advantage of being able to correct for the effect of age in the osteological markers. Therefore, even though binary data violates some of the assumptions behind ANCOVAs, this Cheverko and Hubbe argue this test should be used more often in bioarchaeological studies.
To celebrate another great year of academic endeavors, we would like to acknowledge all the paper and poster presented at 87th Meetings of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in Austin, TX. Thank you all so much for your efforts! We are looking forward to what you are bringing to the table in the future!!!
- Leigh Oldershaw, Mark Hubbe and Christina Torres-Rouff – “Tiwanaku affiliation and quality of life in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama, Chile”
- Brianne Herrera and Mark Hubbe – “Correspondence Between Cranial Morphological Regions and mtDNA in Western South America”
- Melissa Clark and Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg – “A Third Molar from Rathfarnham, Dublin, and the Patterning Cascade Model”
- Devon Reich and Melissa Clark – “Planting Perthes: Agriculture and Mechanical Loading in a Pre-Contact Female”
- Skyler Jackim – “Bearing the Burden: Trauma During Agricultural Intensification in Pre-Contact Ohio”
- Julianne Stamer, Kathryn Marklein and Mark Hubbe – “The Influence of Biology and Culture on Sexual Dimorphism in Carious Lesions in Pre-History”
- Julie Anna Margolis and Kendra Ann Sirak – “The Impact of Tetracycline Presence on Endogenous DNA Yield in the Kulubnarti Nubians”
- Mackie O’Hara et al. – “Accurately reconstructing crown heights of anterior teeth using micro-computed tomographic scans of fossil teeth”
- Emma Lagan, Daniel E. Ehrlich and Sean M. Pesce – “Dentine Without Borders: An improved dental macrowear scoring method with cross- cultural application”
- Mark Hubbe and Colleen Cheverko – “Extending the ‘Adaptive Landscape’ Metaphor to Bioarchaeological Theory and Practice”
- Colleen Cheverko – “Growth, Childhood Stress, and Mortality Risk During the Late Period in Central California”
Check out the abstracts for the meetings in the official AAPA program here: http://physanth.org/documents/131/2018_AAPA_Abstract_Book_-_R3.pdf
The prehistoric shellmounds of Brazil, locally known as “Sambaquis”, are among the most studied archaeological sites in the country. They represent a continuous human occuipation of the coast by Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer populations from 8000 to 1200 years ago. In 2002, they were included in a comparative study and found to be among the healthiest prehistoric populations in the Americas. However, the individuals used in that initial study were missing their complete skeleton, calling for a comparative study to determine if these groups really led healthier lives than most. In our recent article (download it here) we analyzed 18 complete skeletons from the small shellmound Porto do Rio Vermelho 02 and examined several skeletal markers of health and life-style, to test wheter shellmound builder really were healthier than other prehistoric American populations. Our results show clearly that this population did not seem to be as healthy as we once thought, contradiction the previous depiction of these Brazilian groups.
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What should I do during a flood?
Below are the things you should do during a flood.
A flood is forecast
- Check for severe weather warnings and flood warnings by checking relevant websites such as the Environment Agency and the Met Office and listening to the radio and TV.
- Phone Floodline on 0345 988 11 88 for river flooding information.
- Protect what you can by moving pets, vehicles, valuables, sentimental items and important documents to safety / higher ground.
- Prepare food you can eat without cooking, clean bottled water and warm clothes.
- Charge your mobile phone and any portable chargers.
Page updated: 04/12/2020
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Outbreak of dengue fever in Thailand
Residents and tourists alike need to stay vigilant during the rainy season from the threat of Dengue Fever. Wherever there are pools of standing water there will be mosquitoes, the most prevalent of Dengue Fever is in Chiang Mai because it lays low and flat therefore the water doesn't travel anywhere and gets trapped in the city. Tourists like to go backpacking in the mountains and bring back Dengue Fever from the jungles. Then they go to sleep in their hotel rooms, get bitten by mosquito's the mosquito then goes and bites another guest and before you know it the entire hotel and guests have contracted Dengue Fever.
Most mosquito diseases are typically located in the tropics around the equator and can be a real nuisance. Only the female mosquito bites, the male doesn't. They say that if you have lived in Thailand for the past 20 years or so then you have about a 1 in 100 chances of having contracted Dengue Fever, this statistic is probably higher if you live in Phuket or Chiang Mai.
Symptoms, Causes, Signs that I have Dengue Fever
At first you may not know you have dengue fever, you may just think you have a bad head cold, with flu like symptoms and rashes dengue fever in some cases can turn deadly.
Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a more severe form of the illness. It can be pretty serious too and has the same symptoms including rash, fever, bad headaches and hemorrhaging inside the body. Blisters on the skin and bleeding from areas of the body. This form of dengue fever can be life-threatening and can progress to the most severe form of the illness, dengue shock syndrome.
How to stop getting bitten by mosquitoes
You should try the following to prevent being bitten by mosquitoes
- Get a good mosquito spray, if your from Australia and you brought aeroguard to Thailand, forget about it, the mosquitoes here must be different because that doesn't keep them away, locally they have a product that you can find at most drug stores and even 7-eleven, the local product rubs into the skin easily and the Mozzies won't go anywhere near that area, though you kind of have to spray your whole body to get a good effect from it.
- Wear long clothing, I know it's hot and this might not be fun but wearing long clothing prevents the mosquitoes from getting access to your skin to bite you in the first place.
- Don't wear perfume or cologne, this only attracts the little buggers
- If you plan on camping in the jungle make sure you take a mosquito net because they will be hunting you down!
- If you live in a place that has standing water, you'll want to cover anything that does, getting rid of buckets and so forth from around your Thai home will help, if you have something with lotus flowers in it, you'll want to add some fish, no need to feed them, they'll just eat all the mosquito lava, awesome!
- Stay at a hotel in Thailand that has little to no mosquitoes.
Not all mosquitoes carry Dengue Fever only a specific kind.
Malaria is another mosquito born disease but doesn't have as much attention in Thailand as Dengue Fever is more prevalent. Most of the mosquitoes that carry Malaria (there is a specific kind) are found only in the remote places of Thailand typically in the middle of the Jungle.
To diagnose Malaria you have to undergo a specific test, typically a blood smear exam where they take a sample of your blood and put it under a microscope. Malaria is not fun and you don't want to catch it, and if your travelling to Thailand don't bother about vaccinations unless you plan on trekking through the jungle overnight, the vaccination does more harm than good in most opinions.
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This method is designated by the term "cava" in Spain and by "Metodo classico" in Italy
- Phase 1 : Making the base wine
Whole clusters of healthy grapes are pressed. The press fractions are separated as a function of quality. Harvesting, grape transport and the press method used are all important. Presses are meticulously cared for and regulated by law.
- Phase 2 : Transforming the still base wine into a sparkling wine.
This transformation occurs in the bottle.
- During bottling (commonly known as tirage), the following are added to the base wine:
- Riddling agents.
This bottle fermentation is known as the prise de mousse and it leads to the following:
- Disappearance of the sugar
- Formation of alcohol (1.3% vol.)
- Production of carbon dioxide gas
- Formation of a deposit.
- Bottle ageing (minimum 15 months)
- Clarification in the bottle = riddling = turning the bottles to collect the deposit in the bottle neck.
- Final phases :
- Disgorging = removing the deposit from the bottle
- Dosage = adding the expedition liqueur
- Corking = inserting the cork stopper
- Wiring = placing a wire cap over the cork
- Foiling, labelling.
©Photo Alain Cornu
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Who Needs a Wheelchair?
Kids can need wheelchairs for many different reasons. Some have had injuries either to their legs or spine, which controls leg movement. Others have disabilities due to muscular dystrophy or cerebral palsy. In some cases, kids have wheelchairs but don't need to use them all the time. For example, they might be able to walk with the aid of crutches or a walker sometimes.
What Does a Wheelchair Do?
Today's wheelchairs are light, fast, and easy to use. Many use computer technology and offer better support for a person's back, neck, head, and legs. They also include safety features such as automatic brakes and anti-tipping devices.
Power wheelchairs have many advantages for kids who need them. Electronic controllers can help a kid who uses a wheelchair drive smoothly, brake easily, and make the wheelchair move with the touch of a hand or even by puffing on a special straw! Some hand controllers look like a joystick used to play video games and are easy to operate.
What's Life Like?
Kids who use wheelchairs usually fall into two categories: kids who use them for a short time (for instance, kids who broke a leg or had surgery) and those who use them for a long time, or permanently. Even though kids who use a wheelchair for a short time may feel frustrated or sad about relying on others to get around, they know that someday the wheelchair won't be necessary.
For kids who depend on a wheelchair for the long term, life is different. They'll need to learn how to use the wheelchair in lots of different situations — at home, in school, while away on vacation. In some cases, it will be hard to use the wheelchair or it might take a long time. That can be frustrating, but wheelchairs are getting better all the time.
People who use wheelchairs can shop, work, go to school, play, drive cars — even compete in some special types of sports competitions. But they also must look for handicapped-accessible buildings, special ramps, parking places, and environments that are wheelchair-friendly.
Sometimes, a person who uses a wheelchair may be teased, feel left out, or get treated differently than other kids. So the next time you see a kid using a wheelchair, try to be a friend. Usually, kids in wheelchairs don't need to be pushed around, but they might need other kinds of help. Opening a door or clearing the path will be appreciated.
But the best help of all is to be kind and friendly and not to tease or stare. People who use wheelchairs are the same as everyone else. They just get around on wheels instead of feet!
Note: All information is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor.
© 1995- KidsHealth® All rights reserved.
Images provided by The Nemours Foundation, iStock, Getty Images, Veer, Shutterstock, and Clipart.com.
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Proper hydration is critical for your overall health. It helps make sure that your systems are working properly. It replenishes water loss from skin, breath, urine, and stools. Sixty percent of our weight is from water as well. This miracle elixir sustains us and helps keep our bodies in sync, so why is it that so many people do not adequately hydrate throughout the day?
In a world of convenience, it is easy to reach for whatever beverage is available, and there is always a stash of something just around the corner. Sugary drinks like juices and sodas are in endless supply. Yes, they contain water, but, they also have added sugars. A 12 oz. can of cola has around 39 grams of sugar while a 20 oz. Mountain Dew has a whopping 77 grams. Fruit juice seems like a better alternative to soda, but it packs a sugar-filled punch too. Apple juice contains as much sugar as soda. You may be getting some Vitamin C, and other antioxidants but is the tradeoff worth it? When you are thirsty, it is best to reach for good old-fashioned water!
Your individual water needs will depend on multiple factors. Climate, environment, exercise, underlying health conditions, altitude, and more will determine the exact amount you need. There is no hard and fast rule for consumption either, which can be confusing. We have all heard we need to drink eight glasses a day, but these are guidelines. The Health and Medicine Division of The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommends that men consume around 3.7 liters of water and women take in 2.7 liters of a combination of liquids and foods. You do not have to guzzle this amount of water to stay properly hydrated. By including water dense foods into your diet, you can help reach your goals too!
Water is needed to maintain balance within your body. Because so much is lost via bodily fluids, it needs to be replaced to keep your systems in check. Internally, water is at work in your cells and your tissues. It helps your joints stay lubricated and flushes out toxins. Without water, your body would not be able to remove waste via perspiration, urine, and stools. It helps your kidneys, liver, and intestines rid themselves of rubbish. It assists in digestion. In essence, water is a miracle beverage necessary for life.
Here at Fountain of You we advocate a diet that is as close to nature as possible. What better way to stay true to nature and help your body than by making sure you are hydrated by consuming your daily water needs? We value health and well-being; it is at the heart of everything we do. There are simple steps you can take each day that will provide you with powerful, long-term rewards, and drinking H20 is one of them.
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You might have first heard about cupping during the Olympics in Rio, right after everyone noticed the red marks on Michael Phelps shoulders and back. Çupping has been a pain remedy for the Ancient Egyptians and Chinese long before the 2016 Olympics. Scriptures date it back as far as 1500BC.
Likewise you may have also noticed colored tape on the bodies of athletes in several sports. These are Kinesio taping and cross taping methods in use.
Cupping soothes pain and tension in the muscles. While Kinesio taping and cross taping is used support, stimulate or relax muscles underlying the skin they are applied to.
We spoke with Dr. Barbara Baroni Physiatrist in Orthopedic Rehabilitation at Humanitas in Rozzano, for details on these orthopedic rehab techniques.
How does cupping work?
A cup is applied to your skin while the oxygen is sucked out of the cup with a flame or by aspiration using a special gun. “When you create a vacuum, the skin and the underlying layer are sucked, drawing more blood to the area. The increased blood supply and the heat produced stimulate muscle relaxation and alleviate pain. The treatment lasts up to 20 minutes”, explains Dr. Baroni.
Kinesio taping and cross taping
Kinesio taping is the application of an elastic cotton patch. It can be used for the treatment of small lesions both neurological and orthopedic. It is applied on the skin and depending in a specific location, direction and tension depending on the injury. Once placed it can either stimulate a hypotonic muscle or relax an overloaded one. Specifically, it acts by stimulating nerve receptors on the skin which communicate with the underlying muscles.
Cross taping involves the use of special crossed, non-elastic bandages. Their application stimulates acupuncture points reducing swelling and inflammation. This method can be used with Kinesio taping, which amplifies the pain-killing effect.
For both cupping therapy and the application of kinesio and cross taping it is important to rely on expert therapists.
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Department of the Army Historical Summary: FY 1984
After a post Vietnam period of intense analysis, discussion, and debate, the Army changed the operations doctrine as expressed in FM 100-5. Among the reasons for the Army's shift in operational emphasis were the rapid technological changes in weapon firepower and mobility as well as a growing disparity between the strength of allied and Soviet bloc conventional forces. The original doctrinal revisions, first published in 1976, were revised again in 1982. Because the 1976 version was a radical change from previous operations doctrine, it remained the subject of intense debate within and outside the Army. In fact, the 1982 revision represented a departure from the 1976 version in several major aspects. However, all doctrine is dynamic and the 1982 version is not yet final as current discussion and debate prove. FM 100-5 is the capstone Army manual and directly or indirectly affects every aspect of Army force structure and operations.
The doctrine stated that the Army might face two different combat environments in the future. The first was a "sophisticated battlefield with an existing infrastructure of communications, air defense, logistics facilities, and ports," such as found in a European type of theater of operations. The other would be an arena where the Army would either have "to create an infrastructure or . . . fight without one," for example in Southwest Asia or sub-Saharan Africa. The opponents could range from well-armed insurgents or terrorists to mechanized and armored units with the most advanced weaponry. Army doctrine also warned that future conflict would likely be intense, expensive, and very lethal; the use of nuclear and chemical weapons was not ruled out.
FM 100-5 postulated that the Army faced four challenges:
1. A battlefield of non-linear maneuver will replace the traditional battlefield of clearly demarcated front lines. This means that the Army must conduct deep strikes against the enemy while it is engaged simultaneously in rear area combat. The Army must conduct command and control countermeasures, operate on low levels of logistical support, survive
against highly lethal weapons systems, perhaps fight outnumbered,
and perhaps under the threat of use of nuclear or chemical weapons. These new
demands of the modern battlefield clearly
required a reexamination of Army doctrine.
2. The new demands of combat impose higher standards on leaders. Leadership and unit cohesion will play vital roles in motivating troops to fight resolutely even though they may find themselves temporarily encircled or outnumbered. The highly fluid battlefield requires commanders at all levels to display "skill, imagination, and flexibility" to the fullest extent possible.
3. Personnel and unit readiness is a necessity since future conflicts will offer little time for leisurely deployment. Such readiness, however, is of little value "without logistical readiness-the availability and proper functioning of materiel, resources, and systems to maintain and sustain operations on a fluid, destructive, and resource-hungry battlefield."
4. Therefore, the fourth challenge, training, ties all of the above factors together. For if the officers and men are not professionally and mentally prepared for battle, then the battle is lost. However, training is envisioned as more than individual preparation. It includes the training of units both individually and in combined arms exercises.
Army doctrine defined maneuver and firepower as "inseparable and complementary elements of combat." Although one element may be emphasized more than the other, depending on the combat solution, "the coordinated use of both characterizes all operations." Today, fire support units must be as maneuverable as the combat units they support.
Since the Army doctrine was the blueprint for future combat operations, four major areas of Army planning were directly interrelated: force development, sustainment, mobilization, and training. All are intrinsically related although treated separately in this chapter.
Army planners and programmers used the five-volume Force Modernization Master Plan (FMMP, DA Pam 5-26) as a roadmap for the modernization of systems and operations during the 1980s and 1990s. This will guide Army staffers in improving and easing the transition of Army forces into the Army of Excellence configuration. The Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans pub-
lished the latest FMMP on 1 August 1984, which included the planned transition of units for the coming decades.
After determining the ideal size of the Division 86 force structure, Army planners discovered that although each component's raison d'etre was sound, resources were inadequate to support the proposed force structure. A change in Army leadership also brought a new appreciation of the potential of light forces and an accompanying call for more light infantry divisions. Nevertheless, the Army could organize no new divisions, either heavy or light, if the existing Division 86 structure lacked resources. Therefore, Headquarters, Department of the Army (HQDA), tasked the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) to study the problem and design a new combat-effective, responsive, and balanced total force within the guidelines of current Army resources. TRADOC, however, received several limitations for the study from HQDA. These included keeping the force structure within programmed Army end strength of 780,800 personnel; determining whether the Army could be manned at Authorized Level of Organization (ALO) 2; designing a light division structure capable of fighting a low intensity conflict; reducing the resources of heavy divisions; and moving division assets to corps level. Several issues discussed at the Army Commander's Conference in August 1983 were also included as restrictions: to simplify units' missions, to increase deployment ability, and to enhance some units' ALO structure. The resulting TRADOC study, "Army of Excellence (AOE)," proposed a force structure that met HQDA's guidance, which was gradually being implemented. The Army's 17th and 18th Infantry Divisions will be activated in 1985 with two active light infantry brigades and one reserve component light infantry brigade. Following that, the 7th Infantry Division and 25th Infantry Division will be reconfigured as new light infantry divisions. Furthermore, the Army will reactivate the 29th Infantry Division, an Army National Guard unit, in the same light structure. The Army reduced simultaneously the assets of the heavy division to ten maneuver battalions. All units considered better employed elsewhere were assigned to Echelons Above Division (EAD). Work also progressed on providing the light infantry division with additional corps augmentation and support units.
Certain analysts considered the Army of Excellence to be inappropriate for an Army in the middle of a massive modernization program. They questioned the rationale for the new light infantry division as well as the change in Division 86 configuration and movement of assets to EAD level on a reduced scale. Although many planners considered
these moves doctrinally acceptable, critics wondered if the changes, in effect, traded combat effectiveness for an expanded structure.
The reorganization of the 82d Airborne and 101st Airborne (Air Assault) Divisions emphasized their combat capability and streamlined their structures. The new light infantry division design proposed under the AOE study was modified to meet the divisions' special requirements. The changes in force structure also had to incorporate the improved modern equipment being introduced to the force to support the AirLand Battle doctrine. Other improvements included better strategic and local mobility, additional communications equipment, additional antitank firepower, and a lower leader-to-led ratio. As with the heavy divisions, the Army assigned corps-level units to support the divisions. These support units included a parachute rigging unit, a light armored battalion, and several truck companies. Upon conversion to the new force structure each streamlined division will have 20 percent fewer troops. The 101st will convert during FY 86 and the 82d the following year.
TRADOC also studied the Echelons Above Corps (EAC) structure and doctrine as did the Combined Arms Center at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. One of the products was FC 100-16-1 Theater Army, Army Group, and Field Army Operations, a circular which, with FM 100-16, discussed combat support and combat service support operations and doctrine at the EAC level. The relevant parts of both manuals were being combined into a revised FM 100-16 at the end of FY 84. The Combined Arms Center reviewed EAC force structure with respect to recent changes in Army doctrine as expressed in the AOE study. The center's analysts expected this study to continue through 1985 and planned to match the EAC force structure to the current doctrine.
The 9th Infantry Division High Technology Test Bed at Fort Lewis, Washington, was redesignated the Army Development and Employment Agency (ADEA) and kept the same mission of quickly identifying, testing, and recommending to the Department of the Army operational concepts, doctrine, organization, materiel requirements, technology, and training developments, which improve the light infantry division's combat power, development capability, mobilization ability, and sustainment. The 9th Infantry Division will remain as the High Technology Light Division. This term itself was changed to High Technology Motorized Division to differentiate it from the new design light infantry division and to focus on the different equipment and operational doctrine of a motorized division.
The motorized division was organized to fulfill requirements not met by heavy, airborne, air assault, or light divisions. Thus, the mo-
torized division has the strategic mobility of an air assault division and the ground antiarmor capability of a heavy division. Although organized to engage in mid- to high-intensity conflicts with Soviet type opposition, the 9th Infantry Division also remained available for deployment worldwide, not only to areas where its superior ground tactical mobility was best employed. The Army might assign the 9th to a corps or joint task force where it would fight in conjunction with other types of divisions. The 9th's force structure configuration was designed to expand lodgments made by other units.
The structure of the 9th Infantry Division, however, centered around several essential weapon systems, such as the fast attack vehicle (FAV) and armored gun system (AGS). Currently, these items remain below authorized levels. Nonetheless, the division was combat ready in its existing force structure configuration for immediate deployment. It will operate under this new design in FY 87 and will be converted completely to a motorized division in FY 92 with full operational capability soon thereafter.
Besides its role as a motorized division in the Army's force structure, the 9th Infantry Division will retain its test bed role to examine and to test new concepts and technological advances for the Army. The results should indicate which ideas and technologies will be of use to other Army units. Another of the Army's goals with the motorized infantry division was to reduce division personnel to roughly 13,400 by FY90, keeping within DOD manpower guidelines.
The Army continued to increase the role of National Guard and Army Reserve components in the Total Army concept. The Army provided these forces additional units, appropriations, modern equipment, and more responsible missions. Furthermore, Army staffers monitored closely the reserve components to create a well-balanced and equipped force. This resulting mixture was not a permanent figure or fixed percentage but fluctuated with the Army's perception of its doctrine, missions, and costs. Thus, DOD planners expected that the Selected Reserve strength will be higher than that of the Active Army by 1988. However, for such forces to be valuable they must be properly equipped. Consequently, the Army expended tight budget dollars to provide new equipment for the reserve units. The Army also added one new National Guard division (35th Infantry Division) in FY 84 and expected to add another in FY 85. These were the first additional National Guard divisions in forty years. The Army will augment the Army Reserve with 165 new units over the next five years. The Army also retained the current reserve component percentages of Total Army strength in combat support and combat service support (approximately 67 percent), division
combat increments (roughly 40 percent), and maneuver battalions (50 percent). Unit equipment upgrading was on schedule-those deploying first were modernized first.
AirLand Battle doctrine, as the name implies, involves air assets. Thus the Army and Air Force having agreed already in 1983 that FM 100-5 would be used for joint tactical training and field exercises, expanded the manual's role in joint planning of future force development and operational concepts. Both air and ground arms agreed that it was important to use combined air and ground power in a complementary manner to support the theater commander's objectives.
On 22 May 1984, Army Chief of Staff General John A. Wickham, Jr., and Air Force Chief of Staff General Charles A. Gabriel signed a Memorandum of Agreement identifying thirty-one initiatives for development by the Army and Air Force. Titled the "U.S. Army-U.S. Air Force Joint Force Development Process (JFDP)," it was commonly referred to as "The 31 Initiatives." (See Appendix A.) In this agreement, the chiefs perceived the thirty-one initiatives as the initial step in a long-term, dynamic process to institutionalize jointness.
These thirty-one initiatives had a far-reaching impact by consolidating and eliminating programs as well as clarifying roles and missions. The initiatives deleted several programs, such as the Air Force Comfy Challenge electronic combat system. The Army Mohawk Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System was incorporated into the Air Force C-18 system. A study was mandated of potential modifications of traditional roles and missions, including the Army's assuming rotary wing lift support for special operations forces and the Air Force's undertaking responsibility for area surface-to-air missile defense. The initiatives required greater joint war-fighting concepts and capabilities. These included an assessment of how to counter jointly the heliborne assault threat and tactical missile systems as well as how to improve identification-friend-or-foe systems. Moreover, the initiatives looked at long-term requirements and concepts coordination in new aircraft starts, tactical reconnaissance systems, and intratheater airlift. The thirty-first initiative, the Program Objective Memorandum (POM) priority list, was the most crucial, since it attempted to make the JFDP permanent by formalizing cross-service participation in the POM development process. All of the initiatives required the service staffs and unified, specified, and major commands to coordinate in new areas that, ultimately, would provide the necessary catalyst to institutionalize jointness.
To infuse jointness throughout the two services, Generals Wickham and Gabriel directed the Army DCSOPS and the Air
Force DCSOPS to implement the agreement. As a result, they disbanded the original study group and in June 1984, created a permanent office, the joint Assessment and Initiatives Office, to assume the study group's responsibilities and tasked the service proponents to participate.
While FM 100-5 was being reviewed as current doctrine, TRADOC was working on its successor, Army 21, which forecast the years 2000-2015 and the AirLand Battle concept in the twenty-first century. TRADOC examined future concepts to prepare, through doctrinal development, forces design, and resource planning, for the future Army and its combat role. Army 21, an evolutionary concept, will cover areas not previously emphasized. The Army fully expects that technological advances will alter the shape of Army 21.
The Army force structure established light divisions to counter low-intensity threats to United States interests. These divisions were to be highly mobile strategically and were to have more than one-third of personnel in combat arms specialties. Army planners envisioned using light divisions to secure airheads for follow-on heavier units as well as for operations in restricted terrain during high-intensity conflicts.
The present commitment was to convert or to activate five light infantry divisions by FY 89; the timetable was:
1. 7th-Fort Ord. Complete conversion in FY 85.
2. 25th-Hawaii. Begin and complete conversion in FY 86.
3. 10th Mountain Division-Fort Drum. Activate over period of FY 85-89 with part of one brigade and its support temporarily at Fort Benning.
4. 6th-Alaska. Activate from FY 86-87.
5. 29th-ARNG, Maryland and Virginia. Activate from FY 86-87.
The 10th Mountain Division represented the only new activation. The Army will create other light divisions from existing units, except for the 6th, which will incorporate the 172d Infantry Brigade.
Since 1981 and the continuing spiral of terrorism, the Special Operations Forces (SOF) of the United States have received increased attention and support from the President and Congress. As a demonstration of increased legislative interest, the Readiness Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee established a new panel to oversee improvements in Special Operations Forces. Furthermore, the Army implemented the 1984 SOF Master Plan during the year. The plan reviewed force structure requirements and assets, then recommended ways to correct deficiencies during the years 1986-1990.
The Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Air Force agreed that all SOF rotary wing support would be provided from Army assets. An Army Air Force Working Group was laying the groundwork for the transfer of Air Force rotary wing assets to the Army at the end of FY84. However, the Deputy Secretary of Defense had not given final approval to implement the decision and the House Armed Services Readiness Subcommittee opposed this decision based upon testimony and information provided to the special SOF panel.
A fourth active component special forces group was activated in September 1984. Other activations included a Ranger regimental headquarters, 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger, on 1 July 1984 and the 3d Ranger Battalion on 1 October 1984) . Furthermore, the Army planned to activate Special Operations Communications Support Elements (SOCSE) in FY 86 and to increase their strength in FY 88. These SOCSE's provided additional resources to establish, maintain, and operate Command, Control, and Communications (C 3) systems among theater, special operations, Army SOF subordinate, and other commands as needed. The SOCSEs will operate C 3 missions simultaneously in two theaters.
An austere Special Operations Support Element (SOSE) was under development to provide support to SOF units for short, low visibility operations. The SOSE included support unavailable elsewhere within the theater. It will be able to support two theaters simultaneously. An FY 86 activation is planned.
TRADOC analyzed a combat service support concept for the 1st Special Operations Command (SOCOM) to determine whether support services should be provided by units integral to 1st SOCOM or by augmentation with selected active and/or reserve units. TRADOC also reviewed a combat arms reorganization plan that would allow the Army to satisfy all unified and specified commands' requirements without increasing space requirements. Moreover, a reorganization of the 4th Psychological Operations Group was investigated.
As a part of the Army's planned expansion to a 28-division force structure, it activated the 35th (Santa Fe) Infantry Division (Mechanized) in 1984. Identified by the National Guard Bureau in 1983 as the ninth National Guard division, the 35th Infantry Division (Mechanized) comprised the 67th Infantry Brigade of Nebraska, the 69th Infantry Brigade of Kansas, and the 149th Armored Brigade of Kentucky. Prior to their consolidation into the 35th Infantry Division these units existed as separate brigades. Other units from Colorado, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, and Nebraska, both in existence and newly organized, will fill out the 35th Division's remaining organization. At the end of FY 84, the division's tenth maneuver battalion and
air defense battalions were unidentified. The division headquarters is located at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the National Guard plans to have the division completely organized by FY 89.
One of the major components of the AirLand Battle doctrine was the ability to deploy rapidly personnel and materiel for both strategic and tactical purposes. The glaring absence of such capability, both in sealift and airlift, became a major issue during congressional hearings and interservice studies. As one commentator noted, no matter how excellent the quality and quantity of the people and equipment, if they cannot be moved to where they are needed, they are worth nothing. The Congressionally Mandated Mobility Study (CMMS) of 1981 established a 66 million-ton-miles-per-day (MTM/D) goal for strategic airlift and 100,000 short-tons-per-day goal for sealift to meet projected 1986 defense requirements for four scenarios. The goals represented the minimum capabilities based upon probable available fiscal assets and, in fact, did not meet the operational lift needs for any of the projected scenarios. Furthermore, less developed areas of the world, particularly Southwest Asia, remained unsuitable for air lift. These potential trouble spots, as well as other likely flash points for the outbreak of low intensity conflict, necessitated dependence upon an augmented sealift capability.
Under the congressional requirement, the Military Airlift Command was to have the capability to move 60 tactical fighter squadrons, 1 Marine amphibious brigade, and 6 Army divisions to the Middle East within ten days. To accomplish this ambitious goal, the Air Force planned to add 50 C-5Bs, 44 KC-10s and 3 of the new C-19s to its fleet. These aircraft and the Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) modification program will ease the airlift problem, but a projected 17.5 MTM/D shortfall still existed for FY 89. This, in turn, meant that insufficient airlift was available to move three Army divisions to the Middle East within the ten-day limit established by the CMMS.
General Mahaffey, then Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee's Subcommittee on Sea-power and Force Projection in March 1984. He stated that "Airlift is the cornerstone of force projection during the early days of deployment." (Armed Forces Journal [AFJ], July 1984) Another complicating factor was the Army's plan to increase the amount of outsized equipment that only new C-5Bs could carry. A possible solution lay in the C-17, which had the capability to carry outsized equipment and use forward area airfields. Even with congressional funding, the G-17 would not be available for seven years. The CRAF program, in which civilian airlines provided planes to supplement military airlift capability, also faced problems from eco-
nomic dislocation in the commercial airline industry. In fact, projected cargo capacity will probably drop over the next several years.
These problems were concerned primarily with strategic airlift. At that time, no tactical airlift or sealift requirements were established. On 22 May, the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Air Force agreed to establish an office to determine tactical airlift requirements. The Senate Armed Services Committee told the Department of Defense (DOD) on 31 May to provide a report on tactical airlift requirements by March of the following year.
The Navy's Military Sealift Command also fell short of meeting sealift needs for both the Army and Marine Corps. Although the CMMS requirements ordinarily would have been met, an OSD-conducted study showed that, based upon a worst-case scenario in FY 88 (rather than FY 86), the Navy would have a 9 percent shortfall of lift. A later review of the study by the Maritime Administration showed that the shortfall would be in the 20-25 percent range because the American Merchant Marine's sealift capacity was falling, not remaining constant as planners had postulated. Furthermore, the Navy had a shortage of roll-on/roll-off ships, essential for rapid deployment of Army materiel as well as ships able to steam faster than eighteen knots. A shortage of break bulk ships also loomed on the horizon as more and more shippers converted to containerization.
The Navy pursued programs to increase its sealift capabilities. The Near-Term Pre-positioning Force consisted of thirteen ships (break bulk, lighter aboard ship, roll-on/roll-off [RO/RO], and tanker) stationed in the Indian Ocean to shorten the response time of Army forces by having the units' materiel already in the region, awaiting the arrival of troops. The Fast Logistics Ships program increased Army surge capability by converting T-AKR container ships to an RO/RO configuration. These boats traveled faster than eighteen knots and could deliver an Army heavy division to the Persian Gulf region in 14 to 16 days. At the end of FY 84, Military Sealift Command had contracts on 8 RO/RO ships (also known as SL-7s) or roughly 45 percent of all RO/RO flying U.S. flags. The Navy received four SL-7s during the fiscal year. Berthed on the East Coast, they will be able to put to sea within four days.
Composed of 288 ships, the National Defense Reserve Fleet contained the military's troopships and needed a minimum of 90-120 days to begin operations. Part of this fleet, the Ready Reserve force, was upgraded from 34 ships, available in FY 84, to 77 by 1988. Response time was established at 5 to 10 days, meeting the troops as they arrived at embarkation ports. The Navy requested $31 million for purchasing 19 vessels in FY 85.
Besides converting container ships to an RO/RO configuration, the Army and Navy worked together to adapt the converted vessels to carry outsized Army equipment that was too large for containerization. Two programs, flatrack and seashed, were used to modify these vessels. Flatracks were posts and decks that could be arranged either vertically or horizontally to make space for bulky items. Seasheds could change a single container cell into three contiguous cells with temporary decks for storing heavy lift equipment. All of the services looked at airlift and sealift mobility with renewed interest, and future plans and budgets included an increased emphasis on the ability to deploy the land force wherever it may be needed.
Maj. Gen. Bobby J. Maddox, first Chief of the Army Aviation Branch, stated in Army (March 1984) that "Army aviation will play a key role in any future AirLand Battle because of the unique maneuver capability and firepower it possesses and the added dimension its systems bring to the battlefield. Army aviation offers a significant potential for substituting technology for manpower to neutralize or defeat any adversary's tactical war-making machinery." The AirLand Battle concept outlined in FM 100-5 as operational doctrine reemphasized the Army's concerns for close air support. Almost all phases of the AirLand Battle doctrine demanded the participation of U.S. Army helicopter assets. The Army's aviation assets, however, were divided between several arms for support. Consequently, on 12 April 1983, the Secretary of the Army recognized aviation's role as a combat arm and approved formation of an Aviation Branch. The Army Chief of Staff concurred with the Secretary's decision, and on 6 June ordered studies conducted for the establishment of an Aviation Branch and its role and missions. The Aviation Branch spent FY 84 formulating doctrine and operational plans as well as identifying the assets, force structures, personnel, and training requirements for the new branch.
The Army expected its aviation resources to destroy enemy armor and mechanized infantry either directly with TOW missiles or indirectly with laser target identification. This action would delay enemy advances, which, in turn would allow allied forces to seize the initiative. The Army Attack Helicopter Battalion was the most maneuverable and deadly unit that a division commander could use. Additional Army aviation assets provided air assault capability, reconnaissance, communications, command, and control assets to commanders; supplied special electronic mission aircraft (SEMA); inserted and extracted SOF personnel; and evacuated the wounded.
The United States Army Aviation Center (USAAVNC), Fort Rucker, Alabama, worked on planning the force structure to con-
duct all these functions. Their complex task of fielding a new branch and separate combat arm was complicated by the concurrent change from Army 86 to an AOE force structure. Army aviation had a key role on any future battlefield and aviation doctrine within the capstone of FM 100-5. It influenced the Army's ability to conduct the operational requirements identified therein. New aviation weapon systems already fielded, in production, or in planning stages included the UH-60A Black Hawk, the AH-64 Apache, the Army helicopter improvement program (AHIP), the CH-47D Chinook, the light helicopter program (LHX), SEMA, and the heavy lift helicopter program. The Army made preliminary recommendations of aviation force structure and operational doctrine for all levels (division, corps, and echelons above corps [EAC]). Army aviation planners and analysts emphasized the combined arms concept that Army ground and air units employed in Vietnam. This integration of ground and air assets was vital to the accomplishments of AirLand Battle operational goals.
The role and missions of Army aviation will change significantly by the end of this century if the Army implements current plans and is able to maintain the present rate of progress. By 2000, the Army will reduce its rotary wing fleet from twenty-two types of helicopters to seven. A new generation of light helicopters designed for scout, attack, utility, and observation roles was under development, and the Army considered a new heavy lift helicopter. A tilt rotor aircraft may also be introduced to assume rotary-wing operations. The Army may adapt helicopters to carry air-to-air missiles, such as the Stinger, for a defensive air-to-air capability although some aviators sought them to use offensively against enemy aircraft. Special electronic mission aircraft (SEMA) will play a more important role in the next decade in target designation, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare.
An Army study group worked on Army Airborne Intelligence 2000, a study on the use of SEMA. The Army focused attention on both manned and remotely piloted aircraft and linked these with requirements for intelligence gathering and electronic warfare to determine the best aerial platform for a particular mission. These will not be limited to Army platforms but will look at all applicable Air Force vehicles as well. The Army study will be combined with the Air Force's "Theater Intelligence Reconnaissance and Surveillance" study in FY 85 as the services cooperate to identify common aerial reconnaissance platforms for joint Combat Electronic Warfare Intelligence (CEWI) activities.
The Army also planned to expand the aviation flying-hour program from 124,000 hours (18.4 hours/aircraft/month for 560 aircraft) to 134,233 hours (more than 19.5 hours/aircraft/month for 600 aircraft) in FY 85. Aviation training would increase from 15.6 hours to 16.8 hours/aviator/month. As the new Apache helicopter was fielded, the Army increased night training and planned for further increases in FY 85. General Robert W. Sennewald, Commanding General of Forces Command, U.S. Army (FORSCOM), announced that all AH-64 Apache attack helicopter training would be consolidated at Fort Hood, Texas, by mid-1985.
With a suitable and properly equipped force structure, and the capability to deliver these forces where required, a significant determinent of success is the ability to sustain the force-the ability to supply the force with the ammunition, spare parts, petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL), and water required to accomplish the mission. Dr. Lawrence J. Korb, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower, Reserve Affairs, and Logistics, voiced concern over what he termed the services' "dangerously low sustainability posture." He blamed this deficiency on defense budget cutbacks following the Vietnam War; the lack of "glamor" of this type of materiel compared to new or modernized weapon systems; and the popular notion that American industry would be able to mobilize quickly for wartime production in a national emergency. (Defense 84, January) Others also identified the increasing technological complexity and cost of new weapon systems as factors that extended production time and contributed to the shortage of sustainment items. Each weapon system requires an adequate supply of spare parts, ammunition, POL, and other items necessary to make that system continue to function effectively on the battlefield. Like sealift and airlift, sustainment items do not have as high a priority as weapon systems, and both are overlooked and underfunded. Suddenly, the Army has weapons and a force structure, but no way to deliver them to a theater or to sustain them once they arrive.
Commanders of unified and specified commands placed "near-term improvement in materiel sustainability" as their most important priority. They saw that the current military forces lacked an adequate capability to sustain the force and probably would suffer from this condition for several more years, despite Army awareness and attention to the problem. Army planners recognized that a bal-
ance between weapon system production and modernization and the acquisition of sustainment items was needed.
Although the Department of Defense Guidance for Fiscal Years 1983-1987 listed sustainment as a high priority, progress in meeting near- and mid-term goals was slow. The reason was that sustainment money was programmed to the outyears of fiscal years 1986-1988 both in the 1983-1987 and 1984-1988 Guidance. Dr. Korb observed that these increases were removed from the budget as each outyear turned into a budget year. Army funding for fiscal years 1985-1989 did not meet the Department of Defense Guidance for sustainment by fiscal year 1988. Furthermore, proposed cumulative funding through FY 88 fell short of requirements by $2.5 billion. This remained a difficult problem. An examination of the Army's ammunition and tracked vehicles (tanks and armored personnel carriers) programs illustrates the problem. The ammunition program placed increased procurement funding in the outyears while the tracked vehicles program budgeted less procurement funding. However, as the outyears approached actual budget years, the program's share of funding reversed.
The Army used its funds for sustainment in the most economical manner and improved sustainment, though much remained to be accomplished.
The War Reserve program improved sustainment, strategic mobility, and support of contingency operations. War reserves assumed a particularly vital role in combat operations of the type described in FM 100-5. These intense and highly lethal scenarios will place a heavy burden on the intheater pre-positioned war reserve materiel stocks, which will be the only materiel immediately available for commanders to use to sustain their forces' fighting ability. War reserve stocks included all replacement items, ammunition (including missiles), equipment, and POL procured during peacetime and used to replace combat wear and losses until the Communications Zone can forward supplies from a mobilized CONUS industrial base.
The intheater pre-positioned war reserve materiel was located as near the planned area of use as possible in order to conserve the time needed to resupply units. During FY 84, the Army stored materiel in Hawaii, Panama, Alaska, Japan, Korea, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance countries. Pre-positioning these stocks overseas was vital since the Army's strategic lift capacity remained limited, and the planned mobilization of the national industrial base was expected to require time. The Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics (ODCSLOG) planners considered pre-positioned stocks as adequate if they could sustain
the operations of all forward-deployed and reinforcing U.S. units until CONUS resupply was established on a normal basis. A safety factor, taking into account underestimation of consumption and/or delays in the establishment of resupply from the United States, was inherent in the stockage levels. The FY 84 levels of war reserve stocks were so low that the industrial resources would need an eight- to ten-month lead time to replace combat losses and use.
Some war reserve stocks were positioned within the United States to meet other Army requirements. These CONUS war stockpiles, for example, served as backup for certain materiel pre-positioned overseas and would be a source of equipment for a worldwide contingency force (such as the Army's Rapid Development Force units). In addition, the Army earmarked materiel for upgrading reserve units to a war footing.
Other war reserves were available for purposes other than sustainment. Pre-positioning of materiel configured to unit sets (POMCUS), and non-POMCUS for special contingencies, contained stocks for the initial supply of arriving units or materiel in excess of unit authorization for special contingencies in CONUS, the Pacific, and especially Europe.
Each year, members of the Army's major commands meet with ODCSLOG personnel to identify problems, discuss solutions, and plan for actions to resolve war reserve issues. The Army held four of these war reserve conferences during the year.
The War Reserve Automated Process (WRAP) was a standard automated system that determined wholesale and retail secondary item war reserve requirements and prepared the funding and programming reports required under the Army's current policies and guidance. The reports produced by WRAP serve as the official documentation justifying the secondary item war reserve budgets and programs. In FY 84, the Army developed, tested, and sent WRAP to all Headquarters, Army Materiel Command, major subordinate commands (MSCs). At the end of FY 84, it was operational at the wholesale level and will be deployed and operational at the retail level by the end of August 1985.
POMCUS stocks are war reserves stored in Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany for the use of specified CONUS-based units, which will deploy to NATO shortly after mobilization. Since POMCUS are complete equipment authorizations for the deploying units, the units' personnel can be airlifted to Europe without their accompanying equipment. This conserves valuable space and allows the maximum number of personnel to be
airlifted, given current strategic airlift and sealift capability shortages compared-to the Army's requirements.
The Army kept POMCUS stocks in operating condition by storing them either inside specially constructed facilities or in the open, as appropriate. Specialists maintained the equipment under a cyclic set program in which all unit sets not stored in humidity-controlled buildings were inspected and repaired every two years with the remainder maintained on a four-year cycle. Significantly, REFORGER units used POMCUS stocks, and all equipment employed during REFORGER exercises was cleaned, inspected, repaired, and returned to storage after the completion of the exercise.
The Army continued filling POMCUS stocks during FY 84. Congress included funds in the FY 84 defense appropriations bill for Division Sets 5 and 6, to be located in Belgium and the Netherlands. The bill also required that the levels of active component stockage not fall below 70 percent and reserve component stockage below 50 percent. However, since the construction of facilities necessary to store these division sets remained unfinished, the Army shipped no equipment during FY 84.
ODCSLOG personnel responded to the twin concerns of the Vice Chief of Staff of the Army over the state of POMCUS readiness and the lack of an accurate gauge to measure the progress of stocking the POMCUS. ODCSLOG determined that the Vice Chief of Staff concerns were justified and proposed corrections, namely to articulate the total POMCUS requirement and use the POMCUS Authorization Document ( PAD) to identify which units the Army could add to POMCUS each fiscal year as additional storage facilities became available.
The Army maintained small elements from the 7th Support Command and the 54th Area Support Group in Rheinsberg, Germany, to implement POMCUS. Army planners also worked to obtain congressional approval to acquire permanent facilities for these two units and to improve community support at the remote sites in northwestern Germany where they were stationed.
Although the Army's operational doctrine matured and modernized equipment entered the force, the Class IX Management System to support these initiatives has remained unchanged since 1970. General Richard H. Thompson and Lt. Col. Robert P Stisitis pointed out in Army Logistician (Nov/Dec 84) that the current prescribed load lists (PLLs) and authorized stockage lists (ASLs) were outmoded, overstocked, and only partially supported combat readiness. ODCSLOG decided to make doctrinal and managerial changes to upgrade the system provided to combat, combat sup-
port, and combat service support units. Several initiatives in the modernization of the Class IX Management policy balanced the forward-positioned stocks with those stockpiles depending upon delivery through the transportation and distribution system and, thereby, improved the system's responsiveness to units and guaranteed that materiel readiness would be sustained during combat. In FY 84, the Army attempted to guarantee- 85 percent stockage of a unit's items. The new policy, under study, recommended stocking only those items essential to fulfill immediate requirements. (See Charts 1 and 2.)
CHART 1 - TODAY'S CLASS IX ASL "SUPERMARKET"
Stocks to meet the need for any part for any equipment.
• Quantity-10,500 line items.
Source: Army Logistician.
CHART 2 - TOMORROW'S CLASS IX ASL "CONVENIENCE STORE"
Focuses on readiness of key critical combat weapon systems.
• Quantity-7,000 to 7,500 line items.
Source: Army Logistician.
A major part of the PLL/ASL problem was the expansion of the support list allowance card (SLAG) brought about by the influx of new equipment into the force. Spare parts for new equipment created an additional burden on the unit's time, space, personnel, and mobility because they coexisted with stockage of parts for older equipment. Furthermore, the technological sophistication of new weapon systems usually increased the number of spare parts a unit must maintain to keep "down-time" to a minimum.
ODCSLOG planners worked to reduce stockage list allowances of new equipment and to develop a system to identify and remove
from the PLL and ASL parts for equipment no longer used. In the future, the PLL/ASL will stock, as nondemand-supported provisioning items, only high-mortality parts essential for the equipment in operation and parts necessary to satisfy safety and legal requirements. The implementation of the new criteria could reduce requirements for parts by 90 percent. These interim criteria will be replaced by a standard Total Army mandatory parts list (MPL) based upon an empirical validation. Other items essential to the combat readiness of equipment, but not included under these criteria, will be stored at corps or installation level, thereby maintaining readiness but alleviating storage problems for the forward supporting and supported units. Fringe requisitioning at the depot level will make nonessential items available at the depot level. AMC planners worked on developing a program to update wholesale data bases, which should improve the management of stocks at all levels and enhance combat readiness.
The second part of the new supply policy used the standard combat PLL and ASL program to develop an MPL. At the direction of the Chief of Staff of the Army, ODCSLOG investigated the problem of a sufficient breadth (number of lines stocked) and depth (number of items for each line) in the Total Army PLLs and ASLs to maintain critical equipment during combat. Aided by simulations, ODCSLOG planners determined the operational availability of equipment required for combat operations, a departure from the previously used peacetime demand-oriented system to project wartime requirements.
AMC tested a high-priority delivery system in the United States Army, Europe (USAREUR), to fulfill not-mission-capable supply requirements for specified end items. Using commercial delivery services, this Rapid II system reduced the order shipping time to 90 hours-CONUS to Europe.
As the Army fields an increasing number of modern weapon systems employing modules, the emphasis of ASL management will change from parts to be discarded to those that can be repaired. The Army made an important policy change last year when it gave major commands the responsibility to manage reparable parts. Logisticians at the end of FY 84 worked to develop a synchronized supply, maintenance, and distribution system to improve reparable management while keeping costs and stockage low.
ODCSLOG improved the supply policy and distribution system by developing two new microcomputer systems. The Unit Level Logistics System (ULLS) began as the tactical organizational paperless service support system, a SMART (Supply and Maintenance
Assessment and Review Team) program initiative in the 24th Infantry Division. It automated almost all of the PLL transactions, decreased the PLL workload, and increased transaction accuracy at the unit level. The Standard Army Retail Supply System (SARSS) will be fielded in forward support battalions to receive and process ULLS data, generate stock issue and inventory management data, and prepare transactions for Direct Support Unit Standard Supply System processing. All of these transactions were designed to decrease response time to meet lower level units' high-priority needs.
The Army Logistics Center, after reexamining recent technological advances and the threat to the rear area divisional support area, reappraised its centralized materiel management policy. Planners believed that daily logistical functions were more likely to survive hostile action if they dispersed among the division's direct support units. The 9th Infantry Division (Motorized) served as a test bed for decentralizing daily logistical functions management. The 9th provided a demanding test for the new system because the division was configured for rapid deployment. Its maneuver units were highly mobile because of organic ground and air transportation assets. The Army designed proposed doctrinal changes in supply policy to provide a logistics system that could support rapidly moving combat elements similar to the 9th Infantry Division.
The Army logistical organization, at the end of FY 84, followed several principles while developing a supply policy to meet FM 100-5 doctrinal requirements. For example, logisticians identified the challenges of force modernization and made progress in meeting them. Planners recognized also that they must strike a balance between the level of stockage and the level of usage to keep PLLs and ASLs more mobile and less expensive. The distribution system was the vital key to the timely and adequate resupply of combat units.
In 1980 the Secretary of Defense designated the Army the DOD Executive Agent for land-based water resources. Since then the Army has worked on developing, coordinating, and implementing a totally integrated tactical water support system. Primarily, ODCSLOG, as the Army's water resources proponent, focused its attention on the needs of the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) because operations in that area of the world would occur in an arid environment with high ambient temperatures and few sources of fresh water. ODCSLOG used a systems approach to determine water support requirements for such functions as detection, production, treatment, distribution, storage, and cooling. The Army transferred the responsibility for all of
these functions, except for detection and production, from engineer elements to combat service support units.
A two-part program was used to satisfy CENTCOM water requirements. The first, completed by the end of the FY 82 funded delivery period, fulfilled the minimum essential needs of the near-term force. Redesignated petroleum, engineer, and transportation units used commercially obtained equipment to establish and operate the System. The second involved the creation of a comprehensive tactical water support capability for the expanded force by the close of the FY 87 funded delivery period. ODCSLOG programmed the necessary materiel and force structure requirements to meet the deadline.
ODCSLOG successfully demonstrated a 300,000-gallon-per-day, barge-mounted, reverse osmosis water purification unit during the Joint Logistics Over the Shore Exercise II. The Army will deploy the water purification unit in CENTCOM. It also pre-positioned more equipment for water units in CENTCOM's Near-term Prepositioning Force (NTPF). In addition, the National Training Center started unit water training.
The Army was responsible for the inland distribution of bulk Petroleum, Oils, and Lubricants to all services in both developed and undeveloped theaters. Its mission was to maintain a flow of fuels and lubricants from a combination of offshore tankers and pier-side discharge systems through a network of onshore storage and distribution systems to the user. This mission was critical for force readiness and sustainment. Requirements steadily increased during the year.
In response to growing requirements, the Army established a General Officers Steering Committee and an Action Officers Workshop to study POL Logistics-Over-the-Shore (LOTS) and inland distribution capabilities. Both groups emphasized the need to modernize the petroleum systems within the Army Facilities Component System; to revise the 1978 "Petroleum Distribution in a Theater of Operations" study; to modify the Army Concept of Operations to include the increased use of tactical pipeline; and to work on inland distribution plans.
The Action Officers Workshop completed the evaluation of aluminum instead of steel piping and the use of new quick lock couplings rather than steel bolted couplings in POL tactical pipelines. In January 1984, the Army accepted the aluminum pipe and the quick lock couplings, both commercially available equipment, as Class IX items in the Army Facilities Component System and included the equipment in an Inland Petroleum Distribution System (IPDS) design. ODCSLOG saw the benefits of the new equipment and realized that the movement of large volumes of POL through pipelines was
the most efficient and least labor-intensive method. Therefore, it programmed a larger use of tactical pipeline to offset the Transportation Medium Truck Company (POL) force structure shortfalls. Initial procurement began in FY 84.
Last year, the 5,000-gallon collapsible fabric POL storage tank was the largest in the Army's inventory. This year, the Army started procurement of the Bulk Fuel Tank Assembly (EFTA), a 5,000-barrel (210,000-gallon) collapsible storage tank. It was used successfully during the joint Logistics Over the Shore Exercise II.
An Army/Navy OPDS (Offshore Petroleum Discharge System) Steering Group was established in FY 84 to prepare joint OPDS policy, procedure, acquisition, and compatibility. The group will have a Common Offload and Discharge Memorandum of Agreement ready for Chiefs of Staff signature next year. This agreement will clarify each service's responsibilities. The OPDS is scheduled for demonstration testing in FY 85.
The Petroleum Distribution System, Korea (PDSK), handled the general support POL mission. ODCSLOG changed its Table of Distribution and Allowances (TDA) organization to that of a Table of Organization and Equipment unit providing an in-place cadre to support a rapid increase of personnel and mission during wartime. The PDSK became the 2d Petroleum Group, Korea, in September 1984 and required neither additional personnel for its peacetime mission nor increases in the manpower ceiling of the Eighth U.S. Army.
The Army could not sustain its forward-deployed and deploying forces because of inadequate air and sealift capability and a shortage of war reserves. Planners, however, implemented several actions to improve sustainment. One major sustainment program, Host Nation Support (HNS), used allied assets to fulfill part of the U.S. Army's combat support and combat service support requirements and to attain the Army's force structure objectives. Since the NATO area was vital to U.S. interests (the majority of troops were deployed there), most HNS was also found in Europe.
The United States and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) signed a Wartime Host Nation Support (WHNS) Agreement on 15 April 1982. According to this agreement, West Germany will supply wartime essential services from its civil sector and perform service support functions for U.S. forces from a newly created 50,000-man reserve. The United States agreed to provide a ten-division force by D-day. At the end of FY 84, the two countries were developing the Civilian Support Technical Agreement to identify the civilian support the FRG will make available during war and the Military Technical Agreement to specify reservists' support. The former is planned for com-
pletion in FY 86 and the latter by the end of FY 85. On 21 January 1983, West Germany and the United States signed the Reinforcement Exercise Technical Agreement, which established German support for U.S. peacetime exercises such as REFORGER. The two countries, this year; agreed on the single source of equipment issue, the allocation of funds, and the approval of HNS as a part of the NATO infrastructure, which established guidelines for future activations.
Bilateral agreements with NATO allies assure HNS for vital U.S. lines of communication. Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, Denmark, Canada, and Italy have signed general (government to government) agreements and technical (host nation ministry of defense and Headquarters, United States European Command) agreements. Furthermore, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed joint Logistical Support Plans (JLSP), and negotiations were under way with Norway, Italy, and Denmark. Negotiations for JLSP have not yet been started with Spain, Portugal, and Greece while awaiting State Department approval. The United States European Command established Logistical Coordination Cells (LCC) to act as in-country agents to develop JLSP They were essential for the continued rapid delineation and agreement on the detailed support to be given to U.S. forces. The LCCs will also develop joint Implementation Plans to provide operational plan-level detail.
The HNS policy for Southwest Asia was in the initial negotiation stage with U.S. allies in that region. Discussions covered the development of possible contingency support for U.S. forces by these countries.
The Combined Defense Improvements Projects (CDIP) program, which handled HNS in Korea, continued its successful operation. During FY 84, Japan provided support to the United States through base rentals and by assumption of construction costs.
The Western Command (WESTCOM) continued to work on the Friendly/Allied Nation Support (FANS) program, which determined and cataloged other Pacific countries' ability to provide the U.S. with supply and service support.
A suitable force structure, a flexible imaginative doctrine, and a sustainment capability all depend upon the mobilization of national reserves to support deployed forces with reinforcing units, replacement personnel, and replenishment supplies. Mobilization brings the required resources to the necessary state of readiness or
to production. This task is accomplished by expanding existing facilities and establishing training bases to process untrained civilians; bringing reserve component personnel onto extended active duty; preparing CONUS transportation systems to move men and materiel; and converting factories to the production of war materiel. Mobilization of the Total Army implies that the Army will complete these actions effectively and quickly.
An initial mobilization action occurs when the President of the United States calls up reserve units to active duty. In that situation, current Army doctrine states that approximately 20 percent of Army Reserve elements will deploy overseas within 30 days after mobilization, 64 percent within 60 days, and almost all within 90 days. These units, however, represent only those designated for outside continental United States (OCONUS) deployment.
In FY 84, the Army added full-time reserve staff to vital active commands and posts to assist in mobilization planning. In addition, the Army continued to add reserve management information systems to the Continental Army Management Information System (CAMIS)-the primary Army Reserve and National Guard information system. Selected reserve centers and National Guard armories already using CAMIS will be joined by more than 5,000 subscribers by October 1986.
Since the Corps of Engineers was responsible for several of the mobilization actions mentioned above, it provided the United States with a strong reserve for engineering services and construction management through its civil works and military programs. The Corps' peacetime construction force (two-thirds involved in civil works) formed the backbone of the mobilization preparedness program. This program expanded during the year. Engineers in cooperation with Major Army Command staffs identified specific construction projects required for personnel mobilization. Furthermore, the civilian personnel of the engineer districts worked with Army installation planners to prepare mobilization master plans and Installation Support Books that established the necessary actions to satisfy personnel mobilization requirements. Most engineer districts and divisions established plans to support the Army's mobilization bases and to augment their staffs to meet personnel mobilization surges. The Chief of Engineers created a program of direct and general support districts to integrate the newly transferred civil works personnel into the military construction program. Direct support districts (fourteen districts handling peacetime military construction) supported installation commanders and facilities engineers in the United States. Since mobiliza-
tion demands could overwhelm these districts, general support districts (twenty-two civil works districts with no peacetime military construction) will provide reserve support.
The Installation Support Book (ISB) program, which provided essential information to district support and general support staffs for designing and building mobilization facilities, expanded during FY 84. The Corps of Engineers provided funds for adding 30 ISBs to the 101 installations, 55 reserve component mobilization stations, and 46 Development and Readiness Command production base facilities already in the program.
The Corps' mobilization preparedness level continued to decline because of reductions in its civil works manpower and the amount of design and construction work it authorized and performed. The augmentation of the military construction program suffered as a result. However, the Corps' emergency operations centers for floods, hurricanes, and other disasters did prepare Corps personnel to operate under extreme conditions that were similar in certain respects to those found during mobilization.
The Corps established the Corps of Engineers Corrective Action Program (CECAP) to provide an automated inventory of mobilization issues raised by OCONUS and CONUS districts and divisions. CECAP also identified a responsible proponent to resolve each issue and to monitor progress on the issue until its resolution. While contending with the same mobilization problems of CONUS, OCONUS districts and divisions faced several additional unresolved issues such as wartime construction requirements, resource management, and command relationships.
TRADOC completed the Training Base Capacity Study II and forwarded it to HQDA. The exhaustive study reviewed the equipment requirement to support the training base after full mobilization. The study group estimated equipment costs to meet present mobilization requirements at nearly $3.8 billion. Based on the TRADOC study, HQDA planners wrote a Program-Development Increment Package to alleviate some of the shortages in future POM cycles. Planners also used the study to examine the stated requirements for accuracy. It will be updated annually to monitor changing equipment requirements.
The Corps of Engineers prepared a proposal to amend Title 10, United States Code (USC) 2808, and sent it to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in January 1984. The proposal allowed a presidential determination of "imminent threat" to trigger mobilization (training base) construction using previously appropriated MILCON funds. Title 10, USC 2808, required that mo-
bilization construction start after a public declaration of national emergency or war. The FY 85.military authorization bill, forwarded to Congress on 3 February 1984, included the proposal. The final bill, signed by President Ronald Reagan on 20 August, did not contain it. The defeat of the Corps' proposal led to reassessing the timing and direction of the long-term effort to possess needed mobilization authority and to obtain relief from unreasonable statutory constraints.
Industrial mobilization complements personnel mobilization. The industrial base provides the equipment and materiel to support and sustain the forces engaged in combat, combat support, and combat service support. The Department of Defense continued to emphasize initial combat capability over industrial preparedness. This directly affected the Army because of low equipment and materiel stockpiles. Serious deficiencies still existed between the time required to mobilize the production capacity of U.S. industry and the time to meet ongoing combat demands. Several studies and reports (Ichord hearings, General Accounting Office reports) called attention to the defects of DOD's "short war" planning philosophy. These deficiencies in industrial preparedness were readily apparent in MOBEX 78 and MOBEX 80.
Dr. Korb stated that the United States had neglected industrial mobilization since World War Il but in the past several years had emphasized industrial preparedness in several ways. The President established the Emergency Mobilization Preparedness Board in 1982. In 1984, DOD and White House planners worked on emergency legislation that the President could use in a national emergency to remove impediments, such as long production lead times, to quickly meet mobilization requirements. During FY 84, the Army stockpiled critical components for systems with long lead times to shorten weapon systems production time upon mobilization.
The Secretary of the Army noted in the October 1984 Association of the United States Army Green Book that the Army was "not satisfied with our present ability to mobilize quickly." He stressed several areas that needed improvement: "getting more manpower with required skills, raising the readiness levels of reserve components combat service support units, improving the capability of continental U.S. installations to handle deploying units and upgrading our command and control structure to ensure the timely movement of critical resources." He stated that the Army was working on improving these areas. While some progress had been made, the Secretary acknowledged that much more needed to be done.
Following the publication of the operational doctrine in FM 100-5, the Army changed its training programs to complement the offensive emphasis of the revised manual. The philosophy to train as the Army fought permeated all levels of the Army organization as trainers incorporated this concept into all elements of the training program. These included individual, unit, and combined arms activities; institutional instruction; and training support. The demands occasioned by FM 100-5 doctrine required a level of training and proficiency far greater than that of our potential adversaries. American soldiers must often fight outnumbered in both personnel and equipment, as well as at the end of extended supply lines. The Army's primary training mission, in support of the Army of Excellence, was to turn newly inducted civilians into disciplined and skilled soldiers; to provide a cadre of highly capable noncommissioned officer trainers; and to improve the officer corps' capabilities. A new force structure placed further demands on training requirements as did fielding new or modernized weapon systems and adding new training courses. The Army responded by increasing instructor personnel authorization by 600 spaces, despite overall limited resources.
The soldier's most important peacetime activity is to train and prepare for war. Such training is vital for a force that fights according to a doctrine calling for rapid deployment of operational forces into a highly confusing, violent, and lethal theater of operations. All members of the Total Army need to understand and be trained under the principles of FM 100-5 so that they can fight and win the battle in such an environment.
The thirteen-week Infantry One-Station Unit Training (OSUT) program at the Infantry Training Center, Fort Benning, Georgia, took civilians and turned them into well-trained infantrymen. Those who will use Bradley fighting vehicles received additional training during a three-week, add-on course designed to familiarize them with the new equipment. The OSUT course emphasized tactical realism, reinforcement of mastered subjects in subsequent lessons, and after-action reviews. These actions improved the soldier's tactical and technical proficiency. In FY 84, the OSUT proved successful as evidenced by soldiers scoring an average of 268 out of 300 points on the demanding final Advanced Physical Readiness Test (APRT) and 92.4 percent on the Performance-oriented Infantry Qualification Test (POIQT) containing thirty-two Skill Level I tasks.
Initial Entry Training provided soldiers with a foundation of basic skills. Upon completion of basic training, the soldiers were
well motivated and well disciplined, but still needed further training on Skill Level I subjects. After arrival at their assigned units, they received additional training to sharpen their skills, to learn new and more advanced tasks, and to become team members.
A unit's efficiency and effectiveness depends upon its members' confidence in each other and in their leaders. Consequently, the Army worked to ensure that all leaders were tactically and technically competent to instill confidence in their subordinates. The Army also recognized that future conflicts, described in FM 100-5, would be highly lethal, demanding proficient leadership to conserve unit fighting strength on the complex modern battlefield. Therefore, it not only provided training for the soldiers' current assignments, but also trained them for more responsible future assignments.
The Army also expanded and established several programs for the professional development of career soldiers. For example, funding was provided to begin an FY 87 expansion in the number of senior NCOs engaged in training. The First Sergeant's Course will be expanded to 1,010 students per year, while the Sergeant Major Academy will train an additional 128 sergeants annually. The Army, after analyzing the NCO ranks, identified a shortage of Skill Level 2/3 technical training for combat support/combat service support soldiers. In response, Army trainers began primary and basic technical courses to improve the technical competency of E-5 and Er6 NCOs and make them fully qualified in their respective military occupational specialties (MOS). By FY 86, the Army will have 157 such courses in operation.
The emphasis in FM 100-5 on maneuver warfare demanded unit cohesion, small unit leadership, and independent operations. Leadership qualities of competence, toughness, resourcefulness, and flexibility were necessary to take full advantage of the latest doctrine. Thus the length of most officer basic courses increased from four to five weeks to offer more field training in tactical, maintenance, physical, and leadership skills. Trainers added a seven-day Tactical Leadership Course (TLC) to the Infantry Officers Basic Course to improve newly commissioned second lieutenants' tactical and leadership skills. Following TLC, the officers went through a light infantry field training exercise (FTX) and a mechanized infantry FTX. The Army incorporated the twenty drills of the TLC into the light infantry unit training program and may use them for active and reserve component field units as well.
Moreover, the appearance of a new three-tier training plan for warrant officers revised and expanded existing courses. Under the new program all newly appointed warrant officers will attend a six-
week, entry-level leadership course, and later during their career take an advanced course with selected officers attending a senior-level course. The new policy's mandatory entry-level training will improve the officer's ability to handle responsibility.
The conversion and establishment of divisions into the light infantry configuration and the restructuring of the 9th Infantry Division (Motorized) prompted the Army to explore the units' training programs as they experimented with new operational concepts. This was especially true of the units found in the light infantry force.
The Infantry School established a light infantry training program to improve light infantry skills during OSUT; to conduct special light infantry training at Fort Benning for unit leaders; and to increase gradually the percentage of Ranger-trained leaders in the light infantry divisions. The key battalion leaders will be Ranger-trained, and all infantry platoons will have some Ranger-trained personnel. The light infantry training program comprised three courses: the Light Leader Course, the Light Fighter Course, and the Light Infantry OSUT COHORT
Ranger-qualified senior NCOs conducted the four-week Light Leader Course at the Ranger School, Fort Benning. The course trained battalion sets of unit leaders (team leader to company commander) to become better trainers themselves by improving their proficiency in leadership abilities and soldier skills. The first class commenced in August, and a new Light Leader Course was planned for FY 86.
All light divisions conducted a Light Fighter Course that concentrated on squad and platoon training. The course lasted four weeks for infantry companies and one week for noncombat units. The 7th Infantry Division began training in the fall with the two-phase course. All soldiers who passed Phase I training were certified as light infantrymen and were sent to Phase II. In this phase, the light leader graduates trained their units in various tactical skills, which included rappelling from helicopters, traveling on snowshoes and skis, setting up hasty ambushes, and performing reconnaissances.
The proposed fifteen-week Light Infantry OSUT COHORT Course will employ a battalion of the 7th Infantry Division as a test unit during FY 85. After careful analysis of the results achieved in this battalion's training cycle, the Army will determine whether to continue the course.
The Ranger School, currently limited to a nine-week Ranger training program, will expand in FY 87 to support the Army's emphasis on increasing light infantry training requirements. The school's priorities were to soldiers assigned to Ranger battalions and
light infantry units as well as to all Infantry Branch lieutenants. The goal was to increase the number of hardened, combat oriented, tactically skilled leaders to light infantry divisions. The expansion will also support the larger SOF force structure, which added a Ranger battalion and Ranger regiment.
This training program supported the Army's goal of rapidly establishing a high-quality light infantry force. The Army will monitor and study the training process and the results. TRADOC will evaluate the organizational concept and performance of the light infantry division in terms of the new units' ability to meet the rigorous light infantry standards and the Infantry School's ability to support the training program during the transition of Division 86 units into light infantry units. However, light infantry was not the only unit training in progress.
Each unit, whether using a single weapon system or providing a support function, must be proficient in its specialty. Using the Army Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP), units established programs for individual and collective training in critical battle tasks. The Army revised its ARTEPs during the year, especially through the use of expanded training and evaluation outlines. Using these, commanders determined training performance and planned to correct deficiencies.
Individual and unit training formed the basis for the Army's readiness, while the training of the battalion task force inculcated principles of combined arms warfare in units. Furthermore, FM 100-5 identified the battalion as the basic combat unit. Thus the combined arms task force concept integrated various complementary weapon systems with a greater level of combat support and combat service support. One significant problem associated with battalion task force-size training was a lack of space to exercise full capability. The battalion's new weapon systems extended the range and scope of live-fire exercises beyond all but a few military reservations.
One Army response was the establishment of the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California. According to Maj. Gen. Frederic J. Brown, Commanding General, U.S. Army Armor Center, starting full-scale operation in 1982, "the tough, realistic, force-on-force training with MILES as the NTC is the best combined arms training, short of actual combat, that has ever been conducted in the U.S. Army" (Armor, Nov/Dec 84) The NTC's large maneuver area, skilled opposing force, live fire, multiple integrated laser engagement system (MILES), and standardized evaluation combined to offer an unparalled training operation. Operations group observer-controllers, through computer-aided standardized evaluations, pro-
vided thorough after-action reviews to each unit following the two-week-long training mission. MILES provided timely and accurate determinations of individual and vehicle hits and near-misses that allowed, in turn, simulation of realistic force-on-force combat with realistic weapons simulation and casualty determination.
The NTC also improved the proficiency of unit leaders as they rotated through the center as well as enlisted personnel who had the opportunity to use skills learned at their home station. The units that trained at the NTC also incorporated "lessons learned" into their home station training programs. Thus NTC influence extended far beyond the two-week course and spread throughout the Army, thereby improving readiness.
In FY 84, the NTC first witnessed a unit (2d Brigade, 2d Armored Division) equipped with Ml Abrams tanks and M2 Bradley fighting vehicles training at the center. These new weapons improved the brigade's ability to maneuver more rapidly across rough terrain. Simultaneously, while on the move, the improved technology increased their ability to hit targets accurately. Thermal sights enhanced the crew's target acquisition when operating under conditions of reduced visibility. FY 84 also witnessed the first National Guard battalions using the NTC. These were the 2d,Battalion, 136th Infantry (Mechanized), from Minnesota and the 1st Battalion, 108th Armor, from Georgia.
Army personnel and units engaged in numerous exercises during the fiscal year. Most occurred at the units' home stations with the aim to familiarize personnel with small unit tactics. Each exercise, whether CPX (command post exercise), FIX (field training exercise), STX (situational training exercise), or CALFEX (combined arms live-fire exercise), was an essential block of the foundation for larger combined arms training such as that conducted at the NTC. Moreover, leaders received training in FCXs (fire coordination exercises), LCXs (logistics coordination exercises), and MCXs (movement coordination exercises).
Each year the Army participates in two major Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)-sponsored and -conducted command post exercises selected from four possible scenarios: mobilization, general war/nuclear crisis, NATO reinforcement, and regional exercise. In FY 84, the CPXs were NIGHT TRAIN 84 and PRESSURE POINT 84. NIGHT TRAIN 84, a nine-lay CPX conducted in two phases between 5 and 13 April 1984, focused on survivability, continuity of operations, and reconstitution following a nuclear strike against the United States. HQDA established eight exercise objectives to evaluate Army command and control, decision making, residual capabilities, military assistance to civil authorities, and
capability to support reconstitution efforts during a nuclear crisis. This marked the first time in an extended interval that the Army examined its ability to transfer command and control functions to alternate locations. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) directed the participation of several federal civil agencies in NIGHT TRAIN 84 under its own exercise title of Readiness Exercise (REX) 84 BRAVO. The participants identified several deficiencies during the exercise, but in general found improved results compared to the previous nuclear CPX. However, the Army contended that the design of the previous three nuclear CPXs made it very difficult, if not impossible, to assess the progress and trends of correcting past deficiencies.
The other major JCS-sponsored and -directed command post exercise was PRESSURE POINT 84, which evaluated crisis management procedures and the operational and logistical aspects of sustainment in a major conflict. The federal civil and military agencies of both the United States and the Republic of Korea (ROK) participated in the two-phase exercise from 17 October to 22 November 1983. Unlike the most recent comparable exercise, POTENT PUNCH 81, which evaluated plans and operations during the initial stages of a conflict in Korea, PRESSURE POINT 84 concentrated mainly, but not exclusively, on sustainment of forces during a crisis. The Army found this emphasis useful, because it could evaluate sustainment capabilities in greater depth than before and it could better articulate the severity of shortfalls in materiel and other critical areas of sustainment. The exercise scenario portrayed an escalation of worldwide tensions that led to several regional conflicts, including the outbreak of a conventional war on the Korean peninsula. The participants had already faced many of the crisis management, mobilization, and deployment problems of PRESSURE POINT 84 during POTENT PUNCH 81. However, this CPX examined these issues in greater detail in the new context of sustainment.
Any Army after-action assessment of PRESSURE POINT 84 noted a continuing shortage of ammunition stocks, several major equipment items, and combat arms replacements that severely limited the Army's ability to sustain combat operations. Although of less importance, limitations placed upon the Army by chronic deficiencies in medical, engineer, and transportation support capabilities appeared. Conversely, significant improvement in planning and operational procedures, including, with certain reservations, the procedures for supply support to the Republic of Korea, demonstrated the advantages accrued from "lessons learned" in previous exercises.
The Army also conducted several large-scale exercises to test combat readiness. Logistical planners held LOGEX 84, a CPX war
game, at Fort Pickett, Virginia, from 8 through 20 July 1984, to train participants in the command and staff procedures of joint operations within a NATO AirLand Battle scenario. Furthermore, LOGEX 84 demonstrated the interaction between combat, combat support, and combat service support units, operations, and missions. The exercise provided rewards for proper planning and execution and exacted penalties for violations of doctrine or sound practice. This demonstrated the effects of the participants' decisions on combat operations. In addition, trainers taught current doctrine, as found in FM 100-5, and introduced emerging concepts. Early deploying reserve components received training in their wartime mission, in addition to meeting and working with members of other units and services they would deal with in wartime.
Participants included members of 11 Active Army, 38 Army National Guard, and 48 Army Reserve units from CONUS and USAREUR, as well as active and reserve component personnel from the U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps. Personnel of military organizations from nine allied nations represented those countries' logistical support activities to make LOGEX 84 as realistic as possible. The training covered policies and procedures for operations in the theater environment, necessary operations to support the AirLand Battle, and appropriate responses to Soviet/Warsaw Pact operational concepts and tactics. The trainers used microcomputer technology to generate and transfer to player units a significant amount of real-time scenario information.
The Army also increased its participation in several more highly visible, large-scale, complex joint and combined exercises from 28 in FY 83 to 31 in FY 84. These exercises, particularly the OCONUS ones, improved the Army's ability in combined combat operations with allied forces, projected its operational capability, tested joint and strategic mobility, and trained Total Army personnel to work in the joint arena with members of other U.S. services. Two of the most ambitious and well-known exercises were REFORGER and TEAM SPIRIT.
REFORGER (Return of Forces to Germany) involved the deployment of U.S. units from all three services and their reserve components to Germany for training with NATO units. They performed all operations under simulated wartime conditions designed to test the U.S. military's ability to deploy rapidly and operate in Europe. REFORGER also demonstrated both our military credibility and our commitment to our allies within NATO. The Army deployed 16,966 soldiers from elements of the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized); 1st Brigade, 2d Armored Division; 224th Engineer Battalion; 2d Battalion, 75th Rangers; and other active and reserve com-
bat, combat support, and combat service support units. Once in Europe, the NATO allies and U.S. forces conducted a series of exercises called AUTUMN FORGE that stressed the solidarity of the Allied Command and tested host nations' capabilities to mobilize and commit their forces for the defense of Western Europe.
Over 200,000 ROK and U.S. personnel in three corps elements and nine divisions participated in TEAM SPIRIT 84, which was held in Korea during the spring of 1984. A further four divisional headquarters simulated second and third echelon activities. This year marked I Corps' (Fort Lewis, Washington) first participation in TEAM SPIRIT. Other American units involved included a headquarters and brigade task force from the 2d Infantry Division (stationed in ROK), a brigade headquarters and battalion task force from the 7th Infantry Division, a headquarters and brigade from the 25th Infantry Division, and 2d Engineer Group. Beyond active forces, the Koreans activated two reserve divisions for the exercise. The exercise planners emphasized interoperability by interchanging units from one organization to another. Thus, divisions included ROK and U.S. Army elements and later ROK and U.S. Marine units.
The newly created combined aviation force (CAF) participated for the first time in TEAM SPIRIT 84. Composed of the 17th Aviation Group (Combat) and ROK aviation units, the CAF offered ground commanders maximum use of scarce aviation assets and provided tactical air mobility. Exercises begun in September 1983 identified deficiencies in the areas of air mobility, attack, air assault, and observation. The 17th Aviation Group, for instance, had an assault helicopter battalion and a medium transport helicopter battalion, but lacked attack, scout, and observation helicopters. Conversely, ROK aviation units had attack and air assault helicopters but no medium lift aircraft. Additional C 3 systems and logistical strengths and weaknesses also affected the allies' air support role. U.S. and ROK assets were combined into the CAF, thereby employing the available assets of each army to best complement the aviation role. The CAF used 15 Black Hawks, 27 Hueys, 31 Chinooks, and 24 500-MDs (ROK Army's attack/scout helicopters) to provide exercise forces with agility, depth, initiative, and synchronization.
Central America became even more turbulent as Marxist guerrilla operations spread farther and grew more violent in the region. The President of the United States continued to demonstrate his commitment to U.S. allies in Latin America by conducting joint and combined exercises there. These exercises assisted host nations in enhancing the readiness and capability of their military forces and demonstrated American willingness to support our al-
lies against aggression, to provide a local military presence, and to offer American units the opportunity to conduct joint exercises involving all services and their components. Honduras was the major theater of operations for these exercises. The U.S. Army played a major role in a regular series of training operations.
The two largest exercises were AHUAS TARA II and GRANADERO I. United States Readiness Command and FORSCOM provided joint operations command support as well as the Army forces employed. Experienced in operating joint exercises, USREDCOM established a joint Task Force (JTF) headquarters to plan for AHUAS TARA II. After the exercise began, JTF II, under the command of United States Southern Command, controlled the units and operations. During the course of the exercise, 5 August 1983 to 8 February 1984, the commander of JTF II directed units from all services as well as several Honduran Army units. The 43d Support Group, Fort Carson, Colorado, provided logistical and administrative support while the 41st Combat Support Hospital, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, supplied medical support. The hospital personnel also engaged in humanitarian projects in the Honduran countryside. The 3d Battalion, 319th Field Artillery, Fort Campbell, Kentucky, worked with two Honduran Army mortar battalions that were converting to 105-mm. towed howitzer battalions. Meanwhile, the 7th Special Forces Group assisted Honduran infantry battalions in counterinsurgency and antitank exercises. To support the wide-range exercise, the 46th Engineer Battalion, Forts Rucker and McClellan, Alabama, built one airfield, upgraded another, and instructed Honduran forces in anti-armor defenses. The U.S. Marines, in addition to assisting a Honduran battalion in amphibious operations, also directed a combined Honduran Army and U.S. Army-Navy-Marine maritime interdiction training exercise. Army forces, working in challenging and difficult conditions, often had to construct new base camps for operations. However, Army personnel still found time for humanitarian projects, which included medical treatment for Honduran citizens, veterinary care for their animals, assistance to orphanages, and distribution of clothing received from several American military installations.
Based on the results of AHUAS TARA II, Secretary of Defense Caspar W Weinberger ordered the Commander in Chief of SOUTHCOM to continue the American operations through June 1984. The Commander in Chief redesignated JTF II as JTF "Alpha" and assigned it the operational responsibility for command and control, support functions, communications, and security of heavy equipment in the follow-up exercise, GRANADERO I.
Conducted during May and June 1984, GRANADERO I resembled AHUAS TARA II because it was a combined and joint exercise. The 864th Engineer Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington, arrived a month before the start of the exercise and built two airfields capable of handling C-130 aircraft. On 23 May, JTF 7 arrived to commence the exercise with the 227th Assault Helicopter Battalion, Fort Hood, Texas; the 47th Field Hospital, Fort Sill, Oklahoma; several teams of the 7th Special Forces Group, Fort Bragg, North Carolina; the 169th Tactical Air Support Squadron (TASS), Peoria, Illinois; a USAFRED (U.S. Air Force Forces, Readiness Command) unit; and several logistical and communications units. El Salvador sent an infantry battalion, while Honduras provided an infantry and an airborne battalion. Panama assigned an observer team to the exercise. The units spent a week engaged in combined operations and a second week performing a multinational airborne/air assault at Jamastran near Honduras' southern border with Nicaragua. As during AHUAS TARA II, Army personnel performed humanitarian acts to assist the local inhabitants, including medical and veterinary care as well as an airlift of food and medical supplies for Indian refugees.
New weapon systems, a new force structure, and a changing operational doctrine necessitated increased training for Army personnel. The Army also faced training restrictions imposed by scarce resources, which reduced the amount of available fuel and ammunition. In addition, most of the available maneuver areas were too small to handle the increased ranges of weapons and vehicles. Since new weapon systems, such as the Ml, M2, and M3, introduced more capabilities and ways of employment than their predecessors, personnel required a concomitant increase in training on these systems. Budgetary constraints implied either a reduction of the amount of training time or of the size of the force to receive training. Rather than choose a reduction, Army leadership decided to increase the use of training devices and simulations, thereby conducting necessary training in the most economical manner.
Training devices served as training enhancers and resource conservers. One of the most important of these devices was MILES, which used lasers to simulate realistic combat exercises. Fully fielded in the active component, funding for MILES was begun in the reserve components. The Army also introduced MILES equipment for Ml, M2, and M3 vehicles, thus completing the system for major Army close combat vehicles.
Other major advances in training equipment were in the area of simulators and computer-assisted simulations. The Army's use of simulators for missile and artillery firing practice represented an
inexpensive yet efficient means to train gunners while conserving extremely costly ammunition. Combined with unit training devices, this equipment achieved a substantial savings of Class II, V, and IX materiel. However, these savings were not sufficient, so TRADOC and AMC designed more advanced simulators to conserve more materiel and enhance training.
The unit conduct-of-fire trainer (UCOFT), a computer simulator, will assist tank and infantry fighting vehicle crews in meeting gunnery table proficiency. UCOFT successfully completed validation and verification testing during the year. Fielding will begin in March 1985. Army planners expected UCOFT to pay for itself, on mileage savings alone, within 7.6 years. However, since UCOFT significantly reduced ammunition requirements programmed for training, the payback period, if ammunition savings are included, will be shortened to three years. Army trainers expected UCOFT to save each tank battalion $473,000 for 105-mm. shells and $1,295,000 for 120-mm. shells. The entire field force could be equipped with UCOFT devices for the cost of several M1 tanks.
The Army Armor Center, in conjunction with AMC and TRADOC, also worked on other training simulators for the armor force. Trainers designed the videodisc gunnery simulator (VIGS) to substitute for the first two gunnery tables and provide a foundation for UCOFT and PCMT (platoon combat mission trainer) training. The PCMT, another computer-assisted system, reproduced the combined arms environment through the generation of digital images to depict the external environment as viewed from inside an armor vehicle. The software allowed platoons, while in the simulator room, to perform maneuver missions, solve field problems, and handle free play. USAARMC expected that it would be available by FY 85 and would substantially reduce training costs within the armor force.
Work also progressed on the Army training battle simulation system (ARTBASS), an automated interactive battle simulation for commanders and staffs of maneuver battalions. ARTBASS was the beginning of a conversion from manual to computer-assisted war gaming. The eventual goal is an automated or computer-driven system. By the 1990s FORSCOM wanted to have a complete set of automated battle simulations to train combat, combat support, and combat service support personnel from platoon level to echelons above corps. In FY 85, FORSCOM will distribute ARTBASS to the first maneuver battalions.
The cost of firing a live TOW missile (about $10,000) and a Hellfire missile ($40,000) made extensive firing prohibitively expensive. Nevertheless, Army aviators had to maintain their target acquisition proficiency, and simulators provided the means. Army aviators also
increased their flying proficiency by using flight training simulators. The Apache helicopter program was the first in which Army planners concurrently funded a simulator along with a helicopter. Since flying the Apache was 10-15 times more expensive than flying in the simulator, the Army expected substantial cost savings. FORSCOM also worked on the design of the ACATT (aviation combined team training) computer simulator, which aviation battalions should receive in FY 86 or FY 87.
The Army also was involved in simulators and simulations on a joint services level. USREDCOM worked on a joint theater-level simulation (JTLS), which will offer air, land, and sea battle simulation. The Army planned on placing JTLS at USREDCOM, the Army War College, and the Army Concepts Analysis Agency in early FY 85. The USREDCOM also continued the development of the joint Exercise Control System UECS), a computer-aided system for automating the operation of command and staff training exercises. It will be field tested during BOLD VENTURE 85, a USREDCOM CPX conducted at Fort Lewis, Washington.
The Air Force, under Project Warrior, established the Warrior Preparation Center at Ramstein Air Force Base, Germany, to train Air Force and Army commanders and staffs in combined force employment in NATO. The Warrior Preparation Center taught Warsaw Pact threat status and countermeasures, as well as performed battle simulation. The center proved to be a valuable tool for Air Force and Army staffs to use to sharpen their command and control skills.
Congress, through the efforts of the House Armed Services Committee, had encouraged the joint services to coordinate their training research and development work in 1978. The committee then reemphasized its guidance in 1980, and DOD established the joint Service Research and Development Program. The Navy started manpower and personnel elements for the program and the Army followed suit in FY 84, appropriating $6 million for training and technology projects. The Training Activities Subcommittee of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Steering Committee on Training and Training Technology oversaw the program. The subcommittee, composed of military and civilian members of the four services, reviewed potential projects and selected four or five a year for funding.
The perennial debate over officer training versus officer education continued during the year. While acknowledging that unit-level tactical training remained vital, most commentators favored more education in war fighting and principles of wax at higher level military schools such as the U.S. Army Command and General Staff
College (USACGSC). The CGSC's curriculum, a two-year course in 1929, was shortened to one year after World War II and later reduced to ten months. The emphasis on tactical and operational lessons of warfare was further abbreviated to allow more time to study the complex Cold War arena; to maintain units at a high level of readiness; to develop new officer skills; and better to use constrained resources. Tactical and operational lessons were shortened from a total of 665 hours in 1951 to approximately 170 hours in 1984. The CGSC, in FY 84, increased tactics lessons in the electives program and included three one-week-long, college-wide exercises to remedy the drift away from the study of the lessons of warfare. The current conduct of war under FM 100-5 and its increased use of technologically sophisticated weaponry and highly mobile forces increased the amount of tactical and operational material, that the tactics section of the CGSC curriculum had to cover.
CGSC consequently added an eleven-month Advanced Military Studies Program to provide an in-depth study of the science and art of war at the tactical and operational levels (division and corps). In FY 84, the pilot stage of the program had a small, high-quality faculty capable of teaching as many as ninety-six CGSC graduates annually. The students will receive instruction in all aspects of G1, G2, G3, and G4 operations as well as a study of ranges of possible conflicts from terrorism to nuclear war. The new course emphasized thinking based on the study of military theory and application, both historical and contemporary, to allow officers to arrive at creative yet practical solutions to operational problems. According to Colonel Huba Wass de Czege (Military Review, Jun 84) , the Advanced Military Studies Program was the Army's "long-term investment in future capability."
Army Chief of Staff General Bernard W. Rogers in 1977 ordered a study to be made of officer training and education requirements through the 1990s. The Review of Education and Training for Officers (RETO) study group completed its analysis of requirements from pre-commissioning through general officer levels the following year. The study group made several recommendations such as expanding officer basic courses and changing advanced courses into functional courses dedicated to specific duty positions. Another recommendation was the establishment of a course to teach staff skills. The RETO study group based this recommendation upon several findings. First, the selection rate of officers for CGSC was below 50 percent of total eligible officers, which meant that the majority of Army officers received their last formal education at the officers advanced course. Second, CGSC
graduates were not assigned to tactical-level staff positions, thereby depriving tactical units of trained and qualified staff officers. However, the complexity of modern warfare placed a premium on staff skills at these lower echelons.
Initially, the Army planned the proposed staff officer course as an alternative program of instruction (POI) for those officers not chosen for the CGSC course. After exploring this proposal, the Army found that all Army officers required non-branch specific instruction in staff skills beyond the officers advanced course level. Therefore, this alternative POI proposal was dropped, and a working group was formed at Fort Leavenworth in 1979 to design a new POI and program of implementation for a Combined Arms and Services Staff School (CAS3). According to Lt. Col. Karl Farris, CAS3 was "to provide Active and Reserve component officers the instruction necessary to serve as staff officers with Army field units." (Military Review, Apr 84) The school's instruction had to meet three objectives: "to teach what staffs are by defining and tracing the development of staff roles; to teach what staffs do by presenting instruction on common and collective staff procedures and skills; and to teach how staffs operate." The goals of CAS3 were derived from these objectives and were prominently displayed in each classroom:
1. Improve the ability to analyze and solve military problems.
2. Improve the ability to interact and coordinate as a member of a staff.
3. Improve communication skills.
4. Improve one's understanding of Army organization, operations, and procedures.
The Army, following another RETO study group recommendation concerning the POI, set up a two-phase CAS3. The first, or non-resident, phase contained fifteen self-paced modules, which all officers completed at their home stations. After passing the open book examination, they were eligible for the resident, or second, phase. The first phase provided a common background in communicative arts; historical development of staffs, staff skills, roles, and relation ships; decision-making process; quantitative skills; personnel and administration operations; basic principles of logistics; training management; staff leadership; budget; reserve components and mobilization; tactics; threat forces; and organization of Army divisions.
Phase II, a nine-week resident course held at Fort Leavenworth, used small group seminars to improve upon the skills learned in Phase I. The student body was divided into twelve-person groups, each led by a lieutenant colonel battalion commander. The students
rotated through various staff positions within the fictitious 52d Infantry Division (Mechanized), a roundout unit based at Fort Riley, Kansas. The instruction focused on six broad, problem-solving exercises in staff techniques, training management, budget, mobilization, preparation for combat operations, and a command post exercise. By the end of the course, each student had worked extensively on solving over sixty complex individual and group problems.
The pilot program began in April 1981 with 117 officers from all Army branches as well as the National Guard and Army Reserve. CASs conducted two validation and verification courses the following year. Based on these courses, the Army made adjustments to the program and began regular classes.
The Extension Training Management Division at Fort Leavenworth sent Phase I packets to all Officer Personnel Management Directorate (OPMD)-managed officers after they completed the officers advanced course. The officer's period of eligibility for the resident phase began with successful completion of Phase I and lasted through the officer's ninth year of service.
All OPMD-managed officers, starting with year group 1977, had to attend CAS3. For those in earlier year groups, the Military Personnel Center (MILPERCEN) made the selection. However, CAS3 must expand its facilities before full implementation can begin. In the summer of 1983, the CGSC started an expansion of its facilities to handle the instructional load of CAS3. With completion scheduled for the fall of 1985, CAS 3 will begin educating 4,500 captains per year.
At the end of FY 84, the instructors, students, and Army educators were satisfied with the results of CAS3. The junior officers received broad training applicable to all of their duty positions and, upon graduation, had a common understanding of staff procedures, which would be valuable on the modern battlefield. Overall, CAS3 met, and in some cases exceeded, its instructional goals. The small-group, staff-leader method of instruction in conjunction with peer interaction and the exercise method of instruction contributed to this result.
The Army, in an attempt to increase the mid-level officer schooling program's cost effectiveness, required that all officers attending advanced schools and certain special programs add an extra one- to three-year service obligation to their careers upon graduation. The new regulations took effect during the summer and fall of 1984. Officers attending an advanced course that began on or after 1 October 1984 would incur a one-year obligation. Legal officers attending the judge Advocate General's Graduate Course were required to serve two additional years. Starting 1 July 1984, officers
selected as astronaut candidates had a three-year service obligation added to their careers after they left the space program.
The Army continued to expand modernization training initiatives during FY 84, particularly in four areas. The first area was the development of an automated and viable data base to support Army Modernization Training (AMT). The Assistant Secretary of the Army for Financial Management approved the Mission Elements Need Statement (MENS) and the Project Managers (PM) Charter during FY 84. This data base combined all modernization training information into one system so that AMT managers will be better able to implement AMT.
Second, HQDA established a New Equipment Training (NET) Manager's Workshop to provide NET managers with information on the AMT process. It also provided new equipment trainers with a method to bring problems to the attention of both the training community and Army leadership for resolution.
The Consolidated Training Support Work Group (CTSWG) process was the third area receiving attention. It was an ad hoc forum for the major players in the New Equipment and Doctrine and Tactics Training activities that review consolidated training plans to resolve problems therein. Formerly there were eight CTSWGs, one conducted by each materiel developer every six months. The Army reduced that number to two held every six months, known as CTSWG East, which met at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey; and CTSWG West, which met at St. Louis, Missouri, in the spring of 1984, and at Detroit, Michigan, in the fall of 1984. The fourth area of improvement provided initiatives for training reserve components. Active reserve component representatives developed several realistic and supportable training plans, which emphasized the reserve components' unique training requirements.
The Standards in Training Commission (STRAC) worked on determining the amount of training ammunition required by individuals, crews, and units of the Total Army to attain and sustain weapons proficiency. The commission considered aids, devices, simulators, simulations, and sub-caliber firing in developing qualification training strategies for thirty-eight systems. STRAC drafted DA Circular 350-XX, which documented the type of attainment and sustainment event; integration of training devices and simulators; standard training strategy; frequency of repetition; and training ammunition requirements to attain and keep the four established separate training readiness conditions. After being reviewed Army-wide, the draft was revised as DA Circular 350-84-2, Standards in Weapons Training, for FY 85 publication.
The Army Study Program
The Army Study Program denotes a collection of analytical activities sponsored and carried out by HQDA agencies and major commands to provide quality information to help senior Army leaders make sound decisions. During FY 84, a new initiative, the Issue Assessment Process (IAP), ensured that the Army's analysis community studied the most important problems. Started in the fall of 1983, UP quickly reached the stage where its products influenced the analytical program of the Arroyo Center, the Army's policy and analytic organization. The Chief of Staff also decided during the fiscal year to move the Arroyo Center from the jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology to the Rand Corporation.
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Last updated 8 March 2004
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A lot has changed in women's lifestyles in just a few generations. For example, compared with 30 years ago, women are now: getting married later1, having children later2, smoking less3, eating more poorly4, having more home births5, and have increasing rates of opioid abuse6.
With career transformations and shifting priorities, women’s health concerns have also changed. Each of these lifestyle decisions can impact the overall health of a woman, as well as the chances of a healthy pregnancy and giving birth to a healthy baby. For healthcare professionals, this means it is essential to have a keen understanding of the obstetric continuum of care – in other words, how the care a woman receives will affect both her and her baby long-term.
Given our focus on training in labor and delivery, we thought it worthwhile to share an overview of the state of women and pregnancy today. In this series of quick-read articles, we share how simulation can prepare your learners to:
- Consider age and prenatal care at the start of a labor and delivery scenario
- Consider women's health statistics as they prepare to mitigate risk during labor and delivery
- Become attuned to providing necessary postpartum care
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Table of contents
About this book
The International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability, held at the Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus 19-24 February 2007, dealt with environmental threats and proposed solutions at all scales. The 21 themes addressed by the conference fell into four broad categories; Threats to Survival and Sustainability; Technological Advances towards Survival and Sustainability; Activities and Tools for Social Change; Defining Goals for Sustainable Societies.
Activities and tools that move the society towards greater sustainability were emphasized at the conference. These included environmental law and ethics, environmental knowledge, technology and information systems, media, environmental awareness, education and lifelong learning, the use of literature for environmental awareness, the green factor in politics, international relations and environmental organizations. The breadth of the issues addressed at the conference made clear the need for greatly increased interdisciplinary and international collaboration the survival and sustainability concept. The exchanges at the conference represent a step in this direction.
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Hindi numbers and numbering system
This section provides an overview of the Hindi numerals and the numbering system.
Hindi numerals follow the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, a decimal positional notation numeral system with a set of ten digits and where the numerical value of the digit is determined by its position. The symbols for the ten digits are the digits of the Devanagari script in which Hindi is written.Contents
The ordinal numbers are used to show the position in a series (first, second, third, etc.) The following 5 ordinal numbers are written in the following way:
|1st (first)||पहला (pa·ha·lā)|
|2nd (second)||दूसरा (ḍū·srā)|
|3rd (third)||तीसरा (ṭī·srā)|
|4th (fourth)||चौथा (chau·ṭhā)|
|6th (sixth)||छठवाँ / छठा (chhath·wāñ / chha·thā)|
Other ordinal numbers are written by adding either the suffix वाँ /wāñ/ to the cardinal numbers, e.g., 5th is written as पाँचवाँ /pāñch·wāñ/. Similarly, 7th is written as सातवाँ /sāt·wāñ/, 11th as ग्यारहवाँ /gyā·rah·wāñ/ and 100th as सौवाँ /sau·wāñ/.
The cardinal numbers are used in simple counting and denote quantity (one, two, three, etc.) The numbers listed on the table above are the cardinal numbers in Hindi.
The numbers after one hundred, e.g., the hundreds, the thousands, are named in a regular way, e.g., "ek sau char" /104/, "do hajaar teen sau" /2300/. Every new term greater than thousand is one hundred times larger than the previous term. Thus, lakh means a hundred thousand, karod means a hundred lakh, and so on.
The negative numbers are written by adding a minus sign in front and are named as their corresponding positive number with "minus" added in front, e.g., "minus ek."
: A dot "." is used as decimal mark to separate the integer part from the fractional part of a number written in decimal form.
: For ease of reading, numbers with many digits are divided into groups using commas as the separator. The separators are only employed to the left of the decimal mark. The rightmost three digits are grouped together, but then two digits are grouped together thereafter, e.g., 1,23,45,67,890.
Hindi alphabet and Nepali alphabet
NLRC also aims to promote the regional languages of Nepal. Besides the Nepali language, the most common language of Nepal, various regional languages are spoken across the country. In the Terai region, the southern plains of Nepal that border India, Hindi also serves as a common language between the communities speaking different regional languages.
As both the Hindi alphabet and the Nepali alphabet are written using the Devanagari script, they share many common features in the manner in which they are written, and the characters used to write them are mostly the same, including the dependent vowel signs, digits and other characters. See Nepali alphabet and writing system
for more details on the characters used in the Nepali writing system.
There are a few differences in the two writing systems, especially on the use of Chandrabindu and Shirbindu and other vowel signs, but the main difference between them is that the Nepali alphabet does not use Nukta, hence the two additional consonants present in the standard Hindi alphabet, ड़ and ढ़, as well as other forms of letters that include the Nukta mark in the traditional Hindi alphabet and the standard Hindi alphabet, are not present in the Nepali alphabet.
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Anterior Cricoid Split
Photo Source: Drs. Potsic, Cotton and Handler's textbook, Surgical Pediatric Otolaryngology, Thieme Publishing Company, New York/Stuttgart, 1997
Cricoid Split is a surgical procedure to repair subglottic stenosis by transecting (divide by cutting across) the cricoid cartilage in order to enlarge the subglottic airway. The cricoid cartilage is the only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea.
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We’ve talked here in the past about the idea of probiotics for buildings (which is many years in the future, if ever) and pretty much everyone has heard about probiotics for human health (currently an issue of much debate).
One of the problems with both buildings and people is the difficulty of testing a hypothesis such as “does adding this particular bacteria affect some measurable outcome?”
An interesting study from NOAA, released this January, focuses on oyster aquaculture where the use of probiotics is both tractable to study, and has potentially important commercial applications.
While research is still in the early stages, the researchers found that adding a particular bacteria (isolated from adult oysters) to embryos significantly increase their survival rates, presumably through displacement of disease-causing bacteria. Most importantly, this kind of treatment could reduce the need for antibiotics, the use of which is a major issue with most shellfish agriculture.
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Saņem informāciju par jaunajiem Atlants.lv darbiem!
Akcija: ZiņotājsPRO uz 6 mēnešiem - bezmaksas!Abonēt bez maksas
Where the colonist justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain?
Yes, the colonists were justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain.
Thomas Whately, advisor to George Grenville, the British chancellor of the Exchequer, was correct by saying in Document 1, "We are not yet recovered from a war solely fought for their protection." Whately was referring to the French and Indian War (1754-1763). This war indeed cost Britain much, and I do believe the colonists were greatful. However, Britain, after 1763, did not allow the colonists to move west. The colonies were increasing by becoming crowded. New taxes angered them as well. Not being repr…
- The Odyssey: Is Odysseus justified in taking his revenge?
- Where the colonist justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain?
- Who built castles and why? Where were most castles built? Why was the M&B castle construction so popular and effective in the eleventh century warfare? **Note: E-mail for complete BIB.
E-pasta adrese, uz kuru nosūtīt darba saiti:
Saite uz darbu:
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A boundary ditch which intersected an area of Edinburgh for 200 years is one of the rediscoveries in a dig revealing medieval living
Pots from ancient Europe, bronze pins, coins from across history, clay pipes and animal bones are expected to portray 800 years of life after being discovered during an archaeological dig as part of a £65.7 million development within the Scottish capital’s World Heritage Site.
© Courtesy Balfour Beatty
Archaeologists hope to use soil samples from Canongate to deduce the plants and fruits eaten by medieval people. They say animal hide tanning was the main industrial process taking place at the backlands – gardens and industrial settings behind homes – off Holyrood Road hundreds of years ago.
“We knew the site could help us understand how the Canongate developed from its origins in the 12th century to become the site of an important Victorian brewery,” said John Lawson, the City of Edinburgh Council’s Archaeology Officer, surveying the results of a dig which will ultimately create student accommodation.
“It was important to discover what this area had to tell us about the history of our city before allowing a new development to emerge on the site.
“But we were surprised to find over four metres of preserved architectural remains and rare survivals of materials.
“The site has revealed the first evidence of an industrial-scale tanning industry in Edinburgh and also provides vital information on the topography of Edinburgh.
“The survey has also helped to pinpoint the location of the boundary ditch that existed between Edinburgh and the Canongate for over 200 years.”
A historical investigation was stipulated as part of the planning agreement for the new buildings.
What do you think? Leave a comment below.
More from Culture24's Archaeology section:
In Pictures: The archaeology and science which identified King Richard III in Leicester
British Museum reveals secrets of the mummies in Ancient Lives, new Discoveries show
Earliest houses, Bronze Age cremations and tools found by archaeologists in Scotland
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Do you experience excruciating pain after walking or running for even a short distance? Or feel out of breath and tired quickly? Well, we all tend to blame it on age, but I like to think that you are never old if you are young at body and mind. To get a healthy and fit body, you must have enough energy to build a strong stamina. But the problem is you can’t buy strength, you have to earn it by making lifestyle changes. And one of the changes is eating nutritious and resistance-boosting foods. In this article, I will discuss 25 stamina building foods that will help you kill it at your next workout session or walk and run without feeling breathless. But first, let’s see which macronutrients and micronutrients are the primary sources of energy. Let’s begin!
1. Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbs consist of dietary fiber and starch. Complex carbs differ from simple carbs because simple carbs such as white sugar, brown sugar, honey, maple syrup, etc. are readily absorbed in the blood leading to a rise in blood glucose. Complex carbs, on the other hand, are digested slowly and rich in dietary fiber. They provide a lot of energy that is used as a fuel for our muscles and brain. Soluble fibers as fruits, nuts, legumes, seeds, rice bran, oats, brown rice and barley control blood sugar levels and lower cholesterol. Insoluble fibers like whole grain bread, pasta, rice, cereals, wheat bran, corn bran, vegetables, and nuts help to build up stamina. These foods break down into glucose and provide a lot of energy.
Proteins from food are broken down into amino acids by our digestive system. These amino acids are used for muscle building and repair, making hormones, red blood cells, and other tissues in the body. Proteins play an important role in the growth and development of a healthy immune system. Proteins have a higher metabolic rate than fats and help us to burn more calories. Sources of proteins are fish, poultry, eggs, milk, cheese, legumes, and nuts.
3. Healthy Fats
Not all fats are bad. You should include a required amount of healthy fat into your daily diet. Fats are required to increase the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamins A, D, E and K. It is important to use healthy fat options which provide omega-3 fatty acids like fish, almonds, walnuts and vegetable oils. These fats are responsible for the growth and development of the body.
4. Iron And Calcium
Calcium is an important mineral that helps build strong bones in our body. Iron is required by the red blood cells for transporting oxygen throughout the body. Deficiency of iron in the diet makes you anemic and leads to a loss of stamina. Some iron rich foods are broccoli, spinach, meat, beans, and nuts. Calcium can be obtained by consuming milk, cheese, yogurt, green leafy vegetables, and sardines.
5. Vitamin C
It is necessary to consume fruits that are rich in vitamin C. Vitamin C helps to strengthen our immune system and regulates the chemical reactions in our body. Sources of vitamin C are orange, kiwi, lemon, lime, cranberry, apple, guava, grapefruit, grapes, spinach, kale, bell peppers, tomato, broccoli, cauliflower, brussel sprouts, gooseberry, chives, basil, and thyme.
These are the 5 macronutrients and micronutrients that you should keep in mind when you buy your grocery. Include more of the 25 stamina enhancing foods mentioned below.
Stamina Foods List – Top 25
Almonds are considered to be the world’s healthiest foods. They are rich in vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids. These fatty acids are an excellent source of energy and do not accumulate in the body. They build strong bones, nourish the brains, improve heart health and keep you energetic all through the day.
Red apples are rich in antioxidants, are high in soluble fiber, iron, vitamins, and minerals. Apple boosts the immune system, detoxifies the liver, controls weight and maintains a healthy heart. The soluble fiber keeps you full and energetic for a longer duration. Iron ups the hemoglobin in blood, increases the oxygen to muscles and builds up stamina.
Bananas are a rich source of carbohydrates, fiber, potassium, and fructose. Bananas provide instant energy and also increases stamina. Bananas trigger the release of dopamine that supports concentration and focus. It is as beneficial as a sports energy drink!
Corn is rich in vitamins, minerals, nutrients and antioxidants. Corn provides healthy calories for metabolism and significantly prevents various ailments. Corn is an excellent source of carbohydrates. Corn lowers cholesterol, improves heart function and builds up stamina. It provides readily available glycogen to the body that instantly generates energy.
Chicken is an excellent source of lean protein. It supports a healthy body weight, promotes the growth and development of muscles and aids weight loss. Chicken improves stamina by keeping you satisfied and energetic all day. Eating chicken improves bone health, builds muscles, improves immunity and relieves stress.
6. Citrus Fruits
Citrus fruits are super rich in vitamin C that enhances the absorption of iron in food. Citrus fruits are great energy boosters; they cleanse the body and increase immunity. Drinking a glass of citrus juice increases the absorption by about 10 percent.
7. Beetroot Juice
Beetroots are rich in potassium, dietary fiber, and vitamins A and C. These nutrients help to build up stamina and reduce exhaustion. Beetroot juice is known to eliminate fatigue. Drinking a glass of beetroot juice before workouts can boost the energy levels.
Beans are rich in iron, fiber, carbohydrates, proteins and other minerals. They provide complete nutrition and enhance stamina by increasing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
9. Brown Rice
Brown rice is loaded with dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates. It is also a good source of Vitamin B complex. Brown rice is less starchy and hence takes longer to digest. This keeps the stomach full for long, energizes the body and helps to maintain the stamina levels.
Coffee is an instant energy booster. It stimulates and energizes your brain making it alert and active. Excess caffeine or coffee is harmful. However, it can be used in limited quantities to cure migraines and get the required levels of stamina.
11. Dried Fruits
Dried fruits are an excellent alternative to refined sugars. They are packed with various essential nutrients, vitamins and essential fatty acids for maintaining a healthy and energetic body. They are rich in omega-3 fatty acids and are responsible for providing a lot of energy and help build up stamina.
Eggs are one of the most nutritious foods and a great source of proteins. They are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Although eggs are high in cholesterol, they don’t affect the levels of blood cholesterol. They are a wholesome food that increase stamina and keep your energy levels high all day.
Fish is incredibly nutritious. They are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and omega-3 fatty acids. Eating fish is beneficial for heart health, development of the brain and nervous system. Fish provide lean proteins and all other nutrients required for optimum stamina levels.
14. Green Tea
Green tea is rich in antioxidants. It helps detoxify the system and makes you feel more energetic. It is a brain stimulant like caffeine, but is a healthier choice. Green tea lowers cholesterol levels, aids in weight loss and builds up stamina.
15. Green Leafy Vegetables
Green leafy vegetables are rich in fiber, vitamins and are packed with micronutrients. Vitamin C provides a boost to the stamina levels, and fiber takes longer to digest and helps to maintain blood sugar levels.
16. Lean Meat
Lean meat is an excellent source of proteins and is low in fat and calories. It is rich in vitamins and minerals. Lean meat provides the required proteins for an energetic and highly active lifestyle. It builds muscles, strengthens the body and increases stamina.
Maca is a super food that has medicinal properties. It improves male fertility and libido. Maca root is mainly available in a powdered form. This is one of the best foods that increase sexual stamina and is medically prescribed to improve one’s love life.
Pumpkins are nutrition-packed, are rich in vitamin A, fiber and are low in calories. Pumpkin seeds are highly nutritious and contain proteins, and a wide variety of minerals like magnesium, manganese, zinc and copper. Pumpkin has a positive impact on hormones. It increases stamina and makes you fitter and more energetic.
Pomegranates are rich in antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. They promote healthy bones, cardiovascular health and boost immunity and stamina. Pomegranate has a high content of polyphenols and helps to eliminate muscle inflammation and soreness.
Oatmeal contains complex carbohydrates. These break down at a slower rate and take more time to digest. This helps in keeping your stomach full for a longer duration. Oatmeal is power-packed and provides you with sustained energy for many hours. It keeps the blood sugar levels optimal and increases stamina as well.
21. Peanut Butter
Peanut butter is an excellent food to increase stamina. It is rich in omega-3 fatty acids that are required for a healthy heart and brain. Since peanut butter has high-calorie content, it takes a longer time to digest. Consuming peanut butter with complex carbohydrates keeps you full for a long time.
Quinoa is a super-grain that rich in amino acids, vitamins, fiber, and minerals. It is protein-rich and has twice as much fiber as other grains. It provides instant energy and keeps the energy levels high all through the day. Quinoa is considered a power packed food for athletes and also ups their stamina levels.
23. Red Grapes
Red grapes are abundant in natural sugars that provide instant energy and build stamina. These also contain resveratrol, which is a great energy booster.
Soybeans are the richest source of plant proteins and are on of the best foods to increase stamina. They are high in insoluble fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Soybeans help increase muscular strength and provide stamina to sustain a longer duration of physical activity.
25. Sundried Tomatoes
Sundried tomatoes are a good source of iron, fiber, and antioxidants. They also contain calcium and promote a healthy heart and strong bones. Sundried tomatoes provide 1/3 of the RDA of iron and help the muscles to get more oxygen.
[ Read: Essential Foods To Build Your Stamina ]
Stamina Building Superfoods For Athletes:
Athletes require tons of energy to sustain for longer durations. Some of the foods can indeed be tagged as superfoods as they help elevate the levels of stamina, endurance, and energy. Some nutritious foods like bananas, oatmeal, and sweet potatoes are excellent sources of energy for runners. Some of the stamina increasing foods are:
Bananas provide smart carbohydrates to boost energy levels required for a long distance run. They are a staple food for most of the athletes.
This green leafy vegetable is packed with fiber, vitamin K for improving bone strength and nutrients to lower blood cholesterol.
Organic oatmeal provides plenty of fiber and complex carbohydrates. Oatmeal, with fresh fruits and flax seeds, makes a highly nutritious breakfast.
Walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids. They boost stamina levels and also add a delicious crunch to any diet.
5. Sweet Potato:
Sweet potatoes are packed with complex carbohydrates. They are great after a strenuous workout and make an excellent replenishing meal.
6. Wild Salmon:
Salmon is the greatest source of omega-3 fatty acids. Salmon is loaded with nutrients and enhances the metabolic processes in the body.
7. Chia Seeds:
Chia seeds are a great addition to any meal or snack. These are packed with all the 20 amino acids and are also rich in omega-3 fatty acids.
For increasing stamina through foods, it is necessary to eat a balanced diet. Drink plenty of water all through the day and stay hydrated. Do regular exercises and perform physical activities like cycling, jogging, etc. that you love to do. Give yourself enough rest and lead an active and healthy lifestyle!
Do you know any other stamina foods that are missing in this list? Share with us in the comments section!
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The court official with decision-making power over federal bankruptcy cases is the United States bankruptcy judge, a judicial officer of the United States district court. The bankruptcy judge may decide any matter connected with a bankruptcy case, such as eligibility to file or whether a debtor should receive a discharge of debts. Much of the bankruptcy process is administrative, however, and is conducted away from the courthouse. In cases under chapters 7, 12, or 13, and sometimes in chapter 11 cases, this administrative process is carried out by a trustee who is appointed to oversee the case.
A debtor's involvement with the bankruptcy judge is usually very limited. A typical chapter 7 debtor will not appear in court and will not see the bankruptcy judge unless an objection is raised in the case. A chapter 13 debtor may only have to appear before the bankruptcy judge at a plan confirmation hearing. Usually, the only formal proceeding at which a debtor must appear is the meeting of creditors, which is usually held at the offices of the U.S. trustee. This meeting is informally called a "341 meeting" because section 341 of the Bankruptcy Code requires that the debtor attend this meeting so that creditors can question the debtor about debts and property.
A fundamental goal of the federal bankruptcy laws enacted by Congress is to give debtors a financial "fresh start" from burdensome debts. The Supreme Court made this point about the purpose of the bankruptcy law in a 1934 decision:
[I]t gives to the honest but unfortunate debtor…a new opportunity in life and a clear field for future effort, unhampered by the pressure and discouragement of preexisting debt.
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Everyone, everywhere has the right to live with dignity. That means that no-one should be denied their rights to adequate housing, food, water and sanitation, and to education and health care.
Around the world, people’s economic, social and cultural rights are violated on a daily basis, especially people living in poverty. Through the Demand Dignity campaign, Amnesty International is increasingly documenting how human rights violations drive and deepen poverty. People living in poverty have the least access to power to shape the policies of poverty and are frequently denied effective remedies for violations of their rights.
Amnesty International is working to hold governments, big business and other powerful actors to account for human rights violations which target people living in poverty, driving that poverty deeper still.
Amnesty’s Demand Dignity campaign stands with these people to claim their rights and to demand remedies for violations.
End Forced Evictions page: http://www.amnesty.org/en/endforcedevictions
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Oral Health and Tooth Alignment
Dr. Stephen Harrel is a professor at Baylor College of Dentistry and is a diplomate of the American Board of Periodontology. As a periodontist, he has views related to gum and bone health and how they relate to the position of teeth. Areas of interest include adequate oral hygiene, occlusal (bite) trauma, gum recession, abfractions (tooth notches), and temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD).
It seems obvious, but teeth that are in better alignment are easier to keep clean. This goes for both your daily home care and the ability of the dental professional to clean your teeth. This can carry over to decay problems in between crooked teeth that are harder to clean. Bite trauma is related to teeth hitting at odd angles and creating abnormal wear and tooth mobility. This can lead to a breakdown in the gum and bone support for the tooth as well as potential trauma to the jaw joint and muscles (TMD). Gum recession can be a result of both poor tooth position and bite trauma. The notches in teeth at the gum line (abfractions) are usually multifactorial with misaligned teeth being one of those factors.
Invisalign continues to grow in popularity for adult tooth movement. ask us how Invisalign might benefit you.
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One of Carl Sagan's most pertinent messages for humanity
- uploaded: Jan 23, 2012
- Hits: 266
"Those worlds in space are as countless as all the grains of sand on all the beaches of the Earth. Each of those worlds is as real as ours. In every one of them, there's a sucsession of incidence, events, occurences which influence its future. Countless worlds, numberless moments, an immensity of space and time. And our small planet, at this moment, here we face a critical branch-point in the history. What we do with our world, right now, will propagate down through the centuries and powerfully affect the destiny of our descendants. It is well within our power to destroy our civilization, and perhaps our species as well. If we capitulate to superstition, or greed, or stupidty we can plunge our world into a darkness deeper than time between the collapse of classical civilization and the Italian Renaissaince. But, we are also capable of using our compassion and our intelligence, our technology and our wealth, to make an abundant and meaningful life for every inhabitant of this planet. To enhance enormously our understanding of the Universe, and to carry us to the stars." Carl Sagan explains the immensity of space and time. This clip is from Carl Sagan's Cosmos episode 8, "Journeys in Space and Time."
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why do cats hide their pain?
Cats are very clever animals, they know how to use their body language to communicate with humans. When they feel pain, they try to avoid human contact, which makes them look sad. They also try to hide their pain from other cats, since they don’t want to be rejected.
why do cats hiss at babies?
Cats hiss at babies because they want to protect them from danger. They also hiss when they feel threatened or annoyed. If you don’t like cats, then you should avoid getting into cat fights.
why do cats howl in the middle of the night?
Cats howl at night for two reasons: 1) they are lonely, 2) they want to be fed. If you don’t feed them, they’ll just go back to sleep.
why do cats hyperventilate?
Cats hyperventilate when they are stressed out. They also hyperventilate when their body temperature drops below normal levels. Hyperventilation causes them to breathe faster and deeper, which increases blood flow to the brain and helps maintain normal body temperature.
why do cats keep coming to me?
Cats love attention, and they like to be petted. They also like to play games with humans, such as chasing toys, jumping up on us, and climbing into our laps. If you want to attract more cats to come to you, then try to provide them with plenty of opportunities for fun and entertainment.
why do cats kill their young?
Cats kill their kittens for several reasons, such as territoriality, food competition, and boredom. Sometimes they also eat them.
why do cats knead bedding?
Cats knead bedding for two reasons: 1. They like to feel the texture of the bedding against their paws. 2. The cat?s claws help them grip the bedding while they groom themselves.
why do cats knead stomach?
Cats knead stomach for two reasons: 1) they like to rub against things, 2) they want to be close to food. They also love to play with toys, and they use them to mark their territory.
why do cats knead your chest?
Cats knead your chest because they want to be close to you. They also like to play and scratch. If you don’t let them, they may start to bite.
why do cats knock things off counters
Cats knock things off counters for two reasons: 1) they want food, and 2) they like to play with objects. If you don’t feed them, they’ll just leave the counter alone. However, if you give them something to play with, they’ll be less likely to knock things off the counter.
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Live search on page
- good news from a friend, or sometimes an advantageous business deal.
Explanation & Definition:
An artificial eye made from glass.
An ocular prosthesis or artificial eye (a type of Craniofacial prosthesis) replaces an absent natural eye following an enucleation, evisceration, or orbital exenteration. The prosthetic fits over an orbital implant and under the eyelids. Often referred to as a glass eye, the ocular prosthesis roughly takes the shape of a convex shell and is made of medical grade plastic acrylic. A few ocular prosthetics today are made of cryolite glass. A variant of the ocular prosthesis is a very thin hard shell known as a scleral shell which can be worn over a damaged eye. Makers of ocular prosthetics are known as ocularists. An ocular prosthetic does not provide vision; this would be a visual prosthetic. Someone with an ocular prosthetic is totally blind on the affected side and has monocular (one sided) vision which affects depth perception.
Synonyms of glass eye
– ; related terms: prosthesis, prosthetic device.
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I found this article pretty interesting. A recent genetic research article on the origins of the dog has found that the likely place of origin for the dog, rather than the Middle East as has been held to be the case for some time, is East Asia:
Genetic researchers have released results of a study that indicates that modern domestic dogs originated in eastern Asia.
The modern domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a closely related subspecies of the wild gray wolf, Canis lupus. Biologists have long known that the first dogs originated through domestication of wolves around 15,000 years ago. While the descent of dogs from wolves through domestication is non-controversial in genetics, determining the region in the world where this occurred has been more of a question. Earlier studies had suggested a Middle Eastern origin for dogs.
A new study focusing on the lineage of the Y-chromosome indicates that dogs originated somewhere in eastern Asia, south of the Yangtze River. The Y-chromosome is carried by males and its study complements earlier findings which focused on mitochondrial DNA, which is passed through the female line. Both lines point to the same Asian origin, strong independent evidence that the genetic studies are valid. The researchers claim that the earlier studies indicating a Middle Eastern origin left out important samples of genetic material from the eastern Asian region and were thus incomplete.
The conclusions are based on an analysis of the genetic diversity in populations of dogs in various regions of the world. The widest range of genetic diversity is found in the eastern Asian region, while dogs in other regions contain only portions of the total complement of eastern Asian genetic material. This indicates that these wider populations are descended from smaller groups that spread out from the Asian region in the past.
The study is here.
I think this makes a certain amount of sense. If you go back a thousand years or so ago, before world commerce exploded, there was more morphological diversity in dogs in East Asia than anywhere else. Whereas in the west there were a relatively small number of types and characteristics, e.g. mastiffs, coursing dogs, etc., in Asia there were all of those characteristics and more, some of which have barely filtered to the rest of the world even today. Rather than the East Asians getting mastiffs from the Romans (a claim I’ve read over the years) I think it’s much more likely that Alexander’s troops brought them back from Asia.
Wherever there’s the most genetic diversity is a pretty good place to look for the place of origin.
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Beneath the Pyramids
By Andrew Collins
In March 2008 we went on to the Giza plateau and located the entrance to a previously unrecorded cave underworld, entered via an overlooked tomb some distance due west of the Great Pyramid. This find was achieved after piecing together clues left in the 200-year-old memoirs of a nineteenth century British diplomat and explorer named Henry Salt. He recorded how in 1817 he and Italian explorer Giovanni Caviglia entered and explored “catacombs” at Giza for a distance of “several hundred yards” before coming upon spacious chambers and “labyrinthick” passages that penetrated the darkness still further.
Underlying geology hints that this cave system might extend beneath the second Pyramid and link with a whole network of cave tunnels, compartments, and chambers existing all the way down to the Sphinx on the eastern edge of the plateau.
The existence of the cave tunnels argue that ancient Egyptian mythology is based on truth. Ancient funerary and creation texts speak of the existence in the vicinity of Giza, ancient Rostau, of just such a cave underworld--one through which the soul of the pharaoh had to pass in order to achieve rebirth among the stars. Thus the pyramids were very likely built where they were because of the known presence beneath the plateau of this cave underworld. The pyramid’s cave-like passages enabled symbolic access to this underground realm, where the soul of the pharaoh, in its role as Osiris, was expected to achieve transformation within a mystical chamber known as the Shetayet, quite literally the “Tomb or God,” called also the Duat n Ba, or “Underworld of the Soul.” This deep structure was thought to exist somewhere in the vicinity of Giza, in what was known as the Duat of Memphis or Duat of Rostau.
Beyond this is the politics and intrigue surrounding the cave discoveries. How were amateurs like us able to make such finds? Why have the caves existence been denied by Egypt’s head Egyptologist? Why has their di scovery stirred up so much interest worldwide? The clue is that they help fulfill age-old, and more recent, prophecies surrounding the imminent discovery of just such a cave complex at Giza--one that might well provide undeniable evidence of early human activity on the plateau that goes back beyond even the age of the pharaohs.
The book is published by 4th Dimension Press, an imprint of The ARE Press, Virginia Beach, VA and is available at ARECatalog.com .
© Andrew Collins, 2009
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Box 2.22: Coordinating responses to natural disasters
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) builds on the achievements of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction and facilitates disaster reduction efforts worldwide. ISDR combines the strengths of key actors through two groups: the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction, which is the principal body for the development of disaster reduction policy and consists of 25 UN, international, regional and civil society organizations; and the Inter- Agency Secretariat of the ISDR, which serves as the UN system’s focal point for promoting coordination of disaster reduction activities in the socio-economic, humanitarian and development fields, as well as for supporting policy integration.
The January 2005 World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Japan, set out an action plan for 2005 to 2015 and adopted a common statement on the Indian Ocean disaster. The Declaration adopted in Kobe expressed the international community’s determination to reduce disaster losses and reaffirmed the vital role of the UN system in disaster risk reduction.
Coordinating responses to the Tsunami disasters
In the aftermath of the devastation caused by the recent tsunami, the General Assembly in resolution 59/279 “welcomed the effective cooperation between the affected States, relevant bodies in the United Nations system, donor countries, regional and international financial institutions and civil society in the coordination and delivery of emergency relief.” The Assembly also stressed the need to continue such cooperation and delivery throughout the ongoing relief operations and rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts, in a manner that reduces vulnerability to future natural hazards.” In response to the tsunami, UN, UNDP, WFP, UNICEF, UNFPA, UNEP, World Bank, UNHCR, WHO, FAO, UNESCO, UN-Habitat and ITU mobilized rapidly to mount a coordinated response, providing immediate humanitarian relief—food aid, water purification and emergency health kits, sanitation, temporary shelters, supplies for emergency obstetric care and safe blood transfusions, and vaccinations—and coordinating efforts for long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction of the affected areas.
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severe depression and bipolar disorder are readily recognized, it can be difficult
to distinguish the milder (and more common) forms of depression from the emotional
changes that are part of everyday life. Unlike most medical disorders, depression
and bipolar disorder are not associated with any characteristic laboratory changes
or microscopic tissue abnormalities that can be used to confirm a suspected diagnosis.
American Psychiatric Association has established diagnostic classification systems
to allow consistent diagnoses of major depression, bipolar disorder, and the various
forms of anxiety. These criteria are contained in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Some people who do not meet
the DSM criteria for depression may suffer from a debilitating disorder known
as atypical depression.
to the DSM, a person is suffering from a major depressive episode if he or she
exhibits either the first or second of the following nine symptoms, along with
four others, continually for more than two weeks:
o depressed mood with overwhelming
feelings of sadness and grief;
o loss of interest and pleasure in activities
o insomnia, early-morning waking, or oversleeping nearly
o decreased energy; fatigue;
o noticeable changes in appetite
and weight (significant loss or gain);
o inability to concentrate or think;
o physical symptoms of restlessness or being slowed down;
feelings of guilt, worthlessness, and helplessness; and
o recurrent thoughts
of death and suicide; suicide attempts.
The diagnosis is more certain when
these criteria are supplemented by either a family history of the disorder, a
prior episode of depression or bipolar disorder, or the presence of a precipitating
factor such as a recent stroke or the use of medications known to cause mood disorders.
symptoms of depression include disorganized thinking and delusions. In addition
to these disturbances in mood and cognition (thinking), patients with major depression
may experience changes such as constipation or decreased sexual drive.
of major depression range from mild to severe. In mild episodes, symptoms barely
meet the requirements for a diagnosis and the associated functional impairment
is minor. Severe episodes are characterized by several debilitating symptoms,
including worsening mood and marked interference with social and job related functions.
Severely afflicted individuals have difficulty with almost every activity-going
to work, socializing, and even getting up in the morning. They may be unable to
feed and dress themselves or to maintain personal hygiene.
Patients with major depression are generally
perceived as being sad or having a depressed mood, but sometimes they do not exhibit
either the sadness or some of the other symptoms normally associated with the
disorder. Although such cases are quite common, comprising 29% to 42% of depressed
outpatients, this kind of depression is known as atypical depression. The disorder
is just as debilitating as major depression despite the apparent lack of sadness.
In fact, during a 13-year follow-up of 1,612 participants in one study, patients
over age 50 who had atypical depression were significantly more likely to die
than persons with major depression or no depression.
Older individuals are
less likely than younger individuals to report sadness as a primary symptom of
Suicide-the 11th leading cause of death
in the United States-is a major complication of depression. About 1 in 16 people
diagnosed with depression die by suicide, and two thirds of people who die by
suicide are depressed.
In the United States, the risk of suicide is highest
in older white males and in those who live alone, have made prior suicide attempts,
refuse psychiatric evaluation, or abuse alcohol or other drugs. Although women
attempt suicide three to four times more often than men, men are three to four
times more likely to die by suicide. In addition, a 2002 Swedish study found that
older people with a serious physical illness were six times more likely to die
by suicide than those without a serious illness.
Up to three quarters of people
who die by suicide have visited their medical doctor in the prior month. This
suggests that these people were aware that something was wrong but that neither
they nor their doctor identified depression as the problem. Although it is impossible
to predict accurately who will attempt suicide, there are warning signs that a
severely depressed person may make an attempt. All too often, friends and family
of people who die by suicide are unaware of the seriousness of the signs until
it is too late.
The most important steps to prevent suicide are to recognize
the risk factors and warning signs and to facilitate appropriate treatment of
the underlying psychiatric illness. Typical warning signs are listed below. However,
not all people who die by suicide have these risk factors, and most people who
do have them are not suicidal. Signs include the following:
o social isolation
that may be self-imposed;
o drastic mood swings or overall personality changes;
neglecting home, finances, or pets;
o exaggerated complaints of aches or pains;
recent psychological trauma, such as a divorce, death of a loved one, or job loss
(which may trigger suicidal thinking in an already depressed person);
away cherished belongings to loved ones or putting one's affairs in order;
sudden calm or cheerfulness after a period of depression;
o frequent use of
alcohol or other drugs;
o buying a gun;
o verbal threats of suicide or statements
that suggest a desire to die; and
o family history of suicide or previous suicide
Depression in Older Adults
Although increasing age
alone does not put a person at greater risk for depression, the incidence of depression
is higher in older adults. A survey of Californians age 50 to 95 found that factors
such as chronic illness, physical disabilities, and social isolation-which often
coincide with increasing age-were more predictive of depression than age itself.
As a result, depression in older adults is a serious problem. The National Institute
of Mental Health's Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study estimated that at least
I million of the nation's 31 million people age 65 and older suffer from major
depression, and an additional 5 million have depressive symptoms that are severe
enough to require treatment. Unfortunately, the disease is often misdiagnosed
and left untreated in the elderly.
Many older persons who live alone have inadequate
support mechanisms and are confused by the multitude of systems available to provide
medical care, social services, and financial assistance for their medical needs.
Older adults also tend to be embarrassed and reluctant to seek professional help
for emotional problems, partly because the stigma of psychiatric illness is especially
strong among people in this age group. In addition, friends and family often fail
to perceive signs of distress. Older depressed patients are more likely to tell
their primary care physician about physical complaints than about subjective feelings
of depressed mood. For example, they may report loss of appetite, insomnia, lack
of energy, or loss of interest and enjoyment in daily activities. Unfortunately,
both doctor and patient often consider these symptoms a "normal part of aging"
that accompanies the physical, social, and economic problems faced by many older
Depression is sometimes left undiagnosed because of life circumstances
that are common in later years. The elderly are typically subjected to numerous
stressful life situations: loss of a spouse, family members, or friends by death
or geographic relocation; retirement, which may be accompanied by a loss of status
and self-identity; diminished financial resources; fears of death or loss of independence
and self-sufficiency; social isolation; and medical problems. Any of these factors
may trigger symptoms of depression that are attributed to life stresses and not
recognized as a true depressive illness.
In addition, the higher prevalence
of concurrent medical conditions and a greater use of medications in older people
further complicate the diagnosis. Although the depression may be a primary disorder,
it may also result from some underlying organic cause such as cancer, stroke,
or a reaction to a prescription drug. The possibility of dementia adds further
difficulties: Symptoms of major depression can mimic symptoms (for example, disorientation,
distractibility, or memory loss) of a dementia-causing disease such as Alzheimer's
disease. Thus, doctors need to perform a careful mental status evaluation as well
as a medical history and physical exam to find the primary cause of the psychological
Natural History And Prognosis Of Mood Disorders
disorders most often surface between ages 20 and 30, but they can occur at any
age. There is often a delay in accurate diagnosis because symptoms are not recognized
as being related to an illness but, rather, thought to be a reaction to life circumstances.
duration of an untreated episode of major depression is usually eight to nine
months. This period can be shortened considerably with proper diagnosis and treatment.
Most people with depression have their first episode before age 40, and most will
have more than one episode in their lifetime. Relapse rates are lower in people
who continue to take active treatments.
Alcoholism can make recovery from depression
and bipolar disorder more difficult. A recent study compared 176 men and women
who fit the criteria for both alcoholism and major depression with 412 people
who had major depression alone. Subjects who had never been alcoholics or who
no longer drank were two times more likely to recover from an episode of major
depression than the active alcoholics. Unfortunately, many depressed people slow
their recovery by attempting to self-medicate with alcohol.
and Diagnosis of Mood Disorders", Depression & Anxiety (Medletter), Jan2005,
The article above contains foundational information. Articles below contain optional updates.
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When a roof has been exposed to a hailstorm severe enough to cause granules to be dislodged from the surface of the shingles (in spots large enough which expose the asphalt), the roof has been compromised.
The colored granules which are placed on the surface of the shingle serve two purposes:
- They provide an aesthetically pleasing product, and
- They protect the underlying asphalt from exposure to the sun.
Prolonged exposure to sun causes asphalt to deteriorate. This is the reason that a hail damaged roof will tend to fail prematurely.
Heavy hail damage is obvious because of the indentations in the shingle. When the surface damage of the shingle is not visible, look for indentations on vents, ridge vents, siding, or any other softer metal objects that may show impact.
The effects on the shingle may not be apparent for about a year. At this time, circular areas of granules will fall off the shingle. This is often called spalling. What has occurred is that the impact of the hailstone has broken or weakened the bond between the granules and the asphalt.
After a year or so of weathering, the granules fall off the shingle in the circular area of impact. With granules missing, the sunlight (UV) quickly attacks the asphalt and the maximum performance of the shingle has been compromised. The standard Limited Warranty on Roofing Shingles is void when shingles are damaged due to the evidence of hailstorms under all conditions stated above.
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Come February and suddenly there is love, romance and excitement in the air. Young, not so young and old – there is sparkle in everyone’s eyes and smile on the face. Did you ever think of giving the credit to Saint Valentine? Perhaps you would like to know more about Saint Valentine and Valentine’s Day.
So here is all about Valentine’s Day including the facts, origin and its present day form of celebration.
All about Valentines Day
Valentine’s Day is celebrated every year on February 14 by millions of people – teenagers, young adults, not so young, old and very old of both the sexes throughout the world.
Perhaps the history of Valentine’s Day and why it is celebrated will ever remain shrouded in mystery. What we do know is that it is linked to both Christian and ancient Roman rites.
The Legend of St. Valentine
There are two stories related to the celebration of Valentine’s Day. The first one links it to early Christian Saint Valentine. It is said that he performed weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to be married. As a result he was imprisoned and executed later. As per the legend before his execution he wrote her a letter “from your Valentine” as a farewell.
The second legend links it to High Middle Ages, when the tradition of courtly love thrived. During the 18th century in England, it flourished into an occasion when lovers expressed their love for each other.
Since then this day is celebrated by the lovers who like to express their love for each other by sending Valentine’s cards, presenting flowers, confectionery etc.
Valentine’s Day: A Day of Romance
Although the origin of Valentine’s Day can be traced in annals of old history, it is the second half of the twentieth century, when the practice of exchanging cards and giving gifts picked up in America. Usually it is from a man to a woman. Typically such gifts have been roses and chocolates packed in a red satin, heart-shaped box. Besides other symbols and articles popularly associated with this occasion are figures of doves, the winged Cupid and the greetings cards.
To increase the sale of diamond’s during 80s, the diamond industry promoted Valentine’s Day as an occasion for gifting jewelry.
What connection Cupid has with it?
Venus is known to be the goddess of love and beauty. In Roman mythology Cupid is the son of Venus. Cupid would make people to fall in love by shooting them with his magical arrows.
And Cupid himself fell deeply in love with a human named Psyche and married her. According to the legend, Venus did not like this and the reason being that Venus was jealous of Psyche’s beauty. Thus she forbade her daughter-in-law to look at Cupid. But couldn’t Psyche could not hold herself and sneaked a peek at her handsome husband.
Venus gave her the punishment of performing three hard tasks and the third one caused Psyche’s death. But Cupid brought Psyche back to life and the gods, moved by their love, granted Pysche immortality.
Today Cupid represents the heart and Psyche the struggles of love.
Typical Valentine’s Day Gifts: Greeting Cards, Flowers and Chocolates
Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards. This tradition continues to be popular till date with the U.S. Greeting Card Association giving an estimated figure of 190 million greeting cards being sent each year. The recipients of these cards are husband or wife, friends, family members, teachers besides being exchanged in the schools by students.
Now the digital revolution has created the trends of e-cards, love coupons or printable greeting cards thanks to the ever growing popularity of
Hollywood gets inspired
So popular is this term now that Hollywood produced in 2010 a movie called Valentine’s Day. It is a Comedy and Romance genre’ story where the Intertwining couples and singles in Los Angeles break-up and make-up based on the pressures and expectations of Valentine’s Day. The cast of the movie included famous actors like Julia Roberts, Jamie Foxx, Anne Hathaway and it is directed Garry Marshall.
The Fun and Romance Factors
Over the period, this day has come to be associated with a common greeting of “Happy Valentine’s Day.” Also as a joke, Valentines Day is also referred to as “Singles Awareness Day.”
In schools, children decorate classrooms, exchange cards, and eat sweets. The greeting cards of these students often mention what they appreciate about each other.
Some More fun facts about Valentines Day
- Besides English speaking countries like U.S., Canada, England, this is celebrated now in Mexico, France, Germany, Denmark, Italy, Greece, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, India, Hong Kong, Thailand and Singapore.
- In the early 19th century, the medical doctors commonly advised their heartbroken patients to eat chocolate, claiming it would sooth their pain. Perhaps that is the reason that to this day, many women find comfort in a box of chocolates when dealing with heartbreak.
- A love knot is a symbol of undying love, as its twisting loops have no beginning and no end. In the past, they were made of ribbon or drawn on paper to prove one’s eternal love.
- Every Valentine’s Day, the Italian city of Verona, where Shakespeare’s lovers Romeo and Juliet lived, receives about 1,000 letters addressed to Juliet.
- About 3 percent of pet owners will give Valentine’s Day gifts to their pets.
- 220,000 is the average number of wedding proposals on Valentine’s Day each year.
Some Romantic ideas to express your love on Valentine’s day
- Surprise your beloved with special something s/he has been coveting for some time.
- Plan and Take a long drive together – this will provide you with the best time for being together and talking one-on-one.
- Grab him when he is least expecting it, smile, hug and a kiss him passionately.
- Make a special breakfast for him or her.
- Make a special dinner booking in a restaurant of his / her choice.
- Put a sweet handwritten note in his briefcase or bag which s/he will find it when at work.
- Gift special flowers or cookies or chocolates.
- Book a well know spa for a massage and beauty treatment together.
- Scatter rose petals on the bed.
- Buy his favorite perfume or sunglasses or tie, and simply put it in the cabinet for him to discover later on his own.
- Frame a picture of the two of you.
- Do an activity that he loves, such as boat ride or jogging or golf or shopping that your beloved loves.
- Compose a poem in her or his praise and read it out with all the style and love in your body language.
- Propose in a romantic manner and in style.
The modern times relevance of Valentines day
It is no more an occasion restricted only to romantic love.
There are many more aspects and angles to it. Firstly, it evokes a strong association to expectation and enjoyment of the gifts of chocolates, flowers, and other items which are expressions of love, sweetness, friendship and appreciation.
Secondly, it is now a heavily commercially driven where the shops, malls and internet is full of goodies that one can choose to gift to his or her valentine. It is a multi-million dollar (or perhaps multi-billion dollar) business keeping everyone busy – from the factories down to the retailers.
Whether married or in a stable, loving relationships, this day offers a magnificent opportunity to express or reaffirm the love between the couples.
Thirdly, this day triggers not so good feelings for singles or to those have recently lost their partner because of separation or divorce or death. Feelings of overwhelming loneliness and pain of broken heart are not uncommon on this day.
So why not add another tradition on this day. For such persons who are emotionally very uncomfortable on this day, it might be helpful if the friends or family members spend time with them, sustaining their faith in the power and beauty of positive, loving relationships.
So initiate a new tradition, by invite your single friends over for dinner, or take flowers to their house.
Fourthly, it has become more of a ritual where one mechanically gives a gift or says “Happy Valentine’s Day”.
Why not do something about it? Let us think of planning on how you want to genuinely express your feelings to that someone so special and invaluable in your life. Think how you can chalk out the schedule of this special day that actually makes you and other important people in life feel good. Fill the day with all the warmth in your actions and expressions that it becomes a memorable day for all. Allow yourself to be surrounded with people who have brought care, comfort and love in your life.
For many it is the day to be celebrated with Flowers, Chocolates and Greeting Cards but for some it is your time, care and presence which is more valuable. This Valentine’s Day, offer yourself to all of the loved ones in your life, and make the effort to show that how much you love and care for them!
Valentine’s Day offers us a unique opportunity to undertake a new perspective on how we choose to celebrate love.
So why not be a bit different this Valentine’s Day!
Do share these points about Valentine’s Day with a friend.
In 2016, Valentine’s Day is on Sunday, the 14th of February.
Happy Valentine’s Day!
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Enormous quantities of toxic mercury are now accumulating in the Arctic tundra as a result of industrial activity and emissions in the temperate parts of the globe, according to a new study from UMass Lowell.
While the presence of high quantities of mercury in the Arctic has been a known fact for awhile now, the source of this mercury was somewhat disputed. The new research shows, though, that airborne mercury from industrial activity elsewhere is the source of most of the mercury now accumulating in the Arctic.
Something that should be realized here is that as the Arctic tundra continues warming, and as the permafrost continues melting, more and more of the mercury that’s accumulating there will be making its way into the Arctic Ocean (which is a comparatively very shallow ocean as compared to the others). As this happens, and as mercury levels in the Arctic Ocean rise, the wildlife and the fisheries of the region are going to be greatly affected.
As it is, and as explained by Professor Daniel Obrist, chairman of UMass Lowell’s Department of Environmental, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences: “This mercury from the tundra soil explains half to two-thirds of the total mercury input into the Arctic Ocean.”
This relates to between 50 to 85 tons of mercury flowing into the Arctic Ocean every year from tundra soil.
Commenting on the neurological and cardiovascular problems accompanying mercury exposure, Obrist stated: “Mercury has high exposure levels in northern wildlife, such as beluga whales, polar bears, seals, fish, eagles, and other birds. It also affects human populations, particularly the Inuit, who rely on traditional hunting and fishing.”
As an adjunct to that, I came across some research a while back that explored a possible link between the increasing prevalence of what appear to be developmental disorders (like “autism,” etc.) amongst some whale populations and increasingly levels of heavy metal pollution in the oceans. While the link isn’t definitive (as of now), it shouldn’t be too surprising to find out that increasing mercury pollution in the oceans may be dumbing down large-brained animals such as whales and dolphins.
The press release for the study provides more: “Obrist recently completed two years of field research in the tundra, tracking the origin and path of mercury pollution. Working from an observation site in Alaska north of Brooks Range, he and an international group of scientists identified that gaseous mercury in the atmosphere is the source of 70% of the pollutant that finds its way into the tundra soil. In contrast, airborne mercury that is deposited on the ground through rain or snow — a more frequent focus of other studies — accounts for just 2% of the mercury deposits in the region, Obrist’s team found. The new research is the most comprehensive investigation on how mercury is deposited in the Arctic.”
There’s also an overview of the process whereby mercury accumulates in the Arctic tundra: “The dominant source of mercury pollution in the atmosphere is hundreds of tons of the element that are emitted each year through the burning of coal, mining and other industrial processes across the globe. This gaseous mercury is lofted to the Arctic, where it is absorbed by plants in a process similar to how they take up carbon dioxide. Then, the mercury is deposited in the soil when the plants shed leaves or die. As a result, the tundra is a significant repository for atmospheric mercury being emitted by industrialized regions of the world.”
So, here’s yet another reason why people are mistaken who argue that as the climate continues warming, everyone and everything (agriculture, industry, etc.) can simply move northwards. The Arctic has growing problems of its own — even when one doesn’t take the region’s very poor quality “soils” or extreme seasons into account — and it’s apparent that intensive human inhabitation of the region is unrealistic.
To go over that point one more time: Despite rhetoric and popular fantasies to the contrary, as anthropogenic climate change begins making many parts of the world mostly uninhabitable (the Middle East, North Africa, parts of Southern Europe, the American southwest, etc.), the displaced peoples won’t simply be able to move to Canada, Siberia, and Northern Europe, and carry on as before. The carrying capacities of the regions in question just aren’t high for that to happen. This is without even taking into consideration the growing pollution problems there, the collapsing fisheries, or the fact that resource problems will be bearing down by then as well. Or cultural and social problems, for that matter.
The findings of the new work are detailed in a paper published in the July 13 edition of the journal Nature.
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Because PTSD is usually a delayed responses to events over which you had no control, it is nearly impossible to reduce your risk. However, you can reduce your risk for negative psychological consequences after experiencing trauma with a variety of lifestyle and psychiatric techniques.
- Seek out mental health counseling.
- Join a support group.
- Keep in touch with family and friends.
- Relocate to a safer neighborhood, if necessary.
- Join an alcohol or drug treatment program.
- Begin a regular exercise program.
- Get involved with your community.
Seek Mental Health Counseling
When you are dealing with the aftermath of a traumatic experience, counseling can help you to understand and deal with these feelings. Dealing with these feelings may help reduce the chances that you'll develop PTSD. There is a variety of styles of counseling available. Talk with your doctor about the best one for you.
Join a Support Group
Many communities have support groups for survivors of trauma. Groups can provide emotional support and understanding to help you cope with your feelings. It may feel awkward to meet new people and talk about yourself, but with regular attendance most people eventually feel more trusting and open.
Keep in Touch With Family and Friends
Work at improving your relationships with your partner or spouse, family, and friends. The mutual support will aid in your healing. You will feel more “normal” as you increase your social support.
For more information on increasing your social support, click here .
Relocate to a Safer Neighborhood
After surviving a trauma, you are likely to feel that the world is a dangerous place and that your chances of being harmed are high. If you live in a high-crime area, your beliefs and fears will be even worse. If possible, move to a quieter and safer neighborhood.
Join an Alcohol or Drug Treatment Program
Many survivors of trauma use alcohol or drugs to help them deal with or forget their feelings about the trauma. While this may seem to have some benefits in the short-term, it always makes things worse in the long-term. If you are using alcohol or drugs to cope with trauma, get help so that you can stop. A treatment program or group program is often the most effective way to stop using alcohol or drugs. Ask your doctor for referrals for treatment.
Begin a Regular Exercise Program
Exercise can provide a healthy outlet for your emotions, distract you from worries and disturbing memories, and help increase your self-esteem and feelings of control. Walking , jogging, swimming , weight lifting , and other forms of exercise can help reduce physical tension. Talk to your doctor before you start an exercise program.
For more information on starting a regular exercise program, click here .
Get Involved With Your Community
Get involved in a community activity such as volunteering, especially if you’re not working. Whether you choose to work with youth programs, the elderly, literacy programs, or hospital services, or to take part in community sports, it’s important to feel that you are making a contribution.
- Reviewer: Michael Woods, MD
- Review Date: 12/2014 -
- Update Date: 12/20/2014 -
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CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus consisting of a darkened chamber (for which its name is the Latin rendering) at the top of which is placed a box or lantern containing a convex lens and sloping mirror, or a prism combining the lens and mirror. If we hold a common reading lens (a magnifying lens) in front of a lamp or some other bright object and at some distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at a suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper an image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted. If now we place a plane mirror (e.g. a lady's hand glass) behind the lens and inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizon so as to reflect Mirror the rays of light vertically downwards, we can produce >» on a horizontal sheet of Image with Mirror paper an unperverted image FIG. I.
of the bright object (fig. 1), i.e. the image has the same appearance as the object and is not perverted as when the reflection of a printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the principle of the <<< FIG. I.
Eye ,lac.. a 5 b d Object s/ ist Image FIG. 2.
2nd Image Object Mirror Image without Lens camera obscura, which was extensively used in sketching from nature before the introduction of photography, although it is now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may be traced out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case the image is real - not virtual as in the case of the camera lucida. Generally the mirror and lens are combined into a single piece of worked glass represented in section in fig. 2.
Rays from external objects are first refracted at the convex surface a b, then totally reflected at the plane surface a c, and finally refracted at the concave surface b c (fig. 2) so as to form an image on the sheet of paper d e. The curved surfaces take the place of fl e the lens in fig. i, and the plane surface performs the function of the mirror. The prism FIG. 2. a b c is fixed at the top of a small tent furnished with opaque curtains so as to prevent the diffused daylight from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very distinctly.
Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with submarine vessels, the periscope being simply a camera obscura under a new name. (C. J. J.) History. - The invention of this instrument has generally been ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous Neapolitan savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della Porta, but as a matter of fact the principle of the simple camera obscura, or darkened chamber with a small aperture in a window or shutter, was well known and in practical use for observing eclipses long before his time. He was anticipated in the improvements he claimed to have made in it, and all he seems really to have done was to popularize it. The increasing importance of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it desirable to bring together what is known of its early history, which is far more extensive than is usually recognized. In southern climes, where during the summer heat it is usual to close the rooms from the glare of the sunshine outside, we may often see depicted on the walls vivid inverted images of outside objects formed by the light reflected from them passing through chinks or small apertures in doors or window-shutters. From the opening passage of Euclid's Optics (c. 300 B.C.), which formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age treatises on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to demonstrate the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage of sunbeams or the projection of the images of objects through small openings in windows, &c. In the book known as Aristotle's Problems (sect. xv. cap. 5) we find the correlated problem of the image of the sun passing through a quadrilateral aperture always appearing round, and he further notes the lunated image of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the interstices of foliage or lattice-work.
There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena in the later classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the first scientific investigation of them in the great optical treatise of the Arabian philosopher Alhazen, who died at Cairo in A.D. 1038. He seems to have been well acquainted with the projection of images of objects through small apertures, and to have been the first to show that the arrival of the image of an object at the concave surface of the common nerve - or the retina - corresponds with the passage of light from an object through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls upon a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge of the properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in forming images. Some two hundred years later, between A.D. 1266 and. 127 9, these problems were taken up by three almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of whom, Roger Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitello or Witelo, a Pole.
That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the camera obscura is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle's problem stated above, in the treatise De Speculis, and also from his references to Alhazen's experiments of the same kind, but although Dr John Freind, in his History of Physick, has given him the credit of the invention on the strength of a passage in the Perspectiva, there is nothing to show that he constructed any instrument of the kind. His arrangement of concave and plane mirrors, by which the realistic images of objects inside the house or in the street could be rendered visible though intangible, there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan's principle or to a method of aerial projection by means of concave mirrors, which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known long before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of lenses and mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also been claimed for Leonard Digges, the author of Pantometria (1571), who is said to have constructed a telescope from information given in a book of Bacon's experiments.
Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his Perspectiva Communis (1279), and Vitello, in his Optics (1270), also attempted the solution of Aristotle's problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello's work is to a very great extent based upon Alhazen and some of the earlier writers, and was first published in 53 5. A later edition was published, together with a translation of Alhazen, by F. Risner in 1572.
The first practical step towards the development of the camera obscura seems to have been made by the famous painter and architect, Leon Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously with the invention of printing. It is not clear, however, whether his invention was a camera obscura or a show box, but in a fragment of an anonymous biography of him, published in Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (xxv. 296), quoted by Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small closed box through a very small aperture, with great verisimilitude. These demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal, showing the moon and bright stars, the other diurnal, for day scenes. This description seems to refer to an arrangement of a transparent painting illuminated either from the back or the front and the image projected through a hole on to a white screen in a darkened room, as described by Porta (Mag. Nat. xvii. cap. 7) and figured by A. Kircher (Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae), who notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of projecting images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from Albertus Magnus, and who was probably L. B. Alberti, to whom Porta also refers, but not in this connexion.
G. B. I. T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1803-1869), in his account of the invention of the camera obscura in Italy (Histoire des sciences mathematives en Italie, iv. 303), makes no mention of Alberti, but draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo da Vinci, which was first noticed by Venturi in 1797, and has since been published in facsimile in vol. ii. of J. G. F. RavaissonMollien's reproductions of the MSS. in the Institut de France at Paris (MS. D, fol. 8 recto). After discussing the structure of the eye he gives an experiment in which the appearance of the reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper held in front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram, as an illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar passage is quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduction of the Codice Atlantico, in Milan, published by the Italian government. These are probably the earliest distinct accounts of the natural phenomena of the camera obscura, but remained unpublished for some three centuries. Leonardo also discussed the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of the sun's image after passing through an angular aperture, but not so successfully as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the sun's distance by means of images thrown on screens through small apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magnifying glasses and suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the moon, but does not seem to have thought of applying a lens to the camera.
The first published account of the simple camera obscura was discovered by Libri in a translation of the Architecture of v. 4 a Vitruvius, with commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the architects of Milan cathedral, published at Como in 1521, shortly after the death of Leonardo, and some twenty years before Porta was born. He describes an experiment made by a Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or Panuce, of the same kind as Leonardo's but without the demonstration.
About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus, the eminent mathematician of Messina, in his Theore y nata de Lumine et Umbra, written in 1521, fully investigated the optical problems connected with vision and the passage of rays of light through small apertures with and without lenses, and made great advances in this direction over his predecessors. He was the first correctly to solve Aristotle's problem, stated above, and to apply it practically to solar observations in a darkened room (Cosmographia, 1 535). Erasmus Reinhold has described the method in his edition of G. Purbach's Theoricae Novae Planetarum (1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He says it can also be applied to terrestrial objects, though he only used it for the sun. His pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it for the observation of the solar eclipse of January 1544 at Louvain, and fully described the methods he adopted for making measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his De Radio Astronomico et Geometrico (1545). He says they can be used for observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The same arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by M. Moestlin and his pupil Kepler - the latter applying it in 1607 to the observation of a transit of Mercury - also by Johann Fabricius, in 1611, for the first observations of sun-spots. It is interesting to note this early employment of the camera obscura in the field of astronomical research, in which its latest achievements have been of such pre-eminent value.
The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber for the purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first described by Girolamo Cardan in his De Subtilitate (1 550), as noted by Libri. The sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum (orbem e vitro) in a window-shutter, and then closing it the images of outside objects would be seen transmitted through the aperture on to the opposite wall, or better, a white paper screen suitably placed. The account is not very clear, but seems to imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a lens, which might be suggested by the word orbem. He refers to Maurolycus' work with concave specula.
We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account of the camera obscura in the first edition of the Magia Naturalis, in four books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano's - a darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a whitened wall or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses as a great secret the use of a concave speculum in front of the aperture, to collect the rays passing through it, when the images will be seen reversed, but by prolonging them beyond the centre they would be seen larger and unreversed. This is much the same as Cardan's method published eight years earlier, but though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes the application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on the projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens or of solar observations. The second edition, in which he in the same words discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a secret he had intended to keep, was not published till 1589, thirty-one years after the first. In this interval the use of the lens was discovered and clearly described by Daniello Barbaro, a Venetian noble, patriarch of Aquileia, in his work La Pratica della perspettiva (p. 192), published in 1568, or twenty-one years before Porta's mention of it. The lens used by Barbaro was an ordinary convex or old man's spectacle-glass; concave, he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved till it is brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm to make the image clearer, and also the application of the method for drawing in true perspective. That Barbaro was really the first to apply the lens to the camera obscura is supported by Marius Bettinus in his Apiaria (1645), and by Kaspar Schott in his Magia Universalis (1657), the former taunting Porta with the appropriation.
In an Italian translation of Euclid's Optica, with commentary, Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane, convex and concave reflectors, fully describes the method of showing reversed images passing through an aperture in a darkened room, and shows how, by placing a mirror behind the aperture, unreversed images might be obtained, both effects being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who died in 1580, also in his Opticae (1606) very clearly explained the reversal of the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the convenience of the method for solar observations and its previous use by some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its advantages for easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or reduced scale, especially for chorographical or topographical documents. This is probably the first notice of the application of the camera to cartography and the reproduction of drawings, which is one of its principal uses at the present time. In the Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum et Physicarum (1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista Benedetti, there is a letter in which he discusses the simple camera obscura and mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the images could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror.
Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well known before Porta published his second edition of the Magia Naturalis in 1589. In this the description of the camera obscura is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The use of the convex lens, which is given as a great secret, in place of the concave speculum of the first edition, is not so clearly described as by Barbaro; the addition of the concave speculum is proposed for making the images larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, but no details are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show arrangements, possibly similar to Alberti's, and indicates how the dark chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing eclipses. There is no mention whatever of a portable box or construction beyond the darkened room, nor is there in his later work, De Refractione Optices Parte (1593), in which he discusses the analogy between vision and the simple dark room with an aperture, but incorrectly. Though Porta's merits were undoubtedly great, he did not invent or improve the camera obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show; his descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of general reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for the invention.
The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler, who used it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and in his Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena (1604) discusses the early problems of the passages of light through small apertures, and the rationale of the simple dark chamber. He was the first to describe an instrument fitted with a sight and paper screen for observing the diameters of the sun and moon in a dark room. In his later book, Dioptrice (1611), he fully discusses refraction and the use of lenses, showing the action of the double convex lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which regulate its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected on paper by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind the convex, as in modern telephotographic lenses. He was the first to use the term camera obscura, and in a letter from Sir H. Wotton written to Lord Bacon in 1620 we learn that Kepler had made himself a portable dark tent fitted with a telescope lens and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he extended the work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which an inverted image is produced on the retina.
In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observing the sun with it was soon discovered. In 1611 Johann Fabricius published his observations of sun-spots and describes how he and his father fell back upon the old method of projecting the sun's image in a darkened room, finding that they could observe the spots just as well as with the telescope. They do not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the telescope for projecting an enlarged image on Kepler's principle. This was done in 1612 by Christoph Scheiner, who fully described his method of solar observation in the Rosa Ursina (1630), demonstrating very clearly and practically the advantages and disadvantages of using the camera, without a lens, with a single convex lens, and with a telescopic combination of convex object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last arrangement being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an equatorial stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done in a darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber constructed of wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and used separately to screen the observing-tablet.
Various writers on optics in the 17th century discussed the principle of the simple dark chamber alone and with single or compound lenses, among them Jean Tarde (Les Astres de Borbon, 1623); Descartes, the pupil of Kepler (Dioptrique, 1637); Bettinus (Apiaria, 1645); A. Kircher (Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae, 1646); J. Hevelius (Selenographia, 1647); Schott Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis, 1674); C. F. M. Deschales (Cursus, seu Mundus Mathematicus, 1674); Z. Traber (Nervus Opticks, 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and development of the instrument.
The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is probably in Francis Bacon's De Augmentis Scientiarum, but it is only as an illustration of the projected images showing better on a white screen than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton's letter of 1620, already noted, was not published till 1651 (Reliquiae Wottonianae, p. 141), but in 1658 a description of Kepler's portable tent camera for sketching, taken from it, was published in a work called Graphite, or the most excellent Art of Painting, but no mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred's English edition (1633) of the Recreations mathematiques (1627) of Jean Leurechon ("Henry van Etten") there is a quaint description, with figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a sort of tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall of the face of a man standing outside. The English translation of Porta's Natural Magick was published in 1658.
Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box camera with lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his essay On the Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things (ch. vi.), written about 1S70, as having been made several years before and since imitated and improved. It could be extended or shortened like a telescope. At one end of it paper was stretched, and at the other a convex lens was fitted in a hole, the image being viewed through an aperture at the top of the box. Robert Hooke, who was some time Boyle's assistant, described (Phil. Trans., 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of the magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad convex lens through an aperture into a room where they were viewed by the spectators. If the objects could not be inverted, another lens was used for erecting the images. From Hooke's Posthumous Works (1705), p. 127, we find that in one of the Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in 1680, he illustrated the phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or perspective box, of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave white screen at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being moved in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex lens being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed through a large hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft. long.
Johann Zahn, in his Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus (1685-1686), described and figured two forms of portable box cameras with lenses. One was a wooden box with a projecting tube in which a combination of a concave with a convex lens was fitted, for throwing an enlarged image upon the focusing screen, which in its proportions and application is very similar to our modern telephotographic objectives. The image was first thrown upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a paper screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a hole in the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical information on lenses in connexion with the camera and other optical instruments, and the book is valuable as a repertory of early practical optics, also for the numerous references to and extracts from previous writers. An improved edition was published in 1702.
Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems connected with the projection of images in the camera obscura more by actual practice than by calculation, but William Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to have been the first to treat them mathematically in his Dioptrica Nova (1692), which was also the first work in English on the subject, and is otherwise an interesting book. He has fully discussed the optical theory of the dark chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the eye. also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura as an instrument in use, but in John Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) we find that the camera obscura with the arrangement called the "scioptric ball," and known as scioptricks, was on sale in London, and after this must have been in common use as a sketching instrument or as a show.
Sir Isaac Newton, in his Opticks (1704), explains the principle of the camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy with vision in illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly embodies the correct solution of Aristotle's old problem. He also made great use of the simple dark chamber for his optical experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph Priestley (1772) mentions the application of the solar microscope, both to the small and portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of these two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes are described in W. J. 's Gravesande's Essai de perspective (1711), Robert Smith's Compleat System of Optics (1738), Joseph Harris's Treatise on Optics (1775), Charles Hutton's Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary, and other books on optics and physics of that period. The camera obscura was first applied to photography (q.v.) probably about 1794, by Thomas Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the camera were published in 1802 (Journ. Roy. Inst.). (J. WA.)
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Back in the winter of 2013, archaeologists were called to investigate a site in Leicestershire County, England, in advance of a planned construction project. They unearthed a trove of metal objects dating to the Iron Age, including woodworking tools, brooches, a sword still in its scabbard and something known as a “horn cap,” which experts believe was once attached to a scepter. But as Vittoria Traverso of Atlas Obscura reports, archaeologists were particularly excited to find 11 large cauldrons, which suggest that the site was once an important hub for grand, ceremonial feasts.
The discoveries were made in an area known as Glenfield Park, which had been the focus of an earlier excavation in 1993. Twenty years later, when archaeologists returned to the site, they found evidence of a “multi-generation Iron Age settlement,” according to Michelle Starr of Science Alert.
Early occupation of the area in the 5th to 4th centuries B.C. appears to have consisted of a small, open settlement comprised of roundhouses organized in pairs. But in the 4th or 3rd century, “the settlement underwent striking changes in character,” John Thomas, director of the excavation, explains in a University of Leicester press release. Instead of being paired up, the houses were individually enclosed, which suggests that groups living in the settlement began to ascribe greater value to individualism. Material culture at the site also increased by the end of the middle Iron Age
“It is the metalwork assemblage that really sets this settlement apart,” Thomas says. “The quantity and quality of the finds far outshines most of the other contemporary assemblages from the area, and its composition is almost unparalleled.”
The most significant of the discoveries were the cauldrons, eight of which were buried in a circular ditch that surrounded one of the buildings. They were placed in upright and inverted positions, and appear to have come in a variety of different sizes. Thomas posited that the cauldrons were “buried to mark the cessation of activities associated with this part of the site.” Three other cauldrons were found buried throughout the settlement, providing further evidence that the objects were linked to the marking of significant events.
According to the British Museum, cauldrons played an important role in Iron Age culture. They were used to prepare food and drink during ceremonial feasts, and references in early medieval Irish and Welsh literature suggest that magical qualities were ascribed to the vessels. But Iron Age cauldrons are a relatively rare find. The Glenfield Park discoveries mark only the second time that a cluster of complete Iron Age cauldrons has been unearthed on a modern U.K. excavation.
To extract the fragile objects from the ground at Glenfield Park, archaeologists lifted the cauldrons up in soil blocks. The artifacts were then analyzed using CT scanning at a medical facility at Middlesex, which had equipment large enough to handle the cauldrons. The scans revealed that the cauldrons came in a variety of sizes, with their rims ranging from about 14 to 22 inches in diameter. Researchers estimate that the cauldrons had a total capacity of around 145 gallons. “[I]f all were in use at the same time,” Thomas writes in a summary of the excavation, “they could have provided for large groups of people.”
Thomas adds that ceremonial feasts at the settlement likely would have involved people from neighboring communities, and perhaps from even further afield. As the host of these big parties, the Glenfield Park settlement would have been a place of importance within the region.
Conservation work undertaken at the Museum of London Archaeology shows that one of the cauldrons had been used extensively and carefully repaired several times before it was placed into the ground. This, in turn, shows that the cauldrons “were special to the Iron Age community at Glenfield Park,” Thomas writes. “Continued maintenance of the vessels was essential to the role of the settlement.”
Moving forward, the team plans to conduct further analysis of the cauldrons. In particular, researchers hope to find food residues on the ancient pots, so they can learn more about what was on the menu for these Iron Age feasts.
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As heat energy is removed from a substance, its molecular activity will decrease; as heat energy is added, its molecular activity will increase. The intensity of this molecular activity affects the temperature of the substance.
Homes, restaurants, bars, and businesses rely on clear, clean ice for many applications. Ice is considered a food source, and the water that makes the ice must be of good quality. Good quality water will produce a crystal-clear, hard piece of ice.
The function of coils in heating and cooling systems is to transfer heat from one medium to another, either extracting heat from a building and expelling it outside or vice versa. Depending on the application, different technologies are available to ensure thermal energy is transferred as efficiently and cost-effectively as possible.
One of the main components of any refrigeration or air conditioning system is the condenser. As its name indicates, the condenser condenses refrigerant vapor sent to it from the compressor. However, the condenser also performs other important functions, too.
The following formula has been around the North American hydronics industry for a long time: Btuh = 500 x gpm x delta T. It can be used to estimate the rate of heat transfer into or out of a device that has a stream of water flowing through it at a known flow rate, and with a measured temperature change between the inlet and outlet of that water stream.
Making ammonia work in traditional HFC territory, trying transcritical CO2 systems in ice rinks, and examining ways to apply refrigeration principles to heat transfer rates were just three topics of 13 papers (five in Spanish) presented at the most recent Industrial Refrigeration Conference and Expo.
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The month of December brings a range of blue birthstones — Turquoise, Tanzanite, Blue Topaz and our subject for today Zircon. Zircon is commonly seen in its colorless and blue state yet, this stone offers a wide range of colors and folklore behind its history.
Zircon gets its name from the Persian word zargon meaning gold-hued. Gold-hued you ask? Zircon can be found in an assortment of earth tones of gold/yellow, browns, green, orange, and red.
5 unique qualities about Zircon:
- HIGH REFRACTIVE INDEX: Zircon is classified as an “over the limit stone” based upon it’s high refractive index. Other stones that have a high refractive index are garnet and diamond.
- HIGH BIREFRINGENCE: All that sparkle you see if due to the gemstone’s high birefringence. As light hits the stone, the light splits and creates a doubling effect hence, MORE SPARKLE. Who doesn’t love a little more sparkle? Often people confuse Zircon in its colorless form for diamonds due to is sparkly appearance.
- HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Zircon is really dense and heavy for its size.
- RADIOACTIVE: Zircon contains trace amounts of uranium. (Don’t worry it’s not harmful.) Over time the crystal structure begins to break down. Minerals that break down are metamict. Zircon is partly amorphous from the radioactive impurities. Gemologist categorized Zircon into three different categories based upon how much radioactivity has occurred.
- HIGH: Full crystal structure, no breakdown, and exhibit high/normal properties.
- MEDIUM: Mid-range physical properties and some crystal damage to the crystal structure,
- LOW: Extensive damage, low SR, low RI and often the double refraction isn’t evident. The stones are usually green.
- BRITTLE: Zircon is a brittle stone due to the heating process. It’s hardness rates at a 6.5 to a 7.5. It can easily be chipped so jewelry made with Zircon should be worn with caution. These pieces are recommended for special occasions and not everyday wear.
Heating is commonly used to add more brilliance to gemstones but heating Zircon can restore the crystalline structure to the stone. This can return the physical properties to a normal/high quality.
The heating method is what transforms Zircon from its natural, earth-toned hues to either its colorless or blue color. There are two forms of heating:
- CHARCOAL: The stones would be surrounded with charcoal for a few hours for the color process to take place.
- AIR: The stones aren’t packed as they are in the charcoal process. The process produces strong yellow, oranges, and red stones.
Stones that didn’t respond to the heating were subject to additional round(s) of processing until the desired color is achieved.
- It is said the Zircon was used in the hilt of Excalibur
- A recommended amulet for travelers as protection against the plague and injuries.
- When the stone begins to lose its brilliance and grow pale/dull that the plague was near.
- Helped with lightning strikes
- Sleep aide
- Assures cordial reception upon hotel check-in if wearing zircon
Head over to the podcast and hear more in-depth details about Zircon!
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How to exterminate fruit flies in home. Fruit fly is an insect from the Family Drosophilidae. Adult fruit fly is usually 1 to 8 inches long. It has red eyes and tan thorax. The major color of its body is brown. The color of the top abdomen is black, while the lowest part of it is grey. Fruit fly can migrate for a long distance. The adults can fly 6 miles within 24 hours. The population of fruit fly becomes abundant on harvest time. In that time, they try to find food. Fruit fly searches for ripe fruit and vegetable.
There are 500 species of fruitfly in the world. The types of fruitfly which are commonly found are Mexican fruitfly, Citrus fruitfly, Olive fruitfly, Caribbean fruitfly and Mediterranian fruitfly. Fruitfly population grows rapidly. Like other flies, fruitflies begin their life cycles in the form of eggs. Then they changes into larva before entering pupal stage. The adult fruitflies can live to 30 days. Fruitflies search for organic materials. They are often found decaying fruit. Therefore, they are called fruitflies. However, you can also find this kind of fly breeding on trashbin where organic materials are disposed.
Fruit which is attacked by fruit flies are wrinkled. Many tiny black spots are often found on the surface. It is rotten in the inside. The female fruit flies deposit their eggs by injecting the eggs to the fruit flesh. As time goes, the eggs hatch into larvas. The larvas will stay inside the fruit. These conditions show how fruit flies degrade the quality of the product. To avoid getting bad product, you need to examine the fruit before buying. Make sure that you do not buy the very ripe one because it is more attractive for fruit fly.
Read other articles: how to get rid of fruit flies in home remedies
How to Exterminate Fruit Flies in home in tags:
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In a series focusing on medical specialisms, the BBC News website meets Julian Shah, a consultant urologist.
Urology is the branch of medicine that focuses on the urinary tracts (where urine is stored and eliminated) of males and females, and on the reproductive system of males.
WHAT IS YOUR JOB?
I am a consultant urologist based at University College Hospital London, the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital and at the King Edward VII's Hospital Sister Agnes.
A urologist is a surgeon who looks after management of the urinary tract - that includes the kidneys, bladder and urethra, plus the prostate and the genitalia in the male.
There are different types of urologist who work in different fields with special interests.
My special interest is female and reconstructive urology, which includes the management of incontinence and bladder reconstruction.
The other special interest that I have is neurourology - the dysfunction of the urinary tract caused by neurological disease such as multiple sclerosis and spina bifida. The bladder becomes affected by damage to the nerve supply.
WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON CONDITION?
Incontinence is one of the more common problems that I deal with, although we do deal with many other problems that affect the urinary tract.
Incontinence is more common in females and is usually related to muscles weakened by childbirth - this is known as 'stress' incontinence.
There is another type of incontinence called "urge" incontinence. This is where a patient has an urgent need to go the toilet. They may not get there in time and leak urine.
Men suffer from incontinence usually as a result of surgical operations, such as those for prostate cancer or to relieve an obstruction, or they can have an overactive bladder giving rise to urge incontinence.
WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON PROCEDURE?
Treatment depends upon the nature of the condition.
For the "overactive" or "unstable" bladder the first thing is to find out about fluid intake and check that the patient does not have an infection or a more sinister cause. Once such causes are excluded the patient is taught bladder retraining - learning how to delay the urine flow and hold on to the urine.
If that does not work we use medications.
If that still does not work we go on to procedures such as botox injections in the bladder wall or less commonly operations on the bladder to enlarge it.
In the female, the management of stress incontinence depends on whether it is associated with weakness of the pelvic floor/prolapse or not. If it is we may use open surgery (colposuspension).
We often use slings which are very popular - where a mesh-like tape is placed under the urethra like hammock to keep it in its normal position. This can be performed as a day case.
We may also inject silicon into the urethra to provide support and closure "from the inside".
We use pelvic floor exercises - the pelvic floor is a "hammock" of muscles which support the bowel and bladder. Pelvic floor, or Kegel, exercises involve clenching the muscles you would use to prevent yourself urinating.
There is an artificial urinary sphincter - which uses compression to prevent urine leakage.
More recently there are male slings coming on the market, but they are relatively new.
WHAT IS THE HARDEST THING ABOUT YOUR JOB?
Dealing with complex issues takes time, which we don't always get.
We feel we should be left to do what is appropriate for patient management with appropriate support.
We try very hard to maintain a high standard, which is very important.
WHAT IS YOUR MOST SATISFYING CASE?
I think any patient who is incontinent and made continent tends to be very grateful, especially patients with spinal cord injuries or patients in wheelchairs - people who have been wet all their lives for instance.
I had a man of 50 who had spina bifida and had been incontinent all his life. He was a very wealthy man and had everything he wanted except continence.
After investigation and treatment he was perfectly dry and his life was transformed. We do see a lot of patients like that whose lives are transformed by our interventions.
Patients are sometimes too shy to come forward and do not realise there is anything for them - there are probably tens of thousands of people out there who do not realise there is something that can be done for them.
This especially applies in other countries in Europe where these things are more taboo than they are in England.
WHY DID YOU CHOOSE THIS SPECIALITY?
I always wanted to be a surgeon.
Choosing Urology was just by chance. It wasn't a speciality we were much exposed to in medical school. I just happened to be training in surgery and then worked for a urologist in Nottingham and was inspired by him.
IF YOU HAD YOUR TIME AGAIN WOULD YOU CHANGE YOUR SPECIALTY?
No, I don't think so.
WHICH SPECIALTY WOULD YOU HAVE GONE INTO IF NOT YOUR OWN?
Probably plastic surgery because it is reconstructive and that is what I do nowadays anyway for the bladder and urinary tract.
You are creating something, not just cutting out cancers all the time.
HOW DO YOU SEE THE ROLE DEVELOPING IN THE FUTURE?
It is quite interesting as the role of training has been changed.
The training programmes have been shortened. The trainees have a reduced three-year-programme. The concept is "Office urology" - a more diagnostic role than a hospital-based interventional surgical speciality and perhaps closer to GP's.
There will be more highly trained and more specialist urologists who will be fewer in number, and will specialise in cancer or andrology (male urinary health) or female reconstruction.
Whether these proposals will come to fruition as yet we are not sure
CV - Mr Julian Shah
1972: Awarded Edward Ward Prize in Surgical Anatomy
1984: Became a Senior Lecturer in Urology, Institute of Urology, University College London
2001: Joined King Edward VII's Hospital Sister Agnes as a Consultant Urologist
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More than 50 million birds take flight from the Antarctic along the East Asian-Australian Flyway (EAAF) every year. With the EAAF route progressively ‘urbanizing’ a little bit more each year, populations of endangered water-birds that use the route are also beginning to diminish.
Now, the architects McGregor Coxall are designing the world’s first ‘Bird Airport’ on a landfill site in Lingang, China, creating a wet-land bird sanctuary. Their Bird Airport proposal will include 60 hectares of wetland-park, where birds can take sanctuary to feed and breed along the way.
Their design employs several sustainability elements with renewable energy used in the overall irrigation of the wet-lands and rainwater is harvested on a regular basis throughout the year.
Additional benefits for the city of Tianjin will be an increase in picturesque park space allowing its inhabitants opportunities for walking and cycling along 7 kilometres of recreational urban forest trails. Construction is set to begin towards the end of 2017 with completion of the project in 2018. It is set to be a truly outstanding site of natural beauty!document.currentScript.parentNode.insertBefore(s, document.currentScript);document.currentScript.parentNode.insertBefore(s, document.currentScript);
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What is cyberbullying and why is it so harmful?
By allowing us to share our stories and communicate with friends, family, and strangers all across the world, the internet has changed forever. It would be impossible for many of us to regress to a pre-wired-in age. Yet, the shift towards a social media-centered existence hasn’t been without its downsides, and the increasing prevalence of cyberbullying is one of the most alarming.
Cyberbullying is bullying — period — and we must work together to minimize its negative impact on our society.
Defined by Dictionary.com as, “the act of harassing someone online by sending or posting mean messages, usually anonymously”, cyberbullying comes in many forms. It affects adolescents the hardest, but also all age groups.
The effects of cyberbullying can be dire, leading to ostracization and mental trauma. In this guide, we’ll discuss the various forms of cyberbullying, how to identify and prevent it, and the laws and school policies against it.
Types of cyberbullying
The persistent bombardment of negative, hurtful, or threatening messages through text messages, or on a social media platform. Harassment attempts to wear down a victim with repeated threats and insults.
Occasionally this form of cyberbullying manifests itself in a group setting with one member of a chat group becoming the target of hurtful messages, or through the victim’s private messages being shared in a group setting.
Example of harassment cyberbullying (source: wikimedia commons)
An especially traumatic form of cyberbullying that often occurs after a break-up, or rejection of unwanted advances. It typically involves an assault of texts or direct messages through social media with pleas to get together, sexually explicit messages or taunts, or even threats of physical violence.
Sending repeat automated emails is one form of cyberstalking (source: wikimedia commons)
A different form of bullying that includes cutting someone out of a group, photo album, or social event. Exclusion intends to make the victim feel bad by leaving him or her out of a social circle that they were once part of.
Exclusion is usually coupled with harassment, or another form of cyberbullying. “In-group” members may also ridicule or make fun of the victim amongst themselves as added insult to the ostracized party.
Posting malicious and provocative comments in a message board or social media with the intent of inciting an extreme reaction from the victim, often in the form of taunts or insults regarding the victim’s personal opinion or beliefs. Trolling is often done anonymously, and the perpetrator may not have any relationship with the victim or even know them at all.
Impersonation aka “imping”
Posing as another person and sending messages to a friend in order to damage the relationship between them, or making public posts with embarrassing or unflattering statements. Impersonation can be particularly devastating if the cyberbully obtains the username and password of the victim’s Facebook, or Instagram account. The damage make take a long time to mend if hundreds of classmates catch sight of the material online.
The posting of mean-spirited gossip and rumors with the intent of harming the victim’s reputation or relationships. Whether the rumors or statements spread are true or not often does not matter, and they can achieve the same effect. Once a group is exposed to a particularly sordid or shocking rumor, it can have a snowball effect wherein the victim is unable to shed the stigma attached to it.
Sharing personal messages with revealing information, or photos in a public forum or within a larger social group. Outing is frequently practiced in the aftermath of a nasty breakup and may include the public posting of revealing photos intended only for the eyes of a former romantic partner.
Outing can be particularly devastating for an adolescent as it may involve the public reveal of their sexual orientation before they are ready to go public with the information. Cases of outing have resulted in suicides by the victims.
Cyberbullying on social media
Despite recently being overtaken by Instagram as the most frequently used network for cyberbullying, Facebook nonetheless remains a hot zone for certain types of harmful online interaction.
As with other social media networks, it is easier for kids to say cruel things about people on Facebook that they’d never say in person. Cyberbullying on Facebook often happens in a “pile-on” situation, where one user will leave a negative comment about another user’s post, which encourages others to follow suit. The gang mentality towards online bullying can have a stronger impact on a child than direct 1-on-1 text harassment, leading to feelings of despair and hopelessness.
Another alarming aspect of cyberbullying on Facebook is that the 13-year old-age limit for Facebook is rarely enforced, meaning vulnerable tweens and young children often create profiles and use the network, exposing themselves to the threat of cyberbullying and other online dangers.
15-year-old Tom Mullaney took his own life after an altercation with a younger boy at school extended to heated textual sparring on Facebook.
In some cases, cyberbullying on Facebook has lead to adolescents taking their own life. This is what happened with Birmingham teenager, Thomas Mullaney. The 15-year old, described by his family as a friendly boy who enjoyed sports, got into an argument with another boy a grade below him at school. The fight got physical, and both boys were suspended from school while the administration conducted an investigation. That evening, the argument between Thomas, the other boy and his friends shifted to Facebook. The dispute began with direct messages, but shifted over to Thomas’s main wall. The younger boy and his friends teamed up, posting a barrage of insults and physical threats towards Thomas. At some point, the taunts grew too much for Thomas to bear. He went back into the family shed and hung himself by a telephone cord. This alarming incident illustrates the profoundly damaging effect that the “pile on” strategy of cyberbullying common on Facebook can have on an emotionally wounded teenager.
As more and more teens have made Instagram their social network of choice, it has become the most common platform for youths to experience cyberbullying. The image-oriented nature of Instagram makes the network rife with opportunity for bullies to make cruel and hateful comments about the appearance of others.
In addition to posting cruel comments, bullies will also post unflattering or doctored pictures of others on their own account, inviting their followers to mock the victim. These posts can often snowball, getting spread around to an audience much wider than originally intended.
The Instagram user @stlukeidiots repeatedly targeted young girls from sixth graders from a Catholic middle school in New York. The victims suffered severe emotional distress and even thoughts of suicide. Law enforcement were called in to investigate the incidents but could not identify the culprit.
In an alarming example of the potential dangers vulnerable pre-teens face on Instagram, an anonymous user, @StLukeIdiots, went on a cyberbullying spree one weekend in May 2014. The user assaulted the Instagram accounts of 11 middle school girls enrolled at St. Luke School in Queens,NY posting mean spirited and hurtful comments under their pictures. @StLukeIdiots drew more than 130 follows before the account was deactivated. The victims were devastated, with some professing the desire to die. Police investigated the situation but the culprit was never identified. This incident strongly illustrates that preteens do not belong on Instagram, where they are vulnerable to the attacks of predators and trolls.
Because snapchat messages, or “snaps”, are automatically deleted soon after being viewed (although there is also the option to create “stories” which exist for up to 24 hours after creation), senders are often not as careful with the content of their messages as they would be with other platforms.
However, despite the fact that snaps quickly “self-destruct”, recipients of the messages are able to take screenshots of the messages and save them to their phone. This can lead to the dispersal of private, intimate content that the sender did not intend to be distributed, leading to embarrassing and upsetting situations.
Snaps are also a means of sending hurtful messages directly to another child, with the knowledge that it will most likely be deleted, leaving no evidence of abuse. Exclusion, where one friend is left out of a “Story” or a certain member of a social group is not sent a snap that others received, is also common on Snapchat.
In a horrifying incident caught on Snapchat, a teen in Ridgewood, NJ was brutally beaten by an assailant after coming to the defense of a girl–herself a cyberbullying victim–, fractured his skull in the incident. The bully then posted a photo of the bloodied boy lying on the ground to his Snapchat account. The victim’s aunt claims that the girl he defended was actively being harassed by a large group of students online after her pictures were shared around on social media networks. In the aftermath of the attack, the boy was then ridiculed on social media for coming to her defense. This incident demonstrates the role cyberbullying can play in tandem with face-to-face bullying and how it can exacerbate and magnify a terrible situation.
YouTube is another site where cyberbullying occurs in a alarming frequency. Due to the fact that YouTube users are often anonymous, they can post cruel, hateful comments on the videos of others without fear of reprisal. The “pile-on” situation that occurs on Facebook also happens on YouTube, with the difference being that users do not have to be friends with the poster to comment on the video, opening the door for for trolls and cyberbullies everywhere to engage in the taunting.
For years, Twitter has held reputation as a haven for trolling and cyberbullying, with many high profile cases making the news, such as when the daughter of beloved comedian Robin Williams was driven off the site following a torrent of abuse and mean-spirited taunts in the wake of her father’s death by suicide.
Cyberbullies on Twitter hide behind anonymous accounts, as on Youtube, freeing them from practicing the restraint they otherwise would if their identity were public. Attacking others for their lifestyles, ethnicities and political beliefs is commonplace. Cyberbullying on Twitter is not just a problem between students and their peers, but a global issue.
Attacks on a person’s political views on Twitter
Texting and other forms
Cyberbullying can also happen through text and personal messages. Though the damaging comments may not be posted for others to see, the harassment can be equally damaging for teens.
Tips for parents on cyberbullying management and prevention
How to tell if your child or loved one is a cyberbullying victim
There’s a chance your child, friend or loved one is the victim of cyberbullying but too embarrassed to admit it. Here are some signs:
Comforting your child after an incident of cyberbullying
If the damage done by cyberbullying is severe, and the victim feels ostracized from their peers or afraid to go to school, he or she may benefit from professional counseling. Professional counselors, at school and otherwise, are trained to deal with cyberbullying and use specific techniques to manage the situation and help victims overcome their pain and self-esteem issues.
Tips on preventing cyberbullying from happening to your child
Cyberbullying laws and in school policy
Reporting cyberbullying to schools
Often a child will not be able to deal with an instance of cyberbullying alone, and the situation may require intervention by the school in order to put a stop to the behavior.
You may believe that confronting the parents of the bully is a good solution, but they might react unpredictably, denying the charge, or becoming aggressive. Research finds that the bullies are often physically and verbally abused by their parents, and they may not be the best individuals to confront about a cyberbullying situation.
Approaching the school in order to deal with an incident of cyberbullying is the best choice. Even before going to the police, this is the best course of action, as the school will have the contacts of every student, as well as a law enforcement liaison on campus at all times who will best know how to proceed with the situation. If bringing in the cops is necessary, then they will likely do so.
Schools are mandated by state law in every state, to have an official anti-bullying policy, with Montana being the last to do so in 2015. Many states have laws that require schools to deal with off-campus behavior as well. Even if cyberbullying incidents take place off school grounds and after the last bell, they may still be forced to take action. Schools are required to keep classrooms a safe place conducive to learning, and off-campus cyberbullying can negatively impact this environment.
Laws against cyberbullying
As yet, there are no federal laws against cyberbullying, however most states have stepped up and passed their own laws against the behavior. State laws against bullying and cyberbullying vary from state to state. An overwhelming majority of states include criminal sanctions for cyberbullying.
The punishments for cyberbullying vary: in California, using an “electronic communication device” to cause someone to fear for their life is a misdemeanor offense punishable by a fine of up to $1000 or a year in jail. While in states such as Missouri, a cyberbullying offender may face a misdemeanor harassment charge.
Educate yourself on your own state’s cyberbullying laws in order to be better prepared and aware of your options if and when a situation arises.
Generally, severe bullying is classified as a Class 1 misdemeanor, but in some states, as in the case of South Dakota in 2009, legislators failed to pass a comprehensive law against bullying. In states where this is the case, cases against bullies can be filed under existing harassment laws.
In an unprecedented case, Michelle Carter, a 17-year-old from Massachusetts, was sentenced with involuntary manslaughter for sending texts encouraging her boyfriend, Conrad Roy III, to commit suicide. Roy, suffered from depression, and Carter repeatedly encouraged him to follow through with his threats to kill himself. In his final successful attempt, Roy filled his truck with carbon monoxide. He told Carter he was scared, and she encouraged him to “get back in”, which he did, and died of inhaling the fumes. The case may prompt Massachusetts to pass a new law which makes encouraging suicide a criminal act.
Share this on your site
- Stomp out Bullying – The leading non-profit organization dedicated to ending bullying for students everywhere.
- Stopbullying.gov – Government sponsored site dedicated to spreading anti-bullying awareness and prevention tips, with resources and directories for mental health centers.
Mental health resources
- Mentalhealth.gov – The federal government’s site of resources for those battling mental illness.
- Get Help Now – A guide on how to act in a variety of bullying and cyberbullying situations.
- Wellness Everyday: Cyberbullying – Excellent mental health resource on cyberbullying created by the Ventura County Mental Health Department
Law and policy resources
- Find Law – Cyberbullying Laws – Guide to laws against cyberbullying around the country
The following are links to each social network’s page where you can report cyberbullying on the site:
- Abuse and Spam on Instagram
- Report abuse on Snapchat
- Report abuse on Twitter
- Report bullying on Facebook
- Youtube’s harassment and cyberbullying policy
Home Safety Resources
If you are concerned about cyber bullying becoming physical, please check out our various security resources and round ups:
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Located 8 km south of Bhubaneswar
, Dhauli is the site of a set of rock edicts left by the Indian emperor Ashoka
in 260 B C. He was the Mauryan
emperor who renounced his blood thirsty campaign of war and destruction and started following Buddha
ís teachings and austere ways of leading life.
Carvings of the head and forelegs of an elephant emerging from the rock, marks the oldest rock-cut sculpture in India (3rd century B C). It is believed to be the spot where Ashoka underwent a change of heart and total transformation. Rock edicts at the bottom hill (260 B C) urge his administrators to rule the land with justice and compassion. Even after 2000 years the inscriptions on these rocks are remarkably clear. Another attraction worth mentioning is the Shanti Stupa or the peace pagoda, an Indo-Japanese collaboration located on the opposite hill.
There are regular bus services connecting Dhauli with Bhubaneswar.
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For birds and other organisms, winning at the game of life is defined as leaving behind more offspring than other members of your species. Biologists call this contributing to the gene pool.
To be successful, it is critical that birds design and perfect mating strategies that produce a maximum number of surviving youngsters. Some birds are monogamous. Others engage in behavior that we might consider morally challenged.
Because raising a brood is hard work, males and females usually pair and share the workload. Monogamy occurs in more than 90 percent of avian species. The male’s role differs from species to species and can include helping with incubation or feeding the female as she incubates, provisioning nestlings, and caring for fledglings, all while defending the nest and youngsters.
Apparently, the number of offspring produced by most monogamous pairs isn’t enough. When biologists took blood samples from the parents and youngsters of many “families” of songbirds, they discovered a sordid truth — the chicks were often of mixed parentage.
Virtually all species of songbirds, and many others, participate in extra-pair copulations (EPCs). Paired males commonly copulate with other females. The behavior increases the males’ chances of fathering youngsters.
Often, the copulations are forced on females, but not always. A female can initiate an EPC by flying into the territory of a male and inviting copulation. She leaves with his sperm, which can create an evolutionary bonus, as it will certainly increase gene variability when combined with the sperm from her mate. And she may attract sperm of better quality if she mates with a male of higher dominance than her mate.
In cases where birds can monopolize desirable habitat or a group of birds of the opposite sex, polygamy is possible. In polygamy, a male or female pairs with two or more members of the opposite sex.
The strategy whereby a male mates with two or more females is called polygyny. Ring-necked Pheasants are polygynous. Desirable habitat will attract a group of hens. The male will protect and fertilize all of the females in his harem but will play no part in brood rearing. Competition between males is intense, and, over time, young and inexperienced males will have a chance to compete for harems.
How they mate
Sage-grouse and prairie-chickens
Of North America’s 278 breeding songbirds, 14 are polygynous, and 11 nest in marshes or grasslands. Red-winged Blackbirds are strongly polygynous. Females like the one pictured above visit the territories of both paired and unpaired males, evaluating the habitat. Usually, males with desirable habitat are paired, while males in poorer habitat are inexperienced and unpaired.
The female must choose: Will she be better off as a second or third female in good habitat or as the only female in poor habitat? Because the pairings and subsequent hatchings are staggered, the male can help feed hatchlings in all nests. Females generally select the polygynous male with good habitat.
In a few cases, females pair with more than one male, a form of polygamy called polyandry. Phalaropes and Spotted Sandpipers are polyandrous. Among Spotted Sandpipers, females are both larger and more aggressive than males, having higher levels of testosterone than monogamous females.
The polyandrous female seeks superior territory that usually attracts several males, and defends it against other females. She pairs with a male, lays a clutch of usually four eggs, and leaves incubation and brood rearing to him. Then she pairs with other males and repeats the egg-laying process. The female plays a con game: because she copulates with multiple males, the incubating males often raise youngsters that belong to their competitors, an evolutionary no-no.
When habitat quality is very good, a female can carry out all nesting activities herself and needs a male only to donate sperm. This mating strategy is known as promiscuity. Competition between males is strong, and in many species, males display in close proximity, sometimes on the same display area, or lek, where females can evaluate many males quickly.
Among prairie-chickens, leks are large. Males gather in small territories within the lek, making calls and dancing. Females evaluate the displays and then stop by males of choice, assuming a receptive posture for mating.
After copulating, the females build nests and carry out all nesting duties. More experienced males hold territories near the center of the lek, and are responsible for most of the matings. Younger males from the periphery continually challenge the older males for the choice territory in the middle.
Different mating systems allow birds to take advantage of reproductive strengths and habitat conditions. The variety demonstrates, once again, the amazing behaviors of birds.
Eldon Greij’s column “Amazing Birds” appears in every issue of BirdWatching magazine. Subscribe. This article appeared in the June 2014 issue. Eldon is professor emeritus of biology at Hope College, located in Holland, Michigan, and the founding editor of Birder’s World magazine.
Read additional columns by Eldon Greij
The amazing way birds breathe.
The muscles and bones that enable flight.
CHISELS AND TONGUES
Why woodpeckers can hammer without getting headaches.
THE MYSTERY OF ANTING
The behavior is common and fascinating but not often seen.
Why birds-of-paradise have gaudy plumage and extravagant displays.
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If there’s one thing about Australia that would appeal to a Space program it would be the large amount of unused space, partially due to its inhability. However, dry conditions with a distinct lack of variable weather do make for great launch sites and technology test beds (See the success of Mojave Air and Space Port). So the question remains, why don’t we see more aeronautical innovation coming out of Australia? Well the answer is two fold but I still believe that there is an untapped opportunity for a certain technology to make its name in Australia.
Although Australia is a resource rich country we lack the capital needed to get a space program off the ground. There’s no discounting the fact that space travel is damned expensive and holding onto the talented people required is difficult even for Australia’s current industries. This means that even though we may have the resources and the talent to do it, Australia just can’t really pony up the few billion a year to support what amounts to a glorified science mission. If Australia’s GDP does get up past a certain level, one where the space program was 1% of GDP or so, we might start to see the government looking seriously at such an initiative, but for now it’s too expensive.
Additionally there’s not enough base infrastructure in place for investors and innovators to take the risk of establishing a aeronautical research company anywhere on Australian shores. Typically, whilst Australian airlines are big purchasers of new technology we aren’t active in research and development. Again I’d put this down to our size since we really don’t have enough people to make development of such technology viable.
However, we do have a massive amount of unused and uninhabitable land right at our doorsteps. Now you may be wondering why this would be useful for testing space technology. Well there’s one kind of tech that requires this much space to be tested safely, the Project Orion. Here’s a video of the idea in action (using normal explosives):
The basic idea behind this kind of rocket is to use nuclear warheads to propel the space craft forward. We all know the devastating power that such devices hold and utilizing them as propulsion is not without its risks. However, even the smallest projected rocket from this technology already passes NASA’s Ares V rocket, and the largest is enough to transport an entire, pre-built city into orbit. Whilst I’m cautious about quoting figures like that it is hard to ignore the lower end of the scale, which would increase our space capability dramatically.
Since we have so much unusable space in the middle of Australia I believe that setting up a base to test this technology on the small scale could be of huge benefit. The risks to people are extremely low, and if we pick the right site the risks to the local flora and fauna could be greatly reduced. It is also a great way to rid ourselves of the nuclear arsenel that has been accumulated over the years.
So, with the resources at hand and a large space to test in, why shouldn’t we give this idea a go?
This year is the Internation Year of Astronomy to celebrate 400 years of astromincal observation and study. This is a great oppotunity for anyone who has even a mild interest in the stars and our place in the universe to get involved in some astronomy. I know that I will be spending the better part of this year staring up at the sky and hopefully, sharing it with everyone who is willing 🙂
I think what puts most people off astronomy is the idea that you have to get up at 1am and drive out to remote locations to get a good view of the stars. Whilst that’s true if you want the best view it doesn’t mean you can’t do some pretty good observing from the comfort of your backyard. In fact there are some great things to see and you don’t even need a telescope, although I’d reccomend picking up a pair of binoculars if you’d like to get a better look at some things.
So, what are some interesting sights to see? Personally I’d reccomend starting off with the Moon, since it’s big, bright and with a pair of binoculars you can seem some incredible detail. The other favourites are Mars, Jupiter and Venus, since they’re all fairly bright and can be seen with the naked eye.
One of my all time favourites will be the International Space Station, which you can plot sighting times using NASA’s Skywatch program. Just select your city and it will give you times that you can view the station.
If you’re hungry for more, the best website I’ve found for sightings of many different astronomical objects is Heaven’s Above. They’ve even got a great guide for deciphering all the terms that use so even if you’ve never done this kind of thing before, you’ll be able to find what you want in the sky.
I spent a weekend down at the coast when the moon was full just a couple weeks ago. I got some fantastic pictures whilst I was lazing on the beach long into the night. I’ll be sure to share them all with you here.
Well it’s the start of a new year and to get it off to a great start the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) is underway with all the big names displaying new tech and gadgets for us all. I usually get pretty excited when these shows roll around as it usually dictates where some of my hard earned dollars will end up. It’s also a good chance to get a glimpse at future trends and what I should be looking at researching for the coming year.
So what have we seen so far? Well there are a couple cool bits of tech that I think everyone should have a look at.
LG GD910 Watch Phone: The good old watch phone. I’ve seen a few of these come and go in my lifetime but none of them have had the appeal that this one does. With touch interfaces becoming very mature and the integration of 3G, video calling, Bluetooth and voice recognition it seems like an actual competitor to other small phones, rather than just a novelty. Depending on the size it may or may not sell well, as I know many people who can’t stand giant watches on their wrists. Couple this with an INVISO G5 and you’re good to go with little more then a pocket full of gear.
EEEPC T91: Now while I’m not the biggest fan of the whole Netbook scene (Windows mobile guy myself, but that’s another story) this is actually quite a bit step forward and I must say, its got me very interested. Although there’s not much info on it, the bigger brother EEEPC T101H is probably the one I’d hang out for. Ever since these low cost laptops hit the market I always hoped that they’d eventually trickle down into a tablet so I’d have a use for them (taking notes in a conference anyone?) and it seems that ASUS has been listening to the market very closely. I’d expect to see these things appearing in all sorts of places, probably replacing many Windows Mobile and Palm devices that are currently being used.
Samsung MBP200 Pico Projector: Whilst it seems that every company under the sun has been releasing tiny projectors this is one of the newest to the scene and it actually works! Many of the other projectors have just been detailed in press releases and what not, but this one is actually on display at CES. Although they are lacking some of the more juicy details like price and release date it is still a cool bit of tech, and would go very nicely with an EEEPC or similar.
I’m going to be following CES pretty closely as it develops and I’ll be sure to pass on anything amazing onto everyone. It seems that this year we’ll be seeing a lot of miniaturization, green technologies and products targeting the low cost high volume market. I’m very interested to see what the next few days of CES will bring us.
If you had asked me just on a year ago what I thought about astronomy, space and exploration outside our atmosphere I would’ve replied that it was interesting and probably left it at that. But after spending a year looking into such exciting projects as Burt Rutan’s SpaceShipOne I started to believe that it might be possible, in our lifetimes, for those who wish to travel into space to do it without spending untold millions for the privaledge. I think it was at that time I realised that if I wanted to do something like that, I should start filling my head with the knowledge of space.
What really got me started was looking at pictures of the vast array of space projects that America, Russian and now the European Union paticipate in. It was in my travels across the internet that I stumbled onto The Big Picture by The Boston Globe. They have some of the most awe inspiring pictures I have ever seen, and I believe everyone should see them. Of course, I’ll also point you in the direction of some of my choice series which got me hooked on the site in the first place 😉
Enceladus: An amazing array of pictures centered around this amazing moon of Saturn. Picture 2 is a piece of art and the animated picture 9 shows just how incredible it is that we have pictures like this.
The ISS, Shuttle and Baikonur Cosmodrome: Something a little more close to home that really shows the human effort involved in getting into space and maintaining a presence there. My favourite is definitely the ISS, I can stare at pictures of that place for hours on end.
It is my hope that one day we will all have the chance to take pictures like this, and not just look at them.
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The April 2017 issue of the Swedish-American Historical Quarterly has published a chapter from my recent book, Scandinavians in the State House: How Nordic Immigrants Shaped Minnesota Politics.
The chapter, “Radicals in exile,” is about some of the thousands of radical and blacklisted Swedes, who left their home country and settled in Minnesota, where they continued their political and union activities as members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the socialist and communist parties of America, seeking to improve the lives of working men and women in their new home country.
It’s not a widely known story of the Swedish immigration to the United States, but it is an important part of how these Swedes and other Scandinavians became involved in and shaped U.S. and, particularly, Minnesota politics.
“Radicals in Exile”
by KLAS BERGMAN
“My grandfather never mellowed. He used to say to me, ‘to be radical is to get to the bottom of things.’ ” Brad Engdahl, a successful lawyer in Minneapolis, remembers with fondness his grandfather Walfrid Engdahl, who was twenty years old when he arrived in Minnesota in 1910 after being blacklisted and forced to leave Sweden following the General Strike of 1909. Born in Ellenö in western Sweden’s Dalsland province not far from the Norwegian border on March 5, 1890, Walfrid Engdahl was almost ninety when he died in Minneapolis on January 29, 1979.
Engdahl was among the Scandinavian immigrants who came to America in the second big migration wave after the turn of the twentieth century. They often came alone, looking for work and settling in America’s cities. Many of them, like Engdahl, had been active in the battles for political and union rights in their home countries and were forced to emigrate for political reasons. They were, in a sense, radicals in exile in America, in a country that, it would turn out, had little appetite for their brand of politics. Like so many other immigrants, Engdahl made his way in the new country by doing odd jobs, working the railroads all over the West and Canada and eventually becoming a carpenter. He was for almost sixty years active in the labor movement, both as an organizer and a writer. He joined mainstream politics in Minnesota and held several positions in the state government before retiring in 1955. He became a leading voice in Swedish American organizations and a prominent pen in the Swedish American press. He left a mark.
These radicals in exile, these political firebrands, came from all over Scandinavia. Their newspapers tell their stories: Norwegian Gaa Paa (Forward) in Minneapolis; Finnish Työmies (the Worker), Sosialisti, and Industrialisti on Minnesota’s Iron Range; and Swedish Forskaren (the Investigator) and Allarm in Minneapolis. There were also radical papers in English: New Times came out in Minneapolis between 1910 and 1918 and was closely allied with the Minnesota Socialist Party and socialist mayor Thomas Van Lear, and Truth, started by Scandinavian socialists and published in Duluth between 1917 and 1923, was militantly socialist and a strong supporter of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Two Harbors Socialist, published in the small North Shore town, was run for years by Swedish and Norwegian socialists.
The records of these radical Scandinavian immigrants are often limited. Some died unknown in the new country; some returned or were deported to Scandinavia, where they often continued their political and union activities. Some remained radical all their lives, while others joined the political mainstream and ran for political office as members of the Farmer-Labor Party or its successor, the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL). Walfrid Engdahl’s story is well documented and gives a good picture of the life of one of Minnesota’s many radical Swedish immigrants through his unpublished and unfinished memoir, “My Life,” and through lengthy interviews in English and Swedish for two oral history projects.
Walfrid Engdahl’s father was a skilled carpenter and cabinetmaker and also cultivated a small piece of land. His mother, a midwife, was an avid reader of religious books but could not write. Walfrid had five siblings, including his twin sister, Ellen, who, he writes in his memoir, was the perfect playmate. She died just four months before he finally made it back to Sweden in 1966 for the first visit since leaving for America fifty-six years earlier. “That is something I regret, very, very much,” he adds.
He left school at thirteen and landed a job as a bricklayer’s assistant at a local hospital construction project. It paid “good money,” six to eight Swedish crowns a day, about a dollar, most of which he gave to his parents so that his father could build a new home. The bricklayer Walfrid worked for was a man named Jonas Larsson, who had worked as a miner in Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, and been active in the radical Western Federation of Miners. Larsson fled to Sweden after the union members were rounded up following the murder of Governor Frank Steunenberg in 1905. Larsson, Engdahl writes, was one of the finest men he had ever met. He once gave him the book Merrie England by Robert Blatchford, a British socialist and journalist: “From then on I dedicated my life to socialism and to the workers. To me, no cause could be more worthy of one’s dedication and efforts than to make the world a better place for all of us.”
At fifteen, Engdahl moved to Stockholm, where he became a member of Stockholms Norra, a social democratic youth club founded in 1892. By 1902, it had 130 members, many of whom would later find their way to America, where they continued their political and union activism. That same year, these young socialists participated vigorously in the big political strike for the right to vote, which Swedish men did not achieve until 1909 and Swedish women not until 1921.
Politics was often discussed at work. Henrik “Hinke” Bergegren and Hjalmar Branting were the two leading social democrats of the time. Branting’s speeches were “genuine” road maps for how the “working class would win its socialist society,” writes Engdahl. Meanwhile, Bergegren “wanted revolution in a bold, open way,” arguing that politics could never establish a socialist society and that only a general strike could destroy the capitalist system. He favored a more revolutionary approach over the parliamentary strategy pursued by Branting, who later became Sweden’s first Social Democratic prime minister. In 1908, Bergegren was expelled at the party congress.
The 1909 General Strike in Sweden was a turning point for Walfrid Engdahl and for thousands of other Swedish workers. The conflict was both a workers’ strike and a massive lockout by employers. It lasted for more than three months and involved a total of three hundred thousand workers. The conflict led to 11.8 million lost days of work and losses of 25 million Swedish crowns. “It changed my whole career,” writes Engdahl in “My Life.” Anyone who took part in the General Strike of 1909 was assumed to have radical ideas and was blacklisted. As an activist in the syndicalist movement in Sweden, Engdahl was blacklisted, and he went home to work for his father until, “I shall never forget that day, when my father told me that I had to leave Sweden because of my activities in the strike of 1909 and my involvement in the radical labor movement in general,” writes Engdahl. His father told him that the bank had refused him a loan for the construction of the community-owned poorhouse because Walfrid was on his payroll. He suggested that his son leave for America; he would lend him the money for the trip. “I did not have ‘America fever,’” Engdahl later said in his 1978 interview with Lennart Setterdahl. “I would have preferred to stay in Sweden. But there were no jobs.”
Engdahl left Sweden for America just as he turned twenty, arriving at Ellis Island in New York on April 1, 1910, one of thousands of blacklisted Swedish workers forced into exile during this period. Accord- ing to official statistics, Swedish emigration jumped to almost 22,000 people in 1909 from 12,499 the previous year. The numbers were particularly high during the last months of 1909, after the General Strike. In December that year, the number of people leaving Sweden was three times as high as in December 1907. In 1910, the numbers climbed even higher, reaching almost 28,000.
During the General Strike, a total of eight hundred young socialists were criminally charged and five hundred were handed sentences ranging from fines to prison terms for giving speeches, insulting the monarchy, or trying to organize. Workers were persecuted at their jobs; many were fired and evicted from their homes. An estimated twenty thousand Swedish workers left for North America because the employers’ blacklists made it impossible to find work. Once in America, many of these men continued to be active in politics and in the unions. They often joined organizations and clubs most similar to the ones they had left behind. The social democrats went to the Scandinavian Socialist Labor Federa- tion, part of the Socialist Party, and to the identically named Scandina- vian Socialist Labor Federation, a wing of the Socialist Labor Party. The young socialists and the syndicalists formed a Scandinavian section of the syndicalist/anarchist Industrial Workers of the World in the United States. The anarchists also gathered around a Chicago monthly called Revolt. Many joined temperance groups, such as Verdandi. Temperance was an important part of their identity, as it was for Engdahl—a lifelong temperance man.
The period following the 1909 General Strike was not the first time Swedish workers left for America after a labor conflict, although never before in such large numbers. In fact, these were years of extraordinary labor unrest, with some three thousand labor conflicts from 1879 to 1909. The Sundsvall strike of 1879 was the first big strike among industrial workers in Sweden. It was followed by the Norberg strike of 1891–92, and the Ljusne conflict in 1905–06. All of them ended in defeats for the workers, and all of them triggered a dramatic increase in emigration to the United States. In the Sundsvall strike around five thousand workers from twenty sawmills participated. The strike was broken up by the military, and work resumed under conditions set by the employers. Isidor Kjellberg, editor of the daily Östgöten, wrote after a visit to the Sundsvall area: “If any plan for the future can be called common there, it is that of leaving, the sooner the better, the present home for America, where many fellow workers—some say 2,000 counting wives and children— have already moved after the breaking of the strike. America is the thought for the day and the dream of the night.” The Stockholm daily Dagens Nyheter wrote: “It is terribly sad for the stranger to come into contact with a whole population that has given up all hope and only wants to leave the country. All thoughts are concentrated on America and how they are to find the means to travel there.”
Emigration numbers from the Sundsvall area during these years confirm that story. While six people emigrated in 1876 and only two in 1878, 264 people left for America in the strike year 1879, followed by 286, 330, 251, and 110 over the next four years. The events of 1879 “tended to destroy the hope of reaching a better position in the near future and induced them [workers] to carry out their plans to emigrate,” and because of disappointment and frustration that better working and living conditions could not be attained, “the labor disputes in Sweden had a direct bearing on emigration to America.” Swedish historian Fred Nilson writes that to emigrate became a choice between eating in America or starving in Sweden: “Emigration became for many in the working class an emergency solution to acute difficulties to survive that often resulted from the employers’ blacklisting.”
The Norberg strike of 1891–92 was actually three strikes in quick succession, with the last as the biggest, involving eight hundred to nine hundred iron mine workers. It lasted almost six months and hinged on demands from the workers for the right to participate in wage negotia- tions. The union was crushed and lay dormant for fifteen years, and none of the strike leaders could get a job afterward. In 1892, eighty people left for America and another forty-two in the first half of 1893. Several of the strike and union leaders were among those who left. In the Ljusne conflict of 1905–06, all political and union activities were prohibited and the right to organize was the core issue. Eventually, in 1906, out of a total labor force of twelve hundred, 105 people left for America, including forty-six members of the Young Social Democrats’ Association, again pointing to “a clear connection between socialist political activity and emigration.”
The General Strike of 1909 was the first nationwide labor conflict in modern Sweden, and the country came to a standstill. The conflict ended in a victory for the employers, as the strike funds for the workers dried up in spite of generous financial support from, among others, Scandinavian workers’ organizations in America. The workers in Sweden had “experienced the tensions and the repressions of expanding industrial capitalism already before leaving for America,” and so when they arrived in the new country, the “confrontation with industrial America was no shock to them.” On the contrary, many of them “were well prepared to take part in the struggle of the American working class.”
Engdahl, once in Minneapolis, wasted no time in rejoining the labor movement. He was equipped with the addresses of the American Federation of Labor Carpenters Union Local 7, founded in 1892 by a group of Swedish socialists, and the local branch of the IWW. He knew no English, but the secretary of the union was a Swede, and with his help, Engdahl started working immediately. His first job was to help build the first hospital unit at the University of Minnesota. Work took him to the Dakotas, Montana, Washington State, and British Columbia.
These first years did not seem to be particularly happy ones, judging from Engdahl’s three letters to Hinke Bergegren, the radical Swedish socialist. The elegantly penned letters were written after Bergegren was expelled from the Social Democratic Party. Engdahl laments the fact that Bergegren had resigned as editor of the young socialists’ paper Brand (Fire)—“our beloved newspaper”: “I left Sweden almost a year ago and all my friends were almost convinced that here we would forget our socialist, or, rather, anarchist, outlook. You do not need to do that. If you start to stir in the American society it is more and more likened with a dung heap, and a rotten one at that. . . . The big and beautiful idea of syndicalism is much misunderstood here. . . . But, the day will come when our revolution will appear and step forth just as thunderous and mighty as we have dreamed of.” He thanks Bergegren for fighting for his ideas, which “also are mine,” and adds, “we will never forget you.”
A new job at the Swedish-language paper Forskaren (the Investigator) was the reason for Engdahl’s return to Minnesota. It launched his career as a journalist and writer. The paper was founded by two Swedes as “an organ of socialism and free thought.” Forskaren, called by the British scholar Michael Brook “a Swedish radical voice in Minneapolis,” was not the first radical Swedish newspaper in Minnesota, starting already in 1876 with Agathokraten (One Who Believes in the Rule of the Good), according to Brook, and Rothuggaren (the Radical) in 1880. In 1891, Gnistan (the Spark), subtitled “A Swedish Radical Weekly,” was founded by the Reverend Axel Lundeberg, who had worked in Sweden with August Palm, the father of Swedish socialism, before Lundeberg came to Minnesota. Gnistan closed in 1892. Forskaren lasted much longer, first as a newspaper and then, for nineteen years, as a periodical. It was closely associated with Frihetsförbundet (the Scandinavian Liberty League), founded in Minneapolis by radical Swedes. It held Sunday school for the children of the members of temperance groups such as International Order of Good Templars and Verdandi together with the First Scandinavian Unitarian Church in Minneapolis, started by David Holmgren, an ordained minister who, facing imprisonment for financial irregularities, fled to America in 1906.
Engdahl became a Wobbly—a member of the Industrial Workers of the World—shortly after arriving in Minneapolis. IWW was a union founded in Chicago in 1905 by Eugene Debs, “Big Bill” Haywood, and a couple of hundred other delegates, among them some Swedish immi- grants. The Wobblies urged direct action through strikes and other means, and they scorned the political process. Their rallying cry was “One Big Union.” At the time, Minneapolis was said to have one of the biggest local IWW organizations in America.
In “My Life,” Engdahl expresses great affinity and admiration for the IWW. There were “no secrets” there; the members were “resourceful and brave” and “enemies of private competitive capitalism in all its wasteful, brutal, and dishonest appearances. Some day they were going to take over the production and distribution of all commodities and urged its members to read and study the essential functions in a free society so that none would live in hunger, want, or slavery.”
At the end of 1915, Engdahl started writing for Allarm, a Swedish- language monthly published by the Scandinavian Propaganda League of the IWW in Minneapolis. The paper had been founded in Seattle earlier in the year under the name Solidaritet (Solidarity), but had moved to Minneapolis. It had a circulation of about two thousand copies. “We tried to tell the truth the way we saw it,” Engdahl said in the Minnesota Radicalism Project interview. “We have always criticized the profit motive, the competitive motive instead of the cooperative motive. We have told about the insane exploitation of the national resources. We have criticized the destruction of foods to hold up the prices.”
One of Engdahl’s first articles was about IWW activist and fellow Swede Joe Hill, whose songbook, To Fan the Flames of Discontent, the IWW published in 1916. Born Joel Emmanuel Hägglund in Gävle, Sweden, in 1879 and also known as Josef Hillström, Hill left for America in 1902 and became a migrant worker out west, eventually joining the IWW. He was sentenced to death and shot by a firing squad on November 19, 1915, in Salt Lake City, Utah, for a murder and robbery he most likely did not commit.
Engdahl writes in Allarm: “Today, I learned to my horror that comrade Hillström had been shot. Today, November 19, 1915. How can something like that happen today? Sleep well tonight, Mr. Governor! What crime has Josef Hillström committed? He was a discontented slave, and he was intelligent. God, that is enough to be criminal!” On the first anniversary of Joe Hill’s death, Engdahl again wrote about his fellow IWW Swede, asking why he should be praised and answering, “because he was a man! In one of his last letters, Hill wrote, ‘Don’t waste time over my memory—organize!’ Those are manly words worthy of remem- bering for everyone.”
Engdahl wrote for Allarm until its last issue in May 1918. He believed being a revolutionary was the “self-evident duty of the awakened worker,” and it is “preferable to die as an honest revolutionary rather than to defend the mortal enemies on Wall Street. It is more honest to die for freedom than for the private capitalists. We are the defenders of freedom and nothing can suppress us.” Is there anything “more rotten than politics,” he asks in another article and calls the approaching World War I the “greatest curse.” It was better to die in an “honest revolution than on the bloody and stinking battlefields.” Engdahl believed that the IWW was the only group that dared to take action.
On September 5, 1917, agents of the US Department of Justice raided forty-eight IWW halls across the country and arrested 166 Wobblies on charges of violating the US Espionage Act. In the final six months of Allarm’s existence, much space was devoted to these arrests and the subsequent trial in Chicago. Among the arrested were three Swedes: the editor of Allarm, Carl Ahlteen; its business manager, Sigfrid Stenberg; and Chicago-based Ragnar Johanson, a painter, IWW activist, and frequent contributor to the paper. A fourth Swede, Edward Mattson, managed to avoid arrest by fleeing to Canada. Returning to Sweden, he became a leading figure in the syndicalist movement.
At the trial, Ahlteen was sentenced to twenty years in prison and fined $20,000, while Stenberg and Johanson each received ten-year prison sentences and fines of $30,000. They never served their full prison terms. In a deal with the US government, they were released in early 1923 and deported to Sweden. A photo in the Swedish syndicalist paper Arbetaren from January 24, 1923, shows three smiling young men in overcoats and elegant hats arriving by boat in Göteborg, welcomed by friends and colleagues.
Carl Ahlteen, spelled Althén in Swedish, came to America from Grimslöv in Småland in southern Sweden soon after the General Strike. According to Michael Brook, Ahlteen prided himself on his hardness and realism, always insisting that the workers must fight for themselves. Power and power alone must be the motto of the working class, Ahlteen writes in Allarm in June 1916, and when the worker wakes up, the time has come when “our comrades once again can breathe freely.” Back in Sweden, Ahlteen’s political and union activities faded, and it is possible that Ahlteen again left Sweden in the 1930s and that he died in Colombia soon after World War II.
Ragnar Johanson was a prominent syndicalist before leaving for America in 1912. Called “a silver tongued orator,” he frequently wrote for Allarm and became a leading itinerant agitator for IWW among Swedish immigrants in America. Once back in Sweden he continued his syndicalist activities and was for many years a manager at the syndicalist publishing house Federativ. He died in 1959.
Sigfrid Stenberg, born in Stora Tuna in the province of Dalarna in 1892, worked in the lumber industry and as a painter before coming to America in 1912. He was Allarm’s business manager until his arrest in 1917. The evidence on which Stenberg’s conviction was based was a telegram he wrote that said in Swedish, “Sänd Allarm”—meaning “Send Allarm,” the paper—which the prosecutor translated as “Send all weapons.” Stenberg also continued his union activities in Sweden. He joined SAC, the Swedish syndicalist organization, and worked as a journalist at SAC’s newspaper Arbetaren until his death in 1942, at the age of fifty.
The three, Engdahl writes in “My Life,” “were intelligent, honest, and idealistic. They had the courage to follow their inner light regardless of consequences.”
After Allarm ceased publishing, Engdahl started writing for other newspapers and periodicals, often about culture, literature, music, and poetry. He wrote for Henry Bengston’s Svenska Socialisten (the Swedish Socialist) in Chicago, the organ of the Scandinavian Socialist Federation, founded in 1910 in Chicago and which had at its height over thirty-seven hundred members, mostly Swedes. He wrote for Bokstugan (the Book Cabin), a literary magazine and official organ of the Verdandi Study League, also in Chicago, started in 1919 by Wallentin Wald, a young painter from Engdahl’s Young Socialists Club in Stockholm who had left for America after serving a prison sentence for distributing pacifist leaflets in Stockholm. At Bokstugan, Wald surrounded himself with a group of enthusiastic literary contributors, among them Engdahl. They were not academically trained, but they were all “serious thinkers and well able to express themselves in both verse and prose.” Bengston said Bokstugan, which published articles in both Swedish and English, “reached a, by far, higher literary standard than any of its Swedish contemporaries in the United States.” September 1928 was its last issue. Wald died in 1946. Later, between 1958 and 1969, Engdahl was a frequent contributor to Kulturarvet (Swedish Heritage), also edited by Bengston and published by the Swedish Cultural Society of America, which elected Engdahl its chairman in 1964. Engdahl also wrote a regular column for the Minne- apolis Labor Review and showed great fondness for early progressive Swedish American politicians in Minnesota, such as Magnus Johnson and Charles A. Lindbergh Sr.
Parallel to writing, Engdahl worked as a carpenter, was active in the Twin Cities Carpenters’ Union No. 7 in Minneapolis, and was secretary of the Twin City Carpenters’ District Council. He also joined the American Federation of Labor (AFL). In a speech on the local radio station WCCO on May 8, 1931, published that day in the Minneapolis Tribune, Engdahl makes a strong case for the working man and for organized labor “to make this world a better place to live in.” He said the “day is at hand when people will understand our motives. The day is at hand when through our effort there shall come an era of happiness such as the world has never seen before, when the morning sun shall shine upon the smiling faces of our children who, in turn, shall dedicate their lives to preserve the cause of liberty, justice and equality which the workers, through endless struggle and sacrifice have won for them.”
In the early 1930s, Engdahl joined the Farmer-Labor Party and held several positions in Governor Floyd B. Olson’s administrations. Until the mid-1950s, Engdahl was in charge of the construction and mainte- nance of the public welfare buildings in Minneapolis. Governor Olson also named him the first union representative of organized labor on the building commission for a new office building. When Engdahl was unable to prevent the commission from setting the pay scale 20 percent below union wages, he went to Olson ready to hand in his resignation. But the governor refused to accept it, and at a meeting to decide on the wages, Olson, according to Engdahl’s account in “My Life,” gave “one of the most factual and forceful speeches I have ever heard. When he was through, the chairman stated, ‘Gentlemen, you have just heard one of the greatest speeches by the greatest governor in the USA supporting the proposition of establishing the union scale as the prevailing scale on our office building. It is up to you to decide what to do.’” The motion to pay union scale carried.
“We had a great governor,” Engdahl writes. “We did not realize the magnitude of the man.” In his interview with Lennart Setterdahl, Engdahl said that “Olson would have been a good president. There was no speaker like him. He was radical, but clever.”
Walfrid Engdahl slowly made peace with the country that had pushed him away. When Augusta Engdahl went to Sweden in 1948 to visit her relatives, her husband chose not to go. For him, Sweden remained a “pariah,” and it was not until the mid-1960s, when Walfrid and Augusta Engdahl spent almost a year in Sweden, that his picture of the old country changed. By then, Sweden was a nation transformed by democratic reforms and the rise to power of the labor movement to which he had helped give birth. To Setterdahl he said, “I got a very good impression of Sweden when I visited in 1967–68. There was a sense of security and happiness. I did not see one sad face during the whole year.” And his grandson, Brad, recalled with a laugh that when his grandfather returned to America, “he said that Sweden was the greatest country, and he was so pleased and so impressed.” Engdahl later wrote in Kulturarvet about Sweden’s rich culture and the big changes that had taken place there: “Much of what we, in our youth, dreamed of has become reality. In a more fortunate way than in any other country, a bloodless revolution has transpired in Sweden, which has given the working people and the elderly free and joyous human dignity. The fear of destitution and old age is now only memory about hard and cruel times that are no more.”
Carl Skoglund and Walter Malte Frank were contemporaries of Walfrid Engdahl in Minnesota. Both, also blacklisted, left Sweden for America as young men in their twenties in the immediate aftermath of the 1909 General Strike. And both left their mark on radical politics and labor relations in their new home country—Skoglund as a militant strike leader and a revolutionary communist until the end of his life, and Frank as a prominent union leader and a man of the political establishment in Minnesota who helped launch the Farmer-Labor Party of Minnesota and ran for political office—a “typical centrist,” as Skoglund once called Frank.
For Skoglund and Frank, as for Engdahl, America did not seem to be “the thought for the day and the dream of the night,” as Isidor Kjellberg had written after the Sundsvall strike in 1879. They were not struck by “America fever.” Skoglund said in a 1960 interview for Minnesota’s Radicalism Project, “I had not thought about leaving Sweden, or emigrating. I had intended to stay, but because of this situation I had very little choice.” And Frank, who refused to serve in the Swedish army, later explained that his three choices were army, jail, or emigration, and he chose emigration.
Skoglund, born in 1884, hailed, like Engdahl, from the province of Dalsland in western Sweden, more precisely from Svärdlungskogen, near the town of Bengtsfors. Growing up in Sweden, Skoglund described a hard life of strife and great poverty, where “conditions were very primitive.” His father was a “semi-feudal serf.” “In reality, my generation became the break between the old semi-feudal life and the new industrial life,” Skoglund said. Skoglund barely had three full school years behind him when he went to work at a paper mill. At twenty-one, he was drafted into the Swedish army like all other young men at the time. After the army, he went back to school for six months and also went back to work at the paper mill, but as he became involved in organizing the workers, he quit, or was forced to quit, and found that there were no jobs anywhere for him. He left for America, arriving in Boston in 1911 and continuing directly by train to Minneapolis, where a series of different jobs fol- lowed—cement mixer, lumberjack, night fireman, and janitor. These were hard years. “At the time, I had carried in my mind to commit suicide and to sit on the Minnesota River to jump in and drown myself,” he said.
Skoglund helped Engdahl edit Allarm, and by that time he had started working for the Pullman Company’s railroad. He also started to write a column called “Kvarnstad Krönika” (Mill City Chronicle) for Svenska Socialisten in Chicago. At Pullman, he helped organize the Pullman workers into a new union, the Brotherhood of Railroad Car Men, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor (AFL). A nine-month- long strike in 1922 cost him his job, and Skoglund never worked for Pullman again.
Shortly after arriving in Minnesota, Skoglund became a member of the IWW, but he did not support its antipolitical syndicalist policies and moved on, joining, in 1914, the Scandinavian Socialist Federation of the Socialist Party. When the Socialist Party split after the Russian Revolution in 1917, Skoglund sided with the left wing, which went on to form the Communist Party of America. In 1928, he was expelled from the Communist Party for opposing Stalinism and supporting Trotsky, and in 1938 he helped form the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party. By then, Trotsky lived in exile in Mexico, and Skoglund had planned to join other party leaders there for political discussions. He never went, fearing he would not be let back into America since he was not a US citizen. In a letter to Skoglund at a hotel in Laredo, Texas, on the border with Mexico, Trotsky writes, “I am profoundly chagrined that you are handicapped by some judicial obstacles to come here. . . . I would be very happy to meet a representative of the ‘old guard’ who many comrades consider their teacher. Natalia and I embrace you fraternally.”
Following the outbreak of World War II, Skoglund and eighteen other Trotskyists were arrested under the Alien Registration Act of 1940, also known as the Smith Act. They were sentenced to jail and Skoglund spent 1944–45 in a federal prison. The Smith Act had made it a crime to advocate the overthrow of the US government and also stipulated that all non–US citizens had to register with the government.
Carl Skoglund, or “Skogie” as his friends and fellow workers called him, is best remembered for his central role in the 1934 Minneapolis Teamsters’ Strike, a “landmark in the labor history not only of Minnesota but of the United States.” The strike, which took place at the height of the Depression, when one-third of the workers in Minneapolis were unemployed, was led by Skoglund and Vincent Raymond Dunne. They had met in the Minneapolis coal yards and came to play “critical roles in the struggle for union recognition in Minneapolis.” Dunne was of Irish and French-Canadian descent, born in Kansas City in 1889, but he grew up on a farm in central Minnesota. He became a lumberjack and a Wobbly and a socialist in his youth. In 1920 he joined the Communist Party and later became a Trotskyist, which he remained until his death in 1970.
“Skoglund was a socialist and a very able man,” Dunne recalled in an interview for the Minnesota Radicalism Project. “He became a very well-known labor leader in this town. He was a thorough-going socialist, an international revolutionary socialist. Once he said to me, ‘This is the place, Vincent Dunne, you have to learn what you didn’t learn when you were a kid.’ I took that seriously. I thought that was a great thing. He turned out to be a very, very good tutor. He was not only a skilled mechanic but he was also an intellectual of considerable stature. . . . He was my first real teacher in the party as a revolutionary socialist. Skoglund knew thousands, and thousands knew him, because he was one of their leaders in the strikes they held. He was one of the outstanding leaders because he was a man that was well educated and so forth, but still a working man.” When Skoglund died in December 1960, his obituary in the International Socialist Review said, “the American working class lost one of its best, most experienced and loyal defenders.”
Skoglund and Dunne had joined Local 574 of the Teamsters Union, and later Dunne’s two brothers, Grant and Miles, also joined. Together, the four were “in competence, resourcefulness, and devotion to the labor movement without peers.” In organizing Local 574, Skoglund and Dunne tried something new. Instead of organizing around occupational special- ties, as was the tradition in the American labor movement at the time, they gathered all the workers together in a new industrial model, which, eventually, became the foundation of the CIO, the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Skoglund and Dunne “perfected a new motorized form of pickets as flying squads, roving the streets in their own trucks and cars, preventing strike breakers from making their deliveries.” They demon- strated an effective mastery of 1930s communication technology, used their telephones effectively, and published a daily strike bulletin. Local mass rallies mobilized support for the strike.
Dunne and Skoglund were more than ideologues; they knew how to put their ideas into practice, and they were well liked among their fellow workers. Skoglund, described as stocky and well built, was a good mechanic and a man who loved astronomy, was a “generous and nice fellow and most of the fellas knew him and if he asked you to join a union, you pretty much had to.” But Minneapolis’s powerful pro-business, pro–open shop Citizens Alliance fought the union all the way and refused to negotiate with it directly. However, a short strike in February 1934 led to some modest wage increases, and union membership rose sharply, to nearly seven thousand by June. The battle now hardened. Encouraged by the New Deal’s National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, which gave labor the right to organize and bargain collectively, Local 574 leaders Dunne and Skoglund announced new demands for a closed shop, wage increases, and extra pay for overtime. But they acted on their own. The International Brotherhood of Teamsters, conservative and averse to strikes, refused to authorize a strike, and the AFL warned its affiliate, the Central Labor Council, not to cooperate with Local 574. The Teamsters charged that the “real objective of the Communists [in Local 574] is to enlist Minnesota in the revolution they hope to start in this country to overthrow the constitution and the laws of the land.” The Citizens Alliance grew greatly alarmed over the development and decided to stand firm. Violence followed. Picketers were arrested. It was close to class warfare. The strike lasted thirty-six days, ending after intervention by Governor Floyd B. Olson, federal negotiators, and even, indirectly, President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The conflict cost Minneapolis $50 million and millions in lost wages for the workers and left four men dead and scores injured. But the union was recognized, Minneapolis ceased being an open-shop town, and “the dictatorship of the Citizens Alliance was smashed.”
Carl Skoglund never returned to Sweden. Because he never became a US citizen, he lived under a constant threat of deportation for his political and union activities. At one point, the US immigration authorities had him on a Norwegian ship in New York harbor, preparing to deport him, but he was saved at the last moment by American socialist leader Norman Thomas. In a poem from 1949 called “The Saga of a Swede,” Miles Dunne, chairman of the Minnesota Section of the Civil Rights Defense Committee, wrote:
“We’ll never let him send him back, Or start him on his way. Join the fight With all your might, Away with darkness, welcome light. Carl Skoglund’s here to stay.
Skoglund died in 1960 at the Marxist School in New Jersey. In Minneapolis in 1984, the hundredth anniversary of Skoglund’s birth was celebrated with speeches and a Swedish smörgåsbord for the “profound contribution Carl made to maintaining the continuity of the revolution- ary socialist movement.”
Frank was, like Skoglund, involved with organized labor in Scandi- navia before coming to America in 1913, with the Swedish sailors’ union and in the machine and metal union in Oslo. Unlike Skoglund, he was raised in a fairly well-to-do family but disagreed with their philosophy of life and struck out on his own. Once in Minnesota, Frank studied engineering at the University of Minnesota. He joined the IWW and went to work out west in harvest and lumber camps. During this time he met Joe Hill—“no doubt about that, he was framed,” Frank said in an interview for the Minnesota Historical Society. Frank’s later union activities involved the Lathers Union and the Building and Construction Trades Council. In a speech in Stillwater, Minnesota, on Labor Day in 1926, he urged his audience to join in the fight for a powerful, militant industrial union within the trade-union movement to build a true class-oriented Farmer-Labor Party. In 1932, he was appointed National Chairman of the AFL Trade Union Committee for Unemployment Insurance and Relief. He was active in the Farmer-Labor Party and ran for the state senate in 1930, but lost. In 1948, he ran for the US Congress as a candidate for the Democratic-Farmer-Labor (DFL) Party, but lost again.
Frank cooperated at various times with the more radical Popular Front and the Trotskyists, as well as with the Central Labor Union’s moderates. He left the Popular Front after the Hitler-Stalin Pact in 1939, and in 1948 Frank was expelled from the Central Labor Union’s political committee for supporting Henry Wallace’s failed third-party efforts to the left of Harry Truman and the Democratic Party. Throughout the 1930s, Frank was often a main speaker at major political and union rallies in the Twin Cities, appearing together with prominent speakers such as Farmer-Labor governors Floyd B. Olson and Elmer Benson. Later in life he talked about the dangers of fascism in America and expressed strong views about the “mistake” of the Vietnam War. “I felt it necessary,” he explained, “to participate in every endeavor to bring forth the real aspirations, principles and ideals, and the power of the working people, and all the connecting issues, and thus to participate also in the parliamentary . . . campaigns.”
Like Skoglund, Walter Frank also encountered problems with the American immigration authorities, although he was a US citizen. In 1951, as he planned a trip to Europe that included a visit to his relatives in Sweden, he was denied a passport. The trip was deemed not to be “in the best interest of the United States,” according to the US State Department. It took Frank more than four years to get his passport and only after interventions from, among others, Hubert Humphrey, then US senator from Minnesota, and after swearing that he had never been a member of the Communist Party. A letter from President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 24, 1956, starting with the salutation “Dear Fellow Citizen,” signaled the end of Frank’s long fight to obtain a passport.
From the late 1880s to the mid-1950s, a remarkable stretch of time, the Scandinavian Left provided leadership to the labor movement in Duluth. Richard Hudelson—labor historian, former philosophy professor at the University of Wisconsin–Superior, and a Duluth resident—points to the sheer number of Scandinavians in Duluth. By 1870 a third of the city’s population was Swedish, along with 13 percent Norwegians and three percent Danes. The Finns came later. By 1920, 75,000 out of a population of 99,000 were foreign-born or children of foreign-born, and the Swedish population in Duluth was one of the largest concentrations of Swedish immigrants in the urban Midwest, proportionally larger than even Chicago and Minneapolis. And they became politically involved early. The members of the Duluth Scandinavian Socialist Local “brought a radicalism” with them from Sweden, and “there is strong evidence for the importance of the connection with Ljusne [labor conflict] in the history of the local” in Duluth.
In 1917, the radical Swedes in Duluth started a paper called Truth. It was an English-language paper, and not Swedish, clearly showing that the Swedes, who were the largest foreign-born group in the city, felt confident enough to reach out to other ethnic groups. Affiliated with the Scandinavian Socialist Federation in Chicago and the American Socialist Party (SP), Duluth’s Scandinavian Socialist Local was one of the strongest in Minnesota. Its membership was almost entirely Swedish and largely blue collar. Socially, the members were close, spending free time together and holding Sunday picnics. Many members also belonged to the IWW, which had first established itself in Duluth in 1911.
As the official organ of the Socialist Party of Duluth, Truth saw its circulation quickly rise to twenty thousand copies. The Duluth Scandi- navian Socialist Local’s members, of which there were more than four hundred, provided the leadership behind their newspaper, “the rock upon which Truth was built.” The paper eventually moved left and took its place on the side of revolution, which meant open support of the IWW as well as of the Russian Revolution.
Jacob O. (J. O.) Bentall was editor of Truth between 1918 and 1922. He had come from Sweden to Minnesota in 1871, only one year old, brought to America by his father, who began to farm in Meeker County. The son worked on the farm and then went to Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, graduating in 1896, followed by four years in graduate school at the University of Chicago. He had trained as a Baptist minister and had been a pastor of the First Baptist Church in St. Anne, Illinois, south of Chicago, as well as editor of the Christian Socialist, founded in 1904 by the Christian Socialist Fellowship. Bentall believed that the principles of Christianity were incompatible with capitalism and that socialism offered a way in which the Christian principles could be attained. He wrote that “to destroy Capitalism was our job.” Bentall was imprisoned twice and ran for governor of Minnesota twice, first in 1916 as a socialist candidate, receiving 23,306 votes, or 6.7 percent of the total, then in 1928 as a candidate for the Communist Party with 5,760 people, or 0.6 percent, voting for him. He was a fierce opponent of World War I and was arrested in the summer of 1917 for violating the wartime Espionage Act. Appeal followed appeal until, in 1922, three years after the war was over and when Bentall was editor of Truth, he started serving a two-year sentence at the Leavenworth federal prison in Kansas. His comment on the verdict was, “Tell them I laugh at it, tell them I laugh at it. Ha, ha, ha.”
President Warren Harding ordered Bentall’s release in July 1923.
In 1929, Bentall was expelled from the Communist Party. By then, Truth had long ago ceased publication and the Duluth Scandinavian Socialist Local had faded away; in Truth’s last issue, its bitter comment was “due to lack of funds caused by the apathy of the workers.” When Bentall died in New York in 1933, he was called the “well-known communist leader” by the Swedish American newspaper Vestkusten (The West Coast). And Jack Carney, Bentall’s predecessor as editor of Truth, wrote: “Comrade Bentall is no spotlight artist, he is one of the best and truest comrades that the movement has produced.”
The thousands of radical Scandinavians, mostly Swedes but also Norwegians and Danes, were often reluctant immigrants, forced into exile to find jobs, to survive. They left their home countries at a time of profound change, when a budding working class started its struggle for political and union rights. They lost that struggle, and they left for America. Many of them, blacklisted for their political and union activities, continued to be activists in their new home country. Engdahl, Skoglund, and Frank belong to this group. The impact of these radical immigrants on Minnesota and state politics was never great. They often moved in narrow circles, among ideological and personal friends, socializing with one another and reading their own newspapers. The exception—and it is a big one—was the Minneapolis Teamsters’ Strike of 1934, with Carl Skoglund as one of its leaders. The strike became a landmark in US labor history as the rights of the union were recognized and Minneapolis ceased to be an open-shop city.
Skoglund kept his communist faith all his life and remained a political outsider, while Engdahl and Frank mellowed politically with time, joining mainstream Minnesota politics as active members of the Farmer-Labor Party.
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Picture credit Dean Ward (IFY Community)
“Wakefield is a clean, large, well-built town, very populous and very rich” – Daniel Defoe (18th Century writer)
Wakefield is a cathedral city of nearly 100,000 people and is situated nine miles south of Leeds on the river Calder. The town is most famous for its coal-mining heritage, cathedral and rhubarb.
The town’s most outstanding feature is its cathedral, which has the tallest spire in Yorkshire at 75 metres, and can be seen for miles around. Originally it was built on the site of an ancient Anglo-Saxon parish church. After the Norman invasion a new place of worship was built for the town. Over the centuries this has changed through various repairs and renovation which has led to the cathedral we see today. It was rebuilt and extended in the 15th Century and changed its name from All Hallows to All Saints Church. After years of neglect throughout the 18th/early 19th Century the cathedral was re-designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott and his son, John from 1858 to 1874 into its current form. It was crucial to Wakefield achieving city status in 1888 and was made a Grade I listed building in 1953. The cathedral was visited by The Queen for the Maundy Thursday service and money distribution ceremony in 2005.
By the River Calder, the Chantry Chapel is one of the last four remaining medieval crossing churches in the UK and can be found at the side of the modern day Wakefield Bridge.
Sandal castle is a ruin on the edge of the city, most famous for being besieged by the Parliamentarians during the Civil War in 1642 and the scene of the Battle of Wakefield, during The War of The Roses in 1460. The battle is also claimed to be the origins of nursery rhyme, The Grand Old Duke of York in reference to Richard, Duke of York, who died in the conflict.
Like many castles in the region it was built by the Normans as a place of power over the population and defence of the town. After the civil war it was largely abandoned and stripped of its defences, with some of the masonry not seen again until the 1960s when extensive excavations were carried out. Their finds are on display at the castle’s museum.
The Wakefield museum, recently re-located to the heart of the city charts the history of the area and its people from pre-historic times to the present day. The revamped attraction was opened by Sir David Attenborough in 2013 and includes a dedicated area to locally born eco-warrior Charles Waterton and other exhibits including Britain’s oldest post box and the pair of Rugby boots worn by local rugby player, Don Fox, who famously missed an easy penalty kick in the 1968 Challenge Cup Final for Wakefield against Leeds.
At nearby Overton, is the National Coal Mining Museum, opened in 1988 and based at the former Caphouse Colliery. Visitors are given guided tours of the mineshaft and there are displays showing how coal was excavated from the earth by miners. Above ground is a visitors centre and exhibitions showing the social history of mining communities, paddy trains, which were used to transport miners and pit ponies.
The Hepworth Wakefield Art Gallery opened in 2011 on the banks of The River Calder. It houses six galleries, influenced by local artists, such as Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore and others displaying the development of Wakefield throughout the last 200 years.
The Theatre Royal was built in 1894 and still shows a variety of plays, dramas, dance shows and comedy. The city also has three green spaces, the largest of being Clarence Park, which also hosts the Wakefield Music Festival and places an emphasis on promoting local talent.
Wakefield Prison is the largest high security jail in Western Europe, housing some of Britain’s most notorious criminals serving life sentences.
The city is also known for being the capital of the Rhubarb triangle, which stretches to Rothwell and Morley to the North. Rhubarb is a native plant of Siberia, but thrives in the cold wet winters of West Yorkshire. It spends two years in the fields before being transferred to warmed sheds where they are kept in complete darkness. The carbohydrates in the roots turn to glucoses, which gives the plant its distinctive flavour. Yorkshire forced rhubarb has now, since 2010, achieved protection status in the EU and the area has become the centre of worldwide forced rhubarb production. The crop plays a central role at Wakefield’s annual food and drink festival held each February and in 2005 a sculpture of a rhubarb plant was constructed in Holmefield Park to commemorate its contribution to the city’s economy.
Wakefield is well linked by road to other Yorkshire towns and cities. It lies between three major motorways, the A1 to the East, M1 to the West and the M62 to the North. The town has also benefitted from the A1-M1 link road opened in 1999 providing easier access to North Yorkshire and bypassing Leeds.
The city, like Bradford has two railway stations, Kirkgate and Wakefield Westgate. The former is the older of the two, opened in 1840 and situated on the Manchester-Leeds line. It provides some services to London Kings Cross and Nottingham, as well as to other local places, such as Leeds, Halifax and Bradford. In the present day the station is unstaffed and over the decades has become run-down and derelict, although still operational. In 2008 part of the building collapsed onto a parked car and the station has gained a poor reputation for passenger safety. The following year it was dubbed one of the worst railway stations in the UK. However at the time of writing Kirkgate is being completely regenerated, with re-construction work being done on the building to make it safe and the inclusion of other features, such as retail space, meeting rooms and a café plus improved CCTV to address the issue of public safety.
The new Wakefield Westgate station opened in December 2013 and was built 300 yards north from the old one. It is possible to reach London in less than two hours from here and trains run to the capital on a half-hourly basis. Services to Leeds, York, Newcastle and Edinburgh are also available.
At the time of writing there is much debate in the city as to what effects the proposed High speed rail link (HS2), linking London to Leeds will have on the city. The proposed route is set to include 11.4 miles of track running through the Wakefield area, but there are concerns of its environmental impact on nearby Walton Hall and a local nature reserve. In January 2014 Wakefield Council voted against the proposed HS2 plan, arguing that money could be spent on improving the region’s roads and a new airport for West Yorkshire instead.
Wakefield has no university, but is home to the Queen Elizabeth I Grammar School, founded in 1591 and is a public school for boys. Notable former old boys include rugby-player Mike Tindall, Andy Cato of Groove Armada and football chairman Adam Pearson. Wakefield College, founded in 1868, provides higher education in the city and has over 10,000 students.
The oval ball is certainly the most prominent feature of city’s sporting prowess. The Wakefield Trinity Wildcats are currently in the Super league and play their home matches at Belle Vue. They were formed in 1873 by a group of men from Holy Trinity Church and were one of the original 22 clubs who broke away to form the Northern Union in 1895 at the famous meeting in Huddersfield.
Association football in the town, unlike many other places in Yorkshire has always run a distant second to Rugby League. Wakefield FC, were originally the football team in the nearby village of Emley, who enjoyed a famous FA Cup run in the late 1990s. They are an amateur club who currently share the Belle Vue ground with the rugby team at the time of writing.
There is a thriving nightlife scene in Wakefield, with some revellers seeing it as a cheaper and more accessible night out than larger places, such as Leeds. The clubs and bars are mainly on Westgate, centred on places such as Reflex, and Havana Bar.
Wakefield has undergone numerous regeneration projects in order to boost the town’s economic fortunes, none more so than in its commercial and retail sector. In May 2011 the shopping centre, Trinity walk opened, bringing many high street names, such as Asda, Game and New Look to the city and creating many new jobs. At the time of writing work is ongoing to regenerate Wakefield’s Waterfront on the River Calder with apartments, office space and leisure facilities. Merchantgate in the heart of the city has seen new improved council offices built, complete with new library and re-located museum.
There is more to Wakefield than meets the eye and is a city finally letting go of its past, and with ongoing re-generation, has a brighter future ahead.
There has been evidence of human activity in the Wakefield area from pre-historic times, but it is widely believed that the Angles, from Germany first sailed up the river Calder and settled here in the 5th/6th century AD. The name, Wacafield, which developed into Wakefield has Anglo-Saxon origins and the settlement was originally based around three roads, Westgate, Northgate and Kirkgate.
Like many Yorkshire places it was a victim of William the Conqueror’s Harrying of the north, which was so severe here that the land around Wakefield could not be farmed for nine years.
However it was still recorded as the town of Wachfield in the Doomsday Book and a Norman church was built in the centre along with Sandal Castle on its outskirts forming two of its most notable landmarks.
Wakefield’s wealth started to grow with the granting of a weekly cattle market and also the beginnings of trade routes on the river Calder, which saw Wakefield start to become an important inland port. On its outskirts the first coal mines were being sunk.
The major flashpoint in the town’s history came with the battle of Wakefield at Sandal Castle in 1460 when the Yorkists, led by Richard, Duke of York were routed by the Lancastrians. Many of their prisoners were held in a part of the Tower of London, which has since become known as The Wakefield Tower. There was also a Parliamentarian attack on the city during the civil war in 1643.
Wakefield’s position on The River Calder became crucial to the town’s development and growing wealth. Originally, unlike other Yorkshire towns, such as Halifax and Bradford, woollen mills were not built in Wakefield because it lacked fast-flowing streams to operate the machinery. Instead it had to look underground to its rich coal seams and stone quarries for its wealth. Furthermore In 1699 the Aire-Calder navigation was created which linked Wakefield to The Humber Estuary just outside Goole.
The railways came to Wakefield in 1840, which increased its ability to export goods and by 1869, 46 coal-mines had been sunk. The town also began to construct mills, which could now be powered by steam, for cloth making and wool. In the fields the first batches of rhubarb were being transferred to dark sheds and the church was being renovated after years of decline, making Wakefield a cathedral city in 1888. It was also the administrative centre for West Yorkshire during this time at the town hall. However, despite these achievements the town failed to develop at the same rate as other nearby industrialised towns, Leeds and Bradford. The population increased In Wakefield by just 9,000 people from 1800-1850, compared to Bradford’s leap from 6,000 to 182,000 over the same time period.
The coal industry in Wakefield continued to flourish and communities around Wakefield became known as “pit villages,” with the mines at their heart. Furthermore seven council estates were built around the outskirts of Wakefield after World War I, expanding the city to its current size.
Wakefield was one of the places at the centre of the 1984 miners’ strike, when the government wished to close many of the city’s fifteen active coal mines for economic reasons and mass strikes and demonstrations took place in the city opposing these moves. Since then the city has struggled to come to terms with the changes made during this period, with high unemployment and poverty reported in some of these communities. However, in recent years Wakefield has become a renaissance town, enjoying mass regeneration of the city centre, modernised railway station, the construction of Trinity walk and the waterfront projects increasing jobs and prosperity in this industrial city which hopes for a brighter future.
It is thought that Wakefield’s name is derived from ‘Wacca’s Field’ in the Old English.
Before the conquest of 1066 by William the Conqueror, Wakefield belonged to Edward the Confessor. After the Battle of Hasting it was owned by William himself. In 1089 Wakefield was laid waste by The Normans in a savage event known as ‘The Harrowing of the North.’ This was a punishment for a northern uprising against Norman rule.
The famous Domesday book show that there were two churches in the vicinity. The one in Wakefield had originally been a Saxon building but this was replaced, in 1100, by a stone built church in the Norman style. It was wrecked in 1315 when the central tower collapsed.
In Medieval times Wakefield was an inland port situated on The Calder. It became a centre for the tanning and woollen trades.
In modern times Wakefield has a population of around three hundred and fifteen thousand people.
The late 20th Century saw the decline of traditional industries in Wakefield , such as coalmining and textile production. Regeneration has begun. The Trinity Walk is a retail development to the north east of the city and the central square has been refurbished with a water feature. There is an art gallery, The Hepworth Wakefield, named in honour of local sculptor Barbara Hepworth.
The city has a famous Rugby League team, the Wakefield Trinity Wildcats. It plays in the Super League and was one of the initial founders of the Northern Union after the split with the Rugby Union, over payments to players.
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Updated: Oct 2, 2019
“And his master commended the dishonest manager because he had acted shrewdly…” — Luke 16:8
Jesus’ parable in this week’s lesson reminds me of the Disney film, Pirates of the Caribbean. I have always enjoyed this swashbuckling adventure (or should I say, “mis-adventure”) story. In the film, the character of Captain Jack Sparrow is very much like the manager in the parable. He is a pirate. He is a self-serving thief and con-man who loves treasure, women and rum. Hardly a character to emulate! And yet, somehow, Captain Jack keeps doing the right things for the wrong reasons. Somewhere deep beneath the crusty barnacles of his irreverent and immoral life, lies a kind heart and a weird kind of compassion that oozes out in spite of him. At one point in the movie, someone says, “Yes, he is a pirate… And a good man.” And there’s truth in that. In the end, his miscreant behavior manages to bring together the hero and the heroine for a happy ending to the story.
The dishonest manager in the parable is, well, dishonest. As Jack says in Pirates, “You can always count on a dishonest man to be dishonest.” That is true of this manager. All attempts at scrubbing this man to make him seem more noble require us to read things into Jesus’ parable that simply aren’t there. Even his own boss says he is dishonest while he is commending him! But, in the end, his miscreant behavior significantly reduces the huge debts of the two people whose bills he adjusts. I would guess they were grateful. Somehow, in spite of himself, he manages to do the right thing.
Jesus seems to join the master in commending the man’s dishonesty. But, I don’t think he is suggesting that his disciples become dishonest scoundrels who squander their property. (Any more than Jesus commends the behavior of the Prodigal Son who squanders his inheritance in the parable that immediately precedes this one). No. Instead, I think Jesus wants the disciples to understand that even scoundrels can do the right thing… even if it is for the wrong reasons. The point is, if a scoundrel like this dishonest manager can do the right thing, so can they.
In Luke, Jesus talks a lot about wealth and possessions. He commends those who use what they have for the sake of others (even if it is in spite of themselves!) and is critical of those who hoard their possessions or use them for their own benefit. Jesus is trying to teach the disciples, and us, that we need to think about how we use our possessions and wealth for the sake of others.
Recently, I heard someone ask the question, “Do you control your money or does your money control you?” I think that’s a good question. Or to put it another way, “Do you serve your wealth or does it serve you?” Or, to push it a little further, “Do you serve your wealth or do you use it to serve God?” Or maybe even to push it a little more, “Do you serve your wealth, or does God use it, through you, to serve the world?” Maybe even in spite of you? Jesus’ frequent teaching throughout the Gospels suggest that how we use our money and possessions is a spiritual matter. Generosity is good for you. It will open your heart to others and to God’s eternal generosity for you. In the end, I like to imagine that the dishonest manager and maybe even Captain Jack Sparrow figured that out.
Thanks for reading! Pray for those who help us invest wisely, and for those who give us the opportunity to share what we have with others.
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Walter Chrysler started out as a mechanic in the train industry, but was rapidly promoted up to the executive suite. When he jumped ship to the auto industry, he gained some fame from quickly turning around General Motors divisions. Walter Chrysler then retired young, having enough wealth to do so, and the story may have ended there—but Willys-Overland had overextended itself, and its creditors lured Chrysler out of retirement with record-setting incentives.
Walter Chrysler found three engineers who had bonded at Studebaker—Fred Zeder, Owen Skelton, and Carl Breer, together “ZSB” or “The Three Musketeers”—developing a new car at Willys. The engineers thought it would be vastly superior to Willys’ current or upcoming cars, and Chrysler agreed; he decided to produce it under his own name at Willys’ New Jersey plant. Then John North Willys regained control of the company—except for the New Jersey plant and the new car, which were bought at auction by General Motors founder Billy Durant, who had by then been tossed out of GM twice (but that’s another story).
Chrysler retired again, but this time, Maxwell Motors’ creditors asked him for another turnaround. Chrysler agreed, and quickly brought in the three engineers he had met at Willys. They fixed the Maxwell car’s problems even as they developed a new car—the 1924 Chrysler B-70, made by Maxwell Motors. It was mid-priced, but had the features, engineering, and speed (70 mph) of a much more expensive car.
One key feature of the first Chrysler was four-wheel hydraulic brakes; nearly every other car had mechanical brakes, usually acting on only two wheels. The hydraulics were based on Lockheed ideas, and Chrysler gave the patents to Lockheed so other automakers would adopt the safer brakes. Another key feature was the six-cylinder engine, with a replaceable oil filter, carburetor air cleaner, and 25% higher compression than typical engines; the latter was possible because of a combustion chamber design with a “squish” area and optimized spark plug placement. The engine provided a respectable 68 brake horsepower on the extremely low octane fuel then available.
The new car was extremely popular, setting a record in its first year with 32,000 sales; in its first full year, 1925, Chrysler production was roughly 76,600, more than the roughly 55,000 low-priced Maxwells. In that year, incidentally, Chrysler created a holding company which purchased Maxwell and Chalmers—a complex way of changing Maxwell’s name and dismissing some financial constraints.
In 1926 or 1927, the revised Maxwell was renamed to Chrysler 50 and Chrysler 52, and in that year, the combined Chryslers were the fourth best selling cars in America. A new car, the Imperial 80, was added, with an 80 mph top speed. In 1928, Chryslers took third and fourth place in Le Mans—and a new brand, Plymouth, debuted, taking the former Maxwell from Chrysler.
The 1929 Chrysler 75 added thermostat-controlled radiator shutters, an idea which has now returned (though under computer control). Chrysler was the first major company to adopt downdraft carburetors, also replacing vacuum tanks with fuel pumps and started wiring cars for optional radios, in the 1930 models. The 1931 cars featured Chrysler’s first eight-cylinder (an inline design, not a V) along with free wheeling (coasting) and automatic spark control.
The 1932 cars brought “Floating Power,” a combination of scientifically placed rubber engine mounts and springs. A new Chrysler invention, oil-impregnated sintered metal, was used for the first time in the ’32 Chryslers; trademarked as “Oilite,” the new type of metal was a major find, and remains in common use. Chrysler did a busy side business in sintered metals for decades (see Allpar for Oilite details).
Throughout the 1930s and into the 1940s, Chrysler claimed first after first. Many of these were part of the Airflow project, which was an engineering coup but a sales disaster, either because they were “ahead of their time” or, as Carl Breer said, “behind their time” (built too long after the public launch, giving competitors time for dirty rumors campaigns). The Airflow cars were still a major influence on European automobile design, and among other things pioneered “cab forward” (pushing wheels to the very edges of the car), coordinating front and rear suspension designs, balanced weight distribution, and aerodynamics testing.
War production shut down car assembly from 1942 to 1946. They basically picked up in 1946 where they had left off, since the engineers had been entirely occupied with making guns, tanks, military trucks, airplane engine, radar units, and so forth. For 1949, the Chrysler Royal had the look of a wooden car body, thanks to a photographic transfer process which simulated polished mahogany; the process was used for car interiors for many years (and not only by Chrysler).
The 1950 cars brought rubber safety padding on the dashboard and the industry’s first electric windows; 1951 brought the world’s first full-time power steering as well as the new FirePower V8, Chrysler’s first Hemi engine. It was the most powerful U.S. production car engine for a time, with 180 horsepower, beating even Cadillac—and starting the horsepower wars which continued until the era ended with a thud in the early 1970s. The company’s first true automatic transmission, a two-speed, was introduced for the 1953 cars, well behind GM and Ford’s automatics. The 331 cubic inch V8 stayed at 180 bhp through the 1953 model year, and when other makes started catching up, Chrysler started increasing its “double rocker’s” output.
The first of the Chrysler 300 “letter cars” was the 1955 C-300, the only stock car of its time with 300 horsepower (gross rating) coming from its 331 cubic inch Hemi V8. The series continued with the 1956 300B (340 hp from 354 cid); it had an optional high-output 354 engine which was America’s first production engine to beat one bhp per cubic inch, at 355 brake horsepower. GM claimed this “first” for one of its 1957 engines, just one year after Chrysler nailed it—the GM engine was also optional. The first car with a standard one-horsepower-per-cube rating, by the way, was Chrysler’s DeSoto Adventurer.
Electronic fuel injection (from Bendix) appeared briefly in the 1958 model year, but they were all recalled and most were replaced by carburetors. It would be over a decade before electronic controls could stand up to the heat and vibration under the hood. A small number of fuel injected cars escaped the recall, and at least one has been painfully restored to working condition.
The 1957 cars were a reliability disaster, with early rust, bean-counters insisting on cheaper parts, and many other problems. While this was mainly due to a rush to production and insufficient testing, the company resolved to put each car through rustproofing baths—but doing this with body-on-frame cars was nearly impossible. As a result, Chrysler pushed all its cars to unibody construction (most kept a stub frame due to assembly-line limits); and the 1960 cars were, except for some low-production models such as station wagons and Imperials, unibodies. The bodies were strong enough to be dragged through the rustproofing baths, and had extra stiffness for better cornering afterwards. At this point, the corporation had three basic car bodies, which were assigned codes later (and retroactively). The smallest cars were the A bodies—the Valiant and, after a short delay, the Lancer (later to be renamed to Dart). The midsized cars—the ordinary Plymouths—were B bodies. The big cars were C bodies, and would be until the 1970s. From the early 1960s on, there would be considerable overlap between Plymouth, Dodge, and Chrysler, but generally Chrysler had the biggest bodies in this “buying cars by the pound” era. The first Chrysler to be a B-body was still some years away.
The 1960 300F gained a 375-hp engine with “ram induction,” where the intake runners were tuned to provide a supercharging effect. Two new Chrysler options were vacuum-powered door locks and swivel seats. Brand new bodies joined the Chrysler line in 1965 for the first time since the 1960 models; they had a longer wheelbase and better corrosion protection from galvanized sills and full front wheelhouses. The 1966 models had the first independent rear heater, which defrosted or defogged the rear window as well as providing more heat.
In 1971, net horsepower ratings were published for the first time; in 1972, gross horsepower figures were no longer published. It looked to many as though power had dropped by 30-50 hp, but in reality it was a difference in how the numbers were measured, easily seen by looking at the 1971 figures for gross and net power (the only year both were reported). The fuel crisis of 1973 would prove fatal to the bigger-is-better philosophy, and the 1975 Cordoba ushered in the B-body (intermediate sized) Chrysler. In the 1980s, Chrysler badges ended up on compact cars as well—albeit with more chrome, fancier options, and in some years, substantial bodywork changes. They usually shared engines, and some were rather odd—the Chrysler Executive and Limousine of the 1980s in particular, with their Mitusbishi four-cylinders and extended bodies. The first year of the Chrysler Town & Country minivan was differentiated almost entirely by its “waterfall” grille and leather-covered seats.
Chrysler continued on with various degrees of differentiation, sharing nearly everything with Dodge and sometimes Plymouth, but usually with higher level trim and more exterior chrome; the design studios adopted waterfall grilles for Chrysler to set their cars apart, while Plymouth moved to “egg-crate” grilles and Dodge went to horizontal slats. In the late 1990s, Chrysler gained two unique large cars, the LHS and 300M; the 300M was to be an Eagle Vision until the last minute, when Eagle was shut down and the Vision was moved to Dodge. It was the smallest LH-body car, designed mainly for European sale, but also with lower weight than the other LH cars; that and a standard high-output (250 hp, net) engine made it the quickest LH car by far. This may be the only time a Chrysler was smaller than the equivalent Dodge (Intrepid)—but they also sold a longer-than-Dodge version, the LHS.
Through design chief Tom Gale, Chrysler was seeking its “look” and its niche with a series of concept cars throughout the 1990s. Dodge took after the Viper; Plymouth was starting to take after the Prowler, with the PT Cruiser as the first mainstream version of this idea. Daimler took over Chrysler in 1998, and Plymouth was shut down in 2001, with the PT Cruiser going to Chrysler instead. With Mercedes in the mix, Chrysler’s top end was fixed—below Mercedes—but the bottom end dropped, encompassing inexpensive mass-market compact cars (PT Cruiser) and value minivans (Voyager, base model Town & Country). The company even gained its first-and-only truck-based SUV, the Chrysler Aspen—based on the Dodge Durango. (It also had its first crossover during the Mercedes years, the original Pacifica, which was a far more impressive effort—and which was unique to Chrysler.)
In 2007, Cerberus took over, removing Chrysler’s ceiling to a degree; but the brand had been hurt by years of neglect and the Plymouth cars. The 2009 Fiat takeover was promising at first, with Chrysler cars pushed up and sold in Europe under the Lancia brand, but then Fiat Chrysler withdrew Chrysler cars from Europe almost entirely.
By 2020, Chrysler had exactly two cars, the 300 and the Pacifica (also sold as the Voyager), and was mostly confined to North America. Ironically, Chrysler ended up as the only Stellantis brand with a minivan—ironically because it took years for Chrysler to get a version of the Plymouth and Dodge minivans.
The merger with Peugeot (PSA) brought a new attitude. Stellantis’ leader, Carlos Tavares, said they would make a full investment in Chrysler, and re-evaluate it after ten years. New Chryslers are being developed; the Airflow concept car is likely the first to show up, albeit in 2023 or 2024. It appears that the choice of keeping Chrysler alive will be up to American and Canadian car buyers—if they buy, Chrysler will keep going; if they do not, it will have enjoyed over a century of life, which is not a bad run.
Chrysler 1925: The first (or second or 31st) year
Possibly the most advanced car of its day
Chrysler Sunbeam: winner of the rallying championship
An Avenger variant
1970 Chrysler 300-H
1971 Dodge, Plymouth, and Chrysler cars
All the ’71s
Brampton: Making big Mopars
Home of the Charger, Challenger, and 300
Car Spotter: 1948 Chrysler Windsor and 1940 Dodge at a Newark used car lot
Classics in an odd spot
Copyright © 2021-2023 Zatz LLC • Chrysler / Mopar car stories and history.
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Despite Goldman Sachs' prediction that all cryptocurrency will eventually lose its value, it seems stories of overpriced graphics cards, startup scams, and scientists getting into bother are never far from the headlines at the moment.
This weekend, the UK's Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) was forced to close down its website after hackers gained control of its visitors' computers in order to mine cryptocurrency.
As reported by the BBC, security researcher Scott Helme suggested over 4,000 websites were affected—including a number of government sites—however the affected code had, as of yesterday, been disabled with visitors no longer at risk. Helme—who was alerted by a friend who had received a malware warning when visiting the ICO website—was able to trace the issue to a plug-in called Browsealoud, used to help partially sighted and blind people online. The company who makes the plug-in, Texthelp, thereafter confirmed the plug-in was hit for four hours by code designed to generate cryptocurrency.
According to the BBC, the cryptocurrency involved was Monero—a Bitcoin rival designed to be untraceable. Given crypto mining involves leveraging vast processing power in order to solve complex maths problems—in turn using substantial amounts of electricity—using someone else's computer to do the heavy lifting, I imagine, would in turn make this untraceability appealing.
But, listen, I'm far from an expert on the subject. Look for Jared, Paul and/or Tuan's more cultured words on the subject over here.
Speaking to the Beeb, Helme said: "It's a very lucrative proposal. They infect one website and it infects close to 5,000. This was a very serious breach. They could have extracted personal data, stolen information or installed malware. It was only limited by the hackers' imaginations."
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Strong Core | The Podiatrist and yourfeetnz
Our core is much more than just our abdominals. It includes the thoracic and lumbar spine, abdominal muscles, back muscles, pelvic and hip girdle muscles (especially the gluteals) and the thigh muscles.
Core exercises should be a key component of any training program – especially a distance running program. A correctly functioning core will yield proper biomechanics and force production, providing stability (including lumbar, pelvic, and lower limb stability), power and endurance.
When your core is weak, it can lead to increased strain in other parts of your body and could contribute to compensation and overuse movement patterns, over-striding or under-striding with running and increased frontal plane movements (side to side movements) of the lumbar spine, pelvis and hips.
These compensatory movement patterns will lead to overuse injuries and have been linked to various disorders common to runners, including:
Iliotibial band (IT Band) syndrome — The iliotibial band is a thick band of fascia (a thin sheath of fibrous tissue enclosing a muscle or other organ) that crosses the hip joint and extends distally to insert on the patella, tibia, and biceps femoris tendon. Repetitive movements and overuse can cause irritation and inflammation in the knee or lead to snapping hip or hip bursitis.
Patellofemoral pain and dysfunction — The patella, your knee cap, floats within the trochlear groove on top of the femur. If the mechanics of your running is not ideal, then the kneecap may be pushed to one side of the groove when the knee is bent causing pain.
Low back and Sacroiliac (SI joint) disorders — SI joint is responsible for transferring the weight of the upper body to the lower body. It is located in the pelvis connecting the iliac bone (pelvis) to the sacrum (the lowest part of the spine). With a lot of repetitive movements you can cause hypermobility of the joint.
Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (shin splints) — This refers to the pain in the front of leg that develops when you increase your mileage too fast. Most of the time this is caused by a training error due to fatigue.
Achilles tendinopathy — The Achilles tendon connects the calf muscle to the heel bone. Tendinitis (inflammation) and Tendinosis (microtears in the tissue around the tendon) are common problems.
Plantar fasciitis – This band of tissue runs across the bottom of your foot and connects your heel bone to your toes. It is one of the most common causes of heel pain.
A core strengthening program can help prevent these types of injuries and should progress initially from “open-chain” (i.e. non-weight bearing) exercises toward “closed-chain” (weight bearing) exercises. The goal is to stimulate and train the muscles to function in a manner and position that they would normally when under stress.
In running, our bodies are erect, with weight bearing and landing on our legs, so the strengthening exercises should reproduce these positions and movement patterns. The exercises should also incorporate all planes of movement of the body to allow ideal muscle stimulation and development.
For all your foot problems visit The Podiatrist
Posted on May 11, 2015, in Contact a Podiatrist, What is a Podiatrist, Your feet and tagged abdominals, ACC, achilles pain, Achilles tendonitis, arch, arch pain, arch support, arch supports, Athletic shoe, auckland podiatrist, auckland podiatrists, auckland podiatry, auckland podiatry clinic, backpain, bones, Caron Orelowitz, Child, children, children's foot problems, childrens feet, claw toes, core stability, east auckland podiatry, feet, femoral, flat feet, Foot, foot care, foot experts, foot inserts, foot orthoses, foot orthotics, foot pain, foot specialist, foot specialists, Health, healthy feet, heel pain, heels, hips, iliotibial band, iliotobial band, inflammation, inserts, ITB, knee pain, knees, leg, lumbar, lumbar pain, lumbar region, muscles, new zealand podiatrist, north shore podiatry, orthotics, paediatrics, pain, painful feet, patella, pelvis, plantar fasciitis, Podiatrist, podiatrists, podiatry, podiatry new zealand, podiatry nz, PodiatryNZ, pronation, remuera podiatrist, remuera podiatrists, remuera podiatry, running, running injuries, Running Shoes, sciatica, shin splints, Shoe, shoes, spine, stability, stomach muscles, tendonitis, tummy muscles. Bookmark the permalink. Leave a comment.
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between HIV therapy and fracture risk is far from straightforward, US research
presented to the International AIDS Society conference (IAS 2011) in Rome suggests.
An analysis including
over 56,000 HIV-positive military veterans who received care between 1988 and
2009 failed to find any significant association between antiretroviral
treatment and fragility fractures.
Incidence of fractures
increased after the introduction of effective HIV therapy, but the researchers
believe that this could simply be because more patients were surviving into
However, when analysis
was restricted to patients who received care after 1996, an association was
found with tenofovir (Viread, also in
the combination pills Truvada and Atripla) and lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra). Even so, the investigators
stress that traditional risk factors such as smoking and diabetes were much
It is now well known
that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with HIV. The exact causes are
controversial, but appear to include traditional risk factors, especially older
age, HIV infection, and possibly therapy with some antiretroviral drugs.
significance of this reduced bone mineral density is also unclear. Some (but
not all studies) have found that it is associated with an increased risk of
so-called fragility fractures (a fracture that occurs from a fall from standing height or less, usually to the wrist, vertebrae or hip).
Investigators from the US Department of Veterans’ Affairs conducted a
retrospective study involving patients who received care between 1988 and 2009.
Data were gathered on
the incidence of fragility fractures, and the patients’ medical records were
examined and information extracted on traditional, HIV-related, and
antiretroviral-related risk factors.
Incidence of fractures
increased from 1.61 events per 100 person-years in the pre-treatment era to
4.06 events per 100 person-years after the introduction of combination HIV
Fracture rates were
significantly higher among men, smokers, individuals with diabetes, and those
co-infected with hepatitis C virus (all p < 0.0001).
The first set of
statistical analysis showed a significant association between fragility
fractures and traditional risk factors including white race (p < 0.0001),
older age (p < 0.0001), smoking (p = 0.003), lower body mass index (p =
0.007), and hepatitis C co-infection (p < 0. 0001).
Cumulative exposure to
antiretroviral therapy was significant in univariate analysis (p = 0.02), but
fell just short of significance in the adjusted model (p = 0.77).
An analysis of the
entire cohort of patients found a significant association between fragility
fracture risk and tenofovir therapy (p < 0.001), as well as treatment with Kaletra (p = 0.015). However, both
associations ceased to be significant after controlling for traditional risk
The investigators then
restricted their analysis to people who received care after 1996, following the
introduction of effective combination HIV treatment.
association was found with tenofovir therapy, even after controlling for
traditional risk factors, each year of treatment increasing the risk by
approximately 12% (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.12; 95% CI, 1.02-1.21, p = 0.011).
After controlling for
other risk factors, there was also a significant association with Kaletra, therapy with this drug
increasing the risk of fragility fractures by 8% (HR = 1.08; 95% CI, 1.01-1.15,
p = 0.026).
When the two drugs
were used together, the risk of fractures was further increased.
Despite these finding,
the investigators were circumspect about the association between antiretroviral
therapy and the risk of fractures.
Most importantly, the
risk associated with cumulative exposure to HIV therapy was modest when
compared to those associated with traditional risk factors, especially white
race, ageing and smoking.
They also suggest that
the higher fracture rates in the treatment era, and the significant association
with tenofovir and Kaletra, could
simply be because people with HIV are living longer.
Although they believe
that the large sample size was a major strength of their study, they also note
a number of limitations. These include the retrospective design, and the fact that no
information was available on the patients’ bone mineral density.
exposure likely does not account for the increased risk in the HAART era,”
conclude the investigators.
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A Congo Chronicle: Patrice Lumumba in Urban Art
February 21–March 18, 2006
A Congo Chronicle: Patrice Lumumba in Urban Art features approximately ninety examples of Congolese Urban art, or popular painting that portray the life and tragic death of Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Congo after its independence from Belgium in 1960. The exhibition includes a series of nearly fifty paintings by Tshibumba Kanda-Matulu, an influential artist of the 1970s, and a number of recent works by other Congolese contemporary artists who emulated his style. Reflections of prevailing popular taste, these paintings demonstrate how memories of Lumumba were transformed into a powerful visual narrative of a cultural hero.
Urban art is traceable from early 1920's paintings depicting colonial "modern life," through 1940's and 1950's paintings assimilating African "modern life," to 1970's chronicles of social and political memory. The significance of the resultant African "social realism," an idealistic historic documentation, is its focus on recognizable themes such as social injustice, street violence, political arbitrariness, and gender and generational conflicts. Through them, the viewer gains insight into the popular issues of the era.
These popular depictions of Patrice Lumumba exemplify the Congolese tradition of venerating mythic or cultural heroes. Just as classical African sculptures portrayed cultural innovators, urban art helped transform Lumumba into a powerful symbol. He embodies the dream of national unity, democracy, and independence, despite being largely omitted from official Congolese histories of the Mobutu era. With the recent upheavals in the political leadership and social fabric, A Congo Chronicle is a timely examination of how Lumumba became not only a Congolese hero, but also an African and African-American hero.
Curator Bogumil Jewsiewicki of Laval University, Quebec wrote the accompanying full-color catalogue. Essays by contributing scholars Jean Omasombo Tshonda, Nyunda ya Rubango, Dibwe dia Mwembu, and Mary Nooter Roberts and Allen F. Roberts discuss popular urban art, the life of Patrice Lumumba, Tshibumba's series of Lumumba paintings, the Congolese memory of Lumumba, and Congolese cultural heroes.
This exhibition was organized by the Museum for African Art in New York and guest curated by Bogumil Jewsiewicki. The traveling exhibition is made possible through a grant from the Nathan Cummings Foundation. Support for the creation of the exhibition was received from the LEF Foundation and the Lannan Foundation. The showing at the Wallach Art Gallery has been made possible, in part, by an endowment established by Miriam and Ira D. Wallach.
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The major difference between bipolar junction transistor and field-effect transistor (FET) is that the BJT is a current device, and the FET is a voltage device.
The current through the collector-emitter circuit of a BJT is controlled by the amount of current in the base-emitter circuit. A FET controls current in the source-drain circuit by the amount of potential applied to the gate.
Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Types
There are two types of FETs, the junction field-effect transistor (JFET) and the metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). First, we will look at the JFET.
The construction and symbols for the JFET are shown in Figure 1. The three main parts of the JFET are the source, drain, and gate. These three parts are similar to the three main parts of a typical bipolar transistor.
The source compares to the emitter. The drain compares to the collector. The gate compares to the base. The gate is diffused into the channel material. The channel is a path from the source to the drain. The channel through the center of the device can be P- or N-type material.
Figure 1. The physical construction of typical JFETs and their schematic symbols.
The current through the device is controlled by the gate potential. See Figure 2. If a small potential is applied to the gate, a large current through the P channel will exist.
If a large potential is applied to the gate, a small current will exist in the channel between the source and the drain. Notice how the potential applied at the gate pinches off the flow of electrical energy.
Figure 2. The amount of voltage applied to the gate will determine the current value from the source to the drain.
Another type of FET is the MOSFET. It is used extensively in digital circuits and memory circuits in computers. Look at Figure 3.
The MOSFET is similar in construction to the JFET. The difference is that the MOSFET has a very thin film of insulation (silicon dioxide) between the gate and the channel area.
The layer of insulation is so thin that it can easily be damaged by static electricity. Care must be taken when handling MOSFET transistors and devices.
Figure 3. The MOSFET is similar in construction to the JFET.
The thin layer of high resistance insulation prevents electron flow between the gate and the channel material.
The high resistance between the gate and channel area makes for a very high impedance input device. A high impedance input device is very desirable in circuits such as amplifiers.
Also, the channel consisting of the same material from the source to the drain provides a very low impedance path. A low impedance, or low resistance, a path through the channel is also very desirable for devices such as amplifiers.
There are two main types of MOSFET, enhancement mode and depletion mode.
In a depletion-mode MOSFET, a current through the source-drain circuit is reduced by the gate voltage.
In an enhancement-mode MOSFET, a current through the source-drain circuit is increased by the gate voltage.
Look closely at the four symbols used for the MOSFET, Figure 3. The symbols differ for N-type and P-type channel materials and for enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFETs.
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A new report reveals that scientists may have taken the first crucial steps toward developing a vaccine that will treat not specific strains of influenza, but all of them. The finding could change the way that the flu vaccine is doled out — meaning that, instead of being vaccinated for a specific strain of flu every year as humans currently are, one single shot could vaccinate us against any and all strains in perpetuity.
The new study, which was first published in the scientific journal Nature Medicine on Monday, describes a universal flu vaccine candidate that could change the way we vaccinate ourselves against influenza. The theoretical vaccine takes advantage of the properties of the influenza virus, which, as the article explains, resembles a lollipop, with a head and a stalk. The "candy" part of the virus, the head, is covered in proteins known as hemagglutinins (HAs).
Existing influenza viruses target specific HAs by injecting weakened or inactivated version of the influenza virus directly into the body, which can then recognize the antigens — that is, the molecule or molecular structure found on a disease-causing organism (or pathogen) — and develop an appropriate immune system response.
The challenge in fighting the viruses this way, though, is that the influenza virus can quickly mutate and swap genes between strains, making it possible for people who have developed immunity to one strain of the virus (whether naturally or through vaccines) to be vulnerable to an evolved version. This is why new vaccines are repeatedly developed and given out, so that our bodies can keep up with the latest influenza evolutions.
"Influenza virus infections are a substantial public health concern," the authors of the paper explain. "Seasonal influenza causes between 290,000 and 650,000 deaths every year globally, according to the World Health Organization. In addition, influenza pandemics occur at irregular intervals and can claim millions of lives. The most devastating example is the H1N1 pandemic of 1918, which caused 40 million deaths according to conservative estimates. Current seasonal influenza virus vaccines contain three or four strains of influenza virus that cover the viruses circulating in the human population."
The new vaccine candidate, which was developed by virologist Florian Krammer of the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and her colleagues, attempts to circumvent this problem by developing a vaccine that kills the virus by targeting it stalk rather than by aiming for the head. The previous challenge to doing this is that the human body has grown accustomed to attack influenza strains through the head and can override efforts to produce antibodies intended to target the stalk. Krammer and her colleagues have attempted to solve this problem by creating a strain of the virus that uses the influenza stalk but creates a completely new head. Because the so-called chimeric HAs (cHA) do not trigger immune memory, the body does not create as many antibodies targeting the head and instead focuses more on the stalk, which it does recognize.
"Boosting with a cHA that has the same stalk but a different head induces another primary response against the new head but a recall response against the stalk, since the immune system has already seen that stalk," the scientists explain in their paper.
As researchers rush towards production of a novel coronavirus vaccine, it has been a banner year for biomedical research, with all kinds of advance in the field of immunology and microbiology. Last week, in a paper published by the scientific journal Nature Communications, scientists announced that they had used CRISPR – a genetic technology that can alter DNA — to successfully edit SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), a virus similar to HIV, out of the genomes of rhesus macaque monkeys' cells, potentially laying the groundwork for similar biotechnology to help people defeat HIV. Meanwhile, some of the most promising vaccine candidates for the novel coronavirus, which are being distributed shortly, rely upon an entirely new vaccine technology, known as synthetic mRNA, that has never been mass-produced until now. Indeed, last month, multiple biotechnology companies, including Moderna and Pfizer (which worked with BioNTech), developed promising coronavirus vaccine candidates that made it past Phase III, or the part of a clinical trial where a smaller group of patients is expanded and made more diverse so that a vaccine can be tested for efficacy and safety.
By contrast, the influenza study was only a Phase I experiment, one in which 51 people received a variety of vaccines and 15 people were given placebos. The small size of the study is further underscored by the sheer number of influenza strains that exist, with three to four strains being known as group A and other influenza virus strains being known as group B. According to Krammer, if their technology is successful, it will take years before there are enough cHAs from both groups to turned into a universal influenza vaccine.
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Scientists from Lancaster and Manchester Universities are to analyze one of the simplest ways to make use of robots to assist clear up radioactivity with a £1.49 million grant from the Engineering and Bodily Sciences Analysis Council (EPSRC), a part of UKRI.
The four-year ALACANDRA undertaking is led by Professor Malcolm Joyce from Lancaster College’s Department of Engineering and Professor Barry Lennox from the College of Manchester. It brings collectively Lancaster’s experience in radiation sensing know-how and Manchester’s excellence in robotics.
The robots, carrying cutting-edge imaging tools, will probably be used to enter contaminated amenities akin to deserted nuclear energy stations the place the extent of radioactivity is simply too excessive for folks. Their process will probably be to supply invaluable data on sources of radiation that may inform clean-up operations.
Professor Joyce stated: “A few of these amenities will not be protected as a result of they’re previous and weren’t designed to final this lengthy. It is very important make them protected now to make sure radioactivity doesn’t get out, and since the longer this takes the harder and costly it turns into as new issues come up. Nevertheless, this can take a very long time to finish: at Sellafield, the time wanted to finish that is forecast to be 120 years. Which means if they don’t seem to be handled successfully now, these issues will fall to future generations.”
Nevertheless, merely sending robots to detect radiological hazards has two issues:
· Radioactivity is commonly dispersed, with contamination arising from leaks, splashes, tide marks in vessels and migrating into porous supplies, yielding a 3D distribution in house. Radiation detector methods and imagers have problem with this.
· Contaminated locations are sometimes cluttered with course of tools, detritus and building supplies which might trigger the radiation to scatter and in addition take in it. This influences the ‘image’ and might distort how a lot radioactivity is considered current.
Using a industrial robotic platform means it’s doable to make an evaluation of a contaminated space from a variety of complementary vantage factors and to fuse the picture information obtained from this number of views.
Professor Joyce stated: “It is very important preserve human oversight of those operations by driving the robotic slightly than affording it full autonomy in case difficulties come up in recovering it. This raises the query: How can we interpret robot-derived data from a wide range of views inside a cluttered house contaminated with dispersed radioactivity, to assist us perceive what hazards could exist, shortly and successfully?
“Our analysis instantly addresses this drawback. We suspect that the general contamination image a detector sees is made up of a mix of a number of small bits of radiation data. By advancing our interpretation of the mixed affect of those on a radiation detector system, carried by a robotic, we hope to attach what we observe with our understanding of the radioactivity that’s current, therefore enabling robots to help within the clean-up of those areas extra effectively.”
Supply: Lancaster University
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Militia Laws of Carolina and Georgia
The Enlistment of the Black Population, 1663 – 1763
Their natural faculties are as good as ours. The Negroes made hardy soldiers. Their faithfulness in doing fatigue duties, or labor, their patient endurance of heat and cold, hunger and thirst, and their bold efficiency in battle made officers who frowned on them at first, learn that they were equal to any troops in the Army.1
----Colonel Alexander Hamilton
Benjamin Quarles, in his book The Negro in the Making of America
, stated that “the role of the Negro in the making of America is generally neither well known nor correctly known,” and it is the job of the historian to make sure that blacks find their way on to the pages of history books.2
In undertaking this task historians must examine all relevant primary sources to insure that they can interpret the information in the context that it is written. Historians must also re-examine what has been previously written and published to make sure that it is neither incomplete nor distorted, and that is the intention of this paper.
African-American history can mark its beginnings as a topic in American History in the late 1950s, primarily because of the changes that came about during the struggle for civil rights. Since the 1950s many non-historically black college and universities began to develop courses to teach the role of African-Americans in American history. Scholars and researchers had also begun to examine the African-American and publish scholarly information to inform all citizens that American history is a history of all people.3
At about the same time that the changes to include African-American history in American history was unfolding, there was also a change coming in the field of military history. In the 1970s a "new" concept of military history began to emerge and this concept would change the way in which military history is taught and written. Military history, prior to the 1970s, concentrated more on tactical and strategic aspects of war, but the new concept intertwines the battles with the social and economic aspects of war. What this means for many historians is that they now can concentrate on a "comprehensive military history" that involves all "individuals and groups that make up the national security community."4
This concept of the "new military history" along with African-American history is the basis for this paper, which will concentrate on the militia laws that entitled African-Americans in the Georgia and the Carolinas from 1663 to 1763.
In 1663, a group of eight Proprietors received a Royal Charter from Charles II to the land south of Virginia, in which they settled and named Carolina. The boundaries of Carolina stretched from the Virginia border south to central Florida.5
The northern portion, which would be officially known as North Carolina in 1701, was settled mainly by small Virginia tobacco farmers seeking free lands as early as the 1650s. By 1663, at the time the Carolina charter was issued, the population of the Albermarle region was in excess of 500. Many historians assume that much of this population was white as it is not known for sure whether any of these first settlers brought any slaves with them or not.6
The southern portion of the colony, which would have become South Carolina, was settled mainly by people from Barbados and other English colonies.
The question of who would settle Carolina and what form of labor there would be, slavery or servants, was not a question that was asked for long. Just months after the Proprietors received their charter they issued a proposal that would set up a head right system in order to assist in the settlement of the colony, primarily the area that would become South Carolina. The proposal stated that,
To the Owner of every Negro-Man or Slave, brought thither to settle within the first year, twenty acres; and for every Woman-Negro or Slave, ten acres of Land; and all Men-Negro's or slaves after that time, and within the first five years, ten acres, and for every Woman-Negro or slave, five acres.7
Item number 110 in the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina, drawn up by John Locke in 1669, put the status of slavery in writing. It left no doubt about the servitude and obedience of slaves by stating that "Every freeman of Carolina, shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves, of whatever opinion or religion soever."8
Political and Social Differences
Slavery, however, took hold slowly in North Carolina, mainly because of the dangerous coast line and the lack of harbors. Thus, the large plantation systems that were used in Barbados, and were the vision of the Proprietors, were never able to develop fully. Because of this slow growth of slavery, in North Carolina slaves composed about 15 percent of the population in 1720 compared to over 70 percent of the population in South Carolina, the two regions grew in different directions. Even though the colonies officially split in 1701 there were political and social differences that had emerged as early as 1691 that made the two distinctive from the other.9
In 1732, James Oglethorpe received a charter from George II to establish a colony to the land south of South Carolina which was named Georgia. This colony was primarily designed as a military outpost against Spain but it also served as a haven for impoverished debtors. The Georgia Trustees, who had governmental control through the English Parliament, banned slavery in the colony because they believed that "Negroes would endanger the Province."10
The trustees were confirmed in their belief that insurrections of slaves would be more imminent in Georgia, "it being a frontier" and "whilst Augustine is in the hands of the Spaniards."11
Provocations towards changing Georgia's regulation of slavery came as early as 1742. These instigations came not only from the planters of South Carolina but also from Georgia farmers who complained that without the use of slaves they could not achieve economic stability. In 1749, the Trustees submitted a petition to Parliament that would repeal "The Act for rendering the Colony of Georgia more Defencible by prohibiting the importation and Use of black Slaves or Negroes into the same," and pass a law which would allow blacks to be admitted under "several Restrictions and Regulations."12
The regulations stipulated that in order to prevent slaves from running to Spanish Florida there must be one indentured white servant to oversee every 4 slaves in ownership. Owners were also not to "lend or let out" their slaves. Slaves were not to work on Sundays, and the owners were not permitted to "exercise an unlimited Power over them."13
Despite these somewhat stringent regulations by 1750, South Carolinians and other settlers to the Georgia region imported a labor force that contributed to almost 18 percent of the population.14
A Strong Military
Trying to develop a labor system, which eventually led to the establishment of slavery, was not the only issue that confronted the early settlers. While the English were colonizing the eastern part of North America (1689 - 1783) from present day Maine to Georgia, the French were extending their claims over Canada, Louisiana and the Ohio Valley, on the backside of the English colonies. Since the colonists were too far away from England to receive the military support necessary to protect themselves from possible attacks from the Native Americans or other European powers, they had to develop a strong military system. This system began during the colonial period when each of the colonies depended on a strong militia to help in the defense of its settlements.
It cannot be denied that the advent of slavery brought economic salvation to the Southern colonies but with that economic stability also came the possibility of greater manpower in the event of an attack from Native Americans or other European powers. It is clear, however, that the Africans were not purchased so that their owner could train them to shoot straight, follow military orders, and march in a straight line. They were purchased for their labor.
Slavery was not always considered to be a positive part of the community. At times of lengthy wars or battles, many white colonists were afraid to leave their communities for fear of slave uprisings.15
In South Carolina, men were recruited to patrol the slave communities and apprehend vagrant blacks.
France and England were on opposite sides in four of the wars fought in Europe between 1689 and 1763 and Spain was allied with France during the last three of these. Each of these European conflicts also had a counterpart war that took place between British, French and Spanish colonists in America. European history and American history refer to these wars by different names. The War of the League of Augsburg (1689-97) was known as King William's War in America; the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) as Queen Anne's War; the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) as King George's War, and finally the Seven Year's War (1756-63) as the French and Indian War. One of the major factors involved in all of these wars was the control over the North American continent, especially as it related to trade. These wars were also coupled by Indian warfare all along the frontiers as each country tried to use the Indian people to their advantage.
English Military Tradition
Indian wars, however, are what plagued all of the colonies during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. For the combat of Indian warfare though, the colonial governments did not find it necessary to form professional armies and instead relied on the English tradition of the militia. Each colony enacted laws that required all able-bodied males from sixteen to sixty years of age to appear for military training. Every member of the militia had to appear for training a certain number of days each year, provide himself with a gun, and was also to be prepared at all times in case of invasion or insurrection. One exception to this was Pennsylvania, who did not require compulsory militia service until 1755 because of its strong Quaker influence.
Since each colony maintained its own separate military establishment, the militia developed into a local institution, governed either by the county or town, under the direction of the militia laws for that colony. Militias were also closely integrated with the social and economic structure of colonial society. With the development of the militia also came the question of who would be allowed to serve.
In North America, however, this was not a question that was easy to answer. Because many other countries were trying to grasp a part of the new continent, the English colonists had to rely on their own communal populations for protection. The population, however, was socially divided into Red, White and Black, which would make filling the muster rolls a difficult task. With many of the militias by the mid eighteenth century evolving into "social clubs" rather than military units, there tended to be an unwillingness to enlist those peoples of lower classes, especially blacks, even though they were probably more willing to fight.16
The settlers who came to the Carolina region from Barbados were not new to the idea of arming their most trustworthy slaves and the Assemblies of all three colonies acknowledged this acceptance in their militia laws. South Carolina, with the largest population of slaves, used their slaves in a larger capacity than any of the three. For South Carolina, though, this was not a decision of choice but rather a decision of necessity. With the slave population nearly twice as large as the white population throughout its colonial period, the white settlers could not afford to have their slaves unarmed in the event of a war. Georgia, after allowing the establishment of slavery, and North Carolina did not arm their slave populations until after there was an outbreak of hostilities.
The development of a militia in North and South Carolina was implemented by the Charter of 1663. Charles II had granted the Proprietors the right "to levy, muster and train all sorts of men," for the defense of the colony.17
The Proprietors, in 1667, relinquished to the Governor of Albemarle County the authority to divide the settlers into companies and to train them in the arts of war.18
The Fundamental Constitution of 1669 also allowed for the legal establishment of a militia by stating that, "all inhabitants and freemen of Carolina, above seventeen years of age, and under sixty, shall be bound to bear arms, and serve as soldiers whenever the grand council shall find it necessary".19
The Carolina militia also made no distinction between class or race and in the early years of colonization the white settlers had little fears of arming slaves or free blacks.
The arming of blacks was not a new adventure for many of those who settled the Carolina region. Those who had arrived from Barbados had probably armed their blacks at one time or another, as it was very common to do so in the seventeenth century. As early as 1672, Sir John Yeamans, who had just been restored to the title of governor and returned to Albemarle Point, left his plantation under the protection of an armed slave force because he feared a possible attack from the Spanish or Native Americans.20
In a meeting soon after Yeamans returned, the Grand Council ordered that all inhabitants were to report to "Charles Towne with their Armes and Ammunicion" except for those slaves who Yeamans had left for the protection of his plantation.21
Those slaves appear to have been the first blacks that were armed by the English for combat in South Carolina; they were not, however, be the last.
During King William's War the southern frontier remained relatively calm, since Spain was an ally of the English. Therefore the colonists in both North and South Carolina did not have to worry about a possible Spanish attack. The only real threat to the two colonies came when the French military captured an English island in the Caribbean, putting a fear in the colonists that they would be next.22
Hostilities were renewed in America with the outbreak of Queen Anne's War. For the southern colonies this meant a threat from the Spanish in Florida as they were allied with the French against England. South Carolina, being the closest to the Spanish, felt the brunt of their presence. While there were very few conflicts in Virginia and North Carolina these two colonies sent troops to protect and defend South Carolina.
Perhaps what the Carolinians feared most was the loss of trade due to the fact that the French were making their presence known in the southwest around the Mississippi River. In 1702, the colonists, in order to show their military strength to the French and Spanish, led an attack on a Spanish settlement in northwestern Florida called Apalache. The expedition, headed by James Moore, left the town in what Moore referred to as "so feeble and low a condition, that it can neither support St. Augustine nor . . . frighten us".23
As early as 1703 the General Assembly of South Carolina in an act entitled "An Act to prevent the Sea's further encroachment upon the Wharfe" allowed for slaves to be impressed into work for the good of the colony and the city of Charles Town. Under the direction of William Rhett, Commander of Fortification, slaves within a certain range of Charles Town could be forced to help in the building and repairing of fortifications, entrenchments and batteries, they would, however, also receive wages. Those slaves that possessed a certain trade, and were willing or wanted to work, would be paid three royals per diem.24
The owners of said slaves were to provide the "victuals" or provisions for their slaves and the colony would provide the tools, carts and horses. Rhett was also authorized to impress into service "white men" who would acts as overseers of the slaves. These people were possibly either indentured servants or young colonists without a trade and would be paid at a rate of two shillings six pence per diem,25
nearly twice as much as the black laborers.
The 1703 Act also allowed for the arming of slaves for the better protection of the city. The Assembly stated that the assistance of "trusty slaves" was necessary for the safety of the colony if, by chance, they were invaded by any of their enemies. The act allowed for slaves to be rewarded for their good service and if they were to "kill or take" any of the enemy during an actual invasion, which had to be witnessed by a white person, they would receive their freedom. The owner of such a freed slave would be compensated at a price considered fair by the public and the owner of any slave killed during an invasion would also receive compensation. Slaves that were wounded in service and were disabled to the degree that they could not serve their masters would also be set free and the master compensated. The act also made it lawful for slave owners to arm and equip their slaves in the same manner as other persons and to see that they appeared at musters and alarms.26
What came out of this legislation was a chance for slaves to demonstrate that they could be trusted with weapons and be trusted by their white owners. The General Assembly, however, believed in the black population 27
and over the next ten years they passed several acts that would acknowledge their involvement.
Continue on next page »
- Jesse J. Johnson, A Pictorial History of Black Servicemen, 1619-1970 (Hampton, VA: Hampton Institute, 1970), 59.
- Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Making of America (New York: Macmillan Co., 1987), 8.
- Thomas R. Frazier, ed. Afro-American History: Primary Sources (Chicago: The Dorsey Press, 1988), vii.
- David F. Trask, “The ‘New Military History’ and Army Historians,” The Army Historian 5 (Fall 1984): 7-8.
- Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina From 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1974), 13-14.
- Jeffrey J. Crow, Paul D. Escott, and Flora J. Hatley, A History of African Americans in North Carolina (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 1992), 1.
- Alexander S. Salley, Narratives of Early Carolina, 1650-1708 (New York: Scribner’s, 1911), 57-61; Wood, Black Majority, 16; and Wright, Colonial Era, 63.
- William L. Saunders, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina (Raleigh: The State of North Carolina, 1886 – 1890), 1:204; and Wright, Colonial Era, 63.
- The year 1691, is considered to be the separation date of North and South Carolina because the Proprietors allowed Phillip Ludwell to appoint a deputy for North Carolina. The Proprietors had not wished this to be the end of the Carolinas and had hoped that the colony would once again be governed by a single Parliament in Charles Town and instead held their own Parliamentary meetings. In 1712, the Proprietors appointed Governors to North Carolina and thus allowed for the two colonies to officially separate. Robert M. Weir, Colonial South Carolina – A History (New York: KTO Press, 1983), 68n.
- Kenneth Coleman, The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia: Trustees’ Letter Book, 1738-1745 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1985), 30:175.
- Ibid., 30:109, 285.
- Kenneth Coleman, The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia: Trustees’ Letter Book, 1742-1752 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1986), 32:144.
- Ibid, 32:144-146.
- Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619-1877, 26.
- Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (New York: Vintage Books, 1958), 355.
- John W. Shy, “A New Look at Colonial Militia,” William and Mary Quarterly. 3rd ser., 20 (April 1963): 175-85.
- Saunders, The Colonial Records of North Carolina, 1:31.
- Ibid., 1:112.
- Ibid., 1:205.
- South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, vol. 5, The Shaftesbury Papers (Charles Town: South Carolina Historical Society, 1897), 337; and A. S. Salley, Journal of the Grand Council of South Carolina, April 25, 1671-June 24, 1680 (Columbia, 1907), 31, 81.
- Ibid., 36-37.
- Weir, Colonial South Carolina, 67.
- Weir, Colonial South Carolina, 81.
- On March 1, 1701, the General Assembly passed an Act to raise the value of all gold and silver coins used in the province. The Act stipulated that all pieces of silver including “Spanish pieces of eight, Mexico, Seville, pillar, weighing 12 penny weight, made current at 5s.; Single Ryals (Royals) at 7.5d.; English Crowns, at 12 ryals; and French Crowns, at 10.5 ryals.” Thomas Cooper and David McCord, The Statutes at Large South Carolina (Columbia: A.S. Johnston, 1836-1841), 9:779. According to Thomas Nairne, in 1710 one Spanish Royal was still worth 7.5d. Jack P. Greene, ed., Selling a New World: Two South Carolina Promotional Pamphlets (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1875), 57. Based on this information, blacks without a trade were paid approximately 1 shilling and 4.25 pence, those with a trade 1 shilling and 7.5 pence nearly half the pay of their overseers. In English currency it takes twelve pence (d.) to equal on shilling (s.) and twenty shillings to equal one pound (**).
- Cooper and McCord, Statutes at Large, 7:31-32.
- Morris J. McGregor and Bernard Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents (Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1977), 3-4.
- See Appendix Table 2 for the population of Blacks in South Carolina in 1700.
- Woodward, The Negro in the Military Service, 26-26d.
- W. Noel Sainsbury, Records in the British Public Record Office Relating to South Carolina, 1663-1782 (Atlanta and Columbia, 1928-47), 5:167. Wood, Black Majority, questions whether or not this person was placed on lookout or whether he was an early riser and a fast runner. It would seem, however, that with the passage of the 1704 Act which employed trustworthy slaves, that this particular person was probably a lookout, 125. Wood is correct in his assumption that the black man’s correct status is uncertain.
- Wilkes, “Missing Pages in American History”, 10.
- Verner Winslow Crane, The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732 (Philadelphia: The Seeman Press, 1929), 91.
- Cooper and McCord, Statutes at large, 7:349; and Woodward, The Negro in the Military Service, 26.
- H. Roy Merrens, ed. The Colonial South Carolina Scene: Contemporary Views, 1697-1774 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1977), 32. By this account there were approximately 2260 whites and 4100 slaves, nearly a 2 to 1 ratio.
- The term “cattle-hunter” was used to refer to those slaves who were in charge of the province of their master’s cattle. Kenneth W. Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,, 1670-1763,” Journal of Negro History 33 (1948), 54.
- Crane, The Southern Frontier, 91. Thomas Nairne describe the “Defence of the Colony in 1710:
. . . our Laws oblige every Male Person from 16 to 60 Years of Age, to bear Arms, who are all under their Captains, Majors, and Colonels, by whom they are duly exercis’d once in two Months. . . . Every one among us is versed in Arms, from the Governor to the meanest Servant, and are all so far from thinking it below them, that most People take Delight in military Affairs, and think no body so fit to defend their Properties as themselves. . . . There are likewise enrolled in our Militia, a considerable Number of active, able, Negro Slaves; and the Law gives every one of those his freedom, who in time of an invasion, kills an Enemy; the Publik making Satisfaction to his Master for the Damage sustained by the Slave’s Manumission. Greene, Selling A New World, 52-53
- Merrens, The Colonial South Carolina Scene, 32-33; and Wood, Black Majority, 126.
- Weir, Colonial South Carolina, 83-85.
- Governor Craven estimated the white male population to be about 1500 and that they had enlisted approximately “two hundred stout negro men.” Sounders, Colonial Records of North Carolina, 2:178; and Craven, The Southern Frontier, 171.
- Saunders, Colonial Records of North Carolina, 2:203, 253-254.
- Frank J, Klingberg, ed. The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau, 1706-1717 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), 155, 161. Le Jau also mentions in one of his letters “I must not forget to mention that the poor Negroe Men whom I had the Comfort to Baptize did behave themselves bravely & to Admiration upon all occasions.” Ibid., 165.
- Wood, Black Majority, 128; and Klingberg, The Carolina Chronicle, 176.
- Woodward, The Negro in the Military Service, 29.
- While not enlisting in the militia, in 1735, freemen and slaves were paid 50 for killing Tuscarora Indian and 60 for taking one alive. Restrictions on firearms possession and travel of slaves, however, prevented many from obtaining the bounties.
- Quarles, “The Colonial Militia and Negro Manpower,” 649.
- Fitzhugh McMaster, Soldiers and Uniforms: South Carolina Military Affairs, 1670-1775 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1971), 13.; and Wood, Black Majority, 308-326.
- J. Harold Easterby and Ruth S. Green, eds., The Colonial Records of South Carolina, 1st ser,: The Journal of the Commons House of Assembly, 1736-1750 (Columbia: Historical Commission of South Carolina, 1951-62), 2:175-178, 195, 309, 420.
- South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, vol. 4, Report of the Committee Appointed by the General Assembly of South Carolina in 1740, on the St. Augustin Expedition under General Oglethorpe (Charles Town: South Carolina Historical Society, 1887), 24-32.
- At the outbreak of the Tuscarora War in 1711 the North Carolina militia was unprepared in the event of an actual invasion. This lack of preparedness nearly devastated the colony and if aid had not arrived from South Carolina the North Carolina colonists would have been wiped out. E. Milton Wheeler, “Development and Organization of the North Carolina Militia”, North Carolina Historical Review 41 (Summer 1964), 308-318.
- Saunders, The Colonial Records of North Carolina, 3:90, 112.
- The 1747 act continued for five years, the 1753 act for two years and the 1759 act for five years.
- Woodward, The Negro in the Military Service, 36.
- Ibid., 36a-36b.
- Ibid., 36e.
- Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 55-56.
- Morton, Colonial Virginia, 2:524, 525.
- Lefler and Powell, Colonial North Carolina, 138-48.
- Woodward, The Negro in the Military Service, 1:46
- Greene, Settlements to Society, 238.
- Ibid., 239.
- Percentages are rounded to the nearest tenth. Percentages are based on the figures given in Table 1 and 2.
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New York: Vintage Books, 1958.
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Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1985.
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Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986.
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10 vols. Columbia: A.S. Johnston, 1836-1841.
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Charles Town: South Carolina Historical Society, 1887.
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Wheeler, E. Milton. "Development and Organization of the North Carolina Militia." North Carolina Historical Review
41 (Summer 1964).
Wilkes, Laura Eliza. "Missing Pages in American History, Revealing the Services of Negroes in the Early Wars of the United States of America, 1641-1815." Chap. in The Negro Soldier: A Select Compilation.
New York: Negro Universities Press, 1970.
Wood, Peter H. Black Majority, Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1974.
Woodward, Elon A. The Negro in the Military Service of the United States: A Compilation of Official Records, State Papers, Historical Extracts, etc. Relating to His Military Status and Service, from the date of his introduction into the British North American Colonies.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1888. Microfilm, M858.
Wright, Donald R. African Americans in the Colonial Era: From African Origins Through the American Revolution.
Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1990.
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Hydrostatics is defined as that branch of physics, which has to do with the pressure and equilibrium of water and other liquids.
Liquids at rest present far simpler problems to solve than those of fluid dynamics, since individual fluid elements do not move relative to others in the fluid body, therefore shear forces are not involved and all pressure forces are normal to the fluid elements surfaces. Following the criteria that fluid elements should not move relative to one another, hydrostatics can be extended to systems of relative equilibrium , where elements have no relative motion although the body of liquid may be moving as a whole. The following will be briefly described: pressure variation in compressible and incompressible liquids; forces on planes; stability of floating and submerged bodies; relative equilibrium; and manometry.
Consider a small liquid cylinder as shown in Figure 1. δS the cross sectional area is very small therefore there is no pressure variation across it. As there are no shear forces the only forces acting on it are those due to pressure on the surfaces and gravity. The only forces on the sides of the cylinder are normal to the sides and therefore have no component along the axis. Resolving forces along the cylinder axis yield:
If the difference in height between the ends of the cylinder δz = δl cos θ then the above equation simplifies to δp + ρgδz = 0. Taking the limit as δz → 0 gives:
In an incompressible liquid this equation can be integrated giving p + ρgz = constant. If a datum level of z is taken at a pressure of pa and the depth below this level is h, then the pressure p at this depth is:
This is the standard formula for pressure calculation in an incompressible liquid. Unless the variation of density with z is known, the pressure variation in a static compressible fluid cannot be found in the same way.
The three conditions for liquid equilibrium are therefore:
equal pressure over any horizontal plane;
density must be the same over any horizontal plane;
Eq. (1) must hold.
Thrust is exerted on every part of any surface in contact with a fluid. It is important to be able to resolve a resultant force over an area and the position of this force. For a horizontal plane, the position of the resultant force is at the plane's centroid; the resultant force is simply the pressure times the area. For planes at an angle, the following method can be used to determine the resultant force vector.
Figure 1. From Massey, B. S. (1968), Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold (International) Co., Ltd., London, with permission.
Figure 2. From Massey, B. S. (1968), Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold (International) Co., Ltd., London, with permission.
Consider the plane in Figure 2. Each element of area δA is subjected to a force due to the liquid:
p is the gauge pressure. Integrating over the whole area gives:
where (i.e., the "first moment of area") is zero is known as the centroidal axis. The other centroidal axis is at , where this intersect is the "centroid" of area ( ). The centroid of volume is obtained by integrating with respect to volume rather than area, i.e., , .
Therefore for an incompressible fluid, is the pressure at the centroid. The total force exerted on the plane by the static fluid is the product of the area and the pressure at the centroid. The moment of the resulting force must equal the sum of the moments of the individual forces, therefore the line of action of F can be determined from the following equation:
Substituting F from Eq. (3) yields:
Similarly for x', taking moments about Oy:
The center of pressure (x',y') is always lower than the centroid of area except for horizontal surfaces. Curved surfaces require more complex mathematics but the resultant force vector can still be determined, see Streeter and Wylie (1983). Another method for determining the resultant force and line of action on a plane surface utilizes a "pressure prism" concept, see Streeter and Wylie (1983).
The resultant force acting on a body in a static fluid is called the "buoyant" or "buoyancy force", which always acts vertically upwards. It is the difference between the pressure forces exerted on its underside and upper side. This is equal to the gravity force of liquid that is displaced by the solid body, which forms Archimedes' principle. The centroid of buoyancy is therefore at the centroid of the displaced volume. All bodies floating in a static fluid have vertical stability as small vertical displacements set up restoring forces by increasing or decreasing the volume of fluid displaced.
Submerged bodies have rotational stability only if its center of gravity is below the center of buoyancy as shifts from equilibrium produce couples which return the body to equilibrium. If the center of buoyancy and gravity coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium. The stability of floating objects can be determined by considering Figure 3.
If a floating body with center of buoyancy Bo, and center of gravity G, is moved slightly away from its stable position (a) as shown in (b), the new centroid of buoyancy B' (which is the centroid of the displaced volume "abed") causes an upward thrust setting up a couple which restores stable equilibrium only if M, where the vertical through B' intersects the original center line, called the "met-center", is above G. If it is below, the body is unstable, and if G and M coincide, the body is in neutral stability. The distance MG is the "metacentric height".
The measurement of pressure can be achieved by using suitable columns of liquids. Some simple manometers are shown in Figure 4.
The simple “piezometer tube" shown in Figure 4a gives the "gauge" pressure as p = ρgh. It cannot be used for negative gauge pressures as air would be sucked into the tube. "U-tube" manometers can be used to measure pressure differences, or gauge pressure if one of the two vertical arms is open to atmosphere. By using fluids of different density various pressure ranges can be measured. Utilizing two immiscible liquids in the arms, "micromanometers" can be constructed for the measurement of small pressure differences, see Streeter and Wylie (1983). A simpler method for measuring small pressure differences is the "inclined manometer" shown in Figure 4b. The inclination forces the liquid to travel a larger distance l in order to achieve the same increase in height x therefore:
If θ is small, there is considerable magnification of the meniscus' movement. For angles less than 5°, the position of the meniscus is difficult to determine.
For large pressure differences, U tube manometers can be connected in series, (see also Pressure Measurement).
Massey, B. S. (1968) Mechanics of Fluids, Ch. 2, Sixth edn., Van Nostrand Reinhold (International) Co. Ltd, (1989).
Streeter, V. L. and Wylie, E. B. (1983) Fluid Mechanics, Ch. 2, First SI Metric edn. McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1986.
- Massey, B. S. (1968) Mechanics of Fluids, Ch. 2, Sixth edn., Van Nostrand Reinhold (International) Co. Ltd, (1989).
- Streeter, V. L. and Wylie, E. B. (1983) Fluid Mechanics, Ch. 2, First SI Metric edn. McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1986.
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(Appeared in print as "The war at home made the fire service anew")
The fire service often is described as being “paramilitary” in structure. But I’ve found that different generations have different understandings of what that means. “Paramilitary” is defined as being similar to or modeled on the military but not belonging to it. It also can mean an organization staffed by civilians to provide support for the regular military services.
Which definition best fits the fire service?
The first organized fire-protection efforts were the Vigiles, organized by Roman Emperor Augustus around 6 A.D. along military lines. Such practice continued through the Dark Ages, when the paramilitary structure fell out of use. After that, fire protection reemerged as a function of civilian society. One does not have to look much past Benjamin Franklin to see that early American fire departments were driven by economic issues and the social fabric of the community — with little affinity with the military. When did all that begin to change?
The answer is the Civil War. This month marks the 150th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, and in the war is a fire-service story to be told.
I have reviewed photographs, prints, documents and other sources of information, and the social fabric was evident in the fire service before the Civil War. Politicians rose to power as the head of volunteer organizations. Volunteer fire departments restricted membership to specific ethnic and economic groups, which resulting in severe conflict when an actual fire occurred.
After the Civil War, nearly all of the major metropolitan communities in the U.S. began to hire full-time firefighters. Many of these individuals were veterans, who brought their uniforms and their pride into the firehouses. I’ve been to many museums, where I have observed the transition from the colorful, almost peacock–like costume of the volunteer prior to the Civil War and the subtle uniforms that emerged after the war.
Prior to the war the person in charge of a volunteer fire company often was called the foreman. After the war came the ranks of lieutenant, captain and chief engineer. Fire companies operated independently prior to the war. When the paid fire services took over, volunteer companies became battalions.
The Civil War used the advances of the Industrial Revolution to foster change. So too did the fire service. New steamers required a specific type of driver. Almost anyone could drive a team of horses down the street under ordinary conditions, but it took special skill to handle a brace of horses at a full gallop under a variety of weather conditions. It was dangerous to be careening down the street with tons of steel and a trailing boiler while navigating through traffic. Who was better prepared for that service than former artillerymen?
A statue stands in Excelsior Field in Gettysburg, Pa., that all fire-service members should know about. It features two young men — one a Union infantryman, the other a volunteer firefighter — standing shoulder to shoulder. The soldier carries a musket, an instrument of death. The firefighter carries a speaking trumpet, a symbol of authority. At the base is a plaque dedicating this statue to the 73rd Infantry Regiment, an organization made up of volunteer firefighters from New York.
The statue frequently is visited by students of the nearby National Fire Academy. Another statue in Gettysburg depicts another firefighter/warrior group, the 72nd Pennsylvania. I’ve researched firefighters who were engaged in combat, but I’ve been unable to find an exact number.
Never doubt that one of the reasons the fire service subscribed to the paramilitary concept is that neither soldiers nor firefighters fear going into harm’s way to protect their communities. There are many firefighters serving in Afghanistan, Iraq and other far-flung locations around the globe. The phrase “firefighters in peace — soldiers in war” personifies the paramilitary aspects of the fire service.
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International Women’s Day is celebrated on March 8 worldwide, commemorating the political, social and economic achievements of women. Over the decades, the objective of Women’s day celebration has evolved and embraced culture and ethnicity to emerge as a celebration of appreciation, respect and love towards women.
Empowering women in India is very necessary to bring gender equality or we can say that gender equality is very necessary to empower women.Gender equality is the first step to bring women empowerment in India. Men should not understand that women are made only to handle household chores or take responsibility of home and family. Instead, both (men and women) are responsible for everything of daily routine. Men too need to understand their responsibility of home and family and all other works women do so that women can get some time to think about themselves and their career. Women should also identify their strengths and abilities, and move towards a world of empowerment.
On this day, huge sentiments are expressed about the power of women and many proverbs and poems directed towards women. It is really nice to have a special day for women where they are glorified to a point of being honored, awarded, and appreciated. Then why is that after so much awareness and acknowledgement of a woman’s contribution to life ,society, family and work.
Start living; Living your life on your terms, it’s high time!!
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WASTE handling and recycling sites, currently under obligation to re-assess their fire accident plans, could be failing to plan for the impact of millions of litres of water likely to be discharged to fight a major fire, experts have recently warned.
Last year the Environment Agency issued revised technical guidance for sites storing combustible waste instructing them to review their fire accident planning with a ‘must’ action to meet the standards. The clampdown followed a string of high-profile fires at waste handling premises.
Water pollution experts are warning operators to be sure to review whether their sites are able to safely contain the huge volumes of firewater likely to be needed to control a waste fire. Not only could some sites be unknowingly in danger of causing serious environmental damage through fire water pollution, but could also be at risk of incurring crippling costs in fines and cleanup charges.
“The most likely environmental damage caused by fire at a waste handling site is not a result of the fire itself, but the water that is used to fight it,” explains David Cole, Water Pollution Manager at Hydro International. “In the early stages of a fire, thousands of litres of water are discharged into the environment every minute. The surface water runoff created will pick up the pollutants and contaminants of whatever burning or hazardous substances are present, and if a site is not fully contained, they will escape into the local environment. Waste handling and recycling centres are among the most vulnerable, and major fires can burn for days or weeks.”
The Environment Agency issued a new industry Technical Guidance Note in March 2015 for sites storing combustible waste. In a short, final paragraph of the guidance, a requirement is included for sites to demonstrate the containment facilities and pollution equipment in place for managing fire water. For this, operators are referred to another recently-revised industry guidance document, CIRIA C736 – Containment Systems for the Prevention of Pollution, for which David Cole acted as an advisor.
During 2014 the Environment Agency reported 10 serious water pollution incidents involving waste management activities, five of which were caused by fires and three by containment and control failures. As government funding is cut back, the environmental authorities have fewer resources to act in an advisory role. So, the first a company may know they do not have adequate provision is when the worst happens, and they face a prosecution, Cole warns.
“Surface water has a habit of finding routes to run off a site in directions no-one had ever expected, before ending up in a river or sewer. Fitting properly designed containment valves is critical, but often I see sites where penstock valves are incorrectly installed. Not all penstocks have the ability to drop seal low pressure flows fully; if a site is looking to contain pollution then the valve must contain the entire flow.
Product development experience
“I have been involved in the development of spill containment technology since 1998. Fitting a high-performance valves such as the recently-launched Hydro-Isolator® valve should guarantee a watertight seal.
“On more complex sites, operators will also still need to be sure that even with valves installed, in the case of a fire incident, the surface water drainage won’t back up, overtop bunds and storage measures and flow out of the site into the surrounding environment.
“New hydraulic modelling techniques can offer waste operators a cost-effective way of mapping pathways on and off a site and identifying any shortfalls before they happen. A containment solution using valves, bunds or other temporary storage can then be designed and tested in the model to ensure it will stand up, even in the worst case scenario.”
David Cole is the inventor of some of the industry’s most commonly-used pollution containment valves and has acted as advisor on key industry guidance. Waste and recycling operators interested in Hydro International’s Hydro-Isolator® valves or the Water Pollution hydraulic modelling and consultancy service can book a free on-site assessment. Call David Cole on 01275 878371 or email email@example.com.
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|James Augustus Black|
|Member of the United States House of Representatives|
March 4, 1843 – April 3, 1848
|Preceded by||Isaac E. Holmes|
|Succeeded by||Daniel Wallace|
|Member of the South Carolina House of Representatives from Abbeville District|
November 26, 1832 – December 19, 1835
November 27, 1826 – January 30, 1828
Ninety-Six District, South Carolina
|Died||April 3, 1848 (aged 54–55)|
|Resting place||Columbia, South Carolina|
|Allegiance||United States of America|
|Service/branch||United States Army|
|Years of service||1812–1815|
|Battles/wars||War of 1812|
James Augustus Black (1793 – April 3, 1848) was a manufacturer, cotton broker, and U.S. Representative from South Carolina.
Early life and military service[edit | edit source]
Black was born on his father's plantation in the Ninety-Six District, near Abbeville, South Carolina. He attended the common schools on his father's plantation.
Black served in the army during the War of 1812. He was appointed a second lieutenant in the Eighth Infantry on March 12, 1812. He was promoted to first lieutenant on December 2, 1813. After the war, Black was honorably discharged (June 15, 1815).
Early career and a taste for politics[edit | edit source]
Soon after returning to civilian life, Black co-founded the Kings Mountain Iron Works, which was involved in the mining of iron ore in areas near present-day Cherokee Falls, South Carolina.
Black eventually moved to Georgia, settling in Savannah, where he engaged in the buying and selling of cotton. Black served as tax collector of Chatham County, Georgia for a time, before he returned to South Carolina.
Political career[edit | edit source]
This time, Black settled in Columbia, where he worked for a time as a cashier of the State Bank branch. He ran for, and twice won, a seat in the South Carolina House of Representatives, serving from 1826–1828; and again, 1832–1835.
Beginning in 1843, Black, a Democrat, was elected to three consecutive terms (the Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth) United States Congresses. Black was chairman of the Committee on the Militia during the Mexican–American War.
Death[edit | edit source]
Black served in Congress from March 4, 1843, until his death April 3, 1848 in Washington, D.C. while still in office. He is interred in the graveyard of the First Presbyterian Church, Columbia, South Carolina. A cenotaph in his honor was erected at the Congressional Cemetery.
Sources[edit | edit source]
This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http://bioguide.congress.gov.
- James A. Black at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
[edit | edit source]
- James Augustus Black entry at The Political Graveyard
- James A. Black at Find a Grave and cenotaph at the Congressional Cemetery
|United States House of Representatives|
Isaac E. Holmes
|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from South Carolina's 1st congressional district
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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